Slovenians at war MILITARYMILITARY HISTORYHISTORY OFOF SLOVENIANSSLOVENIANS The Republic of Slovenia holds a strategically very important position, because its territory provides the only continental passage from Italy to the Pannonian plain, when one is pro- ceeding from the Alps towards the South. It was the very strategic position which, to a large extent, shaped the history of Slovenia and Slovenians. The origin of Slovenians is explained by two historical theories. One (supported by Ro- mance and Germanic historic sources) claims that after the downfall of the Roman Empire and the mighty migration of peoples in the 6th century the territory of today’s Slovenia was emptied. Then the whole area was taken by Slavonic tribes coming from behind the Carpathian Mountains.

The other theory says that Slovenians are an autochthonous nation, which was subjugated by newly-settling invaders. Ar- chaeology – offering many material proofs of continuity – has made it evident that the territory of Slovenia was inhabited at all times in history. Among many archaeological findings let us single out the so-called helmets of Negova, quite a curiosity worldwide. In 1811 there were excavated 26 bronze helmets dating back to the period 500–400 BC. Some of the helmets were engraved with as yet unexplained charac- ters in an unknown language. The two archeologically proven cultures in be- tween the 9th and the 4th century BC were those of Vače and Novo mesto. There too, numerous helmets were found, as well as swords, axes, spears and a few wonderful- ly preserved bronze armours. Another lo- cation is known as Mušja jama, part of the Byzantium and Rome was drawn right that feudal lords fought small wars among Final images of Škocjan caves, where – again – a few hun- across the territory of the eastern Alps. themselves as well. Even nowadays one dramatic life-and- dred pieces of bronze weaponry were re- All of the barbarian armies heading to- can see castle ruins and remains on top of death battle as gained. The whole collection is believed to wards northern Italy made their advance steep hills in the country. depicted on a village represent the biggest archaeological find through Slovenia. In 548 the Byzantine Hungarians invaded the territory in vase made of bronze of this kind in Europe. It is perhaps worth emperor Iustinianus gave the Slovenian 896 and, more or less often, their troops (Latin-derived name mentioning that during the first millenni- territory up to Lombard tribes; neverthe- were seen making raids here and there situla), dating back um BC the cave referred to, situated close less, in 568 they moved on to northern until the 12th century. Then the beginning to the Iron Age. to the Adriatic, served as an entrance to Italy. It was during the 7th and the 8th cen- of the 15th century was marked by the the (mythological) subterranean “Hades’ tury A.D. that the first Slovenian state was Turks making military expeditions into kingdom of death”. formed, in fact two of them: one Carinthia southern Slovenian territories bordering At the beginning of the 3rd century BC to the north of the Alps and the other to on Croatia, which – as a consequence – the territory and population of Slovenia the south of the Alps. Carinthia – along were almost completely devastated and was dominated by the Celts, who intro- with Bavaria – was attached to the mighty depopulated. duced the longish swords in use by cavalry. Frankish Empire in 745. In between 820 To be sure, at that time both Slovenia As early as 177 BC the Roman State and 828 Carinthia took part in the large- and Croatia were defending Western Eu- incorporated the Istrian peninsula; shortly scale rebellion against the Franks. Defeat- rope against Turkish invasion. During afterwards, when Augustus was the em- ed, it lost its autonomy and was trans- Turkish incursions, the lords locked them- peror, the whole territory of Slovenia was formed into a county. Its territory was con- selves into the castles on hill tops, while attached to ancient Rome. It was Augus- fiscated and handed over to foreign over- the Slovenian peasants built stone walls tus who ordered the important military lords and the Church. Germanisation of around the churches, thus forming pecu- communication across the Hrušica hills to the local population progressively nar- liar defence camps. In spite of that, thou- be built. The Roman legions marched rowed the old Slovenian-inhabited territo- sands of them were caught and taken as along that road, to fight the “barbarians” ry to a small portion of its original size. It slaves to Bosnia, Serbia and farther on. threatening the empire from the East. Let was done with fire and sword, with the as- Coming back to feudal lords in Slove- us