DOCSLIB.ORG

How Did Kartir Become Kartir?

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
How Did Kartir Become Kartir? Intl. J. Humanities (2018) Vol. 25 (2): (1-20) Archive of SID How did Kartir become Kartir? Sorour Khorashadi1, Seyed Mehdi Mousavi2 Received: 2017/10/24 Accepted: 2019/2/13 Abstract The empowerment of Zoroastrian Magi as a social class was intertwined with the emperors’ power to the extent that the political power of Magi can be regarded as a discontinued historical process with ups and downs. This paper attempts to reassess an apparent contrast between historical narratives and archeological findings (e.g. rock reliefs) concerning the political empowerment of Zoroastrian Magi in the beginning of Sassanid Empire until the reign of Narseh. According to the historical narratives, the Sassanid founding fathers, Ardashir and his Successor Shapur I, emphasized ecumenism (i.e. the possession of political sovereignty and religious power by emperor.) However, according to the rock reliefs of the 3rd century, shortly after Shapur I, with the rise of Bahram I, a structural split occurred between the emperor’s power as the sovereign and the power of Magi. Bahram I’s reign is the first historical period in which Zoroastrian Magi, represented as a social class, obtained a political superiority. Roughly speaking, in this epoch which spanned for almost two decades (the reign of Bahram I, Bahram II, and Bahram III,) one institutionalized reading of Zoroastrianism developed by an elite Magi, i.e. “Kartir”, became dominant over others and turned steadily into the Imperial religion. The above contrast can be formulated, as follows: given the fact that an ecumenical power is the ultimate form of sovereignty in a monarch system, why and how a Kartir could gain authoritatively a significant share of power? Through adopting an historical approach, the authors pursue the roots of answer in three related political phenomena: First, the quarrel between Bahram I and Narseh; second, the trial and the execution of Mani the prophet; and third, the institutionalization of Zoroastrianism as the Imperial religion. Keywords: Zoroastrian Clergy; Ecumenism; Kartir; Bahram I; Narseh; Bahram II; Bahram III. ______________________________________________________________ 1. Ph.D, Department of Archeology, University of Tarbiat Modares, Tehran, Iran. [email protected] (Corresponding Author). 2. Associate Professor of Archaeology, Department of Archeology, University of Tarbiat Modares, Tehran, Iran. 1 www.SID.ir Khorashadi, S & Mousavi S., M _____________ Intl. J. Humanities (2018) Vol. 25 (2): (1-20) Archive of SID Introduction The social class arrangement of the Sassanid and then review some of the historical era can be illustrated relying on royal narratives. Through a comparative study of inscriptions of the third century AD, Pahlavi historical texts and archaeological evidence, texts, Syriac, Armenian, Arabic, and the late the authors seek to realize the emergence of Persian texts, some of which are based on the the class of clergy during Sassanid. very same Pahlavi writings (Shaki, 2013:654). Ardashir Pabagan, the founder of the Literature Review Sassanid dynasty, terminated the relative So far, many scholars have addressed the freedoms that had been created for poor issue of the clerical class during the Sassanid classes, especially peasants, after Alexander's era as well as the character of Kartir, the invasion and tried to "halt social changes as details of all are not possible in the present much as possible. In his will, Ardashir warns article. However, from among them, the his successors to prevent from changing the insightful writings of famous authors such as class status from their current rank to Hinz, Gignoux, Boyce, Rajabi, Tafazzoli, another, because the transition of people Shahbazi, Malekzadeh, and Daryaei can be from their ranks accelerates the transition of mentioned. These scholars have investigated power within the kingdom, from one some aspects of Kartir’s persona and his emperor to another, be it through political role based on the inscriptions of dethronement or killing" (Ravandi, 2536: Kartir and the historical texts. 