January, 1987 Volume 4, No.3 Bridgewater TABLE OF CONTENTS Editor's Notebook Bridging the Generation Gap - Again .. .. 1 by Michael Kryzanek Letters to the Editor 2 Poetry by Ann duCille Review Pride 32 Security 32 Blossoming 32 Poetry by Harold Ridlon Betrayal 6 Editor: Michael J. Kryzanek, Political Science Essays Associate Editors: Barbara Apstein, English Mark Twain's Roughing It: William Levin, Sociology A Humorist's Darker Side ...... 7 Editorial Board: by Joseph Yokelson Stanley Antoniotti, Economics Conserving Nantucket 11 David Culver, History by Steve Sheppard Stanley Hamilton, Foreign Languages Fanaticism, Fear and Faith 16 Edward James, Philosophy by Milton L. Boyle Jr. Joyce Leung, Librarian Vahe Marganian, Chemistry Gallery 14 William Murphy, Educational Services Photos by Robert Ward Diane Peabody, Biology Cultural Commentary Philip Silvia, History The Peace Corps at Twenty-Five 21 Nancy Street, Speech Communication by Charles and Sandra Robinson Photography Editor: Robert Ward, Historical Commentary Media and Librarianship Vietnam and Revisionism...... 24 by David Culver Art Director: Joan Hausrath, Art Book Reviews Poetry Editor: Charles Fanning, English Americans In Paris 27 Design, Layout and Typography: by Annabelle M. Melville Barbara Condon, Office of Public Affairs Wickedness: A Philosophical Essay .... 28 by David Cheney Actual Minds, Possible Wodds ...... 29 by Stephen M. Levine The Last Word The Politics of Literature: What Makes a Masterwork? 31 by Charles Fanning Preview ...... Inside Back Cover

The Bridgewater Review is published three times a year by the faculty of Bridgewater State College. Opinions expressed herein are those ofthe authors and do not necessarily reflect the policies of Bridgewater Review or Bridgewater State College. Letters to the Editor should be sent to: Bridgewater Review, c/o Editor, Department of Political Science and Economics, Bridgewater State College, Bridgewater, MA 02324. Articles may be reprinted with written permission of the Editor.

Rhythms at Dusk, a hand dyed, handwoven wall hanging in wool (58# x 60#) by Joan Hausrath, Professor of Art. Editor's Notebook

Bridging The Generation Gap .- Again

Michael J. Kryzanek

fter twenty-one years spent in the personal ramifications of public the midwest, I came of age in actions, a blind acceptance of protest A Massachusetts during those leaders and a sad unwillingness to see dark but exhilarating days of Vietnam, the good that this country has to offer. Watergate and domestic unrest. Al­ Along with its high ideals and morals, though I was a graduate of that now my generation also acquired healthy famous high school class of 1965, I doses of cynicism, permissiveness and never really thought of myself back an eventual overarching concern for then as being part ofAmerica's revolu­ self. tionary generation. But after one year The 80's generation is criticized as in graduate school I found myselfcarry­ more interested in personal and career ing a sign which read "Free Huey growth than those of us who still Newton" and going to protest rallies to identify with the Tet offensive, the end the war. Mind you, I was no March on Washington and the protest flaming radical or card carrying mem­ songs of]oan Baez. To a member ofthe ber of the peace movement, but the 60's generation the twenty year olds of times and the public environment today seem ignorant of recent history, changed me, as it did many others who hopelessly immersed in popular cul­ lived through that era. ture and too busy making money to Looking back now to a time over turn their attention to the problems of twenty years ago when words like their community, their country and "relevance," "commitment," and their world. And yet I think that those "involvement" were heard on college of us who came out of the 60's should campuses with great frequency and not be too harsh on the current student forcefulness, I am drawn to a compari­ In many respects today's college stu­ population. Their materialistic savvy son with the young men and women dents face a similar lack of oppor­ gives them a much better under­ who sit in class before me and listen to tunities to reach out of themselves. standing of how to survive in this my lectures on politics. How does this Granted that world hunger, apartheid, difficult world; they are harder generation of college students match and the war in Central America have workers (although unfortunately up to my generation? Have the same stimulated Live-Aid, calls for divest­ muchoftheir energy is directed toward values and concerns that prompted my ment of stock portfolios by colleges non-academic pursuits); and they generation to get involved been passed and an occasional demonstration know how to enjoy life and are willing down? Was the generation of the 60's against the contras, but by and large the to laugh at themselves. Perhaps most unique in the way it responded to crisis problems ofthe 80's are far from home importantly, though, they are surpris­ in this country or do those of us who and have little direct bearing on the ingly confident about the future of are now in our 40's make too much of daily lives and futures of America's mankind and the planet. Compared to our social activism and political youth. With no serious national threat the "gloom and doomers" ofthe 60's, heroics? or crisis to force them out of their the generation of the 80's glows with Despite the seemingly endless array lethargy, the generation ofthe 80's has renewed confidence. of problems and controversies that appeared to concentrate its energies on If the social commitment and politi­ arose in that period, the 60's were also sex, money, sports, and MTV. cal awareness that were the hallmarks a time of endless opportunities -­ Although the students of the 60's ofthe 60's seem to be absent today, the opportunities for young people to chal­ will be remembered for their activism cause may be that fewer challenging lenge preconceived notions about the and social conscience, it is importantto opportunities exist. This generation world they live in; opportunities to recall that many of them paid little has not had the chance to realize that participate in a dynamic process of attention to political wrongdoing or what happens outside of their world social change; opportunities to face economic injustice. Campus strikes does affect them and that they have an danger or at least one's conscience. Not were often used as an excuse to cut obligation to try and do something every generation is given such oppor­ classes and avoid term papers, and about it. Yet it is critically important tunities to test themselves or to find demonstrations against the Vietnam that they, like their 60's predecessors, their place in the world. Those young war were supported not only because become aware of the evils of un­ men and women who became part of of moral outrage, but for more selfish checked power, the necessity of in­ the post-World War II college genera­ reasons such as the prospect of being suring that democracy remains a sys­ tion, for example, will be most remem­ shot. Yes, idealism, conscience and a tem of popular rule and the responsi­ bered not for their political voices or concern for others existed in 60's stu­ bility of good citizens to see to it that values, but rather for souped up cars, dents, but along with these virtues my the American dream becomes a reality phone booth stuffing, rock and roll generation also revealed a nasty sense for everyone. and panty raids. of intolerance, a failure to understand Letters to the Editor

he article by Professor Steven Sanders "Two Cheers for Pornography" elicited a number Tofletters from our readers. Some letters, such as that of Mr. Ted Darcy, questioned the appropriateness of publishing the Sanders article, while others, from faculty members, criticize the positions taken in the article. In order to further clarify this highly controversial issue of pornography and to offer a forum for diverse opinions on this subject, we have published the letters of Mr. Darcy, along with a response from Dr. Gerard Indelicato, the President of Bridgewater State College, and the views of two faculty members, Professors Betty Mandell and Edward James. At the conclusion of this section, Professor Sanders has been given an opportunity to respond. The Editors

Dear President Indelicato: Dear Mr. Darcy, do the impossible. Whether or not we As a parent of a student I was Your letter regarding the article by like pornography, censoring it would appalled by the enclosed article appear­ Professor Steven Sanders in the April, reduce the power of people to form ing in the April 1986, (Volume 4, No. 1986, issue of the Bridgewater Review their own judgments about it and 1) issue ofthe Bridgewater Review writ­ has just reached me. I want to thank would enhance the unrestrained power ten by Professor Steven Sanders. you for taking the time to write to me of the repressive state. It would also Copies are being sent to appropriate to share your concern. You obviously not reduce people's need for pornog­ personnel throughout the country and read the article carefully and reflected raphy. One should try to cure sickness, the media. thoughtfully upon its contents. not ban its symptoms. Professor Steven Sanders occupies a The Bridgewater Review is, as you Sanders gives the impression that the position as Professor of Philosophy know, a magazine edited by the faculty major proponents ofcensoring pornog­ with special focus on "critical think­ of the College. The articles which ap­ raphy are feminists, and that all femi­ ing" at Bridgewater State College. His pear in the magazine cover a wide range nists favor censorship. In fact, the recent article, "Two Cheers for Pornog­ of topics, and I am extremely proud of religious right is the most powerful raphy" does nothing to confirm him as the quality of the writing and the force fighting for censorship and its a philosopher competent in the presen­ continuing commitment of the editors members have brought about some tation ofreasoned certitudes. Nor does to provide diverse ideas for readers to serious set-backs to our constitutional it verify his competence as a critical consider. With regard to the publica­ right to freedom of speech in the past thinker. tion of this particular article, I believe few years. A significant portion of Pornography is an issue that calls for the president can take only one posi­ feminists oppose censoring pornogra­ clarity and common sense. It does not tion, and that is to support and encour­ phy, while they deplore the commodi­ need the meanderings ofacademic con­ age any forum where timely issues are fication ofsex, the violence, the stereo­ fusion manifested in his article. examined and debated. Whether I typing ofsex roles, and -- frequently-­ Considering here only the conclu­ agree or disagree with Professor the racism that pornography contains, sions of his confusion in the last Sanders' conclusions is irrelevant. and the fact that so many people need paragraph. What is critical is that I uphold the pornography in order to stimulate sex­ (a) He repeats the tired cliche of cen­ principles which permit the free ex­ ual desire. sorship as the demon lurking be­ change ofideas. The Bridgewater Review Now let us turn our attention to the hind all attempts to promote mini­ has proven to be a remarkably effective message ofpornography. Sanders does mal public decency in our society. A vehicle for this purpose. not deal with this very much, except to philosopher of accurate expression I am very appreciative that you, as recognize that some pornography in­ should know that in this context the parent of a Bridgewater student, cludes bestiality, the use and abuse of censorship is merely an epithet of contacted me to express your opinion. children, and violence against both the unthinking to condemn the ef­ I hope we will have an oportunity to men and women, but especially wom­ forts of citizens rightly outraged by meet in the coming academic year. en. Sanders does not defend those obscenity. What is really at stake is a kinds of pornography, but he implies public decency carefully defined Sincerely, that this is only a small part ofpornog­ and limited in the laws of American Gerard T. Indelicato raphy, and that most pornography is society. just good clean fun, or at least that it's (b) He finds "benefits" in the inunda­ not hurting anyone and that feminists tion of our society by commercial are wrong to make such a fuss about it. sleeze, simply because some people oIir ,-p ..- Having given us a benign definition of are entertained by it and find in it pornography as nudity and/or sexual personal erotic stimulation. This is activity designed to arouse and enter­ to elevate the gutter to the dignity of tain its audience, Sanders does not an honorable highway to personal analyze the pornography itself. Itseems freedom. Boos and Hisses for Pornography: a serious omission to avoid looking (c) He concludes that the fight against Three Cheers for. Erotica closely at what is actually being ped­ such degradation is "cavalier and To the Editor: dled to the public when one discusses indefensible." His position mocks Steven Sanders and I are miles apart pornography. Sanders considers por­ common sense and spurns the ad­ on how we view pornography, but we nography a "profoundly normative vancing evidence of pornographic do agree on one thing -- censorship is experience, causing us to consider what effects in promiscuity, perversion, dangerous to a free society. Censorship it means to be human." He goes on to rape, incest, child abuse, and more. puts unrestrained power in the hands talk enthusiastically about the buoy­ What is really indefensible is Pro- of civil servants. It is based on the ancy in the practices depicted in por­ fessor Sanders' defense of the vile delusion that the public is incapable of nography which stimulate the imagina­ pornographic industry. forming its own judgments about even tion and provoke moral and esthetic Ted Darcy the simplest things, while officials can consciousness, open up new erotic

2 possibilities, and challenge us "to re­ The soft porn magazines have re­ hand, is about arousal of pexual flect upon our ideas ofbeauty, normal­ moved most ofthe violence from their desire, pleasure, or love, by sen­ ity, and sexuality." Wow! Sounds like pages in response to the anti-porn suous or voluptuous depiction. Renoir painting, doesn't it? Yet a look campaign ofthe Attorney General, but The word is derived from eros, at soft porn magazines such as Playboy, their sales are going down (Playboy meaning sexual love. Penthouse, and Hustler yields monoto­ dropped from 7.2 million readers in Pornography defines what women nous regularity in naked women in 1972 to 3.4 million now), and sales are supposed to enjoy according to various poses (mostly reclining with and rentals of hard-core videos are what men want to do to women. What legs spread wide) and clothed men -­ increasing (from $220 million worth men want is not necessarily what wom­ women generally passive; men general­ of sales in 1983 to $450 million by en want. There is a current popular ly dominant. Women are shown as a August 1986). Hard-core porn has song that expresses sentiment which collection of orifices waiting to be more violence than soft-core. runs counter to the hard-driving domi­ penetrated. As Kaja Silverman says in Rape, bondage, mutilation, and nating practices that are the stock in her critical essay on the pornographic murder appear in pornographic trade of pornography novel Histoire d'O: films, literature, peep shows, and I want a man with slow hands. o is above all an exterior with even X-rated" video games. Of I want a man with an easy touch. various recesses or depressions twenty-six porn films viewed I want a man who will take his time; ... a body with organs (mouth, over a three-month period by Not come and go in a big rush. vagina, anus). These organs or Women Against Violence in Por­ (M. Clark & ]. Bettis, composers. orifices are not so much portals nography and Media in San Fran­ Pointer Sisters, Planet Records) into the world as entry-points cisco, twenty-one depicted rape As long as people need pornogra­ through which multiple penetra­ scenes, sixteen portrayed bond­ phy, it will be around. It will disappear tions occur. They have no lin­ age and torture, two contained only when the need for it disappears. guistic or generative function, child molestation, and two fea­ Therefore, the most important ques­ and movement in relation to tured the killing of women for tion is, "Why do people need it?" One them is always from without. sexual stimulation. could dismiss the question lightly by The stories in soft porn magazines Sanders mistakenly claims that there pointing to the billions of dollars that present a sexuality which follows a is no proof of a connection between producers are making from the com­ monotonously regular format between viewing violence and acting it out, modification of sex, but that is only cardboard characters with stereotyped evidently relying for his facts on the part ofthe answer. True, commerciali­ relationships and little inventiveness or 1970 Presidential Commission on Ob­ zation ofsex creates needs which would spontaneity. They are profoundly bor­ scenity and Pornography. In fact, in not otherwise exist. It makes people ing. It's laughable to think that these May' 1982 the National Institute of who are sexually insecure look in one male adolescent masturbatory fanta­ Mental Health issued a review of over direction rather than another for satis­ sies would challenge anyone to reflect 2,500 studies conducted in the last 10 faction, and those who are particularly upon beauty, normality, or sexuality, years that dealt with the relationship vulnerable to this are young men and except in the crudest manner, or cause between TV violence and aggressive­ teenagers who get their first introduc­ anyone to consider what it means to be violent behavior. The review commit­ tion to sex through pornography. In human. People are more easily con­ tee unanimously concluded that there that sense, pornography could be de­ trolled when they lose their spontane­ is "overwhelming" scientific evidence scribed as normative, in that it is used ity and independence and act like pre­ for a causal relationship between tele­ as a norm by men to instruct them in dictable robots. The mechanization vision violence and later aggressive sexual practices. Studies of sex of­ and depersonalization of pornography behavior. In relation to violent pornog­ fenders have shown that sexual prac­ contributes to the lack of spontaneity raphy, several studies have shown that tices and beliefs which are imprinted in which is so pervasive among people men act more violently toward women the unconscious at an early, impres­ today. Andre Gorz criticizes pornog­ after viewing violent pornography. sionable, age are harder to change in raphy because it keeps people from One of the most serious flaws in later life than are most other kinds of satisfying their needs in a spontaneous Sanders' argument, it seems to me, is beliefs. and independent way. In a society such his refusal to recognize a distinction Yet, whether or not the need is as ours which suffers so greatly from a between pornography and erotica. artifically created, the question still lack of love and genuine caring about While it is not possible to draw a remains -- why are people buying it? I each other, pornography contributes completely sharp and unambiguous think the answer to the question was further to treating people as objects. D. line between the two, there is, never­ suggested by Wilhelm Reich, who H. Lawrence says that pornography "is theless, a difference. Erotica is about pointed out the vastness of people's the attempt to insult sex, to do dirt on relationships ofequals; pornography is sexual misery. The majority of people it." Pornographic post cards, he said, about power, a power imbalance with are incapable ofachieving full orgasmic are "of an ugliness to make you cry. sexual overtones. pleasure through gentle, sensuous, The insult to the human body, the Interestingly, the word 'pornog­ prolonged, mutually responsive love insult to a vital human relationship! raphy' has a common derivation making. This leads to "orgasm anx­ Ugly and cheap they make the human with 'prostitute,' meaning 'fe­ iety" which propels people into nudity, ugly and degraded they make male captive' and is closely asso­ anxious, mechanistic, depersonalized the sexual act, trivial and cheap and ciated with monetary transac­ sex in which the man tries to prove his nasty." tions. 'Erotica,' on the other potency by conquering and piercing 3 Letters continued

