DRAFT Conservation Advice for the Christmas Island Frigatebird - Fregata andrewsi

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Approved on XX 2019

Commonwealth of Australia, 2019.

Conservation Advice for the Christmas Island Frigatebird - Fregata andrewsi is licensed by the Commonwealth of Australia for use under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence with the exception of the Coat of Arms of the Commonwealth of Australia, the logo of the agency responsible for publishing the report, content supplied by third parties, and any images depicting people. For licence conditions see: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/au/

This report should be attributed as ‘Conservation Advice for the Christmas Island Frigatebird - Fregata andrewsi Commonwealth of Australia 2019’.

The Commonwealth of Australia has made all reasonable efforts to identify content supplied by third parties using the following format ‘© Copyright, [name of third party] ’.

The Department of the Environment and Energy would like to acknowledge the people and organisations that contributed to the development of this Conservation Advice, these include:

– The Threatened Species Scientific Committee who provided scientific advice and guidance on all elements of the document. – Staff from Parks Australia who gave advice on the content of the document and generously provided their time to attend a workshop, show us the Christmas Island National Park and explain how it is managed. – Representatives from Phosphate Resources Limited, the Christmas Island Tourism Authority, Island Care and Range to Reef who met with us to discuss an earlier draft of the document and provide follow-up comments. – The following people who generously provided their time to attend a workshop and/or provide follow-up advice on the content of the document: David James, Janos Hennicke, Barry Baker, Mark Holdsworth, Neil Hamilton, Peter Green, Sarah Legge, John Woinarski and Stephen Garnett. – A representative from BirdLife Australia for reviewing and commenting on an earlier draft of the Conservation Advice.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Australian Government or the Minister for the Environment.

Cover image: Christmas Island Frigatebird © Ian Montgomery

DRAFT Conservation Advice for the Christmas Island Frigatebird

Fregata andrewsi

Long-term Objective To reduce anthropogenic threats to allow the conservation status of Fregata andrewsi (the Christmas Island Frigatebird) to improve so that it can be removed from the threatened species list of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act).

Conservation Status The Christmas Island Frigatebird is listed as Endangered and Migratory under the EPBC Act (see Attachment A for details of its eligibility).

Species can also be listed as threatened under state and territory legislation. For information on the listing status of this species under relevant state or territory legislation, see http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/public/sprat.pl.

The Christmas Island Frigatebird was included on Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals in 2017. Appendix I contains migratory species which are in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of their range. Once a species is listed on Appendix I, Parties are obliged to endeavour to conserve and restore habitats, remove barriers to migration, control factors that are endangering the species and prohibit the taking of the species.

Description The Christmas Island Frigatebird is a very large seabird with a mostly black body, a glossy green sheen to the head and back feathers, and varying patches of white on the underbody. It has slender, long wings, a deeply forked tail and a long bill with a hooked tip. Adults weigh 1.4-1.7 kg and have a wing span of 205- 230 cm. Adult males have a large red throat pouch, which is inflated during breeding. Females have no throat pouch and have more extensive white on the body than males. Juveniles have similar plumage to that of adult females, but have a pale fawn head, a white throat and russet necklace (Marchant and Higgins 1990).

Distribution and Abundance The Christmas Island Frigatebird breeds only on Christmas Island (BirdLife International 2019) but forages and roosts widely in south-east Asia and the Indian Ocean (Gore 1968; Marchant and Higgins 1990).

Morris-Pocock et al. (2012) estimated the Christmas Island Frigatebird population to contain approximately 5000 individuals. Similarly, Garnett et al. (2011) estimated the population to have 4800 mature individuals (based on an estimate of 1200 pairs breeding annually, and accounting for biennial breeding (Beeton et al. 2010; Garnett et al. 2011).

It has been estimated there were approximately 1050 active nests in 2016 and 1200 in 2017, suggesting that the breeding population might be stable, at least since the beginning of this century. However when the 2016-2017 data were used to generate an estimate of total breeding population, it was calculated there were about 3400 breeding birds (J. Hennicke 2019, pers comm, 2 July 2019). This number is considerably lower than the previous estimates. Differences in methods used to calculate the size of the breeding population may explain the disparities.

Breeding is confined to a number of colonies in forest found on the terraces of Christmas Island, these include:

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• The ‘Golf Course’ colony located on the shore terrace of the east coast and the ‘Southern outlier’ colony located on the shore terrace of the east coast, south of the ‘Golf Course’ colony. • The Flying Fish Cove colony on inland cliffs at the north-western end of Flying Fish Cove. • The ‘Cemetery’ colony located on the first inland terrace of the north coast. • The ‘Margaret Beaches’ colony located on the shore terrace of the north coast.

The location of these colonies is shown on Map 1. Small clusters of nests have also been observed in the Settlement (near Short Street on the north coast), and on the foot slopes of the inland cliff at Smith Point (north-east point of the island) (James and McAllan 2014). Boat based surveys in 2013 have observed perching and soaring Christmas Island Frigatebirds in an area to the west of the Margaret Beaches colony. In 2017 at least one nest of the species was detected during a boat survey in the same area. It is thought that more nests were likely present but total nest numbers in this area are probably small (J. Hennicke 2019, pers comm, 2 July 2019).

Historically there were large colonies on the north coast at Flying Fish Cove and the ‘Dryers’ site (adjacent to a phosphate mine) (James and McAllan 2014). In the 1970s, large emissions of phosphate dust commenced which is likely to have degraded this breeding habitat. The number of nests significantly reduced in the 1980s and 1990s. In 2003, there were no Christmas Island Frigatebirds nesting at the ‘Dryers’ site (Hill and Dunn 2004). Stokes (1988) suggested that the ‘cemetery’ colony may have formed from birds displaced from the ‘Dryers’ colony as a result of phosphate dust fallout.

Relevant Biology/Ecology The Christmas Island Frigatebird, like other Frigatebirds, lack waterproof feathers and so become waterlogged and drown if they land on water. Thus, the species undertakes aerial feeding, predominantly scooping up marine organisms, predominantly flying-fish and squid, and various animal matter from the surface of the water. It sometimes takes eggs, nestlings, grasshoppers and, occasionally, carrion off beaches. A proportion of food is stolen from other birds (Gibson-Hill 1947; Marchant and Higgins 1990; Hill and Dunn 2004). Depending on the breeding stage, breeding adults utilise different foraging areas. During early chick rearing the birds, especially females, forage in the waters around Christmas Island. With increasing chick age, both sexes undertake longer and further foraging trips, also using coastal waters off Java (Hennicke et al. 2015).