624/1; Mahmoud Abadi, 1999: 218-219). Notwithstanding, none of them has Based on an ancient social classification, discovered the hidden secret behind the Avesta has divided the Iranian society into sudden rise of Kartir in terms of a "historical three classes: the clergy (Athravan), the approach" as intended in the present warrior (Rathaeshtar), and peasant research. (VastryoFshuyant). There is only one section in the Avesta (Yasna 19th, paragraph 17), The Status of the Clergy in the Early which mentions a fourth category, called the Sassanid Era based on Inscriptions class of artisans (Hoapati). With the advent There is a social class division in the early of the Sassanid Empire, a new formation Sassanid, a legacy of the Parthian time. emerged in the society such that a distinct Shapur I in Haji-Abad inscription describes class called “the Secretary” was created, and the quality of his archery in the presence of resultantly, the peasants and artisans merged Shahrdarān, Vispohrān, Wozorgān and into the fourth class. This classification was Azadān. Although this inscription guides us influenced by the political situation of that in recognizing the privileged classes, it is hard time (Rajabi, 2003: 432/5; Mahmoud Abadi, to draw any definite relationship between 1999: 219). this rock relief and the quad partite Given the inconsistency between the hierarchical structure of the society (clergy, historical narratives and the archaeological warrior, secretary, and peasant-artisan) in evidence concerning the position of the Shapur I’s reign (Abolghasemi, 1996: 133/1; clergy class at the beginning of the Sassanid Mahmoud Abadi, 1999: 220). A noteworthy Empire, we initially intend to have a glance at point in the list of Haji-Abad inscription is some inscriptions of the third century AD the absence of the title of Mobadan-e Mobad, 2 www.SID.ir How did Kartir become Kartir? _____________________ Intl. J. Humanities (2018) Vol. 25 (2) Archive of SID as the leaders of the clerical organization. kings, then the names of the royal family, and This is in collision with the conventional continuing with the most notable nobility quadruple division of the society that puts the and officers (Khorashadi et al, 2017). These clergy at the top. Therefore, in line with some archeological evidence indicate two things: researchers (Sarfaraz and Firuzmandi, 2002: first, in the beginning of Sassanid Empire, 251) it seems justified to believe that in the Zoroastrianism had not been beginning of the Sassanid period religious institutionalized; and second, throughout the affairs were headed by the king of the kings reigns of Ardashir, Shapur I, and Narseh, the (Shâhanshâh), the emperor himself. Warrior class was superior to the supposed Narseh, the son of Shapur I, also followed class of Clergy. the hierarchy of ranks mentioned in Haji- Abad inscription in Paikuli rock relief. In the The Status of the Clergy in the Sassanid Greek version of this inscription, Shahrdarān Era based on Historical Texts are the very same local kings (selected from Investigating the sequence of classes and the among the sons of the king of the kings), list of titles in texts such as Kar-Namag i relying on whose presence, the title of Ardashiri Pabagan (Kar-Namag i Ardashiri Shâhanshâh had been emerged. According to Pabagan, 1963: 199-200), the Letter of Tansar the Greek text, Vaspohrgān are members of (The Letter of Tansar, 1975: 57), Ahd -e the Sassanid dynasty, without being directly Ardashir (Abbas, 1969: 78), Arda Viraf- linked to Shâhanshâh. Wozorgān, are the Namag (Gignoux, 1993: 58-59), Sur Afarin leaders of the most important royal families (Daryaei, 2004: 56), Tarikh al- and finally, Azadān, are the other grandees Yaqubi(Yaqubi, 1983: 219-220/1), Murujal- and the nobility (Rajabi, 2003: 424/5). dhahab (Masudi, 1965: 239-241/1), Al- However, it should be mentioned that Tanbih-al-Eshraf (Masudi, 1986: 97), Tarikh according to other scholars (Nasrollahzadeh, al-Tha'alibi (Tha'alibiNishaburi, 1989: 305- 2005: 11), Paikuli inscription has been 306), Tajarib al-Umam (Ibn Miskawayh Razi, written only in two versions, i.e. Sassanid 1990: 120), Al-Taj (Al-Jahiz, 1964: 67), and middle Persian and the Parthian language. comparing them with the survived According to some historical narratives, inscriptions, we can find contradictory throughout the reign of Ardashir, he was the information. Contrary to the historical trustee of Estakhr’s fire temple and bore the narratives, claiming the existence of a stable title of “Emperor-Magi” (Wieschöfer social class in the quadruple social 1987:371-374). At the time of his successor, classification ("the clergy, warrior, secretary, Shapur I, there is also no reference to any and peasant-artisan",) not only this sequence religious title in Ka'ba-ye Zartosht relief. We does not apply to the early period of the encounter the name of Kartir with the title Sassanid society, but also there is doubt about “Hirbad” in Ka'ba-ye Zartosht only as the 51st the claimed social stability. The reason is that title among the Shapur I courtiers’ names ascribing titles and positions (Nasrollahzadeh,2005:161-162). It is worth anachronistically to early periods of the noticing that not only in Shapur’s inscription Sassanid Empire distorts the authenticity of in Ka'ba-ye Zartosht, but also in Narseh’s some narratives and completely rules out the inscription in Paikuli, the list of the titles are attribution of those lists to the early Sassanid hierarchical, initiating with the name of period. In fact, while assessing the texts and 3 www.SID.ir Khorashadi, S & Mousavi S., M _____________ Intl. J. Humanities (2018) Vol. 25 (2): (1-20) Archive of SID comparing them to the archaeological identification in Kartir’s inscriptions as evidence, we come to realize that the Mobad-e Mobadan. sequence of classes varied in different ways The question arising here is that if Kartir from one time to another in accordance with did not hold the so-called title of Mobad-e the ruling policies of the emperors.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Sasanian Twin Pillar Ossuaries at Shoush Village, Kohgiloyeh Va Boyer Ahmad (Iran)
    IranicaAntiqua, vol. L, 2015 doi: 10.2143/IA.50.0.3053525 DO GUR-E DOPA: THE SASANIAN TWIN PILLAR OSSUARIES AT SHOUSH VILLAGE, KOHGILOYEH VA BOYER AHMAD (IRAN) BY Mahdokht FARJAMIRAD (Ghent University) Abstract: The pillar ossuary is a unique but a less known type of Sasanian bone receptacle that has mainly been reported from Fars. This article introduces newly discovered twin pillar ossuaries south of Basht, in southern Kohgiloyeh va Boyer Ahmad Province. During the Sasanian period this region was situated in northern Pārs that is still one of the poorly known areas in Iranian archaeology. Keywords: Kohgiloyeh va Boyer Ahmad, northern Pārs, pillar ossuary, astodan, Zoroastrianism, Sasanian, bone receptacle. Introduction Pillar ossuaries were frequently reported from the area of Istakhr as well as northern Sasanian Pārs. Pārs province was located in the southern quadrant of the Sasanian Empire between Kirman in the east, Khuzistan in the west, and Pahlaw (Isfahan) in the north (Miri 2012: 25). Do-Gur-e Dopa is one of a few examples of pillar astodans in northern Pārs that, based on the geographical administrative division of the Sasanian period, was likely part of the districts of Shapur Xwarrah (Istakhri: 102) or Veh-Az-Amid-Kavād (Gyselen 1989: 72 & 98). In early Islamic sources this area was on the way from Shiraz to Arrajān (near modern Behbahan) (Gaube 1986; Eqtedari 1989; Miri 2012: 131). In the modern geographi- cal division Do-Gur-e Dopa is located in the south of Kohgiloyeh va Boyer Ahmad province. The aim of this paper is to introduce the twin pillar ossuaries of Do Gur-e Dopa as one of the few known Sasanian archaeological remains in this region, which is indeed one of the least archaeologically known regions in the Zagros Mountains.
