Porters Progress of Nations

PORTE R ’ S PROGRESS OF NATIONS

CHIL E

POR T ER ’ S PR O G R ESS O F N ATION S

Q H I L EM AN ACC OUNT OF I TS W EALT H AN D P R OG R ES S

P R E$ A T JU L I O E C N Q _

H I E ‘ ME R R ’ AN I AG O C F EDI TO R E L CU I O S T ( . )

WITH AN I NT R ODU CTI ON BY R BERT P P R TER O . O

’ A UTH OR OF T E T L ‘ TH E I TI O OF AP N T H EN R EP B I FUL L R ECO GN N A E C. U CS J ,

W IT H TW O MAPS

LONDON G E R E R ED E D S LT D. O G O UT L G AN S ON ,

1 9 12 OX FO R D

P RI N TED B Y H O R ACE H ART AT TH E UNIVERS I T Y P RES S CON TE N TS

BY OBE T P . PO TE I NTRODUCTION . R R R R

THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR THE CHILEAN THE STRANGER W ITHIN THE I M PRESSIONS OF CHILE NATIONAL FINANCE THE FUTURE OF CHILE

CHILE : ITS WEALTH AND PROGRESS BY JULIO PERE$ CANTO

CHAP .

THE P O ESS OF HILE I . R GR C

Y I I I I I . PH S CAL CHARACTER ST CS

INER AL ESOU CES I I I . M R R

IV . CLIMATE

IVE S AND AKES V . R R L

V VI . POLITICAL DI ISIONS

I V Y VI I . D SCO ER AND CONQUEST

VIII . THE POP ULATION I X I I . COLON AL PER OD

THE X . REP U BLIC 6 CONTENTS

THE CITIE S COLONI$ ATION AND I MM IGRATION MEANS OF COMMUN I CATION NAV IGATION TRADE AND COMMERCE MINING AND METALLURGY MANUFACTURI NG I NDUSTRIES

I NDEX ‘ — To p o int ou t the p rog ress of the n ation n ot of this or tha t s t io n o its in ha bitan ts b ut the ro ress o the whole socia l s stem ec f , p g f y i n ll ts riou s de a rtments a n d a s a ectin a ll its v a riou s a i va p , ff g i nterests—is the ob ect ro osed while the mean s em lo ed or its j p p , p y f a ccom lishme nt will a s a r a s ossible be sou ht or in well p , f p , g f a uthentica ted acts a n d the conclu sion s which these su est will f , gg

’ b e supp orted by p rinciples the tru th of which ha s in gene ra l been ’ r mmon on sent ecogn ized by co c . From Th e P ro r ss f t he N atio n Geor e R ichardson ( g e o , by g P orter [ I 8 36

I NT R ODU CT I ON

I THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR

THE immigrant from Great Brit ain whose ﬁrst glimpses o f Chile Show him a warship named

’ O Higgins and a street called after Cochrane cannot but feel that the strangers among whom his lo t has been cast are prepared to accord him a genuine

H e welcome . sets out upon his new career with the consciousness that men from his o wn distant islands have met with success and that their services have been honourably commemorated by those for whom they worked . And if he is undecided in what part o f the New

World to make his home , he is inevitably drawn towards the people who are proud to style themselves

; the English of South America Among them , at 8 THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR

own any rate , he can acquire property and live his

o f life with little sense expatriation . And the same

applies to the citizen of the United States . It is with the obj ect o f supplying immigrants and investors with trustworthy information that Chile

its Wealth and P Mrogress has been written . The r . author being Julio Perez Canto , chief editor of El M ercurio o f Santiago , no further evidence is required o f his competence fo r the task he has

u i ndertaken , and a glance at his pages w ll testify

To the lucidity , thoroughness , and impartiality with w hich he has carried it out . The last -mentioned quality calls fo r recognition in setting down his estimate o fMthe situation and of o f r the prospects his country . Perez Canto has

o f issued a sober record facts . One sometimes hears the South American style referred to as extravagant and rhetorical here will be found nothing to support any such contention ; good ’ M W no r . ine needs bush , and Perez Canto is content

for the most part to let his subj ect speak for itself .

