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Bibliography Primary Sources

Addressing the Japanese fishing vessel that was affected by the Castle Bravo blast. March 24, 1954. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb459/docs/doc%204C%20%203-23 -54%20tokyo%20cable.pdf. Castle Bravo unknowingly affected the crew of a Japanese fishing vessel. The Japanese wanted compensation. Additionally, this was proof of the radioactive dangers of these thermonuclear bombs.

Armed Forces Special Weapons Project. OPERATION CASTLE. Albuquerque, NM, 1959. ​ ​ Accessed August 28, 2019. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph241/garcia2/docs/0201_a.pdf. Operation Castle was initiated as a consequence of Operation Ivy, and was used to confirm Operation Ivy's data. This technical report further explained the purpose and went into detail about the execution of Operation Castle. Although it focuses more on Operation Castle, it shows how integral the information gathered by Operation Ivy was to further development of thermonuclear bombs.

Before and after the bombing of Elugelab. November 1, 1952. Photograph. Accessed August 25, ​ 2019. http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/elugelab-is-missing.jpg. Elugelab is completely vaporized after Ivy Mike is detonated on November 1, 1952. This horrific set of images captures string of atolls in the Marshallese islands before and after Ivy Mike. In the after photo, Elugelab has been completely wiped off the map, demonstrating the environmental distress caused by Operation Ivy.

Bikini atoll crater from Castle Bravo. Photograph. Earth Observatory. August 13, 2013. Accessed September 2, 2019.

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https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/83000/83237/bikiniatoll_oli_20132 31.jpg. This picture is a satellite image of current Bikini atoll which contains a giant crater from Castle Bravo. This is crucial supplementary evidence to prove how devastating the thermonuclear bombs were. This also puts into perspective the sheer power of Operation Castle’s bombs: an improvement upon this.

The Boston Daily Globe. Accessed September 18, 2019. ​ https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/hydrogen-bomb-1950. The H-Bomb utilizes a trigger that generates heat to set off the thermonuclear fusion, as detailed by this article praising the AEC. It is stated that the AEC had started another project for the hydrogen bombs, presumably Operation Ivy. This helps to demonstrate the magnitude of tension built by mutually assured destruction so hauntingly real during the Cold War.

Castle Bravo Detonation. March 1, 1954. Photograph. Accessed August 25, 2019. ​ https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/BravoC167c10.jpg. This is the mushroom cloud and resulting fireball from Castle Bravo's detonation. The image demonstrates the devastating power that these experiments were causing, leading us to the conclusion that the experiments so close to inhabited land was an obvious violation of human rights against the Bikinians.

Crawl Out Through the Fallout. By Sheldon Allman. 1960, compact disc. Accessed ​ January 31, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8XPzICHxXoQ. This song, Crawl Out Through the Fallout, illustrates the impact that the idea of having nuclear war had on people. They wanted to express the idea of nuclear war as something comedic and commonplace. This song details the aftermath of nuclear war. In addition to this, this was not the only song about nuclear war to be published throughout the Cold War, creating a rather sad normalization of the reality of possible nuclear annihilation.

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Department of Commerce Weather Bureau. Marshall Islands File Tracking ​ Document/World-Wide Fallout From Operation Castle. Report no. 164. Washington, ​ DC, 1955. Accessed August 28, 2019. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph241/garcia2/docs/51383e.pdf. Operation Castle was supposed to be an improvement of Ivy: more powerful and overall better technology. The debris in the atmosphere was significantly less from Operation Ivy to Operation Castle. This kind of technological improvement undoubtedly played a big factor in the tensions of the Cold War.

