2 AUM Historical Review

2 AUM Historical Review Issue 4AUM Winter 2015 Editors Kelhi DePace Katie Kidd Associate Editors Madison Clark (advertising manager) Jennifer Kellum Tyler Rice LaKendrick Richardson Catherine Walden Graphic Designers Kristyn Recknagel (cover) Megan Stanley Advisor Steven Gish Photographs Alabama Department of Archives and History Kelhi DePace Katie Kidd I.B. Tauris Publishers Printing Wells Printing, Montgomery, AL

The ideas expressed in these essays are the sole responsibility of their respective authors and contributors and do not necessarily represent WKHRIÀFLDOVWDWHPHQWVRSLQLRQVRUSROLFLHVRI $XEXUQ8QLYHUVLW\DW0RQWJRPHU\RUWKH'HSDUWPHQWRI+LVWRU\DW$801HLWKHU$XEXUQ 8QLYHUVLW\DW0RQWJRPHU\QRUWKH'HSDUWPHQWRI+LVWRU\DW$80DFFHSWDQ\OLDELOLW\IRUWKHFRQWHQWRIWKLVMRXUQDO Letter from the Editors 3 Katie Kidd and Kelhi DePace

Selma: From Sleepy Town to “Queen City” of the Confederacy 4 Rachel Guyette

Stepping into the Past: The Alabama Voices Gallery at the Alabama Department of Archives and History 24 Tyler Rice

British Historians and World War I: Differing Views on the Role of Women 28 Leanne Waller-Trupp

Review of Philip C. Almond’s The Lancashire Witches: A Chronicle of Sorcery and Death on Pendle Hill 40 Kimberly Leifer

Confederate Heroines in Letters: Augusta Jane Evans, Her Confederate Sisters, and Macaria 44 Kelhi DePace

Remember the Airmen 64 Katie Kidd 68 Additional Contributors

69 Advertisers

70 Call for Papers

2 AUM Historical Review Contents Welcome to the fourth issue of the AUM Historical Review, the result of a year of excellent student contributions and cooperation. We are proud to present the following pages that showcase some of the best work produced by the students of AUM – students IURPWKH'HSDUWPHQWVRI+LVWRU\DQG)LQH$UWVLQSDUWLFXODU7KHVHDUWLFOHVSUHVHQWQRW only beautiful samples of work from some of AUM’s strongest writers, but also compelling KLVWRU\RQVXEMHFWVIURPZRPHQLQWKH&LYLO:DUDQG:RUOG:DU,WRRXURZQVWDWHKLVWRU\ One of the most exciting moments for the editorial board is when new submissions VWDUWUROOLQJLQ'LVFRYHULQJDQHZDQGSRZHUIXOZULWHULVDOZD\VDMR\:HWKHUHIRUHVWURQJO\ encourage AUM students to respond with gusto to our annual “Call for Papers.” When \RXVHHWKRVHÁ\HUVLQWKHKDOOZD\VDQGRQWKHEXOOHWLQERDUGVSOHDVHFRQVLGHUVXEPLWWLQJD piece of historical writing of which you are particularly proud or which has been praised by a professor; your work may be published next year! We would like to thank everyone who contributed work for consideration and HVSHFLDOO\WKRVHZKRVHZRUNLVQRZLQSULQW)RU\RXUHIIRUWVDQGSDWLHQFHLQHGLWLQJZH thank our authors Rachel Guyette, Tyler Rice, Kimberly Leifer, and Leanne Waller-Trupp. )RU\RXUDUWLVWLFFRQWULEXWLRQVZHWKDQN3URIHVVRU%UHXQD%DLQHDQGKHU7\SRJUDSK\,, students for another year of excellent contributions; we especially thank our cover designer .ULVW\Q5HFNQDJHODQGRXULQWHUQDOGHVLJQHU0HJDQ6WDQOH\7KDQN\RXDOVRWR'HDQ 0LFKDHO%XUJHUDQGWKH&ROOHJHRI$UWVDQG6FLHQFHVDQGWR'U7LP+HQGHUVRQDQG7UDF\ *RRGZLQLQWKH+LVWRU\'HSDUWPHQWIRU\RXUFRQWLQXHGVXSSRUW$ELJWKDQN\RXWR'U Steven Gish for sponsoring the Review and being a constant source of guidance, support, and sound advice as we work towards the completion of each and every issue. We offer a special thanks to many outside organizations that have been a part of this ZRUN2QFHDJDLQWKDQN\RXWRWKH$ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG+LVWRU\ZH especially appreciate being able to review the new Alabama Voices Gallery. Thank you to WKH$ODEDPD1DWLRQDO3DUN6HUYLFHSDUWLFXODUO\WKRVHDWWKH7XVNHJHH$LUPHQ+LVWRULFDO

Letter from the Editors Letter from the 6LWH7KDQN\RXDOVRWRWKHSHRSOHRI7XVNHJHH$ODEDPDIRUKHOSLQJXVÀQGWKH+LVWRULFDO Site. Of course we are grateful to the organizations that granted us permission to use their images and to our advertisers. Last, but far from least, we thank our fellow editors Jennifer Kellum, Tyler Rice, Catherine Walden, and LaKendrick Richardson, without whom we would never have made it through the editing process. We have truly appreciated your insight and perspective on the following pieces. Thank you also to Madison Clark who secured commercial support IRURXUMRXUQDOWKXVHQDEOLQJXVWRDVSLUHWRQHZKHLJKWVIRUWKHQH[WLVVXH7RWKHVHDQG all of the past editorial staff who paved the way, a heartfelt thank you. And to you -- our readers -- thank you. We hope you are enriched and enlivened by this edition of the AUM Historical Review. .DWLH.LGGDQG.HOKL'H3DFH(GLWRUV

3 AUM Historical Review &RXUWHV\RI$ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG+LVWRU\0RQWJRPHU\$ODEDPD

4 AUM Historical Review FromSelma Sleepy Town to “Queen City” of the Confederacy 5DFKHO*X\HWWH

With skin of ebony glistening in the sight, Mary thoughtlessly steps on the southern sun and beads of sweat dripping paper, not realizing that its topic is going from her young brow, little Mary walks to dramatically alter her life and situation, innocently from the big house on the but at four years old, Mary’s mind has not fringe of Selma, Alabama to the slave yet grasped the meaning of freedom. The quarters after her tasks are completed in war is raging, the Union army is advancing the main kitchen. Sauntering along the deeper into the Confederacy, and there is ROGGLUWSDWK0DU\ÀQGVFRPIRUWLQEHLQJ a promise of freedom in its wake. As one allowed to knead dough in the kitchen of the main military manufacturing centers with her mother. She gazes starry-eyed of the Confederacy, Mary’s hometown of at the massive, moss-covered live oak Selma has become a Union target. Rich in trees surrounding her, when suddenly an black belt soil and perched alongside the afternoon gust blows a newspaper from Alabama River, which enabled year-round the master’s desk onto the worn trail she crop growth and initially attracted farmers follows. Two years have passed since to settle the land, the Confederacy selected the onset of the Civil War and President Selma to produce more than foodstuffs /LQFROQ·VLVVXHRIWKH(PDQFLSDWLRQ during the American Civil War—a purpose Proclamation has captured newspaper that would eventually cause the city’s KHDGOLQHVDFURVV1RUWK$PHULFD:LWK GHPLVH,QXQGHUVWDQGLQJLWVLPSRUWDQFHWR WKHQRLV\IDFWRULHVRIWKH1DYDO

Rachel Bethany Guyette recently graduated from AUM with a Bachelor of Arts in history and is now pursuing a Master’s degree in education. Rachel is a member of Phi Alpha Theta and works for her family’s construction business, which specializes in historic districts. She believes that history allows individuals to see who they are and their connection to the national and international community. one must examine Selma at the onset of devastation that the 1865 Battle of Selma the war and during the war, as well as the FDXVHG,QThe Story of Selma, Jackson challenges it faced after the war ended. provides detailed accounts of Selma’s Through the course of the Civil War, people trying to regain its charter after Selma morphed from a sleepy town to a the war, listing voting records and even bustling industrial city, and in the process, post-war meeting advertisements to discuss it became one of the Confederacy’s most loans and resolutions. Without these important urban centers and producers of researchers, much of the history of Selma war material as the “Queen City” of the would remain unknown; and without the South. original “historians” who documented Located in the heart of the South, history through sources such as letters, Selma has been widely researched and telegraphs, and diaries during the Civil written about by a variety of well-respected War, historical accounts would essentially historians for its contributions during the be nonexistent. Therefore, combining Civil War. Covering its importance as an both primary and secondary sources, a DUVHQDOFHQWHU(UQHVW%-RKQVWRQSUHVHQWV new viewpoint will be presented in this an excellent overview of why Selma was paper: Selma as a whole before, during, chosen and how the city became successful and immediately after the Civil War, in his book Selma, Alabama As a Center with a central emphasis on its industrial of Confederate War Production, 1860-1865. VLJQLÀFDQFHWRWKH&RQIHGHUDF\1 He sheds light on Selma’s geographical The name Selma, meaning a high VLJQLÀFDQFHWRWKH&RQIHGHUDF\PDNHV seat or throne, was selected from William clear that it was originally a cotton Macpherson’s “Songs of Ossian” poem WRZQEXWTXLFNO\SURÀWHGDVDWRZQRI and was chosen in 1820 by William Rufus industry, and enlightens readers on the King, a founder of Alabama, who chose city’s downfall toward the end of the the name well, as the land is situated on a war. Similarly, in The Alabama Confederate high northern bank of the Alabama River. Reader, historian Malcolm C. McMillan Just a year earlier, on March 16, 1819, FODULÀHV6HOPD·VUROHLQWKH&RQIHGHUDWH .LQJDORQJZLWKD'U*HRUJH3KLOOLSV war effort as an ordnance center, while also DSSHDUHGDWWKH)HGHUDO/DQG2IÀFHLQ explaining the changes Selma faced after the Alabama Territory to purchase 460 the war due to its destruction by Union acres here. The river was well-known to raiders. While historians like Johnston and travelers, who often referred to the area McMillan highlighted Selma’s importance as “Moore’s Bluff,” after a Tennessean as a war production center, others, such named Thomas Moore who built a cabin as Walter M. Jackson, focus more on the on the site in 1815. King was a member of

6 AUM Historical Review the Selma Land Company, which initially Alabama to Talladega with trains running planned the town, both buying and selling each way on a daily basis. Although these ODQG,QLWLDOO\DWWUDFWLQJIDUPHUVWRGHYHORS mineral lands had not been developed the rich soil, the area rests in the heart beyond the most primitive stages prior RI WKH%ODFN%HOWZLWKLQ'DOODV&RXQW\ to 1861, the possibilities tucked away which covers 976 square miles and is ideal in the northern hills of Alabama were for cultivation. Selma, as well as the rest ZHOONQRZQ)XUWKHUPRUHLQÀIW\ of the Black Belt, with its large farms and steamboats ported at Mobile, ultimately strong slave labor force, never experienced making nearby Selma more well-known. the shortage of food that plagued other One of these steamboats, for example, UHJLRQVRI WKH6RXWK,QIDFWZLWKLWVODUJH was a daily mail steamer that docked at FRQFHQWUDWLRQRIVODYHV'DOODVZDVWKH Selma on its three-day route to and from number one cotton producing county in Montgomery, traveling a total of 333 the state of Alabama. By 1860, it had a miles. Thus, by river, Selma connected the white population of 7,785 and three times east and the south; on the west, a mere WKDWPDQ\VODYHVSURGXFLQJRQHÀIWHHQWK ÀIW\PLOHVRIUDLOFRQVWUXFWLRQZRXOGOLQN of the state’s cotton crop. At this point, Selma and its eastern connections to the the county as a whole had sixty-nine small west beyond the Mississippi River; and on industrial establishments, employing 427 WKHQRUWKKLVWRULDQ(UQHVW%-RKQVWRQ people. Selma, however, had no industrial sarcastically remarks, “Who wanted to go population or plant prior to the Civil War. WRRIDUDQ\ZD\",WZDVHQRXJKWRUHDFK With its successful one-crop rural economy the coal, iron, and timber of the Southern preferring to buy goods rather than Appalachians.”3 produce them, and with the cotton trade With its many geographical advantages, centering at Mobile during the 1840s and discerning men sought to utilize Selma’s 50s, there was an adequate transportation resources for the betterment of the system surrounding Selma.2 Confederacy. With the war underway, The Alabama River handled most one man in particular—Josiah Gorgas— transportation, running west from took charge of what was thought to 0RQWJRPHU\ÀIW\PLOHVWR6HOPDWKHQ be impossible: arming the Confederate turning south to Mobile, which gave VROGLHUVQRWMXVWRI6HOPDEXWRIWKH Selma both southern and eastern arteries entire South. As Chief of Ordnance of the with rails stretching from Montgomery to Confederate Army, Gorgas was to supply Richmond. The Alabama and Tennessee an “almost completely agrarian nation Rivers Railroad extended 110 miles up with the arms, ammunition, and industries through the coal and iron regions of QHFHVVDU\WRNHHSLWVDUPLHVLQWKHÀHOG

7 AUM Historical Review against a mighty industrial foe.”4 Although than that of any other man, with the DUnited States Military Academy leading to )LQDOO\WKHODVWGD\WKH3URYLVLRQDO a career which was to “contribute more Congress met in Montgomery, on May

8 AUM Historical Review 21, 1861, it appropriated $4,440,000 for defense, certain private citizens of the ordnance service. The money was used Confederacy—a group of neocapitalists to purchase heavy ordnance, shot, and in Alabama—began insisting that their VKHOOVL[WHHQÀHOGEDWWHULHVÀIW\WKRXVDQG representatives in Congress buy the Selma VPDOODUPVDORQJZLWKÀYHWKRXVDQG Manufacturing Company for ordnance pistols. With such beginnings, Gorgas purposes. Less than three weeks after was able to organize cannon foundries the convention in Montgomery voted at Macon, Augusta, and Columbus, the Ordinance of Secession, owners Georgia. He also managed to establish the of the Selma Manufacturing Company Augusta Powder Works, which became began writing their representatives in the the largest manufacturer of its kind in Provisional Confederate Congress offering 1RUWK$PHULFD)XUWKHUPRUHWRVXSSO\ to sell their property to the Confederate these facilities with materials, Gorgas Government for $40,000. One of these FUHDWHGWKH1LWUHDQG0LQLQJ%XUHDX representatives was Colin J. McRae, who which reinforced preexisting railroads to had been appointed to the Provisional handle such shipments. As other ordnance Congress by Mobile politicians because centers were established and money was of his successful business career in continuously tightened, George W. Rains, WKHDUHD+HOSLQJ0F5DHÀQGDQRWKHU superintendent of the Augusta Powder business opportunity, J. W. Lapsley, who Works, was hesitant about the amount resided in Selma and bought 6/7th of of money that could be wasted trying WKHVWRFNLQWKH6KHOE\&RXQW\,URQ to grow a foundry at Selma, Alabama. Manufacturing Company, telegraphed &RQWUDVWLQJO\DVDXWKRU)UDQN(9DQGLYHU McRae and expressed how exactly the notes, “Gorgas’ attitude toward the Selma QHDUE\6KHOE\,URQ&RPSDQ\FRXOGDLGLQ plant is the most confusing element in the the success of a foundry at Selma: “Can whole fabric of his ponderings over which furnish thirty tons pig and twenty tons SODQWVKRXOGEHORFDWHGZKHUHµ)RUDZKLOH wrought iron per week which can soon be Gorgas intended the Macon Armory to be increased to any required amount there the one great national work, but as enemy are.”7 Lapsley recognized that the plans for activity increased near Macon and the a government armory depended on coal transportation problem persisted, his idea and iron contracts, and he also knew that of a great national work shifted toward his company could satisfy the Confederate Selma, deep in the heart of Alabama and government in regard to iron only if the far from the threat of invading armies.6 /LWWOH&DKDED,URQ:RUNVIRXQGHGE\ While Gorgas was directing his William Phineas Browne, would do the attention to military measures for public same in regard to coal. With the assurance

9 AUM Historical Review of his coal and iron supplies from Lapsley supply of iron materials that were to be and Browne, McRae started working on produced there. He also made it clear a formal contract with the Confederate that the government could expect to JRYHUQPHQW,QGRLQJVRKHUHFHLYHG receive cannon, boilerplates, and plating letters from men like W. M. Byrd, another for gunboats from his foundry. With resident of Selma, concerning an armory Selma’s affairs in order, McRae traveled to LQ6HOPD,Q%\UG·VOHWWHUKHGLVFXVVHVWKH Richmond to sign the contract granting possibility of establishing an armory and an advance. He dealt with Gorgas and powder mill in Selma and informs McRae George Minor, who presented a contract that he has researched the matter and JLYLQJ0F5DHDQLQLWLDOVXPRI,Q presented a proposal to the Confederate return, McRae’s company guaranteed to government. Byrd insists, “Selma is the produce rolled iron, cannon, mortars, and EHVWORFDWLRQWKDW,NQRZRIIRUWKH ammunition to the amount of $300,000 in establishment of an armory and powder 1862, $1,000,000 in 1863 and $1,000,000 mill.” Thus, in 1861, having decided to take again in 1864. Although McRae returned a business venture at the encouragement to Selma from Richmond with an advance of men like Lapsley and Byrd, McRae $50,000 less than hoped for, he did became a co-owner of a foundry in Selma manage to base the company’s prices on a that made ordnance and iron plates for cost plus basis; and thus, “Selma’s industry gunboats.8 had begun.”9 As additional land was purchased 0F5DH·VIRXQGU\MRLQHGDODUJH for the foundry and construction began, number of private enterprises that were McRae asked for an advance of $100,000 producing items like shovels, swords, and from the Confederate government so the uniforms. As others realized the potential plant could start producing materials as Selma held for the Confederacy, they com- soon as possible. He suggested plans for mended McRae in his efforts toward the creating cannons in Selma and encouraged war. George Minor, chief of the Confeder- the idea of establishing a rolling mill to DWH2IÀFHRI2UGQDQFHDQG+\GURJUDSKV form iron for covering gunboats. McRae in Richmond, Virginia proudly wrote to believed it practical that at least one 0F5DH´,DPSOHDVHGWRKHDUWKDW\RX gunboat be constructed immediately in have gone to work with your usual zeal Selma to help protect the nearby Mobile in establishing a foundry near Selma for Bay. On behalf of the advance he desired the fabrication of guns.”10 With McRae’s from the Confederate government, McRae foundry already established, Gorgas be- argued that Selma was the logical place lieved Selma had the potential to become for shipbuilding because of the large the “Pittsburgh of the South.” So, in 1862,

