oso ris The rains. tributariessouthof tothe the monsoon and Himalayas the in snow of melting the resultingfrom estimated at 142.6 million m is river the in freshwater of million the flowacre feet annual and 446 about Ganga is the basin in availability water surface water The warm habitats. deltaic and including stretches, streams upland cool covers system country.river the The of area km 8,61,404 is basin its and long km 2,525 about is Ganga West and Bihar Bengal. of flows Bay the join to ultimately Bengal, Pradesh, Uttar it in several Indo-Gangetic plains the over Then in kilometers hundred meandering Haridwar. southwards, at the entered and plains hills Sivalik the flows through it Himalaya, Garhwal the in m 6000 about ofaltitude an at headwaters two from I. Origin abode of the most prized carp species of the of species carp prized most the of abode original the being from Apart plains. the of terrains hospitable through passes river the of of part river substantial a is because mainly important India, Ganga most view, the as of regarded point fisheries From diversity. faunistic rich its by characterized 10 x wealth, biological copious a holds estuary. river The Hooghly 616 the to solids carries suspended Ganga rivers. The Meghna and Brahmaputra Ganga, the of delta combined the into merges then and distributaries, its by formed delta, own its enters river Mahananda. the Mahananda and the Beyond Kosi Gandak, Ghagra, Gomti, of Ramganga, are tributaries hills large the the in MadhyaTo originated Pradesh. the north of the Ganga, has Sone course. The its down almost halfway it joins and Ganga the of south and west the to Yamunaflows The Sone. the and Yamuna the are Ganga The river Ganga (Ganges) has originated has (Ganges) Ganga river The 2 dann bu oe fourth one about draining , Current Status of River Ganges River of Status Current 3 , Fig.Mapof1.the river Ganga from itsorigin toitsmerger with theBayofBengal 6 os of tons fehae gain) rm aawp to Kakdwip from (marine) estuary Nabadwip and Haldia from gradient) (freshwater stretch estuarine Katwa; to Sultanpur from stretch lower Patna, to Kanpur Upper from stretch stretches. stretch is from Deoprayag to Kanauj, middle different into divided In 30%. of tune order to get the a clear picture, the to river has been sector culture the of requirements seed carp the meets which spawn, riverine of source major the also is Ganga fishes. miscellaneous other and hilsa sustains fisheries of large catfishes, mahseers, mrigala Cirrhinus subcontinent, ai,tehayrisbgn oe1 days 10 Ganga some begin Upper rains heavy the the Basin, In June. of middle the in is season monsoon the summer the Basin, of onset Ganga Middle the In showers. heavy receives Basin Ganga Lower whole gradually they June; spread inland. In approximately 10 days, of the beginning the at Bangladesh of south-east of south part Heavy the a and in India rain. begin little showers very monsoon with wet by summers, characterized is climate monsoon summer The mm. 4000 to 250 from ranges II. Climate 1. Fig. in given is Bengal of Bay the with merger its to origin its from Ganga river the of map The Frazergunj. to nul anal f h Gna Basin Ganga the of rainfall Annual i. Cta al, ae rohita, Labeo catla, Catla viz., and Labeo calbasu Labeo , the river the ,

1 Current Status of River Ganges 2 Current Status of River Ganges rain ceases. monsoon rain summer the and air continental dryto subjected is October,Basin Lower the of middle the By Basin. drier Upper the in the blow Basin, to begin winds Lower monsoon (winter) northeast the in the showers of brings still last monsoon the (summer) While southwest Basin. in Middle Patna the in even over is it September late by and Basin), Ganga early (Upper area Delhi the in By over is season arrives. the monsoon the it to September, when contrast burst striking the sudden a in gradual Basin, is Upper retreat This monsoon. southwest the of retreat the to due is Basin Ganga dry. the in rainfall Winter mm. 100 about very suddenly only averages months four these in Rainfall are the months winter the Although wet, remarkably are months monsoon (March-May). (June- summer monsoon and (November-February); winter October); recognized: generally rain. of mm 800 to 400 get Basin Upper the in plains the and Basin mm, 1,200 Middle to 800 the receive in to plains June The from October. rainfall its of most receives Basin Lower the in Khulna of city later. The n, 5 0 0 2 , on n A of mm, 2,000 is rainfall annual mean The February. to November from period cool a rainy A May. to season from June to October follows, as March does from season dry and warm a with climate monsoon typical a Table 1. River stretch under Ganga Basin States in India in States Basin Ganga under stretch River 1. Table a g n a G m e t s y s r e v i R h GnaBampta et ae has area delta Ganga-Brahmaputra The are seasons three Basin, Lower the In n e K e n o S s n To l a b m a h C a a n h u k e m r a a Y n r a b u S i s o K k a d n a G a r g a h G i t m a o g G n a g m a R a g n a G n rivers r e v i r in e a th m of e am N mat th g n e l te a im x o r p p A k ) (km 0 8 0 1 6 7 3 1 0 8 0 1 5 2 5 2 0 6 3 4 8 7 4 6 2 5 9 3 2 9 4 0 0 3 0 4 9 9 6 5 atclr h suhatr catie is coastline, southeastern the particular annual January. in mean The in May. Winter temperatures fall can to 10°C temperature is with 26°C common. peaks of over 30°C being season monsoon the outside hours 8.5 over with sunshine, of periods in long to moderate 70% from experiences relative area July. The in 89% varying to The March high, May. is to humidity November from rates rainfall the exceeding mm, 1,500 about corner. in southeastern mm the 2,900 to northeast the in mm of 1,500 rainfall annual mean a from direction, increasing southeasterly to northwest a in varies generally Rainfall season. monsoon approximatelywhich occurs 70% during the in Table 1. Table in mentioned is states different in stretch river of length The Bengal. West and Jharkhand Uttar Madhya Rajasthan, Pradesh, Bihar,Pradesh, Uttarakhand, of states the through III. Littoral states and ecosystem benefits the of effects The Sunderbans. dampening the levels. by some to extent protected seasonal is coastline and southwest m tide 4 to up of above level water the in dramatic increases cause can surges Storm season. monsoon the during cyclones to vulnerable h otenrgo fteae, n in and area, the of region southern The are rates evapo-transpiration Potential The Ganga river tributaries in India pass India in tributaries river Ganga The h s e d a r P h a s y e h d d a , a r h P M s h e sh s d e e r d d ra a P ra tta r P P U r r tta r tta U n U a tta , h U i, t sh s e l lh d a a e g j D ra n a e P , B R a a an y st h e ry d W a a H , M d , b an h ja n rk u a P Jh r, a ih B r r a a h h i B i B , r sh a e h d i ra B P h s e r d a r tta , P d U n h a s h e r d rk a a tta r P U Jh r, r a l a ih tta g B n U e , B sh e st d e ra W P r tta U s e t a t S ilo) Bnlds hs h higher India of density the people/km times the several is (1,024 which has density population Bangladesh million). million),(1,032 followed by Bangladesh (133 India is population larger the with country riverbanks. to confined generally are activities fishing the months monsoon of period lean During September to June is peak period for fishing. of Middle catfishes. and hilsa carps, major capture of priced highly comprising sources India, in fisheries richest the of one as to recognized is Ganga river Haridwar of stretch Lalgola The problems. exploitation virtually is other and terrain inaccessible to due absent, fisheries commercial system the of waters upland Bengal the In West Bihar. through to up extend to states) hilly the (except states Indian north the of most Yamuna, over spread are rivers These system. this of Gandak, Kosi, Chambal, Sone and Tons are the major rivers Ramganga, Gomti, Ghagra, Ganga, The ha. million 97.6 of area catchment a and km of12,500 length hge pooto o te ouain in population the of proportion higher A Bangladesh. for lower and (62%) India for higher being countries, the in years 15-64 of of the populationintofalls the workingages portion major the However, (33%). bracket age year 0-14 the in numbers lower the has India 74%. has Bangladesh while 72%, India is population rural of Basin percentage lower the The centers. countries are largelyrural the : country with population metropolitan in a particularly large to areas, urban in points explosion which rates, growth population national than lower are rates growth population rural countries, the both In (1.50%). India by followed 1.74%) of rate growth population a with Basin, the in country countries. growing faster the these is in Bangladesh density overall population than higher is density population people/km (347 mn te w rpra cutis the countries, riparian two the Among combined has system river Ganga The 2 . upiigy rural Surprisingly, ). 2 ), ni (.%. s oe erir these of proportion earlier, large a employing agriculture with rural, noted overwhelmingly are As countries (2.0%). India in lower and (2.6%), Bangladesh in being higher rates the countries, the in 2-2.8% of rate annual average an at grew force labor Bangladesh (71 million). During the 1980-99, largestmillion),labor force(461 followed by the has population, its of size sheer the by alleviation. poverty and security countries food of terms in concern for these cause a remain in fast- populations and rates growing growth population High population. the of and ageing and rate growth working India in population in above) slowdown in relative a suggests and (65 and ages retirement ages growing oto, aese poeto, nutrient protection, watershed control, flood functions, ecological for benefits use indirect many has it Besides, industry. and use domestic agriculture, for water this of utilization and abstraction water to due be and Marothia, 2006). The offsite benefits may collection, sand and waste, domestic sewerage of dumping cattle, tending waterways, and domestic forneeds bathing, cloths, washing water and transportation bio- swimming sports; for boating, of form habitat the in tourism and recreation community; fisheries; benefits site on included The and values. religious recreational cultural, its to addition in products, fish and fish of form the in food hydropower,and freshwater including transportation, basins, the riparian at inhabitants the to the benefits provide and support to utilized to is It economy. national the and significant benefits communities contributes economic and resources in 63% and 50% of the male employment in Bangladesh. India about for accounts Agriculture in total Bangladesh. of 66% for employment accounts employment the total labor force. For example, agriculture mn te w Bsn onre, India, countries, Basin two the Among h rvr ag spot fisheries supports Ganga river The etc. (Katiha