Department of Defense Defense Nuclear Agency. Operation Ivy 1952. 1952. Accessed August ​ ​ 18, 2019. https://www.dtra.mil/Portals/61/Documents/NTPR/2-Hist_ Rpt_Atm/1952_DNA_6036F.pdf. Ivy Mike was the first ever thermonuclear bomb to be detonated. It created a surface level explosion that produced 10.4 megatons of force, equal to the explosive force of 10,400,000 tons of TNT. 15 years after the blast, leukemia and radiation was found to becoming increasingly prevalent among those who were present for those who participated in the operation. Operation Ivy was a test to push the limits of nuclear technology as well as learn to measure radiation.

Hoover, Will. "Bikini Atoll survivors recall horror of nuclear explosion." Honolulu Advertiser ​ (Honolulu, HI), March 2, 2003. Accessed September 18, 2019. http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2003/Mar/02/ln/ln05a.html. The people of the Marshall Islands were not properly informed about the tests resulting in their radiation, among other negative impacts. There were jellyfish babies born due to the radiation, which was traumatic. There were also susceptibilities to cancer. This is further documentation of the human rights violation of Operation Castle.

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The images contain physicians responsible for the creation of H-Bombs. Photograph. Accessed September 18, 2019. https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/hydrogen-bomb-1950. Isidor Rabi was an American physicist. He had won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1944. He had discovered nuclear magnetic resonance, used for magnetic resonance imaging. Hans Bethe was a man who's work correlated with the theory of atomic nuclei. He had developed a theory of deuteron in 1934, later expanding the study in 1949. Klaus Fuchs was a physician in charge of studying the effects that thermonuclear reactions produce on the Earth.

Ivy King Fireball. November 1, 1952. Photograph. Accessed August 25, 2019. ​ https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Iking3.jpg. This is the resulting fireball from the world's second hydrogen bomb test: Operation Ivy's King shot. The mushroom cloud reached into the sky, and the dust barely settled, resulting in the disappearance of a pilot. This further supports the idea of the destructive nature of the thermonuclear bomb as well as potential to harm that it already demonstrated.

Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, CA). "H-BOMB TEST STORY MEETS AEC SILENCE." ​ November 9, 1952. The government kept the tests secret from the public, however information had already been leaked. Officials denied knowledge to the public. The military throughout the United States continually denied knowing anything about the nuclear bomb, causing even further stress upon the public.

Memorandum of Conversation. July 6, 1954. ​ https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb459/docs/doc%2012%20hot%20tuna.pdf. Reports of radiation poisoning in fish around the Castle Bravo detonation site were becoming increasingly common. This widespread effect further illustrates the dangerous

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nature of thermonuclear development, and the environmental neglect that occurred by performing these tests.

Military Effects Studies on Operation CASTLE. United States Air Force, 1954. ​ https://archive.org/details/MilitaryEffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954. This video shows the data and effects of the bombing of Bikini Atoll. Absolutely devastating, giant gusts of wind pushed out from the area as the US military stands by. It was incredibly powerful, and deliberate. The main thermal pulse of the low yield weapon completes in a few seconds. It takes 3 seconds to peak for the higher yield while it also maintained a longer duration. There was great intellectual progress.

The New York Times (New York, NY). "EXPERIMENTS FOR HYDROGEN BOMB HELD ​ SUCCESSFULLY AT ENIWETOK; LEAKS ABOUT BLAST UNDER INQUIRY." November 12, 1952. People started suspecting that the hydrogen bomb went off, and more pressure from the public to know the status of the bomb as the Cold War went on caused frenzy as documentation and information that was leaked and later revealed. People were terrified about what was about to happen next, showing the social repercussions of the Cold War and the secretive nature of thermonuclear bombs.

"Nuclear Testing Program In The Marshall Islands." July 19, 2005. Accessed September 2, 2019. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/gutwald2/docs/S_Hrg_109-178.pdf. Operation Ivy and Operation Castle releases widespread radiation throughout the Pacific. The AEC went through with radiation monitoring in order to see the larger effects of the bomb. They later learned that it spanned all the way to Hawaii and Guam, as radiation levels were slightly elevated in those places.