the woman, and the woman is unable This is not a work that would appear a "piece" -- but that it calls for us to to establish her own rhythm or dis­ to aid the case against Playboy, not transcend such perspectives, and even cover what gives her pleasure because when it speaks ofthe "dehumanization more, shows us how. she has been so conditioned to pas­ ofthe model." But what I want to do is Now none of this is the case for a sivity and pleasing the man. The world compare this sort of "dehumaniza­ Playboy nude. In fact, it is precisely the is in deep sexual trouble, and pornog­ tion" with the kind ofdehumanization opposite. The entire point of a Playboy raphy is one symptom of the sickness. of the model we find in Playboy. nude is to allow us, and to encourage In Renoir's Study we clearly see the us, to stay within the framework of Betty Reid Mandell dominance of the male, for it is the male domination. The language that we Professor of Social Work male who is the artist, the one who use to interpret a Playboy nude is strict­ looks, and the model the female, the ly language of male domination and one who is looked at. And this study in female passivity. Thus we speak ofthe iIf. particular gets at that relation insofar as model as a "bunny," a "plaything," it, brilliantly, by means of various and we know that she will be replaced impressionist techniques which serve next month by a new "piece." Even the To the Editor: to departicularize the model, makes the seeming attempt of Playboy to human­ Steven Sanders' article, "Two Cheers model into any woman. "We," males, ize the model by interviewing her and for Pornography," Bridgewater Review are reminded ofhow we often look at a showing her as having ambitions and (vol. 4 [1986], pp. 13-16) deserves a female, as a piece of flesh, where her ideals and the like only conspires to good deal of credit for academic cour­ personality does not count -- only her contribute to the overriding idea that age as well as philosophic insight. But sensuality, only her figure, only her this sort of person too, the girl next the insight, alas, has been bought by the "looks." All this can be found, striking­ door or the successful woman, is one heavy price of philosophic myopia. ly, in Renoir's Study. And yet it is still a whoIs primarily there to be undressed, Specifically, he has failed to see the work of art, not a work of pornog­ or, if you will, laid bare. significance of social meaning in our raphy. But why? Hence, when Steven Sanders tells us culture. Let me explain. The answer is, that after the given of that a pornographic work "involves What I want to argue is that even the the dominance of the male as artist explicit representations of nudity so-called "soft porn" ofPlayboy and its over the female as model is observed, and/or sexual activity, and contains ilk are inherently violations ofwomen. then one carries language elsewhere. elements of fantasy and exaggeration" But how can pictures be inherently This dominance, while present, is not (p. 15), he is telling the truth while violations of women? Aren't pictures the last work, not the primary work. missing the point. For the point is how "neutral," depending upon the ob­ Rather, in the first place, there is a great our fantasy and exaggeration are di­ server? By itself, a picture simply is. It deal of emphasis placed on how the rected. And in the case of the Playboy does not come with a tag saying what it work was achieved. The artist's milieu, nude our fantasy and exaggeration are is. But nothing, including a picture, technique, and creativity all are of directed along exclusively one-dimen­ ever stands alone. This is what Steven fundamental concern. Being aware of sionallines -- those ofmale domination has failed to see: a picture comes with a them constitutes in large part how we and power. To remark on the occasion­ context ofdiscourse, a way oflinguisti­ relate to the work. And so we make al letter that Playboy may receive, cally responding to it. Thus, the concep­ such remarks as, "The composition commenting on the intelligence of the tual message ofa picture is the standard itselfis daring; the figure is slightly off­ model or the art ofthe photographer, is response of interpretation one might centre, ..." In the second place, we are thus to miss the point. For the point is expect of it. concerned with the figure as a moment that meaning cannot be divorced from Take, for instance, the standard in the Female Form, a moment in the the social milieu, and that the social interpretation an observer could be sense of another manifestation of an milieu in which such trash as Playboy expected to give of Renoir's study inexhaustible source of beauty and exists primarily serves to direct us to known as "Nude in the sunlight." We profundity. Hence, we do not stop respond to it in a way that cannot help might say of this something like the with comments on technique and the but be demeaning to women. Such following: like butgo on to what gives the analysis excremental presentations of women The composition itself is daring; oftechnique its justification, namely, a ask us to treat them as mere things the figure is slightly off-centre, further discussion ofhow this portray­ --kikes, wops, honkies, spics -- in and the background, which sug­ al succeeds or does not succeed as a short, pieces. Thus it is that violence, in gests violently lit plants, is in portrayal of the Female Form. Thus, the sense ofthe systematic, Le., concep­ places barely covered and com­ we make such remarks as, "The paint­ tual, degradation ofwomen, is part and pletely abstract ... The light dis­ ing is, however, full ofRenoir's charac­ parcel of the message. solves the blurred lines of the teristically joyous and spontaneoussen­ face and brings outthe dehuman­ suality." In sum, in looking at such a Edward James ization of the model, who is in a work, we expect, out of ourselves and Professor of Philosophy sense treated simply as an object. out ofothers, a whole range ofsensitive The painting is, however, full of and nuanced responses. What makes Renoir's characteristically joy­ Renoir's study a work of art, then, is ... ous and spontaneous sensuality. not that it lacks male domination, or is [Renoir (Arts Council of Great impossible to view strictly from a sexist Britain, 1985), p. 208] perspective -- as we regard the model as 4 Professor Sanders replies: might explain why one would think the almost all?) act more violently toward portrayal of women in Playboy is bad women after viewing violent pornogra­ Since its appearance in Bridgewater while their portrayal in Sports Illustrated phy." I assume that this is the best Review, my essay has sparked an un­ is not. But it is far from obvious that evidence Professor Mandell has, that if usual amount ofcomment and contro­ sex and nudity are bad. This is some­ she had stronger evidence against por­ versy. Because people so often associ­ thing about which reasonable people nography, she would have presented it. ate pornography with exploitation and have strikingly different attitudes, a This is important because her case filth, even a qualified defense ofit must fact curiously ignored in James' and against pornography goes wrong in just have appeared preposterous, if not Mandell's accounts. A similar point about every wayan argument can go perverse. I thank the editors for giving applies to the "conceptual message" of wrong. So it is unlikely that a case me this opportunity to reply to criti­ the Playboy nude whichJames professes based on weaker evidence would fare cisms. I am also grateful to President to decode. Reasonable people can dis­ any better. I shall point out five crucial Indelicato for his firm commitment to agree about the content of a Playboy flaws in her argument. First, the terms the principles of free inquiry and pictorial, some maintaining that it "violence" and "aggressive-violent" expression. conveys a message ofviolence or deper­ behavior are vague. They suggest a I wish Mr. Ted Darcy had not felt the sonalization, others that it expresses range ofbehavior from insults to physi­ need to denounce me so vehemently. and caters to conventional (and harm­ cal assault. But what we want to know Nevertheless, I'm grateful for the wider less) male fantasies of beauty and is whether TV violence leads people to distribution of my essay he speaks of romance. commit assaults, or whether, on the having undertaken ("Copies are being Empirical evidence for my claims other hand, the offending behavior is sent ..."). I cannot respond to his argu­ that pornography has benefits, that it something less alarming -- garden­ ments, as he gives none. However, his provokes the imagination and stimu­ variety rudeness, for example. In the letter reflects concerns which others lates us to reflect on our ideas of study as she cites it, this matter is not have expressed in less emotional terms, beauty, normality, and sexuality, is made clear. Second, the fact that some and I hope to deal with these concerns available to anyone for the price of a violence against women was found to in what follows. magazine or video cassette. But James have occurred after men viewed violent I welcome the criticisms of Edward and Mandell have blocked this route -­ pornography is not evidence that the James and Betty Mandell, although I James, by declaring that anyone who violence was caused by the pornogra­ remain unconvinced. In philosophy, cannot see that the entire point of a phy. To argue that since violent behav­ the charge that someone has "failed to Playboy nude is to direct our fantasy ior came after viewing pornography, it see" something or has "missed the along the lines ofmale domination and was caused by pornography is to com­ point" is almost always a disguised way power is suffering from "philosophic mit the fallacy of post hoc ergo propter of saying "He doesn't agree with me." myopia," Mandell, by similarly poison­ hoc. Third, violence against women is In the present case, Professors James ing the well in diagnosing the need for attributed to "violent" pornography in and Mandell are clear about the nature, pornography in terms of sickness and the study Mandell cites. Now, since the intent, and effects of pornography and sexual misery. Both appeal to linguistic only pornography I wish to defend is criticize me for my failure to see what intuitions or other self-evidence to the non-violent kind, my position is not they see so clearly. I can find little support these claims: both implicitly affected by the results of this study. (I justification in their letters for such deny that reasonable people can come know what you're thinking: all pornog­ clarity. Both express antipathy for to other conclusions about the content raphy is violent, right? But this isn't a pornography, even the "soft-core" vari­ of pornography. Those who disagree fact about pornography; it's a moral ety of the Playboy nude. But when it have simply "failed to see" what proposal to use the term in a narrow comes to actually describing the materi­ others, perhaps on a more exalted way, a proposal I criticized at length in als they find so offensive, one begins to moral plane, have descried (James), or my essay.) Fourth, Mandell writes that suspect a rather remote acquaintance. their views are "laughable," impossible "several" studies found that men act (This suspicion is reinforced when we to take seriously (Mandell). In short, it more violently after viewing violent ask on what grounds James speaks so is disappointing to read James' and pornography. But the majority of stud­ confidently of"The language we use to Mandell's foregone conclusion that ies of pornography make no such interpret a Playboy nude," as if there pornography cannot provide benefits finding. It would therefore be more were consensus on this matter.) Al­ and that the reasons people give for accurate to say that empirical research though they exaggerate, they both cor­ seeking it conceal their "true" motives has failed so far to substantiate claims rectly identify a tendency in pornogra­ or the "real" social context in which ofa causal connection between pornog­ phy to portray women along one­ pornography is consumed. raphy and violence. Fifth, the evidence dimensional lines. So what? If this is a What disturbs many people about that pornography causes violence is no bad thing, it needs to be explained why pornography is the belief that it causes stronger than the evidence that soap the one-dimensional treatment of violence. Professor Mandell operas, advertising, and rock lyrics women in Playboy is bad, while the one­ cites a study which found that there is cause violence. Pornography, then, is dimensional treatment of women in "overwhelming scientific evidence" no more to be condemned on this basis Sports Illustrated -- where a woman's for a causal relation between TV vio­ than these other things are. And if they tennis ability, for example, is empha­ lence and "aggressive-violent" behav­ cause violence, why single out pornog­ sized to the neglect ofher other talents ior. She also states that "in relation to raphy for condemnation? -- is not bad. Of course, if one thinks violent pornography, several studies Good taste and decorum (as well as that sex and nudity per se are bad, this have shown that men (many? most? the hot breath of the censor) prevent 5 Betrayal for Virginia Joki

This frail form, regal even in death, Has been betrayed by those she lived to save: the words, the words, the slipping, sliding words, have done her in. me from giving a detailed description Yet no surprise nor shock troubles her sleep, of good pornography. But judging for she has always known, but would not tell, from my own experience, such materi­ how unreliable the words could be: als need not confirm one in the belief evasive, self-deluding, double-edged, that "all women look alike," that -- to ready to rip you open, cut you up, quote Professor Mandell -- "women not with satiric thrust, sarcastic bite, are shown as a collection of orifices but rather with the razor slice of Time waiting to be penetrated." On the that strips us all. contrary, only someone who already believed that "all (nude) women look She would have been the very last to say alike" would find nothing but "monot­ "Never believe a word of what you hear!" onous regularity" in pornography. except to quell some gossip she deplored. Ironically, those who insist upon art or Her faith "erotica" may be unwittingly revealing was wide-eyed, innocent, rooted beyond belief their own ambivalence about the aes­ in the simple flower, the cast of light, thetic resources ofthe human body. In the glow of candle, soft and gentle sound any event, Mandell endorses the idea of music. Awed by all wonders: the Taj Mahal, that the need for pornography springs the tabby cat, the mountain's grandeur, and one autumn leaf from sexual dissatisfaction and misery. held reverently in her hand. Here she ignores the capacity ofpeople The rose blush deepened at her fond caress. to enjoy pornography and fulfilling sex Each sound she uttered stood without giving up either. Many people like a quiet benediction. She knew the weight can assimilate a variety of experiences of words as goldsmiths know their precious hoard. into their sexual repertoire, and cou­ But words were, after all, only the sounds ples have been known to rave about the we give to things, and things were her domain; sex they've had after viewing pornog­ naming them but a pastime. raphy together. People who want to She listened more and more, spoke less and less, enjoy pornography and consensual sex but what she said stood steady as the sun, are likely to be amused by the (sincere and as reliable. but misplaced) concern Mandell has She used the words to soothe, to seek, for their sexual fulfillment. yet scorned Finally, two matters ofmore general hypocrisy wherever it appeared. interest. Some readers were puzzled by Her words were both benevolence and bane, the title of my essay. It is of course an and no one ever failed to understand her. allusion to E.M. Forster's essay, "Two Cheers for Democracy." I agree with She stripped away the posture of disdain, one of my colleagues who said that a of demagoguery and guile and subterfuge; more accurate title would have been spoke out for those warmed by the sidewalk grates "Two Cheers for Some Pornography." of Harvard Square; wept for the weak, However, that title might have created the ill, the underfed, the impression that I meant to limit my but never for herself. defense to "soft-core" pornography. I Her love for people was too great for words. did not. 0, from your dearly loved but far too lofty I regret some ofmy criticisms ofAnn Andean peaks, look down and pity us, Garry, whose essay "Pornography and betrayed by words that will not speak our hearts. Respect for Women" is worth reading And teach the angels how the earth says, "Love." for the contributions it makes to our understanding of pornography. Garry Harold Ridlon has a delicious sense of humor, some­ thing sadly lacking in many writers on this topic. Shortly after completing my A highly respected and deeply loved English Professor essay, I met Garry in Los Angeles and I Emerita ofBridgewater State College, Virginia]oki died asked her if she had had further in October I986. An avid traveler, she had visited every thoughts on the subject. She grimaced place she wished to see except for the Andes. Harold in feigned discomfort and said, "I've Ridlon is a Professor and former Chairperson of the O.D.'d on pornography." I feel much Department of English at Bridgewater. the same way.

6 Mark Twain's Roughing It: A Humorist's Darker Side

Joseph YokeIson

oughing It was based rather ruary 1872 -- was for Twain one of gust, 1870, shortly after Twain signed roughly on a period of Twain's protracted crisis. the contract for Roughing It, Jarvis Rlife that began in 1861, when There was, first of all, a national Langdon died, and Olivia, worn down Twain went west with his brother crisis. The country was fully embarked by the nursing, collapsed and herself Orion: Orion had been appointed Sec­ on that profit-crazed and corruption­ needed constantcare. On top ofthis, in retary ofthe Nevada territory with the marked era that Twain was soon to September, Olivia's friend Emma Nye help of friend who had a friend in stigmatize in his first novel as "The came for a visit, contracted typhoid, Lincoln's new cabinet. Twain had just Gilded Age." Twain thought, like even and died in the couple's bed. More faded quietly out of the Confederate the optimistic Whitman, that democra­ than thirty years later, Twain was to army after suffering from boils and a cy was a failure. Second, there was a describe the days before Emma's death sprained ankle and never firing a shot. personal crisis. Just about the time as "among the blackest, the gloomiest, For a while out west, Twain prospected Twain began to think ofmaking a book the most wretched of my long life." for silver around Virginia City; then of his adventures in Nevada and Cali­ Nor was this the end. Shortly after for about two years he was a reporter fornia, he married Olivia Langdon, the Emma's death, Olivia had a near mis­ for the Virginia City Territorial Enter­ daughter of a wealthy coal-dealer in carriage and on November 7 she gave prise. In 1864 he drifted on to San Buffalo. This is not to say that marriage birth to a premature, sickly child who Francisco, where he was a reporter and is a crisis in a negative sense, but that it was not expected to survive but who a free-lance writer. In 1866 he was sent must have been for Twain is clear when held on, to die several months after the to the Hawaiian Islands by the Sacra­ we learn that Jarvis Langdon, his fa­ publication of Twain's book. Twain mento Union. The period covered by ther-in-law, offered the former steam­ wrote Orion: "I am sitting still with idle the book ends with his return to San boat-pilot, prospector, and journalist hands -- Livy is very sick and I do not Francisco, his first success as a lecturer, ten thousand dollars if he would stop believe the baby will live five days." and his boarding ship for the voyage drinking ale and smoking. Then fol­ Even when Twain started making good that was to take him to New York and lowed a series of disasters. Just when progress on his book the following his career as one of America's most Twain planned to get down to the spring, there were times when he famous writers. writing ofhis book, Jarvis Langdon was thought he was hearing "a popular The stretch between the inception found to have stomach cancer, and author's death rattle" [his own] -- a and the publishing of Roughing It -­ Twain and his frail wife personally feeling certainly added to by the sud­ from the beginning of 1870 to Feb- nursed him around-the-clock. In Au- den immense popularity of Bret Harte,