    [Show full text]
  • Mah Tir, Mah Bahman & Asfandarmad 1 Mah Asfandarmad 1369
    Mah Tir, Mah Bahman & Asfandarmad 1 Mah Asfandarmad 1369, Fravardin & l FEZAN A IN S I D E T HJ S I S S U E Federation of Zoroastrian • Summer 2000, Tabestal1 1369 YZ • Associations of North America http://www.fezana.org PRESIDENT: Framroze K. Patel 3 Editorial - Pallan R. Ichaporia 9 South Circle, Woodbridge, NJ 07095 (732) 634-8585, (732) 636-5957 (F) 4 From the President - Framroze K. Patel president@ fezana. org 5 FEZANA Update 6 On the North American Scene FEZ ANA 10 Coming Events (World Congress 2000) Jr ([]) UJIR<J~ AIL '14 Interfaith PUBLICATION OF THE FEDERATION OF ZOROASTRIAN ASSOCIATIONS OF '15 Around the World NORTH AMERICA 20 A Millennium Gift - Four New Agiaries in Mumbai CHAIRPERSON: Khorshed Jungalwala Rohinton M. Rivetna 53 Firecut Lane, Sudbury, MA 01776 Cover Story: (978) 443-6858, (978) 440-8370 (F) 22 kayj@ ziplink.net Honoring our Past: History of Iran, from Legendary Times EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Roshan Rivetna 5750 S. Jackson St. Hinsdale, IL 60521 through the Sasanian Empire (630) 325-5383, (630) 734-1579 (F) Guest Editor Pallan R. Ichaporia ri vetna@ lucent. com 23 A Place in World History MILESTONES/ ANNOUNCEMENTS Roshan Rivetna with Pallan R. Ichaporia Mahrukh Motafram 33 Legendary History of the Peshdadians - Pallan R. Ichaporia 2390 Chanticleer, Brookfield, WI 53045 (414) 821-5296, [email protected] 35 Jamshid, History or Myth? - Pen1in J. Mist1y EDITORS 37 The Kayanian Dynasty - Pallan R. Ichaporia Adel Engineer, Dolly Malva, Jamshed Udvadia 40 The Persian Empire of the Achaemenians Pallan R. Ichaporia YOUTHFULLY SPEAKING: Nenshad Bardoliwalla 47 The Parthian Empire - Rashna P.
    [Show full text]
  • THE CHRONOLOGICAL LIST of RULERS the SASSANIAN DYNASTY (CE 224-641) [ PAPAK, King of Pars (Circa CE 211- 223)] [SHAHPUR, King O
    THE CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF RULERS THE SASSANIAN DYNASTY (CE 224-641) [ PAPAK, King of Pars (circa CE 211- 223)] [SHAHPUR, King of Pars (circa CE 211-?220)] ARDESHIR I, King of Kings of Airan (CE 224-240), son of Papak SHAHPUR I (CE 240-271), son of Ardeshir I HORMAZD I (CE 271-272) son of Shahpur I (British Museum coin) VARAHRAN I (CE 272-276), son of Ardeshir I VARAHRAN II (CE 276-293), son of Varahran I VARAHRAN III (CE 293), son of Hormazd I. No coins known to have been minted. NARSEH (CE 293-303), son of Shahpur I HORMAZD II (CE 303-309) son of Narseh SHAHPUR II (CE 309-379) The Great, son of Hormazd II ARDESHIR II (CE 379-383), son of Hormazd II SHAHPUR III (CE 383-388), son of Shahpur II VARAHRAN IV (CE 388-399), son of Shahpur II YAZDEGARD I (CE 399-420), son of Shahpur III VARAHRAN V (CE 420-438), son of Shahpur III YAZDEGARD II (CE 438-457), son of Varahran V HORMAZD III (CE 457-459), son of Yazdegard II. No coins known to have been minted. PIRUZ I (CE 459-484), son of Yazdegard II VALAKHSH (CE 484-488), son of Yazdegard II First reign QOBAD I (CE 489-497), son of Piruz I ZAMASP (CE 497-499), son of Piruz I Second reign QOBAD I (CE 499-531) KHUSRU I (CE 531-579), 3rd son of Qobad I HORMAZD IV (CE 579-590), son of Khusru I VARAHRAN VI (CE 590), army commander [VISTAKHM (in Khorasan CE 592-596)], Khusru II's uncle KHUSRU II (CE 590-628), son of Hormazd IV QOBAD II (CE 25 Feb 628-6 Sept 628) Eldest son of Khusru II.
