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Research Article

The Contribution of Education to Economic Development in East

Khanittha Saleemad*

Abstract This article examines the educational development in East Asian countries such as Kong, , South and , known as the Four Asian tigers. The attention is to identify the significant features that played a major role in the process of educational development that contributes to in these countries. The study shows that their economic development relies heavily on educated workforce and investment in education can contribute to the productivity and economic growth. Although, there is no a single model for developing a successful educational system among Asian countries, there are common features between Asian educational systems, which are 1) they all aim at the same target which is building a well-qualified human power, 2) they place human resource development at the core of plans for national development, 3) primary schools are considered the foundation for a sequential successful education, with special attention to sciences and mathematical subjects; that eventually contributes to economic development, and 4) there are the mechanisms for coordinating the supply of skilled workforces so as to meet the demands of industry.

Keyword: Education, Educational Development, Economic Development,

* Lecturer, Graduate School of Srinakharinwirot University Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

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1. Introduction emerging a rapid development are that After World War II, the Asia they have invested greatly in education. region was seen with pessimism, as it The investments resulted in well-educated contained with many poor countries work forces in both white-collar and blue which characterized by the high level of collar is a common broad property of late illiteracy and by the aftermath of war industrialization.3 and civil wars.1 For that reason, other The outstanding history of four regions like Africa and Latin America poor agrarian economies, such as Hong were thought to be the onset of rapid Kong, Singapore, and development; however, this situation Taiwan, known as the Four Asian tigers proved elusive. This can be illustrated by and as newly industrializing countries, the higher growth rate of the East Asian has provoked many academic interests. countries such as , , Besides, the performance of these four South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, etc. Asian Tigers is not only the high rates Especially, the speed of their development of growth, but also the sustainability of needs to be highlighted. In 1960, South their growth rates. In the point of view Korea had the same GDP as it was in of Ashton, the economic growth is Sudan. It took South Korea 11 years to paralleled by a growth . In double real per capita income from 1966, 1960, these four countries had high level whereas USA did it in 47 years from 1839, of school enrollment of five to fourteen and Japan achieve the same outcome in year olds ranged from 57 per cent to 67 the 34 years from 1900. per cent. Consequently, the high percentage Much credit on their economic of school enrollment brought about the success is given to their production of supply of human capital for their human capital through rapid expansion economies.4 of education.2 These East Asian countries

1 Morris, P. “Asia’s Four Little Tigers: A Comparison of the Role of Education in Their Development,” Comparative Education, Vol. 32, No. 1. (March., 1996), p. 95. 2 World .The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy. New York Oxford University Press 1993. 3 Amsden, A.Asia’s Next Giant. OxfordUniversity Press, 2006, p. 215. 4 Ashton, D. Education and Training for Development in Asia: the Political Economy of Skill Formation in East Asian Newly Industrialized Economies. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 1999. p. 1.

2 The Contribution of Education to Economic Development in East Asia Khanittha Saleemad

This article focuses on examining capital which adopted by Schultz (1963) the educational development in East Asian and others. The growth accounting countries, particularly in the Four Asian approach is based on the concept of Tigers which has been claimed that it was an aggregate production function that a key factor of their human development links output (Y) to the input of physical and economic growth. The attention is to capital (K) and labor (L). That is a identify its significant features that played country’ economic growth is divided a major role in the process of educational into various contributing factors, such as development in the East Asian countries. growth in the workforce, investment in First section aims to answer the question physical capital, and investment in human on how education contributes to economic capital and be calculated on the equation: growth. Then, it will examine the overall Y = F (K, L). In this regard, it is possible education system of the East Asian to separate the rate of growth of output countries and find out whether there is a into its capital and labor parts. The first single model of educational development. attempt of Denison in explaining U.S. In doing so, the broad similarities and economic growth between 1910 and 1960 differences in their educational policies failed due to a large residual that could and systems will be identified. not be explained in this way. His second examination, regarding to solve the 2. The Contribution of Education problem of residual, came with the results. to the Output and Economic He found that about 23% of the rate of Growth growth of output in the U.S. between There are many attempts to 1930 and 1960 was due to the increase in measure the contribution of education to education of the labor force.5 economic growth. Those researches were Another method of measuring the based either on the growth accounting contribution of education to economic approach used by Denison (1962) and growth in terms of the rate of return to others, or on the rate of return to human human capital comparing with the rate

5 Denison, E. F. The Sources of Economic Growth in the United States and the Alternatives Before Us. New York: Committee for Economic Development. 1962.