7 Mark Twain continued

a competitor in wrltmg about the It is time for examples. I would like been out-group victims of the estab~ West, who threatened to eclipse Twain to suggest that in spite ofthe narrator's lished religious society ofthe East. But by his sentimental depiction ofprospec~ exhilaration at the start of the book, the Mormons, now installed in Utah, tors and prostitutes. These personal pessimistic implications appear as early have in their turn, Twain finds, shown misfortunes provide an essential back~ as Twain's account of the career of a the same proneness to intolerance and ground for Roughing It, for although desperado named Slade, who has killed crude exertion of force in the name of the novel is generally read as the work twenty-six people and is talked about true religion demonstrated originally of a comic writer, it has a darkly everywhere. At one stage~station the by the establishment they fled. Once pessimistic side. narrator finds himself seated at the again the problem of the springs of It seems to me that Twain's con~ same table with Slade, who "gentleman­ human behavior presents itself to scious, clear intention in Roughing It ly~appearing, quiet, and affable," po~ Twain and he backs off. His sympathy was to debunk the values, including the litely presses the remaining coffee on for the out~group warring with his religious ones, of respectable ~~ read him. Hearing three years later that aversion, he resorts to potshots against eastern ~~ society and to explore the Slade begged for mercy at his excution, the Book of Mormon and Brigham values that arise in the choas offrontier the narrator indulges in perhaps the Young, making merry with the idea conditions. To realize his intention most complex and serious speculation that Young is being bankrupted by Twain creates a narrator who is looking in the book. Although Slade, a true having to give equal favors to all of his back at his initiation into the life ofthe desperado, was "a man of peerless wives. West. Much of the wonderful humor bravery," he would take "infamous Twain's prose is cliched and porten~ ofthe book comes from the successive advantage ofhis enemy" and at the end tous when he describes the mountains discomfitures of the initiate until he cried "under the gallows." Thus one he has come through on the way to wises up and learns to deal with his new could not say that "moral" courage Utah: they are "a convention of Na~ world. was the source of his bravery. ture's kings" or "Sultans ... turbaned Or at least that is the direction the Then, if moral courage is not the with tumbled volumes of cloud." But book should have gone in -- towards a requisite quality, what could it an alkali desert 100 miles west of Salt happy positive resolution. But while have been that this stout~hearted Lake evokes some ofhis finest descrip~ the narrator has become a successful Slade lacked? -- this bloody, des~ tive writing, oddly capped offby verbal lecturer in the last two chapters, his perate, kindly~mannered,urbane foolery: contact with the West and with charac~ gentleman, who never hesitated Imagine a vast, waveless ocean ters who live apart from the conven~ to warn his most ruffianly ene~ stricken dead and turned to tional culture ofthe East has provided mies that he would kill them ashes; imagine this solemn waste him with no code as an effective alter­ whenever or wherever he came tufted with ash~dusted sage~ native to that of eastern culture. There across them next! I think it is a bushes ... imagine team, driver, is much ~~ and it came as a surprise to conundrum worth investigation. coach, and passengers so deeply me as I read the book -- connected with Twain never does investigate -- per- coated with ashes that they are all the narrator's failure to find a code ~~ to haps because he cannot face the one colorless color.... The sun find, as it were, solid ground: haunting thought that if Slade is not moved by beats down with dead, blistering, episodes and images, some on the moral courage, which implies free selec­ relentless malignity; ... there is surface comic, which suggest that dur~ tion of right from wrong, he is a not the faintest breath of air ing Twain's stay in the West deeply mechanism operating according to stirring; ... there is not a living troubling symbols ofthe dark nature of some mechanical law. creature visible in any direction life were sown in his mind -- symbols Now the narrator reaches the Mor­ whither one searches the blank that were to reappear as expressions, mon country in Utah, and Twain is as level that stretches its monoto~ perhaps, of the ordeal he was going puzzled by the Mormons as he was by nous miles on every hand; there through while writing the book. W.O. Slade and possibly for the same reason. is not a sound ~~ not a sigh -~ not a Howells, who was to become Twain's The Mormons irritate and intrigue whisper. best literary friend but had known him him. In five chapters and two appen­ Arrived at the next station, the narra­ only for a short time when Roughing It dices he discusses their history, their tor is hard put to describe his reliefand appeared, had this insight into the control of Utah, their supposedly po­ the tiredness of the mules: book's symbolism: "All existence lygamous leader Brigham Young, and To try to give the reader an there [in the West] must have looked the Book ofMormon. The appendices idea of how thirsty they were, like an extravagant joke, the humor of -- strangely split ~~ recount both the would be to "gild refined gold or which was deepened by its nether-side persecution of the Mormons which paint the lily." of tragedy." Interestingly, many of finally drove them to the untenanted Somehow, now that it is there, Twain's gag~lines appear within or just West, and a massacre supposedly com~ the quotation does not seem to after some of the darker symbolic mitted by the Mormons against a fit -- but no matter, let it stay, passages, as if he were trying to reject wagon~train of "gentiles." Clearly anyhow. I think it is a graceful some deeply troubling knowledge. Twain sees the Mormons as having and attractive thing and therefore

8 ~A New Book by a Well Known Author.

have tried time and time again to MARK Tn' AIN. work it in where it would fit, but could not succeed ... it seems to IBOWDIO BOW' .. JtECORD me best to leave it in ... since this ... lORE. NONTal or VARIED will afford at least a temporary PLElBUIE TUP EIPEIlIEIICEB respite from the wear and tear of w,f! K.l:TOD&D TO or TilE trying to "lead up" to this really J. TEAM or ..("Tllon apt and beautiful quotation. IE"'E" r •••I, I:'" Twain is having his fun with the &XD TBB l'ARWnl P<"!ITJQSI learned prose of the estabishment, no CAt'SE! TDEaEFO.; or LIFE, ""1111.& E.~-nOt·TC doubt, but certainly the joking repre­ WITH .. aI:L.lTIO" or ...."'T FRO" TIUT sents a retreat -- a "respite" -- from the llOYD or A picture ofthe universe suggested by the IVlIOIOVI alkali desert -- a picture like Melville's &~n l!'ltyftUCTln:. nlll:~ ClnZIN. of"the heartless voids and immensities TO rR.\T or of the universe" that stab us "from CO~OCt:ctED WITH A )IILLlO~.l.InE behind with the thought of anni­ TR £ ED..:JC.l.TJO'; hilation." 0' AM BACK TO illS After the narrator reaches Carson I!lNOCi.II1:I:. OltIGISAI. ('OSDnIO~ City, some fifteen chapters deal with the "silver fever" that infects him and others. Everyone is in the "grip" -­ Hundreds of Characteristio Engravings rushing about staking claims, deceiving EXECl"T£11 BT 50:\lE' OF TilE himself or others about the richness of his "vein." Monomania or automatism BEST ARTISTS IN THE LAND seems to abound: a Swede is forever ADD INTEREST TO THE TEXT. singing the same song, a character '01: voLnu: "'ILL coslun o' named "Arkansaw" is always drunk and looking for a fight. Things con­ Nearly 800 Ootavo Pages. nected with or around the characters .&sD WILL R. ..U.U" TO oo,,"unc MOT O~LY IIUTTU or All " ..nlliG en,nAnn, at:'T f'O .& .. TALU.&8LI: .lSD CORIlSC'r III~OItT n .. .aM I~TE~!lF.LT 1!\o"Tla~Tll'O ":llIOD, are in equally crazy motion: the narra­ wlnr LWDlC1t.O't"1 DI'.ecaI"IO~~ or IW[~E11 ~!"Ir:a liroat. lralnE!'f ,[,Po tor is duped into buying a Mexican horse that bucks too outrageously to be ridden; a flood occurring in perfect­ Elisha Bliss's prepublication advertising circular ly clear weather isolates him, along N.... Vorl< Public Libluy with the Swede and Arkansaw, in a hotel whose outbuildings melt down exists in the waters except "a white When their canteen water turns brack­ "like sugar" in the rushing waters. feathery sort ofworm, one-halfan inch ish, they search the island for a spring At the end of the sequence the long, which looks like a bit of white but find only "picturesque" mocking narrator, pursuing an elusive character thread frayed out at the sides ... They jets ofstream, near one ofwhich stands named Whiteman, who is in turn hunt­ give to the water a sortofgrayish-white the island's only tree; all else is "soli­ ing for a fabulous lost gold mine, takes appearance." Thousands of flies come tude, ashes, and a heartbreaking si­ time out on the shores of Mono Lake, to feed on the worms washed up on lence." Then noticing that the wind has the "Dead Sea of California": shore. Twain continues in parody of risen, they go to secure their boat -­ Mono Lake lies on a lifeless, nineteenth-century pulpit language: which is fifty yards from the shore. treeless, hideous desert, eight Providence leaves nothing to go Since it would be fatal, according to thousand feet above the level of by chance. All things have their Twain, to try to swim to the mainland, the sea ... This solemn, silent, uses and their part and proper they are prisoners. Luckily the boat sailless sea ... is little graced with place in Nature's economy: the drifts by about a yard from Higbie, the picturesque. It is an unpre­ ducks eat the flies -- the flies eat who leaps into it; and the two fight tending expanse ofgrayish water the worms -- the Indians eat all their way to the mainland through the ... with two islands in its center, three -- the wildcats eat the Indi­ billows of the alkaline lake, the boat mere upheavals of rent and ans --the white folks eat the wild­ going over at the last minute. The scorched and blistered lava, cats -- and thus all things are "agony that alkali water inflicts on snowed over with gray banks and lovely. bruises, chafes, and blistered hands, is drifts ofpumice-stone and ashes. With his companion Higbie, Twain, unspeakable," Twain writes; but that is This lake, which Twain tells us has no as we can perhaps call him now, goes all they suffer. outlet, is so nearly pure lye that no life out to one of the islands in the lake. Mono Lake is the landscape of the 9 Mark Twain continued

alkali desert again, but in more men~ in one chapter gives several pages of covered" is not altogether accurate. acing form. The pessimistic implica~ statistics on the silver industry, then Probably when he went west, there was tions for the nature of the world seem almost casually talks about visiting one pessimism in his luggage, and more for once to be on the conscious level in ofthe mines. The descent is like "tum~ when he sailed from San Francisco to the parody passage. It would hardly bling down through an empty steeple"; the east to conquer the literary world. seem likely for such knowledge to the tunnels are supported by a "world It has been rather clearly shown that resubmerge, but that may be just what of skeleton timbering"; and when you pessimism is one ofthe secrets ofgreat it does. leave you are "dragged up to daylight humorists. They share perhaps a deep The instability of mankind rather feeling as if you are crawling through a sense ofthe irrationality, the absurdity,

than of nature is the concern of the coffin that has no end to it." The end of the u when you get down to it --tragedy second half of the book. Hucksterism, the chapter tells what it is like to be in a ofthe world. And the way they are able even if for a good cause, sweeps the mine after a cave~in, with "things crack~ to transcend this sense is to transform crowd along in one chapter; in another ing and giving way, and ... the world it into art, the performance of the we are told that the first twenty~six overhead ... slowly and silently sinking humorist. (Interestingly, Twain's book graves ofVirginia City are occupied by down upon you." The whole mining ends with his launching of himself on murdered men, that juries are made up enterprise is associated with these im~ his career as a lecturer.) Butthe humor~ of the feckless, that desperadoes re~ ages of loss of control, death, ist has to know tragedy, had to live with ceive more acclaim than community nothingness. it. Twain notes in the Lake Mono leaders. One chapter is given over to Soon after Twain leaves for the episode that in order to reach the boat showing how a murder breeds only Promised Land of California ~~ which Higbie was prepared to swim for a while further murders -- in short, irrational he finds "grave and somber," the for~ in the fatal alkali lake. Perhaps the feuds. One of the funniest episodes in ests monotonous. San Francisco, close remark of one of Twain's early re~ the book sums up the irrational atmo~ up, is full of "decaying, smoke~grimed viewers is appropriate: "The aggrieved sphere. A western character, Scotty wooden houses" and has a monoto~ way in which he gazes with tilted chin Briggs, comes to arrange with a clergy~ nous climate. In the Sacramento valley, over the convulsed faces of his audi~ man, fresh from the East, a funeral left a waste land by the gold rush fifteen ence, as much as to say, 'Why are you service for his companion Buck Fan~ years before, lurk old ghost~like min~ laughing?' is irresistible." Why are you shaw. He addresses the clergyman: ers. While in San Francisco, Twain laughing? I have saved the best com~ "Are you the duck that runs the gospel­ "enjoys" his first earthquake; and peo~ ment for the last. "The secret source of mill next door?" pIe streaming out of buildings are ex~ humor itself is not joy but sorrow. "Am I the -- pardon me, I believe I do posed in a double sense: many are There is no humor in heaven." That not understand?" naked, and many respectable people was said by Mark Twain. With another sigh and a half~sob, emerge from non~respectable places. *Most ofthe secondary material in this article is Scotty rejoined: Everyone experiences nausea. In the from Justin Kaplan's Mr. Clemens and Mark "Why you see we are in a bit oftrouble, following chapter Twain portrays him~ Twain. and the boys thought maybe you would self as living in the direst poverty and give us, if we'd tackle you -- that is, if "slinking" around the streets, haunted I've got the rights of it and you are the by a double who is "homeless and head clerk of the doxology works next friendless and forsaken." All of these door. " images, it seems to me, work together "I am the shepherd in charge of the to convey a sense of vertigo, of depres~ flock whose fold is next door." sian brought on by exposure of the "The which?" nether world. In effect, we are seeing "The spiritual adviser ofthe little com­ not only California, but Twain's inte~ pany of believers whose sanctuary ad­ rior landscape. joins these premises." If I have made the work of a great Scotty scratched his head, reflected humorist seem rather grim, I can only a moment, and then said: stress that I was surprised by Twain's "You ruther hold over me, pard. I negative rendition ofhis western adven~ reckon I can't call that hand. Ante and tures. Literary critics warn against the pass the buck." biographical fallacy -- against the illu~ And so on. The point here is not alone sian that there is a clear connection Joseph Yokelson is Professor of English at the stuffiness of the minister but that between life and literature, but Rough­ Bridgewater State College. He received his neither man is making sense to the ing It tempts me to the heretical Ph. D. from Brown University and wrote his dissertation on Hemingway. He teaches a other. Scotty is as roundabout in his thought that the disasters in Twain's seminar on Mark Twain. and finds both expression as the minister. life while he was composing the book writers interesting due to the complexity of Once again, as if trying to fight off are projected onto the western land~ their outlooks. the knowledge ofsenselessness, Twain scape, or discovered in it. But "dis~

10 Steve Sheppard

t's February in 'Sconset, the small village at the eastern end of Nan­ I tucket. Most of the "summer na­ tives," who six months before packed this community, are long gone. Now, the sounds of summer are replaced by those of the other season: the distant rumble ofsurf, the whistling no'theast wind beating the shingled cottages. If you want solitude, this is the time and the place. But listen. In the near dis­ tance another sound splits the quiet --the steady rhythm ofhammer hitting nail. The pristine qualities that make this island a distinct place, and somewhere "far away," both geographically and philosophically, also make it a refuge, an attractive haven and resort with less traffic (there isn't a single traffic light on the island), pollution and people than the mainland thirty miles away. Nantucket's popularity is beginning to catch up with her. The same things people come here to escape are quickly being introduced as more and more "off-islanders" discover the island. No longer just a summer place, Nantucket is now an active year-round communi­ ty, with a tourist season that stretches from late April until well past Colum­ bus Day. The most visible manifesta­ tion of Nantucket's increased popular­ ity is a building boom that is fast Photos by Robert Benchley III chewing up the island's open spaces