- Anglo Saxon readers , for whom this book is intended ,

will not ﬁnd themselves , as might otherwise have

o f been the case , repelled by an attitude mind into

on r which they cannot enter the contra y , they will feel attracted to a country where their own methods

o f expression are understood and ap p reciated . THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR 9

’ Mr . Perez Canto s work was written in Spanish , and the exact and conscientious translation is the work o f h as Mr . Edward Gill , whose rendering preserved the Spirit o f that language ; at times we seem t o recognize the sonorous quality of the original tongue .

’ o f In Mr . Perez Canto s account Chile there will

descri be found , in the smallest possible compass , a p tion o f the physical characteristics of the country and of the industries which have been developed there . He has given those details which are indis

for pensable the business man , but he has devoted little space to the political history o f Chile and t o her relations with the neighbouring republics . The explanation lies in this : the different nations among whom South America is now distributed have so much of their past in common that the

o f The editor the South American Series , of which

Wealth and P ro ress o Chile g f forms a part , decided to save repetition by recounting the general history

o f the continent in a prefatory volume . This

The Ten R e ublics W introduction , entitled p , deals ith Latin America from the standpoint adopted by the

o f writers the separate histories ; and it contains ,

moreover , comparative data which should assist the investor to estimate the progress made by the

different nations . Comparisons have been avoided

by Mr . Perez Canto as a Chilean he has j udged it TO THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR expedient to let others point the lessons of his

’ country s history , although no man is more sensible

o f for wh o their importance . Indeed , a person con

templates emigrating to a foreign land , or engaging f in trade there , it is not su ﬁcient to know that its

mountains are rich in copper , that its soil yields wheat

in abundance , and that steamers compete for its coal .

so It is well that this should be , but the demand for

’ copper may cease , large areas nearer the consumer s

oil markets may be thrown open to wheat , fuel may

and t hen o f be substituted for coal , the prosperity a country whose staple industries are thus threatened will depend o n the energy and adaptability o f its

T o f people . o appraise its possession these qualities it is necessary to know how it has faced the trials of

the past , and how it bears comparison with nations

which have been confronted with similar problems . It is no more possible t o understand the aspirations o f Chile without some familiarity with the history o f South America than to ignore the inﬂuence of England in writing about the United States modern

Chile is the child o f Spanish Chile . In his suggestive chapter o n the Progress of Chile

Mr . Perez Canto has referred to the importanc e of the subj ects which the plan o f this volume has

t o o f compelled him pass over . Some these have

i The Ten R e u blics been dealt w th in p , and it is the ' THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR I I aim o f the next few pages to bridge over the gaps between that general account o f South America and the description o f modern industrial Chile to which

Mr . Perez Canto has been obliged to devote most o f his space . The geographical features o f Chile are fully

for described in the ﬁrst chapter , which calls no addition . Those , however , who are repelled by the scientiﬁc terms , without which no accurate record can be conveyed , may be interested to hear that in

o f shape Chile is a long narrow trough , which the so uthern extremity might be found near New York if the northern could be placed in Queenstown .

It would , however , be unwise to roll luggage down it

A on from Ireland to merica , for the ridge the coast

t o Side of the trough is too irregular afford protection .

’ Seen in a bird s - eye View by o ne of her o wn condors Chile must appear like the shorter end o f a Neapolitan

— O o f dif ice three blong patches , each a ferent colour

of to the north the dull yellow the desert , to the

o f ~ south the green the forests , with a variegated patch in the agricultural district of the centre . The length o f the country between its northern and southern extremities , when taken in connexion with the great height maintained by the backbone o f o f mountains , accounts for the varieties tempera ture dealt with in a later chapter . This physical 1 2 THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR formation will at once prepare the reader to ﬁnd that Chilean products are many and various ; nor will he be surprised to learn that the vast geological disturbances which piled up the Andes in times past

fum ish ed have the country with numerous deposits , O the value f which can only be guessed at . Mr . Perez Canto thoroughly recogn izes the importance o f this

o f aspect his subj ect , and has supplied geological information which Should be o f much value to the chemist and the mining engineer . In this connexion it may be emphasized that in spite o f the diversity o f climate Chile is nowhere dependent upon negro labour the supply of white immigrants has indeed

been small , but those who have traversed the dreary

o f sea so miles , which have been potent a factor in

di o f retar ng the development the country , have thriven and multiplied in their new home .