3 Current Status of River Ganges 4 Current Status of River Ganges eomte o rvre. aual, the the prevented has Naturally, river-bed of blanketing riverbed. of deformities from denuded catchments off are also responsible for run The bed. river the blanketed Gandak, (rivers Sone, Ghagra, Gomti, tributaries Yamuna, Ramganga, of number a through drifting sand and deformities textural from severely suffered Patna stretch and Tehri the between that indicated It load. silt and to (Sultanpur clay in increase corresponding stretch with Katwa) lower the in 2). 79%) (Table 12% to to (34 decreased percentage nil sand However, being clay 99.8%); to (79 sand of percentage high with sandy is from stretch) middle and (upperTehri Patna to river-bed that showed sea, to origin its from centers 43 at sampling holistic on based CIFRI, the exploratory by 1995-96 an during survey during observed Ganga, quality Sediment a) IV. Ecological status biological/ support. ecosystem habitat natural and functions climatic micro reduction, pollution cycling, Table 2. Important soil parameters of the freshwater stretch of Ganga of stretch freshwater the lower of parameters soil Important the Table 2. in flows river was the as texture observed sediment in a transformation through passes predominantly Ganga clayey bed. As such, and a sudden aquatic more seasonal much the are Ganga the river to of Patna, tributaries of soil Downstream of productivity. contributions %) (% g d 0 n 0 a 1 O S C a g C (m e re P F - ) te % a ( h p s n o e ) g h P (% itro n n o l b r ta a To c cm ic n S a rg (µ O . d n o c . p S H p ce : nha, a h in S : e rc u o S ) (% lay C ) (% Silt The detailed account of soil quality of river s r e t e m a r a P 3 %) (% etc . l a t e -1 ) n hs ein heavily region, this in .) ) 1998) 8 9 9 (1 -1 ) Thi Kaa j) anau K - (Tehri er tetch stre r pe p U 00 0. 2 .0 0 - 03 .0 0 7. 9 .8 99 - .3 97 0.49 - 0.01 1.64 - 0.11 . - 4.5 14 - 0.8 r - 0.05 - Tr. . 1.9 1 - 0.0 .1 1 - 0.2 .5 8 - 6.8 Kap - Patna) - r anpu (K ddl stretch le d id M 01 00 8 0.07 - 11 .0 0 9. 9 .5 99 - .0 79 0.35 - 0.02 0.92 - 0.08 . - 2.0 12 - 0.0 .0 14 - 0.4 .5 8 - 0.25 . 8.4 8 - 7.1 r - .8 0 - Tr. thus, there was a little fluctuations in pH in pH in fluctuations little a was there and thus, capacity buffering strong a has water 25.5 - (19.8 range narrow a within fluctuate to found was temperature (Sinha of survey CIFRI exploratory same the of the on report based are river the primary of and productivity communities biotic quality, quantity and quality Water b) also stretches. upper the was in values lower the to content respect with moderate the phosphate stretch, available estuarine and nitrogen total carbon, organic the recorded in fractions stretch. Due to the dominance of silt and clay with relatively higher values in the estuarine alkaline to neutral is sediment The stretch. f h rvr n epc o ntae and nitrate of of quality respect water The poor. in was phosphate river the of levels in the marine zone. The nutrient status high very the to reach to increased sharply hardness and magnesium calcium, solids, dissolved conductance, alkalinity,of values values their the stretch gradient the In stretch, decreased. again lower and the In Kanpur Patna. between stretch middle the in rise sudden a showed and respectively) l mg 14.6 l mg (101 stretch parameters The exhibited their minimum values in the upper variations. considerable calcium, solids, however, showedhardness and magnesium Alkalinity, dissolved (7.7-8.07). conductance, stretch entire the Slapr Kawa) atw K - (Sultanpur stetch tre s r e w o L The information provided here on water on here provided information The 00 00 8 0.04 - 07 .0 0 2. 6 .0 60 - .0 12 .0 79 - .0 34 0.61 - 0.05 0.48 - 0.06 . - 4.0 24 - 5.0 .0 14 - 4.7 .9 3 - 0.79 . 8.4 8 - 6.5 -1 56 g l mg 5.6 , t al, et -1 a et zone) ient rad g Frs tr & ater w res (F , 245 , Na dwi - ip w ad ab (N 01 00 4 0.08 - 19 .0 0 1. 5 .0 58 - .0 31 .0 58 - .0 30 1.26 - 0.22 1.36 - 0.05 . - 1.0 31 - 5.0 .5 17 - 4.0 .1 16 - 1.2 . 8.6 8 - 7.8 l a) ia ald H ary stu E 98. h water The 1998). -1 S cm S n 9. m l mg 98.2 and o C). The Ganga The C). -1 Maie zone) arine (M , 124 mg l mg 124 , azeganj) a erg z ra F Kadwi - ip w akd (K 04 00 7 0.06 - 42 .0 0 1. 3 .0 35 - .0 11 .0 54 - .0 25 .0 55 - .0 30 0.80 - 0.46 8.00 - 1.23 . - 5.5 15 - 5.5 .1 16 - 1.8 ary stu E . 8.8 8 - 8.2 -1 -1 , Table 3. Range of water quality parameters of river Ganga at different stretches

Stretches of Water Transparency Dissolved pH Total Specific Dissolved Calcium Magnesium Total Chloride Silicate Nitrate N Phosphate P Ganga temp. oxygen alkalinity conductance solids hardness ( oC) (cm ) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (µ S cm -1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1)

Upper 9.5-29.5 10.0- Clear 7.0-11.2 7.6-8.6 48-208 120-490 62-250 8.0-25.6 4.4-7.6 15.1-19.9 Tr.- 9.4 Tr.-0.31 Tr.-1.66 (Deoprayag- (19.8) up to bottom (9.0) (8.07) (101) (245) (124) (14.6) (5.6) (98.2) (16.8) (0.008) (0.04) kanauj)

Middle 16.0-32.0 16.0-140.0 3.6-11.9 7.0-9.2 92-236 340-740 172-381 19.2-58.5 0.9-32.0 10.1-43.8 0.6-14.4 Tr.-1.05 Tr.-0.86 (Kanpur- (23.8) (49.2) (6.8) (7.9) (179) (521) (262) (38.7) (16.8) (172.8) (27.2) (6.2) (0.012) (0.042) Patna)

Lower 18.0-31.6 11.0-93.0 4.8-9.0 7.3-8.8 68-165 100-308 52-156 8.0-26.0 4.9-16.8 4.0-36.0 5.6-8.8 0.045-0.13 0.035-0.60 (Sultanpur- (24.5) (30.9) (7.4) (7.7) (126) (178) (89) (16.6) (11.2) (110.0) (20.3) (7.2) (0.068) (0.058) Katwa)

Estuary 18.8-39.9 8.0-30.0 6.2-8.0 7.4-8.4 95-174 100-70000 50-3500 8.0-376 1.0-65.0 4.0-3500 5.4-8.8 0.02-0.14 0.04-1.82 Freshwater (25.9) (25.4) (6.9) (7.9) (128) (759) (379) (52.3) (38.0) (282.0) (273.4) (7.8) (0.048) (0.24) & gradient z o n e (Nabadwip - Haldia)

Estuary 18.6-31.8 12.0-90.0 4.3-8.9 7.6-8.5 90-160 2000-31000 1000-16000 18.0-681.0 27.6-916.0 860-18000 0.5-5.9 0.04-0.10 0.06-0.51 Marine zone (25.5) (26.8) (6.8) (8.0) (119) (14118) (7054) (266.3) (412.8) (782.0) (8677) (3.8) (0.066) (0.082) (Kakdwip- Frazergunj)

(Averages in the brackets)

5 Current Status of River Ganges 6 Current Status of River Ganges al 4 Pyioce cl aaees f h wtr f ie Gag a vros tece during stretches various at anga G river of water the of parameters periods ical different Physico-chem 4. Table aaj te oa pako dniy varied density plankton total the Kanauj, Plankton i) communities Biological c) 1960. of conditions healthy regained have In 1985-90. general, dissolved oxygen values in was it what over improvement indicated middle the stretch in of river Ganga during 1995-96 clearly health, stretch. river for this parameter in observed Dissolved oxygen values, the most was important to 1985-90 comparison in values in general improvement a However, 1960. with compared in the values of most of the parameters when changes perceptible no showed river the of CO free low l mg (7.6-12.5 oxygen dissolved high by revealed quality, desired its maintained (Haridwar) stretch that the water quality in 1995-96 in the upper different periods is given in Table 4. It is clear physico-chemical characters of The the water of river 3. Ganga during Table in shown is parameters various of respect in river the ore Sna e a. (1998) al. et Sinha, Source: (Manikchak) Rajmahal Patna Varanasi Allahabad Kanpur Haridwar Centers In the upper stretch, between Tehri and Tehri between stretch, upper the In 2 1995-96 0 6 9 1 1995-96 1985-90 0 6 9 1 1995-96 1985-90 0 6 9 1 1995-96 1985-90 0 6 9 1 1995-96 1985-90 0 6 9 1 1995-96 1984-85 Period . The middle stretch (Kanpur) stretch middle The . -1 ), productive pH (7.6-8.0) and productive ), pH(7.6-8.0) Water temp. Water 75-1.50 17.50-31 .00 16.00-30 .50 16.50-30 .00 12.50-26 .75 11.25-19 nt available not : A N 21.0-31.0 18.5-31.5 19.5-31.0 18.5-31.0 20.0-31.5 18.5-31.5 17.0-32.0 ( A N A N A N A N o ) C 7.3-7.6 7.6-8.1 7.2-8.8 7.8-8.0 7.7-8.2 7.4-8.3 7.1-8.5 7.6-8.4 7.0-8.4 7.5-8.4 7.9-8.2 7.1-8.3 6.1-7.9 7.7-8.3 7.9-8.3 7.6-8.0 pH issolved D 5.0-10.8 4.5-10.2 5.0-11.9 6.0-10.8 5.0-10.5 7.6-12.5 gen yg x o mg l g (m 5.9-8.8 5.0-8.9 4.7-7.9 5.4-8.6 2.0-9.0 5.0-8.9 7.3-8.0 5.0-9.0 3.7-8.6 8.3-9.6 -1 ) n 1 tx udr opako were zooplankton under taxa 11 and phytoplankton under taxa 18 whole, the On at l is u (8049 density stretch Kanpur Maximum seasons. winter l and monsoon summer, u during respectively 3649 to l u 146 782 to 24 from varied stretch middle entire the in density plankton overall The respectively. Farukhabad and at Anupsahar appearance of first their made protozoan representative Haridwar between and Kanauj. Rotifers and stretch the in plankton total the of main % 34.8 to 7.9 occupied Zooplankton the phytoplankton. was % 83.4 being Bacillariophyceae 16.6%. only formed Zooplankton phytoplankton. was it of bulk The respectively. months winter l u 1435 to fro betwee ranged density plankton the Farakka, and Allahabad. and Kanpur between stretch the in encountered aa eters Param m 58 to 1578 u l u 1578 to 58 m re O2 CO Free In the lower stretch, between Sultanpur between stretch, lower the In 0.60-4.50 0.00-3.00 0.75-4.65 0.00-5.0 0.00-6.5 0.00-1.0 2.2-10.0 0.00-2.0 0.00-6.5 mg l g (m 1.1-3.7 00 .0 0 0 .0 0 A N A N A N A N 3 ad 24 l u 1204 and 34 n -1 ) -1 during summer, monsoon and monsoon summer, during .6 -0.21 0.067 Phosphate 0.06-0.11 0.07-0.12 0.07-0.11 0.12-0.73 0.08-0.12 0.11-0.32 0.01-2.10 0.09-2.0 Tr.-o.01 mg l g (m Tr.-o.8 Tr.-1.0 Tr.-2.5 A N A N Tr. -1 -1 -1 n 1 t 84 u l u 8049 to 14 and ) , 95 to 1050 u l u 1050 to 95 , 0.16-12.49 0.05-0.12 0.08-0.14 0.09-0.18 0.08-0.14 0.06-0.24 0.10-0.33 0.11-0.22 0.08-1.90 0.09-0.19 0.01-0.24 Tr.-o.24 Tr.-0.86 Tr.-0.28 l g (m Nitrate -1 A N A N drn winter. during ) -1 ) -1 O this, Of . -1 4.0-12.6 7.2-14.0 0.6-11.2 4.0-12.6 1.6-14.2 6.7-17.0 2.4-14.2 8.2-20.3 mg l g (m Silicate and 60 and 7.6-8.3 0.8-7.1 Tr.-6.2 A N A N A N A N A N -1 ) -1 -1 , gradually from Tehri to Haridwar (189 to (189 Haridwar to Tehri from gradually Macrobenthos ii) good indicating quality. water 1995-96, during Ganga of waters lotic in number in less recorded Merismopedia sp. sp. sp. species The indicator change. pollution little witnessed plankton of in centers early sixties.But qualitative the composition these in reported was what to comparison in observed during was 1995-96 Ganga river of stretches A freshwater lower Cyanophyceae. decreased density of plankton and in middle and Chlorophyceae were observedphytoplanktongroups Other of plankton was Bacillariophyceae (70–95%). bulk estuary, the of the of zone marine the zone In freshwater l u 935 to 26 from varied estuary the Hooghly of production the rest was zooplankton. The total plankton ph net ouain a rpeetd by represented was population Insect bengalensis Bellamia gastropods marginalis by represented the stretch, in middle population benthic the of bulk the they formed river.Bivalves the of stretch to middle but upper the from trend decreasing a had Kanauj, between and contributed very little. The insect population stretch the in Anupsahar observed % first 5.1 to 3.9 was gastropods of occurrence and The nymphs. insect (Chironomids) % 40.3 larvae to 32.0 (Tubifex), annelids % 62.9 to 55.8 with respectively winter and m u m u 644 was population benthos the for the first time at Rishikesh. At Anupsahar, appeared Chironomids stretch. entire the in m u 628 tpako fre 7. t 8. % and % 89.2 to 70.9 formed ytoplankton , Coelastrum , Fragillaria , Actinastrum , arbnhc ouain increased population Macrobenthic -2 ad 1 u m u 811 and , -2 ). Insects were the only component only the were Insects ). and eai striatella Melania sp. sp. sp. sp. , Pediastrum , Anabaena , n Spirulina and . corrisnus L. , Cymbella , ee h mi forms. main the were -2 n umr monsoon summer, in sp. sp. Ankistrodesmus sp. , Lyngbya , , Scenedesmus , Lamellidens Among . , Cyclotella , . plotia M. sp. -2 , 2108 , were sp. -1 , . , and and The Cyanophyceae. average periphyton Chlorophyceae by followed observed, was Hooghly Bacillariophyceae of and dominance stretches, Bhagirathi Ganga, the Over entire phytoplankton. of that of trend similar almost depicted stretches estuarine Periphyton iii) gastropods. m nos. 1472 annual and 74 between varied estuary The the of zone marine the bivalves. in macrobenthos of production and oligochaetes, decapods gastropods, polychaetes, by were followed forms dominant the Hooghly of zone freshwater the In nymph. Tricopteran at different stretches i stretches different at river the of productivity primary gross The m C mg mg 137.5 and 20.8 between ranged 142.0 to 33.3 m C was production maximum the gross stretch lower the in while m C mg 632.8 and 15.0 between were m C mg 202.5 and 20.8 between varied it upper stretch the In turbidity. water and river of upon depending turbulencefactors, climatic production Primary d) 5. Table in given is River Ganga in fauna of stretches. freshwater the population than lower the was periphyton stretch estuarine the and Chlorophyceae were the dominant forms. In Cyanophyceae by followed phyceae Bacillariophyceae. cm nos. In the middle stretch they formed 224 to 6080 Bacillariophyceae. was number, by 94% to was stretch upper cm nos. 2338 and 512 between the in concentration The periphyton flora in the riverine and riverine the in flora periphyton The rs piay rdcin varies production primary Gross benthic macro and plankton of list The Bacillario- also, stretch lower the In -3 -3 h h -1 -1 . In the estuarine stretch the values the stretch estuarine the In . values the stretch middle the In . -2 te uk f hc being which of bulk the , sp. -2 , msl ihadmnne of dominance a with mostly Chi ronomus s depicted in Table in 6. depicted s n soe fly stone and -2 , of which 87 which of , -3 -3 h h -1 -1 . ,