10 AUM Historical Review *RUJDVPRYHGWKHIRUPDO)HGHUDO$UVH- DUWLVDQV'HVSLWHLWVODUJHVODYHSRSXODFH nal located at Mount Vernon near Mobile however, within a year of war, Selma sent to Selma. Thus, though Selma initially 600 men to the front from its already small SURÀWHGIURPFRWWRQSURGXFWLRQE\ SRSXODWLRQRI RIZKRPRQO\ ZLWKLWVLQDFFHVVLELOLW\WR)HGHUDOUDLGVLWV were white); because of the many ensuing proximity to the prosperous iron and coal casualties, “Selma became an emotional ÀHOGVRI6KHOE\DQG%LEEFRXQWLHV ZKLFK center of Confederate sympathy from were linked with Selma by the Alabama the beginning.”12 Because of its location, and Tennessee River Railroad), its deep however, the area remained untouched by waterway to Mobile, and the abundance of the war until as late as May 1862, when food in the surrounding Black Belt, Selma a temporary hospital was established in was selected by the Confederate govern- Selma. This particular hospital, as well as ment to become a manufacturing center life in Selma, was recognized and written for its war machine, the responsibility for DERXWE\D1HZ

11 AUM Historical Review cause. The Confederacy faced a serious prominent in war production for the most shortage of nitre, an essential element of part because it was inland, away from gunpowder, and the lixiviation of the earth enemy attacks, a transportation center from places like caves under stables was of a sort, and most importantly, the city the source of nitre. One of these sources to which the mineral goods of Alabama was located in Selma, and in October 1863, were most accessible. McRae had already a Selma lawyer named Jonathan Haralson reached an agreement with the Shelby took charge of recovering this commodity &RXQW\,URQ0DQXIDFWXULQJ&RPSDQ\ from every source Selma had to offer, through Lapsley, which greatly impressed including women. As a result, Haralson Gorgas, who consequently appointed proposed an idea which he introduced in McRae as the Confederate iron agent for an ad in the Selma Sentinel that requested Alabama. McRae went to the state’s largest the ladies of Selma to “preserve all their producer of iron, the Shelby Company, chamber lye collected about their premises which had been losing money on iron in IRUWKHSXUSRVHRI PDNLQJ1LWUHµ 1861 at $37 per ton. With their losses in Haralson went on to clarify that wagons mind and on behalf of the Confederate would be sent around to collect the urine, government, McRae offered $40 for all and Thomas B. Wetmore was humorously the iron the company could ship to Selma, inspired to write the following in response: a cash advance of $50,000, and $25,000 “Jno Haralson! Jno Haralson! Could you in 8% bonds, all of which the company not invent a meter, or some less immodest accepted. With these funds, war materials mode of making our salt-petre? The thing, began pouring from Selma. The largest it is so queer… That when a lady lifts her development of manufacturing was found VKLIWVKHVKRRWVDEORRG\

12 AUM Historical Review than one hundred buildings and employed Confederacy where large siege guns could as many as ten thousand workers at its be made.17 peak. The facility manufactured cannons )XUWKHUPRUHZLWKWKH)HGHUDO DQGRWKHUPLOLWDU\LWHPV,QRUGHUWRFUHDWH blockade of Southern ports, the the cannons, pits had to be dug into the &RQIHGHUDWH6WDWHV1DY\EHFDPHFRQVFLRXV earth that were approximately seven feet of the United States’ superiority in sea in diameter, which was nearly three times power and also that ships needed to be the desired length for the guns. A brick built away from vulnerable seaports. and metal casing was then put down into Selma was chosen for shipbuilding and the pit, clay was packed inside, and after in early April 1862, McRae wrote to the awhile, moulds for the gun would be 6HFUHWDU\RIWKH&RQIHGHUDWH6WDWHV1DY\ solidly supported in the clay. Though gun WKDWWKHÀUVWFODVVLURQFODGVVKRXOGEH casting was delayed due to the unfortunate built at Selma for the defense of Mobile ORFDWLRQRI WKHIRXQGU\LQ6HOPD GLUHFWO\ Bay. Mobile had only had two wooden atop of underground springs that seeped gunboats protecting its ports, both of LQWRWKHSLWV WKHPHWDOIRU6HOPD·VÀUVW which had been launched in late 1861 with cannon was poured on July 21, 1864. A the help of McRae. He felt Selma was a LQFK%URRNHULÁHZDVPDGHHVWDEOLVKLQJ logical place for shipbuilding, especially WKH6HOPD)RXQGU\DVWKHRQO\VLWHLQWKH since he planned to build a rolling mill lower South capable of manufacturing this there to manufacture armor for ships. With ZHDSRQIRUWKH&RQIHGHUDWH6WDWHV1DY\ WKHVXUUHQGHURI 1HZ2UOHDQVKDYLQJ ,QDOO&RQIHGHUDWHVPDQXIDFWXUHGPRUH MXVWRFFXUUHGWKH&RQIHGHUDWH&RQJUHVV than seventy Brooke guns at Selma, many immediately appropriated $1,200,000 for of which were shipped to Mobile while the defense of Mobile, and in response, others were mounted on naval vessels. McRae urged Mobile shipbuilders to send 2QFHWKH6HOPD)RXQGU\EHJDQSURGXFLQJ plans to Richmond on his behalf in hope other guns as well, it turned out a gun of contracts. Although the Confederate HYHU\ÀYHGD\VIRUWKH&RQIHGHUDWH$UP\ government moved exceptionally slowly, Many claimed “that the best cannons in McRae’s pleas eventually persuaded them America were cast at Selma,” and during WRPDNHVRPHRIÀFLDOSODQV,Q$XJXVWWKH the last two years of the war, half of all 1DY\'HSDUWPHQWVLJQHGSULYDWHFRQWUDFWV WKHFDQQRQVDQGWZRWKLUGVRI WKHÀ[HG to build two ironclads at Owen Bluff ammunition used by the Confederacy on the Tombigbee River. Three months came from Selma’s factories and foundries. later, another ironclad ship was agreed to ([FHSWIRU5LFKPRQGWKH6HOPD1DYDODQG EHGHOLYHUHGWRWKH1DY\'HSDUWPHQWE\ &DQQRQ)RXQGU\ZDVWKHRQO\SODFHLQWKH May 1863, guaranteed to travel at a speed

13 AUM Historical Review of twelve miles an hour. Although the had previously defended Mobile Bay were Confederate government made contracts immediately captured, as was the Selma with several of these private individuals, gunboat, leaving the Tennessee ironclad construction of ironclads was not limited DORQHWRÀJKWWKH8QLRQÁHHW$IWHUKDYLQJ to them. The Confederate government survived the battle for four hours, the eventually started work in its own yards, Tennessee eventually surrendered. She and in Alabama, the naval hull construction matched her six guns and two hundred ZDVGRQHDOPRVWH[FOXVLYHO\DW6HOPD,Q men against seventeen ships, 199 guns, 6HSWHPEHULQWKHQHZ6HOPD1DYDO and seven hundred men. Withstanding Captain Johnston, “the attracting even more attention to the Tennessee was shot into the swift current “Queen City” of the Confederacy.19 like an arrow, and the water had risen to As the end of the war loomed, the such a height that she struck in her course success of the Selma Ordnance and the corner of a brick warehouse, situated 1DYDO)RXQGU\PDGH6HOPDDQLPSRUWDQW RQDQDGMRLQLQJEOXIIGHPROLVKLQJLWµ target for the Union. Where Confederate After a drawn out and tedious struggle, men may have gone hungry for a few more than a year later, the Tennessee days, they nonetheless carried with them reached Mobile in May 1864.18 plenty of rounds of ammunition. To With few defects, such as small engines completely crush the Confederacy, the DQGWKHRFFDVLRQDOMDPPLQJRI WKHSRUW Union would need to end its production shutters, the Tennessee proved to be of war materials. Thus, the Battle of H[WUHPHO\SRZHUIXO,WVDUPRUZDVÀYH Selma became inevitable, but its strategic inches thick and it even had a mechanism concentration deep within the Confederacy IRUFDVWLQJMHWVRIVWHDPWRUHSHOLQWUXGHUV delayed its attack until the spring of 1865. The Tennessee proved its strength on ,WZDVWKHQWKDW8QLRQIRUFHVQXPEHULQJ August 5, 1864 in the Battle of Mobile VHYHQW\ÀYHWKRXVDQGPHQPDUFKHG %D\ZKHUHLWERUHWKHEUXQWRIWKHÀJKW LQWR$ODEDPD*HQHUDO1DWKDQ%HGIRUG The two unseaworthy wooden ships that )RUUHVWFRQVLGHUHGRQHRIWKH6RXWK·V

14 AUM Historical Review JUHDWHVWÀJKWHUVSURPSWO\LGHQWLÀHGWKH Columbus, Georgia. The main part of the 8QLRQ·VREMHFWLYHDVEHLQJWKHXOWLPDWH foundry at Selma remained in operation GHVWUXFWLRQRI6HOPD$V)RUUHVWVSHQWKLV until the very end, but when Wilson’s last days of the war attempting to defend WURRSVÀQDOO\FDSWXUHG6HOPDLQ Selma, Union General James H. Wilson some machinery from the arsenal was out, spent his last days of the war heading to standing packed and ready to be shipped Selma—with about ten thousand mounted away to Columbus.20 men—to destroy it. A series of desperate (DUO\RQLQWKHZDUQRWNQRZLQJWKH transfers were made in an attempt to JUHDWVLJQLÀFDQFH6HOPDZRXOGVRRQKROG keep machinery from falling into Union for the Confederacy, few efforts were hands, and all of these transfers centered made to protect it from enemy attack. on Selma. Because men and machines The port city of Mobile had been well- were being sent to and from various protected early on, as slaves from all over locations in the South to avoid the enemy, Alabama were impressed to complete its the transportation system teetered on defenses; however, it was not until 1862 FROODSVH7KH6RXWKHUQ([SUHVV&RPSDQ\ that a cannon was placed at Choctaw began refusing to take government freight Bluff to guard Selma from ships coming unless charges were prepaid, but often the up the Alabama River, and it was May GHSDUWPHQWVODFNHGQHFHVVDU\IXQGV,Q EHIRUHIRUWLÀFDWLRQVZHUHEHLQJEXLOW 'HFHPEHUQHJRWLDWLRQVZHUHEHLQJ QHDU6HOPD7REXLOGWKHVHIRUWLÀFDWLRQV PDGHLQRUGHUWRVHQG6HOPD·VSURÀWDEOH %ULJDGLHU*HQHUDO'DQYLOOH/HDGEHWWHU cotton through the rail lines to gain RI WKH&RUSVRI (QJLQHHUVVWDWLRQHGLQ 86FUHGLWIRUWKH6HOPD1DYDO&DQQRQ Mobile, sent Captain Charles T. Lierner )DFWRU\%HFDXVHSURYLVLRQVZHUHQHHGHG to Selma to make preparations and plan that could no longer be supplied in the GHIHQVHV7KHIRUWLÀFDWLRQVZHUHWREH Confederacy, and because cotton had constructed so that a small group of been run previously from Alabama, it was DURXQGÀIWHHQKXQGUHGPHQFRXOGKDOWD KRSHGWKHSURMHFWZRXOGSURYHVXFFHVVIXO Á\LQJFDYDOU\UDLGRI IRXUWRÀYHWKRXVDQG DQGLWVHHPHGWRDWÀUVWKRZHYHUWKH men—a force that could easily reach Selma southern negotiator from Selma was from north Alabama in a week’s time denied access to cross enemy lines into and destroy the city. The task to protect Richmond, Virginia to complete the deal Selma was so important, in fact, that DQGWKHSURMHFWIHOOWKURXJK&RQVHTXHQWO\ Alabama Governor John Shorter halted the anticipating the lurking danger to Selma, LPSUHVVPHQWRIVODYHVLQDOORI 'DOODVDQG Lieutenant General Richard Taylor ordered its neighboring counties so that all possible some of Selma’s machinery be sent to hands could be employed at Selma.

15 AUM Historical Review Though its factory employees were always General John T. Croxton to Tuscaloosa, DUPHGDQGGHVSLWHGXUDEOHIRUWLÀFDWLRQV where they destroyed the university there were still periodic threats of attack that reportedly allowed the training of IURPWKH8QLRQ7KHÀUVWVFDUHZDVIURP Confederate soldiers. The rest of the Union Commander William T. Sherman men stayed with Wilson, who headed LQ$XJXVWZKRKDGMXVWDWWDFNHG south through Montevallo and Shelby Meridian, Mississippi across the border, Springs, where they demolished the iron FDXVLQJQHZVSDSHUVWRÀOOZLWKIUDQWLF works. Wilson armed each of his men appeals urging people to prepare for attack. ZLWKDUHSHDWLQJULÁHFDOOHGWKH6SHQFHU )HEUXDU\EURXJKWDERXWDQRWKHUVFDUH FDUELQHWRJHWWKHMREGRQH+HWRRNZLWK when the enemy reached the Alabama state him three cavalry divisions and moved line, only to turn east for Vicksburg. The in three columns some miles apart to GUHDGHGÀQDOWKUHDWFDPHLQ0DUFKDQG deceive the Confederates. As the Union April 1865 in the last days of the Civil War, troops were making their great march, ZKHQ%YW0DMRU*HQHUDO-DPHV+:LOVRQ the Confederate leaders were attempting headed south to Selma from the Tennessee to concentrate their discouraged and River.21 LOOHTXLSSHGWURRSVWRPDNHDÀQDOVWDQG The destruction of all manufacturing )RUUHVWFOHDUO\VDZWKHREMHFWLYHRI centers across Alabama and Georgia during Wilson’s troops and devised a plan for his Wilson’s Raid would gain much notoriety. generals to follow: “Jackson to smash the With Confederate resistance collapsing Union rear; Chalmers to strike the Union RQHYHU\IURQW:LOVRQ·VPDLQREMHFWLYH ULJKWÁDQNDQGUHLQIRUFH)RUUHVW·VHVFRUW was Selma, the great ordnance and RQWKHIURQWµ8QIRUWXQDWHO\IRU)RUUHVW manufacturing center of the Confederacy, though, “an accident of the fortunes DQGKLVMREZDVWRGHVWUR\DOOWH[WLOHPLOOV of war rescued Wilson’s army from iron furnaces, and military establishments total annihilation.” The Union captured in his path. Wilson would prepare his men a Confederate courier at Randolph, at Gravelly Springs in Lauderdale County, Alabama who carried with him the $ODEDPDDIWHUWKHEDWWOHVDW)UDQNOLQDQG documents revealing the disposition of the 1DVKYLOOHLQODWH7KHUHKHVSHQW Confederate troops and plans to defend PRQWKVGULOOLQJKLVFDYDOU\DQGÀQDOO\ Selma.22 on March 22, with 13,500 men, Wilson $OWKRXJK)RUHVWHQJDJHG:LOVRQLQ marched southeastward. He divided the a “delaying action” at Plantersville on PHQDW(O\WRQ ZKLFKZRXOGHYHQWXDOO\ his way to Selma, information regarding become Birmingham in 1871), Jefferson the maneuver was also found with the County, and sent part of them under FDSWXUHGFRXULHU,WZDVFOHDUWKDWWKH

16 AUM Historical Review decoy force was weak and, accordingly, Raiders, retreated shortly after with a band :LOVRQVSUDQJLQWRDFWLRQDQG)RUUHVW of men around him. Wilson stayed in was unable to stop him. The captured Selma for one week delegating the work of plans propelled Wilson to speed up his the destruction of its buildings, munitions, PHQUHDFK6HOPDDQGDYRLG)RUUHVW·V DQGIRXQGULHV,QWKHUHSRUW:LOVRQÀOHG WUDS:LOVRQGLVSDWFKHG*HQHUDO(GZDUG from Selma on April 2, 1865, he explains M. McCook with a strong brigade to take that his men have already “captured 20 care of Plantersville while he focused ÀHOGJXQVSULVRQHUVEHVLGHVRYHU his efforts on reaching Selma, which he 2,000 in hospitals, and a large quantity PDQDJHGWRÀQGGHIHQGHGE\WZHQW\ÀYH of military stores of all kinds.” He goes hundred cavalry plus an equal number of on to clarify that the large arsenals and PLOLWLDDOOPDQQLQJWKHIRUWLÀFDWLRQVWKDW foundries of Selma, with their machinery, VXUURXQGHGWKHFLW\$OWKRXJK)RUUHVW·V are in his possession and intact, but he cavalry fought desperately, some of the “shall burn them today, with everything militia were merely local citizens of Selma useful to the enemy.”24 Because Wilson DQGLPPHGLDWHO\ÁHGWKHLUSRVLWLRQV and his troops were limited to one week )RUUHVWZDVPHUFLOHVVLQIRUFLQJDOODEOH to reduce the city, in many cases the whole bodied men into the ranks, but many who property could not be destroyed before FRXOGHVFDSHIHDUIXOO\ÁHGQRQHWKHOHVV WKHLUGHSDUWXUH1RQHWKHOHVVDFFRUGLQJWR Wilson, on the other hand, had troops %ULJDGLHU*HQHUDO(GZDUG)UDQFLV:LQVORZ enough to take over and command most with the unit, they managed to obliterate of the roads leading into Selma and was quite a bit: the Selma Arsenal, consisting eventually able to drive a wedge between of twenty-four buildings and containing an the Confederate forces, spelling victory immense amount of war machinery and in the Battle of Selma. Realizing their PDWHULDOWKH*RYHUQPHQW1DYDO)RXQGU\ fate, Confederate militiamen threw down FRQVLVWLQJRIÀYHEXLOGLQJVWKDWFRQWDLQHG their arms, desperately sought their horses three engines, thirteen boilers, and twenty- DQGÁHGEHWUD\LQJWKHODQGWKH\RQFH QLQHVLHJHJXQVWKH6HOPD,URQ:RUNV defended. Wilson’s cavalry carried the ZKLFKFRQWDLQHGÀYHEXLOGLQJVZLWKÀYH ZRUNVDQGFDSWXUHG6HOPDLQDÀJKWWKDW engines and furnaces; both of the Pierces ODVWHGWZHQW\ÀYHPLQXWHVDURXQGGXVNRQ )RXQGULHVHDFKFRQWDLQLQJDQHQJLQHDV Sunday, April 2, 1865, the same day that ZHOODVH[WHQVLYHPDFKLQHU\WKH1LWUH Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy, Works, consisting of eighteen buildings, fell.23 ÀYHIXUQDFHVDQGQLQHW\EDQNVWKH3RZGHU The scene was chaotic and confusing, Mills and Magazine, which had seven DQG)RUUHVWDWWKHPHUF\RI:LOVRQ·V buildings, six thousand rounds of artillery