11 Nantucket continued

and threatening its rural character. into a Land Bank account and is han­ Despite Duce's lament, the effects A decade ago, only 100 houses a year dled by five elected commissioners. To on land prices from this tug of war were being built. Today, the annual date, the Land Bank has purchased 511 between conservation and develop­ figure approaches 300 and, despite acres, land that will be protected for ment are hard to gauge. "It's difficult to zoning controls, appears to be gaining future generations. say the degree to which conservation momentum. "The pace has certainly "The Land Bank concept is spread­ effects land prices," said Klein. "If become more rampant in the '80s," ing," notes Klein, the Land Bank's there were no conservation effort, we'd agrees William Klein, executive direc­ prime architect. "Land Banks have still have an incredible demand for tor of Nantucket's Planning and Eco­ been established on Martha's Vine­ land. We're still an island, that's our nomic Development Commission. yard, in Little Compton, Rhode Island real problem." "We're subdividing 500 lots a year and on Block Island." The problem is compounded by the consistently. Commercial develop­ By entering its own real estate mar­ number of people who have no diffi­ ment has also increased. There are ket, Nantucket can afford to buy un­ culty buying a piece of the rock. 200,000 square feet of shopping cen­ spoiled acreage, rather than rely on There's a common saying on Nan­ ters on the drawing boards right now." either a conservation organization or a tucket that if you have to ask how Klein came to the island in 1974, benefactor to keep lands forever wild. much something costs, you can't af­ shortly after town meeting voters estab­ As Klein points out, however, the Land ford it. Klein speaks of a scenario lished the Planning Commission, a Bank is not enough to save the island where one summer home is built on the response to the island's first condo­ from development. island. The house guests invited in just minium development in the west-end "The Land Bank is averaging one season all fall in love with the place village of Madaket. "People felt they $80,000 a week," he noted, "and when and, being upwardly mobile, build wanted something with more control you mention that to people they can't second homes of their own. Although than a Planning Board," Klein says. believe the figure. But when you con­ this outline may seem far-fetched, it in "Nantucket was always known to have sider that house lots on the water are fact describes the reality ofthe island's avoided suburban sprawl, but the is­ selling for a few million dollars, that real estate market. land's eighteenth and nineteenth cen­ figure becomes less impressive." The transportation factor must also tury settlement pattern was becoming The single greatest land conservator be considered. The Steamship Author­ compromised by a haphazard develop­ on Nantucket is the Conservation ity's three boats a day in the summer ment pattern. It was causing us to Foundation, a private organization are no longer the only way to travel become like everywhere else, and if established in 1963 that is dedicated to across Nantucket Sound; many prefer there's one thing Nantucketers hate preserving the island's most beautiful the quick, 15 minute trip by plane. The more than anything else, it's to be like and unique landscapes. The Conserva­ island's airport is the third busiest in everywhere else." tion Foundation now oversees 6,000 New England, year-round. "In the Since its inception, the Planning acres, or 20 percent of the island. '60s, it was kind ofa pain in the neck to Commission's work has included the These lands include a great chunk of get here," Klein notes. "Now, we're 40 drawing up of more stringent zoning Nantucket's moors, former sheep pas­ minutes from New York. It's some­ regulations (most of which pass at tures and undeveloped valleys on the times easier to get here from Man­ town meetings) and a growth plan for picturesque south shore. Because the hattan than to the Hamptons." the entire island. (One aspect of the Foundation owns these properties, it All this begs the question: Will growth plan is a push for subdivisions also imposes controls over them, lim­ Nantucket be developed until no house to be arranged in clusters, with lots of iting vehicle use in an effort to protect lots remain? The answer from Klein is a green space.) These measures are ways the fragile environment. resounding, "Yes." in which the town has worked within Nantucket's aggressive conservation We're right in the sights of being a established systems to have a say in movement, coupled with an even more major vacation development," he pre­ what can be built and where it can be aggressive housing market, has put dicts. "There are approximately 7,000 built; but Nantucket has also been in land at a premium, however. A half houses on the island now, and there's the vanguard in growth control. acre plot can run anywhere from room for 7,000 more. The dwelling The most notable invention is the $80,000 to nearly $400,000, depend­ units are going to double. It's hard for Land Bank, an agency established by ing upon the view. This economic somebody born and brought up in a island voters in 1984. As its name reality is squeezing out many natives rural community like Nantucket to implies, the Land Bank, the first such who had the misfortune to grow up imagine that it's going to happen." measure ofits kind in the country, was after land prices skyrocketed. Island historian Edouard Stackpole set up to buy desirable properties for "The only way I can ever live here is has lived on Nantucket a good part of conservation and recreational uses. Its to move into my parents' place," says his 81 years. He has seen the fields he funding, generated by Nantucket's Ron Duce, a 1981 Nantucket High once played in disappear, and has healthy real estate market, comes from School graduate. "Just to buy a two­ watched development grow far beyond a two percent tax on most property bedroom house here would probably the fringes ofthe downtown's cobbled transactions. This money is deposited cost me close to $300,000." streets. Like the depression spawned

12 The same things people come here to escape are quickly being introduced as more and more ttoff~islanders" discover the island. No longer just a summer place, Nantucket is now by the demise of Nantucket's whaling year~round "Because it's like what America used industry over 100 years ago, Stackpole an active to be, at least it is in January," says sees increased development as the new community, Klein. "Because there's enough con­ threat to the character of the island. with a tourist season sciousness to protect the harbor and Stackpole, who feels the lessons ofthe the land so you can still go scalloping past should guide present decisions, is that stretches from late April and clamming and fishing and have a distraught by what he terms "the nib­ until well past Columbus Day. reasonable belief that the food won't bling process" that he sees. be polluted," notes Benchley. "Be­ In an editorial written last year for cause ofconservation, you can still find the Nantucket Historical Association, an uninhabited beach in the off­ Stackpole decried the changing face of 1940s," he said. "I'm also lucky be­ season." the island. cause I have some of the skills that are The delicate balance between nature "During the summer season of needed to build a house." and man is, happily, working for the 1985," he wrote, "Nantucket has be­ When he first decided to build his time being on Nantucket. The busy come an overcrowded, bustling, un­ home, Benchley had no intention of summer season is offset by the solitude comfortable town ... Too many people; leaving his full-time job, and looked of winter. There is a time to recharge, too many automobiles and mopeds; Into the construction costs ofhaving a to dream up ways of protecting this too many motor vehicles invading the builder do the job. He quickly dis­ place. beaches and destroying many sanc­ covered why Nantucket is called "a "This is a good planning lab," Klein tuaries ... Does this represent a true rich man's paradise." says. "The eco-systems are pretty well prosperity?" "I saw the deals builders were giving designed, and because we're a town and Stackpole believes the island is now island people and it was no deal at all," a county the political set-up is con­ at a crossroads, and that efforts must he said, pointing out "the realities of ducive to planning growth. From the be made to keep Nantucket's historical $100 per square foot, minimum -- and outside, people say we're doing a great integrity intact. "Ifwe do become justa that doesn't include appliances." job. But when you're here seeing some tourist town," he says, "even the tour­ To justify taking a sabbatical, Bench­ things disappear before your eyes, it ists won't come here." At the root of ley figures he's "paying himself to do can get pretty depressing." the problem, he says, are the devel­ the job. But the hard economics of it Benchley takes a slightly more opti­ opers who are "only looking for the are I'm taking the pay cut ofleaving the mistic view: "It's just that there has to quick buck." job." be some common ground between the "When you get people who own the The hard economics ofisland life are people who are rushing down here and land, and who care so damn little about also what moved Benchley to build a why I insist on staying." the land, and rip it up with their permanent residence. Unlike most of bulldozers, tearing away vegetation southeastern Massachusetts, where a that took centuries to grow, it shows landlord will scratch his head if a they haven't got much interest in Nan­ prospective tenant asks if the apart­ tucket," he said. "The greed is so ment is 'year-round,' there are few evident it's terrible, because they're such luxuries as 12-month leases on turning their backs on something that Nantucket. Many residents, especially exists only once." those who comprise the young work­ Still, even with the rapid building ing force, have to move twice a year: rate, Nantucket remains a desirable once in the spring, when their winter place to live. For 7,600 year-round rental soars from $300 a month to residents, adapting is a way of life: to $300 a week, and again in the fall, when both the harsh winters and to the even the unheated cottage they rented with harsher demands of surviving in a 12 other people is closed for the win­ spiraling economic market. The best ter. "The moving thing, that's what way to overcome a limited island bud­ really cast it in iron," Benchley said, get, some have found, is to do it "the annoyance ofmoviT'g twice a year. yourself. Sometimes I had to move four times a Rob Benchley, a summer resident all year." Steve Sheppard was graduated from his life and a year-round resident for So why do people live here, and call Bridgewater with a BA in English in 1980. the past four years, figures he's saving this outpost home where electricity He is sports editor and assistant editor of $70,000 by building his own home. rates are among the highest in the The Inquirer and Mirror on Nantucket. He also worked as a reporter for The Benchley is luckier than most: he inher­ country, where a cheeseburger ap­ Patriot Ledger in Quincy. He and his wife ited a piece of land. "The thing that proaches $5, where a simple delight Karin (Ganga), BSC Class of 1979, are the saved my life was that I had a piece of like Chinese food has to be flown in recent parents of a son. land my grandfather bought in the from Hyannis? 13 Gallery'

East Berlin

Rhine cruise boat

Nuremberg, Bavaria

14 People of Germany

Photographs by Robert Ward

Kreuth, Bavaria

15 Fanaticis1ll., Fear and Faith

Milton L. Boyle, Jr.

Friday, September 5, 1986: BEIRUT BOMB KILLS 3 FRENCH SOLDIERS IN UN PEACE FORCE (Boston Globe) Saturday, September 6,1986: AT LEAST 18 DIE, 127 WOUNDED AFTER JET HIJACKED IN PAKISTAN; Four gunmen opened fire on passengers (Boston Globe) Sunday, September 7, 1986: 22 KILLED IN TERROR ATTACK IN [ISTANBUL] SYNAGOGUE; Two 'suicide gunmen' die (Boston Herald) Monday, September 8,1986: TURKISH LEADER LINKS LEBANON WITH SLAYINGS (Boston Globe) Tuesday, September 9, 1986: UN FORCES FACING INCREASING ATTACKS IN SOUTH LEBANON (Boston Globe) Wednesday, September 10, 1986: TEACHER FROM MALDEN SEIZED IN WEST BEIRUT; Caller says Islamic group responsible (Boston Globe) Thursday, September 11, 1986: ISRAELI JETS RAID LEB 'ARMS DEPOT' ...AS GUNMEN KIDNAP ANOTHER (Boston Herald)

16 Religion appears not only to congeal but to divide; he above headlines taken from it draws people they consider it insignificant, too diffi­ two Boston newspapers in one with a common faith cult to understand, or, as they seem to Trecent week demonstrate that regard religion in general these days, of nearly every day the newspapers chroni­ together, but also sharply, little common interest. The Boston cle new acts ofterrorism, and the world and often. militantly, Globe, for example, responding to a quakes. People change, postpone, or rising curiosity about middle eastern cancel their travel plans, embassies sets them against others religions, recently published a series of double their security forces, officials who hold a different faith articles on "Islamic Revival" (March hire bodyguards and curtail their pub­ 2-6, 1986) with some interesting ac­ lic appearances, workers in foreign or point of view. companying supportive material but countries come home, and affected with scant reference to Islamic ter­ governments impotently threaten ven­ rorism. It is also easy to find scientific geance. And the terrorist, alive or dead, considerations of terrorism, (see "The grimaces in victory. Technology ofTerrorism," in Discover, Scholars search their books and June, 1986), but a perusal of even minds to discover the roots of ter­ tion, including religious motivation. religious periodicals reveals little that rorism, but have as yet failed even to Many will disagree with the use of the deals specifically with religion and ter­ agree on a definition of the word. word "innocent" and would include rorism as joint .ventures in human Terrorist actions are too varied in the military among the victims, as I will enterprise. scope and common denominators are here. In the past year or so, the Christian elusive. Responsibility may lie with There is another rather common Century, a liberal periodical noted for nations, ethnic, military or religious denominator. Terrorist groups and ac­ its interest in religion and public af­ groups, or individuals, and the variety tivities are almost always connected in fairs, has published only a handful of ofsuch activities is limited only by the some way or other with a religious articles which deal even peripherally outer parameters of the human capac­ faith. In Northern Ireland, we find with terrorism: "Tithing for Terror­ ity for cruelty. Victims range from the Catholics and Protestants pitted ism?" (May 8, 1985); "Terrorism and soldiers at war, soldiers trying to keep against each other. In the Middle East, Television" (July 3-10,1985); "Hijack the peace, businessmen, tourists, chil­ it is the Jew and the Muslim, or the Aftermath and Prospects for Peace" dren and mere passers-by. Research Christian and the Muslim, or the Sunni (October 30, 1985); "1985 Religious reveals only that there is always a Muslim and the Shi'ite Muslim. In the Newsmaker: The Shi'ite Fundamental­ burning cause: a real or imagined injus­ East, it is Buddhism and Christianity, ist" (January 1-8, 1986); "Qaddafi as tice, lust for power or greed. There is Hindus and Sikhs, and frequently, late­ Villian Fulfills Media Needs" (January also a desire to act so outrageously that arriving Islam against the more estab­ 29, 1986); "Libya Raid Undermines the "enemy" will be terrorized into lished religions of the area. Religion Morality and Security" (April 30, acceeding to the perpetrator's demands appears not only to congeal but to 1986), and one other, about which I and the whole world will be forced to divide; it draws people with a common will comment shortly. Careful reading take notice. faith together, but also sharply, and of these articles reveals virtually noth­ Some of the difficulty in defining often militantly, sets them against ing about the religious roots ofterror­ terrorism is that your definition de­ others who hold a different faith or ism. One reads the more conservative pends upon the side to which you point of view. Religion almost univer­ journals in vain; it is for them as though belong. Our President has noted, "One sally proclaims the brotherhood of the terrorist has no religious roots. In man's terrorist is another man's free­ man, yet seems to justify crimes of a fact one learns virtually nothing at all dom fighter." Only your enemies are most heinous nature, and from that about the causes of terrorism from terrorists! Yet, not all agree with this background, to contribute signifi­ these publications. assessment. In a recent book, Ter­ cantly to the enormity and ugliness of There is one searching and thought­ rorism: How the West Can Win, Benja­ those crimes. ful article in the April 9, 1986 issue of min Netanyahu says such an attitude is The religious factor in terrorism, the Christian Century, written by playing into the hands ofthe terrorist. however, seems strangely ignored. Robert L. Phillips, director of the He advocates universal adoption ofthe While there is a plethora ofarticles on Program for War and Ethics at the definition formulated by the first con­ the hows and whys of terrorism, sur­ University ofConnecticut at Hartford. ference on terrorism sponsored by the prisingly little is written about its reli­ Entitled, "The Roots of Terrorism," Jonathan Natanyahu research founda­ gious aspects, including possible reli­ the article discusses the intellectual or tion in Jerusalem in 1979: "Terrorism gious roots. It is not difficult to under­ philosophical roots of terrorism is the deliberate and systematic mur­ stand why religious leaders themselves "which, ironically, are peculiarly West­ der, maiming and menacing of the are reluctant to publicize this apparent­ ern: popular sovereignty, self-determi­ innocent to inspire fear for political ly sordid and embarrassing side of nation and ethical consequentialism." ends." Note especially the word "politi­ religion, but journalists also largely Dr. Phillips explains that popular sover­ cal" which eliminates other motiva- pass it over. Perhaps that is because eignty is belief that all people in a

