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Home , Chuuk State, Kosrae, Pohnpei, Satawal, Typhoon Sudal, Yap State

4 ChuukDepartment ofMarineResources 3 KosraeFisheries Department 2 Conservation SocietyofPohnpei 1 marine tenureandresourcemanagement system. and Y serves asthepopulationandpoliticalcenterofChuuk State. Japanese Chuuk barrier reefandassociatedlagoon. with The ecosystem, placingthehealthofKosrae’ velopment fringing reefs,barrierandatolls,whichcorrespondtothestageofreefdevelopmentateach island. and resources. island The Compact ofFree the economic ter islands Islands, ated From INTRODUCTION growing Kosrae’ considered reef is residing the ap Y wide, ap MarineResourceManagement Division W Compact least . volcanic FSM State is marine eight States orld east or narrow State s is were there which diving there. group reefs developed is W a wrecks has and smaller to and The The single a comprised ar of resources, west, island formerly of (formerly barrier are along II a span strategic and and has land Kosrae Free lifestyle FSM (WWII). main Association betweentheU.S.andRepublicofGuamwasef a that volcanic island the of AND SETTING ecotourism its number 2,500 the use reef. Association of has , island a were own Freely of The StateofCoralReefEcosystemsthe known is the both part east of ties patterns four All and both surrounded (FSM), km Y The Mike Hasurmai island language, sunk U.S. of ap to three with of and Associated economically states, atolls, and large as high the islanders the industry island the Federated StatesofMicronesia are T in between a with south T and have erritories countries are ruk) U.S. site T land the islands considered solution rust from makes customs, a is by the among of lagoon coasts, is land resulted (currently area (Hezel, surrounded 1 s reefsatrisk. T is States a , EugeneJoseph the erritory east Republic made the among fringing and and and achieved up mass holes, FSM of the U.S. during to local but atolls, some approximately the include 1995). culturally in up Freely west; of longest about capital, of the coastal wide and some reef of of state the by government, 109 WWII. of independence . and most 15 Kosrae, coastal the the Associated Although and Pacific 1000 enough the 2 . km of , StevePalik of island inhabited is islanders erosion The RMI Republic which traditional 2 healthiest the has Pohnpei. Chuuk and The visitors 100 Pohnpei, Islands largest and islands chains along a the and a FSM support single km and States, maximum Lagoon islands have FSM of within 3 process , KeratRikim per 2 traditional in , in the Pohnpei the island administered in degradation and and support the Chuuk, harbor Micronesia a year). did the forest extensive west Marshall the strong with and is Palau includes FSM, not world. in the was elevation past . and the Island atolls, and system approximately and three However fective in1995. go 4 In largest dependence are with initiated FSM Islands 25 north areas into of coral Y All extensive and by an ap known basic the and has a years of of the for additional ef (345 highly (Figure support , coasts 629 development. fect these where recent coastal as managing is a (RMI), United reef but as well-developed in km famous m. early until fringing on 7,700 sophisticated the the Micronesian 14.1). 2 to retain the formations: a coastal ) It coral the 15 mangrove and States 1986; nearly small FSM is as Caroline reef islands marine among people Feder for 1979, reefs. along close Each reefs The and de but the the flat af be - - - page 387 Federated States of MicronesiaSidebar Federated States of Micronesia A. Shapiro. Map: Locator map for the Federated States of Micronesia. Figure 14.1. page 388 Micronesians wholeave toliveandworkabroad. , tion of 395 residing The Map: A Shapiro.Data:Unisys, names arenotrecordedinthetyphoondatabase. Figure 14.2. Coastal DevelopmentandRunoff another largedestructivetyphoonpassedbyChuukand heads over T T No informationonthisthreatisavailable. Diseases been associatedwithunusuallyheavyrainevents. There Climate ChangeandCoralBleaching ENVIRONMENT ropical Storms ropical Free of population persons remote have Micronesians to Association and storms in be Chuuk The Many path Pacific and typhoons intensity are of not typhoons named passing or near the the FSM from 1979-2004. been the transported reefs per of frequently Commonwealth mi the a AL State in 2 few with to Pohnpei in FSM AND pursue 2000 cases (FSM the from pass has ANTHROPOGENIC STRESSORS U.S. (FSM State the Division of education increased through of localized in lagoon the 1986, Division (Holthus Northern of or The StateofCoralReefEcosystemstheFederatedStatesMicronesia in and Statistics, to the near bleaching the the of et employment ef Statistics, past the fect al., Mariana reef FSM 1993). 2002). of several flat, in the some (Figure Islands Y killing 2002). population ap, causingstructuraldamagetoreefareas. opportunities Large By decades areas 2000, a 14.2). (CNMI), variety However waves http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane around (Figure the increase In in of at average and 1990, , U.S. associated Minto since Pohnpei’ 14.3), are has states a destructive Reef the the population been with s signing primary and lagoon wildlife. caused 50% mitigated territories. of density typhoon of destinations but the massive In the . early these by population Compact reached emigra passed , 2004, coral have for - page 389 Federated States of MicronesiaSidebar The State of Ecosystems of the Federated States of Micronesia

