Sci., Tech. and Dev., 31 (3): 232-243, 2012

VEGETATION DYNAMICS IN THE WESTERN HIMALAYAS, DIVERSITY INDICES AND CLIMATE CHANGE

SHUJAUL M. KHAN1*, SUE PAGE2, HABIB AHMAD3, HAMAYUN SHAHEEN4 AND DAVID HARPER5

1Department of Botany, Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan. 2 Department of Geography, University of Leicester, UK 3 Department of Genetics, Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan. 4 Department of Botany, Azad Kashmir University, Muzaffarabad, Pakistan. 5 Department of Biology, University of Leicester, UK

Abstract Vegetation provides the first tropic trophic level in mountain ecosystems and hence requires proper documentation and quantification in relation to abiotic environmental variables both at individual and aggregate levels. The complex and dynamic Himalayas with their varying climate and topography exhibit diverse vegetation that provides a range of ecosystem services. The biodiversity of these mountains is also under the influence of diverse human cultures and land uses. The present paper is not only first of its kind but also quite unique because of the use of modern statistical techniques for the quantification of Diversity Indices of plant species and communities. The vegetation was sampled in three categories, i.e., trees, shrubs and herbs, as follows: a height of ≥ 5m were classified in the tree layer, shrubs were all woody species of height 1m and 5m and, finally, the herb layer comprised all herbaceous species less than 1m in height. The presence/absence of all vascular plants was recorded on pre- prepared data sheets (1, 0 data). For the tree layer, the diameter of trees at breast height was measured using diameter tape. Coverage of herbaceous vegetation was visually estimated according to Daubenmire and Braun Blanquet methods. It gives overall abundance of vascular plants on one hand and composition of these species on the other. Data was analysed in Canonical Community Coordination Package (CANOCO) to measure diversity indices of plant communities and habitat types. Results for five plant communities/habitat types indicated that plant biodiversity decreased along the altitude. Shannon Diversity Index values range between 3.3 and 4. N2 index and Index of Sample Variance were also designed. All of these Diversity Indices showed the highest values for the communities/habitats of north facing slopes at middle altitudes. Higher plant diversity at these slopes and altitudes can be associated to the period of snow cover which is longer and a relatively denser tree cover as compared to the southern slopes and hence the soil has high moisture which supports high biodiversity in return. Global warming causes desertification in number of fragile mountain ecosystem around the globe. These findings suggest that species diversity decreases along the measured ecological gradient under the influence of deforestation coupled with global climatic change. Keywords: Biodiversity, Diversity Index, Climate, Mountain Ecosystem, Western Himalayas, Vegetation.