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of return to physical capital was used by was applied data for eighty-eight Schultz (1963). He used this method in developing countries. The findings from estimating the contribution of education this examination suggest that education, to economic growth both in the United health, and nutrition contribute to growth States and in developing countries since of output directly and indirectly by 1950. His overall conclusion is that a increasing the rate of investment and by substantial proportion of the rate of reducing the birth rate. He also found that growth of output in developed and in the average an increase in literacy rate developing countries were due to from 20 to 30 percent brings about GDP investment in education.6 This can be to increase by 8 to 16 percent.8 Similarly, supported by his research in 1961that an analysis which examined data for originated the classic examples on the sixty-six developing countries by Marris controversy issue of investment in (1982) concluded that education strongly human versus physical capital between affects economic growth, and that general and Japan.7 It reveals that the steel investment has less effect on growth rates mills investment in India was not come when there is no support from education with sustained growth, while the emphasis investment.9 Moreover, a on education of Japan since the Meiji research on the links between education placed the foundation for Japanese and the productivity of farmers which economic miracle. done by Jamison and Laurence (1982) Further research by Wheeler has shown that investment in improved (1980) confirms the fact that education seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation is more and other indicators of human resource productive in terms of increased crop development such as literacy rate are yields, when farmers have four years of a basis of economic development. He primary education rather than none.10 formulated a simultaneous model which

6 Schultz, T. W. The Economic Value of Education. New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press. 1963 7 Schultz, T. W. “Investment in Human Capital,” American Economic Review, Vol. 51, No. 1, 1961, p. 1-17. 8 Wheeler, D. Human Resource Development and Economic Growth in Developing Countries: A Simultaneus Model. World Bank Staff Working Paper no. 407. Washington, D.C., 1980. 9 Marris, R. Economic Growth in Cross Section. London: BirkbeckCollege, Department of . 1982. 10 Jamison, D. T., and Laurence J. Lau. Farmer Education and Farm Efficientcy. Baltimore, Md.: JohnsHopkins University Press. 1982.

4 The Contribution of Education to Economic Development in East Asia Khanittha Saleemad

The recent research by Easterlin development or the educational approach (1981) argues the notion that education in the East Asian countries or the Four makes both a direct and an indirect Asian tigers. The Eastern Asian approach contribution to economic growth. In emerged in the late nineteenth century as addition, he is one of the economist Asian countries responded to the Western researchers who strongly support that the challenge. Only Japan and were most causal link between them should be able to escape from the fetters of Western from education to economic growth, not imperialism. As Japan has gone through the other way around. After investigating greater developmental success, the in twenty-five of the largest countries in educational approach of the Japanese has the world, he came up with the conclusion been the most influential among other that “the spread of the technology of Asian nations. Consequently, many countries modern economic growth depended on the in Eastern Asia have experienced the greater learning potential and motivation educational policies of “Learning from arising from the development of formal Japan”. The approach is labeled by schooling.”11 Therefore, the economic Cummings as the J-model as in recognition history and also recent economic research of the fact that “Japan was the first confirms the theory that investment in architect of the approach, and most of the education can contribute to the productivity components were fully realized in Japan and economic growth. circa the 1960s.”12 The core components of the 3. Is there a single model of Japanese/Eastern Asian approach are as educational development? follow: Cummings argued that there is a single model of human resource

11 Easterlin, R “Why Isn’t the Whole World Developed?” See George Psacharopoulos & Maureen Woodhall, Education for Development An Analysis of Investment Choices, OxfordUniversity Press, 1985 , p. 21. 12 Cummings, W. Human resource development: the J-model. Challenge of eastern Asian Education, the Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1997, p. 156.