17 Fanaticism continued

Terrorism is not a new phenomenon, and we make nation comprise the state, are thus possessions are destroyed Uoshua 6: 15­ equally responsible for the acts of that a serious mistake 19, e.g.). After the destruction of the state, and are, therefore, legitimate ifwe treat it as such. Midianite army, its "sons and women" targets of its enemies, including, of were slaughtered, but its virgins were course, terrorists. The philosophy of It is probably as old taken by Israelite conquerors for them­ self-determination dictates that every as man'himself. selves (Numbers 31). The Judge, religious and ethnic group has a right to Gideon, "killed the men of Succoth its own state; ethical consequentialism with thorns and briars" Uudges 8: 13­ avers that "just war" may be fought to 16). And Sampson, in true terrorist insure that right. The author notes that fashion, kills himselfwith his Philistine there is religious support for this last enemies as, blinded, he pulls down the tenet: pillars of the temple and the building Friendship with God is closely collapses upon them Uudges 16:25-30). linked to walking the path of More outrageous acts of terrorism justice; it is understood that to are to be found in Exodus 1:22 where damage any basic human value is whether there are some common princi­ Pharaoh decrees the death by drowning to attack the very source ofvalue ples here which could be extended to ofall male Hebrew babies, in Matthew and being. What Plato under­ cover other religious traditions to 2: 16 where Herod orders the slaughter stood to be the consequence of which terorist activity may be linked. of innocent boys, two years old and injustice -- self-destruction -- the Terrorism is not a new phenome­ younger, in and around Bethlehem, Judeo-Christian tradition under­ non, and we make a serious mistake if and in Exodus 12:29-30, the Passover stands as the cutting off of one­ we treat it as such. It is probably as old event: self from the very source of be­ as man himself. Ancient religious litera­ At midnight the Lord struck ing. It follows that one may do ture chronicles the use of fear often down all the first born in Egypt, evil to accomplish ultimate good; against the innocent, to accomplish the from the firstborn of Pharaoh, the end justifies the means. ends ofthe religious fanatic. It may be who sat on the throne, to the Dr. Phillips' article barely touches difficult for the faithful to accept, but firstborn ofthe prisoner who was on the religious facets ofterrorism, and the Bible recounts numerous terrorist in the dungeon, and the firstborn while it is not always easy to tell where events, some of which are perpetrated of all the livestock as well. Pha­ philosophy ends and religion begins by its heroes, not only by its enemies. raoh and all his officials and all (or vice-versa), his emphasis is on the (One man's terrorist is another man's the Egyptians got up during the intellectual rather than the spiritual. freedom fighter!) The classical use of night, and there was loud wailing But the terrorist is not generally an terrorism is found among the Assyri­ in Egypt, for there was not a intellectual. He is a feeling, reacting ans whose cruelty was apparently un­ house without someone dead. human being totally committed to his matched in the ancient world. Cap­ In terror, Pharaoh releases the Israel­ cause. He burns with a ferocious desire tured enemies were impaled, drawn ites, and they begin their journey to accomplish his goals and is willing to and quartered, and beheaded in large through the Wilderness to the Prom­ use any means at his disposal, from a numbers. Shalmanezer III boasts of ised Land. plastic toy gun to the most sophisti­ burning young boys and girls alive and To the modern Israeli, who rails cated plastic bomb. He is willing, some­ thousands were hideously mutilated by against Arab terrorism, the Arab times eager, to die in the attempt. Such his order. The idea was to so terrify points out the terrorist activities of is more characteristic of religious man Assyria's enemies that they would Jewish "gangs" in the difficult years than intellectual man. The terrorist is a simply lay down their arms and submit before the partition of Palestine in fanatic, using fear as his major weapon, to the approaching army in the hope of 1947. Still, it is the Arab who predomi­ often justifying his actions by his faith. avoiding Assyrian wrath. So successful nates in the media as the perpetrator of In the following, the word terrorism were they that when the Assyrian capi­ current terrorism. To the major reli­ will include acts of extreme violence tal, Ninevah, fell the whole world re­ gion of the Arab, Islam, I would now against both the military and the "inno­ joiced. (See the Book of Nahum which turn in search for understanding. cent" non-military. A major aim of is written in celebration of the event.) The foundation of the religion of such activity is seen as the terrorizing of The Israelites, themselves, use fear Islam is the Qur'an. Dictated by Allah the enemy to force submission and to tactics to frighten their enemies into through the angel Gabriel to the Proph­ awaken the world at-large to the terror­ submission. In many battles, every et, Muhammad, Muslims believe it to ists' cause. Examples are taken from man, woman, and child is slaughtered be co-eternal with Allah, a precise copy Judeo-Christian and Islamic sources regardless of their guilt or innocence. of the heavenly original. The Qur'an and would surely apply to cases where The law of herem, a biblical law of plus the life and lore ofthe Prophet are terrorists are closely allied to one of proscription, is invoked on captured determinative ofMuslim activities, and these traditions. Further research cities so that their inhabitants are total­ thus provide justification for Islamic would be necessary to determine ly annihilated, and even livestock and terrorism. Islamic law is, by Judeo- 18 Christian standards, harsh and unre­ lenting toward the unbeliever. The medieval cry of"death to the infidel" is fully expressive ofthe belief that those who refuse to accept the teachings of Muhammad are better off dead than continuing in their unbelief. The Qur'an teaches that gentle persuasion, economic and social sanctions are all to The Qur'an, Sura ix, vv 20-22, innocent people should be kidnapped be tried on the unbeliever, butMuham­ promises: and held for ransom and that whole mad's actions indicate that when all Those who believe, and suffer nations should thus be held at bay. The else fails, the killing ofthe unbeliever is exile andstrive(Arabic"jihad")with effectiveness of these tactics cannot be fully warranted. might and main, in God's cause, denied, but their immorality seems Fight in the cause of God those With their goods and their per­ beyond human comprehension. Kid­ who fight you, But do not trans­ sons, have the highest rank in the napping in the West is usually punish­ gress limits; For God loveth not sight ofGod: They are the people able by death since it is regarded as the transgressors. And slay them who will achieve (salvation). equivalent ofthe very taking ofhuman wherever ye catch them, And The Lord doth give them glad life. In fact, the suffering caused loved then turn them out from where tidings ofa mercy from Himself, ones may be even more agonizing than they have Turned you out; for of his good pleasure, And of killing. In the Middle East hostages tumult and oppression are worse gardens for them, wherein are were taken forcibly, or sometimes giv­ than slaughter....; But if they delights that endure: en voluntarily to secure a pledge, to be fight you, slay them. Such is the They will dwell therein forever. redeemed when the pledge was paid. reward of those who suppress Verily in God's presence is a Muhammad often used this method of faith. reward, the greatest (of all). coercion against his enemies; hostages Sura ii, vv. 190, 191. The key to winning the favor ofGod were given and taken to assure that Thus, Muhammad's policy, and that and ofgaining eternal bliss near God in word would be kept, or they were followed by succeeding caliphs, was paradise is "jihad," striving. The faith­ traded off for favors or concessions. one of death and annihilation of the ful strive both for God (see quote A similar example from our own infidel enemy, but when the enemy above) and against God's enemies: traditions is found in Genesis 42 and converted to the Faith, they were no Therefore listen not to the unbe­ 43 in the story of Joseph. Joseph's longer fair prey. Quickly, as the Islamic lievers, but strive against them brothers are forced by famine to go to horde rolled onward through the Mid­ with the utmost Strenuousness... Egypt to buy grain. There they are met dle East, foes and potential foes Sura, xxv, V.52 by the brother whom they have sold adopted Islam and saved their lives. It is in this latter sense thatJihad has into slavery, though they do not know Part of the reason for the great and come to mean "holy war" although him, and he accuses them of spying. rapid spread ofthe Muslim empire was this is not its root meaning, and the When they deny the charges Joseph that they had to reach ever further into orthodox Muslim scholar generally re­ tells them that the only way they can the frontier to find legal prey -- the jects that meaning. Still, it is the cry and prove their innocence is for them to unbeliever. motivation of those who fight (strive) return home and bring their youngest In 627, an incident occurred which against overwhelming odds, with little brother, Benjamin, their father's favor­ struck terror in the hearts of Muham­ concern for death, against those whom ite, back with them. In the meantime, mad's enemies -- the massacre of the they perceive to be the enemies ofGod. they must leave brother Simeon with Jewish tribe of Qurayzah. Before this We have read of the hundreds of Joseph in Egypt as hostage, as security incident, Muhammad had been willing largely unarmed Iranian boys who have for their pledge. The desperate plight to exileJews from the land he had taken charged superior Iraqi forces and who of the brothers, and their honesty, is from them, and even willing to allow have died believing that the glories of demonstrated when they do, indeed, them some income from its produce, Muslim Paradise would at once be bring Benjamin with them to Egypt. but at Qurayzah the policy changed. theirs. This is the same religious spirit The hostage is redeemed. Then, and Since they would not convert to the of the terrorist who drives his truck only then, can reconciliation occur. Islamic faith, the maleJews (reportedly laden with explosives into an ambassa­ Thus, hostage-taking and redemp­ 600 ofthem) were beheaded in a single dorial compound to die with his vic­ tion was well understood by the people day; all the women and children were tims, or who willingly dies on a com­ of biblical times, though its meaning sold into slavery. Arab-Jewish enmity mandeered airplane held hostage with has been lost on the West: soJob outof has a long history. Perhaps the fear its passengers. his misery cries, "I know that my engendered among the unbelievers by The taking of hostages, a common Redeemer lives," (19:25) and the this event made future Islamic victories terrorist practice, has horrified the Psalmist prays, "Let the words of. my come more easily. West. It seems unconscionable that mouth and the meditation of my heart 19 Fanaticism continued

be acceptable in thy sight, 0 Lord, my Allah cannot be defeated. The most He is not only justified in this rock and my redeemer," (r9:r4). In massive military might ofman is impo­ action, his religion demands it, and fact, the whole theme ofChrist's sacri­ tent against the power of God. he rightly seeks the glorious heaven­ fice revolves around the same idea. I expect enough ofa foundation may ly rewards promised him. Man was held hostage by his own have been laid now so that we may Those who study terrorism must sinfulness, unable to free himself from draw some conclusions regarding the more thoroughly consider the role reli­ this bondage. God himself must pay relationship of terrorism to religious gion plays in terrorist activity. To the price of redemption, nothing less faith. Accordingly, I should like to concentrate on political motives, as than his first-born son. So the Chris­ make these observations: Benjamin Natanyahu's definition cited tian sings, 1. The terrorist does not usually take above would require, is quite inade­ Up Calvary's mountain one his root cause in his faith. He is not quate. Thesame can be said ofeconom­ dreadful morn, primarily seeking to convert the ic, scientific or psychological studies. Walked Christ my Saviour unbeliever, but to coerce the enemy All of them must be included, but so weary and worn; to meet his demands, be they for must religion. This may be the most Facing for sinners death on the territory or for the release of pris­ difficult study ofall, for religion encom­ cross, oners or hostages, or for money, or passes all the others and is inextricably That he might save them from in a few cases for love. The terrorist interwoven among them. Yet, if the endless loss. is a fanatic about at least this one world is ever to sigh its relief at the Blessed Redeemer! Precious issue. For him any action that makes demise ofterrorism, it must first under­ Redeemer! the world notice him and his need is stand its religious roots. Seems now I see Him on justified, and if it takes a crime of Calvary's tree; inhuman proportions to gain his Wounded and bleeding, for end, so be it. sinners pleading, 2. There can be no doubt that religion Blind and unheeding, dying for can be and is used to justify terrorist me! activity. It is difficult, perhaps im­ A group of terrorists calling them­ possible, for us to know the mind of selves "Islamic Jihad" have captured the terrorist to determine whether and are holding, at this writing, several he really believes his faith's teach­ American citizens. In their name they ings and truly acts in the name ofhis declare themselves religiously ori­ god, or whether he uses the names ented, and justify their actions as appro­ and trappings of his faith to gain priate to holy war, just as their founder favor with and support from his justified his actions. In the cause of peers, or perhaps for both reasons. God, there are no rules, for God, as the Did Islamic Jihad choose that name author of law, is beyond the law and because its members are true be­ those who act in his name are exoner­ lievers in Allah and faithful fol­ ated from criminal charges. They lowers of the Prophet? Or did they would simply point to Muhammad's take that name because they seek the attack on Meccan caravans during sa­ support of the Muslims amongst cred months when caravans travelled whom they live? Their motives, if without military guards. It was unthink­ solely political, would appear to able that anyone should attack them on derive more from the latter than the holy days, but Muhammad in God's former! service was not bound by the law. So 3. Religion and social practices are the Ayatollah Khomeini was unbound mutually dependent, and we cannot by the law when he held American always tell whether religion hallows hostages for 444 days. And the righ­ traditional social activity or gives Milton L. Boyle, Jr., is Professor ofPhiloso­ teousness ofhis actions was proven by rise to that activity. Hostage-taking, phy and Religious Studies. He holds the their success. How could a tiny and for instance, was practiced long be­ A.B. Degree from Harvard College with a weak nation hold the strongest nation fore the advent of Muhammad, but major in Biology, the Master of Divinity on earth at bay for more than a year Muhammad sanctified it when he Degree from Andover Newton Theology School with majors in Old Testament and unless their actions be blessed by their took his first hostage -- a holy man Historical Theology, and the Ph.D. in Old God? The Ayatollah gained enormous can only perform a holy deed. Thus, Testament Studies at Boston University. strength and prestige throughout the we cannot say that religion causes a His interests in religion and The Bible have Islamic world because he proved once particular type of activity, but in been served by travel and archaeological again, as the Arabs had in the 7th and later times it makes little difference work in the Middle East. 8th centuries, that those on the side of to the faithful one which came first. 20 Cultural Commentary , THE PEACE CORPS AT TWENTY-FIVE

Charles and Sandra Robinson

"You must have artists to have art, you must have philosophers to have philosophy, you must have peacemakers to have peace. Peace Corps is the first secular peace force in the world since Christ." Ubadoro Arriaga Minister of the Presidency, Honduras

( (Remember that the money One of the island's most serious prob­ spent to train and support lems was that students who finished you as a Peace Corps volun­ secondary school had to leave the teer could purchase a tractor for your island to attend university or find host country." These words were part appropriate jobs. Many of them never ofthe conscience ofmany Peace Corps returned, choosing to remain in the volunteers. Was the person-to-person United Kingdom, Canada, or the aid that Peace Corps offered worth as United States. As a result ofthis "brain much to a developing nation as a drain," most of the island's teachers tractor, or grain, or arms? Has the were not qualified. Teachers were of­ Peace Corps in its twenty-five years of ten those who completed eighth grade existence fulfilled its three founding but could not qualify for secondary goals: to provide skilled manpower for school. The Peace Corps' main role Third World countries, to enable these was to aid the government by pro­ countries to learn more about Ameri­ and Connecticut, ready to serve and viding American teachers who could cans, and to increase American under­ see the world. Sandy was strongly also assist in the training of St. Lucian standing ofThird World peoples? Has motivated by a sense of Christian ser­ teachers. Sandy became a model teach­ the Peace Corps made a difference? vice; while Charles (Robi) was more er in the early childhood program The Peace Corps was born on March politically aware and an ardent sup­ while Robi was assigned to a team that 1, 1961, when President John F. porter ofJohn Kennedy. We both had taught demonstration lessons in the Kennedy signed Executive Order a desire to prove what we "could do for mornings and then taught the teachers 10924. Only five months before, in an our country." Our adventure began after school so that they could pass impromptu campaign speech to ten with Peace Corps training in Phila­ high school equivalency exams. Iron­ thousand University of Michigan stu­ delphia. Sandy's parents were uneasy ically, once the exams were passed, dents, presidential candidate Kennedy about her spending the summer there many left teaching for higher paying had shared his vision for a force of since there had been turbulent race jobs in the tourist industry. Twice a Americans to go into nations to work riots the previous year. Undaunted, week Robi's team would visit Sandy's and live as "ambassadors of peace." however, she accepted the challenge. village and soon our friendship turned The response to his call for service was There were, after all, policemen armed into romance. Toward the end of our overwhelming. In less than two weeks with sub-machine guns on every other first year when we entered the Minister eight hundred students had signed peti­ corner, and a carefully organized es­ of Education's office together, he tions committing themselves to the cape plan for all Peace Corps trainees. jokingly asked if we were there to ask service ofpeace throughout the world. More than one hundred trainees his permission to get married. We told The Peace Corps idea continued to prepared for service in the Eastern him that we were. spread quickly throughout the coun­ Caribbean by living, teaching, and be­ That hurdle cleared, we approached try. In March, 1961, students from coming involved in community service our Peace Corps area director for per­ more than four hundred universities in Philadelphia that summer. When we mission to marry. We were warned attended a national conference to dem­ left to continue training in Barbados in that Peace Corps marriages did not onstrate their commitment to the August, there were less than seventy. have a very good chance for success, Peace Corps. In the months that fol­ The others had dropped out or were with nearly half ending in divorce. lowed President Kennedy was deluged "de-selected," the Peace Corps euphe­ However, if we wished to proceed, she with offers from tens of thousands of mism for "we're not sure you can make continued, we could each do so with young people who wanted to serve. it in thefield." Training was physically, the knowledge that the government Even before Congress had autho­ emotionally, and intellectually stimu­ had already thoroughly investigated rized funds for the Peace Corps, more lating and a strong camaraderie devel­ each of us politically, intellectually, than four hundred volunteers were at oped among the trainees. The intensity psychologically, and physically -- and work in Ghana. In the twenty-five of the training and the shared experi­ that we had "passed." Few fiances had years since then, more than 120,000 ence of the ensuing two years caused such assurances. Americans have served. They have relationships to form which continue Our marriage was celebrated in the been motivated by desires as diverse as today, nineteen years later. We, like presence of both our families, many service, adventure, travel, a chance to many other volunteers, feel that our fellow volunteers, and nearly all ofthe grow up, simple curiosity about other most meaningful reunions have been population ofour two villages. During cultures, avoiding military service, and with fellow Peace Corps volunteers our second year we organized and an opportunity to work for world rather than with high school or college began an adult education program in peace. acquaintances. our village which we considered to be Personal Reflections We were part of a group assigned to our most important local contribution. We entered the Peace Corps sepa­ teach in St. Lucia, a small, impover­ The local priest, however, felt that our rately in 1967, strangers from Texas ished island in the Eastern Caribbean. wedding was even more important be- 21 Cultural Commentary continued