sa o f Mr . Perez Canto has much to y interest about the rivers ; o f these it is the character rather than the magn itude which calls for notice . The request to name a Chilean river might be too much for

’ Macaulay s schoolboy and the reason is not far to

t he i seek . Since Chile runs down to Pac ﬁc in a short steep slope , the rivers have little room between their

sa mountain source and the sea to develop , so to y,

’ to man s estate . Hardly have they recovered from their headlong plunge from the heights before the THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR 13

m o f ocean clai s them . Here none those stately waterways are to be looked for which are a feature o f

the eastern plains . One conceives the snow cornices o f the watershed moralizing on the inequalities Of destiny when falling westward under the inexorable power o f gravitation $ Of the streams condemned t o cross the desert many perish in the sands ; in the

sea agricultural districts the rivers reach the , but

o f it will be noticed that Mr . Perez Canto speaks shoals and bars here the ocean- going steamer will

no R io l . ﬁnd de la Plata to bear her in and .But the rivers o f the centre in a humble way have done their country much service and will yet do more . Water for irrigation has been drawn from them in unfailing

o f quantities , and they have furnished means A d transport when no other existed . n a time will come when they will be called upon for the m ech ani cal power which they can undoubtedly supply . In a country which does not produce enough coal for its needs the consequences o f such developments can

dl . har y be overestimated Nevertheless , some will be found to regret that the tinkling streams which differentiate Cent ral Chile so pleasantly from the stern country around it should be harnessed to the factory and the railroad

That its characteristics may be appreciated , Chile should be approached from that part of 1 4 THE AIMS OE THE AUTHOR

as b e Argentina known the Go rnacion del Neuquen .

Arid , with little vegetation and no game , the country grows colder and bleaker , until the icy ridges of the Andes have been surmounted ; but once the snow line has been left behind the character o f the land s cape changes . The green trees , the ﬂowers , and the waterfalls invite the traveller to dismount , and the gay scenery below suggests t o him a pleasant m ental picture Of the land he has entered upon— its bracing mountains , its fertile valleys and its three ’ 1 thousand miles o f territorial seas .

In the south the wet west sea -winds on striking the cold Andes deposit an enormous amount o f moisture ; the rivers , in consequence , are full and

o f rapid , and they thus acquire such powers erosion that in places they have cut their way through the mountains . This characteristic is o f more than

for geographical interest , it was responsible for the famous watershed controversy between Argentina i a nd Ch le . A treaty was made in 1 88 1 between the two r epublics to settle long standing boundary difﬁculties in the country now under discussion . It was agreed to take as the frontier the line o f the h ighest peaks o f the Andes and the line o f the watershed ; and

w as it assumed that these lines coincided . North o f Patagonia no difﬁculty arose

1 The Ten R e u blics b R o P P r p , y b e rt . ort e

1 6 THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR both were ready to shed their blood to defend it ; in agreeing to accept a scientifically defined boundary both thought themselves to be making sacrifices .

When , then , each found the other declining to accept

o f the evidence the rivers , the limit of its forbearance w as reached by either party . Ultimately the dispute was referred for arbitrati on to King Edward , but not before Argentina and Chile had Spent vast sums in purchasing warships and in

r creating , organizing and maintaining large a mies . It is sometimes argued that all this money was

d i o ut waste , but , as Sir Thomas Hold ch points , it purchased more than money can buy . Patriotism was aroused ; a feeling of solidarity was engendered ; and the young men o f both countries were trained in the ﬁghting serv ices to the value o f system and — discipline qualities seldom conspicuous in a new country . And the long and careful explorations which the work o f demarcation necessitated will more than repay their cost when the time comes to build roads and railways through a country o f which

’ much was unknown when King Edward s boundary commissioners entered upon their task . We may surmise that to them is due much o f the information so ably summarized by Mr . Perez Canto . But if there was a good Side to a peril which

it s made each country put house in order , war would 1 THE AIMS OF. THE AUTHOR 7

Th e have been an unm itigated disaster for both .