Reefs in Kosrae have been impacted by coastal development, and one of the most noteworthy projects was the construction of the airport on the reef flat at Okat. Sedimentation, caused by dredging and road construction projects, has resulted in the destruc- tion of reefs in Okat and Lelu (M. Tupper, pers. comm.). A new road is being constructed to connect the villages of and Walung on the south coast, and this will likely lead to increased soil erosion and sedimenta- tion in the Utwe-Walung Marine Park. A large solution hole in Lelu, named “the Blue Hole”, is a popular snorkel and dive site, but has been impacted by the construction of a causeway Figure 14.3. Human population growth in the FSM, 1973-2000. Slightly more than across the lagoon to Lelu village. The half of the population resides in the islands of . Source: FSM Division of Blue Hole now suffers from high tur- Statistics, 2004. bidity and macroalgal overgrowth (M. Tupper, pers. comm.).

Coastal Pollution

Federated States of Micronesia Increased population is a concern for the future of some islands as they come to terms with the need for as- sociated infrastructure, including sewage treatment plants and waste disposal facilities.

Tourism and Recreation and recreation have increased in the FSM, with a peak in visitor arrivals of 20,501 in 2000 (FSM Divi- sion of Statistics, 2004). According to the FSM Division of Statistics, total international visitors to FSM in 2003 was 18,168 people. Approximately 72% of visitors were citizens of the U.S. (41%) or (31%).

The FSM Visitors Board maintains an informative and attractive website (FSM Visitors Board, http://www.visit- fsm.org, Accessed 1/31/05) to help guide potential visitors to the country and has established Visitors Bureau offices in each state. Overseas tourism offices are co-located with Embassy or Consul offices in Guam, Ho- nolulu, , Fiji, and Washington, D.C.

Each of the four states in the FSM have deep draft harbors and modern jet airfields served by Continental Airlines, a major U.S. carrier. A range of accomodations, from simple traditional huts to fancy hotels and luxury resorts, can be found in each state with online booking often available. In addition, three live aboard dive vessels are offering cruises in Chuuk in 2005. Diving is one of the most popular activities for visitors who are drawn to the abundant marine life in the FSM and the numerous planes and ships that were sunk, especially in , during WWII.

page 390 indirect Y ated sels Ship Ships, Boats,andGroundings No informationonthisthreatisavailable. T is available. Reef (FSM DivisionofStatistics,2004). Commercial Fishing past, destructive been ganisms the of and tivities can of FSM species ize little ploited per ployed The sale reef-associated species fish this vious 25% which products dition, Division ing ment $14-24 and cused rade inCoralandLiveReefSpecies ap total Statistics, subsistence total (1.2% rights and be year copra commercial have harvest originate billfi information oil over groundings Division numerous but annually fish two represents the primarily for between GDP such million attributed (300,000 spills (Figure or sh of on value in is little the been between value subsistence species years. or to production 2002 method Statistics, substantial. , the stocks, fishing fishing 2004), approximately less) as or of of export in foreign to is published from products island abandoned Statistics 14.4); on Chuuk remove or anecdotal 280 of have fishing the exists reef-associated was fishing, represented a m to Only and decrease exports 2 artisinal are the in so of ) which practices 1999 the value national subsistence and impacts over 2004). of been the vessels (FSM the capture. purposes, it (Figure of other to primarily industry a the sale Pohnpei. exported is There fshore reports 340 information agriculture, FSM majority fraction and character in $9 contribute reports likely of on one-third a catch ships. of Division the govern inshore of million, of by marine problem people in In numerous 14.5). about (FSM 2002 is have tuna the fish pre reef The em that that ad the ac but ex or fo for by of of of Maragos Large ------1994 for originates inChuuk. Figure Source:FSMDivision ofStatistics,2004. only asmallfractionarefromreeffish. 14.4. Figure The StateofCoralReefEcosystemstheFederatedStatesMicronesia FSM shipping grounding both and 14.5. the reefs, Fagolimul high The vessels ihre rsucs otiue igicnl t FM xot, though exports, FSM to siignificantly contribute resources Fisheries and and majority islands Source: FSMDivisionofStatistics,2004. subsequent virtually have (1996) of and exports also no reported atolls removal funds run of reef aground, in are extensive the fish of available FSM. and a large most other direct Foreign freighter recently reef-associated to clean (13,000 long-line in from up , m associ species 2 a ) ves reef and - - page 391 Federated States of MicronesiaSidebar The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Federated States of Micronesia