mention a few local Roman towns from sistance of the Church. nia: they were mostly of German origin, the period: Emona (now Ljubljana, the Thus subjugated, the Slovenians were while Slovenians were peasants. Due to capital of Slovenia), Poetovio (Ptuj) and soldiers in a number of feudal armies, social and ethnical disputes there took Celeia (Celje). It is a fact that males from even taking part in crusades and war place a series of uprisings and wars. More that area served in the Roman army. marches all the way to Palestine. In 1192 than 130 rebellions took place in Slovenia Historically important was the battle Richard the Lionhearted, King of England, during the period spanning from the 13th fought at Frigidus, where the Christian was coming back home from a crusade to the 17th century, probably more than identity of the Roman State was decided. passing through western Slovenia. any other place in Europe. Notably 1478 Once the former Roman Empire was divid- The feudal masters of the time built in Koroška (Carinthia), 1515 all over ed into two parts, the borderline between castles to protect themselves. It is true Slovenia, 1573 jointly with the Croats and 69 The most celebrated broke out in 1717. Eleven of the leaders 1813, the French had to leave Slovenia as Slovenian soldier of were caught and their heads were cut off well. At that time Austria reorganised its the 18th century was near Gorica; their body parts were torn army. Slovenian infantry regiments were an artillery officer – apart and left hanging along the roads established in the towns of Ljubljana – the otherwise a well- leading out of town. so-called 17th regiment, Maribor – the known In the second half of the 18th century 47th regiment and Klagenfurt Austria (in- mathematician, the Slovenian territory was subdivided in- habited by Slovenians, called Celovec); lat- baron Jurij Vega. to conscription districts, each of which er on joined by the 87th regiment in Celje had to provide a definite number of sol- and the 97th regiment in Triest (now part diers. Thus regiments were nationally dis- of Italy). Regiments known to be “Sloven- tinct on a territorial basis. From that time ian” were the 5th dragoon regiment, the onwards one can trace the history of 7th and the 9th regiment of hunters, as Slovenian soldiers in the Austrian army. well as the 26th and the 27th regiments of Slovenian regiments proved successful regional defence. But, the commanding during a number of wars, e.g. against language in these regiments was German. Turkey, during the conquest of Belgrade in German officers despised the Slovenian 1789 and in battles against revolutionary soldiers, calling them “Slovenian hounds” France. At that time one Slovenian, math- and the like. ematician Jurij Vega – officer of the Austri- From 1820 to 1866 Slovenian regi- an army – was awarded for his bravery ments made part of the Austrian occupa- with the highest-ranking Order of Honour tion army in Italy. They also took part in of Mary Therese. wars fought against Italy (1848–49, 1859 During the war with France, 1809, and 1866), Denmark (1864) and even there were formed special battalions of Prussia (1866); they were also sent to national defence. One well-known battle Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was occu- was fought in May 1809 near Razdrto, pied in 1878. In addition, Slovenian sol- where some Slovenian battalions suc- diers fought bravely in battles near Italian

1635 in Styria. Before the peasants’ upris- ing took place in 1635, the local aristocra- cy wrote a letter to the emperor, letting him know that it will happen because of the traditional antipathy between Ger- mans and Slovenians. In 1478 an army of Slovenian peasants – defending the country – faced the ranks of mighty Turkish invaders. It was headed by a peasant named Matjaž (Matthias). The decisive battle took place on June 26, 1478, near Kokovo. Some 600 peasants and miners tried to stop the 20 thousand- odd Turkish army. All of the Slovenians died on the battlefield. Then a legend sprang that the mountain (known as Uršlja gora) “sheltered” the “king” Matjaž and his army. They are not dead but sleeping there. They will wake up once the king’s beard has encircled nine times the stone table by which he rests. Then he will walk out of the mountain and happy times for all Sloveni- ans will then begin, the legend has it. The greatest of all peasant wars began Soldiers of the 47th Slovenian-Styrian infantry regiment in battle near Costuzza on July 25, 1848. in February 1515; in spring it spreaded all over the territory of Slovenia. There were ceeded in holding back the advancing towns of Novara (1849) and Solferino 600,000 of Slovenians in all at that time – French army for several