Introduction habitat heterogeneity and bring micro- Mountains are the most remarkable land environmental variation in vegetation pattern forms on earth surface with prominent vegetation (Clapham, 1973; Khan et al., 2011b). In north- zones based mainly on altitudinal and climatic western Pakistan, three of the world’s highest variations. Variations in aspects also enhance mountain ranges, i.e., the Himalayan, Hindu Kush *Author for correspondence E-mail: [email protected] VEGETATION DYNAMICS IN THE WESTERN HIMALAYAS, DIVERSITY INDICES AND CLIMATE CHANGE 233 and Karakoram, come together, ensuring high patterns of the world. Himalayan Vegetation is floral diversity and phytogeographic interest. diverse and range from tropical evergreen species Plant biodiversity survives at the edge of life at in the south east to thorn steppe and alpine these high mountains where climatic changes are species in the north western parts (Behera and more visible and species extinction very rapid. Kushwaha, 2007). Melting of its snow in a Studies on mountainous vegetation around the regular fashion is related to its vegetation cover. globe show that ecological amplitude of alpine Irregular loss of its ice might have dangerous rise species shifted to even higher elevations over the in world sea-levels (Xu et al., 2009). These recent decades. Species preferred temperatures in mountains are extremely sensitive to global higher altitudinal zones. Therefore, many alpine climatic change. Such hazardous glimpses have species are under the risk of extinction due to already been observed in the form of flood in their requirements for germination and Pakistan, India, China and Thailand in the last reproduction (Grabherr et al., 1994; Holzinger et three years. al., 2008). Unlike the eastern Himalayas, where The Naran Valley is located at the far west of monsoon-driven vegetation predominates under the Western Himalayas on the border with the higher rainfall and humidity (Chawla et al., 2008; Hindu Kush range which lie to the west and near Dutta and Agrawal, 2005; Anthwal et al., 2010; to the Karakorum Range to the north (Figure 1). Behera et al., 2005; Roy and Behera, 2005), the Due to this transitional location the valley host vegetation in the western Himalayas in general representative vegetation types from all three (Chawla et al., 2008; Kukshal et al., 2009; mountain ranges. Monsoon winds are main Shaheen et al., 2011; Ahmad et al., 2009; Dickoré source of precipitation and also a primary force of and Nüsser, 2000; Shaheen et al., 2012) and in the controlling erosion and climatology over millions Naran Valley (Khan et al., 2011b) in particular years of time and thus modify its climate, have closer affinities with that of the Hindukush topography and vegetation of Himalayas but in mountains, which have a drier and cooler climate the western Himalaya, especially in Naran Valley, (Ali and Qaiser, 2009; Wazir et al., 2008; high mountains situated at the opening of the Noroozi et al., 2008). A recent study showed that valley act as barriers to the incoming summer with the passage of time, homogeneity takes place monsoon from the south and limit its saturation in the vegetation of a region due to continuous into upper northern parts. Thus, summers remain dominance of certain resistant and vigorous cool and relatively dry and make most of the species. This phenomenon is further enhanced by valley as a dry temperate-type of habitat. There selective utilisation of species by human are clear seasonal variations. Total average intervention (Del Moral et al., 2010). Similarly, annual precipitation is low at only 900-1000mm the tree-line vegetation and indicator species shift but there is heavy snowfall in winter which may upwards due to climate change. occur any time from November to April (average Mountainous vegetation has manifold annual snowfall 3m). The range reflects a sharp functions, not only within the system where it increase in depth of snow with increasing altitude. exists regionally in the lowland ecosystem by There is a distinct wet season in January-April regulating floods and flow in streams and whilst the driest months of the year are June- globally in combating the climate change and November. As far as temperature of the area is greenhouse effects. Regionally, shrubby concerned, most of the year, it remains below vegetation of high altitude regulates avalanche 10°C. December, January, February and March movements and protects soil but in majority of are the coldest months of the year in which places, it is threatened due to human and climatic temperature remains around the freezing point or influences (Hester and Brooker, 2007). Plant even below most of the times. June to August is biodiversity is necessary for regulation of overall the main season for growth, with average daytime system in the mountain, e.g., the Himalayas is the temperatures in the range 15-20°C. Geologically, birth place for 10 largest rivers in the Asia and a the valley is located where the Eurasian and big and important carbon sink. Ecological Indian tectonic plates meet and where the arid changes in the Himalayas affect global climate by climate of the western Eurasian mountains gives bringing changes in temperature and precipitation way to the moister monsoon climate of the Sino- 234 SHUJAUL M. KHAN ET AL.

Japanese region (Qaiser and Abid, 2005; phyto-climatic gradient of vegetation based on Takhtadzhian and Cronquist, 1986; Kuhle, 2007). life forms further emphasizes the nature of the The valley thus occupies a unique transitional area and makes apparent the transitional position position in the region. In remote mountainous of the region, though predominated by alpine valleys like the Naran, the complexity of species (Khan et al., 2011b & c). ecosystems, their inaccessibility and the cost and The quantitative approaches to vegetation time factors make it extremely difficult to observe description and analyses deployed in this study each and every aspect of vegetation features. not only fill methodological deficiencies (Khan, Perhaps those were the reasons that in spite of its 2012) and gaps in the literature, i.e., evaluation of high phytogeographic importance, there have diversity indices but also provide a firm basis for been no previous quantitative studies of the extending this approach to the adjacent mountain vegetation in this valley. The present study is not systems that are in need of up to date vegetation only the first of its kind but also quite unique mapping (Fosaa, 2004; Mucina, 1997). In because of the use of modern statistical addition, the present study documents and techniques for the quantification of plant species provides suggestions for the conservation of and communities along geo-climatic mountain plant biodiversity under a scenario of environmental gradients that has limited continuous human exploitation and climate comparator studies in this region (Wazir et al., change. It is necessary to maintain ecosystem 2008; Saima et al., 2009; Dasti et al., 2007). The services in general and food security in particular, Naran Valley, which is floristically located in the not only within mountain system but also for the Western Himalayan province of the Irano- people and ecosystems of the lowlands that Turanian region, forms a botanical transitional depend on those mountains (Rasul, 2010; zone between the moist temperate (from the Manandhar and Rasul, 2009; Sharma et al., 2010; South East) and dry temperate (from the North Khan et al., 2011a). West) vegetation zones of the Hindu Kush and Himalayan mountain ranges, respectively. A