17 AUM Historical Review ammunition, seventy thousand rounds things.”261RWZLWKVWDQGLQJ:LOVRQ·V of small arms ammunition, and fourteen stringent order against plundering, the thousand pounds of powder; the Selma robberies and murders committed by his 6KRYHO)DFWRU\ZKLFKFRQWDLQHGRQHVWHDP men in Selma were malicious. The Galveston engine and eight forges; and many other Daily points out that “the ladies were VPDOOHUZRUNVDQGIDFWRULHV)XUWKHUPRUH insulted and ran through the streets in LQWKHIRUWLÀFDWLRQVVXUURXQGLQJ6HOPD their nightclothes, crying for protection, Union troops were able to seize one EXWWKH

18 AUM Historical Review view of the destroyed city. The victors ZKLFKPD\UHPDLQSURXGO\GHÀDQW of the city also burned twenty thousand even when the body has been made to bales of cotton on April 1st alone, going succumb?”31'HVSLWHWKHJDOODQWDXGDFLW\ on to burn some eighty thousand bales at that remained in Selma, what was left of Montgomery shortly after. On their way its greatness during the war could only out of the city, Wilson’s men carried with be found in the ruins. Gorgas describes WKHPHYHU\WKLQJYDOXDEOHDQGSURÀWDEOH the scene in his diary three months after in Selma, and “everything that could be its destruction: “The aspect of Selma is was destroyed. Soft soap and syrup were desolate in the extreme—many of the poured together in the cellars. They took best regions, comprising nearly all the everything they could and destroyed business part of the town are mere rows WKHUHVWµ)RUVRPHPRQWKVDIWHU$SULO of crumbling walls.”32 The period of 1865, Selma was a place of wreckage and Selma’s great industrial advance had come confusion.29 to a staunch halt, and because the land The annihilation of Selma was was ruined by Wilson’s men, the minerals FRPSOHWH1RWRQO\ZDVWKHFLW\ of Alabama would be taken elsewhere. destroyed, but as The Liberator in Boston, Since railroads had been constructed Massachusetts pointed out in its paper all throughout the mineral country, published on April 28, 1865, “The capture Birmingham was eventually founded and of Selma gives us control of the termini Selma’s dream of industry ended as it of the railroads, thereby depriving the lapsed back to an agricultural center, once enemy of their last main thoroughfare again becoming the cotton town it had of communication.”30 The main been before the war.33 manufacturing center of the Confederacy ,QWKUHHKXQGUHGWKRXVDQGEDOHV was in tatters, and the entire Confederacy of cotton in Alabama were worth forty- ZRXOGVRRQUHÁHFWWKLV$OWKRXJKWKHFLW\ ÀYHPLOOLRQGROODUVQHW³DJUHDWHUVXP around them was torn to shreds, the spirit than any one crop could manage to attract. of the people had not yet been destroyed After the Civil War though, conditions for E\WKHZDU·VHQG,QIDFWThe Daily Selma the cultivation of cotton had deteriorated. MessengerTXHVWLRQHGWKH1RUWK·VYLFWRU\ With men away at war, plantation tools three months after the war, in July 1865, were worn, most plantation mules were GHFODULQJ´:HZDUQWKHP>WKH1RUWK@ dead, the ditches were overgrown with of their decision—Has a man conquered weeds and brush, and there had been no us because by superior strength he has shoes issued to plantation workers for overcome us?—Conquered? Will it be years. Although the cotton industry was to forgotten that there is a spirit to man EHLPPHGLDWHO\UHVWRUHGE\WKHMRLQWODERU

19 AUM Historical Review of Confederate veterans and freedmen old-time credit with the banks, attracting of the South, “the laborers had not a 1RUWKHUQVHWWOHUVWRWKH%ODFN%HOWWRSODQW dollar to replenish with and the master’s cotton and colonies of white farmers cotton, now stolen from him, was his sole from the hills to make cotton on shares, recourse.”34 Reasonable success in cotton $ODEDPLDQVÀQDOO\VDZDEULJKWHUIXWXUH36 farming failed because conditions were so Settled as an agricultural town KDUVK6HOPD·VODQGDVZHOODVWKHPDMRULW\ and quickly evolving into a leading RI WKHODQGWKURXJKRXW$ODEDPDUHÁHFWHG PDQXIDFWXULQJFHQWHURQO\WRÀQGLWVHOI the absence of its men. The co-partnership again back where it started in cotton- could not change Alabama’s numbers: the dependency, Selma saw a complete cotton crop had fallen to 429,482 bales by transformation between 1861 and 1865. 1870 from the 989,955 bales produced in :KHQWKHZDUVWDUWHGQLQHW\ÀYHSHUFHQW 1RPDWWHUZKDWWKHVWLSXODWLRQRI of the people in Alabama lived on farms, the contract, whether the laborers were and the people of Selma were no different. paid partly in money or partly in rations, However, with its distance from the the payment to the laborers still exceeded war and its natural resources, Selma was KDOI WKHYDOXHRIWKHFRWWRQ1RPRQH\ chosen by the Confederate government was returned in betterments to the land, to become a manufacturing center for and the result was general crop failure. the Southern cause. Toward the end of As time went on, “every expedient of the war, Selma experienced growth and law, to qualify the calamitous times and prosperity like never before, but by the to inspire resolution for the future, that war’s end, the city of Selma was shattered. seemed possible, was enacted.”351HZ 7KHZDUQRWRQO\UHDFKHG6HOPDMXVWZHHNV businesses were established and old before its conclusion, but it came to Selma corporations were granted new charters, VSHFLÀFDOO\EHFDXVHRILWVLPSRUWDQFHWR especially in the mineral region. The WKH&RQIHGHUDF\,Q$SULO6HOPD·V plates made from Alabama iron, used on EXLOGLQJVUHÁHFWHGLWVSHRSOHEURNHQ the ironclad Tennessee, astonished both Having been destroyed both physically WKH1RUWKDQG6RXWK6LQFH´WKHFDQQRQ and emotionally through the Civil War, cast at Selma never burst,” young men Selma to this day remains a place of little IURPDOORYHU1RUWK$PHULFDWXUQHG industry and is mostly an agricultural toward its mineral resources. The land region, bisected by U.S. Highway 80. Little of the South began recommending itself remains of Selma’s Confederate defenses because of the successes shown by the and wartime industries other than a few Confederate government here. As the crop H[KLELWVDWWKH2OG'HSRW0XVHXPDQG lien eventually became a substitute for the some earthworks near the Alabama River.

20 AUM Historical Review ,QDVPXFKDV6HOPDHYROYHGIURPD quiet, agriculturally-based town into the “Queen City” of the Confederacy, only to then be ripped of her newly earned title at the war’s end, one fact remains: the Confederate Army never ran short on war materials.37

21 AUM Historical Review (UQHVW%-RKQVWRQ´6HOPD$ODEDPD$VD 14 John Harralson, “Rebel Gunpowder,” Selma Center of Confederate War Production, 1860- Sentinel, October 1, 1863. µ $%+RQRUV7KHVLV+DUYDUG&ROOHJH 15 John Harralson, “Rebel Gunpowder,” Selma The Alabama 1952); Malcolm C. McMillan, Sentinel, October 1, 1863. Confederate Reader 7XVFDORRVD7KH University of Alabama Press, 1963); Walter M. 16 Johnston, Selma, 46-50. Jackson, The Story of Selma 'HFDWXU7KH 17 Johnston, Selma, 75-88. Birmingham Printing Company, 1954). notes 18 Johnston, Selma, 60-70. 2 The Heritage of Dallas County, Alabama &ODQWRQ+HULWDJH3XEOLVKLQJ&RQVXOWDQWV 19 Virginia Pounds Brown and Helen Morgan ,QF -RKQVWRQSelma, 6-7. John Akens, Alabama Heritage +XQWVYLOOH7KH Hardy, Selma; Her Institutions and Her Strode Publishers, 1967), 229-232; Men 6HOPD&RPPHUFLDO3ULQWLQJ,QF Johnston, Selma, 64-70. 1957), 6-7. 20 Johnston, Selma, 122-123. 3 Johnston, Selma, 6-9. 'RQDOG%'RGGAlabama, Now and Then )UDQN(9DQGLYHUPloughshares into 0RQWJRPHU\7KH$GYHUWLVHU&RPSDQ\ Swords &ROOHJH6WDWLRQ7;7H[DV$ 0 1994),64-67; Johnston, Selma, 123-124. University, 1952), 3, 54, 57. 22 Jackson, The Story of Selma, 214; McMillan, 5 Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 3, 54, 57. The Alabama Confederate Reader, 404-406. 6 Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 58, /XFLOOH*ULIÀWKAlabama, A Documentary 169-170. History to 1900 7XVFDORRVD7KH8QLYHUVLW\ of Alabama Press, 1968), 406-411; Sol H. /DSVOH\WR&ROLQ-0F5DH)HEUXDU\ Tepper, Battle for Selma SULYDWHO\SXEOLVKHG letter box LPR264, box 1, folder 5, Colin 1984), 1-15. -0F5DH3DSHUV$ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI Archives and History. *ULIÀWKAlabama, A Documentary History, 407. 8 Johnston, Selma, 38-43; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 64; Johnston, 25 McMillan, The Alabama Confederate Selma, 6-13; J.W. Lapsley to Colin J. McRae, Reader, 406-407; Johnston, Selma, 124, 416- )HEUXDU\OHWWHUER[/35ER[ 419; Jackson, The Story of Selma, 214-217; 1, folder 5, Colin J. McRae Papers, Alabama $OVWRQ)LWWV,,,Selma: Queen City of the 'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG+LVWRU\: Black Belt 6HOPD&ODLUPRQW3UHVV 0%\UGWR&ROLQ-0F5DH)HEUXDU\ *ULIÀWKAlabama, A Documentary 1862, letter box LPR264, box 1, folder 5, History, 407. Colin J. McRae Papers, Alabama -RKQ:LWKHUVSRRQ'X%RVHAlabama’s Tragic 'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG+LVWRU\ Decade: Ten Years of Alabama, 1865-1874 9 Johnston, Selma, 38-46. %LUPLQJKDP:HEE%RRN&RPSDQ\ 21. 10 George Minor to Colin J. McRae, 25 March 1862, letter box LPR264, box 1, folder 5, 27 Jackson, “Battle of Selma,” The Galveston Colin J. McRae Papers, Alabama Daily News,0D\1HZVSDSHUV:HE 'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG+LVWRU\ 9RO,1R 11 George Minor to Colin J. McRae, 25 March 28 Jackson, The Story of Selma, 242-244. 1862, letter box LPR264, box 1, folder 5, &ROLQ-0F5DH3DSHUV$ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQW of Archives and History. 12 Johnston, Selma, 9-14. 13 Johnston, Selma, 9-14.

22 AUM Historical Review 29 Jackson, The Story of Selma, 242-244; Claude C. Grayson, Yesterday and Today, Memories of Selma and Its People 1HZ2UOHDQV Pelican Press, 1948), 60-64; Jackson, “Battle of Selma,” The Galveston Daily News, May 2, 1865, Newspapers:HE9RO,1R -RKQ:LWKHUVSRRQ'X%RVHAlabama’s Tragic Decade: Ten Years of Alabama, 1865-1874, *ULIÀWK$ODEDPDA Documentary History, 407-410. 30 “Capture of Selma,” The Liberator, April 28, 1HZVSDSHUV:HE ´7KH:RUNRIWKH1RUWKµThe Daily Selma Messenger-XO\PLFURÀOP $ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG+LVWRU\ 32 Josiah Gorgas, The Journals of Josiah Gorgas 7XVFDORRVD7KH8QLYHUVLW\ of Alabama Press, 1995), 183-184. 33 Josiah Gorgas, The Journals of Josiah Gorgas 7XVFDORRVD7KH8QLYHUVLW\ of Alabama Press, 1995), 183-184; Johnston, 6HOPD´7KH:RUNRIWKH1RUWKµThe Daily Selma Messenger, July 30, 1865, PLFURÀOP$ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI Archives and History; “Capture of Selma,” The Liberator, April 28, 1865, Newspapers Web, 67. 'X%RVHAlabama’s Tragic Decade, 21-23, 52. 'X%RVHAlabama’s Tragic Decade, 21-23, 52. 'X%RVHAlabama’s Tragic Decade, 21-23, 52. 37 Brown and Akens, Alabama Heritage, 217.

23 AUM Historical Review $ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG+LVWRU\0RQWJRPHU\$ODEDPD &RXUWHV\RI$'$+

24 AUM Historical Review Stepping Into The Past The Alabama Voices Gallery at the Alabama Department of Archives and History

7\OHU5LFH

History is concerned with more than models that show what life was like with GDWHVDQGIDFWVUHJDUGLQJWKHSDVW,WLVD WKHDUULYDORI (XURSHDQV7KHGLVSOD\RID OLYLQJDQGEUHDWKLQJHQWLW\ZKLFKGHÀQHV Creek village illustrates the dynamics of a KXPDQLW\7KH$ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI complex community. The museum offers Archives and History in Montgomery, GHWDLOHGLQIRUPDWLRQFRQFHUQLQJWKH1DWLYH Alabama captures the essence of life in American way of life, including diet, attire, historic Alabama with the new exhibit and living conditions. Much information is “The Alabama Voices Gallery.” The DOVRJLYHQUHJDUGLQJ1DWLYH$PHULFDQDQG museum allows visitors to step back in (XURSHDQLQWHUDFWLRQDQGDYLGHRGHSLFWV history, transporting individuals through ÀUVWKDQGDFFRXQWVRIWKHZDUEHWZHHQ time. “Alabama Voices” is a must see for WKH&UHHN1DWLRQDQGWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV every person in the great state of Alabama. of America. The exhibit allows one to 7KHPXVHXPÁRZVLQFKURQRORJLFDORUGHU view the hardships the Creeks experienced capturing history from the perspectives before Alabama’s creation. The settlement RI WKHVWDWH·VÀUVWVHWWOHUVXSWRLWVFXUUHQW RI $ODEDPDZDVQRHDV\WDVN(DUO\VHWWOHUV residents. faced tremendous hardships building 7KH$ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHV Alabama. The rich soil of the state and History does not hold anything back contributed to a population boom causing when displaying the past of the twenty- DPDMRUFRQÁLFWZLWKWKH&UHHNV7KH second state in the Union. The beginning sheer number of settlers would lead to the of the exhibit is dedicated to Alabama’s Creeks’ demise and Alabama’s statehood ÀUVWLQKDELWDQWVWKH1DWLYH$PHULFDQV in 1819. “Alabama Voices” uncovers both The gallery contains many artifacts and perspectives with quotes and videos,

Tyler RiceLVDVHQLRUPDMRULQJLQKLVWRU\+HVHUYHVDVD6FKRRORI /LEHUDO$UWV 5HSUHVHQWDWLYHIRUWKH+LVWRU\'HSDUWPHQWLVDPHPEHURI3KL$OSKD7KHWDDQGSODQVRQ HQWHULQJODZVFKRRO7\OHUHQMR\VWKHVWXG\RIKLVWRU\EHFDXVHDJRRGFRPSUHKHQVLRQRI WKHSDVWOHDGVWRDEHWWHUIXWXUH7KLVLVKLVÀUVW\HDUVHUYLQJRQWKHHGLWRULDOERDUG