The Christmas Island Frigatebird predominantly nests in forests on shore terraces that are protected from prevailing south-east trade winds (Woehler 1984; Hill and Dunn 2004; James and McAllan 2014). It is suggested that the shore terrace of Flying Fish was once their main breeding area (Andrews 1900, Gibson- Hill 1947, 1949, Stokes 1988) and they had an almost continuous nesting distribution along the north- eastern coast from Margaret Beaches to North East Point, with a separate colony where the golf course colony is now situated.

On the coastal side of colonies, birds nest close to the edge of the forest; with some nest-trees located in the 2nd or 3rd row back from the forest edge. It is thought that forest vegetation between nesting trees and the coast provides protection from the wind (James 2003). On the inland edge of colonies Hill and Dunn (2004) note that wind turbulence is a cause for concern for nesting habitat and that vegetation within 300m of nesting habitat must be appropriately managed to avoid impacts, this would include avoiding the clearance of vegetation within these buffer areas. James (2003) recommends that no vegetation on the coastal side of colonies be cleared and vegetation within 500m of the inland boundary of a colony be protected.

Tree species used for nesting include Beach Almond (Terminalia catappa), Stinkwood (Celtis timorensis), Strangler Fig (Ficus species), Propeller tree (Gyrocarpus americanis) and Pongamia (Pongamia pinnata) (Hill and Dunn 2004; James 2003; James and McAllan 2014). Multiple pairs will nest in the same tree, sometimes less than 1 m apart (Nelson 1975; Marchant and Higgins 1990; Hill and Dunn 2004). These nest tree species occur right around the island and yet the species nests only in a small area of the island (Hill and Dunn 2004).

The species has a biennial breeding cycle and offspring take 15 months to reach independence (Hill and Dunn 2004). Breeding occurs in pairs which are seasonally monogamous (Marchant and Higgins 1990) and Draft Fregata andrewsi (Christmas Island Frigatebird) Conservation Advice Page 2 of 27

they build loose nests under the top branches of tall trees, usually 10-20 m from the ground. Females lay one egg between mid-February to early June. The male and female take turns to incubate the egg over a period of approximately 50 days. Nestlings fledge at six months but remain dependent on parents for up to an additional nine months (Nelson 1975). Juveniles take at least eight years to reach adult plumage and reach breeding age at about ten years (James 2004; Howell 2010).

The replacement rate of pairs is thought to be slow at 15-25 years, making the population slow to recover following declines (Hill and Dunn 2004). Immature individuals disperse and forage widely in south-east Asian waters (Hill and Dunn 2004). When not breeding, adult Christmas Island Frigatebirds roost on islands in south-east Asia. Whilst there they leave their roosting island every day at dawn to forage in surrounding waters and return at dusk (James and McAllan 2014; Hennicke et al. 2015). At least 13 islands used by Christmas Island Frigatebirds have been identified and these are found in the Java, South China, Sulu and Andaman Seas (James and McAllan 2014).

Habitat critical to the survival of the species All nesting and roosting areas, in known colonies and smaller groups of nests away from the colonies, are critical to the survival of the Christmas Island Frigatebird. Based on this habitat critical to the survival is defined as:

• All nesting and roosting sites, including currently known nesting and roosting colonies and any other smaller groups of nests and roosts.

Map 1 shows areas currently known to contain nesting and roosting habitat and buffer areas that protect this habitat.

Due to the limited availability of nesting and roosting habitat for this species and the fact that it only occurs on one island the loss of habitat critical to the survival for the Christmas Island Frigatebird would significantly interfere with the recovery of this species. Opportunities to regenerate such habitat are greatly constrained by the preference of this species to occupy terrace forests currently only found along the north- east coast of the island.

Buffer Areas Sympathetic management of vegetation adjacent to nesting and roosting habitat is important to protect habitat critical to the survival from indirect impacts such as wind and wind turbulence. Buffer areas that require sympathetic management to protect habitat critical to the survival are defined as:

• All forest between nesting and roosting areas and the sea; and • All forest within 500 m of the inland edge of a nesting and roosting area.

When assessing proposals in buffer areas the management required will depend on the nature of the activities proposed and the local context. Removal of vegetation may be acceptable if it can be demonstrated that there will be no adverse impacts on nesting habitat or nesting activity.

Currently it is not possible to fully identify foraging habitat that is critical to the survival of the Christmas Island Frigatebird. More research is needed to better identify critical foraging habitat for the species both near the island, and in waters beyond Australia’s jurisdiction, during all stages of the species lifecycle.

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Map 1 illustrates areas that are currently known to contain habitat critical to the survival for the Christmas Island Frigatebird with buffer areas marked. The information in this map is indicative and not all nesting and roosting habitat is shown on this map, and so habitat critical to the survival may occur in other areas where suitable vegetation occurs. This means areas marked on the map are subject to change to include any new habitat that is identified.

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Threats

1. Introduction of a new disease

Historically the role of infectious diseases in the extinction of species has been largely overlooked (Smith et al. 2006). One notable exception is the loss of most passerine bird species from the Hawaiian Islands not long after European discovery, as described by Warner (1968). Island species may be particularly susceptible to novel pathogens because they typically have a small total population size, relatively low genetic diversity, limited immunity and no refuge.

While far ranging seabirds are likely to be exposed to novel diseases more often than sedentary bird species, their populations can still be severely impacted by disease. Sebastiano et al. (2017) reported that up to 95% of Magnificent Frigatebird (Fregata magnificens) nestlings on an island off the Atlantic coast of South America infected with a herpesvirus died every year for several years. Sebastiano et al. (2019) found that survival of nestlings improved when supplementary food was provided and so concluded that a food shortage may have decreased the resistance of chicks to infection.

Quillfeldt et al. (2011) and Moreno et al (2012) found that Christmas Island Frigatebirds were infected with Hemosporidian blood parasites. Preliminary results showed that the immune competence of infected birds was lower than that of uninfected birds, but it was not possible to determine cause and effect (J. Hennicke 2019, pers. comm, 2 July 2019). Potentially, the infection with Hemosporidian blood parasites affects adult survival and or reproductive success.