    [Show full text]
  • Lecture 27 Sasanian Empire
    4/12/2012 Lecture 27 Sasanian Empire HIST 213 Spring 2012 Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE) Successors of the Achaemenids 224 CE Ardashir I • a descendant of Sasan – gave his name to the new Sasanian dynasty, • defeated the Parthians • The Sasanians saw themselves as the successors of the Achaemenid Persians. 1 4/12/2012 Shapur I (r. 241–72 CE) • One of the most energetic and able Sasanian rulers • the central government was strengthened • the coinage was reformed • Zoroastrianism was made the state religion • The expansion of Sasanian power in the west brought conflict with Rome Shapur I the Conqueror • conquers Bactria and Kushan in east • led several campaigns against Rome in west Penetrating deep into Eastern-Roman territory • conquered Antiochia (253 or 256) Defeated the Roman emperors: • Gordian III (238–244) • Philip the Arab (244–249) • Valerian (253–260) – 259 Valerian taken into captivity after the Battle of Edessa – disgrace for the Romans • Shapur I celebrated his victory by carving the impressive rock reliefs in Naqsh-e Rostam. Rome defeated in battle Relief of Shapur I at Naqsh-e Rostam, showing the two defeated Roman Emperors, Valerian and Philip the Arab 2 4/12/2012 Terry Jones, Barbarians (BBC 2006) clip 1=9:00 to end clip 2 start - … • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t_WqUbp RChU&feature=related • http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&featu re=endscreen&v=QxS6V3lc6vM Shapur I Religiously Tolerant Intensive development plans • founded many cities, some settled in part by Roman emigrants. – included Christians who could exercise their faith freely under Sasanian rule • Shapur I particularly favored Manichaeism – He protected Mani and sent many Manichaean missionaries abroad • Shapur I befriends Babylonian rabbi Shmuel – This friendship was advantageous for the Jewish community and gave them a respite from the oppressive laws enacted against them.
    [Show full text]
  • Composition and Continuity in Sasanian Rock Reliefs
    0320-07_Iran_Antiq_43_12_Thompson 09-01-2008 15:04 Pagina 299 Iranica Antiqua, vol. XLIII, 2008 doi: 10.2143/IA.43.0.2024052 COMPOSITION AND CONTINUITY IN SASANIAN ROCK RELIEFS BY Emma THOMPSON (University of Sydney, Australia) Abstract: The cliffs of Iran are adorned with rock reliefs from every period of its long history. During the years that the Sasanian dynasty ruled Iran, artists added to this collection considerably. These monuments are individual capsules of infor- mation on the general political, religious, historical and artistic milieu of the time. This paper presents a method for furthering our understanding of the Sasanian period through an analysis of the composition of each Sasanian relief. The analy- sis is based on the hypothesis that composition will serve as an indicator of artis- tic continuity and change and encode an artistic signature of sorts indicating the artists’ background and training. The initial results suggest that the reliefs of the early Sasanian period reflect the work of artists from at least two schools of art. Keywords: Sasanian, rock reliefs, composition. The kings of the Sasanian dynasty ruled Iran for over four hundred years. During the first eighty-five years of the dynasty (AD 224-309) there were seven changes of crown, many military gains and losses and thirty rock carvings were commissioned to commemorate these events. Most of these were carved in Fars, the homeland of the dynasty: eight were carved in the company of the Achaemenid tombs at Naqsh-i Rustam; six line the way to Shapur’s city at Bishapur; four were carved in the open air grotto at Naqsh- i Radjab; two were carved near Ardashir’s first city at Firuzabad and the rest were carved as single reliefs at various locations across the province of Fars: Barm-i Dilak, Sar Mashhad, Sarab-i Bahram, Guyum, Rayy, Darab- gird, and Tang-i Qandil.