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Human Resources are Critical for goals and a curriculum as well as to National Development provide textbooks and staff. The state was There was recognition in Eastern satisfied with these contributions because Asian national leaders that a major it could form the educational process, cultural and human transformation would such as giving a slim budget, minimizing be essential to respond to the Western its involvement in the management of challenge.13 Recognizing the scarcity of schools. The reliable principals and staff their natural resources, Eastern Asian were expected to do their job. Thus, the leaders concluded that people were their school-level autonomy in implementation key resources. In Eastern Asian countries, was remained within the centrally not only the development of human prescribed framework. resources has been stressed but also on their utilization. To make it happens; they Seeking Knowledge throughout the placed educational and cultural policy at World the core of plans for national development. Because of entering late into the As a result, educational streams in modern era, a need to catch up the leading the public sector were closely linked Western nations was recognized by the to projected workforce requirements. Eastern Asian nations.14 Therefore, a core Governments took part as a coordinating component in their catch-up strategy was role in the transition from education to work. seeking knowledge throughout the world and especially from the West. Western The State is Responsible for the knowledge was seen as the necessity Framework means for developing national strength The Eastern Asian states assumed and competitiveness, particularly in the a central role in their development. Their areas of science, medicine and technology. authorities sought to set up educational A solid foundation in these areas, such as

13 Smith, T. C. Political change and industrial development in Japan: Government Enterprise, 1955. See in William Cummings. Human resource development: the J-model. Challenge of eastern Asian Education, the Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1997, p. 161. 14 Levy, M. J. Jr. Modernization: Latecomers and survivors, 1972. See in William Cummings. Human resource development: the J-model. Challenge of eastern Asian Education, the Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1997, p. 161.

6 The Contribution of Education to Economic Development in East Asia Khanittha Saleemad mathematics and science, was expected Public Primary Schooling Provides the to be provided in the schools from the Foundation first grades of the primary education. It Eastern Asian educators placed expected to be provided and emphasized special importance on the development in colleges and universities. of effective primary schools, reflecting their belief that excellence derives Western Science/Eastern Values from a command of the basics.17 Much Although, Western knowledge concern was allocated to the curriculum was considered valuable, Asian leaders and teaching methods at this level. Also denied the societal framework of the adequate budget was provided to assure West. That is because they believed that a solid basic education for all. Eastern the social and political values of Eastern Asian countries have been likely to Asia effectively provided a better acknowledge universal enrollment faster foundation for the good society.15 Hence, than other parts of the world.18 schools contained moral education as a core of their curriculum. Moreover, The Public School Teaches; the Pupil teachers were expected to establish proper Has to Learn examples, and lead the youths to respect With the conscious of scarce Easter Asia’s enduring traditions. The resources, Eastern Asian teachers placed normative core primarily emphasized limits on their school’s responsibilities. proper behavior such as honesty, hard Their school’s job was to teach the work, respect for parents and authority, curriculum in an effective manner for cleanliness, etc.16 the average pupil.19 The responsibility

15 Hall, I. P. Mori Arinori, 1973. See in William Cummings. Human resource development: the J-model. Challenge of eastern Asian Education, the Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1997, p. 162. 16 Befu, H. Cultural nationalism in East Asia, 1993. See in William Cummings. Human resource development: the J-model. Challenge of eastern Asian Education, the Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1997, p. 162. 17 Passin, H. Society and education in Japan, 1965. See in William Cummings. Human resource development: the J-model. Challenge of eastern Asian Education, the Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1997, p. 162. 18 Williamson, J. G. ‘’Human Capital Deepening, Inequality and Demographic Events along the Asia-Pacific Rim,” 1993. See in William Cummings. Human resource development: the J-model. Challenge of eastern Asian Education, the Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1997, p. 162. 19 Cummings, W. K. Education and equality in Japan. Princeton: PrincetonUniversityPress, 1980.