at Satawal Island, . Sediments generated by the erosion at the reef site migrated to other reef areas more than a kilometer away, smothering corals, burying reef flats, creating new beaches on the island, and damag- ing reef life in a fish reserve. The people of Satawal reached an out-of-court settlement with the ship owners for more than $2 million (J.E. Maragos, pers. comm.).

Marine Debris No information on this threat is available.

Aquatic Invasive Species No information on this threat is available.

Security Training Activities No information on this threat is available.

Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration No information on this threat is available.

CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS—DATA GATHERING ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCE CONDITION

Federated States of Micronesia The Government of the FSM has two regulatory agencies that manage coral reef ecosystems. Each state has a Marine Resources Management office and an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) office. Cooperation among regional institutions, formalized under the Marine Resources Pacific Consortium and funded by the U.S. Department of the Interior, is intended to increase the local and regional capacity for assessment and monitoring. In addition, the College of Micronesia-FSM has faculty and staff trained in marine resource as- sessment and monitoring. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)active in the FSM, such as The Nature Conservancy, offer technical and financial assistance for reef-related programs. The Conservation Society of Pohnpei (CSP) is playing a large role in spearheading the development of a statewide coral reef monitor- ing program and promoting public awareness programs. CSP also assists local communities in designating and monitoring local marine protected areas. The Peace Corps has a presence in the FSM, and some of its volunteers have been involved in monitoring programs.

WATER QUALITY Kosrae is a steep volcanic island with high annual rainfall. Erosion and sedimentation are problems wherever land clearing and road construction activities occur. Turbidity is quite high in Okat, Utwe Bay, and Lelu Harbor, particularly in the vicinity of streams and river mouths. Dredging in Okat also periodically increases turbidity in the area. However, pollutants such as pesticides and fertilizers do not appear to have a large impact.

Students from Xavier High School in Chuuk, in conjunction with the Chuuk State EPA, surveyed the water quality of Chuuk Lagoon from 1998-2000. Water quality testing included measurements of water clarity, tem- perature, turbidity, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, and coliform bacteria counts. Although the water quality data collected in Chuuk Lagoon was not available for inclusion in this reporting effort, more information about the students’ monitoring efforts can be found at: http://www.xaviermicronesia.org (Accessed 02/02/05).

page 392 Data comm.). beds. the caused erosion decades mangrove coastal some in Kosrae’ Results andDiscussion http://www can befoundat: are Reef Methods abundance. Conservation monitored In Kosrae Marine ResourceMonitoringin FSM has14documentedspeciesofmangroves. species more from Coral BENTHIC HABIT near to presented entist, Kosrae lected was coral mouth 80% healthy Utwe-W conducted three sites ally Details cies changes tion right, Kosrae, good adjacent used from in (KCSO), less west cover at around than on Check reef years reefs Malem Data at Kosrae of Laurie s on alung of by all Hiroshi the sedimentation coral development. five hard to than in Utwe has five coral to by .reefcheck.org algae 300 clearing within in the annually the around along University has bars have excellent (Figure east benthic methods reef monitoring the a the Figure to Marine and 10% permanent coral species resulted Reef Raymundo, Reef cover status local Bay been Point reefs carry were correspond and away island the government flats been A the over Safety . (M. TS cover , 14.6). Check In by NGO, cover 4.7. collected adjacent Shelf, out reported coast Park and of to airport condition, and of are and ranging of from T contrast, to impacted the in sites Unregulated . for upper the the 50% corals monitoring. Guam monitoring complexity Organiza were occur From shoreline generally protocols seagrass indicated to methods and and past the the and Surveys reefs to at Kosrae around Hiroshi , detect at from annu agen to pers. Okat center sites (200 from past has col fish two sci live are the but the left on by is Y - - - - - in ap. is of depth. Figure 14.7. Map: A. Shapiro.Data:PalauInternationalCoralReefCenter, unpublisheddata. 14.6. Figure Y high The StateofCoralReefEcosystemstheFederatedStatesMicronesia ap, In marine Pohnpei, 300 within Source: L.Raymundo, unpublisheddata. diversity in Percentcover ofhardcoralatKosraemonitoring sitesin2002at10m Locator map of monitoring sites and mooring buoys around Kosrae. around buoys mooring and sites monitoring of map Locator Chuuk, the the reefs most in 200 Southeast of recent the in Pohnpei, FSM report Asia. and and documented this It is 150 diversity estimated in Kosrae). 74 decreases that species A the total FSM of in of algae. scale 143 has page 393 Federated States of MicronesiaSidebar The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Federated States of Micronesia