7 Current Status of River Ganges 8 Current Status of River Ganges

Table 5. List of plankton and macro benthic fauna in river Ganga Bacillariophyceae Chlorophyceae Cyanophyceae Xanthophyceae Euglenophyceae A m p h o ra sp. Actinastrum sp. A n a b a e n a sp . B u m illaria sp. A s t a s i s s p . Asterionella sp. C h lo rella sp. Anabaenopsis sp . Chlorobotrys sp. E u g len a sp. B id d u lp h ia sp. C lo ste riu m sp. C a lo th rix sp. Trib o n em a sp., e tc. P ero n ia sp. Chaetoceros s p . C o e la s tr u m sp. L y n g b y a sp. P h a c u s sp. Cosinodiscus sp. C o n o c o c c u s sp. Merismopedia sp . Trachelomonas sp. ,e tc . C y clo t e lla sp . C o sm eriu m sp. Microcustis sp . C y m b ella sp. D esm id iu m sp. N o s t o c s p . D i a t o m a s p . E u d orin a sp. Oscillatoria sp. F r a g ila r ia sp. G on iu m sp. P h orm id iu m sp. G o m p h o n e m a sp . H o rm id iu m sp. R iv u la ria sp . Phytoplankton G y r o s ig m a sp . M icr o s p o ra sp . Schizothrix sp . M e lo s ira sp. P an d orin a sp. S p iru lin a sp. , etc. N a v icu la sp. P ed ia stru m sp. N it z s c h ia sp . S p ir o g y r a sp. P in n u laria sp. Te tr a s p o r sp. Pleurosigma sp. U lo th rix sp. Stephanodiscus sp. Z y g n e m a sp. et c . S u rirella sp. S y n ed ra sp. Ta b ella ria sp., et c. P ro to zo a Rotifera Copepoda Cladocera Ostrachoda A rcella sp . A n u ra sp. C y clo p s sp ., B o sm in a sp. C y p ris sp. Chilodonella sp . A s p la n ch n a sp. D ia p to m u s sp. Ceriodaphnia, sp. Gastrocypris sp., e tc . D ifflu g ia sp. B ra ch ion u s sp . N a up lii,e tc . C y d oru s sp. Globigerina sp. F ilin ia sp. D a p h n ia sp. Zooplankton H o lo p h ry a sp . H o ra ella sp. Diphanosoma sp. N o c tilu c a sp . K e ra t e lla sp . M o in a sp. P a ra m a ce u m sp . L eca n e sp. Simocephalus sp.,e t c . S p a th id iu m sp . N o t h o l c a s p . Sphenoderia sp . N o t h o l c a s p . Tintinnopsis sp . R o t a r ia sp . Vo rt ic ella sp ., e tc . Testudinella sp .,e tc . Macrobenthos Gastropoda Annelids Insects B e lla m y a sp. Oligochaetes, A rg ia sp . G a b b i a s p . Polychaetes, e t c . C a en is sp . L y m n a ea sp. Cloeon sp., T h iaria sp ., etc. Enallagma sp., important. The fisheries in the upper stretchupper the in fisheries The important. commercially are many which of species, dynamics Species a) V. m C (mg production primary Gross 6. Table al 7 Cmecal iprat pce aalbe n ag rvr system river Ganga in available species important Commercially 7. Table Avrgs n brackets) b in j) n u g r e verages z (A a e r n F zo - p i e w d rin a k ) a a (M K i d : l ry a a H - stu p E i w d a ) b h a a N w t a K - r u Estuary: p n h a t tc l e u S tr ( S ) a r n t e a w P o - L r u h p n tc a K tre ( S le j) d u a id n M a K - h i r tc h e Te tr ( S r e p p U ia f caus sciatu fa lisa o i C ald n rey . C carati a ram ru a g olia C a s u isom p lu trach a C b rias la C ala reba rig . m C s u irrhin C ila a aca c b u b . u C la ela h C s striatu . C talis orien . s C s liu tu aru m cta n . u C p a n a n a m h a C n a d ieri n a m h la C t ssu u ca d s tla u a C alm th h leop o B ola b elisis d . B en b s s riu a g a ariliu b B s riu a g a B sager . A ar son to a b ries A tes p la ocry a p h A g n a ee d s or n a . cu A a s y ch th a rich o A stom s to eu n la o in o d d o m n A n testu o d o as g b n a n ry A a h p ly b m A coila ilia A s e i c e p S Fish and fisheries The river is home for more than 140 fish 140 than more for home is river The h c t e r t S Gain zone, (Gradient 8 . 2 3 6 - 5 . 2 1 1 2 . 4 0 1 - 0 . 0 5 0 . 2 4 1 - 3 . 3 3 5 . 2 0 2 - 5 . 7 3 5 . 2 6 - 8 . 0 2 r e m m u S 244. ) .3 4 4 (2 ) .6 8 0 (1 67. ) .8 7 (6 ) .2 7 (4 ) .4 1 (7 ret 1 h tc e tr S + + + + + + + + + ------3 h -1 o rvr ag a dfeet stretches different at Ganga river of ) ret 2 h tc e tr S various stretches is given in Table 7 (Sinha, 7 Table in given is stretches various in available species important commercially of list The species. estuarine and freshwater both comprises stretch lower the whereas of the river comprise only fresh water species et al et + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------. 1998). . 0 . 5 2 1 - 8 . 0 2 9 . 1 7 1 - 9 . 6 8 1 . 7 7 1 - 8 . 0 2 n o o s n o M 9 . 2 7 - 0 . 5 3 7 . 3 9 - 8 . 0 2 124. ) .2 4 2 (1 50. ) .1 0 (5 ) .1 3 (4 ) .8 8 (6 ) .6 7 (8 ret 3 h tc e tr S + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------ret 4 h tc e tr S + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------5 . 7 3 1 - 9 . 6 4 2 . 4 0 1 - 0 . 0 5 5 . 2 4 1 - 0 . 5 1 5 . 7 8 1 - 7 . 1 3 1 . 8 7 - 1 . 9 3 r e t n i W 60. ) 3 .9 0 (6 95. ) .6 5 (9 ) .8 3 (6 ) .9 2 (7 ) .9 6 (8 ret 5 h tc e tr S + + + + + + + ------