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for studying lied on the pupil, and it Ashton (1999) also agreed with was up to them and their parents to take the Cummings’s argument, especially in advantage of the school’s presentation. the argument that there was a distinctive The school worked closely with local Asian approach to human development leaders and parents to insure this common expansion which the state performed understanding and to gain their as a coordinator between schools and cooperation. workplaces. That is the state involves itself in workforce training, job placement Public Secondary and Tertiary and the coordination of science and Education Focus on National Priorities technology. According to Ashton, there The concern of the Eastern Asian is the emergence of the mechanisms at countries in catching up public resources the core of government which operate the was assigned in accordance with this function of linking the output of education objective. Therefore, the public sector and training system to the current and had a limited objective in productivity future economy skill demands in the critical workforce in education beyond the Four Asian countries namely, Hong foundation level.20 The state set up a Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan. limited number of educational opportunities The mechanisms’ function is to convey in the critical areas such as engineering. relevant information and to ensure that These areas were heavily subsidized, so the needs of the economy are accorded tuition was low and good students were a high priority by decision-makers. He attracted. Actually, the state funded a stated that these mechanisms are clearly surplus of opportunities in expectation visible in Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan of future expansion in the related labor and Hong Kong; however, “they take on markets. varying forms.”21

20 Fong, P. E. Education, workforce and development in Singapore, 1982. And Cummings, W. K. Education and equality in Japan. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980. See in William Cummings. Human resource development: the J-model. Challenge of eastern Asian Education, the Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1997, p. 162. 21 Ashton, David. Education and Training for Development in Asia: the Political Economy of Skill Formation in East Asian Newly Industrialized Economies. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 1999, p. 129.

8 The Contribution of Education to Economic Development in East Asia Khanittha Saleemad

The channels of communication about the level of future output from in Singapore are through the Ministry the education and training institutions of Trade and Industry, the Economic and whether it will be necessary to fill Development Board and the Council for any gaps by employing suitably skilled Professional and Technical Education. As labor from outside the country. Then, the most important ministry, the agenda this information is used by the Council of Ministry of Trade and Industry tends to for Professional Technical Education to dominate the agendas of other ministries. establish specific targets for the universities, There are its representatives in various polytechnics, schools and the Institute boards and councils in order to ensure for Technical Education. In addition, the the effectiveness of the process of internal Council also corporately works with the communication. The task of the Economic Singapore Productivity and Standards Development Board is to ensure that the Board which has the responsible to internal investment is available to provide ensure that the skills of the labor force the capital for the new industries. In are upgraded to meet the requirements of performing this function, the human the existing and projected demand. The resource requirements for those industries cooperation between these two institutions are aware by the Board. The national skill provides mechanisms to ensure that when requirements are shaped by the information the country delineates its future skill of the skill requirements of those needs, these are translated into specific industries and the existing employers. targets.22 The national skill requirements are also In Korea, the mechanism for identified by the information from the coordinating the supply of skilled work- education training institutions that forces in order to meet the demands of provide data on their existing and projected industry is under the outputs. In this data, judgments are made Board (EPB). The EPB has had three

22 Ashton, David. Education and Training for Development in Asia: the Political Economy of Skill Formation in East Asian Newly Industrialized Economies. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 1999, p. 130.