Financiah territory in dispute Was o f little value .

. chaos would have followed , and the rival nations would have been deposed for a generation from the

leading positions they now hold in South America .

Neither could have counted on victory .

o f e Moreover , the acceptance arbitration did mor than save Chile and Argentina from material losses it rais ed both in the eyes o f the world to a position

- unattainable through conquest . By the self control they exhibited they proved themselves to have

n emerged from their mi ority , and it may well be that their e xa mple will deter the older nations from

so hurried appeals to arms . If , in their ﬁerce rush to the sea the Patagonian rivers will have done the

world some service .

’ es Mr . Perez Canto s d cription of physical features

i a is followed by a short histor c l Sketch , in connexion with which the reader may be recommended to read

o f The Ten R e u blics the ﬁrst chapter p . It may be mentioned here that the political conn exion between Chile and Perri preceded the

Spanish conquest . In the middle of the ﬁfteenth

century the Incas crossed the Atacama desert , penetrated to the river Maule and asserted their authority over a considerable portion o f what is

of AS now the republic Chile . soon as the Spaniards 1 8 THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR

had seized Peru , Almagro made a famous prospecting expedition t o the southward ; he also reached the

Maule , whence he returned empty handed . It is worthy o f note that the hardships he had endured in his outward march over the mountains induced him to return through the Atacama desert . The wealth he sought was within his grasp , had he but known it The captain would not easily b e found at this day who would venture to lead his army across this dreary region says Prescott a remark worth quoting as indicating the Spirit of the Spaniards from whom the South Americans are descended . In discussing the later development o f the country

by the Spaniards , Mr . Perez Canto several times

‘ ’ o f speaks encomiendas , a term which calls for some explanation , for the system to which it was applied was evolved from a compromise between morality and expediency such as all colonizing nations resort to . From o ne Of his expeditions Columbus returned with a cargo o f Indians whom he proposed to sell as Slaves ; Queen Isabella intervened and ordered that they Should be set at liberty and sent home ; thus w as inaugurated in Spain a campaign for the

o f liberation o f the Indians . The existence these humanitarian proj ects deserves mention if they are disregarded , less than j ustice is done to the Spanish THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR 1 9

colonial system , little that was good can be found in it , and that little often escapes readers dazzled by the appal ling cruelties of the conquistadores Nor is it the tendency o f the modern republican historian to

v o n la ish praise Old Spa in . Spain bestowed serious consideration upon the Indian problem . The declaration that the Indians were to enj oy the privileges o f free subj ects provoked opposition n o t only from the colonists but also from the colonial f o ﬁcials and even from the clergy . Without a certain

o f amount compulsion , however, the native could not be induced either to perform a sufﬁcient amount o f o f work to meet the requirements the colonies , o r to remain o n apermanently friendly footing with the settler yet this was indispensable if the civilizing inﬂuences and more especially the conversion o f the

natives to Christianity , which had , from the com m en cement o f o f SO the history discoveries , been

o n strongly emphasized , were to be carried with

Fo r success . this reason both the temporal and Spiritual authorities were unanimous in declaring

’ that the grant o f unlimited freedom to the natives would mean the ruin o f the colonies from both a Spiritual and an economic point o f view . The R epartimientos and E ncomiendas were the ﬁnal result o f the negotiations which were carried o n with

o f regard to these matters . The personal liberty the

B 2 20 THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR

natives was therein specially recognized , but , in order to promote their education by European methods ofcivilization and to secure their conversion to the Christian doctrine , they were assigned to the charge o f individual colonists and placed under their protection encomiendar For the Indians a state o f bondage resulted the well- meant efforts o f Spain did no t sufﬁce to protect them from cruel treatment , and their lot has been

sad one a . On the other hand there is this to be said for the system o f Latin America ; in dealing i with races like the Ind an , other colonizing nations have not bettered the Jesuit system o f despotic

e SO benevolence , nor have they amalgamat d success fully with the aborigines . In Chile , as elsewhere in

