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What Is General Linguistics? Introduction ‘What is General Linguistics?’ The first full professor of General Linguistics at the University of Amsterdam, Anton Reichling (1898-1986), asked this question in 1947 in the title of his inaugural lecture. Reichling presented his audience with a bird’s-eye view of eight centuries of answers to his question, which he all re garded as wrong, mainly because of the attempt to find the ‘generality’ of general linguistics in the wrong place: either in aprioristic ideas on ‘general grammar’ (the earlier answers) or in reductionist appeals to non-linguistic principles (the later answers). And yet, according to Reichling, one man had already been on the right track, that of ‘autonomous generality’, years ago. This man was Georg von der Gabelentz (1840-1893), and his answer can be found in his book Die Sprachwissenschaft, Ihre Aufgaben, Methoden und bisherigen Ergebnisse, first published in 1891. Reichling quoted a long passage from this book, in which Gabelentz envisages a new pro gramme for language typology and which begins as follows:1 (i) Every language is a system, of which all parts organically relate to and cooperate with each other. One has to suppose that none of these parts may be lacking, or diff erent, without the whole being changed. Reichling concluded that Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), the founder of mod ern general linguistics, had an almost visionary predecessor. Reichling’s comments form a good starting point for the subject I want to explore, the rise of general linguistics, with a focus on Gabelentz. They are linked to the following facts and issues, all of which are relevant to this theme: This content downloaded from 193.194.76.5 on Sat, 22 May 2021 07:13:11 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Els Elffers a) A European university established its fi rst chair in General Linguistics as late as 1947. b) Nevertheless, early varieties of general linguistics existed at least eight centuries before that. c) Th e ‘generality’ of general linguistics has been conceived in very diff erent manners. d) Saussure is regarded as the founder of modern general linguistics. e) Gabelentz anticipated at least some of Saussure’s ideas. I begin by providing a brief elaboration of (a)- (d), which will involve a more precise demarcation of ‘general linguistics’ and an overview of the development of general linguistics thus defined. Then I turn to Gabelentz’s role in this process. Basic data on Gabelentz are presented in a separate section. The next two sec tions focus on Gabelentz’s modernity. The anticipation of Saussure mentioned in (e) above will be discussed, together with some other modern aspects of Gabe lentz’s work. The next section is entirely devoted to one very prominent aspect of Gabelentz’s modernity: his programme for language typology. In the last part of the article, I will put a different face on this programme. Despite its advanced aspects, Gabelentz’s work fell into oblivion rather early. Re ichling’s remark on its ‘visionary’ character does not stand entirely alone, but it is outweighed by opinions on its outdatedness and by a general neglect.2 I will argue that the main source of this neglect can, rather paradoxically, be found in the very element of Gabelentz’s general linguistics programme that reveals his most advanced ideas: the typology programme. The last section summarizes the conclusions reached throughout the paper. General Linguistics: What, when, where? Disregarding, in this article, the above-mentioned long and largely philosophi cal tradition of scholarly involvement in general aspects of language (actually from Antiquity onwards),3 I will focus on the nineteenth-century development of general linguistics as a more or less well-defined empirically- oriented field of study. A plausible demarcation of general linguistics in this sense is suggested by his tory itself. From the beginning of the nineteenth century onwards, a new and suc cessful linguistic Summarized by © lakhasly.com approach was developed and introduced at universities, at first in Germany: historical-comparative linguistics. One of the central aims of this approach was a general descriptive coverage of and comparison between languag es in their various stages of development, through a uniform and emphatically This content downloaded from 193.194.76.5 on Sat, 22 May 2021 07:13:11 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms The Rise of General Linguistics empirical-scientific method. In this context, the term ‘general linguistics’ (in Ger man Allgemeine Sprachkunde or Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft) was introduced, indicating the study of general aspects of languages, which was distinguished from the study of particular languages. The very first linguistics professor, Franz Bopp (1791-1867), was appointed in 1821 to teach the subjects of Orientalische Lit eratur und allgemeine Sprachkunde at the University of Berlin.4 During the last part of the nineteenth century, the area of linguistics became broader and more diversified. Besides the emphatically diachronic historical comparative approach, other, synchronic, approaches