Point, Walung Drop-off, Shark Island, and the Trochus Sanctuary, which is located near the airport on the north- west coast.

Conservation Society of Pohnpei (CSP) Marine Resource Monitor- ing The CSP has been conducting moni- toring activities in Pohnpei since 2001. This program monitors has several ecosystem components: 1) grouper spawning aggregations; 2) MPA effectiveness; and 3) changes in benthic communities over time.

Methods The Australian Institute of Marine Sci- ence (AIMS) line-intercept method was used to record benthic commu- nities at monitoring sites. At four of the MPA sites (Figure 14.8), 50 m belt-transects were used to assess fish and invertebrate abundance. The monitoring of the large grouper Federated States of Micronesia aggregations occurs during the peak spawning seasons during the first Figure 14.8. Several MPAs have been established in coastal areas of Pohnpei. half of the year. They are monitored Map: A. Shapiro. Source: Conservation Society of Pohnpei, unpublished map. from 10 m to 30 m depths over sev- eral days each month in the spawn- ing season.

Results and Discussion The reefs around the island of Pohn- pei vary in condition. Surveys per- formed adjacent to Channel after a ship grounding found the aver- age coral cover above 20%, and lim- ited surveys around the main island show coral cover ranging from 10% to more than 80% at selected moni- toring sites (Figure 14.9). Due to high annual rainfall and steep volcanic to- pography, erosion and sedimentation rates can be high. Upland clearing of forested areas to grow sakau () Figure 14.9. Limited surveys conducted at 3 m and 10 m sites around Pohnpei found has resulted in landslides and other hard coral cover percentages ranging from about 10% to 80%. Source: Conservation impacts to coastal villages and re- Society of Pohnpei, unpublished data. sources.