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Operation CASTLE. Defense Threat Reduction Agency, n.d. Accessed August 25, 2019. ​ https://www.dtra.mil/Portals/61/Documents/NTPR/1-Fact_Sheets/CASTLE%20-%20201 7.pdf?ver=2017-02-07-081707-913. Operation Ivy was the beginning to the rest of the thermonuclear bomb tests, such as Castle. Additionally, Operation Ivy led to the moving of test locations from Nevada to the Marshallese atolls. This was good for the background and transition from Operation Ivy to Operation Castle.

Operation Castle. U.S. Department of Energy, 1954. https://archive.org/details/gov.doe.0800013. ​ This video documents the process of Operation Castle, and the explosion. This shows the deliberate actions taken to execute Operation Castle, yet the complete neglect for the Marshallese people.

Operation IVY. 1952. https://archive.org/details/OperationIVY1952. ​ This video demonstrates the entire process in which Operation Ivy occured, from planning to the actual dropping of the bomb. It begins by talking about the upcoming test of the Mike bomb. It's too dangerous to test on land, so they choose to go to the Marshallese Islands. At the time manned machines were quite the force for the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Instead of utilizing experimental drones, manned jets were much more effective for the testing of nuclear bombs. In this case the Mike bomb was tested by these pilots creating cheaper methods of testing for the US.

Operation Ivy: Mike Shot. AtomicHeritage, 2016. Accessed August 25, 2019. ​ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gZuyPn0_KRE. The video shows the detonation and resulting shock wave produced by Mike Shot. It is absolutely shocking, as it shows the actual detonation that completely destroyed Elugelab atoll. This aided in the argument of the sheer neglect to consider the environment in the detonation.

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Operation Ivy's fireball and mushroom cloud. November 16, 1952. Photograph. Accessed September 2, 2019. https://cdn.theatlantic.com/assets/media/img/photo/2011/05/when-we-tested-nuclear-bom bs/n11_CN600072/main_900.jpg?1420571887. This is a picture of the fireball of Mike Shot. It helped us to realize the destruction and environmental impact of the bomb.

The response to the Marshallese petition against nuclear testing on their atolls. Accessed August 25, 2019. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb459/docs /doc%2010B%20re%20petition.pdf. The Marshallese's fears were denied when the U.S. refused to stop nuclear testing on their islands. Their petition ignored, the Marshallese were unable to stop the testing or have it repaired. The reasoning the AEC gave was that although the rights of the people were important, so was the welfare and national interest. This shows the pure political power present and trying to get gained through the Cold War and the arms race.

Rongelap child's radiation burns. 1954. Photograph. Accessed September 2, 2019. http://abolition2000.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/360x270_nuclear_savage.jpg. A child is being inspected for his burns from the detonation. Worse than just wanting to observe the effects, the AEC didn’t do anything to aid the people. The United States was also didn’t have an interest in the people, but only in the security of the nation. This is a painful reminder of the human rights violation through Operation Castle, brought around by the curiosity brought by Operation Ivy.

Rongelap girl, 28 days after the Bravo test on Bikini Atoll. March 29, 1954. Photograph. Accessed September 18, 2019. http://www.pacificecologist.org/archive/13/survivors-nuclear-warning.pdf. A girl is losing her hair after the nuclear tests. This was further supplement to the idea that the United States was causing irreparable damage to the Marshallese people. They

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needed help, but were denied. This was additional evidence that the United States was not prioritizing the people they were abusing the land, but only for politics.

The bombs within the Manhattan Project is immense. Photograph. Accessed January 31, 2020. https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-the-atomic-the-manhattan-project-1991237. The magnitude of the bomb of Project Manhattan was devastatingly immense. It was able to kill hundreds of thousands of innocent civilians in the blink of an eye, leaving nothing but ashes and shadows left. The image shows the magnitude of the nuclear bomb. This is important background information in seeing where Operation Ivy came from.