    [Show full text]
  • The Reliefs of Naqš-E Rostam and a Reflection on a Forgotten Relief, Iran
    HISTORIA I ŚWIAT, nr 6 (2017) ISSN 2299 - 2464 Morteza KHANIPOOR (University of Tehran, Iran) Hosseinali KAVOSH (University of Zabol, Iran) Reza NASERI (University of Zabol, Iran) The reliefs of Naqš-e Rostam and a reflection on a forgotten relief, Iran Keywords: Naqš-e Rostam, Elamite, Sasanian, Relief Introduction Like other cultural materials, reliefs play their own roles in order to investigate ancient times of Iran as they could offer various religious, political, economic, artistic, cultural and trading information. Ancient artist tried to show beliefs of his community by carving religious representations on the rock. Thus, reliefs are known as useful resource to identify ancient religions and cults. As the results of several visits to Naqš-e Rostam by the author, however, a human relief was paid attention as it is never mentioned in Persian archaeological resources. The relief is highly similar to known Elamite reliefs in Fars and Eastern Khuzistan (Izeh). This paper attempts to compare the relief with many Elamite and Sasanian works and, therefore, the previous attributed date is revisited. Fig.1. Map showing archeological sites, including Naqš-e Rostam, on the Marvdasht Plain (after Schmidt, 1939: VIII ) PhD. student in Archaeology; [email protected] Assistant Professor, Faculty of Arts and Architecture; [email protected] Assistant Professor, Department of Archaeology; [email protected] Page | 55 Naqš-e Rostam To the south of Iran and north of Persian Gulf, there was a state known as Pars in ancient times. This state was being occupied by different peoples such as Elamite through time resulted in remaining numerous cultural materials at different areas including Marvdasht plain1 confirming its particular significance.
    [Show full text]
  • Persian Royal Ancestry
    GRANHOLM GENEALOGY PERSIAN ROYAL ANCESTRY Achaemenid Dynasty from Greek mythical Perses, (705-550 BC) یشنماخه یهاشنهاش (Achaemenid Empire, (550-329 BC نايناساس (Sassanid Empire (224-c. 670 INTRODUCTION Persia, of which a large part was called Iran since 1935, has a well recorded history of our early royal ancestry. Two eras covered are here in two parts; the Achaemenid and Sassanian Empires, the first and last of the Pre-Islamic Persian dynasties. This ancestry begins with a connection of the Persian kings to the Greek mythology according to Plato. I have included these kind of connections between myth and history, the reader may decide if and where such a connection really takes place. Plato 428/427 BC – 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. King or Shah Cyrus the Great established the first dynasty of Persia about 550 BC. A special list, “Byzantine Emperors” is inserted (at page 27) after the first part showing the lineage from early Egyptian rulers to Cyrus the Great and to the last king of that dynasty, Artaxerxes II, whose daughter Rodogune became a Queen of Armenia. Their descendants tie into our lineage listed in my books about our lineage from our Byzantine, Russia and Poland. The second begins with King Ardashir I, the 59th great grandfather, reigned during 226-241 and ens with the last one, King Yazdagird III, the 43rd great grandfather, reigned during 632 – 651. He married Maria, a Byzantine Princess, which ties into our Byzantine Ancestry.
    [Show full text]
  • Christian Historical Imagination in Late Antique Iraq
    OXFORD EARLY CHRISTIAN STUDIES General Editors Gillian Clark Andrew Louth THE OXFORD EARLY CHRISTIAN STUDIES series includes scholarly volumes on the thought and history of the early Christian centuries. Covering a wide range of Greek, Latin, and Oriental sources, the books are of interest to theologians, ancient historians, and specialists in the classical and Jewish worlds. Titles in the series include: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and the Transformation of Divine Simplicity Andrew Radde-Gallwitz (2009) The Asceticism of Isaac of Nineveh Patrik Hagman (2010) Palladius of Helenopolis The Origenist Advocate Demetrios S. Katos (2011) Origen and Scripture The Contours of the Exegetical Life Peter Martens (2012) Activity and Participation in Late Antique and Early Christian Thought Torstein Theodor Tollefsen (2012) Irenaeus of Lyons and the Theology of the Holy Spirit Anthony Briggman (2012) Apophasis and Pseudonymity in Dionysius the Areopagite “No Longer I” Charles M. Stang (2012) Memory in Augustine’s Theological Anthropology Paige E. Hochschild (2012) Orosius and the Rhetoric of History Peter Van Nuffelen (2012) Drama of the Divine Economy Creator and Creation in Early Christian Theology and Piety Paul M. Blowers (2012) Embodiment and Virtue in Gregory of Nyssa Hans Boersma (2013) The Chronicle of Seert Christian Historical Imagination in Late Antique Iraq PHILIP WOOD 1 3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries # Philip Wood 2013 The moral rights of the author have been asserted First Edition published in 2013 Impression: 1 All rights reserved.