page 394 within theFSMareneeded. from cholera had for sels substantial. export the Over cur atKosrae. deny groupers, and parrotfish species cronesia These squaretail mercially Kosraean rotfish, Recent ASSOCIA a statewidecoralreefmonitoringprogramfocusingonfourpermanentsites. tions. Kosrae derway agencies has fish FSM Y ing surveys. coral Surveys Y caused structuraldamagetolargesectionsofcoralreefs,particularlyinthelagoons. sites taken as The Chuuk ap hasnotyetbeenquantifi ap a personal widespread 1,125 abundance, improved the Hong coral has showed cover the result this. is 1,000 from In species data humphead State increasing surveys outbreak to largest were of also (i.e., Pohnpei Crustose wrecks, valuable have cover marine humphead and fisheries, Kong identify coral Healthy TED BIOLOGICAL at the 18 of species are and While that is 28.8% been recorded 100-120 since foreign seven sites are wrecks, received commercial damage continuing in limited, long-liners were grouper and family caused fish hard State, have Chuuk grouper and coral spawning coralline wrasse, known commercial documented. but around the of and the wrasse, species humphead undertaken commercial m coral fish monitor in use, have have caused 2002 on but governmental reef training 28.7% occurrence as it ( is the Plectropomus to its of to and the have indicative and export. the algae opposed some cover such form ed. aggregations ecosystem caused since any annual shut status and recorded Kosrae island export any over island COMMUNITIES respectively localized groupers. in wrasse been species Y spawning was as bumphead by averaged down. market activities. ap monitoring declined. Commercial existing report 1,200 of coral shipping localized to the as of reef has of and also and fishing for reef 40 generally The StateofCoralReefEcosystemstheFederatedStatesMicronesia well areolatus) monitoring in Y Kosrae damage Destructive was fishery information ap reef the of the (T Kosrae m private species abundant Bumphead 75 fish aggregations large (Richmond, around as urgeon snappers, parrotfish. in conducted The the Destructive FSM coolers greatest reef seen damage monitoring dives. Pohnpei on spawning export Fisheries this high shelf . aggregations results environmental have the fish are of and 25% ef in Better et on fishing year forts, mollusks of suggests When water adjacent 75 parrotfish, edge al., of reef-associated impact spawning surgeonfi in the 1997), recently camouflage or Unfortunately in fish on of at dives fish program . fishing certain aggregations. 2002). 10-15 quantitative 1995 Department focusing reefs. inshore The this Kosrae, quality practices, illegally to interviewed, and on even relatives reefs. are (M. T of the survey survey shes, limited and organizations m practices, areas. aggregations in FSM crab commercially Since T , examining thought in yphoon reefs. scale although particular though but on upper at grouper repeated , Palau). The and including fisheries (FishBase, from fisheries, night assessments were to also coral the much on The that Surveys fishers of T , assess potential rabbitfishes yphoon pers. Sudal Guam to export a including Pohnpei the recorded and overfishing very capacity time, , cover typhoon ( benthic However be Epinephelus deeper have were 16 and officers important the fisheries overfishing suggested comm.). have found hit conducted disturbing. stocks months and 2002). of all , events damage ef use commercially collaborated once Y occurred reef cover of the state forts than hit to ap only removed in , are could in no fisheries of has monitor the in of the use operation organisms This Overall in reef very later the are explosives still three elsewhere marine catches April and polyphekadion bumphead to that by island 2002 been in CNMI. not Not of FSM. until coral known currently fish important includes found 1998 foreign fish most 2004 bumphead T coral explosives to confirm resources catch aiwanese one important and observed resource between species. a of develop may popula reefs except Chuuk 873 recent at of mean to in taken these caus reefs 2003 com ves par and two un the the oc Mi be or of to in ). ------page 395 Federated States of MicronesiaSidebar The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Federated States of Micronesia

CURRENT CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES Over the past several years, Kosrae has begun to develop a MPA program that involves co-management of coastal resources between local communities and state resource management agencies. Non-governmental organizations active in Kosrae include the Peace Corps and KCSO.

Kosrae has an extensive system of 54 mooring buoys around the island (Figure 14.6) designed to minimize anchor damage to corals at popular dive sites. Currently, Kosrae has four MPAs that are managed by govern- ment agencies and/or local communities. These are the Utwe-Walung Marine Park and three Areas of Special Concern: the Tukasungai (Trochus niloticus) Sanctuary (commonly referred to as the “Trochus Sanctuary”), the Giant Clam (Tridacna spp.) Sanctuary, and the Okat-Yela Mangrove Reserve. The Utwe-Walung Marine Park was created in 1996 to protect extensive mangrove and coral reef ecosystems along the undeveloped southern shore of Kosrae. The Marine Park is a community-based project managed by a Board of Directors that includes the park manager, private landowners, and directors and senior technical staff of several re- source management agencies including the Kosrae Island Resource Management Program and Department of Land, Agriculture, and Fisheries-Division of Marine Resources. The Board is responsible for developing and revising the marine park management strategy, and plans to use the results of the community-based proj- ect to revise and improve the strategy. The stated objectives of the Marine Park are: to maintain and manage an area with ecologically valuable, undisturbed, and highly scenic features; to provide a variety of benefits, from the protection of natural habitat to enhancing the tourism and recreational appeal of Kosrae; and to pro- vide opportunities for public education and scientific research.

Limited traditional and subsistence harvesting activities are permitted within the Marine Park. The Trochus and Giant Clam Sanctuaries are leg- Federated States of Micronesia islated under Kosrae State Code and managed by government agencies. The objective of the sanctuaries is to protect species of Trochus and Tri- dacna from overfishing, in addition to preventing logging and coastal devel- opment along the sanctuary shore- lines. Unfortunately, Kosrae’s MPAs are not strictly enforced, and surveys of reef fish and invertebrate biomass within and adjacent to protected ar- eas show no difference in biomass of commercial species (Figure 14.10).