TIME. "THE ATOM: The Road Beyond Elugelab." April 12, 1957. Accessed August 25, 2019. ​ http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,823289-1,00.html. The Cold War was a huge motivator in the cultivation of nuclear warfare. The idea that the Russians were possibly cultivating their own bomb, or already possessed one, further drove the idea that they had to get a newer, and stronger nuclear weapon in the works and stowed in their back pocket. Dr. Thirring made discoveries leading to the creation of more and more powerful bombs, much greater than that of Hiroshima.

United States Nuclear Tests July 1945 through September 1992. U.S. Department of Energy, ​ 1994. Accessed September 2, 2019. https://media.nti.org/pdfs/DOE_2000_Nuclear_Tests.pdf. The majority of the nuclear tests occurred on the Marshallese Islands. The numbers are immense in comparison to tests on American soil. This boom occurred after Operation Ivy's test on Enewetak. This showed the abuse of the land that didn’t belong to the US, and their disregard for the people who lived there.

Secondary Sources

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"Appendix C Radioactivity in Guam After Nuclear-Weapons Testing in the Pacific." In Assessment of the Scientific Information for the Radiation Exposure Screening and Education Program, 360-61. 2003. Accessed September 2, 2019. ​ https://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309096103/xhtml/images/p2000d648g360001.jpg. Operation Ivy's radiation was monitored and it spread throughout the Northern Hemisphere, reaching even to Guam in relatively large quantities. This helped us to understand the widespread effects of radiation.

"Arms Race." HISTORY. Last modified October 14, 2009. Accessed September 18, 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/arms-race. The USSR and the US had to come to an agreement due to the nature of this arms race. There was a significant increase in the nuclear weapons produced. This created tensions with the Cold War, sparking the arms race that gave life to Operation Ivy. This was good background information.

Beck, Harold L., Andre Bouville, Brian E. Moroz, and Steven L. Simon. "Fallout Deposition in the Marshall Islands from Bikini and Enewetak Nuclear Weapons Tests." PMC. Last modified August 1, 2011. Accessed September 18, 2019. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2904645/. Operation Ivy had not had fallout monitoring. This report details the fallout and radiation for tests following (notably Castle). This helped to contrast against the later fallout monitoring that occurred with Operation Castle. It was good information to make comparisons and document the technological growth of the AEC.

Brubaker, Paul. The Cuban Missile Crisis in American History. Library ed. Berkeley Heights, ​ ​ NJ: Enslow, 2001. This book details the heat of the Cold War and how it eventually ended in the Cuban Missile Crisis. This book helped us to understand the long term effects of the Cold War and the tension that Operation Ivy helped to create.

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"Castle Bravo." Atomic Heritage Foundation. Last modified March 1, 2017. Accessed August 25, 2019. https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/castle-bravo. Castle Bravo was done without any proper safety precautions for the Bikinians and other Marshallese inhabitants. There were great risks to human life that were ignored as Castle Bravo was detonated following Operation Ivy.

"CASTLE BRAVO: FIFTY YEARS OF LEGEND AND LORE." January 2013. Accessed September 2, 2019.http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/gutwald2/ docs/SR-12-001-CASTLE-BRAVO.pdf. Operation Ivy paved the path of modern nuclear warfare. Ivy Mike helped to confirm the feasibility of thermonuclear weapons which prompted Castle Bravo. This was good background information to know how the intellectual barriers would be broken.

Clarfield, Gerard H., and William M. Wiecek. Nuclear America: Military and Civilian Nuclear ​ Power in the United States 1940-1980. Cambridge [Mass.]: Harper & Row, 1984. ​ This book details the history of nuclear weapons and how they impacted the public through the 1900's. In this book, particularly in chapter 5, we were informed further on the AEC (Atomic Energy Commission) and what helped to create it. Additionally, it goes over the political background of the Cold War and how that impacted the further development of nuclear weapons.