25 AUM Historical Review allowing the viewer to vividly comprehend for years over the issue of slavery. Both this portion of Alabama’s past. A Creek WKH1RUWKDQGWKH6RXWKNQHZWKLVLVVXH ,QGLDQQDPHG0HQDZDLVTXRWHGDVVD\LQJ was critical for voting purposes regarding ´,DPJRLQJDZD\«0\GHVLUHLVWKDW, the future direction of the nation. Slavery may never again see the face of a white had deep roots in Alabama and many PDQ/DVWHYHQLQJ,VDZWKHVXQVHWIRUWKH white slave owners felt its abolition would last time and its light shine upon the tree destroy the state. “Alabama Voices” does WRSVDQGWKHODQGDQGWKHZDWHUWKDW,DP DZRQGHUIXOMREH[SUHVVLQJWKHVWDWH·V never to look upon again.” The museum dependence on cotton growth and the LVÀOOHGZLWKWKHYRLFHVRIKLVWRU\WKDWWHOO labor of slaves. The abolition of slavery to a story unlike any other. The Alabama wealthy planters was equivalent to banning 'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG+LVWRU\GLGD the internet for computer companies. The IDQWDVWLFMRELOOXVWUDWLQJOLIHIRUERWK1DWLYH museum captures the fear of Alabama’s Americans and early Alabamians. leaders during this stage of history. 7KHFRWWRQERRPZDVDPDMRU The Confederacy’s defeat in the Civil contributor to Alabama’s early success and War crushed Alabama. “Alabama Voices” made it one of the wealthiest states in the tells the story of those involved in the Union. However, the crop also damaged Civil War and shows how it affected the the state’s soul. By 1850, Alabama’s JHQHUDWLRQVWKDWIROORZHG,QRQHGLVSOD\D population had risen to over 700,000, of IRUPHUVODYHIURP6HOPD LGHQWLÀHGDV0U which 300,000 were African slaves. The 6PLWK UHÁHFWVRQKLVH[SHULHQFHRIWKH PXVHXPLVÀOOHGZLWKDUWLIDFWVIURPWKLV war: disturbing period of Alabama history. One 0DVWHU·VVRQ-LPMRLQHGWKH artifact is a leather whipping belt used &RQIHGHUDWHVROGLHUVDQG,ZHQWZLWK to beat slaves. Under the belt is a quote him to tote his knapsack…and to from a former slave, Amy Chapman, who ORRNDIWHUKLP«:HZHUHÀJKWLQJRQ described being beaten naked. As this Blue Mountain when Master Jim got exhibit shows, the gallery holds nothing NLOOHG«$IWHU,ORVWP\PDVWHU,GLGQ·W back, revealing true accounts of those EHORQJWRQRERG\DQGWKH

26 AUM Historical Review .HOKL'H3DFH through such personal accounts that people which enable the visitor to walk in the are what is most important in the past. shoes of those who struggled for racial The museum continues with artifacts, equality. videos, quotes, charts, and all kinds of One cannot grasp Alabama’s rich important information from Alabama history simply by reading a book or dating from the industrial revolution listening to a lecture. History is more than up to the twentieth century. Many of MXVWGDWHVIDFWVDQGSODFHVWRUHPHPEHU WKHVHH[KLELWVIRFXVRQSDVWFRQÁLFWV To understand the past one must also know VSHFLÀFDOO\:RUOG:DU,DQG:RUOG:DU,, the individuals involved. The “Alabama One chart reveals that of the more than Voices Gallery” focuses on the most 321,000 Alabamians who served in World important part of history – the people. :DU,,JDYHWKHLUOLYHV$ODEDPD·V One can read a speech by Martin Luther LQYROYHPHQWLQ.RUHD9LHWQDP'HVHUW .LQJ-UEXWWRKHDUKLPVD\´,+DYHD 6WRUP2SHUDWLRQ,UDTL)UHHGRPDQG 'UHDPµLVDQHQWLUHO\GLIIHUHQWH[SHULHQFH Afghanistan are also highlighted in support The museum ends with faces of today’s of all who fought for this great nation. The Alabama. Our state has come a long way “Alabama Voices Gallery” does an excellent since slavery and segregation and with MREUHSUHVHQWLQJWKHPHQDQGZRPHQZKR a proper understanding of the past, the proudly served. There are also amazing future looks bright. Go visit the “Alabama exhibits covering the civil rights movement, Voices Gallery,” but beware because the which give hope for the redemption of a ghosts of Alabama are alive and well in this tainted past. The story of the movement is excellent exhibit. told through words, images, and artifacts

27 AUM Historical Review British Historians World& War I Differing Views On The Role Of Women

/HDQQH:DOOHU7UXSS

Historians have long been fascinated books were attracted to this topic for a E\:RUOG:DU,EXWLQUHFHQW\HDUVWKH\ YDULHW\RIUHDVRQV)RULQVWDQFH0LWFKHOO·V have widened their focus and begun to interests lie in the women’s suffrage investigate women’s identities and culture movement of the twentieth century, LQ(QJODQGGXULQJWKHZDU([DPSOHV whereas Braybon is more interested in include: Working-Class Culture, Women, and how men perceived women’s war work and Britain, 1914-1921, by Claire A. Culleton how those perceptions affected women. 1HZ

Leanne Waller-TruppJUDGXDWHGZLWKD0DVWHURI/LEHUDO$UWVGHJUHHLQKLVWRU\LQ'HFHPEHU6KH ZRUNVIXOOWLPHDVDQDUFKDHRORJLVWIRUWKH$ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI 7UDQVSRUWDWLRQ/HDQQHDQGKHUKXVEDQG 6WHYHQDOVRDVWXGHQWDW$80KDYHD\RXQJGDXJKWHU/HDQQH·VSDSHU´%ULWLVK+LVWRULDQVDQG:RUOG:DU, 'LIIHULQJ9LHZVRQWKH5ROHRI :RPHQµZRQWKH'U5LFKDUG(YDQV0RUVH0HPRULDO+LVWRU\3UL]HDQGZDV RULJLQDOO\ZULWWHQIRU'U*LVK·V+LVWRULRJUDSK\FRXUVH

28 AUM Historical Review understood those experiences. has written two other historical works on ,QWKHÀUVWRIWKHVHERRNVWorking- James Joyce and modernism and has co- Class Culture, Women, and Britain, 1914-1921, edited two books on literary modernism. Claire A. Culleton covers a broad range of Her biography on the Kent State University topics dealing with working class women website states that Culleton’s work in the LQ%ULWDLQGXULQJDQGDIWHUWKH)LUVW:RUOG ÀHOGRIPRGHUQDQGWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ War. Culleton’s book is a history “from ,ULVKOLWHUDWXUHDQGFXOWXUHUHVXOWHGLQKHU below” in which she focuses on British DSSRLQWPHQWDVWKH*HQHUDO(GLWRUIRU working-class women and the social and 3DOJUDYH0DFPLOODQ·VERRNVHULHVLQ,ULVK cultural consequences of their involvement DQG,ULVK$PHULFDQOLWHUDWXUHLQDV in the war effort, and argues that these well as in winning several teaching awards. women transformed the cultural politics At Kent State University, Culleton teaches RI (QJODQG1 Culleton begins the book JUDGXDWHVHPLQDUVRQ,ULVK%ULWLVKDQG by stating that although historians have $PHULFDQPRGHUQLVP,ULVKSRVWFRORQLDO a propensity to group people during the literature, seminars on James Joyce and war as “those who fought” and “those ,ULVKOLWHUDWXUHDQGFXOWXUHDQGDUHTXLUHG who waited,” it is much more accurate doctoral methods course.3 to classify them as those who fought and )RUKHUERRN&XOOHWRQXVHVDQ those who worked, because whether one extensive assemblage of primary sources, fought or worked, they all waited for the VXFKDVÀUVWKDQGDFFRXQWVZULWWHQE\ end of the war.27KLVFODVVLÀFDWLRQLVPRUH women during the war years found in precise, because, according to the 1919 archival collections, and secondary source 5HSRUW&RPPLWWHHRQ:RPHQLQ,QGXVWU\ materials, such as oral histories that were by mid-1914, over two million women recorded later. She also delved heavily into ZHUHZRUNLQJLQIDFWRULHVLQ(QJODQGE\ the Women’s Work archives and the Sound 1918, this number had increased to almost $UFKLYHVLQWKH,PSHULDO:DU0XVHXP three million. Culleton focuses her book LQ(QJODQGWKH)DZFHWW/LEUDU\DWWKH on these working-class women, their /RQGRQ*XLOGKDOO8QLYHUVLW\WKH1HZ experiences, their writings, and the impact

29 AUM Historical Review perspectives. Second, she relates how that was produced by women in the work- that impact profoundly and permanently place, focusing on service newspapers changed British politics, culture, and that were written and published by society. Culleton also makes careful note of ZRPHQPXQLWLRQVZRUNHUV,QLWLDOO\WKHVH the differences between upper- and middle- newspapers were modeled after the service class women and working-class women. newspapers of soldiers in the trenches, Whereas upper- and middle-class women but the women quickly began “one-upping FRXOGVXSSRUWWKHZDUHIIRUWE\ÀQGLQJ the male publications in terms of news, work in such paramilitary organizations humor, artwork, and overall quality, [such DVWKH)LUVW$LG1XUVLQJ

30 AUM Historical Review on future generations of women as well as of a cultural consciousness.”6 Claire A. on their immediate lives in numerous and Culleton’s Working-Class Culture, Women, unanticipated ways. and Britain, 1914-1921, with its focus on Culleton’s book adds to the growing ZRUNLQJFODVVZRPHQLQ(QJODQGDQGWKH body of academic literature being produced social and cultural consequences of their DERXWZRPHQLQWKH)LUVW:RUOG:DU participation on the war effort, offers As Culleton points out, until recently so insight on many of these topics. much of the scholarly work regarding Culleton’s intended audience includes :RUOG:DU,KDVEHHQFHQWHUHGRQPHQ academics and historians as well as the such as soldiers on the front lines or general reader. However, Culleton is a the contributions of male soldier-poets. VSHFLDOLVWLQ(QJOLVKDQGQRWDKLVWRULDQ Scholars have since started researching so her attempts to provide historical and and writing about the women of the cultural analysis of the experiences of )LUVW:RUOG:DUDQGWKHLUFRQWULEXWLRQV working-class women workers in Britain to writing, society, culture, and the GXULQJWKH)LUVW:RUOG:DUFXOOHGIURP reconstruction of gender in Britain. the oral histories of women workers and However, Culleton’s book might have been factory newspapers, falls short at times. much more rewarding if she had more Although she uses numerous primary and precisely focused her research on working- secondary sources in her book, Culleton class women’s factory literature, rather than fails to analyze those sources fully. Had choosing such a broad and ambitious topic. &XOOHWRQQDUURZHGKHUVXEMHFWSHUKDSV She lists and describes a plethora of female focusing on modernism within women’s scholarly works that outline the making wartime literature, which would have been and subsequent restructuring of Britain’s DPXFKEHWWHUÀWZLWKKHUEDFNJURXQG cultural attitudes about women and work, more extensively analyzed her sources, and but she does not analyze these works as covered fewer aspects of working women’s PXFKDVVKHPLJKWKDYH

31 AUM Historical Review writings of women workers during the the Women of the First World War /RQGRQ war, how their experiences and writings Jonathan Cape, 1966), The Fighting affected their class and status, how their Pankhursts: A Study in Tenacity 1HZ

32 AUM Historical Review Asquith, “that cunning antifeminist,” when ZDVQRW\HWDPDMRUDUHDRI LQWHUHVWIRU Asquith admitted the value of women in most historians when the book was the war effort: “There are thousands of published, Mitchell makes an effort in such women, but a year ago we did not breaking through that barrier by writing know it.”9 As is evidenced by Thom and this and several other books about women Braybon, this was often the prevailing GXULQJWKH)LUVW:RUOG:DU8QOLNHWKH opinion of men about women involved in other authors, Mitchell focuses more on the war effort, which is only recently being suffragist activities and the people involved amended with a new interest in women’s in that movement rather than in the war history. LWVHOIDOWKRXJKKHGRHVEULHÁ\GLVFXVV Mitchell divides his book into several women involved in the war effort and sections, including sections on well- on the war front. One area of weakness NQRZQSHRSOHOLNH)ORUHQFH1LJKWLQJDOH is that because he organizes the book who was seen as a “symbol of feminine by individuals and groups rather than by success;” a section on mother and daughter chronology of events, it makes the reading VXIIUDJHOHDGHUV(PPHOLQH3DQNKXUVW MXPEOHGDQGKDUGWRIROORZ and Christabel Pankhurst and their Nice Girls and Rude Girls: Women Workers efforts for women’s suffrage; a section on in World War I E\'HERUDK7KRPIRFXVHV women from the nobility class, such as on women’s working experiences during the )OHPLVK%DURQHVV(UQHVWGHOD*UDQJH war and how those experiences changed the “Mother of the British Army,” for the but did not truly improve their working special care she took of British men on lives. The unique aspect of this book is that the front lines, and Lady May Bradford, Thom attempts to break through the myth who was a hospital letter writer during that women’s war work was a heroic and the war; and sections on servicewomen, patriotic adventure, showing the true reality factory workers, individualists, and various and dangers of their work. She does this other areas involving women.10 Mitchell by emphasizing the relationship between also discusses several political, suffragist, women workers’ organizations and any and philanthropic organizations that changes they might have created at work. women established and were involved 7KRPLVD)HOORZDW5RELQVRQ&ROOHJH in to coordinate various efforts, such as DW&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\LQ(QJODQG the Women’s Social and Political Union where she is director of Studies for the :638 DQGWKH:RPHQ·V*XLOGRIWKH History and Social and Political Sciences (PSLUH departments. She received her graduate One of the key strengths of Mitchell’s degree from Warwick University and book is that even though women’s history later did her doctoral studies at Thames

33 AUM Historical Review Polytechnic in one of the old buildings reenactments through bodily memory can of the Woolrich Arsenal, or the Royal be more reliable.12,QWHUHVWLQJO\EHFDXVH 2UGQDQFH)DFWRU\DW:RROULFKZKLFK much of Thom’s graduate work centered was the largest munitions factory in on the Woolrich Arsenal, many of her (QJODQGGXULQJ:RUOG:DU,DQGZKHUH photographs, oral histories, and other women worked to assist in the war effort. sources of information originated with the Thom did not publish either her Master’s women who worked there. RUKHU3K'WKHVLVEXWZKHQDFRS\RI As mentioned above, Thom’s book her doctoral thesis was stolen from the is comprised of several essays she wrote Library of Thames on various aspects of Polytechnic, she the women’s war effort. decided to gather The topics of these the articles she had essays range from women written on women involved in factory work workers during as part of the labor :RUOG:DU,DQG market to the public compile them into representation of working the book Nice Girls women, women trade and Rude Girls.11 unionists and collective Thom uses a RUJDQL]DWLRQV717 variety of primary poisoning and employment and secondary of women workers, and sources in her welfare and domesticity. book, ranging from Much like Braybon, Thom RIÀFLDOUHFRUGV also discusses how the press clippings, traditional gender roles pamphlets, of men and women - that contemporary writings, photographs, and of men as the breadwinners performing oral histories from such institutions as paid work outside the home while women the Gertrude Tuckwell Collection at the take care of the home and children - are Trades Union Congress Library and the called into question during wartime. She ,PSHULDO:DU0XVHXP·V:RPHQ·V:RUN VD\VWKDW´ZRPDQ·VZRUNLVGHÀQHGE\KHU archive. Thom notes that photographic UHODWLRQVKLSWRDPDQZKRÀFWLRQDOO\LQ HYLGHQFHZDVMXVWDVLPSRUWDQWDVSHUVRQDO many cases, was doing the work she now accounts, because while memories fade does.”13 Thom agrees with Braybon that and people forget, visual evidence or even patriarchy played a big role in the capitalist

34 AUM Historical Review VRFLHW\RIZDUWLPH(QJODQG7KRPDOVR ZRUNHUVGXULQJWKH)LUVW:RUOG:DU goes into some detail about government GLGQRWUHÁHFWWKHUHDOLW\RIWKHLUOLYHV interest and intervention regarding women and experiences, which is echoed in her as workers. She argues that the interest unusual title, Nice Girls and Rude Girls. Until was there before the war and that it was recently, this idea was generally ignored by not solely the absence of male workers historians and it was not until the surge that caused the government to intervene of interest in women’s history that the in female workers’ lives. These interests women’s war effort was really addressed. included birth, motherhood, and sex. This 7KHERRNDWÀUVWVHHPVVRPHZKDW interest in their health was caused by a GLVMRLQWHGEHFDXVHLWFRQVLVWVRIDVHULHV public outcry due to increasing political of previously published essays written and philanthropic awareness, especially by Thom. Ultimately, Thom arranges DIWHUDQRXWEUHDNRI 717SRLVRQLQJ WKHHVVD\VWRÀWWRJHWKHULQDORJLFDODQG and other ailments resulting from war coherent order. She also provides a lengthy work were exposed.14 Additionally, Thom introduction in which she explains in detail discusses the image of the working woman. the topics she covers in her essays. Before the war, women factory workers The last book is Women Workers in the were seen as sweaty and dirty, but during First World War: The British Experience by the war, that image changed. This was Gail Braybon. This book was originally partly due to demands for improvements her Master’s thesis at the University in working conditions. Because of the RI 6XVVH[ZKLFK%UD\ERQPRGLÀHGWR 717SRLVRQLQJWKHKHDOWKRIZRPHQ become a monograph. Whereas Women war workers was more closely monitored Workers in the First World War is primarily and a report was even produced for the about how men viewed these women, :DU&DELQHW&RPPLWWHH,URQLFDOO\7KRP Braybon also published other titles, such notes, munitions workers were given as Out of the Cage: Women’s Experiences in detailed instructions on personal hygiene Two World Wars 1HZ