Chiefs and other traditional leaders usually control protection of specific Figure 14.10. Biomass of commercially valuable parrotfish and surgeonfish in MPAs and adjacent fished areas in Kosrae, FSM. Source: M. Tupper, unpublished data. areas. In Yap, the villages own the reefs and have authority over resource use. A number of the islands have areas set aside for reef protection and limited resource extraction, but currently the FSM lacks the enforcement capacity to protect the MPAs (A. Edward, pers. comm.).

page 396 the resourceagenciesisnecessaryiftheyaretomeettheirmandates. tional involving Improved mented inChuukLagoonaslate1994(J.E.Maragos,pers.comm.). Reef meet thisneed,morefundingandsupportforresourcemanagementagenciesarenecessary that ing The and integratedtoensuresoundmanagementofKosrae’ er sources A OVERALL , number or are will coral fisheries technical level, cause address is the coordination reefs of ongoing. CONCLUSIONS possibly conservation community on for expertise. of both some concern. Kosrae Unfortunately requiring terrestrial of islands need management Thus, are programs The vessels in to AND RECOMMENDA have (pollution it greatest relatively be , is the important expanded. been are to Kosraean activities The StateofCoralReefEcosystemstheFederatedStatesMicronesia post and in need good overexploited. place habitat bonds that for condition, Ship government among for both Kosrae to destruction) Kosrae’ groundings cover TIONS institutional s coastalresources. the Damaging but is states an any s does the reefs. integrated damage and need ef not and is fects blast marine recommended. Mapping possess to community of to be fishery watershed land the (overfishing) addressed extensive of reefs. use practices coastal capacity practices management Educational Additional at finances, issues. reefs the have be . state and strengthened and been support In programs manpow reef program and order reef docu fish na re for to - - - - - page 397 Federated States of MicronesiaSidebar The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Federated States of Micronesia

REFERENCES

Edward, A. College of Micronesia. Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. Personal communication.

FishBase. 2002. on-line FishBase: A Global Information System on Fishes. Available from the internet URL: http://www. fishbase.org.

FSM (Federated States of Micronesia), Division of Statistics, Department of Economic Affairs. 2002. The FSM 2000 Cen- sus of Population and Housing, National Census Report. FSM National Government. , Pohnpei.

FSM (Federated States of Micronesia), Division of Statistics, Department of Economic Affairs. 2004. Key Statistics for the FSM. Microsoft Excel workbook. Available from the internet URL: http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/index.htm

Hezel, F.X. 1995. Strangers in Their Own Land. University of Hawaii Press, . 81 pp.

Holthus, P.F., J.E. Maragos, J. Naughton, C. Dahl, D. David, A .Edward, M. Gawel and S. Liphei. 1993. Atoll and Minto Reef Resource Survey. East West Center Program on the Environment. East West Center, Honolulu. 94 pp.

Maragos, J.E. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Honolulu. Personal communication.

Maragos, J.E. and J.O. Fagolimul. 1996. Impact of the grounding and removal of the bulk carrier M/V Oceanus on the coastal resources of Satawal Island (, Federated States of Micronesia). Prepared for Paul, Johnson, Park, and Niles on behalf of the People of Satawal. East-West Center, Honolulu and the Environmental Protection Authority, Yap. 23 pp.

Richmond, R.H. 1997. Reproduction and recruitment in corals: critical links in the persistence of reefs. pp. 175 - 197. In: C.E. Birkeland (ed.) Life and Death of Coral Reefs. Chapman and Hall Publishers, New York.

Tupper, M. Palau International Coral Reef Center. Koror, Palau. Personal communication.

Federated States of Micronesia Turgeon, D.D., R.G. Asch, B.D. Causey, R.E. Dodge, W. Jaap, K. Banks, J. Delaney, B.D. Keller, R. Speiler, C.A. Matos, J.R. Garcia, E. Diaz, D. Catanzaro, C.S. Rogers, Z. Hillis-Starr, R. Nemeth, M. Taylor, G.P. Schmahl, M.W. Miller, D.A. Gulko, J.E. Maragos, A.M. Friedlander, C.L. Hunter, R.S. Brainard, P. Craig, R.H. Richond, G. Davis, J. Starmer, M. Tri- anni, P. Houk, C.E. Birkeland, A. Edward, Y. Golbuu, J. Gutierrez, N. Idechong, G. Paulay, A. Tafileichig and N. Vander Velde. 2002. The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2002. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Ocean Service/National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, Silver Spring, MD. 265 pp.

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