9 Current Status of River Ganges 10 Current Status of River Ganges cdnts tile tis ycodon L tade . s L alu h i cep lu . L tu an p parsia s u iza th L racan tu ep L calcarifer ates L s iu gon . L asu calb . L a og b . L bata . L rohita s abeo L eticu g an g J. coitor s ta a iu g n n Joh lo e fossilis a stes Ilish s eu n ereu eh eterop n H n o d o ra rp ap a ch H a in m sia u an d m u G o n u ialosa ch n o s G ris teru iu g iop s ob G iu b o g la losso ty G o g a t a g rra a a a g ch G a v a t s a y g a th G m iich lu sis p cty tro a raten d u E su s tetra lu a trop em E eron th sca leu s E fu u s s lo g o leotris E n a y u s c g lin s latiu u . s C s s lo g latiu o n s y C eilu ch rosso C s e i c e p S . i aus s eatu iu lin s can P. siu a s g n su a to p lo P s siu a g n a s a P am ritu p iau a b am P es ilitaris oid m s tolith O eiosu en steog O o ab p . O s a d latu ab p acu . O im b ok p s m O la otopteru ita n ch . s N s su a teru p n to o sa N lo s to u a d em an N n s u d n a s N ittatu v . M ara g ten . M lio u g . M s leekeri siu b a v . ca M ia s ch cu stu y es s M oid teru rin op s p n o cy atu M s arm alop s eg elu M b cem sto s a l M calu ra a an p s u . h t M a n g cro a M ret 1 h tc e tr S + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------ret 2 h tc e tr S + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------ret 3 h tc e tr S + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------ret 4 h tc e tr S + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------ret 5 h tc e tr S + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------aaeaoss cltls P stylifera, stylifera, E. tenuipes P. mondon, P. indicus, P. semisulcatus, Expalaemon sculptilis, Metapenaeus brevicornis, M. monoceros, Penaeus malcolmsonii, M. Parapenaeopsis choprai, birmanicum M. recorded: also were prawns of species following the al 8 Aeae ac fo Gna ie sse a Alhbd n ifrn decades different in Allahabad at system river Ganga from catch Average 8. Table ago attu t t a o g etica la g l a an g W s ru iu Trich titora pu T. osal m T. a tor u Tor jarb on Terap a ra toli lu ilish y T. g a n s lo stro a u ra Ten lu y g n ia d tro s S silon iju an ia p ilon S sis op in scasia ca ilag S il g u icam S taty . S revifilis ii asa b h p son . S a ard n in rich etip x s S u ora rg a oth iz s ch u S g a lo h u p h p to ca a S m sto o lm a S la rsu rita co ita il a R g n u m o sselia in h ru R a d n co a R ticto P. ore h sop P. s tu la ola a ch ceo n P. saran la s tiu tes p n u a g P cry n o p ra a d s seu ssis P a b iseu d am ra d a p s seu P s icu u d em in n ly s o P lu acty d oly P s e i c e p S rth : er t Ka uj Stec 2 Ka ur o t ; rth : tnp t Kawa Stec 4 Naawi to ip A abadw N ’= 4: ‘+ le; tretch S ailab a; av atw K ot N to r ‘-’= pu ltan ar. u ag S S 3: to ia tretch S ald H a; : atn 5 P to r tretch S pu an K r); ou 2: arb h tretch d S on j; m au ia an (D K k to le aw b ch Tehri oy R : availa 1 s ie ec tretch sp S cila ish F n ca Total on d to en en X s 0 0 0 2 s 0 9 9 1 s 0 8 9 1 s 0 7 9 1 s 0 6 9 1 s 0 5 9 1 e d a c e D Along with the above mentioned species, arbahu lamarrei, Macrobrachium and t km ( ) g (k m /k h atc C 3 0 . 8 6 1 1 4 6 . 3 4 3 1 Leptocarpus fluminicola. 1 5 . 1 6 3 7 5 . 2 3 3 8 8 . 4 6 6 0 7 . 9 2 5 ret 1 h tc e tr S 4 3 + + + + + + + + + + + + ------ret 2 h tc e tr S 2000s (Table 8 and Fig. 2). Fig. and 8 (Table 2000s duringkg kg 362 to declined catch the whereas 1344 as high as was catch the 1950’s in the from data collected at out Allahabad centre depict that worked stretch of kilometer day.per by day catch averagedeclining The production and trends Catch b) 7 4 + + + + + + + + + + + + ------h cth rm h rvr ag is Ganga river the from catch The ret 3 h tc e tr S 3 6 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------ret 4 h tc e tr S ia le. ailab v 6 5 + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------ret 5 h tc e tr S 5 4 + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------11 Current Status of River Ganges 12 Current Status of River Ganges ie ae oty nieos non- The conditions. local suit to designed been indigenous, for except built, mechanized boat in few stretches. mostly They have locally and mechanized are river crafts Fishing e) stretch. this in used also are traps and line and hook net, scoop gears Other gears. basal chatberjal ( net seine net, drag various types of gill nets ( net and traps. In the lower stretch of Ganga, are cast line, and hookwidely operated, besides the nets drag In and nets gill stretch, observed. middle no was where fishery stretch organised uppermost the in gear in given is Ganga of 9. Table zone in gears prevalent freshwater most of list The catch. species, but mostly a gear takes multispecies etc. captured, be to fishes desired current, water conditions such as, estuarine depth of water, prevalent and riverine stretches. They are designed to suit the local the in operation gear Fishing d) 1999). (Sinha, harvested is potential the of 15.2% only ha/year.Thus, kg/ 30 is yield fish actual the whereas year, kg/ha/ 198.3 at estimated is reaches, lower in Allahabad at production system actual and Potential c) river Ganga from catch decades different Average 2. Fig. dongas raftsand riverthe are boat usedfor the in fishing of types primitive most and simplest h fsig ot ue truhu the throughout used boats fishing The main the be to found was line and Hook Some of them are selective for a particular in are gears fishing of types Various its in Ganga, of potential production The , us nt ( net purse ), , , operated in calm waters. In the larger dp r it e ( net lift or dip ) aga jal sangla viz., ohl knjl berjal, konajal, kochal, falling net (cast net), (cast falling net chandijal, chandijal, phansijal aa aa; nauka basal; gara ae h main the are ) ), having own boat varied from 38% in upper in 38% from varied boat own having fishers of fishing percentage The in families. nuclear change to towards pattern due demographic and practices was It 2006). (CIFRI, increased the had boats 1960s of to availability comparison in that Ganga of revealed stretches different in fisherman was very rare. very was institution any from support credit open access, and co-operatives of case In inputs. the purchase to contractors finance them provided also the Further, gears. and boats reduce would own their prefer to them led it income; their which anyone, with catch low,is their wantshare notto did so,fishers remuneration the regime, private of case In boats. the particularly requisites, the share to preferred thus association, greater have and operation of area limited have fishers of returns. degree In case of co-operatives, fisheries their the member their influenced which own fishing, for increased freedom It their have requisites. to preferred fishers the anywhere, fishing of facility this To access. open availsofor not was it while was limited operation for co-operative and of private regimes, area The co-operatives. owned and was private by followed access crafts open under of percentage The highest net. of type this use parties, generally which professional hired by fishing to due operations net drag the was it regime of open access and co-operatives. For private most case in lines and hook by followed that nets gill were regimes the all revealed under gear 10) prevalent (Table regimes Katiha, management fisheries and various under (Sinha 2001) systems river Ganga stretch. middle in 89% to stretch nte suy n ifrn srths of stretches different in study Another tin or wood. or tin had they small to large boats made of Ghazipur either to Kanpur Bihar from stretch middle the in while of state the generally had small wooden boat, in stretch are tin ofriver fishers The (CIFRI, boats 2006). or wood Ganga of made The river generally in tidal used. operated are and boats built plank current sturdier movements, to subject strong estuaries and rivers The The information on boat(s) per Table 9. Fishing gear prevalent in Ganga river system with period of operation and probable catch

Type of gear L o c a l n a m e Period of operation River conditions Probable catch Drag net With pocket C h a n t a After monsoon months Mild current, turbid water, Medium sized carps, A o r ich t h y s sp p ., Wallago attu, receding flood phase Rita rita, Channa sp p . Without pocket M a h a j a l Round the year, except Clear water with clean sandy Large sized carps, A o r ic h th y s sp p . N. c h ita la , monsoon months b o t t o m B. bagarius , other misc. catch C h a u n d h i Winter months till river Clean sandy bottom without C. mrigala, Aorichthys sp p., Wallago attu, Rita rita, receives freshets sludge, clear water B. bagarius G h a n a li Pre-and post-monsoon Turbid water with mild current, Medium sized misc. fishes G . ch a p ra ; m o n t h s even sandy bottom S. phasa; Chela spp.; minor carps, et c. D o d a n d i Mostly summer months Feeble current, clear water Medium sized misc. fishes G. chapra; S. phasa; Chela sp p .; minor carps, A . m o rar , E. vacha; C. garua, Mugil sp p . etc. Gill net G o c h a i l Monsoon months, except Fast current , turbid water Large sized fishes, major carps, A o r ic h t h y s sp p . W .a t t u , in heavy floods B. bagarius ; et c. R a n g a Round the year except in Mild current with clean sandy M ostly A o rich th y s sp p . monsoon, mostly in pre- river bottom monsoon months P h a s l a Round the year except in Slow current, clear stagnant Medium to large sized major carps, minor carps, m o n s o o n w a t e r E. vacha; C. garua, Aorichthys sp p . Purse net K a m e l Pre-monsoon and early Fast current, clear water Medium and large sized major carps, minor carps, H ils a winter months ilisha, Aorichthys sp p . an d R ita rita Hook & Line J o r Round the year, mainly in Fast current with turbid water A o rich th y s spp . E. vacha; C. garua, W.attu, R.rita m o n s o o n Cast net Bhanwar jal Round the year Small sized mixed catch, occasionally large sized fishes Scoop net J a li Post monsoon and winter Clear to turbid water with mild Juveniles of carps and catfishes, small sized misc. m o n t h s c u r r e n t fishes, shrimp Trap K u riar Post monsoon and winter Clear water and sandy bottom Large sized carps, A o rich th y s sp p .; B. bagarius G o p a l J a l Summer months Clear water and sandy bottom Exclusively used for Aorichthys seenghala an d A o r ic h t h y s a o r S ir k i Summer months Clear waters at river turnings Shrimp, small miscellaneous fishes