35 AUM Historical Review of funding, she produced several works WKUHHPDLQLGHDV7KHÀUVWRIWKHVHLVWKDW as an independent historian and was an “the patriarchal system coexists with the associate editor of the Oxford Dictionary of capitalist system.”19,QRWKHUZRUGVDVWKH National Biography specializing in women in working class is exploited by the capitalist the armed forces in the twentieth century. system, women are also exploited by men Because of this, Braybon’s intended of all classes in various ways, such as in audience includes historians and general men accepting reduced compensation readers. Braybon died from cancer in rather than demanding higher pay for 2008; in her obituary, written by friend both themselves and for women. This DQGFROODERUDWRU3HQQ\6XPPHUÀHOG idea is also discussed in Thom’s book, and posted in the Women’s History Review, Nice Girls and Rude Girls. The second idea Braybon is referred to as “one of the Braybon discusses concerns the view of pioneers of historical work on women in working-class men that women were of WKH)LUVW:RUOG:DUµ16 a lower status. There was an underlying Like Culleton, Braybon concentrates sentiment that the working-class male’s on working-class women in industry; status would be lowered to make it equal however, Braybon also examines male to that of a working-class woman, rather attitudes toward women’s work during than the woman’s status being raised to be :RUOG:DU,6KHDUJXHVWKDWZRPHQ·VZDU equal to that of the man. Braybon’s third work was shaped and characterized by the idea involves the sexual division of labor DWWLWXGHVDQGQHHGVRIPDOHZRUNHUV,Q and the fact that women were expected fact, male attitudes toward women’s work to accept less pay than men because they is the main focus of the book. Braybon also spent their time performing domestic QRWHVWKDWWKHDWWLWXGHVSUHMXGLFHVDQG FKRUHVDQGEHFDXVHWKH\ZHUHÀQDQFLDOO\ expectations of men toward women’s supported by men.20(DFKRI WKHVHLGHDV war work were consistent throughout is explained in depth and illustrated and after the war. She also discusses the throughout the book. way those attitudes affected women.17 Braybon calls her book “a broad Braybon states that according to men, study,” since she uses government reports, women’s place was in the home, tending evidence presented to wartime committees, to husbands and children, and as such all ERRNVWUDGHXQLRQDQGWUDGHMRXUQDOV their time and energy should be focused IHPLQLVWMRXUQDOVDQGQHZVSDSHUVDV WKHUH'HEDWHDERXWSDLGZRUNVXLWDELOLW\ her sources.21 She states that all of these RI FHUWDLQMREVDQGWKHLUFDSDELOLW\DV sources easily convey the attitudes of ZRUNHUVZHUHDOOLQÁXHQFHGE\WKLVEHOLHI18 men toward women’s war work. She uses ,QKHUERRN%UD\ERQFRQFHQWUDWHVRQ several private and personal collections

36 AUM Historical Review rather than resources from some of worker did not match the reality of the larger academic and institutional women’s experiences as workers during the libraries and admits that she neglects local )LUVW:RUOG:DU7KH\GLYHUJHRQKRZWKH resources, union policies and guidelines, experiences are understood. These authors and information on women’s suffrage also agree that labor historians tend to EHFDXVHRIWLPHÀQDQFLDORUDFFHVVLELOLW\ disregard the efforts of women during and constraints.22 These areas might have after the war. However, with the surge of provided additional information but they research on the history of women’s war might also have changed the scope of her work, including the books presented here, work and forced it to become longer and that slight is beginning to be righted. These less detailed. authors also tend to agree that the war One of the most important strengths experience varied for individual women of this book is that much like Thom, or even for classes of women rather than Braybon brings to the forefront the women as a whole. Thom and Braybon problems and criticisms women faced discuss this fact in their books, and during and after the war, particularly from Mitchell provides some evidence of this as men. This is a topic that has not been well in his book. greatly written about and Braybon’s book The strongest of these books is provides a very in-depth and detailed Braybon’s Women Workers in the First World look at an interesting issue. Conversely, a War: The British Experience,WLVWKHEHVW weakness may be that her lack of academic presented, with arguments and points credentials could cause some readers to not organized in such a way that is easy for take her as seriously as they would if she the general reader as well as a historian to did have a higher degree. Similarly, because IROORZDQGXQGHUVWDQG,QWKHLQWURGXFWLRQ she was an independent historian, she was to her book, Nice Girls and Rude Girls, not granted access to as many sources as Thom calls Braybon’s book, Women’s VKHZRXOGKDYHOLNHGVXFKDVWKH,PSHULDO Workers in the First World War, “the most War Museum. Another weakness might be VLJQLÀFDQWERG\RIZRUNLQ(QJOLVKRQ her all but complete dismissal of work by ZRPHQZRUNHUVLQ%ULWDLQLQWKH)LUVW labor historians because of what Braybon World War.”23 Thom states that Braybon’s SHUFHLYHVDVWKHLUGLVUHJDUGIRUWKHÀHOGRI work has contributed to the ideology of a women’s war work in general. shifting labor market and the various ways There are several areas in which the in which that ideology was evident in social authors of these four books agree and commentary during the war. Braybon’s disagree. All of these authors agree that dedication and commitment to what she the public representation of the female saw as neglect by historians in not spending

37 AUM Historical Review more time researching the lives and inequality in pay today and during World experiences of women workers during the :DU,LQERWKWKH8QLWHG.LQJGRPDQGWKH Great War created a much more powerful 8QLWHG6WDWHV%UD\ERQEULHÁ\PHQWLRQV book and an important contribution this in her book; however, as her book WRWKLVÀHOGRIVWXG\6KHDOVRFKDUJHV only discusses Britain, one would need to that labor historians in particular have research whether lower wages for women ignored the experiences and consequences ZHUHDSUREOHPLQWKH86GXULQJWKH)LUVW of women in the war effort. Although World War and whether a gender pay gap 'HERUDK7KRPDQG&ODLUH&XOOHWRQDOVR H[LVWVWRGD\DQGLVDVODUJHLQ(QJODQG believe these experiences and realities have as in the U.S. Another area of research been neglected by modern historians, they could involve the relationship between make their arguments in less effective the hardships faced by working women ways. GXULQJ:RUOG:DU,DQG:RUOG:DU,, Because so little work has been done and whether the experiences encountered RQWKLVVXEMHFWWKHUHLVSOHQW\RIURRP during the two wars are similar or for future research. One of the prevailing completely different. opinions about the Great War is that ZRPHQHQMR\HGDQHZNLQGRISRZHU and freedom during and after the war. However, addressed in these books is the realization that although the war did create new opportunities for women, many of the prevailing pre-war ideas about the role of women persisted, causing very little real change to occur after the war. These myths need to be analyzed and broken, which can be done with further UHVHDUFKDQGSXEOLVKHGZRUNV,IODERU historians have truly ignored women’s war efforts, as so charged by the authors of these books, especially Braybon, perhaps DGGUHVVLQJWKLVLVVXHLQWKHÀHOGRIODERU history would be another excellent idea for future research. An additional area that might be an interesting avenue for further research is the correlation between gender

38 AUM Historical Review 1 Culleton, Claire A, Working-Class 22 Braybon, Women Workers in the First Culture,Women, and Britain, 1914-1921 World War, 1. 1HZ

39 AUM Historical Review Review of Philip C. Almond’s The Lancashire Witches

A Chronicle of Sorcery and Death on Pendle Hill

.LPEHUO\/HLIHU

40 AUM Historical Review The study of magic and witchcraft chronology of events is an eye-opening WKURXJKRXW(XURSHLVDEURDGWRSLF7KHUH UHPLQGHURI MXVWKRZTXLFNO\WKHDFWXDO are very few complete works surviving trials unfolded compared to the length today that document the interrogations and of modern trials. The book is written in investigations. The Lancashire Witches, by chronological order, skipping back and 3KLOLS&$OPRQG(PHULWXV3URIHVVRURI forth from location to location in this Religion at the University of Queensland, VPDOODUHDRI (QJODQGDQGVKRZLQJKRZ is the analysis of one such document. the people in these very small towns were He has written a number of books intertwined in the unfolding drama. on religion and witchcraft during the The events unfolded after an (QJOLVK(QOLJKWHQPHQW,QThe Lancashire DOWHUFDWLRQEHWZHHQ$OL]RQ'HYLFH Witches, Almond has created a concise and John Law. Alizon was accused of analysis of events based on the only making Law lame after he refused to sell remaining source, Thomas Potts’ book, her pins. According to the record, Law The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the accepted her apology, but his son gave a Countie of Lancaster, published in 1613.1 VWDWHPHQWWR5RJHU1RUZHOOEHJLQQLQJ (YHQIRXUKXQGUHG\HDUVODWHUWKHVWRU\ the escalation of events that would end is both horrible and fascinating. Almond six months later. Almond discusses many is clear and impartial, sparing the reader times throughout the work how these none of the details of what are perhaps marginalized people, living on the edge WKHPRVWIDPRXVZLWFKWULDOVLQ(QJODQG of poverty, would take any opportunity to The Lancashire Witches unfolds as a story of grasp at power and respect, mainly from political power, religious uncertainty, and associating with familiars, which were economic strife. IHDUHGLQ(QJODQG2 This willingness to At the beginning of the book, Almond GLVFXVVWKHLUDELOLWLHVSURYLGHV1RUZHOOZLWK provides extremely helpful lists of people all of the information that he needed to and descriptions. Without them, the reader continue the investigations. The chain of would be quickly lost, since a number of events began when Alizon incriminated ZRPHQVKDUHWKHVDPHÀUVWQDPH7KH KHUJUDQGPRWKHU'HPGLNHDQGFRQFOXGHG

Kimberly Leifer has studied at AUM since 2011 and is now working towards a Master of Liberal Arts GHJUHHLQ(QJOLVK.LPGDEEOHVLQKLVWRULFDOUHFUHDWLRQDQGLVIRQGRI 1RUVHFXOWXUHDQGKLVWRU\+HUERRN UHYLHZZDVZULWWHQIRU'U%XOPDQ·VFODVV:LWFKFUDIWDQG0DJLF%HIRUH

41 AUM Historical Review RQ*RRG)ULGD\$SULODW0DONLQ it became clear that these events did not 7RZHUKRPHRI 'HPGLNH·VGDXJKWHU happen and were meant as a pointed attack (OL]DEHWK'HYLFH37KHPDMRULW\RI against the women. Southworth’s motive WHVWLPRQ\FRPHVIURP(OL]DEHWK·VQLQH was revenge; the women had converted to \HDUROGGDXJKWHU-HQQHW'HYLFH+HU Protestantism and would not return to the testimony caused all those present to Catholic faith. be arrested and charged with murder or While The Wonderfull Discoverie of bewitching, resulting in ten executions. Witches is considered the primary source Almond also discusses the case of for these trials, Almond calls into question the Samlesbury witches, three women in WKHUHFRUGHGHYHQWV7KHWZRMXGJHVRQ the nearby town of the same name who WKHFDVH(GZDUG%URPOH\DQG-DPHV were accused by fourteen year old Grace Altham, commissioned Thomas Potts Sowerbutts.4 Potts included this case in The to write this work, documenting their Wonderful Discoverie of Witches at the request conduct in what was seen as “the two of Judge Bromley. Almond believes most serious threats to the stability of the Bromley’s intention was to showcase the Jacobean state, witchcraft and popery.”8 innocence of these witches and highlight Almond points out that this work, to the nefarious nature of the Jesuit priest, which Potts appended The Arraignement Christopher Southworth.5(YHQGHFDGHV and Triall of Jennet Preston, of Gisborne in DIWHUWKH(QJOLVK5HIRUPDWLRQWKHUHZDV CravenZDVDQDWWHPSWE\WKHWZRMXGJHV still great mistrust between Protestants to quell misgivings and criticism in order and Catholics, and while each religion to preserve their political reputations, thought the other heretical, the incident in allowing them to further their ambitions Samlesbury was unprecedented. in the royal court. Potts was familiar with The accusations against the the book DaemonologieE\.LQJ-DPHV,DQG Samlesbury witches were markedly often mirrored the ideology of the king in different from anything that had previously his own work. EHHQVHHQLQ(QJODQG*UDFHKDYLQJ ,WZRXOGEHHDV\WRVD\WKDW3RWWV accused three women of bewitching documented these witch trials for her, was guided by Southworth to give political reasons, but it is not that simple. testimony that included cannibalism and Judge Bromley and Thomas Potts were shape-shifting.6 These activities were completely convinced that they were XQKHDUGRI LQ(QJODQGEXW$OPRQGQRWHV doing God’s will and upholding the letter that Southworth would have learned of of the law, and Almond best shows this these phenomena during his Catholic LQ%URPOH\·VÀQDOMXGJPHQWDJDLQVWWKH WUDLQLQJLQ(XURSH7 As the trial continued, guilty.9 Another key person in these trials,

42 AUM Historical Review 5RJHU1RUZHOOVHHPLQJO\KDGQRSROLWLFDO OHDQLQJVMXVWDVWURQJGHVLUHWRXSKROG the Witchcraft Act of 1604.101RUZHOO·V examinations and interrogations make up the bulk of information on the accused. Almond’s work is informative and compelling. He has gone to great effort to sort the details of the trials into a coherent series of events. What remains are the circumstances that brought about the persecutions, the families of those involved, and their place in society. $OPRQGOHDYHVXVZLWKRQHÀQDOWKRXJKW WRFRQVLGHUUHPLQLVFHQWRIWKHEXWWHUÁ\ effect: what may have happened had $OL]RQ'HYLFHQRWPHWXSZLWK-RKQ/DZ that day in March 1612?

1 Philip C. Almond, The Lancashire Witches: a Chronicle of Sorcery and Death On Pendle Hill 1HZ

notes 4 Almond, The Lancashire Witches, 110. 5 Almond, The Lancashire Witches, 107. 6 Almond, The Lancashire Witches, 118. 7 Almond, The Lancashire Witches, 119. 8 Almond, The Lancashire Witches, 5. 9 Almond, The Lancashire Witches, 163. 10 Almond, The Lancashire Witches, 13.

43 AUM Historical Review $XJXVWD-DQH(YDQV:LOVRQFLUFD $ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG+LVWRU\0RQWJRPHU\$ODEDPD

44 AUM Historical Review Confederate Heroines in Letters

Augusta Jane Evans, Her Confederate Sisters, and Macaria

.HOKL'H3DFH

At the outset of the Civil War, Augusta Moreover, the book’s heroines mirror the -DQH(YDQVRI 0RELOH$ODEDPDZDVD DFWLRQVRI(YDQVDQGRWKHU&RQIHGHUDWH nationally known novelist, having garnered women during the Civil War. As such, praise for her second novel, Beulah 1 she encourages her fellow Confederate 'XULQJWKHZDU(YDQVVXSSRUWHGWKH “sisters” to keep working, even in the Confederacy in almost every way a woman face of inevitable defeat.4 By dramatizing could. She volunteered at a hospital; typical female wartime actions in this she sang songs to rally the Confederate QRYHORISXUSRVH(YDQVUHPLQGVZKLWH soldiers; she set aside her personal romantic Southern women that they are as necessary interests; and she organized the women to winning the war as are the Confederate of Mobile in necessary war work.2

Kelhi D. DePace is co-editor of the AUM Historical ReviewDQGDVHQLRUPDMRULQJLQKLVWRU\DQG(QJOLVK Kelhi is a member of various service and honor societies on campus, including the University Honors 3URJUDPDQG3KL$OSKD7KHWD6KHLVDVWXGHQWZRUNHUDWWKH$ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG History, and this is her third year serving on the editorial board. Her paper, “Confederate Heroines in /HWWHUV$XJXVWD-DQH(YDQV+HU&RQIHGHUDWH6LVWHUVDQGMacariaµZDVDZDUGHGWKH'RQ'RGG+LVWRU\ 3UL]HDQGZDVZULWWHQIRU'U6HYHUDQFH·V+LVWRULFDO0HWKRGVFRXUVH

45 AUM Historical Review 1847, they relocated to San Antonio, Texas, WeeklyD1RUWKHUQSDSHUGHFODUHGWKDW where they lived until 1849. Returning Beulah was “in the foremost rank of east, they settled in Mobile, Alabama, novels by American women. Possibly… not a large city at the time, but important WKHÀUVWRIWKDWFODVVµ12 Of primary in the slave trade nonetheless.6 By 1850, LQWHUHVWWR6RXWKHUQUHYLHZHUVZDV(YDQV·V (YDQVZDVWKHHOGHVWRIHLJKWFKLOGUHQ7KH literary potential. The Mobile Daily Register IDPLO\FRQWLQXHGWRVWUXJJOHÀQDQFLDOO\ commented that “the book is more DQG(YDQVUHÁHFWVWKLVLQKHUQRYHOV$W remarkable for…the promises it affords.”13 DJHVHYHQWHHQVKHEHJDQWRZULWHKHUÀUVW Similarly, The Cosmopolitan Art Journal novel, Inez: A Tale of the Alamo. She based declared, “we, therefore, look forward to the descriptions of Texas on her own her future with hope of further offerings experiences, and the family in the story upon the altar of pure, ennobling, is similar to her own.7 Inez, according to beautiful literature.”14 With the coming one literary critic, did “not foreshadow the ZDU(YDQVZRXOGVDFULÀFH´IXUWKHU successful career as a novelist that came to offerings upon the altar of…literature” its author.”8,WZDVSXEOLVKHGDQRQ\PRXVO\ with her Civil War novel, Macaria.15 in 1855.9 While MacariaLV(YDQV·VLPSRUWDQW Undeterred by Inez’s lack of success, &RQIHGHUDWHQRYHOKHUJUHDWHVWÀQDQFLDO (YDQVEHJDQDVHFRQGQRYHOZKLFKDOVR success was her post-war novel, St. Elmo. contained an autobiographical element. 6RRQDIWHUWKHZDU(YDQVSXEOLVKHGWKH ,QKHUBeulah,(YDQVGHVFULEHG novel while raising funds for Confederate an orphan girl’s religious and romantic monuments; critics were reading the MRXUQH\$ZRUNRI GRPHVWLFÀFWLRQBeulah ERRNE\'HFHPEHUSt. Elmo, whose stands out for its philosophical passages. heroine is a novelist, was possibly the third (YDQV·VVSLULWXDOMRXUQH\ZDVVLPLODUWR most read novel of the period, ranking that of her heroine: from religious doubt behind Uncle Tom’s Cabin and Ben Hur.16 to skepticism, after which both women A 1909 newspaper article declared that returned to their faith.10 Beulah sold twenty- St. Elmo was the “most praised and best WKUHHWKRXVDQGFRSLHVE\'HFHPEHU abused novel ever written.”17 Regardless and the proceeds of the book’s success RI LWVÁDZVSt. ElmoHVWDEOLVKHG(YDQVDV DOORZHGWKH(YDQVIDPLO\WRSXUFKDVHWKH “the most famous and wealthiest novelist house they had been renting.11 of her time.”18 :KLOHWKHGHWDLOVRI(YDQV·VOLIH $PLGVWQDWLRQDOIDPH(YDQVFDUHG during the Civil War will be addressed for both her ill father and her brother, later, for now, it is enough to establish Howard, who was wounded in the war. On (YDQ·VUHSXWDWLRQEHIRUHWKHZDUHarper’s 'HFHPEHUWKHWKLUW\WZR\HDUROG