days. (1859). and 80,000 took part in the uprising. The After the French victory over Austria The army of the Mexican emperor peasants struck well and even took over western parts of Slovenia were incorporat- Maximilian, brother of the Austria’s Fran- many of the castles. The final battle took ed into the French Napoleonic State. cis Joseph, also recruited a number of place on July 8 that same year, near the France introduced Slovenian as the official- Slovenians, who then fought in Mexican town of Celje. The peasants were united ly used language in offices, courts and wars (1864–67). As volunteers Sloveni- by one characteristic slogan: “Le vkup, le schools. In Ljubljana there was formed the ans were joining the rebellions against vkup, uboga gmajna” (Unite, unite, you infantry Regiment d’Illyrie. In 1812 Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and poor slaves, to free yourselves) and “stara Napoleon left for Russia, and the Slovenian fought flank-to-flank with the Serbians in pravda” (in a battle unwon). Faced with a regiment accompanied him. The French Balkan wars (1912–13). strong army of the aristocracy, cavalry and expedition proved unsuccessful and the Following the beginning of World War mercenaries, they had to be defeated. Slovenian regiment, as many others, found I Slovenian regiments were sent to the Some 2,000 were killed in the field of bat- death in Russia. Only a few Slovenians Russian front. There they suffered heavy tle, many of them were captured and saved themselves and returned home. losses – especially during the harsh winter hanged or impaled. Slovenian soldiers also served in other regi- 1914–15 in the Carpathians, when many Yet another in a centuries-long series ments of the French army. Slovenians in the prime of their youth of peasant rebellions was that which After the battle fought near Leipzig, in were killed in battle. 70 As a reward for their participation on unteers. Another division of volunteers in- the side of the Allied Forces, the London cluding Slovenians took part in fierce bat- Memorandum was passed which tles against Germans and Bulgarians near promised the territory of western Slovenia Dobrudža, and suffered heavy losses. Due to Italy. Italy declared war on the Austro- to Greater Serbian pressures, the divisions Hungarian empire in May 1915. As a re- disintegrated, and the remaining soldiers sult, the western Slovenian border was were sent to the Salonica front, where turned into a new frontline, bearing the they fought in the Serbian army until the name of the nearby Soča river (the Soča end of the war. front). Fierce battles along this line were A Slovenian officer, doctor Ljudevit going on almost uninterruptedly until Oc- Pivko, was the one to organise the first Yu- tober 1917. Eleven large-scale offensives goslav and Czech units of volunteers in were launched by the Italians, and finally Italy. one by allied Germans and Austrians. The A considerable number of Slovenians bloodiest battles were fought on the slope took part in the Russian civil war, fighting of Doberdob and during the siege of Gori- on both sides. ca; the peaks of Sabotin, Sveta gora, Krn, In autumn 1918 the Slovenian national Rombon and Sveti Gabrijel were also un- liberation movement was getting stronger der heavy fire. The Italian army was much and stronger. Rebellions of Slovenian sol- Another most superior in numbers and artillery. diers, forced to serve in the Austrian army, distinguished In 1917, when the first Austro-German never stopped. Slovenian – one of the offensive was launched, the Italian troops So on October 29, 1918, the self- best-known Austrian were completely defeated. The offensive standing State of Slovenians, Croats and Army officers of the referred to is considered to be the No. 1 Serbians was proclaimed, and the first mid-19th century – mountain battle in the history of warfare. regiments of the new Slovenian army who was awarded The Austrian attack near Bovec was head- were formed. These regiments instantly the highest-ranking ed by the Slovenian 26th regiment of gun- took over the Slovenian national territory Austrian medal, was ners from Maribor. Among officers who along the northern border; then fighting baron Andrej Čehovin. proved especially successful the name of for the border with Austria began. Soon Erwin Rommel, future German field mar- Maribor was liberated by an army of machine guns, 7 planes etc. Eventually shal, is mentioned. He commanded the Slovenian volunteers headed by the first Serbia used the situation along the breakthrough from Mrzli vrh (mountain Slovenian general, Rudolf Maister. On Slovenian borders with Austria and Italy peak), down into the valley of Soča and up November 4, 1918, The newly formed and