underwent new impulses. For example, significant innovations were made in methods for the classifica tion of languages. This development was closely related to another one: the enormous growth of empirical knowledge regarding large numbers of languag es. Apart from the Indo-European languages, which used to be the main object of historical- comparative research, there was a new focus on other language families. The work of Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835) was crucial for these innovations. New sub-disciplines were developed, such as phonetics, language psychology and dialectology. Also methodologically, there was a broadening and diversifica tion of approaches. The natural sciences were no longer the only model to follow; there was also a rapprochement with, for example, biology and psychology (all of course in their nineteenth- century shape). For general linguistics as a discipline, this diversification was of crucial im portance. It started as the science of the general principles of historical-com parative linguistics, firmly interwoven with historical-comparative linguistics itself. So the term ‘general linguistics’ was almost superfluous and was not often used. It was exceptional for a chair, as in Bopp’s case, to bear this name explic itly. Due to the growing diversity of language studies (which also implied a growing variation in specialization among linguists), general linguistics became a much more encyclopaedic and independent umbrella discipline. Techmer’s Internationale Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (1884-1891) was the first journal explicitly devoted to this area. Related to this increased promi nence, the importance of general linguistics as a separate subject in university curricula was growing. During the first decades of the twentieth century general linguistics became an obligatory part of language programmes at European universities, with the francophone world rather than Germany taking the lead, mainly due to Saus sure’s forceful and comprehensive conception of general linguistics explained in his Cours de linguistique générale (1916)5 . He defined a set of abstract basic con cepts for all language research (e.g. linguistique synchronique/linguistique diachro nique, langue/parole/langage) and promoted a view of languages as self-contained This content downloaded from 193.194.76.5 on Sat, 22 May 2021 07:13:11 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Els Elffers systems in which all parts relate to each other – exactly the idea of Gabelentz’s presented in quotation (i) above.6 This new programme enhanced the idea of general linguistics as an autono mous discipline. The institutional corollary was the rise of independent general linguistics departments and the establishment of full general linguistics Summarized by © lakhasly.com profes sorships at all language faculties, albeit in a sometimes slow and gradual process. In the Netherlands, for example, general linguistics was introduced as a subject for academic teaching only in 1921. Initially, courses in general linguistics were as signed as additional tasks to language professors of all categories. Special chairs in general linguistics, such as Reichling’s, were created at all Dutch faculties of letters during the 1940s and 1950s.7 An important milestone in this extended ‘making of a discipline’ process was the appearance of general linguistics textbooks. The first examples of this new category appeared at the end of the nineteenth century, mainly in Germany. They were written for university students and professional linguists. Gabelentz’s Die Sprachwissenschaft (1891, 19012 ) belongs to this first generation of textbooks,8 as do, for example, Paul’s Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte (1880) and Delbrück’s Einleitung in das Sprachstudium (1880).9 Gabelentz and ‘Die Sprachwissenschaft’ Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz was originally a sinologist and polyglot re searcher of many non-Indo-European languages. In this respect he was following in the footsteps of his father, Hans Conon von der Gabelentz (1807-1874), who, while pursuing a career as a professional politician, also investigated many exotic languages. Initially, Georg was also a dilettante linguist: he taught himself Dutch, Italian and Chinese during his gymnasium years. After studying law, administra tion and linguistics in Jena, he worked in the civil service of Saxony for fourteen years. During this period, he wrote a thesis at Dresden University on the transla tion of a Chinese philosophical text. From 1878 onwards, Gabelentz held professorships, first in Far Eastern Lan guages at the University of Leipzig, and from 1890 until his death (in 1893) in East Asiatic Languages and General Linguistics at the University of Berlin. From 1884 to 1889 he was co-editor of Techmer’s Internationale Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft. Die Sprachwissenschaft is the result of Gabelentz’s increasing involvement in general linguistics courses for students. Earlier, in 1881, Gabelentz had published his other magnum opus, Chinesische Grammatik (Grammar of Chinese).
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