Beeton et al. (2010) found that elements of Christmas Island’s biodiversity have declined due to introduced species and diseases. The introduction of a new disease could lead to further declines in native species, including the Christmas Island Frigatebird.

2. Fisheries - prey depletion

Christmas Island Frigatebirds depend on their prey to be driven up to the sea surface by large predatory fish, such as tuna (Ballance and Pitman 1999; Dunn and Hill 2004; Nelson 2005). These subsurface predators are exploited by commercial and artisanal fisheries (WWF 2015). In south-east Asia, where fisheries are targeting fish species that bring prey for the Christmas Island Frigatebird to the surface, prey availability may have declined and hence adult survival and reproductive success may be negatively affected. The waters around Christmas Island form part of the Commonwealth managed Western Tuna and Billfish Fishery. This fishery is managed by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority and in recent years effort in this fishery has been focused off the coast of southern Western Australia (Australian Fisheries Management Authority 2019). Due to this the Western Tuna and Billfish Fishery is currently not impacting the prey availability of the Christmas Island Frigatebird.

3. Disturbance of habitat

Loss of habitat, particularly breeding habitat, associated with deforestation for human settlement and phosphate mining has contributed to historical declines in Christmas Island Frigatebirds (Marchant and Higgins 1990; Hill and Dunn 2004; Garnett et al. 2011). Approximately 90 ha of breeding habitat was cleared following settlement on Christmas Island, including the shore terrace of Flying Fish Cove (Stokes 1988) and the site for the Golf Course (James and McAllan 2014). A major nesting site for the species at the ‘Dryers’ site was gradually abandoned by the species, when large emissions of phosphate dust degraded the vegetation.

Clearing of habitat has largely ceased to have effect on the population since the early 1970s (James 2003) however vegetation clearing and other activities, such as burning off on the golf course, and in areas adjacent to nesting and roosting habitat may disturb birds. Evidence for this includes; (1) James (2003) noting that no Christmas Island Frigatebird nests were found within 400 m of the inland forest edge; and (2) Hill and Dunn (2004) observing that the Christmas Island Frigatebird nested well down the shore terrace and that wind turbulence in nesting habitat was a cause for concern.

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4. Illegal killing and hunting in south-east Asia

Fishermen in Jakarta Bay, Indonesia, have been observed baiting Christmas Island Frigatebirds with poison or sedatives, and also shooting birds (Tirtaningtyas and Hennicke 2015). Christmas Island Frigatebirds may be perceived as competition by fishermen which may be the cause for the poisoning and shooting. Christmas Island Frigatebirds may also be sedated for easy capture by fishermen for food (Tirtaningtyas and Hennicke 2015). Baiting by fishermen may be a serious threat to Christmas Island Frigatebirds and is likely to be occurring across south-east Asia within the species’ range (Tirtaningtyas and Hennicke 2015).

5. Invasive weeds

Shore terrace nesting habitat for the Christmas Island Frigatebird is threatened by the spread of invasive vines and other weeds, which compete with tall nesting trees (Hill and Dunn 2004; Director of National Parks 2014). Weeds include Coral Vine (Antigonon leptopus), which is known to smother and kill tall trees, and False Curry Bush (Clausena excavata), Coffee Bush (Leucaena leucocephala) and Poinciana (Delonix regia), which compete with native species and suppress growth and recruitment of tall tree species. The current management plan for the Christmas Island National Park (Director of Parks 2014) prioritises weed control in areas where they may impact threatened species, such as the Christmas Island Frigatebird.

Roosting habitat found in Jakarta Bay, Indonesia, is also threatened by invasive vines (Garnett and Woinarski 2018).

6. Fisheries - bycatch

The Christmas Island Frigatebird commonly takes its prey close to/from the water surface. This feeding habit may put this species at risk of entanglement when it attempts to take fish being used as bait by fishers.

Christmas Island Frigatebirds have been observed entangled in fishing lines in Jakarta Bay, Indonesia and intensive fishing activities in south-east Asian waters are likely to pose a significant threat to the species (Tirtaningtyas and Hennicke 2015). For example, the Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme database contains two records of the Lesser Frigatebird (Fregata ariel) banded in Australia being found entangled in fishing gear in south-east Asia (ABBBS 2018).

7. Drowning in artificial water bodies

Artificial freshwater ponds and pools often form in cleared mining areas creating a risk to Christmas Island Frigatebirds. Frigatebirds display erratic behaviour around these water bodies as they fly in to drink. This can result in a risk of collision with other birds, resulting in injury and drowning if an injured bird lands in the water. There are also records of birds drowning in a mine tailings dam, a large water tank, an ornamental pond and in swimming pools (James 2003). Mine tailings dams no longer exist and awareness regarding the risk posed by artificial water bodies has improved.

8. Heavy metal contamination

The Christmas Island Frigatebird is likely to be ingesting fish contaminated by mercury in its south-east Asian foraging habitat. Illegal mining using mercury occurs along many rivers in this region and high levels of toxic poisoning have been reported in the people of coastal fishing villages (James 2003). Mercury occurring in fish from polluted water will bio-accumulate in predators such as the Frigatebird. Mercury can be lethal to birds at high levels of contamination and non-lethal effects include reduced reproduction. Studies indicate that bird population declines may already be resulting from environmental mercury pollution (Whitney and Cristol 2018).

Christmas Island Phosphate product has relatively high levels of cadmium (McLaughlin et al. 1996). Mining activities on the island have historically resulted in phosphate dust being released in to the terrestrial and

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marine environment, potentially exposing wildlife to this contaminant. In 2000 dust control measures were improved with significant reduction in dust emissions to the surrounding environment. The mining company addresses their legislative requirements to manage dust emissions through the implementation of their Environmental Management Plan which is reviewed and approved by the Commonwealth Environment Minister every 5 years (A. Hill 2019, pers comm, 5 July 2019).

There is some limited evidence of cadmium exposure in the Christmas Island Flying-fox. This species, like the Frigatebird, historically occupied vegetation at the Dryers site, which was smothered by phosphate dust in the 1970s (James and McAllan 2014). Given the Frigatebird has been exposed to cadmium through phosphate dust pollution in its breeding habitat there is a risk it was affected by cadmium poisoning in the past. Kidney damage and lung emphysema are the primary effects of high cadmium in the body (Nordic Council of Ministers 2003).