    [Show full text]
  • From Small States to Universalism in the Pre-Islamic Near East
    REVOLUTIONIZING REVOLUTIONIZING Mark Altaweel and Andrea Squitieri and Andrea Mark Altaweel From Small States to Universalism in the Pre-Islamic Near East This book investigates the long-term continuity of large-scale states and empires, and its effect on the Near East’s social fabric, including the fundamental changes that occurred to major social institutions. Its geographical coverage spans, from east to west, modern- day Libya and Egypt to Central Asia, and from north to south, Anatolia to southern Arabia, incorporating modern-day Oman and Yemen. Its temporal coverage spans from the late eighth century BCE to the seventh century CE during the rise of Islam and collapse of the Sasanian Empire. The authors argue that the persistence of large states and empires starting in the eighth/ seventh centuries BCE, which continued for many centuries, led to new socio-political structures and institutions emerging in the Near East. The primary processes that enabled this emergence were large-scale and long-distance movements, or population migrations. These patterns of social developments are analysed under different aspects: settlement patterns, urban structure, material culture, trade, governance, language spread and religion, all pointing at population movement as the main catalyst for social change. This book’s argument Mark Altaweel is framed within a larger theoretical framework termed as ‘universalism’, a theory that explains WORLD A many of the social transformations that happened to societies in the Near East, starting from Andrea Squitieri the Neo-Assyrian period and continuing for centuries. Among other infl uences, the effects of these transformations are today manifested in modern languages, concepts of government, universal religions and monetized and globalized economies.
    [Show full text]
  • Kings, Priests and Gods on Sasanian Investiture Reliefs
    Iranica Antiqua, vol. XLVIII, 2013 doi: 10.2143/IA.48.0.2184703 AND MAN CREATED GOD? KINGS, PRIESTS AND GODS ON SASANIAN INVESTITURE RELIEFS BY Bruno OVERLAET 1 (Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels / Ghent University) Abstract: An inscription on the Naqsh-i Rustam I rock relief identifies the two protagonists in the investiture scene as Ardashir I and Ahura Mazda. All investing authorities on the royal Sasanian reliefs are therefore commonly identified as Ahura Mazda. In view of conflicting historic information and unexplained varia- tions in the iconography of “Ahura Mazda”, a re-interpretation of the investiture reliefs is made. The inscription on Ahura Mazda’s horse at Naqsh-i Rustam appears to have been added at the end of Ardashir’s reign or early in Shapur I’s reign and the earliest reliefs are now considered to depict an investiture by a priest, instead of by Ahura Mazda. Once the inscription had been added to the Naqsh-i Rustam I rock relief, it changed from an investiture by a priest to one by a god, Ahura Mazda. Iconographic details that conflicted with this transformation (such as the barsum, attendant and possibly the “royal” tamga) were left out of the divine image in later representations of the investiture on horseback. The late Sasanian Taq-i Bustan III investiture on foot, up to now considered to be the investiture of Khusrow II by Ahura Mazda and Anahita, is equally interpreted as an investiture by clergy, in this case by representatives of the cults of these two gods, rather than by the gods themselves.