cause it served as an example in a instantly and enthusiastically to the culture where most people do not idea ofthe Peace Corps, the first Direc­ consider marriage until after a few tor, Sargent Shriver, had to "sell" the children are born. Peace Corps to Third World countries. Looking back at our Peace Corps India, Ghana, Nigeria, and Burma were experience, we realize that it has had a the first to agree to accept volunteers. significant impact on our lives. We Other countries quickly followed; in realized that our ideas and assistance the past twenty-five years more than were valued, that people throughout ninety nations have welcomed the the world shared common hopes, and Peace Corps. that we as individuals could make a nine with more than ten percent over Not all developing nations, however, difference by our personal commit­ fifty, and minorities making up more have welcomed the Peace Corps. Some ment to service. The knowledge and than eight percent. The Peace Corps is have viewed it as an extension of experience that we gained in school and also trying to focus on more coordi­ American imperialism and volunteers work, and the love and guidance that nated long term projects such as help­ as spies and/or c.l.A. agents. In 1965, we received from our families certainly ing with food production in Africa. after only one year ofservice, all forty­ contributed to the values we hold The impact of the Peace Corps ex­ five Peace Corps volunteers were ex­ today. It was the Peace Corps, how­ perience has been felt not only over­ pelled from Indonesia. Violence had ever, that provided us with the oppor­ seas, but also at home. During the led to fears for the volunteers' safety. tunity to put our values and ideals into Peace Corps Twenty-Fifth Anniver­ Alex Shakow who was Peace Corps practice; it was, perhaps, our rite of sary National Conference in Septem­ Director at the time in Indonesia felt passage. ber, 1986, returned volunteers learned that while President Sukarno had pri­ Socia-Economic Impact ofthe Peace Corps of their former colleagues' involve­ vately expressed his admiration for the Peace Corps volunteers have learned ment in service efforts in their choice work of the volunteers, his public first hand of the material poverty and of jobs, and in their work in com­ opposition to many American policies spiritual wealth of poor, rural people munity, religious, and political organi­ put the Peace Corps in the middle ofan throughout the world. Today, in a zations. Two have been elected to the ugly political situation. single month, more than one million Senate, five to the House, three are In the early 1960s, Peace Corps people's lives are directly affected by university presidents, and twenty-one teachers were helping many newly inde­ nearly six thousand volunteers at work former volunteers are vice presidents pendent African nations provide educa­ in over sixty countries. Peace Corps of banks working in international fi­ tional opportunities for their people. volunteers are treating malnourished nance and development. Many Africans were suspicious; they children in Honduras, bringing water Today over five hundred former wondered why these mostly white for­ to deserts in Niger, assisting with pub­ Peace Corps volunteers are working eigners tried to speak their languages lic health projects in Tonga, helping for A.l.D. (15% of all A.l.D. per­ and live with them in the bush. They Filipino fishermen improve their sonnel) where they help use American seemed too sincere, too naive to be catches, helping to prepare teachers in expertise and funds in development spies. Gradually volunteers were ac­ St. Lucia, and working on scores of projects throughout the world. More cepted for the service they were willing other self-help projects in the devel­ than one thousand have worked for the to offer. President Julius Nyerere of oping nations of the world. Foreign Service. Hundreds of other Tanzania held Peace Corps teachers in Volunteers work on projects that are former volunteers are involved with high esteem. He told the local press, determined by local communities, such diverse groups as CARE, Inc., "They come to Tanzania and ifyou tell using affordable technology that pro­ Catholic Relief, Ploughshares (an inter­ them to go anywhere, they go ... The tects the ecology and the values and national peace project), Ending Hun­ volunteers have a spirit that I would traditions ofthe area. By living among ger, and Lasting Links (a clearinghouse like to see more of in Tanzania's the people with whom they work and matching volunteers with service proj­ teachers.', helping them do things for themselves, ects). Eye Care, Inc., for example, was Aid from the United States, how­ Peace Corps supplements local efforts founded by a former Peace Corps ever, did not fit into Nyerere's goal of which can then be continued after the volunteer, and has built and staffed self-reliance for Tanzania. This goal volunteers leave. seven eye clinics in Haiti that have coupled with rising anti-American sen­ In an attempt to provide skilled served over 60,000 needy patients a timent due to opposition to the Viet­ manpower to Third World countries, year. The organization is committed to nam War led to the phasing out ofthe today's Peace Corps has actively re­ turning its entire administration over Peace Corps in Tanzania in 1969. cruited a more diverse population. to Eye Care Haiti within a decade, thus When volunteers were invited back to Volunteers now include small business­ fulfilling the Peace Corps ideal ofhelp­ Tanzania in 1979, at Nyerere's request, men, farmers, urban planners and com­ ing people to help themselves. they maintained a much lower profile puter experts. The average age has Political Impact of the Peace Corps and shifted from programs with an climbed from twenty-three to twenty- Even though Americans responded overwhelming emphasis on education 22 Peace Corps Reunion 1986

Memories, we shared as we met. Thoughts about days worked in barrios and favelas and to those which involved more com­ Nights lonely with hope. While Congress is now spending munity development projects such as Volunteers bonded with an idea hundreds of millions of dollars to health care and food production. That Peace is possible. fortify and arm embassies throughout Despite recurring political problems Memories, we shared as we met. the world, Peace Corps volunteers live connected to the service role, the Peace without fear in sixty developing na­ Corps continues to meet its second W.]. Murphy tions. "Why is it," as Sargent Shriver goal -- to enable Third World coun­ suggests, "that volunteers need not be tries to learn more about Americans. afraid of terrorists? Why is it that Americans have too often been volunteers have become the wanted thought of as rich, overbearing, un­ not the ugly Americans? The answer is caring. As volunteers in St. Lucia we selfless service." were continually embarrassed by the The Peace Corps and the Future Both overseas and at home, the American tourists who disembarked Reflecting on the Peace Corps at Peace Corps often transcends political from the cruise ships for several hours twenty-five, it is difficult to objectively differences. President Reagan, on the each week and headed directly to the determine how effective the Peace occasion of the Peace Corps' twenty­ duty-free shops. Their arrogance and Corps has been in meeting its goals. fifth anniversary stated, "In a troubled insensitivity were appalling. Is it any How does one evaluate the long-term world, the Peace Corps is waging peace. wonder that they were referred to as impact of the re-training of thousands Every day in Africa, Asia, and Latin "ugly Americans"? of teachers, or the immunization of America, they answer the cries ofhun­ Peace Corps volunteers have pre­ thousands of children? How can we ger, disease, poverty, and illiteracy by sented an entirely different image of measure the effect that the Peace Corps showing America at its best ... This is Americans. From the beginning they has had on the lives of more than the American way." have lived simply with the local people, 100,000 returned volunteers? What should be the role ofthe Peace eaten their food, spoken their lan­ The fact that the Peace Corps has Corps in the future? At a time when guage. Their willingness to live modest­ survived two and a half decades of war there is more poverty and disease in the ly with the people has earned for and politics is, perhaps, evidence ofits world than at anyother time in history, volunteers the respect, trust, and effectiveness. The number of volun­ and while the specter ofnuclear annihi­ friendship of those with whom they teers in the field has varied from a high lation constantly haunts us, the Peace share their lives. As Ambassador ofthe of nearly sixteen thousand in 1966 to Corps must fight for its existence every Organization of African Unity to the only four thousand in the early 1970s. year to get appropriations from Con­ United Nations Oumarou Garba Yous­ During the Nixon years the Peace gress. What kind of priorities as a soufou has stated, the Peace Corps is Corps was submerged within nation do we have when the budget for "one of the greatest contributions of ACTION, an umbrella agency for all the Army Band is nearly as high as that American foreign policy." He con­ American volunteers. At that time, of the Peace Corps? We believe that siders Peace Corps volunteers the best according to Sargent Shriver, "The America can show the world a commit­ ambassadors that America has and the Peace Corps no longer had an identity. ment to the cause of world peace by reason that America today has more It had no stationery, no director, no maintaining a viable Peace Corps. The friends than enemies in Africa. publicity. It wasn't even in the phone Peace Corps has demonstrated over a The third goal ofthe Peace Corps, to book. The Peace Corps continued to period oftwenty-five years that individ­ increase America's understanding of do, however, the work it had set out to uals can make a difference. The Peace Third World peoples, may ultimately do." Corps is proof that a foreign policy prove to have the greatest impact. Today the Peace Corps has re­ dedicated to serving, not colonizing or Returned volun.teers speak repeatedly bounded. Loret Ruppe, appointed Di­ conquering, can be effective in pro­ of their Peace Corps experience as rector by President Reagan in 1981, moting world peace and understand­ having "changed their lives." Volun­ has proved to be one of the organiza­ ing. It is our hope that the Peace Corps teers have learned first hand ofcultures tion's strongest supporters since can continue to be a beacon of hope and ways of life vastly different from Shriver. Under her leadership the leading Americans to the realization thier own. A volunteer living in India Peace Corps has moved out of that we are not only citizens of Amer­ observed, "People die here for want of ACTION and is once again indepen­ ica, but citizens of the world. so little." How many Americans have dent. Last year, 100,000 Americans had the painful privilege of learning requested information from the Peace Corps and 3,400 were recruited. In that lesson? Volunteers have realized Sandra Robinson is Co-Director ofthe Reading that individuals can make a difference, early 1986 Congress passed a bill al­ Center at Bridgewater-Raynham Regional High that we need not sit by impotently lowing the agency to grow from its School. Charles Robinson is an Assistant while others suffer. Volunteers have present 6,000 to 10,000 by 1990. The Professor of Education at Bridgewater State also come to appreciate the complex­ 1980s has proved so far to be a decade College. William Murphy, BSC Professor of ities ofworld problems and realize that of renewed promise for the Peace Special Education, was with the Peace Corps there are no easy answers. Corps from I963 to I965· 23 Historical Commentary

Vietnam and Revisionism

David Culver

American Colonel Summers: "You know you never defeated us on the battlefield." North Vietnamese Colonel Tu: "That may be so but it is also irrelevant." Conversation in Hanoi, April 1975

st year General William West­ moreland told a Boston College U udience that politicians caused America's defeat in Vietnam. "The Vietnam War was not lost on the battlefield," the Commander of United States forces in Vietnam said, "but lost in the halls of Congress." Westmoreland's charge reflects re­ cent Vietnam War revisionism, the effort to rationalize America's defeat by claiming that United States forces were prevented from winning. Besides the politicians, who reduced military spending, the revisionists' cast of vil­ lains includes the media and antiwar dissenters, who turned the nation against the war, and various Presidents, who restricted military operations. If polls are to be believed, these interpretations are widely held by Americans, especially Vietnam veter­ perspective, a briefreview ofAmerican when it decided to extend containment ans. President Ronald Reagan sub­ involvement in Vietnam is in order. to Vietnam by openly supporting scribes to this view. Shortly after his As nearly everyone knows, Ameri­ France in its war in Indochina. election in 1980, he declared that ca's longest and most unpopular war The First (or French) Indochina American troops "were denied per­ had its origins in the Cold War and the War (1946-54) erupted when France mission to win." Revisionism is re­ containmentofcommunism that devel­ tried to reestablish its empire in Indo­ flected in our popular culture, reaching oped in the wake of World War II. As china (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia) its most extreme form in the film the Soviet Union tightened its grip on after World War II. Meanwhile, how­ Rambo, which has its macho superhero Eastern Europe, an alarmed President ever, in 1945 Ho Chi Minh, a com­ ask his superior, "Do we get to win this Harry Truman in 1947 committed the munist and nationalist, had declared time?" American government to combating the independence ofVietnam and soon That such interpretations strike a Soviet expansion in Europe. The Cold war broke out between the French and responsive chord is understandable. War was official, and containment -­ the Vietminh, a coalition ofnationalist "The war that went wrong" has been a the effort to limit communism to the groups led by the communists. By late painful and traumatic episode for frontiers already under Soviet control 1949, however, with the war going Americans accustomed to military vic­ -- became America's principal Cold badly, France appealed for American tory. The cheering for Rambo reflects War strategy. aid. In the wake of China's fall, the need of many to resurrect a mea­ But by the end of the decade, the Washington, feeling bound to bolster sure of national honor lost in the war. United States seemed less secure, com­ an important ally whose support the Revisionism salves the national psyche munism more threatening. In 1949 the United States needed in Europe, ac­ and restores a self-image of power. communists triumphed in China and ceded to French demands, and in early However comforting, though, revision­ the Russians acquired the bomb. At 1950 took the first step toward a ism is simplistic and is narrowly fo­ home a Red Scare was under way, 25-year-war. cused. It ignores both the strength of distorting public debate and foreign This decision to extend containment Vietnamese nationalism and the weak­ policy. Soon led by Senator Joseph to Vietnam was part ofa new American ness ofour client state, South Vietnam, McCarthy, conservatives vilified the strategy to counter communist aggres­ historical factors which go far to ex­ Truman Administration for being soft sion anywhere in the world. "The plain the outcome of the war. But to on communism and for "losing" assault on free institutions is world­ understand better this lack ofhistorical China. Washington was in near-panic wide," a 1950 National Security Coun- 24 cil report noted ominously. The war in Vietnam pending elections scheduled to 16,500. But Washington could not Vietnam (and soon Korea) was seen as for 1956. provide political stability in Saigon or part of"the Kremlin's design for world While highly critical of the French transform Diem into "the Winston domination." Communism, Washing­ for any compromise with communism, Churchill of Southeast Asia," as Vice ton believed, was monolithic, and com­ the United States moved to establish President Lyndon Johnson publicly munists like Ho were merely pawns of South Vietnam as a barrier to further hailed him. (Privately, the crude Texan Moscow in a single conspiracy for communist advances in Southeast was more candid: "Shit, man, he's the world power. With China gone, Indo­ Asia. Containment would consist of only boy we got there.") By 1963, china was the next communist target, restricting communism to North Viet­ when it was clear that Diem was losing and should this region fall, then the nam and treating South Vietnam as an the war, the Kennedy Administration surrounding countries (Malaya, Bur­ independent country and part of the approved ofa coup against Diem, who ma, Thailand) would fall like a row of "free" world. was subsequently murdered. dominoes. Despite the French failure and In three weeks Kennedy himself was In retrospect, historians question strong warnings of the difficulties of dead. The new President, Lyndon the American assumption that Ho was nation-building, the United States Johnson, inherited a deteriorating situa­ an agent of Moscow, that Vietnam was pushed the French aside and moved tion, despite Diem's elimination. Con­ a Soviet proxy. Ho was a dedicated quickly to prop up the regime of Ngo vinced that American honor, security, communist, but he was also a nation­ Dinh Diem. A nationalist and strong and prestige were at stake, Johnson alist, who resisted subservience to both anti-communist, Diem clearly illus­ moved to prevent a communist the Soviet Union and China. Ho's trated the enormous task in establish­ victory. drive for power was indigenous and ing South Vietnam as the "cornerstone Following his election in 1964, was not initiated by Moscow. Indeed, it of the Free world in Southeast Asia." Johnson began the fateful military was part ofa nationalist movement that He was a Catholic elitist in a Buddist involvement. Selective air strikes in was sweeping Asia, a powerful histor­ land, who had many enemies and little February 1965 were followed three ical phenomenon not fully appreciated popular support. He lacked Ho's repu­ weeks later by the massive bombing of by American policy makers, nor more tation, charisma, and vision for the North Vietnam and, soon after, by the recently by revisionists. As George future of Vietnam. The weakness of decision to use American soldiers in Herring, the author ofa major study of Diem (and of all South Vietnamese battle. By the summer of 1965, the the Vietnam War concludes, "Regard­ governments) was an intractable prob­ United States was fighting a major less of his ideology, Ho by 1950 had lem that would plague American policy undeclared war in Vietnam. captured the standard of Vietnamese to the end and, the revisionists not­ The Johnson Administration be­ nationalism, and by supporting France, withstanding, would have much to do lieved that a few Marines would be a ... the United States was attaching itself with the war's conclusions. quick fix, but the war now acquired a to a losing cause." With the colonial With American support, Diem con­ life ofits own. American escalation was era over, then, the United States chose solidated his rule and cancelled the matched by Hanoi with support from the wrong side of history. national elections called for by the China and the Soviet Union. What a The Vietnam policies developed by Geneva Accords. Soon, however, he frustrated President Johnson ex­ the Truman Administration were con­ faced a revolt. The Vietcong, Diem's claimed in 1965 applied to any year of tinued by President Dwight Eisen­ pejorative term for Vietnamese com­ the war: "I can't get out. I can't finish it hower (1953-61). American aid to munists, began a struggle to achieve with what I got. So what the hell can I France grew steadily (by 1954 America what they believed had been denied do?" The answer was more ofthe same, was paying for 78% of the cost of the them when Diem cancelled the elec­ hoping that a few more troops war), but it could not prevent a French tions. By the time Eisenhower left (550,000 by 1968) or a little more defeat. The climax came in early 1954 office in early 1961, the insurgency, bombing would break the commu­ when the Vietminh surrounded a large fed by Diem's unpopularity and in­ nists' will to fight. French force at Dienbienphu. Ameri­ creasing support from the North, had But despite government claims that can military intervention was seriously grown into a formidable movement. victory was "around the corner," the considered, but rejected by the Eisen­ Eisenhower's successor, John F. United States was losing the war. As if hower Administration, and the French Kennedy (1961-63), became the third to underscore this, the communists·in force surrendered. president to try to contain communism January 1968 launched the Tet Offen­ At a conference in Geneva, mean­ in Southeast Asia. Convinced that the sive, a massive attack throughout the while, the future of Indochina was struggle there was a test of American south. The communists suffered heavy being hammered out at the expense of resolve, Kennedy was determined not losses, but not before Americans France. The resulting Geneva Accords to "lose" Vietnam to communism (no watched in living color as the Vietcong of 1954 (which the United States never one could ever forget the pounding the attacked the American Embassy in signed) provided for a military cease­ Truman Administration took for Saigon. Tet's psychological effect was fire, French withdrawal from North "losing" China), and so increased the devastating and public opinion turned Vietnam, and a temporary partition of number of American military advisors sharply against the war. 25 Historical Commentary continued