46 AUM Historical Review novelist married Lorenzo Madison Wilson; Story: As Told by Twenty American Women he was sixty, a widower, owner of a large , devoted substantial discussion to Mobile estate called Ashland, and father MacariaVWUHVVLQJ(YDQVDVD6RXWKHUQ to four children, the youngest of whom author.21 was nineteen. This marriage mirrored :LOOLDP3HUU\)LGOHU·VELRJUDSK\ (YDQV·VQRYHOVDVWKHKHURLQHVRIBeulah FRQVWLWXWHGWKHÀUVWHIIRUWWRGHWDLO(YDQV·V and St. Elmo also marry older men. As wife, OLIHLQFRUSRUDWLQJÀUVWKDQGDFFRXQWV PRWKHUDQGKRVWHVVDW$VKODQG(YDQVZDV from her relatives and friends. However, still able to write, publishing three novels )LGOHUIDLOVWRDGGUHVVFULWLFDOLVVXHVVXFK before Wilson’s death in 1891: Vashti DV(YDQV·VYLHZRIVODYHU\,QWKH Infelice DQGAt the Mercy of University of Louisiana Press published Tiberius DQGWZRPRUHQRYHOVEHIRUH scholarly editions of Beulah, Macaria, and St. her death: A Speckled Bird DQGDevota Elmo. Rebecca Grant Sexton’s A Southern 19$XJXVWD-DQH(YDQV:LOVRQGLHG Woman of Letters: The Correspondence of in Mobile on May 9, 1909. The next day, Augusta Jane Evans Wilson LVDXVHIXO the Mobile Register concluded a lengthy DGGLWLRQWR(YDQVVFKRODUVKLSPDNLQJ article with the words of “[a]n eminent (YDQV·VSHUVRQDOWKRXJKWVDFFHVVLEOHZKLFK critic,” saying, “Who has not read with rare augment her public thoughts in her novels. GHOLJKWWKHQRYHOVRI$XJXVWD(YDQV"µ20 Brenda Ayer’s biography, The Life and (YDQVKDVJDUQHUHGYDULRXVOHYHOVRI Works of Augusta Jane Evans Wilson, 1835- scholarly attention throughout the years. 1909 VHHNVWRGLVFXVV(YDQVDQG The focus of such discussions is normally her novels “in full context” because “her placed upon Beulah, as the novel that truly PHVVDJHVDUHMXVWDVUHOHYDQWDQGSRWHQW« began her career, and St. Elmo, as the novel WRGD\µLQWKLVZRUNHDFKRI (YDQV·V that secured her stature in the literary novels receives an individual chapter.22 world. Comparably little attention has been Melissa J. Homestead and Coleman given to Macaria, except in recent years. Hutchison devote excellent chapters to :KLOHVKHOLYHG(YDQVZDVLQFOXGHGLQ Macaria. Although others have noted ERRNVRQIHPDOHDXWKRUV7KHÀUVW0DU\ Macaria’s appeal to Southern women, and )RUUHVW·V Women of the South Distinguished in 'UHZ*LOSLQ)DXVWRXWOLQHGWKHLGHRORJLFDO Literature GLGQRWPHQWLRQMacaria, and cultural background to Macaria’s although the novel was a fairly recent appeal, offering some comparative details, SXEOLFDWLRQ3HUKDSV)RUUHVW·VERRNZDV there has been no detailed study of how produced too soon after the Civil War to Macaria·VKHURLQHVPLUURUHGERWK(YDQV include such a pro-Confederate novel. The and other Confederate women.23 second, Laura C. Holloway’s The Women’s “Macaria” refers to a woman in Greek

47 AUM Historical Review P\WKRORJ\ZKRPXVWSK\VLFDOO\VDFULÀFH place before the Civil War that readers herself to save the city of Athens from might be surprised when the focus shifts. PLOLWDU\GHVWUXFWLRQDQG(YDQVGUDZV :KLOHLQ1HZ

48 AUM Historical Review overwhelmed by the prospects of war, how of Macaria'HUE\LQVLVWHGWKDW'RRODG\ could she write all of Macaria while it was HQWUXVWKLPZLWKUR\DOWLHVZKLFK'HUE\ raging? JDYHWR(YDQVDIWHUWKHZDU7KLVPRQH\ The same 1861 letter provides a VDYHGWKH(YDQVIDPLO\IURPSRYHUW\32 VROXWLRQWRWKHULGGOH(YDQVZURWHWRKHU Macaria was one of the most read IULHQG5DFKHO/\RQVVD\LQJ´,UHFHLYHG ERRNVLQWKH&RQIHGHUDF\1RUWKHUQHUV DOHWWHUIURP0U'>WKDWLV-&'HUE\ DOVRHQMR\HGWKHQRYHODOWKRXJKWKHUHLV 1HZ

49 AUM Historical Review writers. (YDQVZDVRQHRI WKHZRPHQZKR domestic literature as it is to view it as “helped ensconce Alabama even more merely propagandist.36 ÀUPO\RQWKHQDWLRQDOPDSµ$OWKRXJK /DVWO\(YDQV·VMacaria is best others later wrote novels about the Civil described as a novel of purpose, and :DU(YDQVZDVWKHRQO\IHPDOHDXWKRU (YDQVKDGWKUHHSXUSRVHVIRUMacaria.37 writing during the war. Moreover, while )LUVWIRULWV1RUWKHUQDXGLHQFH Macaria many women were writing letters during was pro-Confederate propaganda. Second, WKHZDUDV(YDQVKHUVHOIGLG(YDQVDOVR Macaria was a contribution to national published a novel.34 Confederate culture. Third, Macaria Second, although Macaria has encouraged Southern women to keep propagandist features, it is simplistic and XSWKHJRRGÀJKWE\GUDPDWL]LQJWKH misleading to label it as merely propaganda. typical wartime actions of Confederate Unfortunately, this is what many scholars ZRPHQDFWLRQV(YDQVKHUVHOIKDG have branded Macaria. Williams plainly WDNHQ,QMacaria,(YDQVDGGUHVVHVLVVXHV states that Macaria “is a propaganda novel” VSHFLÀFWRZRPHQDVVKHKDGLQBeulah, DQG(QW]LPJHUGHVFULEHVLWDV´DSLHFHRI but approaches them in the context of wartime propaganda.” Similarly, Massey war. The purpose of Beulah had been to GHFODUHV´0LVV(YDQVHPHUJHGDVWKH promote personal faith over skepticism in foremost feminine propagandist of the the lives of young women.38 Macaria also Confederacy.” Therefore, as Hutchison addresses issues important to women; notes with disdain, “today Macaria is treated KRZHYHU(YDQVUHDGGUHVVHGWKHLVVXHVIRU as a piece of wartime propaganda and DZDUFRQWH[W(YDQVPL[HGWKHIRUPVRI largely ignored.”35 Southern literature, domestic literature, 7KLUG(YDQ·VQRYHOVMacaria included, and propaganda into her own novel of can be termed domestic, or sentimental, purpose. literature. This type of literature is Though it is only a single facet, the concerned with women’s often idealized propagandist features of Macaria are lives and romantic relationships; these XQGHQLDEOH(YDQVVHQWKHU1HZ

50 AUM Historical Review strongest terms, but she also celebrates to contribute to regional culture in the Confederate nation and its values their creative works, but national and portrays all elements of that nation, culture. Accordingly, in Macaria(YDQV rich and poor, black and white, men and QHYHUVSHFLÀHVZKHUHKHUKHURLQHV women, as united in support of the war are from, besides the general locality effort.”39 This is seen by the absence of of the South, a town called “W—.” slavery in Macaria. The word “slavery” 0RUHRYHUZKLOH(YDQV·VFKDUDFWHUVDUH LVXVHGRQO\RQFH(YDQVSUHIHUULQJWKH protestant Christians, no denomination more appealing euphemism “servants” LVVSHFLÀHG%HFDXVHMacaria’s W— could for slaves.40,QWKHVHLQVWDQFHV(YDQV be almost any Southern town and her portrays the slaves as devoted to their characters could belong to any protestant masters. However, if a positive portrayal GHQRPLQDWLRQ(YDQV·V6RXWKHUQUHDGHUV RI VODYHU\KDGEHHQ(YDQV·VFKLHISXUSRVH could easily identify with her characters. she could have devoted more content to

51 AUM Historical Review By the summer of 1864, the range of (YDQVGHSLFWVWKHSHULRGRIVHFHVVLRQ female opinion had narrowed, hovering in her novels, and her descriptions overlap somewhere between weary hopefulness with the experiences of her Confederate and unrelenting gloom…. The novelty VLVWHUV(YDQVZDVDVWDXQFKVHFHVVLRQLVW RI VXIIHULQJDQGVDFULÀFHKDGORQJ 2Q1RYHPEHUVKHZURWHWRKHU since disappeared, leaving behind a dull friend Rachel Lyons about “the political and steady pain often heightened by question of the day,” saying: new tragedies.47 ,WLVDQLVVXHRIVXFKLQFDOFXODEOH (YDQVZRXOGKDYHH[SHULHQFHGWKLVJURZ- solemnity and importance that no ing disillusionment. As a self-appointed true Southern man or woman can fail morale booster,48 she dramatized the to be deeply interested and impressed. actions of her Confederate sisters to )RUWKLVJUHDWSROLWLFDOSUREOHP, encourage them with their own example. can perceive but one solution—the Accordingly, Macaria “is a patriotic appeal unanimous cooperation of the to Southern women to [not merely] accept Southern states in secession, prompt 50 WKHVDFULÀFHVLPSRVHGE\ZDUµ49 but to secession. continue accepting them. This sentiment is evident in Macaria. (YDQVHQJDJHGLQPDQ\DFWLRQV 7KHÀUVWVHQWHQFHLVVWULNLQJO\VLPLODU during the Civil War similar to those to Russell’s declaration of his interest of her Confederate sisters, and thus it in politics, and the last sentence is is inappropriate to portray her wartime reminiscent of the description of Russell actions as more substantial than those as a spokesman for “prompt, immediate of the other women in the Confederacy. state action,” namely, secession.51,UHQH However, she does stand apart because agrees with Russell’s position, thereby she dramatized these actions in Macaria. “openly confront[ing] her father’s wrath ,QFRPSDULQJ(YDQV·VOLIHWKHOLYHVRI on political grounds.”52,UHQHODWHUH[SODLQV her Confederate sisters, and the events WR(OHFWUDWKDW´,ZDVIURPWKHEHJLQQLQJ of Macaria, this purpose for Macaria is a Secessionist.”53 XQGHQLDEOH(YDQVDFFXUDWHO\SRUWUD\V Moreover, in the same 1860 letter, Confederate women in the context of (YDQVH[SODLQHGWKHVWDWHRIKHUIHOORZ secession, as they encourage men to enlist, Mobilians: “The feeling here is intense; in their desire for female military service, not noisy, but deep, and the faces of the through their war work of rallying the people are stamped with stern, desperate troops, supplying the military, and nursing resolve.”54 Just so, in Macaria, (YDQV soldiers, and as they remained romantically describes, before Lincoln was elected, “the unattached and unmarried during the war. mutter of the storm which was so soon to

52 AUM Historical Review sweep over the nation.”55 Through the fact “the Confederacy ‘expects that every man WKDW,UHQH·VIDWKHUGLVDJUHHVZLWKVHFHVVLRQ will do his duty.’” Mr. Huntingdon later (YDQVKDUNHQVWRWKHIDFWWKDWQRWDOO agrees that he “could not possibly stay at Mobilians, and not all Southerners, so easily KRPHµLQWKHPLGVWRIZDU$JDLQ,UHQH made the choice for secession.56 When states, “every man in the Confederacy :³·VVWDWHYRWHVWRVHFHGH(YDQVZULWHV who can leave his family should be in our that “W— was vociferous” and describes army.”62 ,UHQHZDWFKLQJ´WKHGLVWDQWEXWEULOOLDQW Macaria also favorably depicts the URZVRIOLJKWVÁDPLQJDORQJWKHVWUHHWVµDV soldiers of the Confederacy, both in her townsmen and women celebrate.57 This describing Russell’s regiment and through also parallels reality, because there were a glorifying account of Russell in uniform. similar celebrations in Mobile.58)XUWKHU ,UHQHDOVRODXGVKHUIULHQG'U$UQROG (YDQVKHUVHOIZDVVRH[FLWHGDERXWWKH EHFDXVHKHKDVGHFLGHGWRMRLQ5XVVHOO·V SRVVLELOLW\RIVHFHVVLRQWKDWVKHMRXUQH\HG UHJLPHQWVD\LQJ´(YHU\JRRGVXUJHRQ to Montgomery and was there for the in the Confederacy should hasten to the celebrations when Alabama seceded.59 IURQWOLQHRI RXUDUPLHVµ7KURXJK,UHQH·V Confederate women were expected ZRUGV(YDQVQRWRQO\HQFRXUDJHVPHQWR to encourage their countrymen to enlist, enlist, but prompts her Confederate sisters DQG(YDQVUHÁHFWVWKLVUHDOLW\LQMacaria. to encourage men to enlist. Through her $OWKRXJKLWLVQRWFOHDUKRZPXFK(YDQV descriptions of soldiers in war as glorious encouraged her father and brothers LQOLIHDQGGHDWK(YDQVVHUYHGDV´DOLWHUDU\ to enlist, they served nonetheless; her spokeswoman for the Southern military brothers Howard and Vivian were in the cause.”63 Third Alabama Regiment.60 A newspaper ,QMacaria(YDQVDGGUHVVHVWKHIHPDOH from Troy, Alabama berated women GHVLUHWRMRLQWKHPLOLWDU\64:KHQ,UHQH·V “for not doing anything in behalf of IDWKHUHQOLVWV,UHQHGHFODUHV´2KIDWKHU encouraging enlistments.”61 Likewise, in LI ,ZHUHRQO\DPDQWKDW,PLJKWJRZLWK Macaria,UHQHGRHVQRWH[SOLFLWO\SURPSW you—stand by you under all circumstances. her father to enlist; rather, she presumed Couldn’t you take me anyhow? Surely a correctly upon his character that he would daughter may follow her father, even on HQOLVW0U+XQWLQJGRQVD\V´>7@RGD\, WKHEDWWOHÀHOG"µ(OHFWUDDOVRODPHQWVWKDW have come to a determination which will as a woman, she is unable to serve in the GRXEWOHVVVXUSULVH\RXµ,UHQHUHVSRQGV military.65 However, some Confederate ´1RIDWKHU,DPQRWVXUSULVHGWKDW\RX women did serve in the military, disguised have determined to do your duty.” She as men, and others served as secret further explains when he questions her that agents.66(YDQVLQFOXGHVWZRVLPLODU

53 AUM Historical Review situations in Macaria7KHÀUVWLVDQDFFRXQW very beginning of the war a great many of “a young lady of Washington” who Alabama women recognized the need for smuggled military dispatches “through NHHSLQJWKHPRUDOHRI WKHÀJKWLQJIRUFHV womanly devotion” and by braiding the at the highest possible level” and women SDSHULQKHUKDLU(YDQVGLGQRWLQYHQWWKLV often did this by visiting encamped story, for she conversed with Confederate soldiers.72 However, “[t]he question of General P. G. T. Beauregard to be sure that whether young, unmarried women should she correctly portrayed the particulars.67 visit camps was debated throughout the 6LPLODUO\(OHFWUDH[SUHVVHVKHURZQ war.”73(YDQVDOOXGHVWRWKLVLQMacaria “female ingenuity” by smuggling dispatches ZKHQ,UHQHH[SUHVVHVDGHVLUHWRYLVLW inside of her paintings from Havana to the her father should he be wounded. He 8QLWHG6WDWHV&KDSWHU;;;,GHVFULEHV responds that “The neighborhood of KHUGDQJHURXVMRXUQH\IURP+DYDQDWR an army would not be a pleasant place 0RELOHLQDVPDOOVKLSWKDWLVÀUHGXSRQ IRU\RXµ1RQHWKHOHVV,UHQHGRHVYLVLWD by Union vessels. She assures the captain camp, with her uncle as a chaperone, when that she is not afraid of the voyage; after Russell Aubrey is mortally wounded.74 all, she has “a splendid brace of pistols.”68 ,WZDVQRWXQFRPPRQIRU (YDQVDOOXGHVWRWKHIDFWWKDWPDQ\ Confederate women to visit camps, like Confederate women learned how to handle sisters Jennie and Constance Carry did weapons to protect themselves against in September 1861. They visited soldiers Union soldiers and slave rebellions when camped at Manassas and sang “Maryland, the war began.69(OHFWUDH[SUHVVHVEUDYHU\ 0\0DU\ODQGµ(YDQVDQGKHUPRWKHU DPLGVWWKHIUD\H[FODLPLQJ´,ZRXOGQRW visited troops encamped at Lookout have missed this for any consideration.”70 Mountain, where her brother Howard was While not every Confederate woman will stationed. Like the Carry sisters, she sang serve the Confederacy as the “young lady “Maryland, My Maryland” at the request RI :DVKLQJWRQµRU(OHFWUDKDG(YDQV of the soldiers to encourage them.75 acknowledges and does not belittle the Confederate women also supplied desire. WKHDUP\LQDYDULHW\RIZD\V,Q$ODEDPD Although few Confederate women VSHFLÀFDOO\ZRPHQGHYRWHGWKHPVHOYHVWR wore the uniform, there were alternative “spinning, weaving, sewing, and knitting FDSDFLWLHVIRUVHUYLFHZKLFK(YDQV military apparel.”76 Moreover, wealthy depicts in her novel. Confederate women, ZRPHQRIWHQERUHWKHÀQDQFLDOEXUGHQ77 LQFOXGLQJ(YDQVDQGKHUMacaria heroines, There are ample instances of such devoted themselves to rallying the troops endeavors in MacariaDV,UHQHKHUVHOI through a variety of means.71´)URPWKH a wealthy woman, engages in similar