9. Marine debris - plastics

The impacts of marine debris on seabirds have been well recorded in many studies and include gut obstruction (Pierce et al. 2004) and concentration of pollutants in seabird tissues during digestion (Yamashita et al. 2011). Wilcox et al. (2015) predict that plastic ingestion is increasing in seabirds and that it will reach 99% of all species by 2050. The foraging area of the Christmas Island Frigatebird includes waters with very high levels of marine debris and therefore it is very likely that that it is ingesting plastics as a result.

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Threat Prioritisation The threats described above were considered in the context of the current management regimes. The impact of that threat has been assessed assuming that existing management measures continue to be applied appropriately. If management regimes change then the level of risk associated with threats may also change.

The risk matrix and ranking of threats was based on expert opinion and consultation. Definitions used for the risk assessment are:

Likelihood of a threat occurring is defined as follows:

Almost certain – expected to occur every year. Likely – expected to occur at least once every five years. Possible – might occur at some time. Unlikely – such events are known to have occurred on a worldwide basis but only a few times. Unknown – it is currently unknown how often the incident will occur.

Consequences of a threat is defined as follows:

No long-term effect – no long-term effect on individuals or the population. Minor – individuals are affected, but no effect at the population level. Moderate – population recovery stalls or reduces. Major – population declines. Catastrophic – population at risk of extinction.

The risk assessment process was used to determine the priority for conservation and/or management actions. Priority actions have been developed for any threat for which the risk to the Christmas Island Frigatebird population was deemed to be ‘high’ or ‘very high’. The risk matrix is provided in Table 1.

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Table 1 The risk matrix showing the risk associated with each threat identified for the Christmas Island Frigatebird. NOTE: The risk posed by a threat will increase if current management of that threat (if being undertaken) is reduced or stops being implemented.

Consequences

No long term Minor Moderate Major Catastrophic effect

Illegal killing Fisheries – and hunting prey depletion south-east Asia

Fisheries - bycatch Almost Drowning in Certain artificial water bodies

Invasive weeds (south-east Asian roosting sites)

Likely

Possible Invasive weeds Disturbance of Introduction of (Christmas habitat a new disease Island)

Unlikely

Heavy metal contamination Unknown Marine debris- - plastics

Key Risk level Very high High Moderate Low

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Key considerations in assessing environmental impacts

The Christmas Island Frigatebird is a long-lived seabird that breeds on only one island and has a low reproductive output. It occupies a relatively small area of terrace forest in the north-east corner of the island. Any actions that increase adult mortality or that will reduce an already low rate of reproduction will compromise its recovery and even result in further declines in its abundance.

Since the Christmas Island Frigatebird breeds in a small area of one island it would be very difficult to compensate for the loss of breeding habitat. Actions that remove habitat critical to the survival and compromise the reproductive output of the species would significantly interfere with the recovery of this species and should therefore be avoided.

Actions that have indirect impacts on habitat critical to the survival should be minimised. Examples of such actions include: • Removal of vegetation in buffer areas that results in wind turbulence within habitat critical to the survival: • Actions that will facilitate the introduction of weeds or increase their impacts in habitat critical to the survival: and • Activities that generate smoke or noise to such an extent that the species stops using affected nest trees.

Actions that compromise adult survival should also be avoided. Examples include the introduction of a new disease.

Impacts should not be assessed in isolation and consideration must be given to existing and future processes and activities that may impact the species.

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Short-term Objectives

Recognising that the long-term objective (to conserve and recover Christmas Island Frigatebird) is unlikely to be achieved in the near future the following short-term objectives have been developed:

I. The extent and quality of habitat critical to the survival of the Christmas Island Frigatebird is maintained or improved.

The focus of this objective is to protect habitat critical to the survival of Christmas Island Frigatebird. The highest priority is to protect habitat that is currently used by the species for nesting and roosting, as well as to sympathetically manage vegetation adjacent to this habitat. Any actions that cause disturbance in nesting and roosting habitat should be avoided. The net area of terrace forests suitable for nesting and roosting on Christmas Island must remain stable or increase.

II. Anthropogenic threats to Christmas Island Frigatebird are demonstrably reduced.

This objective supports robust and adaptive management that avoids, reduces or removes anthropogenic threats to Christmas Island Frigatebird and its habitat. These threats include, but are not limited to, disturbance of habitat, illegal killing or hunting, bycatch in fisheries and actions that result in the introduction of invasive weeds into areas of habitat used for nesting or roosting.

III. The current levels of legislative protection for Christmas Island Frigatebird are maintained or improved.

The purpose of this objective is to ensure that legislation and associated policies that support the recovery of Christmas Island Frigatebird are maintained and, where possible, strengthened. Relevant legislation includes the EPBC Act and regulations, the Western Australia Environment Protection Act 1986 and the Biosecurity Act 2015.

Due to the threats faced by the Christmas Island Frigatebird while foraging in areas outside of Australia’s jurisdiction, mechanisms to achieve recovery through International agreements such as the Convention on Migratory Species, should be pursued.

If research on foraging dispersion indicates new marine habitats or areas are critical for the species, such areas should be considered for additions to Australia’s marine protected area system in the Indian Ocean Territories region.

IV. The recovery of Christmas Island Frigatebird is adequately supported by monitoring and research.

This objective seeks to build on the work already undertaken to determine the Christmas Island Frigatebird population size and trend, its breeding habitat on Christmas Island and its foraging habitat at sea. The existing monitoring program should be expanded to provide an estimate of total population size (with acceptable confidence limits) and population trends. All monitoring results must be analysed to assess the relative impacts of factors contributing to population trends. Other priority research actions relate to understanding the foraging ecology of the species including the extent to which food availability may constrain breeding success and the impact of fishing and other threats on food availability.

V. Community and stakeholder understanding of and engagement in the conservation management of Christmas Island Frigatebird is supported.

Many land management activities require cooperation between adjoining land holders to be successful. This is particularly the case for activities such as weed and pest animal control. The occurrence of Christmas Island Frigatebird in suitable habitat outside of the national park also means community and

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stakeholder participation and cooperation is needed to maximise the chances of successfully recovering this species.

Other government land management organisations on Christmas Island, such as the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Cities and Regional Development, should be engaged to ensure Christmas Island Frigatebird habitat is appropriately protected by preventing habitat disturbance and loss that increases the impact of invasive species.