As for the charge that the military was handcuffed by civilian leaders, the United States could have bombed North Vietnam back to the Stone Age and invaded the North. But would the public have supported a costly inva­ sion against a dedicated foe that would have risked war with China and the Soviet Union (China had threatened to respond if the United States had moved north). In any case, what would have been left after "Victory?" As Sena­ Bob Englehart, Hartford Courant tor Stuart Symington asked of Secre­ Tet also claimed a political victim. which provided for a cease-fire and the tary of State Dean Rusk: "What do we Two months after Tet, President John­ withdrawal of American troops, did win if we win?" At the least, it would son told a national TV audience he not resolve the political future of have meant an indefinite American would not run for reelection. He had South Vietnam, the central issue ofthe occupation of Vietnam with all its tried to fight a limited war, quickly, war. The war soon resumed, and in costs and strains. cheaply, and seemed baffled by an April 1975 the communists marched Revisionism also underestimates the enemy that was willing to take such triumphantly into Saigon, drawing the power of Vietnamese nationalism, losses and continue to fight. "Just look painful war to a close. 58,000 Ameri­ whose banner had been captured by at the figures and you'll see that they cans had died. Twenty-five years of Ho and whose goal was to rid Vietnam have failed," Johnson said. "Ho's peo­ effort had ended in failure. offoreigners. Secretary Rusk said after ple are just not telling him about his Americans barely noticed South the war that he had made two mistakes: losses." In 1946 Ho had declared, "kill Vietnam's collapse, preferring to put underestimating the enemy and over­ ten of our men and we will kill one of the disaster out of their minds. The estimating the patience of the Ameri­ yours. In the end, you will lose and I nation was spared a bitter witch hunt in can people. Rusk's assessment of the will win." He was speaking to the search of those who "lost Vietnam." determiniation, even fanaticism, ofthe French, but the equation applied no No one seemed to want to know. But enemy, was correct, but he was wrong less to the Americans. North Vietnam, the war still haunts the American mem­ about the American public. Sentiment willing and able to fight longer, would ory and colors United States foreign turned against the war because the outlast the United States. policy. The so-called "Vietnam syn­ American government could not per­ If the war forced Johnson from the drome" has inhibited the United States suade its citizens that South Vietnam White House, it helped elect Richard abroad. "Will Nicaragua be another was vital to our survival and that the Nixon (1969-74), who was deter­ Vietnam?" is the subject ofdebate and war had any chance of success. In the mined to end the war but not lose it. cover stories. Thus the question re­ end the public recognized that the His goal was to preserve South Viet­ turns to why we lost and the "lessons" American goal of propping up South nam as a non-communist state, and his of the war. The question is not just Vietnam was unachievable. Our client strategy was "Vietnamization" -- turn academic; it bears on the issue of state, flabby and corrupt, could not the fighting over to the South Viet­ American power in the world and provide the cohesion or stability to namese, while withdrawing American under what circumstances the United become a viable anti-communist state. troops. To compel Hanoi to make States should again send troops to fight And no amount ofAmerican aid could concessions, Nixon intensified the abroad. change that. bombing of the North, declaring that Though questions persist and a con­ Colonel Summers was correct. "the bastards have never been bombed sensus on the war is still emerging, the American soldiers fought bravely and like they're going to be bombed this revisionists' claim that the defeat was won the battles. But as Colonel Tu time." As Henry Kissinger, Nixon's largely self-inflicted is a dubious prop­ said, it was irrelevant. Vietnam re­ National Security Adviser insisted, a osition. Congress, to return to West­ quired a political solution; America "fourth-rate power like North Viet­ moreland's charge, continued to vote tried to impose a military solution. nam" must have a "breaking point." funds well after the public had turned Despite all its might, the United States But no matter how much the United irreversibly against the war. The media, could not impose its will. While Ameri­ States pulverized the North, it could too, reflected, rather than shaped, pub­ cans discuss the lessons ofthe war, they not force the communists to quit. lic opinion. As George Herring has seem to recognize one chastening les­ Hanoi had sacrificed too much and was recently written, "Careful research has son: there are limits to American too close to victory. The war dragged shown that ... the media and the anti­ power in a highly complex world. on for four more years before the Paris war movement played no more than Accords were finally signed in January peripheral roles in turning the nation David Culver is a Professor of History at 1973. But the "peace agreements," against the war." Bridgewater State College. 26 Book Reviews

nalists (10), artists (7), along with ty, their daily life -- economic, politi­ La Franee et les others in government service (army, cal, intellectual, religious -- giving one navy, diplomacy, and consular ser­ the sense ofactually living in the France fran~ais vus par les vice), bankers, merchants, lawyers, into which Emile Zola was born. and other men of affairs. As Cooper The position of women startled voyageurs amerieains observed, "There were no two trav­ some Americans. "Women of all ellers who saw precisely the same thing classes knew business and managed 1814.. 1948. or who saw them with the same eyes." these affairs as well and perhaps better (2 vol.) Yet, as Jean-Max Guieu ofGeorgetown then men." Though until 1838 they University comments, reviewing the were forbidden on the floor of the by first volume of Bertier's exhilarating Bourse, they speculated in the stock G. de Bertier de Sauvigny survey in the French Review (57, Octo­ market from the small Cafe du Report. ber 1983, 125), '''The contribution of In France women of sixty-five were this work, which in spite of the multi­ more charming, better company, than Paris: Flammarion, 1982-1985. plicity of voices ... shows such conso­ twenty-five-year-olds were thought to nance of opinion, rests notably in this be in other countries. Married women multiple American vision of France enjoyed greater independence than in n a day when even elementary school the States, and in Paris seemed free to I pupils venture abroad, visitors' opin­ go anywhere unescorted. Many ions of countries not their own are dressed as men, and one tailor special­ surdy commonplace. Students of ized in adjusting masculine clothes to American history are only too familiar UWhen I left home the womanly figure. Bertier comments with Europe's views of us as expressed dryly, "The conduct of George Sand in Alexis de Toqueville's De la Democ­ I thought it could never would appear less extravagant than one ratie en Amerique, Frances Trollope's happen that I could cry was sometimes tempted to believe." Domestic Manners of Americans, or on leaving any other Bertier is equally tongue-in-cheek Dickens' comical description of stage­ country ... but then, introducing the section on dogs: "Final­ coach travel in the States. What others I had not seen Paris." ly one must not forget a not inconsid­ have thought of us is no secret. erable portion ofthe parisienne popula­ But what have we, in our travels, tion constituted by its inhabitants with thought of them? A delightful and four paws. The stranger is always sur­ splendidly researched answer, at least prised at their number and the impor­ as to Paris and France, may be found in tance humans attribute to them." The Bertier de Sauvigny's recent volumes under the constitutional monarchy, at Americans most astonished by the covering the first halfofthe nineteenth the precise epoque of Toqueville." rank canines enjoyed in France were century. Renowned as the authority on Since these Americans taken to­ the Iowa Indians whom George Catlin the French Restoration era, and most gether commented on almost every had brought with him to Paris. After recently the biographer ofMetternich, aspect of French society and culture, taking a census ofladies with dogs, and Bertier is as comfortably at home in the the twenty-six chapters of Volume 1 the numerous pets -- leashed or un­ States as in his native France, having (published in 1982) furnish a veritable leashed, riding en voiture or on their taught in many ofthe great universities Guide Bleu to the City of Lights and la mistress' arm -- the Indians presented it throughout the nation, and numbering belle France surrounding it in the days gravely to their guide, inquiring why among his friends distinguished Ameri­ of Washington Irving, Samuel Topliff, dogs were kissed on the mouth, but can historians. His approach to both Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, children on the forehead. Particularly, his homeland and American visitors to Margaret Fuller, Samuel F. B. Morse, after visiting an orphanage, they de­ it is a provocative olio of admiration, Lewis Cass, George Catlin, and the manded why these women did not irony, good-humored raillery, and lesser lights who visited there. The adopt a baby, instead of a dog. fond indulgence. reader travels by proxy the voyage La France et les fran<;ais must be read Bertier's roster of voyageurs in­ across the Atlantic, visits the cafes and in its entirety (with a French dictionary cludes names as well-known as novelist restaurants, strolls the streets and pub­ close at hand) for the density of its James Fenimore Cooper, historian lic gardens, visits prisons and ceme­ detail, the elegance of its style, the George Bancroft, orator Edward teries, and views with awe the muse­ panoramic picture it furnishes, and the Everett, suffragette Julia Ward Howe, ums and monuments. Beyond Paris he sheer pleasure of its lore. Although artist Rembrandt Peale, and educator leisurely explores the departements Americans continued to believe their Emma Willard. Altogether he has se­ where the French were predominantly own country superior to any other, lected, from an estimated 30,000 a rural, agricultural people. In short, many left France with the sentiments of Americans who crossed the Atlantic through the eyes of Bertier's delegates, young Augusta Colles, who confided between 1814 and 1848, some 170 one generally explores the visible to her journal, "When I left home I travellers who were not only literate forms of France et les franifais. thought it could never happen that I but literary, as these fastidiously se­ The second volume of this engaging could cry on leaving any other country lected excerpts from their published retrospect, published three years later, ... but then, I had not seen Paris." works attest. They represent a wide is even more to this reviewer's liking. range of views: those of doctors and As the third major division of the Annabelle M. Melville medical students (25), clergymen (18), whole work, it centers on the people Professor of History Emerita women (15), men ofletters (13), jour- themselves, their character, personali- 27 Book Reviews continued