54 AUM Historical Review activities. She explains how she needs “constantly engaged in superintending “to see about giving out some sewing work for the soldiers.”82 for [her father’s unit] the ‘Huntingdon The women of the Confederacy 5LÁHV·µ6KHFRPPLVVLRQVZRPHQWRVHZ VDFULÀFHGWKHPVHOYHVYROXQWHHULQJLQ VHYHQW\ÀYHRYHUVKLUWVDQGKDYHUVDFNV KRVSLWDOVDVQXUVHV(DUO\LQWKHZDU 7KURXJKWKHVHHIIRUWV,UHQH´JLYH>V@WKH hospitals were run privately in homes soldiers everything they need” from her and wealthy women would pay for them. own pocket and helps to take care of their 'XHWRDODFNRI RIÀFLDOWUDLQLQJPDQ\ poor families. She also prepares hospital women were only able to serve as nurses VXSSOLHVIRU'U$UQROGEHIRUHKHOHDYHV because they had done so before.83(YDQV and promises to send the other things had experience as a volunteer nurse before KHQHHGV:KLOH,UHQHZRUNVGLOLJHQWO\ the war and so opened a hospital near WRNQLWJORYHVVKHH[SODLQV´,WLVFROG her home, called “Camp Beulah” after work holding a musket in the open air, her second novel.84 She wrote to Lyons such weather as it is.”78(YDQVLVSHUKDSV concerning her volunteer work: UHÁHFWLQJXSRQ$ODEDPD*RYHUQRU$ 2KP\GDUOLQJLI ,FRXOGWHOO\RXRI B. Moore’s plea for private donations of DOO,KDYHZLWQHVVHGDQGHQGXUHGVLQFH winter clothing for soldiers.79/DWHU(OHFWUD ,EHFDPHDKRVSLWDOQXUVH7KHUHKDV DQG,UHQHZRUNWRJHWKHU´WHDULQJRII been an appalling amount of sickness and rolling bandages…[and] scrap[ing] among the Brigades stationed in, and lint from a quantity of old linen.” When around Mobile but at last it seems to (OHFWUDWUDYHOVWR5LFKPRQGWREHDQXUVH be abating. Out of the 200 cases at she brings more hospital supplies from the our hospital we have lost but two men. women of W—.80 A number of them were alarmingly /LNHZLVH(YDQVGHYRWHGKHUVHOIWR ill for weeks, with typhoid fever and supplying the military. On January 13, 1861, pneumonia, and many might have (YDQVZURWHWRKHUDXQW0UV/9)UHQFK UROOHGDZD\DV,VDWZLWKP\ÀQJHUVRQ that she had begun making sandbags for WKHLUÁXWWHULQJSXOVHVWLPXODWLQJWKHP WKHUDPSDUWVDW)RUW0RUJDQ%\)HEUXDU\ constantly with brandy, ammonia and 2, she reported to her friend Rachel quinine. God bless our noble army! Lyons that “We ladies went to work at and preserve it from the pestilence RQFHDQGKDYHÀQLVKHGRYHU%DJVµ which has decimated its ranks during She also worked on making cartridges the past few months.85 IRUWKHFDQQRQDW)RUW0RUJDQ81(YDQV 1RWVXUSULVLQJO\(YDQV·V,UHQHSURYHVDQ translated typical war-work that she herself effective nurse because of her previous KDGNQRZQWRKHUFKDUDFWHU,UHQHZKR experience tending to sick families in a

55 AUM Historical Review SDUWRI:³FDOOHG´)DFWRU\URZµ(OHFWUD hand tightly; she reassures him and insists explains her own desire to be a nurse to WKDWKHVOHHS(YDQVVLPLODUO\ZURWHWR ,UHQH´,WLVQRWP\SULYLOHJHWRHQWHUWKH Beauregard: army, and wield a sword or musket; but WKUHHGD\VDJR,ZDVVLWWLQJEHVLGHD ,DPJRLQJWRWUXHZRPDQO\ZRUN³LQWR sick soldier, who was entirely delirious the crowded hospitals, to watch faithfully with fever;—suddenly opening RYHUVLFNDQGZRXQGHGµ,UHQHDSSURYHV his eyes, he grasped my hand, and RI WKHSODQVD\LQJ´,«WKLQNLW\RXUGXW\µ asked eagerly—“did you say General ,WKDVEHHQ,UHQH·V Beauregard was on “long-cherished plan” $UOLQJWRQ+HLJKWV"µ, WRIROORZ(OHFWUDWR answered, “be quiet, Richmond, for as she and go to sleep; he will tells her uncle, “the be there soon, very soon.”88 men in our armies are (YDQVZDVQRWWKH QRWKLUHGWRÀJKWRXU only Confederate battles; and the least nurse who experienced the women can do is such heartbreaking to nurse them when situations, and this sick or wounded.”86 cathartic scene One of the most acknowledges their moving chapters in sorrow and reminds Macaria is Chapter the women yet again ;;;,9LQZKLFK that their work is ,UHQHQXUVHVWZRG\LQJ necessary. soldiers, one, “[r]aving While Southern with delirium, a light- women were typically haired, slender boy of *HQHUDO3*7%HDXUHJDUG&6$FLUFD married by the age $ODEDPD'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG+LVWRU\ 89 seventeen” and the 0RQWJRPHU\$ODEDPD of twenty, (YDQV other “an emaciated, remained single until wrinkled old man, with gray hair.”87,Q she was thirty-two, and much like her Macaria, her description of the young KHURLQHVKHUDEVWHQWLRQZDVDEHQHÀW VROGLHULVUHPLQLVFHQWRIDOHWWHU(YDQVVHQW during the Civil War, allowing her to serve to General Beauregard on August 4, 1862. the Confederacy with greater dedication. 7KHER\LQWKHQRYHOKDOOXFLQDWHVWKDW,UHQH ,QMacaria(YDQVGRHVQRWXQGHUPLQH is his mother, calling out to her, telling the value of married women to the her how he did his duty, and holding her Confederate cause. Mrs. Baker works

56 AUM Historical Review on sewing haversacks and overshirts, The only thing that will content her in this and although she cannot work as hard as VWDWHRIVLQJOHQHVVEHVLGHVKHUÀUPEHOLHI ,UHQHFDQEHFDXVHVKHKDVDIDPLO\WRFDUH that she and Russell will be together in for, she still declares, “no soul loves the Heaven, is her usefulness to her country. &RQIHGHUDF\EHWWHUWKDQ,GRRUZLOOZRUN 6KHUHVROYHV´,JLYHP\DOORQHDUWK³P\ KDUGHUIRULW,KDYHQRPRQH\WROHQGWKH father and yourself—to our beloved and JRYHUQPHQWEXW,JLYHP\KXVEDQGDQG suffering country.”92)DXVWSXWVWKHGHDWK child—and two better soldiers no state can of Confederate soldiers in context, VKRZµ+RZHYHU(YDQVDUJXHVLQMacaria The need for military manpower was WKDWVLQJOHZRPHQVXFKDVKHUVHOI,UHQH unrelenting, until by the end of the DQG(OHFWUDDUHHVSHFLDOO\ZHOOHTXLSSHGWR war, three-fourths of white Southern VHUYHWKH&RQIHGHUDF\,UHQHWHOOVKHUXQFOH men of military age had served in why she can serve as a nurse: “Mothers and the army and at least half of those wives are, in most instances, kept at home; soldiers had been wounded, captured, EXW,KDYHQRWKLQJWRELQGPHKHUHµ90 or killed, or had died of disease. This By stressing the usefulness of left almost every white woman in the XQPDUULHGZRPHQ(YDQVDGGUHVVHGD 6RXWKZLWKDFORVHUHODWLYHLQMXUHG very real concern: “With each passing missing, or dead.93 month, as more and more young men were $OWKRXJK(YDQVGLGQRWORVHDIDPLO\ killed and wounded, a quiet desperation member in the Civil War, the severe RFFDVLRQDOO\PRXQWLQJWRSDQLF VSUHDG HPRWLRQVWKDW(OHFWUDDQG,UHQHGLVSOD\ among single women,” for women feared when they learn of the deaths of Mr. a lack of husbands.91,UHQH·VUHIXVDOWR Huntingdon and Russell show that she marry her father’s chosen suitors had been understood the loss that many of her DPDMRUWKHPHLQWKHVWRU\DQGEHIRUHKH Confederate sisters suffered.94 goes to war, Mr. Huntingdon expresses (YDQV·VHPSDWK\IRUWKHORVVHV KLVFRQFHUQRQFHDJDLQ´,VKRXOGIHHO suffered by her sisters was not entirely PXFKEHWWHUVDWLVÀHGLI\RXZHUHPDUULHGµ DEVWUDFWIRU(YDQVGLGVDFULÀFHKHU 6LPLODUO\'U$UQROGWHOOVKHU´

57 AUM Historical Review QRYHO,Q-XQH6SDXOGLQJYLVLWHG threshold of my career, facing the the family in Mobile. The two became ORQHOLQHVVRIFRPLQJ\HDUV,UHVLJQ engaged; however, they never married, for that hope with which, like a golden WKHLUOR\DOWLHVZHUHWRRGLIIHUHQW(YDQV thread, most women embroider their GHFODUHGWRKHUDXQWRQ1RYHPEHU IXWXUH,GHGLFDWHP\VHOIP\OLIH 1860 that she would never marry “a Black unreservedly to Art.98 5HSXEOLFDQµWKDWLVD1RUWKHUQHUZKR +RZHYHUDIWHU)RUW6XPWHUIDOOV(OHFWUD supported abolition.96 Although she clearly DEDQGRQVKHUVWXGLHVLQ)ORUHQFHDQGULVNV held Spaulding in disdain after they broke KHUOLIHWRUHWXUQWRWKH6RXWK,QVRGRLQJ off the engagement, she must have felt a “her hopes and feverish aspirations… serious initial attraction to him, for they found their graves” and she resigns had not known each other long before herself to what she calls “her future WKH\EHFDPHHQJDJHG0XFKOLNH,UHQHDQG cheerless life, her lonely destiny.” After (OHFWUDWKHQ(YDQVVDFULÀFHGORYHDQG dedicating herself as a nurse until she marriage for the Confederacy. KHUVHOIEHFRPHVLOOVKHUHWXUQVZLWK,UHQH 8OWLPDWHO\(YDQV·VDUJXPHQWIRU to W— and there undertakes to create “Womanly Usefulness” is rooted in the idea ´WKHÀUVWRIIHULQJRI6RXWKHUQ$UWXSRQ RI DFDOOLQJ)RULQVWDQFH(OHFWUDKDVKLJK my country’s alter.”99 As it is likely that ambitions to be a great painter, such that (YDQVSODQQHGMacaria as a different novel she offers “Thoughts, hopes, aspirations, and changed it when the war began, here memories, all centered in the chosen (OHFWUDGRHVWKHYHU\WKLQJWKDW(YDQV SURIHVVLRQµDV´VDFULÀFLDORIIHULQJVµ97 She did with Macaria itself: rededicate her explains to her cousin Russell: DUWZRUNDVWKHÀUVWFRQWULEXWLRQWRZDUGVD ,WRRZDQWWRHDUQDQREOHUHSXWDWLRQ necessary Confederate national culture. ZKLFKZLOOVXUYLYHORQJDIWHU,KDYH :KLOH(OHFWUDIHHOVWKDWVKHNQRZVKHU EHHQJDWKHUHGWRP\IDWKHUV,ZDQW calling and is able to repurpose it during to accomplish some work, looking WKHZDU,UHQHFDQQRWÀQGDFDOOLQJDQG upon which, my fellow-creatures this plagues her existence. While studying will proclaim: ‘That woman has not LQ1HZ

58 AUM Historical Review DOVRµ6KHDVNV+DUYH\´:KDWVKDOO,GR IHOORZFUHDWXUHVDQGWRQLJKW,UHMRLFHWR with my life?” and he tells her, “Give it ÀQG\RXDWODVWDQHDUQHVWFRZRUNHUµ WR*RGµ,UHQH·VFDOOLQJLVVORZO\UHYHDOHG DGGLQJ´

59 AUM Historical Review LVDGLUHFWDSSHDOWRZRPHQ(YDQVZULWHV VDFULÀFLQJ\RXUVHOIRQWKHDOWDURI QDWLRQDO ´5LVHZRPDQULVH«>7R@7KHVDQFWLÀHG duty.” While MacariaLVDZRUNRI ÀFWLRQ devotion and full work, / To which it is nonetheless the Civil War story of thou art elect for evermore!” She speaks WKHQRQÀFWLRQDO&RQIHGHUDWHKHURLQHV VSHFLÀFDOO\WRKHU&RQIHGHUDWHVLVWHUV $XJXVWD-DQH(YDQVDQGKHU&RQIHGHUDWH H[FODLPLQJZLWK,UHQH´³KP\ORWDQG sisters. that of thousands of my countrywomen, LVLQÀQLWHO\PRUHELWWHUWKDQWKHIDWHRI 0DFDULDµ/LNHZLVHDV,UHQHSUD\VIRU KHUVHOI(YDQVHQFRXUDJHVKHU&RQIHGHUDWH sisters to pray, “Thy will, not mine, oh, )DWKHU*LYHPHWKHVWUHQJWKWRGRP\ work; enable me to be faithful even to the bitter end.”105:KHQ(YDQVZURWHMacaria, she was unaware that the war would have a “bitter end” for the Confederacy; but with this novel, she offered Confederate women the best encouragement she could produce. Although Macaria begins as domestic literature, and ends with a bombardment of pro-Confederate propaganda, it nonetheless serves a personal purpose. $XJXVWD-DQH(YDQVSRXUHGKHURZQ Civil War experiences into the lives of ,UHQH+XQWLQJGRQDQG(OHFWUD*UH\HYHQ PRUHVRVKHSRXUHGWKHVDFULÀFHVRIKHU Confederate sisters into these heroines. As such, she could have prefaced the novel with the words “Based on the true VWRU\µRU´,QVSLUHGE\DFWXDOHYHQWVµ$W the conclusion, she may have written, ´$OWKRXJK,UHQHDQG(OHFWUD·VVWRU\HQGV here, your story – my Confederate sister – your story goes on; do not give up, but FRQWLQXHWRIXOÀOO\RXUGLYLQHFDOOLQJE\

60 AUM Historical Review 1 “Beulah,” The Mobile Daily Register, October 9, )LGOHUAugusta Evans Wilson,)RUUHVWWomen 1859; “Literary,” Harper’s Weekly, October 15, of the South, 330. 1859. 10 Beidler, First Books)LGOHUAugusta Evans 2 “Mrs. Wilson in War Times,” The Mobile Register, Wilson, 42, 48; Williams, A Literary History of May 11, 1909; Brenda Ayers, The Life and Works Alabama, 185. of Augusta Jane Evans Wilson, 1835-1909 ´$XJXVWD-DQH(YDQVµCosmopolitan Art Journal 4,

)DUQKDP6XUUH\$VKJDWH :LOOLDP QR $\HUVThe Life and Works, 36. notes 3HUU\)LGOHUAugusta Evans Wilson, 1835-1909: A Biography 7XVFDORRVD8QLYHUVLW\RI$ODEDPD 12 “Literary,” Harper’s Weekly, October 15, 1859. 3UHVV (YDQVWR/9)UHQFK 13 “Beulah,” Mobile Daily Register, October 9, 1859. January 13, 1861, in Rebecca Grant Sexton, ed., A Southern Woman of Letters: The Correspondence of ´$XJXVWD-DQH(YDQVµCosmopolitan Art Journal 4, Augusta Jane Evans Wilson &ROXPELD6& QR University of South Carolina Press, 2002), 33. ´$XJXVWD-DQH(YDQVµCosmopolitan Art Journal 4, $XJXVWD-DQH(YDQV0DFDULDRU$OWDUVRI 6DFULÀFH QR %DWRQ5RXJH/RXLVLDQD6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 16 Ayers, The Life and Works)LGOHUAugusta 1992), 3. Evans Wilson, )UDQFHV$UDQW´¶6W 4 Melissa J. Homestead, American Women Authors (OPR·5HFDOOHGDV/DWHVW%HVW6HOOHUV6ZDPS and Their Literary Property, 1822-1869, 1HZ %RRN:HDU\1DWLRQµThe Birmingham News, History of Alabama'UHZ*LOSLQ)DXVW´$OWDUV of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century &UDQEXU\ RI 6DFULÀFH&RQIHGHUDWH:RPHQDQG Associated University Press, 1997), 185. 1DUUDWLYHVRI:DUµThe Journal of American HistoryQR