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Actions

Conservation and Management Actions Conservation and Management Action Priority Preventing the introduction of a new disease Very high Actions: • Reduce the risk of introducing a new avian disease by strict implementation of quarantine procedures for any avian products coming onto Christmas Island. • Undertake a risk assessment to determine the most likely source of a new avian disease so that any changes to procedure are targeted. This will require collaboration with Department of Agriculture who are responsible for provision of quarantine services on Christmas Island. Short-term objectives addressed Threats mitigated II, III and IV 1 Description Novel avian diseases can decimate island bird populations and so pose a very high risk to endemic species such as the Christmas Island Frigatebird. Strict quarantine procedures will reduce the risk by ensuring any avian products coming onto the island do not contain material that may allow the transmission of disease, e.g. dirty eggs or feathers Within the next ten years: Measure of success: No new avian diseases are introduced onto the island.

Risks: Quarantine services are not properly resourced resulting in procedures not being fully implemented.

Likelihood of success: Moderate

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Conservation and Management Action Priority Maintain or improve current policies and legislative protection Very high Actions: • Develop and implement a Single Species Action Plan through the Convention on Migratory Species to enhance protection of the Christmas Island Frigatebird and its prey species in its non-breeding range. • Where possible, protect key foraging areas occurring in Australian waters within a marine protected area, once they are identified. • Improve biological information, including spatial information, used to inform decision making and management. • Legislation and policies ensure that the Christmas Island Frigatebird is not displaced from nesting habitat due to the disturbance or removal of habitat critical to the survival. Short-term objectives addressed Threats mitigated I, II, III and IV 2,3,4,5,6,8,9 Description The Christmas Island Frigatebird is listed on Appendix 1 of the Convention of Migratory Species and so Australia can work with other range states for this species to develop a Single Species Action Plan. This plan would identify and prioritise management and research actions to ameliorate threats for the Christmas Island Frigatebird across its range, including south-east Asia. This plan would address threats such as bycatch in fishing gear, mortality from illegal hunting, prey depletion due to fishing, heavy metal contamination, marine debris and weed encroachment on roosting habitat. In the event important foraging areas are identified within Australian waters these should be captured within a marine protected area, where possible. Decision making and supporting tools continue to be informed by up to date information, including spatial information. Within the next ten years: Measure of success: • A Single Species Action Plan is developed and implemented. • Foraging areas in Australian waters are identified and protected. • Monitoring and research continue to support and improve decision making. • All threats are effectively managed within an appropriate regulatory framework.

Risks: • There are insufficient resources to develop and implement a Single Species Action Plan. • Decision making fails to protect Christmas Island Frigatebird due to inadequate supporting information or management decisions are made that do not consider the needs of the Christmas Island Frigatebird. • Habitat protection mechanisms and policies have insufficient regulatory power.

Likelihood of success: Moderate

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Conservation and Management Action Priority Prevent disturbance to habitat High Actions: Prevent disturbance to nesting and roosting habitat for the Christmas Island Frigatebird. This includes: • Preventing any activities in habitat critical to the survival that will remove nesting and roosting habitat. • Preventing any activities in buffer areas identified in Map 1 that may disturb nesting and roosting birds e.g. clearing vegetation that would result in increased wind turbulence or weed invasion in nesting and roosting habitat or burning of vegetation that would result in smoke entering nesting and roosting habitat. • Restore nesting and roosting habitat and vegetation in buffer areas. • Ensuring robust field surveys are undertaken to accurately map habitat critical to the survival of the Christmas Island Frigatebird as part of a comprehensive environmental impact assessment of proposals that may occur in or near suitable habitat.

Short-term objectives addressed Threats mitigated I, II, III and IV 3 and 5 Description Vegetation clearance was one of the causes of decline of Christmas Island Frigatebird numbers on Christmas Island. Preventing further loss and degradation of nesting and roosting habitat is an important component of the conservation management of this species. Disturbance or clearing of native vegetation in and adjacent to nesting and roosting habitat promotes expansion of invasive animal and plant species and disturbs birds which could have direct or indirect impacts on Christmas Island Frigatebird. Activities in buffer areas adjacent to breeding habitat must be managed so that they do not disturb nesting and roosting birds or degrade habitat. Examples include ensuring noise generated by activities does not exceed background noise and smoke from deliberately lit fires does not affect habitat critical to the survival. Restoration of habitat must be undertaken as described in the Christmas Island Minesite to Forest Rehabilitation Program (CIMFRP).

Vegetation clearing is currently regulated under the EPBC Act and the Western Australia Environment Protection Act 1986. This means that, while vegetation clearing is generally prohibited, it can proceed if appropriate approvals or permits are issued. Within the next ten years: Measure of success: • Explicit metrics of nesting habitat extent and quality are developed, and a monitoring program established to measure changes in these. • The extent and quality of habitat critical to the survival is maintained, increased (habitat extent) or improved (habitat quality). • Targeted and robust surveys are undertaken in any potential habitat proposed to be cleared.

Risks: • Not all habitat critical to the survival or potential breeding and roosting habitat is identified during environmental impact assessments, resulting in disturbance. • Vegetation within buffer areas is cleared leading to wind turbulence impacts and disturbance to nesting and roosting birds. • Inappropriate vegetation clearing or disturbance occurs benefitting invasive weed species expansion.

Likelihood of success: Moderate to high

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Monitoring and Research Actions Monitoring and Research Action Priority Monitoring to support adaptive management High Actions: In relation to management activities monitor and report on the implementation and effectiveness of: • Actions to minimise disturbance of current Christmas Island Frigatebird nesting and roosting habitat. • Quarantine procedures used to manage the risk of introducing a new avian disease.

To determine the extent of occurrence and trends in population size and breeding habitat the following actions are needed: • Review of past, current and potential approaches for monitoring both the breeding and non-breeding populations of Christmas Island Frigatebird to identify preferred approaches for Christmas Island and known non-breeding sites, such as Jakarta Bay. • Evaluate and possibly test the use of remotely piloted aircraft (drones) to monitor nesting frigatebirds from the air. • Continue the existing monitoring regime on Christmas Island (breeding population and breeding success) while a new approach is being developed,.

The monitoring program must include the collection of data that will be able to detect changes to the occurrence of habitat critical to the survival for Christmas Island Frigatebird and the abundance and breeding success of the species. Monitoring information should be reported publicly. Monitoring information should be applied to assess the extent to which conservation management actions are allowing progress towards the down-listing of the conservation status of this species. Short-term objectives addressed Threats mitigated III and IV 1 and 3 Description Monitoring is an essential part of any environmental management program. Monitoring will allow managers to determine whether management has been effective and identify any unintended adverse impacts. Within the next ten years: Measure of success: • Monitoring and reporting forms a part of all environment management programs used to conserve the Christmas Island Frigatebird and its habitat. • Environmental management programs respond to the outcomes of monitoring results. • All monitoring data is made publicly available.