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major roles: planning and formulating by the Industrial Development Board. An economic policy programs, coordination of outcome of the activities of the CEPD was economic and other policies by ministries the Workforce Development Plans. The and evaluation of policy programs. It has strategic plans are carried out the more been the key influence in formulating detailed planning and direction of policy educational and industrial policies for the by the Workforce Planning Department last thirty years. In its planning function, which is included within the CEPD. This the economic Planning Board has received set of connections ensures that the policy’s the cooperation and support of the Ministry direction regarding to the supply of of Education, the Ministry of Labour and appropriately trained personnel is delivered the Ministry of Science and Technology. in practice.23 Hence, the education and training The mechanisms for coordinating implications of the economic development the supply and demand for labour in strategy are transferred to the ministries Hong Kong consisted of three main responsible for implementation. bodies: the Education Commission, the In Taiwan, the Council for Education and Workforce Branch and Economic Planning and Development the Vocational Training Council. The first (CEPD) has operated the function of two institutions were influential bodies the main linking mechanism. The CEPD within the government. The Education works with the government in establishing Commission consisted of government and the industrial strategy and ensures that representatives. Although it only other ministries work in the same line had advisory powers, it was a significant to meet the economic plans’ objectives. influence in formulating public policy Its responsibility is to ensure that the in the education area. The Vocational education and training system deliver Training Council is also influential appropriately skilled personnel to meet because it is highly centralized and the demands of the economy, as defined controlled by a small elite closely linked

23 Ashton, David. Education and Training for Development in Asia: the Political Economy of Skill Formation in East Asian Newly Industrialized Economies. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 1999, p. 130.

10 The Contribution of Education to Economic Development in East Asia Khanittha Saleemad to the inner circles of government. Of those who agree on this issue Therefore, when adjustments are required argued that whilst patterns of educational they can be quickly implemented. While provision exhibited some common there was no formal policy making features, there were also differences institution to ensure the requirements of in other areas. According to Morris’s economic dominated in the decision- research in 1996, he concluded that some making process among these three common features in the patterns of organizations, there were close formal educational provision were visible; and informal linkages between the however, there were also some significant memberships of the various councils, differences in some areas within the three commissions and government departments levels of education (elementary, secondary which made possible a consensus to be and tertiary) and vocational education in sustained. Hence, while the Hong Kong’s South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and government has not sought to influence Singapore.25 the demand for skilled personnel, it has His study indicates that the most developed sophisticated mechanisms to outstanding common feature across these ensure that the skills required by the four countries was the high demand of economy can be rapidly responded.24 access to elementary schooling prior to On the contrary, some have industrial take-off procedure. suggested that there is no single of educational development.

24 Ashton, David. Education and Training for Development in Asia: the Political Economy of Skill Formation in East Asian Newly Industrialized Economies. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 1999, p. 138. 25 Morris, Paul. “Asia’s Four Little Tigers: A Comparison of the Role of Education in Their Development,” Comparative Education, Vol. 32, No. 1. (March 1996), p. 95-109.

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Table 1 Percentage of Enrollment in Elementary, Secondary and Tertiary Education in East Asia

Percentage of age group enrolled in education Elementary Secondary Tertiary 1965 1986 1965 1986 1965 1986 Taiwan 97.15 99.57 - 92.19 - 25.18 South Korea 101 94 35 95 6 33 Singapore 105 115 45 71 10 - Hong Kong 103 105 29 69 5 13

Source: Morris. “Asia’s Four Little Tigers: A Comparison of the Role of Education in Their Development,” Comparative Education, Vol. 32, No. 1 (Mar 1996), p. 100.

Table 1 show that by 1965 the education. The expansion of primary rates of elementary education enrollment education took priority in the early stage in Taiwan, South Korea and Hong Kong of growth and industrialization. Much less were all over 100 percent, and the figure proportion was spent on secondary and of Taiwan was 97.15 percent, while the tertiary education brought about a small figure of other low income countries of proportion enrollment of the relevant age the world in that year was only 73%. group. Subsequently, as Table 1 illustrates In addition, in each of the countries at first secondary and then tertiary education examined, the provision and expansion became the centers of expansion as of basic education benefited both boys motivated by the changes in the economy and girls. The second common feature and by the growing expectations of emerges across the four countries was the parents whose children were completing sequential nature of education expansion their primary education. In the early which first main concern being given phase of industrialization, the secondary to primary education, later to general education was selective for elitist. One of secondary education and then to tertiary the key goals was to prepare a minority