Seth and Katiha, 2003 13 Current Status of River Ganges 14 Current Status of River Ganges oit. h ae itiuin f h fisher the of distribution age The society. a in prevailing equity gender of extent and proportion adult minor the that expresses Demography a) revealed 2006) observations. (CIFRI, following Ganga river of VI. system river Ganga in used gears different of Percentage 10. Table frvr Ganga river of 3. Ageof and distribution sex-wiseFig. fishercommunity . 2 . 1 . o n The The age distribution and sex composition fishers the of status socio-economic The l. S F ishers andishers their status t t a o b n w o ers fish ith of w cent er P s r e h t O line and ook H t e n st a C et n rag D ars et e n g f o ill G e p ers ty fish ith of w cent er P nput rofile p t u p In a k k a r a to F r u p n a K , a g n a G y t r e p o r p n o m m o C 4 6 . 9 7 7 3 . 4 2 4 1 . 8 1 6 0 . 7 6 9 5 . 6 8 7 . 7 ihr rprin f ios 5% than (55%) minors of proportion higher comparatively showed 3.) (Fig. community education, from girl’sabout parents of ignorance activities childhood, economic household and poverty, to domestic in children attributed female of involvement be may scenario the sex groups of both the states. The overall across trend similar the the followed to also level and level literacy secondary. The higher of maximum primary to up literate level of fisher community. Most of them w small. was rate literacy in difference the while it was vice versa for females, although, literate of males in Uttar Pradesh was more than Bihar, percentage The 4.). (Fig. males (19%) indicating females were far behind the female and (52%) male between difference Literacy b) females. the for attention social and care health poor The lower ratio groups. was primarily age due to gender other bias, the all years, less for was one it than <5 and group age year and <5 in one only above 15-29 was ratio sex The groups respectively. age the in males 1000 per females 1053 to 656 from (45%). adults h t to a p r i a n g a a P N a n u m Ya , a n u m Ya e t a v i r P The figure also revealed very poor literacy Literacy rates were low with a significant The sex ratio across the age groups varied m e t s y S 3 1 . 2 6 3 7 . 1 2 3 2 . 2 3 7 2 . 6 5 2 6 . 5 2 0 . 5 etc. d to a b e a g z ra i r a a F B a r g a h G , a r g a h G e v ti a r e p o o C 0 0 . 5 2 0 0 . 0 2 0 2 . 4 3 4 1 . 7 1 4 1 . 7 5 6 8 . 2 ere ate floe b cmne ad with and bricks. cemented by followed was states earthen the both in type Floor houses. having percent higher with Pradesh in Bihar was comparatively better than Uttar kachha and hut in lived community fishing the of Most living. of standard of indicators major standard Living c) conditions affected their health and quality and health their affected conditions housing crowded Such room. a in adjust to had persons 3-6 mostly that indicated room i. . ieay ae n lvl f ihr omnt of community fisher of Ganges level river and rate Literacy 4. Fig. n nme o pros e ro (%) room per houses persons of community fisher number of and type The 11. Table 7 > 6 - 5 4 - 3 s n so r e 3 p < f o r e b m u N a c c u P i Sem d an e p t u ty H e r tu c s tru r S a l u c i t r a P Housing one are characteristics the of the T he estimates for number of persons per persons of number for estimates he a c c u P tiled houses (Table 11). The situation The (Table11). houses tiled a h h c a k tiled t h s e d a r P r tta U 8 . 4 2 6 . 2 2 7 . 6 3 9 . 5 1 6 . 1 2 0 . 9 6 4 . 9 r a h i B pucca 3 . 4 2 6 . 5 2 1 . 4 3 0 . 6 1 2 . 2 3 4 . 1 1 3 . 6 5 goods and services are distributed within a within distributed are services these and goods way the and people the to available services and goods of quantity and quality community. fisher by utilised land unclaimed for versa vice was it while Pradesh, Uttar to compared as land community shared had households Bihar of proportion Greater small. holding also was the size and states both for 25% than group households having own land was less fishing of Proportion purpose. productive few utilised unclaimed land for and domestic land and shared or own had them of some states. the of both The for same less room. or more a was scenario in lived persons seven than of life. In one fourth of the households, more mn te ihr. eae irto was migration Female fishers. the among retailing. fish by followed activity principal the as business reported was (62%) Bihar in while Pradesh, Uttar in allied activity (65%) was the principal activity general and fishing labour. by In case of followed females (48-57%) rivers in fishing was Uttar in harvesting Pradesh. agricultural and to participationof allied in females activities at 455 and 351, respectively. This may be due females to comparison in Bihar for 696 and Pradesh Uttar for 666 between ranged male for ratio average The Ganga. river for (431) females than (673) males for values higher of number as persons employed computed per 1000 persons indicated (WPRs) Ratios Employment d) community.their of 75% over water, for poor very is fishers of living of standard drinking etc. of ownership of land, source livestock, durable goods, for fuel main cooking, lighting, of source was facility, index toilet type, house for scoring by composite calculated This population. h Sadr o lvn rfr t the to refers living of Standard The and less land were fishers the of Most irto ws omn phenomenon common was Migration The principal activity among fisher males Population Worker of estimates The t s hrfr, ocue ta the that concluded therefore, is It 15 Current Status of River Ganges 16 Current Status of River Ganges hlsl o rti mre, wholesaling, market, retail or centre/ wholesale landing to catch of transportation includes The catch fishers; by catch fish fish of Disposal operations: purposes. Ganga of non-edible marketing for used or either is methods traditional by it processed and dried of quantity negligible A form. most of the riverine catch India, is consumed in the fresh In process. production fish or other concerned or people after completion of fishing fishers by either conducted were pricing and Market f) highest (8%). intoxicants items by non-food followed (9%) medical on were expenses Among vegetables (7%). by followed (37%) cereals was non-food on items. 34% The major and food item of food the expenditure on 66% spent fishers average, an On Table 12. in depicted expenditureon non-foodfood and are items pattern Expenditure e) including labour. unskilled activities for percentage higher the all for common unskilled activities. Male migration was very g al 1. ne f e cpt motl epniue n od n nnfo ie fr fisher for s item non-food and food on expenditure onthly m Ganges capita per river of of ange R community 12. Table r and packaging en h rvrn fs mreig operations marketing fish riverine The monthly capita per for ranges The rlyfrsotdrto n eae to related and duration short for erally t nt cants n a ic x l to s ta in To m d te i n a r o e c c th a O b to , n a P g n i s th le o l C rtic a t ile To l a c i d e n M o ti a t c h u lig d E and el u F s food m ite Total od fo fish r e th and O egg eat M s t i u s r e F l b a cts t e u g e rod V p oil ilk ts m c ible u Ed s d d te ro an p d ilk stitu n b M a u s s d lse n u a P s l a re e C m e t I etaili ng. aclto o pybe mut y the by amount payable without as weighing. bidder highest issame of calculation and auction for process the system, second the In price. bid highest and lotof weight of payable by bidder is calculated as the product the lot is to be weighed after bid. The amount paid by be the bidder, will but, for price per unit bid bid price, highest the lot, whole for is fish basis, of unit per on lot segregated or lot whole for either bidding by auctioned the of system, whole former the In weighing. after lots by auction ii) and weighing auction without lots by i) auctioning: e.g. of systems two buyers are the to There consumers. bulk or vendors retailers, display for ready is catch. The riverine auctioning process starts when the catch the of auctioning through is tm. Ti my rvd a ae for base a provide in detailed may This time. first for observations the analysed these So, were bodies). water other from landings catch total (including on the data the emphasized collect need to arrivals market total in process. auction be auctioned isbefore weighed beginning of to fish of lot the that is difference only The The The The declining proportion of riverine catch hl ndiur Rs.) (R re itu d en p x e ly th n o m rcn o fs cth a primarily was catch fish of pricing n o pe cpita cap er p of e ang R 65 .6 2 8 3 - 8 6 . 1 5 2 0 .1 9 4 2 - 6 1 . 3 6 1 7 4 . 1 3 1 - 1 6 . 7 8 vestigations on changing role of role changing on vestigations 3 0 . 2 3 - 5 6 5 . 4 . 3 0 1 2 - 7 8 . 2 1 3 7 . 3 4 - 7 8 . 6 1 9 3 . 1 3 - 0 5 . 3 1 1 6 . 6 1 - 0 3 . 1 1 8 5 . 9 2 - 6 2 1 . 6 . 6 9 1 1 - 7 5 . 1 1 6 5 . 0 1 - 3 6 . 1 7 6 . 4 2 - 2 2 . 7 4 7 . 7 1 - 3 4 . 9 00-1.37 3 . 1 - 0 .0 0 6 1 . 8 - 4 .2 5 6 9 . 3 - 0 .0 0 9 9 . 7 - 2 .8 1 i.e. per kg. In case of bid of case In kg. per al 1. ifrn fs mreig hnes n ieie fisheries riverine in channels marketing fish Different 13. Table in Table 13. Table in given are system river Ganga in marketing fish for observed channels marketing purpose. The table for fish culture to farmers fish the of priority the and system, riverine size of the small prevalent gears mesh the in and nature the reveals bodies water other on size-wise catch observation composition from The rivers and (65%). maximum the other for while contributed fish mediumsized bodies water (76%), fishes of sized dominance small indicated catch riverine of composition catch for size-wise The rivers. the while 80%, from was 49% about species over fish remaining contributed catfishes, of rivers case In rivers. from 3% only of leaving 97% bodies water other from were About carps waters. fishery other from 70.2% remaining and catch riverine the was 29.8% landings, fish total of Out collected. was river than its other waters and and tributaries Ganga river from arrivals market fish on data The production. fish in rivers hrceiig hi rltosis for comm domestic, relationships of their purpose characterizing is interests stakeholders’ key assure to The concept membership. area social definite as with units stretch customary river riparian local the of for have ownership which uses population, multiple also It exception. has an way no in is system river Ganga property resource and common river Ganga in system regimes management I g) . 0 1 . 9 . 8 . 7 . 6 . 5 . 4 . 3 2 1 Traditionally, the rivers are managed as managed are rivers Traditionally, the piain fdfeetpoet and property different of mplications sherman a m r e h is F an erm ish F n a m r e sh i F n a rm e sh i n F a m r e h is F n a m r e sh i F n a rm e sh i F an erm ish n F a m r e h is n F a m r e h is F dealer et er le i ta re m u c r e l a e d l a c o L oper ive s ty e i c so e v ti ra e p -o ty o ie C c o s e tiv a r e p o - o C r le a e d l a c o L ssi t n e g a n io s is m m o c m u c r e l a s e l o h W ract / Cont or cum wholesaler e l a s e l o h w m u c r to c a tr n o C r/ to c a tr n o C ailer e l i ta e R r e m u s n o C cl ae/ cl elr um cmmiso ge t en ag ission m com m cu dealer ocal L ealer/ d ocal L -peaie society erative o-op C r e m u s n o C r e m u s n o C r e m u s n o C es er ss t n e g a n o si is m m o c m u c r le sa le o h W ril and ercial ract / r or r e l a s e l o h w m u c r to c tra n o C / r to c a tr n o C si t n e g a n io ss i m m o c m u c r e l a s e l o h W ns er m su on C r e m u s n o C ih tc o rvr ag, sac and scarce a Ganga, river of stock fish The purposes. different or same with users other of interests the in encroachment any the exploit to resource in tolerable limits, in order to avoid users the all restrict It would resources. protecting the worth water or valuable clarify and scarce of must use collective of perceptions regimes industry, property the sand fishing transporters, of irrigation), for members water (cutting agriculture like community, livelihood, their for rivers on depend who individuals the or users commercial the the with But lies crux depth. and width stretches sufficient the with in manner, sustainable a in and drainage purposes, may be safeguarded resource, the interests of users with domestic use, drainage r te tt poet ad aiu river various and property state and the are rights fishing regime management Ownership, h) syste management and rights property different Ganga river fishing alone is discussed under other simplicity,For exercise. cumbersome very the a all be would it of But, rights. use water multiple context in exploitation etc. con dam abstraction, water fishers of interests through in invasion human followed had declining trend over past resource few decades due to natural valuable h cnttet ies f ag system Ganga of rivers constituent The It emphasized the need to discuss fish discuss to need the emphasized It struction, river training, sedimentation, training, river struction, ms. ailer e l i ta e R ailer e l i ta e R etc. etc. To diffuse this situation, this diffuse To r e m u s n o C The river being a fluvial a being river The ns er m su on C ail r le i ta e R r e m u s n o C ail r le i ta e R umer e m su n o C ail r le i ta e R 17 Current Status of River Ganges 18 Current Status of River Ganges ) h fsig ihs ne different under rights regimes fishing The i) and regimes Table14. in summarized are stretches different under duties and rights of terms and framework institutional co-operatives. its under toFaizabad) Barrage (Ghagra Ghagra and access Panipat) under private (contractor) and river open to Yamuna (YamunaNagar river tributaries under Farakka) to (Kanpur Ganga river of stretches include These 14). (Table co-operatives and private of these management regimes, each in stretch one selecting made been has regimes management these under fishery activities of account comparative A parties. private or co-operatives to leased are where these exceptions some with access, open in are stretches river the of most viewpoint fisheries From limits. territorial in biomass fish the apportion to difficult is it resource, renewable migratory being fish and fluvial being rivers The for stretches. these in policies fishing varied adopted departments panchayats, village forestry, revenue, fisheries, of departments to belong st aaeet y h co-operative. the by management fisheries about complaint serious some was likely to be renewed every year, unless there the stretches were leased for one year, Generally, but it was co-operatives. of to stretches powers the and in fisheries regarding rights decision-making the all conferred the out stretch leased to fisheries co-operative societies, and government state regime, state management co-operative Under the regime. this in ceased and inevitably with systems authority arrangements was institutional river, the stock of magnitude vast to due but governments, fish of conservation of responsibility and fisheries responsible for Act Fisheries Indian under regulations were there anywhere, Although, anytime. fish to anyone allowed which enterprise, fishing to entry free one. was any There to access free a has biomass fish ece wti o bten h states the between or within retches In open access, as the name indicates, the the In name as open access, the comparison wishful a have To i.e. open access, etc. These The eie fsig ihs etd ih fishers, with the rested all rights In fishing regimes him. to suited best and terms conditions on fishers the to rights fishing the transferred contractoror higher lessee The bid. with others, to transferred be may or person same with continue may lease the so, auction, open an was there As auction. open on based year one of period a for out leased was stretch The case. later the in out leased was stretch the whom to individual the with rested making decision and rights fishing transfer to power and rights fishing that was regime management private and exclusion. The this by abide to duty the fishing. had non-members from non-members exclude and right fish to the had ofsociety members clothes, drinking water, drinking clothes, uses water to multiple have due stretches river the All stock. stretch, fishery river of the improper monitoring and exploitation of of fish degradation resources overall to of led department one This claim than and more by area. rights ownership the fishing in of duplicity tension great to led outby twooffices todifferent parties, same which within In some stretches be the same stretch was leased districts. different also in operating department was on conflict the so ownership different, be also may riverof the districts banks the bothon since, Furthermore, stretch. same on village claim their forestry, disputed as more than one department stated revenue, panchayat, fisheries, departments various with was stretch as regimes. management co-operative intense and private also under stretches other were to compared activities and fishing biomass, fish in rich was access open requirements. day to day their meet to water use to people non-fishing the allow and limits, acceptable socially within but they had to perform the fishing activities The only difference between cooperative between difference only The The The ownership of different portions of the with Ganga river of stretch studied The i.e. etc. , for fishing, bathing, washing bathing, fishing, for , Some of these portions were these of Some etc. e.g. eie, h cnrcos msl fish (mostly fishermen local management contractors engaged generally traders), the co- private these For regimes, for extent. fluctuated operatives. great a fishermen by to varied Accordingly,timespent and fishing the area society to leased stretches of length The their stretch. own in fished mostly fishers member the co-operatives of case In stretches. different of fishers the the between upon relationship mutual depended largely It area. their in fish to started to fishers migrating due fishers the prohibiting local but catch, fish seventies, declining mid till river in the where any fish can fishermen of group or ) fisherman individual 1 access, 0 open under 0 2 , a atih K d an a h in S j) The exploitation under regimes different from ified d o (M al 1. ihre isiuinl ragmns n ag rvr system river Ganga in arrangements institutional Fisheries 14. Table sysem ste y s t n e m e g a n a M e m i g re t h rig rty e p o r P h tc e tr s r e iv R srbuto pr fits ro p f o tion u istrib D e th h r tc a fo c n tio fish ra e n u m e R t n e of m y ode a m p s and e isite u q Tim re r fo s rie e ts n e fish m e g n a rr A d o ri e p g stin e rv a lease H of r te a w ration u g D s in e k th lo rin c D g ) in iv ash W g iii) in th a B ii) g ishin F in le i) tip yes l u if m ses, in u r e th e h W eadn te aaeet regimes, management the Regarding m e t I aton tio ra e n u m e r s a y l n O e r a h s d e e id g c e ta n -d e c re r p e p p n u o o r g d e ase b th in ith W atch c f of o l day sa o the isp d on cash d In e r a h S / l a u d i v i d n I n o o s in n ith o w m r eriod a p e y e lean th d n u o R — s e Y s e Y s e Y s e Y p u ro r/ g e r e fish l fish t a a u y id a h iv c d n a In P y, e tr g s e a f l r o o il F V / ts e n u e n e v rtm e a p R e d te ta S a to k k r u a p r n a a F K a, g an G ty r e p o r p n o m m o C he year ith w r a e y e th d n u o R r a e y e n O s e Y s e Y s e Y s e Y r o t t c a a y r a t h n c o n a C P e stry, g a re f l o o F il V / ts e n u e n e rtm v e a p R e t d a ip te n a ta P S a to n u r m a g Ya a N , a n u m Ya el f ntacor cto tra on c of ly le o S of h c g k t a c er p / s e g r alty a h roy c r u o b a l B sh a c in ly, / th n ly o k M e e /W ly i a D r to c tra n o C + elf S n o o s in n o m eriod p lean ots Te ny xeto ws h co- the was operative stretch. The exception water level of the only river The months. lean period or closed season during monsoon regimes extended almost round the year with The fishing period under all the management smaller catch. maximum the to dragnets, have mesh use are generally, harvesting used fish for gears fishing comparatively the less mild. The parties engaged future, for certainty no is there and year, one is period for but years, the contractor under private regime, as the lease over fishing to have continue they as regulations, size fish and mesh the follow to try and practices fishing the mild adopted cooperatives and measures, access open and conservation of up exploitation fishing. of follow for level the parties Regarding professional the or sd o refixed p on ased e t a v i r P e m i g e R ober t anuary a u n Ja to r e b to c O r a e y e n O s e Y s e Y s e Y s e Y e v i t a r e p o - o n e C t m a r y e a h h c s n i a F P y, e tr g s e a f l r o o il F V / ts e n u e n e v rtm e a d p R a e b d a iz a te F ta S to a r e g g a a h rr G a B , a r g a h G s r e b m e m g n o m A of kg h er c p t a c rice of p arket fixed/% m on Based ash c in ly k e /We aily D e v i t a r e p o - o C and rh t J e n Ju to arch M e v i t a r e p o - o C 19 Current Status of River Ganges 20 Current Status of River Ganges under open access followed by private and private by followed access open under owned was crafts of percentage highest The professional net. typeof thisuse generally which parties, hired by operations to due fishing net drag the was it regime private For co-operatives. and access open of case in lines and hook by followed nets gill were under regimes the all under gears returns prevalent Most 15. Table net in depicted are and regimes different structure different cost under profile s e im g re input-output The k) January. to October and June to March to limited was stretch the in fishing The levels. water high is it as year, very under fish to uneconomic the and difficult over period fishing the reduced it so, gates barrage of opening to observed high fluctuations over the year, due atr o ipt ue, ihn efforts, fishing used, inputs of Pattern al 1. nu-upt rfl udr ifrn mngmn regimes management different under profile Input-output 15. Table Modiid fo nha nd Kai 2001) 1 0 0 2 , a atih K d an a h in S from ified d o (M th per a l kg/ ar) e /y g (k ar) ily s/Ye fam y a r d e n p a (M atch rt C r) a ffo e oat s/Ye g b y a utput in d O n n a ow fish (M al ith r u w u n n o b A rs e la d fish ire of H t cen er P r e h t line O and ook H t ears e g n of st a e C et typ n ith w rag D et n fishers ill of G cent er P profile Input nput put atio ra ) g t k u tp er u o s/p t (R u ar) e p y s In rn r r) tu e a re e (p y s et r N e rn (p retu s rn et N tu ) re (kg ss ed ro G receiv rice P ts i f ar) e e n y e B r st e o c (p l ta ost c To ear) y le er (p Variab cost ixed F s t s o C benefits g) and (k ay Costs d er p atch C m e t I nus I cs f ooeaie ad open the and co-operatives of purchase case In to inputs. also finance them contractor the provided Further, gears. and their reduce income. It led them to would prefer their own boats which anyone, with catch their share to want not did fishers so, of private regime, the remuneration was low, the requisites, particularly boats. the In case share to preferred thus association, greater fishers had limited area of operation and had of returns. In case of degree co-operatives, the member their their influenced fisheries which fishing, for freedom own increased It their requisites. have to preferred fishers the anywhere, fishing of facility this To access. open availsofor not was it while was limited for co-operative and operation private regimes, of area The co-operatives. ces ytm, rdt upr fo any rare. very from was institution support credit systems, access 1 4 . 9 6 8 9 3 2 9 . 8 8 4 4 3 n o m m o C y t r e p o r p 2 5 . 9 1 6 4 1 2 . 2 1 7 1 1 3 . 7 0 9 2 7 6 . 1 3 4 1 2 8 . 1 8 2 6 8 . 0 2 9 0 . 4 2 4 6 . 9 7 7 3 . 4 2 4 1 . 8 1 6 0 . 7 6 9 4 . 7 8 0 . 5 9 5 . 6 8 7 . 7 — 8 5 . 6 5 6 4 1 2 0 . 2 0 9 9 6 5 . 4 5 7 4 9 3 . 7 3 7 1 7 1 . 7 1 0 3 e t a v i r P e m i g e R 2 0 . 0 8 7 4 2 . 3 9 2 9 6 . 2 1 9 7 . 8 1 8 2 . 6 9 3 1 . 2 6 3 7 . 1 2 3 2 . 2 3 7 2 . 6 5 0 9 . 2 6 6 . 2 2 6 . 5 2 0 . 5 3 4 . 1 7 3 1 4 1 3 . 8 0 1 3 1 e v i t a r e p o 1 9 . 6 3 7 1 8 4 . 1 5 4 1 3 4 . 5 8 2 6 4 . 6 7 3 3 6 . 7 4 1 1 2 . 0 3 2 8 . 4 3 0 0 . 5 2 0 0 . 0 2 0 2 . 4 3 4 1 . 7 1 4 1 . 7 5 - o C 5 5 . 7 5 5 . 2 6 8 . 2 — ac o lcl ihr a sm fxd rate/ fixed some at fishers local of catch the remunerated generally contractors The respective mode under regimes. It and may be daily, weekly or monthly. payments catch for of adopted disposal of pattern the upon depended largely payments and For requisites. remuneration the co-operatives and private these sharing other the fisheries than fishermen share higher and got nets and boat effort the having fishermen The in requisites. contribution of basis the on were These access. open of case in best the were profits of distribution inputs. of sharing and effort fishing lower to due be might co-operative of case in cost the river these over affected year. The lower in present stock fish the and level water of height and under Fluctuations regimes. fishers the different the or by in put fishing effort of be fishing intensity may to observations attributed These operatives. co- for low very while regimes, private and access foropen similar almost structurewas forthe was maximum The cost open access. co-operative; while annual and per day catch and access open by followed regime private regime. The co-operatives The directly regime. dispos private the under were estimates these for most the regime values lowest The access. open by followed co-operative favoured rights on the fishing fishers’ income. and These estimates regimes management these of may be recognised as the indicator of impact regime they were deprived of these benefits. access and co-operatives, while under private were passed on to fishers the in ofcase open capital. It revealed that the marketing benefits share their to according fishers member the among distributed are profits The services. society,commissionby the forrenderingthe of deduction after price, market of cent per of term in co- was remuneration of the operatives case In fishers. the with profits the share not did himself trader fish the being Contractor basis. share on be may it party fishing hired of case in But, kg. per royalty The price per kg received by the fishers the by received kg per price The and catch for remuneration The T he annual fishing effort was highest for highest was effort fishing annual he ed ooeaie te ot olwd y open by followed most the co-operatives favoured catch of kg per income net the but access open for regime followed by co-operative and private, maximum were returns and remuneration price. market of minimum benefits the of deprived the the got they so, kg, per loyalty regime, rate/ fixed of term private in wholesaler’s catch fishers’ the remunerated In contractor of deduction commission. after price auction the received fishermen and markets wholesale the in auctioned were catches the functions, much betterreceived prices. In access, open marketing eliminating the all marketintermediaries, so the themselves society performed the of members The town. nearby at or market local in catch the nesv arclue auclue and of aquaculture result direct agriculture, a as are intensive losses either These India. occurring of basins river are undergoing in major changes drastic or lost been either have resources aquatic Extensive capacity. carrying their beyond benefits provided by these natural systems the exploited population human growing destroyed orbeen India as in have altered, Valuation a) fisheries VII. the push are already off. well the who traders, uplift fish would to fluent economically down more It income downtrodden the broaden inequalities. to disequilibrium fisheries would accelerate the that process of social revealed riverine in rights fishing the ofprivatization and of different regimes for extent catch management and fish of efficiency remuneration working the estimated ratio for private regime. It depicted the of times 2.5 than more were ratios these for value their as private the over regimes superiorityof co-operativesaccess and open the indicated also ratios output input The regime. private the for least the and access, h gos n nt nul n pr day per and annual net and gross The In the recent past riverine eco-systems riverine past recent the In Valuation, conservation and sustainable 21 Current Status of River Ganges 22 Current Status of River Ganges eco-systems operate at sub-optimal levels. sub-optimal at operate eco-systems conflict and as a result most of the time these government policies can result in created inefficient use and objectives However, be social conflict. conflicting can use These natural as terrain). treated and coast rivers, spatial is location of of majority of aquatic because systems pressure (along particularly use inevitable, multiple The different functions. with conflicts use multiple have that these resources are multifunctional and in fact the to related is use inefficiency eco-system aquatic Social failures. policy and systems has largely been the these result of market of eco- utilization aquatic of misutilization The resources. with associated cost social the about understanding inadequate socially and not is way.optimal have users eco-system Aquatic economically network in basin managed river the and outside within eco-system aquatic of number large this, Despite values. conservation and environmental assets with high preservation process pressures, degradation abiotic and biotic parameters, hydrological with associated slow disposal waste through industrial and domestic siiaie aaiy ccig f nutrients of cycling capacity, assimilative in pollution services, supporting services life of terms function water and soil fish, animals, plants, of form in benefits tangible and represent 2003). may housing for 1997, irreversible(Marothia policydecisions complexes India of commercial parts example some 1995).For in bodies water urban of infilling complete (Marothia India of parts many in benefits monetary smaller for sacrificed or been have benefits social result completely a As been uses. land other to converted partially have been has eco-systems semi-natural and natural as eco-systems encouraged of modification etc. complex, industrial and residentialoutput, eco-system possible development values, of number a expression, unlike market available readily any the aquatic eco-systems generally do not have qai eoytm gnrly provide generally, ecosystem, Aquatic of values preservation and Conservation valuable are ecosystems Aquatic cnmcly nfiin habitat inefficient Economically e.g. value of agriculture etc. cniuu dcie Bsd n h daily the on Based decline. continuous a on is system river this in available water of volume the water, of abstraction continued increased to Resultant km. 15,000 over is total length network of in canal Ganga basin The intensive. very is system river Ganga of of rivers rate all almost The from water of Ganga. abstraction from landing fish in restoration and Conservation b) economic total valuation. of framework conceptual economic value. To this end, we now discuss principle, based on a full appreciation of total in be, should eco-system aquatic of Benefits basin. river of framework broad the in itself often ecosystem of boundaries the ecosystems beyond extend Many atmosphere. the in gases of balance the of maintenance and and, thus, lossand, in productivityof system. the interface soil-water of blanketing Patna), to (origin zone freshwater the of part major in bed river of ‘desertification’ in resulted has catchments, in deforestation to due caused sedimentation, of rate likely High this. the for be cause to appear fishing, with coupled irrational modifications, course river and abstraction water increased annually), barrage. of form high rate of Farakka sedimentation (616 million the tones in above aberrations Environmental river of zone and benthos), is clearly evident in freshwater (planktons communities biotic other of that both with qualitatively,along production, and quantitatively fish a in decline expectation, gradual normal to Contrary 1985. post implemented was which I, Phase Plan: period this during Action to ofdueto Ganga appears be effects quality water better comparatively The organisms. food fish and any serious pollution, which could affect fish out during 1995-96 by the CIFRI did not carried indicate Studies 1985-90. during river was it of quality what than 1995-96, during observed water Ganga, in The general a improvement 1995. indicates to health 1975 environmental during m 4 about by of declined period had availability) (the water maximum September to Allahabad at July Ganga during river Water of level water Central the of Commission, it has data been estimated that mean water-level There has been gradual to sharp decline sharp to gradual been has There in the plains, resulted in decreased runoff. decreased in resulted plains, the in the catchments of river in Ganga, which years is more the over precipitation in Decrease river months. monsoon Ganga the during the breed system of fishes the of IMC. Majority the of breeding in failure of because of failure The recruitment of 2004. young ones to the system to was 1994 during Ganga to 27ml of 1960s the during index 2984ml from declined availability spawn the that indicated 2004 to 1994 Reports Annual CIFRI and (1989) Natarajan recruitment. the species. migratory of fishery affecting a is glaring example of river-course modification commissioning, its after barrage, immediately Farakka above hilsa of fishery in (hilsa and freshwater prawns). Sharp decline course River of modifications grounds. have affected migratory inundation species breeding non to original due affected been also has fishes The several of system. process breeding the biotic inhabiting several for communities loss habitat in resulted has which sources. flows, the has decreased drastically abstraction water and allochthonous Sedimentation from being drained nutrients of result the is stretch this in water river the of productivity available In v aiu tmeaue n hs st this the in of temperature increase the maximum with but fishes these for suitable not temperature were °C 17.5 of maximum conditions earlier the with stretch upper cool The stretch. lower the of a it making Himalayan Ganga fishes water warm for the habitat conducive river upper the of the stretches in temperature Ganga. This may be due to rise in maximum in species fish the of distribution in shift is (Sinha stretch Haridwar giuris Glossogobius is available between Tehri and Rishikesh and them Among 2007). the upper cold-water stretch upto Tehri (Das, from being recorded now are (1954) Menon by reported as 1950s in Ganga middle and lower the in available only predominantly 2007). (Das, available not now is IMC of and flow breeding for essential water the of required turbidity the consequence a As nme o fs seis hc were which species fish of number A on depends rivers the in production Fish iew iew of this, it can be said that the present Mastacembalus armatus Mastacembalus s vial i the in available is et al., et 1998). There 1998). ec to retch catch catch and non availability of alternate source in reduction With effort. unit the per catch the drop to led increased gradually which effort fishing fishing mass for suitable gear and crafts fishing of development by followed fish, for demand and population Increased fishing pressure by the ever increasing fisher encroachment. and water abstraction degradation, environment fishing, habitations, development, serving livelihood,suffers fromunregulated human industrial is and which with civilization Ganga, like associated river mighty the fisheries Sustainable c) 2007). (Das, 2005 during to 1975 6°C by increased has temperature water Maximum fishes. water warm the to 25. liters of industrial waste are added to this to added are waste industrial of liters animal mainly carcasses, cattle. Another 260 million of thousands with along river, the into directly goes - day per liters over billion 1.3 are - sewage their villages of all of Nearly situated. thousands and towns 70 scenario Pollution a) VI plan to river management resource the effective from implement yields sustainable and levels exploitation population, fish the on also is acute paucity there of the sound Ganga, empirical information in studied are Although trends allow. to ecology, fish species afford composition and landing on cannot wedging be society civilized a which existence, peoples’ will plans management of form any livelihoods, alternate Without affected. livelihoodsare trendas the reverse awareness or to results desired yield use not may generation regulations/wise like Interventions livelihoods. their support to species or the whatever size of fish available for effort fishing increase to had fishers the recruitment stocks natural decreasing in the With process. imbalances to led over fishing to over recruitment leading and Growth exploitation. fishing, encouraged situation indiscriminate the livelihoods, of II. 5 Open water bodies like rivers, especially rivers, like bodies water Open Along the banks of Ganga, over 29 cities, 29 over Ganga, of banks the Along °C (Das, 2007), it has become conducive become has it 2007), (Das, °C s. Environmentalstatus