Risks: • There are insufficient resources to undertake robust monitoring.

Likelihood of success: Moderate

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Monitoring and Research Action Priority Research to assist management and understand threats Very high Actions: • Conduct a biosecurity risk assessment to identify avian diseases at greatest risk of being introduced to Christmas Island and the mechanism by which they would come onto the island. This must include an examination of the adequacy of existing arrangements to deal with any identified threats. • Investigate further the foraging ecology and dispersal of Christmas Island Frigatebirds at different stages of their life history and breeding cycle, in order to better understand foraging patterns during the breeding season and movement between breeding and non-breeding areas, and to identify all important non-breeding sites across south-east Asia. Further use should be made of approaches such as satellite tracking to study Frigatebird movement patterns. • Investigate the factors that influence foraging success in both breeding and non- breeding areas, and how foraging success affects breeding success and timing of new breeding attempts). Approaches should include trialling novel methods for evaluating foraging success such as using weight loggers attached to roosting poles in Jakarta Bay. • Further study the breeding frequency of the two sexes and the factors that influence frequency of breeding attempts and non-breeding years among individuals. • Explore the potential for genomic techniques to estimate population size. • Analyse feather and eggshell samples to determine whether heavy metals such as mercury and cadmium are being ingested by the Christmas Island Frigatebird and if so whether it is impacting their reproductive success or survival. • Undertake research to determine the impact of fisheries in south-east Asia on food resource availability for Christmas Island Frigatebird. • Undertake research on potential other threats present in south-east Asia and the need, if any, for enhanced management of such areas. • Assess levels of ingestion of marine debris by Christmas Island Frigatebirds and other breeding seabirds in the Indian Ocean territories and determine its impact on survival or breeding success. • Determine the impacts of Homosporidian blood parasite on reproductive success and survival of the species. Short-term objectives addressed Threats mitigated II, III and IV 1,2,4,6,8 and 9 Description

Despite recent insights, there are still knowledge gaps concerning the Christmas Island Frigatebird and the threats it faces in south-east Asia. In addition, breeding frequency and success are also poorly understood. This requires ecological research targeting these information gaps to better understand where conservation management would be most effective. The Christmas Island Frigatebird occurs in an environment that potentially exposes it to heavy metal contamination and marine debris and so these risks also need to be investigated. Prey availability during the breeding season of Christmas Island Frigatebird can affect the reproductive output for that season. Commercial fishing effort could lead to adverse impacts of prey availability and consequently survival of individuals. Given the potentially devastating impact of a novel avian disease may pose to Christmas Island Frigatebird effective biosecurity procedures are needed to manage this risk. These should be based on a risk assessment that identifies the most likely sources of introduction and the best way to manage this risk. Within the next ten years: Measure of success: • Movement patterns of the Christmas Island Frigatebird and the location of its most important foraging areas are better understood. Draft Fregata andrewsi (Christmas Island Frigatebird) Conservation Advice Page 17 of 27

• The impacts of heavy metal contamination, marine debris, prey depletion, hunting and bycatch on the Christmas Island Frigatebird are better understood. • Exposure to heavy metal contamination in the Christmas Island Frigatebird is assessed in Indian Ocean territories and related to data on reproductive success and survival. • A biosecurity risk assessment is undertaken and, if needed, a stronger biosecurity barrier is established.

Risks: • There are insufficient resources for research and monitoring. • Biosecurity is not improved, if needed.

Likelihood of success: Moderate

Stakeholder Engagement Actions Stakeholder Engagement Action Priority Support and improve collaboration amongst stakeholders to High facilitate the recovery of the Christmas Island Frigatebird. Actions: • Develop and circulate information products about managing the risks of introducing new avian diseases. • Publish updates on Christmas Island Frigatebird management, and regularly report publicly on all monitoring programs. • Provide opportunities for the community and others to volunteer for research, monitoring or management activities. • Develop and implement a stakeholder engagement plan, including international stakeholders. • If research demonstrates a need, develop collaborative interpretational material for conservation of Christmas Island Frigatebird beyond its Australian range. Short-term objectives addressed Threats mitigated II and V 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9 Description Supportive and engaged stakeholders are crucial to the success of any conservation management program undertaken in a remote location with a small community. Methods to communicate with the community could include social media, local newspapers, websites and through schools and existing community groups. Habitat for Christmas Island Frigatebird occurs across the island and needs to be carefully managed by a range of land owners and managers to ensure its protection. Many of the activities that must be implemented to protect this species require a collaborative approach to ensure success. Within the next ten years: Measure of success: • A stakeholder engagement plan is developed and implemented. • Conservation management activities that require collaboration are successfully implemented. • High level of community support for actions to conserve the Christmas Island Frigatebird.

Risks: • Resourcing is not available to develop and implement a plan. • Stakeholders are reluctant to cooperate.

Likelihood of success: Moderate

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References:

ABBBS 2018 (2018) Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme. URL www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/science/abbbs/abbbs-search.html [accessed on 5 September 2018]

Australian Fisheries Management Authority (2019) AFMA submission for Reassessment of the Western Tuna and Billfish Fishery 2019. A report prepared to inform an export approval assessment of the Western Tuna and Billfish Fishery under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. URL https://www.environment.gov.au/marine/fisheries/commonwealth/western-tuna-billfish [accessed 27 August 2019]

Andrews, C.W. 1900. A Monograph of Christmas Island. British Museum (Natural History), London

Ballance, L.T. and Pitman, R.L. (1999) Foraging ecology of tropical seabirds. In: Adams, N.J. and Slotow, R.H. (eds) Proc. 22 Int. Ornithol. Congr., Durban: 2057-2071. Johannesburg: BirdLife South Africa.

Beeton, B., Burbidge, A. A., Grigg, G., Harrison, P., Humphries, B., McKenzie, N. and Woinarski, J. (2010). Final Report, Christmas Island expert working group to Minister for the Environment, Heritage and the Arts. Available on the internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/f8b7f521-0c69-4093- bf22-22baa4de495a/files/final-report.pdf.