induced Slovenia to affiliate to the to the top of Matajur. Slovenian army was recognised by the Al- united Kingdom of the three nations. Nev- The strong national and ethnical ten- lied Forces commander, marshal Franchet ertheless, on May 1919 the joint Sloven- sions – characteristic of the Austro-Hun- d’Esperey. ian-Serbian army liberated the whole Ko- garian Empire – intensified during war- As mentioned earlier, the London roška (Carinthia), originally belonging to time. Rebellions of Slovenian soldiers serv- Memorandum assigned the whole west- Slovenia (now part of Austria as Kaern- ing in the Austrian army were among the ern part of Slovenia to Italy. Since Italy ten), along with the capital Celovec (Aus- most notable ones throughout the state. made part of the Allies, Slovenia could not trian name: Klagenfurt). Slovenians took part in the great rebellion act against it. Fighting against the Austri- The Slovenian army was not in favour of marines in Boka Kotorska on February an army, Slovenian troops at first succeed- of the affiliation with the Kingdom of Ser- 3, 1918. Soldiers of the 17th infantry regi- ed in liberating much of the Slovenian na- bia. So in January 1919 there broke out ment rebelled in Judenburg on May 12, tional territory. Then, outnumbered by the first armed rebellion against Serbians 1918. Twenty rebels were killed and 120 Austrians, regiments of the Serbian royal in Ljubljana. Another, much greater rebel- of them were wounded. Four leaders of army were called in to help. lion followed in Maribor on July 22, 1919, the rebellion were shot – executed – on In December 1918 the Slovenian army as well as in Carinthia. Many Slovenian May 16. Just two days after Judenburg, had 2 generals, 47 staff officers, 962 offi- rebels were killed in action, and two of another rebellion broke out in the 7th bat- cers, 11,364 privates, 538 cannons, 857 them were shot afterwards. talion of hunters of Murau. Boštjan Olip, leader of the rebels, was sentenced to death and shot. In a farewell letter ad- dressed to his brother he wrote: “What I did, I did because I love our Slovenian motherland.” Yet another rebellion followed on May 23, 1918, in Radgona – again of Sloven- ian soldiers serving in the 97th Triest in- fantry regiment. Eight of them were found guilty and shot dead. The Codroipo rebel- lion on the Italian frontline, on October 24, 1918, was carried out by the 2nd moun- tain regiment of gunners. Seven soldiers Assault troop of were killed while fighting, 25 were the 2nd Mountain wounded and the whole regiment was dis- Riflemen Battalion – armed. all of them At the very beginning of the war, a Slovenians, number of Slovenians joined the Serbian members of forces. In 1916, Slovenian and other Yu- the Austro-Hungarian goslav privates and officers – taken prison- Army during ers in Russia – formed two divisions of vol- World War I. 71 gin with, they deported intelligentsia, sans often co-ordinated their operations teachers and priests. with Anglo-American units, especially at- On April 27, 1941, a secret organisa- tacks on railway towards Italy. In August tion was established in Ljubljana – called 1944, the army of Slovenian partisans the Liberation Front – the purpose of consisted of 27,751 combatants, men which was to fight against the occupying and women. forces. Armed resistance began in July Faced with resistance, the German, 1941. The first guerrilla troops and de- Italian and Hungarian occupying forces re- tachments were formed, the liberation sorted to extreme terror. Partisans caught fighters were called partisans. Near the vil- were not treated as prisoners of war, lage of Rovte, 45 German policemen were hostages were taken and shot; civilians killed in battle with partisans on Decem- were deported to concentration camps in ber 12, 1941. The early partisan brigades large numbers. Aided by the Roman- were formed as early as 1942, joined by a Catholic Church in Slovenia, in summer few divisions and two corpuses in 1943. 1942 Italians organised local quisling The Slovenian partisan army was an im- units known as MVAC (anti-Communist portant force, which “kept busy” numer- militia). Following the capitulation of Italy, ous occupying formations. It fought using in autumn 1943 the German occupying General Maister, the the weapons taken away from the enemy; forces formed anti-Resistance units called 1st Slovenian general and from 1943 onwards it was also re- “Slovenian homeguards (militiamen)”. ever, headed his ceiving English ammunition supplies and These quislings swore to fight under the volunteers liberating equipment. After the arrival of an Ally mis- command of Hitler against partisans and the town of Maribor. sion sent in from England Slovene parti- their allies.