23 Current Status of River Ganges 24 Current Status of River Ganges b) Pesticide residues Pesticide b) pesticides. and dyes and bleaches metals, heavy acid, hydrochloric includes fertilizer river. the into effluent waste hazardous This tanneries, m industries, pharmaceutical and paper textile sea, plants, the electronics to companies, plains From Ganga. the the of flow meager the into way its finds it of much and chemical toxic other and chromium of amounts large use which Kanpur, near especially leather industries, the are industries polluting major contaminate the Ganga to a great extent. The ganga.htm). relatively remained (http:/www.gits4u.com/water/ unchanged has city infrastructure waste-control while rate, century, tremendous a at grown past have Ganga the the along populations Over remains. animal and human and food, trash, sewage, waste waste, organic is Ganga of pollution the total majority of The percent. industries the 15 and about contribute of Ganga, the into volume dumped by cent river the along per 80 constitutes sewage Municipal banks. factories of hundreds by commonly occurring substances in water of water in substances occurring commonly are metabolites their and endosulfan DDT, HCH, including pesticides organochlorine al 1. raohoie etcd rsde (g l (ng residues pesticide Organochlorine 16. Table Kol a) ta a lk o (K y r a u t s E y l h g o o H y r a u t s E y l h g o o H y r a u t s E ly h oog H r e iv R a g n a G r e iv R a g n a G r e iv R a r g e n a iv G R a r g e n a iv G R a g n a G nfcues n i rfnre discharge refineries oil and anufacturers tde idct ta te eius of residues the that indicate Studies also pollutants industrial The e c r u o s e r r e t a W 7 1 5 9 9 – 5 0 1 7 9 5 2 – 9 8 1 9 1 1 1 – 0 – 400 1– 1 7 9 – 1 H C H 5 . 1 6 2 2 3 4 1 – 9 6 3 6 6 1 – 9 1 0 0 0 4 – 6 8 0 8 5 – 0 0 4 2 1 – 0 2 3 8 – 0 0 6 5 – 2 T D D 2 . 6 n i r d l A 0 0 8 – 0 0 2 1 – 0 fan a lf u s o d n E 6 1 5 6 6 – 3 8 -1 iis o autc raim o their of residues or the with contaminated is river water the that organisms indicates clearly aquatic consumers for permissible EPA limits US the with data the of Comparison past. the in compounds these of state of worst consumption huge a after the even pollution from phase water the protecting is country the of climate tropical the high, very or high sometimes are levels residue observed the Although compounds. also reported moderate content of endosulfan Ray (1992) and Halder by moderate noticed was analogues DDT its and (2001). the Sinha in and Kumari of recorded studies were compounds HCH of content Moderate (Table 16). river the of Nayak by al et reported was pesticides the of the noticed by Senthilkumar by noticed was ppb) 3700 – (60 DDT of accumulation estuary. the in ppb 89 – 17 (1986a, Joshi while river the in ppb 49 – <0.1 chlordane and 36 – 0.1 Senthilkumar low. al et found also are levels sediment phase of the river and the reported 2007). (Samanta, limits permissible the over times of thousands of cross often content which the pesticides, organochlorine 0 9 8 2 – 0 r p) n ae o rvr Ganga river of water in ppt) or 2 6 8 – 0 2 3 2 – 0 7 9 – 0 In the fishes of river Ganga, significant Ganga, river of fishes the In the with made are studies limited Only ie ad t etay Uuul content Unusual estuary. its and river . (1995) in the middle stretch (Varanasi) stretch middle the in (1995) . . (1999) reported HCH <0.1 – 8.1, DDT 8.1, – <0.1 HCH reported (1999) . a- ta p e H 2 1 4 – 0 r o l h c - r o l h C et al 0 8 1 . 0 e n a d b) observed DDT observed b) e . (1989). Ray (1992) t al . (1999). In the In (1999). . ( 02) 2 00 (2 , u b n A ) 9 8 9 1 ( alder H (1986) ) ar, 1 ak 00 Th (2 , a h in & S ri a m u K ) 5 9 9 1 ( ayak N ) 3 9 9 , 1 i ( r t o h i n 2) g 99 A (1 , h g ) in 2 S 9 9 1 ( y, a R e c n e r e f e R t l., a et t l a et , accumulating these persistent compounds. persistent these accumulating from fishes the protecting is zone estuarine not is or limit the in HCH effect dilution the Probably exceeded. permissible of the that than endosulfan, more the much were cases, samples fish the in DDT of of residues observed majority in Although (Kumari endosulfan and for HCH limits the cross sometimes fishes river 2006). Samanta, and b & a 1986 (Joshi, low relatively were levels reported estuary,respectively. the the ppb, In 175 – 0 endosulfan were relatively low of 0 – and 225 and Aldrin ppb). 1666 – (14 DDT and ppb) pesticide levels in fishes were HCH Kumari (55 – 1207 of studies os o nsal hg vle as values high unusually to goes found were it sometimes and metals aquatic with contaminated effluents the the All for organisms. limits permissible EPA US the than higher much found are levels reported the cases the of majority In middle stretch. the of that than lower found were contents metal the dilution greater to due densely is zone industrialized estuarine and receive effluents the regularly, significant a of stretch Although metals. receiving the with stretch, middle is differenteffluents, foundpolluted heavily The metals. different from free relatively is stretch most upper The (Table18). Ganga river of water conducted to determine metal in the content Hea c) al 1. raohoie etcd rsde (g g (ng residues pesticide Organochlorine 17. Table Thailand O FA FDA US human fish for limits Safe estuary ooghly H s fish sk ollu m estuary ooghly H ish F ish F Fish nme o rsac wrs a been has works research of number A Th us, it may be concluded that the Ganga y metals vy s m e t I t al et 0 lindane 500 lindane 100 5 1207 – 55 . 9.0 – 0.1 110 – 28 (01 observed (2001) . HCH 77 et al. et . – 73.4 – 1.4 1666 – 14 3700 – 60 6– 953 – 66 460 – 31 DDT 5000 5000 5000 , 2001). , 160 was 0 – 225 – 0 Aldrin 0 – 0.7 – 0 100 200 300 2.7 -1 system from high accumulation of the same. the protecting is deposition the fresh of and river load sediment huge to due content metal not sediment reflected are the in these polluted, heavily be to reported is river the industrial of stretch Kanpur receiving the Although discharges. stretch highest the in Ghaziabad recorded was metals Bulandshahr), the of content near Ramghat to (Rishikesh stretch middle the In sources. geochemical the to attributed were contents metal the activities, human from free is area the metal contents were found low. Since the 19). In (Table the upper stretch, as per expectations, workers many by studied been has Ghosh and o cain. s woe te ubr of numbers the whole, limited. are studies a As occasions. some in limits the cross to found are Cr and Pb the consumption, human for limit FDA g µg (108.2 Zn of amount pancalus Mastacembelus indicus g µg (135.6 Zn of content high relatively reported estuarine (1989) Kaviraj the samples. in high was Hg while river fish the samples collectedfrom middlestretch ofthe in high found was Zn and Pb Cu, Cr, of content the sediment, Like 20. Table the in given are values highest The Ganga. river of stretch Kolkata to Rishikesh the in EPA US the to respect limits.permissible with polluted moderately found is river the whole, a As r p) n ih n mluk o rvr Ganga river of mollusks and fish in ppb) or bserved by Prasad Metal content in sediment of river sediment in Ganga Metalcontent Joshi (1991) studied metal in Joshi (1991) content fish ieldrin D 300 200 300 2.9 Aog h suid fishes, studied the Among . et al., et dosulfan nd E 0 – 175 – 0 0 – 4.2 – 0 (1983). 100 et et al., cuuae more accumulated (1989), (1989), Joshi (1991) -1 AO, (1983) , O FA (2006) ta, an am S b & a (1986) Joshi, (2001) ari Kum al. ar et m u ilk th en S Kannan ). As per the US the per As ). e c n e r e f e R -1 (1999) , ) in ) t al. et t al. et Penaeus (1993) , , 25 Current Status of River Ganges 26 Current Status of River Ganges