    [Show full text]
  • NARTAMONGÆ 2017 VOL. XII, N 1, 2 Agustí ALEMANY FERDOWSĪ's «KING of the ALANS»* When Bahrām Čōbīn [BČ]
    NARTAMONGÆ 2017 VOL. XII, N 1, 2 Agustí ALEMANY (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain) Ferdowsī’s «King oF the AlAns»* When Bahrām Čōbīn [BČ] and Ḵosrow II Parvēz [ḴP] (AD 590-628) address one another before battle in Ferdowsī’s Šāhnāma, Ḵosrow is called by his opponent (and also calls himself) “king of the Alans” ( Alān šāh) four times:1 [43, 215] BČ “When the king of the Alans rules / evil men support him” مرا چون االن شاه خوانى ھمى زگو ھر به يك سو نشانى ھمى [43, 231] ḴP “When you call me king of the Alans / you just mention a part of my lineage” االن شاه بودى كنون كھتر ى ھم از بندۀ بندگان كمتر ى [43, 237] BČ “You were king of the Alans, now you are less / even lower than a slave of slaves” االن شاه مارا پدر كرده بود كه بر ما زدام تو آزرده بود [43, 314] ḴP “My father had made me king of the Alans / since he was afflicted for me because of your tricks” ________________ * Paper funded by the Catalan Research Group 2009SGR0018 and the Spanish Research Projects FF12010-18104 and FFI2014-58878P. I am grateful to both Nuria Olaya and Sepideh Sami for reading the draft of this work and offering valuable comments. 47 In the last verse Ḵosrow is said to have been appointed Alān šāh by his father Hormozd IV (AD 579 -90). From this assertion it can be inferred that we are not dealing with a true king of the Alans, but with a Persian title. According to Ferdowsī [43, 3229-51],2 Ḵosrow Parvēz chose 48,000 men from Iran –all of them experienced, brave and warlike horsemen– and divided the world into four parts ( ǧahān-rā bebaḫšīd bar čār bahr), sending four detachments of 12,000 men alternately to: [1] the Byzantine marz-e Rūm), [2] Zābolestān, [3] the road of the Alans مرز روم) border ( rāh-e Alānān) and [4] the Hephthalite border ( marz-e Heitāl) in Ḵorāsān.
    [Show full text]
  • The Behistun Inscription and the Res Gestae Divi Augusti
    Phasis 15-16, 2012-2013 Δημήτριος Μαντζίλας (Θράκη) The Behistun Inscription and the Res Gestae Divi Augusti Intertextuality between Greek and Latin texts is well known and – in recent decades – has been well studied. It seems though that common elements also appear in earlier texts, from other, mostly oriental countries, such as Egypt, Persia or Israel. In this article we intend to demonstrate the case of a Persian and a Latin text, in order to support the hypothesis of a common Indo-European literature (in addition to an Indo-European mythology and language). The Behistun Inscription,1 whose name comes from the anglicized version of Bistun or Bisutun (Bagastana in Old Persian), meaning “the place or land of gods”, is a multi-lingual inscription (being thus an equivalent of the Rosetta stone) written in three different cuneiform script extinct languages: Old Persian, Elamite (Susian), and Babylonian (Accadian).2 A fourth version is an Aramaic translation found on the 1 For the text see Adkins L., Empires of the Plain: Henry Rawlinson and the Lost Languages of Babylon, New York 2003; Rawlinson H. C., Archaeologia, 1853, vol. xxxiv, 74; Campbell Thompson R., The Rock of Behistun, In Sir J. A. Hammerton (ed.), Wonders of the Past, New York 1937, II, 760–767; Cameron G. G., Darius Carved History on Ageless Rock, National Geographic Magazine, 98 (6), December 1950, 825– 844; Rubio G., Writing in Another Tongue: Alloglottography in the Ancient Near East, in: S. Sanders (ed.), Margins of Writing, Origins of Cultures, Chicago 2007², 33–70 (= OIS, 2); Hinz W., Die Behistan-Inschrift des Darius, AMI, 7, 1974, 121-134 (translation).
    [Show full text]