12 The Contribution of Education to Economic Development in East Asia Khanittha Saleemad of pupils for access to the final stage of very different levels of state intervention formal education. Hence, the rates of in education despite the existence of secondary education enrollment in Korea, strong states in all four countries. Finally, Singapore and Hong Kong were 35%, 45% all of the three countries examined used and 29% respectively. As their economies education to promote national cohesion grew, the governments’ revenue and and a sense of cultural identity except people’s living standards and aspiration Hong Kong. increased. Secondary education expanded Tilak (2002) also agree with rapidly as can be seen in Table 1. By 1986, Morris on the notion that there is no the enrollment rates for secondary schools single East Asian model of educational in Taiwan had gone up to 92%, 71% in development. He claimed that the East Singapore, 95% in South Korea and 69% Asian countries have followed different in Hong Kong. policies and adopted different strategies However, some differences did and approaches over time. According emerge in a substantial degree of variation to Tirak, there are several factors that across the four countries. First, in terms provided a highly conducive environment of the sources of funding for primary for sustained heavy investment in and secondary education, the pattern is education in the East Asia which are a inconsistent. In Hong Kong the demand few economic, demographic, political and was fulfilled by private schools, while in cultural factors. These factors, such as (a) the rest countries the provision of primary a rapid economic growth, (b) significant education was managed by the state. decline in population growth, (c) equitable Secondly, Taiwan and South Korea had income distribution and (d) cultural and a strong reliance on workforce planning political factors, allow the economies to with a consequent focus on technical and spend more on education. They also allow vocational education in the period after initial the economies to restructure their education industrialization, in contrast, Singapore budgets away from the quantitative and Hong Kong pursued educational expansion and in support of improvements policies which were less interventionist and in quality and equity. On the cultural more market oriented. This represents the side, the Confucian values which respect

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education and acquiring knowledge are development, and education is intended to important. On the political side, the serve this purpose. As a result, primary rulers’ commitment to support education education is regarded as providing a basic and link it to socioeconomic and political foundation; secondary and higher education development is an important component have meant to fulfill the human resource of educational expansion. All these factors needs. Secondly, the education has been have positively influence the demand and developed not only a good-quality educa- supply factors regarding to educational tion system, but also the effective utiliza- investment, and transformed education tion of the graduate output for economic system into a potentially important means development which is a significant factor for development.26 Yet, there were some in the accomplishment of East Asian similarities in conditions and approaches, economies.28 The existence of elaborate the policies adopted by the countries were and efficient workforce planning systems inevitably different. and development plans noticeably emerged The similarities among East Asian in Korea, Singapore and Taiwan.29 countries were that, firstly, education is Finally, because all of the region’s viewed as “a prime national investment” countries have limited natural resources with of the countries.27 For Eastern Asian the exception of , they concentrate countries, education is considered as a on development of human resources. vital instrument of industrialization and Particularly, Singapore has both limited economic development. The principal natural and human resource, so every national priority has been economic individual has been converted into valuable

26 Tirak, Jandhyala B.G. Building Human Capital in East Asia: What Others Can Learn. The international bank for reconstruction and development/ World Bank, Washington, D.C. USA, 2002, p. 38. 27 Ibid, p. 39. 28 Park, E. Y. Management of Human Resources and Korean Industrialization: 1960-1990, 1994. See in Tirak, Jandhyala B.G. Building Human Capital in East Asia: What Others Can Learn. The international bank for reconstruction and development/ World Bank, Washington, D.C. USA, 2002, p. 39. 29 Kim, Y. B. Evaluation of Workforce Policies in the Republic of Korea, 1987. See in Tirak, Jandhyala B.G. Building Human Capital in East Asia: What Others Can Learn. The international bank for reconstruction and development/ World Bank, Washington, D.C. USA, 2002, p. 39.