Table 18. Heavy metal content in water (µg l -1) of river Ganga R i v e r C d C r C u M n N i P b Z n R e f e r e n c e G a n g a ( u p s tr e a m ) 2 - 11 8 - 17 2 7 - 1 1 6 12 - 50 75 - 157 Saikia et a l., (1988) Ganga (upstream) 0 0 7 0 7 2 Joshi, (1991) Ganga (midstream) 0 5 7 2 8 9 3 2 6 M oh am m ed e t a l., (1987) Ganga (midstream) 0 - 1 5 - 32 3 - 49 35 - 211 1 - 10 1 - 6 61 - 311 Israili, (1991) Ganga (midstream) 2 - 3 18 - 41 Singh et a l., (1993b) Ganga (midstream) 0 - 2 0 - 7 0 - 4 1 - 6 Singh et al., (1993a) Ganga (midstream) 5 - 7 20 - 170 80 - 680 30 - 230 Vass et a l., (1998) Ganga (midstream) 2 8 3 - 119 17 - 106 Gupta and Raghubanshi, ( 2 0 0 2 ) Ganga (midstream) 5 - 8 62 - 140 10 2 - 1 66 7 - 23 U ntoo et a l., (2002) Hooghly Estuary 0 - 10 0 - 10 6 - 38 0 - 6 37 - 248 Joshi, (1994) Hooghly Estuary 8 - 70 10 - 70 40 - 300 20 - 80 Vass et a l., (1998) Hooghly Estuary 2 0 79 - 90 69 - 129 64 - 92 G hosh et al., (2000) Hooghly Estuary 20 - 60 10 - 60 0 - 50 0 - 40 30 - 160 10 - 50 N ath et al., (2003) Hooghly Estuary 2 - 14 5 - 19 8 - 88 17 - 41 22 - 37 S am an ta e t a l., (2005) Ganga (midstream) 63 - 115 13 - 106 17 7 - 2 28 3 8 0 - 92 4 2 3 4 4 - 10 3 5 2 - 5 202 - 613 P rasad et a l., (1989) Effluent water Ganga (midstream) 1 4 2 0 0 1 7 9 2 6 2 8 5 Joshi, (1991) Effluent water Hooghly Estuary 0 - 2 85 00 0 - 500 0 0 - 8500 G h osh et a l..,(1983) Effluent water US EPA limit for aquatic organisms Fresh water 0 . 2 5 11 / 74 9 . 0 5 2 2 . 5 1 2 0 S a li n e w a te r 8 . 8 5 0 3 . 1 8 . 2 8 . 1 8 1 Table 19. Heavy metals in sediment (µg g -1) of river Ganga R i v e r C d C r C u M n N i P b Z n R e f e r e n c e