BirdLife International (2019) Species factsheet: Fregata andrewsi. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 22/01/2019.

Department of the Environment and Heritage (2006) Threat Abatement Plan to reduce the impacts of tramp ants on biodiversity in Australia and its Territories. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.

Department of the Environment and Energy (DoEE) (2016). Area of occupancy and extent of occurrence for Fregata andrewsi. Unpublished report, Australian Government Department of the Environment, Canberra.

Director of National Parks (2014). Christmas Island National Park Management Plan 2014-2024. Australian Government.

Garnett, S., Szabo, J. and Dutson, G. (2011). The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2010. CSIRO Publishing. Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1947). Notes on the birds of Christmas Island. Bulletin of the Raffles Museum 18, 87- 165.

Garnett, S. and Woinarski, J. (2018) Final Workshop Report - Research and management priorities for Christmas Island Frigatebirds. Unpublished report to the Threatened Species Recovery Hub of the National Environmental Science Program. 8 March 2018

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1947). Notes on the birds of Christmas Island. Bulletin of the Raffles Museum 18, 87-165.

Gore, M. J. E. (1968). A Check-list of the birds of Sabah, Borneo. Ibis 110, 165--196.

Green, P. T. (1999). Greta's Garbo: stranded seeds and fruits from Greta Beach, Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Journal of Biogeography, 26, 937-946.

Hennicke, J.C., James, D.J. and Weimerskirch, H. (2015). Sex specific habitat utilisation and differential breeding investments in Christmas Island Frigatebirds throughout the breeding cycle. PloS One 10(6): e0129437. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129437.

Hill, R. and Dunn, A. (2004). National recovery plan for the Christmas Island Frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi). Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.

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Jambeck, J.R., Andrady, A., Geyer, R., Narayan, R., Perryman, M., Siegler, T., Wilcox, C., Lavender Law, K. (2015) Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean, Science, 347, p. 768-771.

James, D. J. (2003). A survey of Christmas Island Frigatebird nests in 2003. Unpublished report to Parks Australia. Tropical Ecology Consulting Services.

James, D. and McAllan, I. (2014). The birds of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: A review. Birdlife Australia. Australian Field Ornithology V:31.

Marchant, S. and Higgins, P. J. (1990). Fregata andrewsi Christmas Frigatebird. In: Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds, Volume 1, Ratites to Ducks. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.

McLaughlin, Mike, G. Tiller, K, Naidu, Ravi and Stevens, Daryl. (1996). Review: The behaviour and environmental impact of contaminants in fertilizers. Australian Journal of Soil Research - AUST J SOIL RES. 34. 10.1071/SR9960001.

Merino, S., Hennicke J.C., Martínez, J., Ludynia, K., Torres, R., Work, T.M., Masello, J.F. and P. Quillfeldt (2012). Infection by Haemoproteus parasites in four species of frigatebirds and the description of a new species of Haemoproteus (Haemosporida: Haemoproteidae). Journal of Parasitology 98(2): 388-397

Morris-Pocock, J. A., Hennicke, J. C. and Friesen, V. L. (2012). Effects of long-term isolation on genetic variation and within-island population genetic structure in Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) seabirds. Conservation Genetics 13, 1467-1481.

Nelson, J. B. (1975). The breeding biology of Frigatebirds: A comparative view. Living Bird. 14, 113--155. Nelson, J.B. 2005 Pelicans - Cormorants- And Their Relatives the Pelecaniformes, Oxford University Press

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Stokes, T. (1988). A review of the birds on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service Occasional Paper.

Tirtaningtyas, F. N. and Hennicke, J. C. (2015). Threats to the critically endangered Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata andrewsi in Jakarta Bay, Indonesia, and implications for reconsidering conservation priorities. Marine Ornithology 43, 137-140

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Attachment A

Eligibility of Christmas Island frigatebird for listing against EPBC Act criteria and regulations

On 6 September 2016 the Committee recommended that the Christmas Island Frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi) be transferred from the Vulnerable category to the Endangered category on the list referred to in section 178 of the EPBC Act.

The Christmas Island frigatebird has been found to be eligible for listing under the following categories:

Criterion 1: A2 (a),(b): Endangered Criterion 2: B2 (a),(b)(ii,),(iii),(v): Endangered Criterion 3: C2 (a)(ii): Vulnerable

The highest category for which the Christmas Island frigatebird is eligible to be listed is Endangered.

Details of the Committee’s assessment are provided below:

Criterion 1. Population size reduction (reduction in total numbers) Population reduction (measured over the longer of 10 years or 3 generations) based on any of A1 to A4 Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Very severe reduction Severe reduction Substantial reduction A1 ≥ 90% ≥ 70% ≥ 50% A2, A3, A4 ≥ 80% ≥ 50% ≥ 30% A1 Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred or suspected in the past and the causes of the reduction (a) direct observation [except A3] are clearly reversible AND understood AND ceased. A2 Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred (b) an index of abundance appropriate to or suspected in the past where the causes of the the taxon reduction may not have ceased OR may not be based understood OR may not be reversible. (c) a decline in area of occupancy, on extent of occurrence and/or quality of A3 Population reduction, projected or suspected to be f habitat met in the future (up to a maximum of 100 years) [(a) cannot be used for A3] (d) actual or potential levels of A4 An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or exploitation suspected population reduction where the time period must include both the past and the future (up to a (e) the effects of introduced taxa, max. of 100 years in future), and where the causes of hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, reduction may not have ceased OR may not be competitors or parasites understood OR may not be reversible.

Evidence: Eligible under Criterion 1 A2 (a),(b) for listing as Endangered

A historical review of the extent and decline of the four Christmas Island frigatebird sub-colonies suggests that the pre-settlement population was about 6300 breeding pairs per annum, but declined to 4500 by 1910, 3500 by 1945, 2500 by 1967, 1500 by 1978, and 1300 pairs by 1988 (James 2003). James (2003) surveyed frigatebird nests on the Island in 2003 and estimated that there were only about 1171 breeding pairs. If the historical and more recent population estimates are accurate, then it can be inferred that there has been a total population decline of about 66 percent in approximately three generations between 1945 and 2003 (James 2003).

The likely causes of decline are habitat clearance, disturbance from phosphate mining and through mortality across their foraging range (Garnett et al., 2011; Hill and Dunn 2004; Marchant and Higgins 1990;

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Tirtaningtyas and Hennicke 2015). Although breeding habitat is no longer under threat from clearing, the other pressures remain.