Cochran, Thomas B., and Robert S. Norris. "Nuclear Weapon." In Britannica. Last modified ​ ​ June 7, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Operation-Ivy. Richard L. Garwin turned a theoretical idea of the thermonuclear bomb into reality. Mike Shot was detonated on November 1, 1952. It had to be liquified before detonation. Operation Ivy was an initial experiment preceding the more deadly and bigger blasts of tests such as Operation Castle’s Bravo.

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Fabry, Merrill. "What the First H-Bomb Test Looked Like." TIME. Last modified November 2, 2015. Accessed August 25, 2019. https://time.com/4096424/ivy-mike-history/. Operation Ivy was a revolutionary test that introduced the H-Bomb. Ivy Mike nearly evaporated all of Elugelab atoll over which it was detonated. Nuclear fission (instead of fusion) was utilized in this test. This is a good piece of information to have in order to grasp the magnitude of Operation Ivy’s tests (environmentally).

Fallout Pattern. Photograph. https://www.atomicheritage.org/location/marshall-islands. ​ This image depicts the pattern in which the radiation would spread throughout the islands. The diagram demonstrates technological progress in which the United States decides to create a diagram to map the fallout patterns and measure radiation.

FIGURE C.1 Data from aerial surveys in Guam before and after detonation of nuclear test Mike in Marshall Islands during Operation Ivy. 2003. Photograph. Accessed September 2, ​ 2019. https://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309096103/xhtml/images/p2000d648g360001 .jpg. This graph shows the amount of radiation in the air in Guam before and after the bombing of Elugelab as part of Operation Ivy. It was reportedly dramatically increased on the second, the day after Mike Shot and King Shot were detonated, and then decreased. This shoes the immediate environmental impact of the detonations.

Garcia, Jose. "Operation Castle and its aftermath." Last modified March 22, 2012. Accessed August 25, 2019. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph241/garcia2/. It was Operation Ivy that sparked the rest of these devastating tests, including famously, Operation Castle which took place on Bikini Atoll. These created huge controversies over the justification of the utilizing the Marshallese people's islands for nuclear testing.

Gutwald, Matthew. "Marshall Islands Nuclear Testing and Health Effects." Stanford. Last modified March 23, 2017. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/gutwald2/.

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The effects of Operation Castle were detrimental to the health of the Marshallese people. There were severe errors made in the calculation of the magnitude of the thermonuclear bomb of Castle Bravo, as it was more powerful than previously anticipated which caused later problems directly affecting the Marshallese who were exposed to radiation on other atolls, relocated from their now, inhabitable, irradiated atoll.

"Hydrogen Bomb — 1950." Atomic Heritage Foundation. Last modified June 19, 2014. Accessed August 19, 2019. https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/hy drogen-bomb-1950. With rising tensions of the Cold War, more nuclear weapons were coming into play, and many argued the importance of it in the American defense system. Both tests of Operation Ivy demonstrated the power possible with thermonuclear technology.

Ivy Mike Mushroom Cloud. November 1, 1952. Photograph. Accessed August 25, 2019. ​ https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/IvyMikeF335c10.jpg. This is the resulting mushroom cloud of Operation Ivy's Mike Shot. This is the blast that was the resultant of the world's first hydrogen bomb, and instantly vaporized Elugelab Atoll.

Lamm, Joanne. "The Island is Missing!" U.S. Army. Last modified October 28, 2010. Accessed August 19, 2019. https://www.army.mil/article/47341/the_island_is_missing. Operation Ivy initiated following nuclear weapons tests within the Marshall Islands, including the controversial Operation Castle which occurred at Bikini Atoll. Mike and King proved to be devastating explosives and opened up the gateway to many more tests and improvement in nuclear warfare as tensions rose with the ongoing Cold War. As Operation Castle was an improvement upon Operation Ivy, the latter was an improvement upon Project Manhattan’s Fat Man and Little Boy: the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