61 AUM Historical Review )DXVW´$OWDUVRI6DFULÀFH&RQIHGHUDWH:RPHQ 36 Beidler, First Books, 102; Anne Goodwyn DQG1DUUDWLYHVRI:DUµ Jones, Tomorrow is Another Day: The Woman Writer in the South, 1859-1930 25 Jennifer Lynn Gross, “‘Lonely Lives are not %DWRQ5RXJH/RXLVLDQD State University Press, 1981), 51; Stevenson, The 1HFHVVDULO\-R\OHVV·$XJXVWD-DQH(YDQV·V Victorian Homefront A Literary Macaria and the Creation of a Place for Single , 168; Williams, History of Alabama Women in the Womanhood in the Postwar South,” American , 183,194; Massey, Civil War, 15; Hutchison, Apples and Ashes, 65. Nineteenth Century HistoryQR $XJXVWD-DQH(YDQVMacaria, 215. *URVV´¶/RQHO\/LYHVDUHQRW1HFHVVDULO\ Joyless,’” 33; Gross notes three purposes for $XJXVWD-DQH(YDQVMacaria, on page 215 of (YDQV·VQRYHOSXUSRVHVVLPLODUEXWQRW 415; 218-220. identical, to the purposes outlined in this paper. )LGOHUAugusta Evans Wilson, 105. 38 Ayers, The Life and Works, 47, 57. (YDQVWR5DFKHO/\RQV$XJXVWLQA 39 Williams, A Literary History of Alabama, 186; Southern Woman of Letters, 35-36. (QW]LPJHUThe Belle Gone Bad, 66; Massey, (YDQVWR5DFKHO/\RQV$XJXVWLQA Women in the Civil War, 184; Williams, A Literary Southern Woman of Letters1RWHDOOLWDOLFV History of Alabama, 186; Melissa J Homestead, LQTXRWHVIURP(YDQV·VOHWWHUVVLJQLI\(YDQV·V “The Publishing History of Augusta Jane own underlining of these words. (YDQV·V&RQIHGHUDWH1RYHO0DFDULD8QZULWLQJ Some Lost Cause Myths,” Faculty Publications (YDQVWR5DFKHO/\RQV$XJXVWLQA - Department of English, Paper 73, University of Southern Woman of Letters, 35-36, see footnote 5; 1HEUDVND/LQFROQ Hutchison agrees, see Coleman Hutchison, Apples and Ashes: Literature, Nationalism, and the (YDQVMacaria, 367; 249, 302, 305, 336, 343, Confederate States of America $WKHQV7KH 348, 364. University of Georgia Press, 2012), 80. 41 Stevenson, The Victorian Homefront, 165-166. 32 Homestead, American Women Authors and Their 42 Hutchison, Apples and Ashes, 15. Literary Property)LGOHUAugusta Evans Augusta Evans Wilson Wilson(YDQVWR5DFKHO/\RQV1RYHPEHU )LGOHU )LGOHU 21, 1863, in A Southern Woman of Letters, 88; DUJXHVWKDW(YDQVLVWKHDXWKRURI WKHDUWLFOHV Hutchison, Apples and Ashes)LGOHUAugusta WZRHQWLWOHG´1RUWKHUQ/LWHUDWXUHµDQGWZR Evans Wilson, 123. “Southern Literature,” and scholarship generally accepts his argument. 33 Hutchison, Apples and Ashes)LGOHU Augusta Evans Wilson, 72, 107, 114. )DXVW´$OWDUVRI6DFULÀFH&RQIHGHUDWH:RPHQ DQG1DUUDWLYHVRI:DUµ6HHDOVR 34 Amos, Cotton City, 93; Sterkx, Partners In Sterkx, Partners In Rebellion, 11, 73. Rebellion, 18-19; Beidler, First Books, 102; Mary Macaria, 380. (OL]DEHWK0DVVH\Women in the Civil War %LVRQ (YDQV %RRN(GLWLRQ/LQFROQ8QLYHUVLW\RI1HEUDVND 46 Rable, Civil Wars, 203; Sterkx, Partners In Press, 1994), 185; Williams, A Literary History Rebellion, 110; Sterkx, Partners In Rebellion, 194, of Alabama, 170. Williams notes that Jeremiah 187; Rable, Civil Wars, 206, 209. Tobias Wilson Clemens’s was the only other Civil 47 Rable, Civil Wars, 215. War novel composed during the Civil War; Massey, Women in the Civil War, 175. 48 Sterkx, Partners In Rebellion, 195. 35 Williams, A Literary History of Alabama, 189; 49 Williams, A Literary History of Alabama, 186. (QW]LPJHUThe Belle Gone Bad %DWRQ5RXJH (YDQVWR5DFKHO/\RQV1RYHPEHUA Louisiana State University Press, 2002), 66; Southern Woman of Letters, 15. Massey, Women in the Civil War, 184; Hutchison, (YDQVMacaria, 215, previously quoted; 300. Apples and Ashes, 64, 97. (YDQVMacaria, 300. (YDQVMacaria, 365.

62 AUM Historical Review (YDQVWR5DFKHO/\RQV1RYHPEHULQ (YDQVWR/9)UHQFK-DQXDU\LQ A Southern Woman of Letters, 15. A Southern Woman of Letters(YDQVWR5DFKHO A Southern Woman of (YDQVMacaria, 298. /\RQV)HEUXDU\LQ Letters, 30-31. 56 Amos, Cotton City, 222; Sterkx, Partners in Macaria Rebellion, 30. (YDQV , 371. (YDQVMacaria, 300. )DXVW´$OWDUVRI6DFULÀFH&RQIHGHUDWH:RPHQ DQG1DUUDWLYHVRI:DUµ5DEOHCivil 58 Amos, Cotton City, 237. Wars, 121: Sterkx, Partners In Rebellion, 115; )LGOHUAugusta Jane Evans Wilson, 89. Massey, Women in the Civil War, 48. (YDQVWR/9)UHQFK-DQXDU\A )LGOHUAugusta Jane Evans Wilson, 90-91. Southern Woman of Letters(YDQVWR5DFKHO (YDQVWR5DFKHO/\RQV-DQXDU\LQA Lyons, June 26, 1861, A Southern Woman of Southern Woman of Letters, 39. Letters)LOGHU (YDQVMacaria&KDSWHU;,9WKURXJKRXW 61 Sterkx, Partners In Rebellion, 43. 363-364; 364; 376. (YDQVMacaria, 301; 302; 204. (YDQVMacaria, 382-383. (YDQVMacaria, 308, 320; 310; 338, 340; Beidler, (YDQVWR*HQHUDO%HDXUHJDUG$XJXVW First Books, 114. in A Southern Woman of Letters, 43. 64 Rable, Civil Wars)DXVW´$OWDUVRI (QW]LPJHUThe Belle Gone Bad, 66. 6DFULÀFH&RQIHGHUDWH:RPHQDQG1DUUDWLYHV Macaria of War,” 1200. (YDQV , 312; 376. 91 Rable, Civil Wars, 51. (YDQVMacaria, 302; 363. Macaria 66 Massey, Women in the Civil War, 81-83. (YDQV , 304; 310; 325; 326; 329. (YDQVMacaria(YDQVWR*HQHUDO )DXVW´$OWDUVRI6DFULÀFH&RQIHGHUDWH:RPHQ Beauregard, March 17, 1863, in A Southern DQG1DUUDWLYHVRI:DUµ Woman of Letters, 56. (YDQVMacaria,UHQHIDLQWVZKHQ (YDQVMacaria(YDQVMacaria, 350. KHUIDWKHU·VERG\LVEURXJKWKRPHDQG(OHFWUD faints when she learns of Russell’s death. 69 Rable, Civil Wars, 152. *URVV´¶/RQHO\/LYHVDUHQRW1HFHVVDULO\ (YDQVMacaria, 359. Joyless,’” 48; Sterkx, Partners In Rebellion, 25. )DXVW´$OWDUVRI6DFULÀFH&RQIHGHUDWH:RPHQ 96 Ayers, The Life and Works(YDQVWRKHUDXQW DQG1DUUDWLYHVRI:DUµ SUREDEO\0DU\+RZDUG-RQHV1RYHPEHU 72 Sterkx, Partners In Rebellion, 54. 1860, in A Southern Woman of Letters, 23. 73 Massey, Women in the Civil War, 72. (YDQVMacaria, 204. (YDQVMacaria,ELG (YDQVMacaria, 213. 75 Massey, Women in the Civil War)LGOHU (YDQVMacaria, 347; 358; 409. Augusta Jane Evans Wilson, 99. (YDQVMacaria, 234; 237; 304. 76 Sterkx, Partners In Rebellion, 94. )DXVW´$OWDUVRI6DFULÀFH&RQIHGHUDWH:RPHQ 77 Sterkx, Partners In Rebellion, 103. DQG1DUUDWLYHVRI:DUµ (YDQVMacaria, 311; 312; 313; 315, 318; (YDQVMacaria, 317. 375. (YDQVMacaria, 317; 388; 410. 79 Sterkx, Partners In Rebellion, 98. (YDQVMacaria, 380; 412; 414. (YDQVMacaria, 363; 371. (YDQVMacaria, 3; 415; 329; 330.

63 AUM Historical Review RememberThe Airmen

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64 AUM Historical Review Popular history regards World War advanced aircraft or engaging in air to air ,,DVWKHFDWDFO\VPRIWKHPRGHUQHUD,W combat. An African American unit was was a devastating event that pulled nation ÀUVWDFWLYDWHGLQ5DQWRXO,OOLQRLVDQGZDV after nation into a black hole of advanced quickly followed by a unit in Tuskegee, warfare, massive casualties, and genocide. Alabama. So began the story of the As with the cataclysms of nature, which famous Tuskegee Airmen. DUHPDUNHGÀUVWE\WKHSDWKRIGHVWUXFWLRQ Today we can experience this story they carve, then by the change and renewal through the exhibits and landmarks of the they usher in, it is possible to view World 7XVNHJHH$LUPHQ1DWLRQDO+LVWRULF6LWH :DU,,QRWRQO\DVDGHDWKPDUFKEXW in Tuskegee, Alabama. Located on the still DOVRDVDYHKLFOHRIFKDQJH,QWKHZDNH DFWLYH0RWRQ)LHOGWKHPXVHXPFRQVLVWV of its devastation we were left with of two airplane hangars that have been numerous social, military, and economic converted into historical exhibitions as well changes, changes on both a global as well as a collection of original buildings, rebuilt as domestic scale. Among the changes structures, and interpretive sculptures H[SHULHQFHGLQ$PHULFDZDVDÀVVXUH GHVLJQHGWRUHSURGXFHWKHRULJLQDOÁLJKW in the foundation of a long-standing VFKRRO7KHPXVHXPMRXUQH\EHJLQVXSRQ WUDGLWLRQRI UDFLDOLQHTXDOLW\,QDV entering Hangar One, where visitors the German Luftwaffe rained bombs down receive a hands-on experience in which RQHYHU\FRUQHURI (XURSHWKH86:DU they can handle uniforms from the period 'HSDUWPHQWEHFDPHGHVSHUDWHIRUSLORWV and replica engines of the P-51 Mustangs 6LQFH:RUOG:DU,FLYLOULJKWVJURXSVKDG ÁRZQE\WKH$LUPHQ,Q+DQJDU7ZRWKH RIIHUHGDVROXWLRQOHW´FRORUHGµPHQÁ\LQ ´7XVNHJHH([SHULHQFHµLVSUHVHQWHGLQD the U.S. military. Giving into the pressure, three-dimensional, interactive timeline that WKH:DU'HSDUWPHQWODXQFKHGZKDWZDV WDNHVJXHVWVDORQJRQWKH$LUPHQ·VMRXUQH\ considered little more than an experiment from selection and training, to combat, to designed to demonstrate whether or not the present day impact of the Tuskegee African Americans were even capable Airmen military experiment. This exhibit is RI VXFKGLIÀFXOWDVVLJQPHQWVDVSLORWLQJ replete with photographic reproductions

Katie Kidd is co-editor of the AUM Historical ReviewDQGDVHQLRUPDMRULQJLQKLVWRU\ZLWKDPLQRULQ ÀQHDUWV6KHLVDPHPEHURI3KL$OSKD7KHWD5HFHQWO\.DWLHDQGKHUKXVEDQG%LOO\ZHOFRPHGDWKLUG child into their family. When studying history, Katie looks for common threads that connect diverse SHRSOHV$VDKLVWRU\PDMRUVKHEHOLHYHVLQWKHSRZHURI DJRRGVWRU\DQGWKHLPSRUWDQFHRINQRZLQJ our own stories. Katie has served three years on the editorial board.

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66 AUM Historical Review RI RIÀFLDOGRFXPHQWVDQGQHZVSDSHU SDWULRWZDVEHLQJFDOOHGXSRQWRÀJKWIRU articles, supersized photographs of the KLVFRXQWU\,WZDVDVWUXJJOHWRKROGWKH Airmen in action, interactive touchscreen :DU'HSDUWPHQWDFFRXQWDEOHWRLWVSROLF\ videos, and a theater that screens a twenty- of equal opportunity between races, a seven minute movie on the Airmen. policy that was only loosely enforced and The Historic Site also offers a guided RIWHQFLUFXPYHQWHG,WZDVDOVRDÀJKW WRXUOHGE\DNQRZOHGJHDEOH1DWLRQDO to disprove the prevailing beliefs that 3DUNRIÀFLDO7KHH[SHULHQFHLVVKRUW African Americans were intellectually and DQGVZHHW\HWLQIRUPDWLYH,QIRUPDWLRQ physically inferior and incapable of the is conveyed in easily digestible tidbits ORIW\GXW\RIÀJKWHUSLORW7KH7XVNHJHH with accompanying visual aids, allowing Airmen were instrumental in attaining both visitors to take in a wealth of knowledge of the victories idealized in the concept without becoming overwhelmed. While RI WKH'RXEOH97KH7XVNHJHH$LUPHQ PXVHXPJRHUVVSRLOHGE\WULSVWRPDMRU consisted of one thousand aviators and national monuments and galleries may be over ten thousand military and civilian disappointed by the number of replica support personnel,1 and together they artifacts in comparison to genuine artifacts, paved the way for future African American the method of storytelling employed by service members in every branch of the architects of this exhibit is impactful, service and every occupation within the pleasantly self-guided, and rich in data. VHUYLFH0RUHRYHUWKH\IRXJKWDQGÁHZ While the Tuskegee Airmen most as well as any patriot during the years of assuredly represent a turning point in the :RUOG:DU,, progression of racial equality in America, a tour through the Tuskegee Airmen 1DWLRQDO+LVWRULF6LWHUHYHDOVWKHRQH dimensional nature of such a description. 7REHPRUHSUHFLVHWKHVLJQLÀFDQFH of the Tuskegee Airmen legacy is the ´'RXEOH9µRU´'RXEOH9LFWRU\µDSKUDVH spotted throughout the site’s exhibits.

'RXEOH9LFWRU\ZDVDPHGLDFDWFKSKUDVH ([FHUSWHGIURPWKH7XVNHJHH$LUPHQ that stood for victory abroad as well /RQJ5DQJH,QWHUSUHWLYH3ODQDQG DVYLFWRU\DWKRPH,WUHIHUUHGWRWKH WKH7XVNHJHH$LUPHQ1DWLRQDO+LVWRULF Site’s enabling legislation—Public Law ongoing struggle of African Americans 105-355.http://www.nps.gov/tuai to gain access to greater opportunities in historyculture/upload/The-Tuskegee- $LUPHQ6LJQLÀFDQFHSGI WKH$UPHG)RUFHVDWDWLPHZKHQHYHU\ notes

67 AUM Historical Review Additional Contributors

M a d i s o n L a K e n d r i c k D . Clark Richardson LVDVRSKRPRUHPDMRULQJLQKLVWRU\ LVDMXQLRUPDMRULQJLQKLVWRU\$PRQJ and a student worker at the Alabama his extracurricular activities, LaKendrick 'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKLYHVDQG+LVWRU\ participates in the AUM history 6KHHQMR\VKLVWRU\EHFDXVHLWUHYHDOVWKH mentoring program and is a member of human spirit, showing what humans are 3KL$OSKD7KHWD7KLVLVKLVÀUVW\HDU capable of destroying and achieving. This serving on the editorial board. LVKHUÀUVW\HDUVHUYLQJRQWKHHGLWRULDO board managing advertisements.

J e n n i f e r M e g a n K e l l u m Stanley graduated with a degree in history LVDVHQLRUPDMRULQJLQJUDSKLFGHVLJQ LQ'HFHPEHU6KHLVDPHPEHU A member of the School of Liberal RI 2PLFURQ'HOWD.DSSD3KL$OSKD Arts Representatives, she already holds Theta, and volunteers as an adult literacy a degree from Auburn University in tutor. She studies history because of communication. Megan decided to the insights it provides into human pursue graphic design as a way to motivation, allowing us to better integrate her love of the arts with her understand the challenges and situations desire to work with the design needs of we see today. She has served on the business. editorial board for three years.

K r i s t y n C a t h e r i n e Recknagel Walden is a fourth year transfer student from LVDMXQLRUPDMRULQJLQKLVWRU\DQGLV Washington State University. She has a member of the University Honors been at AUM since spring 2014, when 3URJUDP6KHHQMR\VLQYHVWLJDWLQJWKH VKHHDUQHGDSODFHRQWKH'HDQ·V/LVW dress of different historical periods and Kristyn chose AUM to pursue a graphic would like to work in cosmetology after GHVLJQPDMRUDQGKDVHQMR\HGFRPELQLQJ JUDGXDWLRQ7KLVLVKHUÀUVW\HDUVHUYLQJ her mutual interests in computers and on the editorial board. DUW7KLVLVKHUÀUVWWLPHGHVLJQLQJZRUN for a printed medium, as her prior work has been web based.

68 AUM Historical Review http://bookstore.aum.edu

69 AUM Historical Review We are looking for history-oriented papers for future publication in the AUM Historical Review,DVWXGHQWUXQMRXUQDOVSRQVRUHGE\ WKH'HSDUWPHQWRI+LVWRU\DW$XEXUQ8QLYHUVLW\DW0RQWJRPHU\ Submissions may include topics on: World History Literature United States History Historic Sites Alabama History Oral Histories Movies Interviews Documentaries and more...

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