The Committee considers that the species has undergone a severe reduction in numbers over three generation lengths (46.5 years for this assessment), equivalent to at least ≥ 50 percent and the causes of the reduction has not ceased. Therefore, the species has been demonstrated to have met the relevant elements of Criterion 1 to make it eligible for listing as Endangered.

Criterion 2. Geographic distribution as indicators for either extent of occurrence AND/OR area of occupancy Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Very restricted Restricted Limited B1. Extent of occurrence (EOO) < 100 km2 < 5,000 km2 < 20,000 km2 B2. Area of occupancy (AOO) < 10 km2 < 500 km2 < 2,000 km2 AND at least 2 of the following 3 conditions: (a) Severely fragmented OR Number of = 1 ≤ 5 ≤ 10 locations (b) Continuing decline observed, estimated, inferred or projected in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat; (iv) number of locations or subpopulations; (v) number of mature individuals (c) Extreme fluctuations in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) number of locations or subpopulations; (iv) number of mature individuals

Evidence: Eligible under Criterion 2 B2 (a),(b)(ii, iii, v) for listing as Endangered

The extent of occurrence is estimated at 9 115 000 km2. These figures are based on the mapping of point records from 1996 to 2016, obtained from state governments, museums, Birdlife Australia and CSIRO. The extent of occurrence was calculated using a minimum convex hull (DotE 2016).

Using the 2x2km grid cells, the area of occupancy for the Christmas Island frigatebird was calculated as 12 km2 (DotE 2016). This is considered restricted. Given the close proximity of breeding colonies on Christmas Island, the Christmas Island frigatebird is considered to occur in one location.

The Committee considers that the species’ area of occupancy is restricted; they occur in only one location; and there is a continuing decline in area of occupancy, quality of habitat and number of mature individuals (Garnett et al., 2011). Therefore, the species has been demonstrated to have met the relevant elements of Criterion 2 to make it eligible for listing as Endangered.

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Criterion 3. Population size and decline

Critically Endangered Vulnerable Endangered Low Limited Very low Estimated number of mature individuals < 250 < 2,500 < 10,000 AND either (C1) or (C2) is true C1 An observed, estimated or projected Very high rate High rate Substantial rate continuing decline of at least (up to a 25% in 3 years or 1 20% in 5 years or 2 10% in 10 years or 3 max. of 100 years in future) generation generation generations (whichever is longer) (whichever is (whichever is longer) longer) C2 An observed, estimated, projected or inferred continuing decline AND its geographic distribution is precarious for its survival based on at least 1 of the following 3 conditions: (i) Number of mature individuals in ≤ 50 ≤ 250 ≤ 1,000 each subpopulation (a) (ii) % of mature individuals in one 90 – 100% 95 – 100% 100% subpopulation = (b) Extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals

Evidence: Eligible under Criterion 3 C2 (a)(ii) for listing as Vulnerable

Morris-Pocock et al. (2012) estimated the Christmas Island frigatebird population to contain approximately 5000 individuals. Similarly, Garnett et al. (2011) estimated the population to have 4800 mature individuals (based on an estimate of 1200 pairs breeding annually, and accounting for biennial breeding (Beeton et al., 2010; Garnett et al., 2011)).

The Christmas Island frigatebird currently maintains a viable population size (Morris-Pocock et al., 2012), but is declining (Beeton et al., 2010; Garnet et al., 2011; James 2003). There is no information to suggest a projected rate of decline for the species, but James (2003) inferred a rate of decline of approximately 67 percent between 1945 and 2003. There is no information to suggest there have been extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals. Given the close proximity of breeding colonies on Christmas Island, the Christmas Island frigatebird is considered to occur in one location, which contains 100 percent of mature individuals.

The Committee considers that the estimated total number of mature individuals of this species is limited, there is an inferred continuing decline in population size, and the geographic distribution is precarious for the survival of the species because the entire population occurs at a single location. Therefore, the species has been demonstrated to have met the relevant elements of Criterion 3 to make it eligible for listing as Vulnerable.

Criterion 4. Number of mature individuals Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Extremely low Very Low Low

Number of mature individuals < 50 < 250 < 1,000

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Evidence: Not eligible The total number of mature individuals is 4800 (Garnett et al., 2011) which is not considered extremely low, very low or low. Therefore, the species has not been demonstrated to have met this required element of this criterion.

Criterion 5. Quantitative Analysis Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Immediate future Near future Medium-term future ≥ 50% in 10 years or 3 ≥ 20% in 20 years or 5 Indicating the probability of extinction in the generations, whichever generations, ≥ 10% in 100 years wild to be: is longer (100 years whichever is longer max.) (100 years max.)

Evidence: Insufficient data to determine eligibility Population viability analysis has not been undertaken.

References

1. Beeton, B., Burbidge, A. A., Grigg, G., Harrison, P., Humphries, B., McKenzie, N. and Woinarski, J. (2010). Final Report, Christmas Island Expert Working Group to Minister for the Environment, Heritage and the Arts. Viewed: 7 April 2015. Available on the internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/f8b7f521-0c69-4093-bf22-22baa4de495a/files/final-report.pdf. 2. Department of the Environment and Energy (DoEE) (2016). Area of Occupancy and Extent of Occurrence for Fregata andrewsi. Unpublished report, Australian Government Department of the Environment, Canberra. 3. Garnett, S., Szabo, J. and Dutson, G. (2011). The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2010. CSIRO Publishing. 4. Hill, R. and Dunn, A. (2004). National recovery plan for the Christmas Island Frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi). Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. 5. James, D. J. (2003). A survey of Christmas Island frigatebird nests in 2003. Unpublished report to Parks Australia. Tropical Ecology Consulting Services. 6. Marchant, S. and Higgins, P. J. (1990). Fregata andrewsi Christmas Frigatebird. In: Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds, Volume 1, Ratites to Ducks. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. 7. Morris-Pocock, J. A., Hennicke, J. C. and Friesen, V. L. (2012). Effects of long-term isolation on genetic variation and within-island population genetic structure in Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) seabirds. Conservation Genetics 13, 1467-1481. 8. Tirtaningtyas, F. N. and Hennicke, J. C. (2015). Threats to the critically endangered Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata andrewsi in Jakarta Bay, Indonesia, and implications for reconsidering conservation priorities. Marine Ornithology 43, 137-140.

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