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National Cancer Institute. "NCI Dose Estimation and Predicted Cancer Risk for Residents of the Marshall Islands Exposed to Radioactive Fallout from U.S. Nuclear Weapons Testing at Bikini and Enewetak." Marshall Islands Research Project and Findings. Accessed September 2, 2019. https://dceg.cancer.gov/research/how-we-study/exposure-assessment/nci-dose-estimation -predicted-cancer-risk-residents-marshall-islands. The Marshallese were radiated by the bombs, and many of them were given cancer as a result. Cancer of the skin and thyroid cancer. This was due to the high levels of radiation that they were exposed to, again supporting the idea of the human rights violations that had occurred on Bikini Atoll.

Nevada National Security Site. "Atmospheric Tests at the Nevada Test Site." Nevada National Security Site History. Accessed September 2, 2019. https://www.nnss.gov/docs/fact_sheets/DOENV_716.pdf. Operation Ivy was preceded by Greenhouse and Manhattan. However, it was the first to prove thermonuclear technology and the first for airborne bombs to be tested in the Marshall Islands. The additional testing made up for the lack of other information provided by the other thermonuclear tests. This was also done in order to gather information for military use, as the looming threat of nuclear annihilation was definitely possible during the Cold War.

Nick, Maggie. "Nuclear Arms Race During the Cold War." Last modified October 23, 2017. Accessed September 18, 2019. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/nick2/. The nuclear arms race cost the United States trillions of dollars. Tensions rose greatly due to the nuclear arms race. This had put pressure on both nations to continue making more, bigger, better weapons. This highly denoted that Operation Ivy and Operation Castle were politically provoked; not created out of technological curiosity.

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NuclearFiles.org. "Key Issues: Nuclear Weapons: Issues: Testing: Ivy Mike Nuclear Test." Project of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Accessed September 2, 2019. http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/testing/test-ivy-mik e.htm. As the Cold War raged on, and the nuclear weapons race continued, there was a great support by the government for better superweapons. Again, this is a reminder of the political pressure to continue participating in the arms race, creating more advanced thermonuclear bombs. Militarism was key.

Nuclear Weapons Archive. Last modified May 14, 1999. Accessed August 19, 2019. https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Ivy.html. The power of Operation Ivy's two bombs is shown within the pictures. Giant mushroom clouds are pictured, as well as the after effects of the bombs on Elugelab and Enewetak. This demonstrated the power of Ivy Mike, and the destructive power. This website gave very specific figures to properly illustrate the destruction caused by Operation Ivy.

"Operation Castle." Nuclear Weapon Archive. Last modified May 17, 2006. ​ ​ https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Castle.html. Operation Castle's Bravo was exponentially more powerful and safer to transport stably than Ivy Mike. Despite estimating its power to be greater than Mike, it was even greater than the projections, and the force was absolutely devastating. These oversights were caused by rushed designs built specifically for power while incorporating nuclear fission, also focusing on making the bombs more safely transportable. This shows the technological advancements, but also the lack of care given by the AEC for national interest.

Rowberry, Ariana. "Castle Bravo: The Largest U.S. Nuclear Explosion." Brookings. Last modified February 27, 2014. Accessed August 25, 2019.

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https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2014/02/27/castle-bravo-the-largest-u-s-nuclear -explosion/. ​ Castle Bravo was an innovation and huge revolution in thermonuclear technology and an improvement from Ivy Mike. This was good background information on Castle Bravo, to gain a basic understanding of the nature of the project.

Simmon, Robert, and Jesse Allen. "Revisiting Bikini Atoll." Earth Observatory. Last modified August 19, 2013. Accessed September 2, 2019. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/83237/revisiting-bikini-atoll. The atolls have been permanently ruined by the tests, leaving thousands of people without a home throughout the Cold War, till today. The outcome of the testing was so severe that this kind of testing that was conducted upon the Marshallese was banned.