14 The Contribution of Education to Economic Development in East Asia Khanittha Saleemad human capital.30 Tirak asserted that heavily on educated workforce. Educated “economic growth in the region, labor force produce at more efficient constrained by the availability of natural levels, therefore, their work produce resources, flourished through its strong higher rate of output as mentioned in the education system and high-quality statistic of the U.S during the 1930s and educated and skilled work force.”31 1960s. Besides, general investment has Some differences regarding to less effect on growth rates when there is the educational policies were that Japan, no support from education investment. Korea and Taiwan have followed Hence, investment in education can expansionist policies in higher education, contribute to the productivity and allowing rapid growth with public and economic growth. private investments; in contrast, China and Although, there is still a controversial Singapore have implemented respective question whether there is a single model policies. For example, Singapore followed for developing a successful educational a controlled admission policy in order to system among Asian countries or not. decrease possible mismatches between There is a variety of opinions on this supply and demand for graduate work- issue, some suggesting that the Japanese force. model is the leading and only form of educational systems that guaranty sophis- 4. Conclusion ticated educational achievement. Hence, From this article, some major there might be only a single model that points can be summarized. It is shown all Asian systems follow. Others see that clearly how education can be a strong there are common features between Asian factor in shaping the economic status of a educational systems; however, they also country. It has been explained thoroughly have various differences in policies and how this economic development rely implementing approaches. Despite these

30 Yeoh, O. C. Singapore: System of Education, 1994. See in Tirak, Jandhyala B.G. Building Human Capital in East Asia: What Others Can Learn. The international bank for reconstruction and development/ World Bank, Washington, D.C. USA, 2002, p. 39. 31 Tirak, Jandhyala B.G. Building Human Capital in East Asia: What Others Can Learn. The international bank for reconstruction and development/ World Bank, Washington, D.C. USA, 2002, p. 39.

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differences, the common features are still References superior to the differences as they all aim Amsden, A. (2006). Asia’s Next Giant. at the same target which is building a Oxford University Press. well-qualified human power and that is Ashton, D. (1999). Education and Training the overall and most important objective of for Development in Asia: the any educational system and consequently Political Economy of Skill achieving national development in all Formation in East Asian Newly other developmental aspects. Another Industrialized Economies. important common feature between most Florence, KY, USA: Routledge. Asian systems is that they place human Cummings, W. K. (1980). Education resource development at the core of plans and equality in Japan. Princeton: for national development. Besides, most Princeton University Press. Cummings, W. K. (1997). Human resource of these well-organized systems believe development: the J-model. Challenge in the necessity of a strong educational of eastern Asian Education, the content during primary education; in other Albany, NY, State University of words, primary schools are considered New York Press. the foundation for a sequential successful Denison, E. F. (1962). The Sources of education, with special attention to Economic Growth in the United sciences and mathematical subjects; States and the Alternatives Before that eventually contributes to economic Us. New York: Committee for development. Finally, there were the Economic Development. mechanisms for coordinating the supply Easterlin, R. (1985). “Why Isn’t the of skilled workforces so as to meet the Whole World Developed?” See demands of industry. George Psacharopoulos & Maureen Woodhall, Education for Development An Analysis of Investment Choices, Oxford University Press.

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Jamison, D. T., & Laurence J. L. (1982). Tirak, J. B.G. (2002). Building Human Farmer Education and Farm Capital in East Asia: What Others Efficiency. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Can Learn. The international bank Hopkins University Press. for reconstruction and development/ Marris, R. (1982). Economic Growth in World Bank, Washington, D.C. Cross Section. London: Birkbeck USA. College, Department of Economics. Wheeler, D. (1980). Human Resource Morris, P. (1996). Asia’s Four Little Development and Economic Tigers: A Comparison of the Role Growth in Developing Countries: of Education in Their Development. A Simultaneous Model. World Comparative Education, Vol. 32, Bank Staff Working Paper no.407. No. 1. Washington, D.C. Schultz, T. W. (1963). The Economic World Bank. (1993). The East Asian Value of Education. New York: Miracle:Economic Growth and Columbia University Press. Public Policy. New York Oxford University Press.

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