Finally, in 1920 Slovenian regiments were disbanded or made Serbian, and Slovenian men had to serve in the army far from home, they were mostly sent to the southernmost parts of the kingdom. The circumstances there was intolerable, especially in Macedonia, Kosovo and Bosnia or Herzegovina; there the Serbian language was the only official one. Numerous young Slovenians graduat- ed at military academies in Yugoslavia and reached important positions in the army: notably divisional general Lav Rupnik and Vladimir Vauhnik, attachť in Berlin, who was a successful intelligence officer. At the beginning of 1941 Yugoslavia had 8 aviation regiments, half of which were commanded by Slovenians. Threatened by Italian fascism and Ger- man nazism, the national consciousness of Slovenians was getting stronger. Some 500 Slovenians took an active part in the international brigades during the Spanish Slovenian soldiers during manoeuvres, wearing the uniforms of the Royal Yugoslav Army. civil war (1936–39). When Yugoslavia was attacked by Germany and Italy in The German army gradually lost its mo- When, in 1968, Soviet troops invaded 1941, many Slovenians became volun- mentum, and the last battles of World War Czechoslovakia, Tito ordered territorial de- teers. During occupation, the Germans, II in Europe were going on in Slovenia. fence units to be formed in all of the Yu- Slovenian partisans Italians and Hungarians planned to exter- German forces were withdrawing from goslav republics. This is how, gradually, a during World war II. minate the whole Slovenian nation. To be- the Balkans – passing across Slovenia to small but strong and well-armed force was Carinthia, Austria. The Slovenian militia- created. After 1990 – marked by political men-quislings were sent back by the Eng- change in Yugoslavia – this army, paral- lish army to Yugoslavia, where they were leled by the Slovenian police units, be- mostly shot. On the other side, 46,000 came a self-standing armed force of the partisans and other members of the na- Republic of Slovenia. tional liberation movement lost their lives Independence of Slovenia was solemn- in war; more than 80,000 Slovenians ly declared on June 26, 1991; and the were expatriated and 29,000 deported to next morning aggression of the Yugoslav concentration camps. army on Slovenia was launched. Its mis- During the War, the Slovenian army sion was to take over all of the border had its own command-in-chief, but by checkpoints, international isolation of March 1945 the Slovenian army had been Slovenia and, finally, overthrowing of the made part of the new Yugoslav army. Af- democratically elected Slovenian govern- ter World War II, Slovenian units were dis- ment. The joint action of Slovenian police banded, and – once again – Slovenians units and territorial defence troops, unani- had to serve far in the south of the state. mously backed by the whole nation, made And – once again – Serbian was the only it impossible. commanding language. At the outbreak of hostilities the Yu- 72 goslav army in Slovenia had about 22,300 soldiers, it deployed 115 tanks, 82 ar- moured personnel carriers, 24 helicopters and a number of planes. Thirty-one tanks, 22 armoured vehicles, 6 helicopters etc. were either destroyed or damaged in 72 battles which took place. When fighting began, the Slovene army had under its command 16,000 soldiers, whose num- ber grew to 35,200; and the Slovene po- lice made available another 10,000 men. Initially, the Yugoslav army managed to take hold of most Slovenian border posts, but the Slovenian forces soon The elite, well-armed struck back After a number of blows re- 14rd Division of the ceived, the Yugoslav army found itself in a National Liberation complete defensive. A helicopter-borne Army – which assault of special units near Trzin – in the included partisan evening of June the 27th – proved a com- detachments – plete disaster; two helicopters were shot undertook the first down; Yugoslav troops and vehicles were major manoeuvring blocked or attacked all over Slovenia. In march of the those days Slovenian, Croatian and Alban- Slovenian Army during ian soldiers were massively deserting the World war II. Yugoslav army ranks, which were thus falling apart. The climax of it all happened signed at Brioni on July 7, 1991 – on the on June 28 and July 2. At Prilipe in Croat- initiative of European negotiators – where- ia the people did not let pass a tank col- by the Slovenian independence act was umn. Thus the Yugoslav army units postponed for three months, but in the trapped in Slovenia remained helpless. meantime the national defence forces re- However, 19 Slovenian soldiers, police- mained in control of the whole Slovenian men and civilians were killed in action and territory. The Yugoslav units were blocked 182 were wounded; 12 foreign citizens in barracks and, under the circumstances, were also killed. Forty-five Yugoslav sol- the Yugoslav presidency decided to have diers died on the battlefield and 146 were the army move out of Slovenia. The last wounded. The Slovenian defence forces Yugoslav soldier left Slovenia during the captured 4,693 soldiers and officers of night from the 25th to the 26th October of the Yugoslav army, along with 252 federal 1991. policemen. Thus 1991 marks the beginning of Ter- Epilogue: a special declaration was ritorial Defence of the Republic of Slove-

Member of special forces of Territorial Defence of Slovenia during the liberation

Photo: Marjan Gerbajs Marjan Photo: fight in 1991.

nia, the third Slovenian army in succession formed during the 20th century and the first peacetime army in Slovenian national history. In January 1995 it was renamed “the Slovenian Army”. From 1990 on- wards its chiefs-of-staff were generals Janez Slapar, Albin Gutman and Iztok Pod- bregar, Ph.D.; the present chief-of-staff is general Ladislav Lipič. ■ Janez J. Švajncer

Janez J. Švajncer is a graduate of the Faculty of Law in Maribor and a retired brigadier of the Slovenian Army. He has written a number of C-47 Dakota – “plane museum” photographed at Otok in the Bela Krajina region. It is kept there to books about the military and war his- commemorate the co-operation of the Partisan Army with the Allies. During World war II. Slovenian tory of the Slovenians. partisans rescued 305 American and several dozen British airmen. 73