The Sun. https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/hydrogen-bomb-1950. ​ The spark of atomic testing and warfare begins in Russia creating a dynamic race of atomic powers throughout the nations. This kind of subliminal propaganda, of the president stating that Russia is becoming an aggressor, creates a highly military-focused public. This shows the political nature of the Cold War and the race to arms.

"A Survivor's Warning on Nuclear Contamination." Pacific Ecologist. Last modified 2007. Accessed September 18, 2019. http://www.pacificecologist.org/archive/13/survivors-nuclear-warning.pdf. This source explains the long term effects of the nuclear testing. The Rongelapese children were being born largely deformed due to the nuclear fallout that occured due to improper evacuation during by the United States. Cancer was more common among those involuntarily exposed to Bravo's explosion. This shows the environmental impact of Operation Castle.

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Tanira Jorju of Rongelap holds her grandson, born to parents who were children at the time of the Bravo fallout in 1954. She blames Kimo's retardation on the bomb. Photograph. Accessed September 18, 2019. http://www.pacificecologist.org/archive/13/survivors-nuclear-warning.pdf. The boy on the right was born to parents who were exposed to the nuclear radiation. According to recent research, the nuclear fallout may have been the cause of this. This shows the social impact of Operation Castle, upon all the children and parents involuntarily exposed to the fallout.

U.S. Department of Energy. "Manhattan Project, Postscript— the Nuclear Age." The Manhattan Project an interactive history. Accessed September 3, 2019. https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1945-present/1945_posts cript.htm. The arms race aided in pushing for more nuclear warfare, and more advanced atomic bombs, and later, hydrogen bombs. There was further research done to make the United States more powerful as well as more technologically advanced. This is an example of Operation Ivy’s push for further technological development.

Warrick, Joby, and Julie Vitkovskaya. "North Korea's nuclear weapons: What you need to know." Washington post. Last modified March 9, 2018. Accessed September 18, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2018/03/06/5-things-to-know-ab out-north-koreas-nuclear-weapons/. It was the nuclear arms race between the Soviet Union and the United States that led current nuclear powers like North Korea to get their weapons. The threat of nuclear annihilation was debilitating, and is returning now. As the United States and North Korea have on and off agreements, there is an ever present possibility of nuclear war, and the arms race is to blame.

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Wellerstein, Alex. "The Ivy MIKE leak." The Nuclear Secrecy Blog. Last modified June 13, 2012. Accessed August 25, 2019. http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2012/06/13/weekly-document-ivy-mike-leak-1952/#identi fier_4_1651. The government kept the H-Bomb and the result of the testing secret from the public for a long time. The rising tensions from the Cold War caused the US to attempt to keep secrets from the world. There was both secrecy from the public and the other powers of the world. This social reservation directly impacted the people.

Wolverton, Mark. "Into the Mushroom Cloud." Air & Space Magazine, August 2009. Accessed ​ ​ September 2, 2019. https://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/into-the-mushroom-cloud-35152524/?c= y&page=3. Ivy Mike destroyed the whole of Elugelab. Dangerous data collection was done, in which pilots flew through the mushroom cloud. One of the pilots went missing in action, and was presumed dead. Despite the obvious dangers that came with radiation from the bomb, the AEC disregarded this and only further continued development of the magnitude of the bomb, and not the actual safety.

Zak, Dan. "A ground zero again." The Washington Post. Last modified November 27, 2015. Accessed August 25, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/national/2015/11/27/a-ground-zero-forgotten/?nored irect=on&utm_term=.b53d9d8386ec. There was manipulation done by the U.S. government to get the testing sites for their bombs relatively safe. The American economy was stimulated by the bombing as now, the nuclear craters are popular attractions. Yet, the Marshallese still suffer, having lost their homes, to both the bombs and the tourism. This a cruel taunt at the Marshallese who lost their homes. It was completely unfair to them.