Fig. 1. Physiographic map showing the elevation zones and position of the Naran Valley, western Himalayas (study area) in relation to Karakorum and Hindu Kush mountains

52 SHUJAUL M. KHAN ET AL.

Methodology height was measured using diameter tape (Figure 2). This enabled an assessment of tree In total of 432 quadrats in 144 replicates, the cover values in the quadrats. For the shrub and vegetation was sampled in three layers i.e., trees, herb layers, abundance/cover values were visually shrubs and herbs. Quadrats sizes used in this estimated according to a regulated Braun- study were 10x5 (for trees layer), 5x2 (for shrubs Blanquet scale later on modified by Daubenmire layer) and 1x0.5 (for herbs layer). Trees had a (Table 1) (Braun-Blanquet et al., 1932; height of ≥ 5m, shrubs were all woody species of Daubenmire, 1968). Absolute and relative values height in the range 1-5 m and the herb layer of density, cover and frequency of each vascular comprised all herbaceous species less than 1m in plant species at each station were calculated using height. The presence of all vascular plants was phytosociological formulae to finally calculate record on pre-prepared data sheets (1, 0 data). For Important Value Index (McIntosh, 1978). the tree layer, the diameter of trees at breast

Fig. 2. Measuring diameter of tree species through diameter tape in a 10x5m quadrat in the field at Lalazar, Naran.

Table 1. Braun Blanquet covers classes modified by Daubenmire. Cover Class Range of Percent Cover Midpoint 1 0-5% 2.5% 2 5-25% 15.0% 3 25-50% 37.5% 4 50-75% 62.5% 5 75-95% 85% 6 95-100% 97.5%

52 SHUJAUL M. KHAN ET AL.

In the past, it was a very common technique dicotyledonous angiosperms are the most to classify plant communities based on Important abundant. Five plant communities were identified Value Index (IVI) of plants species. In this sort of and discussed in our first paper from this project characterization and classification in (Khan et al., 2011b). There is a clear altitudinal phytosociology, the species with the highest zonations, i.e., (i) the lower altitude (2450-3250 Importance Values IV are considered as dominant m) dominated by temperate vegetation and (ii) plant species and communities are attributed with the higher altitude (3250-4100 m) dominated by them. Even today, it is a very common method of subalpine and alpine vegetation. The most classifying plant communities. The present day abundant plant family was Asteraceae revolution of computer based technology in every (Compositae) with seventeen species and a 25% field of science has modified the older techniques. share of all species. Rosaceae represented by The IVs were calculated by adding the values of fourteen species (with a 21% share) was the relative density, cover and frequency and then second most species rich family in the study area. dividing by 3. In our study, we use IV data Lamiaceae, Ranunculaceae, Poaceae and mainly for ordination purposes. Polygonaceae were represented by 13, 12, 11 and Data analysis 10 plant species respectively. The remaining families all had less than 10 species each. Ecologists use number of diversity indices for Importance Values of the top 15 abundant species measuring the plant species diversity in different are given in Table 3. habitat types and plant communities. CANOCO version 4.5 (Ter Braak 1988, Ter Braak 1989, Ter Table 2. Taxonomic divisions of recorded plant species. No. of No. of Braak and Smilauer 2002) was used to analyse Taxonomic distribution IVI data to assess diversity indices. The main Families Species Dicot 53 161 objective of these statistical packages is to Monocot 9 23 formulate the study more precisely. As Subtotal of Angiosperms 62 184 phytosociology is concerned with vegetation Gymnosperms 3 8 itself, the sites in which it occurs and the SUBTOTAL OF 65 192 environmental variables related with those sites SPERMATOPHYTA hence need to be examined in a statistical Pteridophyta (Ferns and allies) 3 6 TOTAL NO. OF PLANT 68 198 framework (Kent and Coker, 2002; 1995, SPECIES Lambert and Dale, 1964). Plant biologists often need to test hypotheses regarding the effects of Table 3. Important Value Index (IVI) of the top 15 investigational factors on whole groups of species species reported from the region. Importance (Khan et al., 2011b; Shaheen et al., 2011; S.No. Name of the Species Anderson et al., 2006). CANODRAW is a utility Value (IV) of CANOCO and was used to generate data 1 Abies pindrow 584 attribute plots (graphic forms) of 2 Betula utilis 582 3 Sambucus weghtiana 446 indicator/characteristic species. It also gives the 4 Juniperus communis 338 opportunity to utilise index of number of species, 5 Pinus wallichiana 323 Shannon Weiner index, index of species richness, 6 Salix flabillaris 160 evenness, sample variance, etc. Diversity indices 7 Rosa webbiana 137 were calculated at the community through data 8 Artemesia absinthium 135 attribute plot under the DCA function of 9 Rhododendron hypenanthum 116 CANODRAW. 10 Fragaria nubicola 112 Results 11 Berberis pseudoumbellata 111 12 Thymus linearis 109 Floristic composition of the Naran Valley 13 Iris hookeriana 104 A total of 198 plant species belonging to 150 14 Cedrus deodara 103 genera and 68 families were recorded at the 432 15 Viola canescens 96 replicates of relives/quadrats. The division into major taxonomical groups (Table 2) indicates that Based upon plant growth habit, 12 trees, 20 shrubs and 166 herbs shared 6, 10 and 84%,