Ganga (upstream) 0.8 - 29.4 4.1 - 17.9 107.3 - 226.1 4.9 – 11.8 26.3 - 48.3 Saikia et a l., (1988) Ganga (midstream) 0.0 - 1.2 3.0 – 51.0 2.5 - 45.0 70.9 - 511.0 4.5 – 49.0 1.2 - 16.0 125.0 - 259.0 Israili, (1991) Ganga (midstream) 8.4 – 13.0 60.0 – 84.0 Singh and Mahaver, (1997) Ganga (midstream) 2.1 – 9.9 10.2 – 128.1 30.5 – 47.1 50 - 249 Vass et a l., (1998) Ganga (midstream) 0.4 – 1.0 12.8 – 20.9 1.9 - 22.0 K han et al., (2003) G a n g a 3 . 5 8 3 . 2 9 5 . 0 4 7 0 . 0 2 8 . 8 2 1 . 8 M oh am m ad et a l., (1987) Hooghly Estuary 4.0 - 53.0 250.0 – 800.0 12.0 – 115.0 12.0 – 611.0 Subramanian, (1985) Hooghly Estuary 7.9 – 32.2 53.6 – 286.0 9.1 – 39.0 3.0 - 27.4 21.1 - 147.7 M itra et a l., (1996) M o u t h Hooghly Estuary 2.5 – 7.7 35.5 – 52.5 24.0 – 36.4 145.8 – 165.6 Vass et a l., (1998) Hooghly Estuary 0 . 4 6 1 . 5 3 7 . 5 1 0 . 5 6 4 . 4 Ram esh et a l., (1999) M o u t h (0.1 - 0.7) (24.9 – 96.6) (16.9 – 58.3) (6.8 - 14.2) (27.2 - 95.2) Hooghly & Haldi 2 . 0 2 6 . 0 2 9 8 . 5 3 6 . 0 7 7 . 0 S am an ta et a l., (2007) (0.4 – 4.4) (3.9 – 80.4) (34.4– 539.6) (0.5 – 79.4) (25.0– 363.4) US EPA limit Not polluted - < 25 < 25 - < 20 < 40 < 90 Moderate pollution - 25 – 75 25 – 50 - 20 – 50 40 – 60 90 – 200 Heavy pollution > 6 > 75 > 50 - > 50 > 60 > 2 0 0 27 Current Status of River Ganges 28 Current Status of River Ganges

Table 20. Heavy metal content in fishes and prawns (µg g -1) of river Ganga F i s h C d C r C u H g M n N i P b Z n R e f e r e n c e R ita rita 1 . 7 5 1 1 . 8 0 . 4 8 5 1 4 . 5 8 0 . 9 Joshi, (1991) (Dry weight) Miscellaneous fish 3 1 . 2 0 . 5 3 1 8 9 . 6 Joshi, (1991) (Dry weight) R ita rita from 0.35 – 0.49 3.9 – 11.2 0.0 - 6.0 K han et al., m i d s t r e a m ( 2 0 0 3 ) (Dry weight) Hooghly estuary Kaviraj, (1989) F i s h 0.14 – 0.50 3.4 – 17.4 3.3 – 47.7 4.4 – 108.2 P r a w n 1 . 9 2 1 . 4 1 9 . 8 1 3 5 . 6

Hooghly estuary 0 – 340 0 – 20 0 – 20 0 – 340 Bhattacharya e t a l . , F i s h ( 1 9 9 4 ) US FDA limit* ( m e t h y l US FDA (2001) C r u s t a c e a 3 1 2 m e r c u r y ) 7 0 1 . 5 Molluscan bivalve 4 1 3 1 8 0 1 . 7 *US FDA lim it for human consumption on wet weight basis uhrt) n etme 19. The GPD the 1995. as 1985 June in Directorate) Project established (Ganga also September Conservation in Government River Authority) (National Ganga India NRCA (Central and of CGA Authority) in February as renamed 1985, the the policies Government down constituted lay to programmes, and GAP scientific/2000_book2gangaactionplan.htm). (http:/www.cag.gov.in/reports/ sponsored scheme centrally 100% Cabinet a as The 1985 April ml). in Plan) Action 100 (Ganga GAP the per approved 10000 > not (DO not < 5 ppm; BOD not > 3 ppm, coliform requirements bathing the to Ganga river the reductionoffor pollution immediate loadof Environment, of Government of India prepared Department an action plan the 1984 December, In emotionally. and spiritually attached are India of people the river which with a is It towns. 48 about and (class-II), with population between 50,000 cities and 1,00,000 23 (class-I), 1,00,000 over population Plan Action restoration Environmental d) towns along the rive the along towns polluting other the in (c) Phase-I in out left towns class-I Gomati 25 in (b) and Damodar Ganga, river of tributaries the the covering on (a) works:followingpollution abatement GAP-II, the up take to 1991 February in decided CGA the progress, in still was GAP-I the While 2000. March toup progressively it extended but 1990, March by completion for GAP-I the scheduled had States three West and Bihar Pradesh, NRCD The Bengal. in towns class-I 25 in generated wastewater, of mld 1340 of and treat 882 mld (Million liters per day) out June in 1994. Directorate) Conservation River (National NRCD the as GPD the renamed Government The CGA. the of supervision and guidance the underprojects the execute to Environment, of Department of wing a The GAP-I envisaged to intercept, divert intercept, to envisaged GAP-I The the of implementation the oversee To with cities 29 through runs Ganga The r. : viz The viz., . Yamuna, . Ganga Uttar rm umnain f t on available own its of augmentation from separately mld 2250 balance the handle to its mld DelhiDelhi, in 20 and Governmentwas and Ganga only tackle to was GAP-II The mld. 2270 for river along tributaries as 5044 mld. Delhi alone accounts towns in generation sewage total of estimates the put records NRCD The GAP-II. the under mld 1912 and GAP-I the under mld 882 sewage; for scheduled was 2001. December by completion GAP-II sewage. of mld to 1912 treating by GAP-II the were implement Haryana and Bihar, Delhi Bengal, Pradesh, West Uttar of States The 1996. October to 1993 April during stages various in GAP-II the approved Affairs) Economic A-I s lo a b far also the is that GAP-II found Audit complete. fully is not GAP-I the years, 10 over of delay After share. matching their provide on to difficult it expenditure entire schemes from April the 1997, as the States found bear to 1998 November in decided India of Government The GAP-II. the in on States the with it equally share to expenditure and GAP-I, the entire under schemes the bear to was Government Central respectively. The crore GAP-II were Rs. 462.04 crore and Rs. 1276.25 dead half-burnt / bodies, un-burnt of dumping as dumping such of solid waste and open pollution, defecation, non-measurable point, and electric improved wood crematoria; and, tackle non- schemes, development front schemes river schemes, sanitation cost low comprise Non-core systems. sewage stations and pumping sewage drains, as i.e. such sources measurable pollution, from is point that Plants), pollution tackle to Treatment designed (Sewage STPs and schemes sector schemes diversion & core interception of consist The schemes. core non- and core up took GAP the abatement, capacity.installed h GP ie t tcl 29 md of mld 2794 tackle to aimed GAP The T Approved outlays for the GAP-I and the and GAP-I the for outlays Approved pollution of objective the achieve To e CA Cbnt omte on Committee (Cabinet CCEA he etc. hn is schedule. its ehind 29 Current Status of River Ganges 30 Current Status of River Ganges laaa ad ahswmg ghat in Sangam Dashashwamegh at and ppm) (5 Allahabad BOD high The limit.BOD under the exceeding found and -B class quality water the confirm not does However, sports. in summer season, contact the river stretch water like swimming, uses bathing, for conforms quality water that the in of Designated Best Use B criteria, 2006 quality class which implies was stretch Allahabad water to during Haridwar the that Board Central of indicated Control Office / ic f Zonal Pollution ti n the The ie of c /s s studies rt o p (http:/ e r / n i 1999 v. 2000_book2/gangaactionplan.htm). o .g g a during c w. w w sampled stations 60 of out 17 in exceeded levels sampling coliform The 1993. 1 in at stream down Kanpur only viz. station, against as the sampling stations, exceeded 27 of out BOD 10 at limit 1999 permissible During 1999. Ganga has deteriorated over the period 1993- the after that shows NRCD of data quality water Ganga river The Plan. Action of Ganga of implementation quality water the the targeted sewageof treatmentpart capacity a so only far. created reportedly has it yet Dece 06 te ie Gna s hwn a showing is Ganga 2006). (CPCB BOD river of trend decreasing the – 2002 During 2006, for season. unfit winter in water bathing the rendered (Varanasi) There are differences in opinion regarding mber 2001 was its time of completion, of time its was 2001 mber ae sf fr ahn. t a also conventional was all It that bathing. for recommended safe water treated in pollution microbial of levels the making of capable technology effective cost only the was for technology pond stabilization area waste The land towns. large in available not was which large ponds, stabilization a of construction required these or unviable radiation, economically and intensive cost The either found means. were developed gamma technologies biological and chlorination radiation, during violet projects December research 1993 to December 4 1995 using ultra- sanctioned NRCD the technology, viable economically studied the all techno- a find to at order In stations. sampling limits permissible the exceeded It earlier. load bacterial of control is protected from farther deterioration. farther from protected is have achieved not its may objectives it fully, levels, but bathing the river to tributaries its of and Ganga river objective of quality the water bringing with 1985, in launching to the desired levels remained toload be bacterial achieved. the reducing of objective the and ponds maturation of inclusion for steps bacterial any take however,not NRCD, did The load. of control for ponds maturation by supplemented be to needed technologies h GP cee dd o poie for provide not did schemes GAP The h cnlsos f A ae after are: GAP of conclusions The References hs, . htoaha, . . and impact Environmental N. 2000. 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