The prophet Jeremiah knew where of us tend to become angry, fearful, Wickedness: to look for the root of evil -- to the competitive, desirous of pleasure and human heart. "The heart is deceitful so forth. Wickedness does not arise in A Philosophical Essay above all things, and desperately wick­ human life simply because we have ed: who can know it?" Ueremiah 17:9) such motives. Each of these natural Mary Midgley Midgley agrees that the source of hu­ motives is linked with a wide range of Routledge & Kegan Paul man evil is the heart. But contrary to possible behavior and only some acts 1984 the implication ofJeremiah's question, within each range are wicked. Our she believes that we must attempt to propensity for good or evil depends know the heart and that we can know largely on the character traits we de­ hy do people act as badly as they it. Our biggest obstacle to doing so is a velop in connection with each of these W sometimes do? Why are human variety of misconceptions about the motivational capacities. Virtuous traits beings callous, cruel, vindictive, sel­ motives, drives and feelings harbored are life enhancing and bring us to feel fish, exploitive, manipulative? What in the heart. There is a common ten­ anger, fear, desire for pleasure, etc. at are the sources of human wickedness, dency to believe that human nature is the right times, with reference to the evil, wrong doing, vice, immorality? polluted by one or several inherently right objects, toward the right people Philosophers have long worked to ex­ evil motives or drives. For example, and with the right motive. However, as pand our comprehension ofsuch posi­ aggression is sometimes viewed as an Midgley notes, "to be capable of these tive notions as goodness, morality, innate, positive, solitary, irresistible virtues is also to be capable of corre­ duty, virtue and happiness. By compari­ drive which alone causes human wick­ sponding vices, just as the possibility of son, their consideration of the nature edness. Midgley argues that such a view physical strength carries with it that of of evil and its sources has been slight is completely mistaken and tends to physical weakness." Here she develops most often peripheral to other in­ reflect an untenable conception ofhu­ the idea, deriving from the ancient quiries. Mary Midgley's Wickedness man motivation. Not all wickedness is Greeks, that evil is essentially negative, offers at least a partial corrective to this aggressive, much of it results from a type ofdysfunction, a general sort of neglect. But her work is not merely the other motivations, e.g., fear, sloth, failure to live as we are capable of product of an intellectual's curiosity greed, habit. Nor is all aggression wick­ living. The problem of dysfunction is about an underexplored topic. Midgley ed. 'Aggression' refers to an inclination complicated by the fact that our vari­ knows that evil undermines us and we to attack others, most often out of ous natural motives tend to conflict. It have no hope of controlling it unless anger. It functions mainly to drive is a matter for the heart or character to we understand evil and its origins. others away, thereby providing individ­ strike compromises among the strong, Where should we look to uncover uals with the space needed to carry out constant feelings and motives which the spring of evil in our lives? To the the business of living. As a motive, it clash within us. The kind of character mysterious workings of God? To a produces evil only when it is out of we have determines what sort of com­ cosmic diabolic force which opposes control. promises we are likely to strike and, the separate force of goodness? To a Midgley finds fear as a motivating thereby, whether and to what extent we destructive element within nature? To force to provide an interesting parallel bring evil into the world. Compro­ the dynamics of flawed social struc­ to aggression. Certainly, fear is an mises for the good arise when we view tures? With varying degrees of thor­ innate element in human beings and it our motives and feelings not as occa­ oughness, Midgley considers and re­ can lead to despicable acts and worth­ sional and isolated, but as part of an jects each ofthese approaches to under­ less lives. This is especially true when ordered set within the context ofa way standing human evil in terms ofsome­ our response to fear is cowardice. oflife. Motives and feelings are linked thing external to individuals. The locus However, fear is an essential aspect of with universal human needs. Needs of the insertion of evil into human human existence and our response to it come as a set and have some structure. reality is human beings themselves. need not, and often does not, result in "When increasing intelligence brings And inquiry into such evil must focus any wrongdoing. Fear is an emotive to consciousness conflicts which in on human nature. To her examination recognition of danger to something of other animals seem to pass unnoticed, of evil and human nature, Midgley value, whether it be oneself, others or human beings are forced, on pain of brings the conviction that we are, things. The pursuit of well-being re­ distintegration, to form some kind of above all, persons, requiring an inte­ quires such recognition. Fear becomes policies for reconciling their contrary grated personality, integrity and re­ destructive when we fear the wrong impluses. This makes some kind of sponsibility, in pursuit of a good life. things or when our fear is out of morality necessary, and the nature of Accordingly, her book has at least proportion to the danger encountered. the contending motives lays limits on three primary goals: to dissuade us Fear and aggression are natural motives what kind it can be." from misguided approaches to under­ and essential elements of a good life Working with this model of human standing evil, to expand our compre­ "because they are responses to evil, agency, she explores the development hension of persons as purposive and there are always some evils which and manifestations of the dysfunc­ agents, and to identify the sources of ought to be feared, and some which tional root of human wickedness. In­ evil within human nature. Through­ ought to be attacked." Our task is not ner conflict between competing mo­ out, Wickedness builds upon a pro­ to eradicate these motives or to be­ tives is a typical and constant feature of found project to deepen ourself-knowl­ come fatalistic about them, but to our personal identity. A good and edge carried out in two of her earlier direct them properly. viable way of life requires self­ works, Beast and Man: The Roots of Midgley's approach is distinctly knowledge, self-criticism and the Human Nature and Heart and Mind: The Aristotelian. Human beings have a vari­ maintenance of an inward balance of Varieties of Moral Experience. ety of natural capacities and needs. All competing motives. However, we have 28 a tendency to divide ourselves into the information, but how the whole phe~ research into the language process in selfwe esteem and affirm and its darker nomenally complex process operates. his own clear and energetic language. shadow which we deny. Thus, we re~ Such abstract and involved issues rare~ The reader never feels pulled or pushed fuse to acknowledge motives which are ly intrude on our everyday lives. We along awkwardly, but rather simply in fact our own and regard them as read or watch or do something and follows step by step. The view is alien to us, often projecting them onto learn from the experience and that, as fascinating. other persons. Through this self~decep~ the saying goes, it that. There are three major areas. Each is tion vice easily grips us and becomes It is such hard work to consider composed oftwo or more essays origi­ especially pernicious. When the bal~ issues like the relationship between nally written between 1980 and 1984, ance of motives is insecure and incom~ language and knowing. Most of us lack now rewritten and realigned as parts of plete, obsession becomes a possibility, the knowledge, time or skill to even a comprehensive whole. with all motives giving way to a ruling begin. However, such barriers should Part I, Two Natural Kinds begins with passion. Certain desires become de~ not reduce our interest in difficult ages-old questions concerning the prob­ tached from the rest of character, questions, especially when there are lems of multiple interpretations or which atrophies so that the person thinkers like Jerome Bruner who can meanings in literature. These essays do disintegrates. The badness of bad mo~ bring the results of their comprehen~ not provide answers, but suggest new tives most often derives from the break~ sive studies to us in clear, energetic approaches to asking questions. down ofan internal system of counter~ language. Bruner shows in his newest Bruner contends that in literature, the balancing motives, especially concern book, Actual Minds, Possible Worlds, plot, (composed of a line of incidents) for others. that the effort needed to study such and the themes (composed ofa pattern Though Midgley focuses on the large, abstract questions is worthwhile. of meaning) continually interact so source ofevil, she also inquires about a Bruner has long sought the key to the that the reader must respond by adjust­ large variety of topics, including the relationship between language and ing understanding while continuing to nature of science, moral scepticism, knowing. Although he is recognized as read. The reader changes through the determinism, free will, chance, com~ an important developmental psycholo~ process. Bruner distinguishes between munal persecution, temptation, cul~ gist, he also has the rare ability of the what he calls "actual" and "virtual" tural relativism, Freudian theory and philosopher to elevate discussions to text. The actual, or printed text causes evolution. While this rich diversity of the level ofwhat it means to be human. the reader to perform by creating a topics makes her work fascinating, the Of course, nothing is more uniquely virtual, or interpreted text. nucleus of ideas connecting these in~ human than our capacity for utilizing Reading a good story and perform~ quiries is sometimes lost and generally language to determine and understand ing the meanings of the virtual text underdeveloped. Also, some ofher key our circumstances. represent a way ofthinking, a system of notions -- e.g., "wickedness," "mo~ Bruner's most recent work with description and explanation very dif­ tive," "agency," "drive" ~~ are desper~ Harvard University's Project Zero ferent from another mode, that of the ately in need of more careful analysis research into the relationship between well-formed argument, the logico­ given the heavy work they do in her artistry, language, and culture gen~ scientific or the formal mathematical book. Overall, Midgley's work is a erated enormous expectation and system ofdescription and explanation. worthy complement to two other re~ promise. Bruner calls the second mode of cent philosophical treatises on human In Actual Minds, Possible Worlds, thought paradigmatic and the literary evil ~~ Judith Shklar's Ordinary Vices Bruner delivers onthe promise, accom~ mode of thought narrative. The para­ and Ronald Milo's Immorality. plishing three significant goals. First, digmatic mode achieves truth through he presents the results of his research proof: ifx, then y. The narrative mode David Cheney into important aspects of develop~ achieves lifelikeness through the ap­ Professor of Philosophy mental psychology. Second, Bruner pearance of truth: Romeo died, then has gathered and synthesized a much Juliet. "Great fiction, like great mathe­ larger body ofrelevant thought, from a matics, requires the transformation of great many of the world's outstanding intuitions into expressions in a sym­ theorists in very diverse fields, to shed bolic system ~- natural language or a Actual Minds, new light on the entire language pro~ more artificialized form of it." (The cess and its specific application in paradigmatic mode can prove truths Possible Worlds literature. Third, Bruner's work in this once they have been formulated, but book provides a secure new base from not until then: if x must first be intu~ Jerome Bruner which further exploration can be car~ ited. It may shock us that Newton and Harvard University Press ried out. All the bricks ofthis intellec~ Einstein created their respective Cambridge and London, 1986 tual edifice, no matter how widely theories of gravity and relativity sud­ scattered their points of origin, have denly, as whole pictures, not mathe~ been solidly mortared together, and matical symbols, yet we expect that et's assume you have read some of the whole has greater strength by virtue kind of sudden whole creation of our L the articles in this issue of the of having been put together by a authors.) Bridgewater Review before getting to thinker of Bruner's prominence. In the narrative mode, the action this one. It is unlikely that you stopped At its highest level, AM, PW repre~ includes a consciousness, which to consider how the reading of them sents a new approach, a new view of knows, feels, thinks about presup­ resulted in your knowing something how the mind works. The author posed circumstances. These presuppo­ new, not just in terms ofhow your eyes guides the reader carefully along the sitions imply multiple meanings when work, or even how the brain records way, writing about the most complex they are triggered through complex 29 The primary difference between arts and sciences language transformations (verb forms dominate Western cultures, yet multi­ which include the psychological pro­ is not the conflict ple versions of reality, or forms that cess in their actions): Tom Sawyer between objectivity reality can take, or possible worlds, can seems to enjoy whitewashing the fence. be accepted as independently truthful, Bruner describes this process as "sub­ and subjectivity. despite the apparent contradictions at junctivizing reality [through language ...rather a difference the heart of such tasks as determining by] triggering presuppositions." school curriculum. (We accept and try Readers also have a strategy and a in the use to understand the truthful coexistence repertoire that they bring to bear on a of biology and friendship, psychology text. The reader's strategy determines of symbol systems. and justice, physics and music.) how the presuppositions ofthe virtual In Part III, Acting in Constructed text are reconciled with the reader's Worlds, Bruner explores the tangible repertoire of possible human realities. effects of language on the multiple These subjunctive realities, created social worlds we construct. "A culture for and by the reader, exist among vidual behavior in a human culture itselfcomprises an ambiguous text that many possible realities, many possible depends upon extensive negotiation of is constantly in need of interpretation worlds. "It is far more important, for agreement for the transactions to take by those who participate in it." The appreciating the human condition, to place, comparable to interpreting an constant recreation of our culture understand the ways human beings ambiguous text in literature. In this through reinterpretation and renegotia­ construct their worlds" than it is to sense, interpreting the literature ofour tion of its multiple meanings estab­ compare them to a concept ofa funda­ culture seems to provide "a map of lishes the concept ofculture as a forum mental, objective reality. Artists create possible roles and ofpossible worlds in for that process whereby "language possible worlds through metaphor, which action, thought, and self-defini­ creates social reality." There are three which functions as a comparison that tion are permissible (or desirable)... , forms in which we structure experi­ transforms the givens, the conven­ the major link between our own sense ences, from which we construct our tional presuppositions, as the actual of self and our sense of others in the many realities: the experience of the text is transformed into the virtual text. social world around us." senses;the symbolically encoded exper­ Scientists also engage in a wide ranging As individuals, and as a whole cul­ ience we gain through interacting with variety of world making, (sometimes ture, human beings interpret given cir­ our social world; and the vicarious even transforming the givens for de­ cumstances in different ways at dif­ experience we achieve in the act of scription and explanation, as in current ferent times, for example in ways de­ reading. The narrative mode of theoretical physics). The proof of a pendent upon the age of the inter­ thought in our culture's literature is scientific theory achieves "a univer­ preter. "Contrary to common sense, essential in teaching us how in inter­ sality through context independence..., there is no unique 'real world' that pre­ pret, negotiate, and understand our invariant across human intentions and exists and is independent of human evolving culture. When developmental human plights." The appearance of mental activity and human symbolic psychology becomes an ever more ac­ truth of a work of art achieves a language; (but) what we call the world tive influence in the interpretation of universality through "context sensi­ is a product of some mind whose our culture, the theory ofthe evolution tivity, ...understanding the world as it symbolic procedures construct the of human beings as a species seems to reflects the requirements of living in world." The primary difference be­ enlarge. Not only genes, but culture as it." Considering Tom Sawyer and E = tween arts and sciences is not the well is reponsible for the development 2 mc , each is a comparison between the conflict between objectivity and sub­ of brain function. "The literary artist variable and the given, and experi­ jectivity. It is rather a difference in the ...becomes an agent in the evolution of encing each creates a transformed use of symbol systems, but both at­ mind -- but not without the co-opta­ world. There are many possible worlds tempt to understand the world by tion ofthe reader as his fellow author." from which to choose. creating a version ofit with a symbolic In AM, PW Jerome Bruner has set Part II, Language and Reality, begins language. (A mathematical version and himself a seemingly impossible task, as with an examination of the ways in a biological version can seem to differ all explorers do. He rarely delivers less which the social, interactive nature of as greatly as a sculptural and a musical than he promised, and often more than human beings requires a complex set of version.) In every version, the reality is we have expected. His focus, however, shared assumptions and beliefs about what we stipulate, rather than find, and is limited by its bias toward a paradig­ mechanisms, results, intentions, defini­ what we make of it in thought, action, matic, logical-scientific approach, even tions, and so on. The process of these and emotion. "We know the world in when evaluating the narrative mode of transactions is negotiated by "the ca­ different ways, from different stances, thought. Bruner counts the number of pacity of language to create and stipu­ and each ofthe ways in which we know verb transformations in literature. It late realities of its own, ...by warning, it produces different structures, or seems an odd and limiting analytical by encouraging, by naming, and by the representations, or, indeed, 'realities' tool for someone who has argued that manner in which words invite us to ... We give different 'reality' status to literature is by nature metaphorical. A create 'realities' in the world to cor­ experiences we create from our dif­ more holistic process for the analysis respond with them, .. .for example, the ferently formed encounters with the of literature would seem appropriate, law, gross national product, antimat­ world.... We place a canonical value on given Bruner's theories. ter, the Renaissance." (The law, for certain stances that yield certain forms example, creates corresponding reali­ of knowledge, certain possible Stephen M. Levine ties, such as legislatures, courts, police, worlds." The rational, logical, scienti­ Professor of Theatre Arts jails, and rehabilitation centers.) Indi- fic, paradigmatic worlds now seem to 30 Last Word The Politics of Literature: What Makes a Masterwork? Charles Fanning

ne Indian summer afternoon in October I attended a meeting of O the college committee whose job it is to approve or reject the courses that our students may take for "Gen­ eral Education'; credits. One course that I designed and have taught twice, "The Literature of Immigration and Ethnicity," came under fire from some committee members. Their main ob­ jection was the absence from the read­ ing list of books that the committee considered to be "literary masterworks of Western civilization." Not much happened in the way of defining such "masterworks." It was assumed that Rembrandt: Aristotle with a Bust of Homer we all knew one when we saw one. The (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchased with special funds and gifts of friends of the only title mentioned was Moby Dick. Museum 1961.) Herman Melville is, in fact, an in­ structive case, though not in a way that Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Herman peripheral to an understanding of the the committee would necessarily wel­ Melville, whom Matthiessen called essence of America. They would have come. When Moby Dick first appeared "the American with the richest natural said that Moby Dick, The Scarlet Letter, in 185I, the reviews were few, unenthu­ gifts as a writer." Leaves of Grass, Emerson's essays, and siastic, and uncomprehending. So dis­ Now, I would no more have ques­ Walden were the masterworks ofnine­ heartened was Melville by this, and the tioned Matthiessen's litany ofthe great teenth-century American literature. even more negative response to his American writers (accepted as gospel This gets us to the issue ofhow and by next novel, Pierre, that he virtually by my professors, some of whom had whom the canon of masterworks is stopped writing fiction, although he been his students) than I would at the determined. Probably the most famil­ was in his early thirties and had 40 time have questioned the gospel itself. iar and widely accepted notion is that a more years to live. By the time of his In fact, it took me 20 years to ask what classic is a work that has withstood the death in 1891, he was a forgotten man. now seem two obvious questions: what "test of time." A classic formulation Here Melville's reputation languished do these writers have in common, and thereofis that ofSamuelJohnson, who until the publication in 1921 ofa study who is missing from the list? First, all declared in his Preface to Shakespeare of his life and career which began a five were men. All came from white that masterpieces are those works that reassessment that culminated in his Anglo-Saxon Protestant families that "unassisted by interest or passion, canonization as perhaps THE great had been in America for at least a have passed through variations of taste American novelist. The most impor­ hundred years. All were from either and changes of manners, and, as they tant document in Melville's apotheosis Boston or New York. Second, who is devolved from one generation to an­ was a book published in 1941 by missing? Women and ethnic and racial other, have received new honors at Harvard professor F. O. Matthiessen: minorities. You wouldn't know from every transmission." Most interesting American Renaissance. reading this book that there were any to me in Johnson's definition is the This book had itselfbecome canoni­ nineteenth-century American writers notion that a book makes its own way, cal by the time I entered Harvard worth reading who were not East "unassisted by interest or passion"; College as a freshman more callow than Coast, male WASPs. Moreover, there that is, that no special interests are at most in 1960. Matthiessen had died are significant gaps in subject matter. work in a book's ultimate emergence as five years earlier, but his book was You wouldn't know from reading a masterwork. In those halcyon days of already discussed in reverent tones as Matthiessen that any writers had dealt the Kennedy administration I swal­ the Bible of American literary study. with working-class life, factory work, lowed this sort ofthing whole, butsuch The book discusses five writers who families and child-rearing, attitudes an idea now appears to me to be Matthiessen contended were responsi­ toward women and minorities, or strikingly naive. It takes a heap offaith ble singlehandedly for a renaissance in issues of immigration, ethnicity, and to absolve literature of the tangle of American letters that had taken place assimilation. Had they been asked, motives, the subtext of psychological, between 1850 and 1855, when their Matthiessen and his successors would social, and economic self-interest, that masterworks appeared. These writers have said that there were few writers surely informs every other area of were Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry worth reading other than the Big Five, human endeavor. It now seems to me David Thoreau, Walt Whitman, and that the missing subjects were obvious that a literary reputation is no 31 Last Word continued

Pride

You wait for him by the side of the road, the old, red Peugeot swinging down on you like a chariot. You strain to see if he is anxious getting out; if his thighs too are jelly. But the strength in his footsteps obscures your vision. He does not struggle. more arrived at by objective standards teenth-century "Gilded Age" cntlcs, His eyes are silent, blood unscreaming. than any other kind of reputation. who believed that literature ought to Straightening, Instead, it is most definitely what I provide ideal examples and moral up­ would call a POLITICAL matter. The lift, in order to praise Melville's fierce you fix your face into the same cool gray as his jacket. people who write, read, judge, and grappling with deeper, more disturbing teach literature are no more or less issues. capable of objective evaluation than For a variety of reasons, ranging Security anyone else. They form interest groups from accepted ideas of role distribu­ as inevitably as any other aggregate of tion to sheer prejudice, the nineteenth human beings whose interests are century was not a good time for women You lean with him against the car door, served or harmed by the decisions they or minorities to get properly pub­ the three hundred mile good-bye make. lished, read, and reviewed in America. There have always been established But there were dozens of women who breathing down your crotch and his hand light on your hip. elites in literature n groups ofpeople in wrote novels then that are worth con­ power who have a significant measure sidering in our time. Most such books In his fingertips of control over what gets published were dismissed previously as "wom­ you recognize your own reluctance; (and thus read), praised (and thus en's fiction." In a now famous phrase, his fear freezes on your tongue. taught), and eventually canonized as a Nathaniel Hawthorne, one ofMatthies­ Somewhere in your toes masterwork. It seems to me that there sen's heroes, called their authors "a you want to say have been three such elites controlling damned mob ofscribbling women." A you're not a spider. the American literary canon since pub­ similar intolerance governed the liter­ lishing became big business in the ary scene for ethnic and racial minori­ 1830s. Through the late nineteenth ties. Thoreau declared in Walden, for Blossoming century, the publishers were in con­ example, that "the culture of an Irish­ trol. By the turn of the century, the man is an enterprise to be undertaken I wake great age of magazines, journalists and with a sort of moral bog hoe." A with expectation of you reviewers had taken over. And in our slander ofsuch generality is of particu­ rising in my blood time, the literary establishment has lar interest to me, because I am current­ a bubble become the academy -- college and ly writing a book that traces the litera­ streaming toward the surface university professors. ture produced by Irish Americans I am bursting with you The "test oftime" thesis argues that from the eighteenth century to the In the telephone a book remains popular over a long present. And, in fact, my research has your voice is an anxious stutter period of time, during which short­ turned up an impressive number of thick with Jamaica sighted cavils and contemporary preju­ fascinating, forgotten writers who also I did not think that I would call so soon dices drop away to leave -- 10 and deserve to be considered freshly. you say behold n a masterwork. Now this Reclamation projects for women but it's been centuries certainly doesn't describe the emer­ and black writers have been under way and I am bursting gence of Moby Dick. On the contrary, for some years now, and these have after 70 years oftotal neglect, Melville already yielded important discoveries. Outside magnolia buds suddenly began to be read again n Some that come to mind are Kate thanks to two influential critics from Chopin's The Awakening, Rebecca swelled with early morning drizzle the literary establishment: his biogra­ Harding Davis's Life in the Iron Mills, break into blossom pher Raymond Weaver and F. O. and the Narrative ofthe Life ofFrederick This I believe Matthiessen. Actually, this kind of Douglass. The work in other immigrant will be the last beginning shot-in-the-dark rediscovery is at least and ethnic groups is less far along, but Ann duCille as common in literary study as the may be no less fruitful, if the Irish are steady progression of the test of time. any indication. My point is this. What What happens is that a particular cul­ governs the formulation and revision Ann duCille is a member of the English tural generation, because ofits preoccu­ of the canon of accepted masterworks Department faculty at Bridgewater State Col­ pations and predilections, becomes re­ is not the test of time, but different lege, where she teaches courses in poetry, Afro­ American literature, and creatitle writing. An ceptive to new and different works. times. We need to keep our minds n alumna of BSC, Class of I971, she holds a Certain cracks appear in the armor of and our course syllabi n open so that Master's degree in Creatitle Writing from accepted dogma preached by whatever this work can continue. Brown Unitlersity. Her poetry and short stories elite is currently established as keepers hatle appeared in setleral magazines andanthol­ of the kingdom of culture. Thus, ogies, including The Iowa Review, The Charles Fanning is a professor of English at American Poetry Review, Panache, New Weaver and Matthiessen broke Bridgewater State College. through the hegemony of late-nine- Letters, and Presence Africain. 32 Coming in the Next Issue of Bridgewater Review

Faculty and Alumni Articles "Youth Sports: Boon or Bane" by Paul Dubois "New England Pilots in the Lafayette Flying Corps" by William Hanna A Short Story by James Brennan

Poetry by Elizabeth Moura

Political Commentary "The Crisis of the State in Africa" by Shaheen Mozaffar

Historical Commentary "The City of Victory" by Robert Cole

Cultural Commentary "Coping With Adolescence" by Margery Kranyik

Book Reviews by Leo McGuirk, Michael Hurley, Ranjit Vohra