VEGETATION DYNAMICS IN THE WESTERN HIMALAYAS, DIVERSITY INDICES AND CLIMATE CHANGE 237 respectively, in the plant diversity of the vegetation of the Naran Valley (Figure 3).

Fig. 3. Percent share of various habit forms of vegetation of the Naran Valley.

Species richness along environmental species richness was higher at lower altitudes and gradients lower at higher elevations. Species β-diversity Analyses show that the main influencing gradually decreased along the altitudinal gradient environmental variables are altitude, aspect (slope as soil depth and temperature decreased. direction) and soil depth and that both species Similarly species richness on slopes with a richness and diversity vary along these gradients. northern aspect was slightly higher than those Analysis of the elevation gradient showed that with a southern aspect (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Average β-diversity of plant species along the altitudinal gradient. 52 SHUJAUL M. KHAN ET AL.

Diversity indices using DCA analysis somewhat lower altitudes. The lowest number of Data attribute plots using Deterended species scored in the index was for the Correspondence Analysis (DCA) were used to community number 5 at peak elevations above calculate diversity indices. The first sort of the tree line habitats. diversity index based on species richness was the The Shannon Diversity index values range calculation of species number per community between 3.3 and 4. Being constituted of both (Figure 5). The highest number of plant species Northern and Southern aspect stations, was reported in community 2 at middle altitude community 1 has the highest value of 3.98 northern aspect habitats followed by lower amongst all the groups whilst community 5 has altitude valley bottom habitats. The high diversity the lowest value due to narrow ecological of these habitat types can be attributed to high amplitude (Figure 6). High values of index are soil depth with high moisture retaining capacity due to the inclusion of considerable number of and relatively high temperature at those stations in a single community.

Fig. 5. Index of species number (alpha diversity) amongst all community types through DCA data attribute plots along the gradients.

Fig. 6. Shannon Weiner diversity index at community level through DCA data attribute plots show the gradient of the community.

52 SHUJAUL M. KHAN ET AL.

The N2 index is the reciprocal of Sampson the altitudinal pattern (Figure 4) showed that diversity index and is available in the species richness is optimum at the middle altitude CANODRAW utility of CANOCO. This index especially on north facing slopes. This index showed the highest value for community 2 reconfirmed the phenomenon of species richness followed by community 1 (Figure 7). phenomenon through sample variance index Index of sample variance showed the highest (Figure 8). variance at community 2 amongst the groups. As

Fig. 7. N2 diversity index at community level through DCA data attribute plots along the gradient of the community.

Fig. 8. Index of Sample Variance amongst all community types through DCA data attribute plots along the gradient.

The pattern of plant communities in the higher summer temperatures and soil moisture are valley is largely determined by aspect and the co-variables associated with the low elevation altitude. Four plant communities can be separated and deeper soil. Predominantly, community 1 on the basis of these two variables, whilst one reflects the latitudinal gradient of vegetation from community is established under the combined moist temperate to dry temperate along the valley effect of lower altitude and greater depth of soil on either side of the River Kunhar at lower (the third most important variable). Relatively altitudes. Species diversity and richness are

240 SHUJAUL M. KHAN ET AL. optimal at the middle altitudes (2800-3400m), in or public perception for making inventories. We contrast to the lower altitudes (2400-2800m) also believe and propose that such approach must where direct anthropogenic activities have had be statistically sound and communicable to their greatest impact. conservationists, planners, politicians and policy Discussion makers. Furthermore, we suggest that the Diversity amongst plant communities/habitat identification of indicator species for specific types habitats will assist in monitoring and assessment of the biological diversity on the one hand and the Short summer, deep snow, low temperature, effects of climatic change on the other. In intense solar radiation and cold speedy winds in addition, a broad scale deterioration of the natural the valley in general and higher altitude and ecosystems due to agriculture, expansion of special slope orientation in particular result xeric roads, increases in population and deforestation condition for plant growth and hence the 훽- cause enormous losses to the natural vegetation. diversity is gradually decreasing both along the In spite of IUCN recommendations, there is very altitudinal and latitudinal gradients of the valley. limited and small scale documentation on Red Though drawing a sharp line in any natural List Categories for plant species in the Himalayas ecosystem of mountains is difficult as the rapid as well as in Pakistan more generally (Ali, 2008; micro climatic and edaphic variations overlap Pant and Samant, 2006; Chettri et al., 2008). each other due to number of driving agencies and Being a member state of the CBD, Pakistan historical perspectives but based on some should give top priority to this issue as addressed indicator species, vegetation zonation and by Khan (2012) and Khan et al., (2011b & c). association can be established. Both at habitat and community level, the plant species richness and The three mountain ranges i.e., the diversity is strongly influenced by elevation, Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakorum, provide aspect and soil depth which in turn are associated essential ecosystem services to millions of people with precipitation and soil moisture. Various across 10 countries of the world (Dong et al., diversity indices including number of species, 2010; Khan et al., 2007). These services include Shannon Weiner, sample variance and N2 show provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural maximum values for the middle altitude northern services. In the present study, the main focus was aspect plant community (Com. 2) followed by the on vegetation mapping and provisioning services subalpine (Com. 4) and middle altitude southern in one of the Himalayan valley. Most of the aspect plant communities (Com. 3). Similar provisioning services considered in the present patterns of diversity across altitudinal gradients study can further be evaluated at molecular and have been observed in other studies in the biochemical levels in the future. Beyond the Himalayan regions (Kharkwal et al., 2005; direct role of plant biodiversity in the Tanner et al., 1998; Vázquez and Givnish, 1998). socioeconomics of the mountain people, it is indispensable for the people living in the plains Implications of the present project for future and hence this mountain valley can be studied for studies the evaluation of the other kinds of services, Observing biodiversity is a lifelong process including those of regulatory nature, that it and needs inputs from various disciplines from provides on a broader level, e.g., flood control, the natural as well as the social sciences. For erosion control, irrigation water and hydropower better ecosystem management and protection, development. These mountains also provide plant biodiversity should be studied at species, Supporting Services, e.g., soil formation, community and ecosystem levels. The biogeochemical and nutrient cycling, etc. These mountainous valleys need more botanical mountain systems host characteristic biodiversity exploration for the complete description of their on the one hand and a long established and plant taxa, abundance and conservation status. unique cultural diversity on the other. There are also extensive gaps in information on Preservation of their indigenous knowledge and ecosystem services in the Himalayan region. its utilization in environmental management can Most of the vegetation studies have been carried also be potential topics for future studies (Fig. 9). out solitarily either based on scientific approaches

VEGETATION DYNAMICS IN THE WESTERN HIMALAYAS, DIVERSITY INDICES AND CLIMATE CHANGE 241

Fig. 9. Sketch showing the potential topics for future to study different aspects of biodiversity of the western Himalayas

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