South America , a new and strong typ e has been built up . Here , at any rate , racial quarrels are not among the domestic problems to be solved . Of the hard conditions o f life in Chile and their effect on the national character something will be fﬁ said in the next chapter . Great di culties were w encountered by the ﬁrst settlers o ing to the lack , or o f rather the inaccessibility, precious metals and

of i to the ﬁerce resistance the Ind ans ; moreover , there was little money forthcoming to meet the drain

Nor i o f t he constant warfare . was the Ind an the

’ The W orld s Histor . Dr . H . F . H elmolt , y THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR 21

only enemy . Although England and Chile were

o n o f destined to be terms peculiar intimacy , this was hardly to have been anticipated from their early

one — intercourse . To take instance the appearance o f Francis Drake off the Chilean coast . He raided

SO Valparaiso , but the loss that he caused was not much material as moral and indirect . To a country whose land communications were so bad that an a rmy could not be maintained in the ﬁeld unless

u sea o f s pplies could be sent by , a blockade the coast made it almost impossible to cope with the Indians . These descents of Drake and his fellow privateers

o f men from England were , course , directed less —if against Chile than against Philip II , who the truth could have been realized—was the common

o f enemy both countries . Philip governed his

not o wn South American possessions in their interest , but for the enrichment of Spain and for the p rosec u

o f ow n tion his schemes . Of these the one nearest his superstitious heart was the destruction o f

TO O protestant England . btain money for this pious Obj ect the bold Spanish colonists were taxed o u t o f of the fruits their enterprise , and the Indians were driven in the mines until they died . It was the aim of Drake to intercept the stream o f gold with which Philip equipped his armadas and SO to f cripple his designs . Chile , however , a forded Philip 22 THE AIMS OF THE AUTHOR

for little assistance , the country was poor in the precious metals , and it was upon these that the

Spaniards concentrated their attention . None the less Chile — like the Sister provinces —was stunted in growth by the regulations issued from

Madrid . The British marauders might sail round the Horn if they pleased , but the Chilean trader was

AS limited by law to the expensive Panama route .

o f an instance Spanish bureaucratic methods , it may be mentioned that the same restriction w as enforced upon the colonists o n the Plate many years elapsed before they were allowed to u se their o w n great waterway in communicating with Europe $ By confining the trade to o ne route the Spaniards counted upon controlling it more easily ; and they were satisfied to make large profits on a small amount of merchandize . The consequences to colonial development may be imagined . Even the home

f for government must have su fered , the people could

p roduce little and , though taxes were high , their

AS yield was small . a Speculation the conquest of Chile did no t pay Spain ; it is true that the Chileans grew corn for Peru but the cost o f the Araucanian

x wars e ceeded any proﬁt thus arising . Mr . Perez Canto had not sufﬁcient Space at his disposal t o do j ustice t o the administrative improvements which ensued when the throne o fSpain came to be occupied

II THE CHILEAN

OF the early inhabitants of what is now Chile little

o f that is trustworthy is known . The discovery kitchen middens proves that in times past the southern districts supported man , but whoever he

so was , he has left few records that for practical purposes history begins in the ﬁfteenth century of

u r o era . It was then that the Incas of Peru pushed their way southwards and established some sort o f suzerainty over the Chilean tribes their authority is supposed to have extended to about the latitude o f Santiago . AS agriculturists they would have thought the vale o f Chile more attractive than did

Almagro , who followed in their traces . Both Inca and Spaniard found their progress barred by the — Araucanians the ﬁerce tribes who dwelt south o f the Bio - Bio river and maintained their independence within living memory . It is the Araucanian strain which primarily differentiates the Chileans from other

South American peoples . The bracing climate , the

o f m struggle for existence , the absence any ad ixture — o f negro blood all these have had their effect but THE CHILEAN 25 o ne is probably j ustiﬁed in aserib ing the toughness and persistence which peculiarly characterize the men of the south - west to the dogged race which withstood the invaders for so long . In one respect the Araucanian was a savage he took little trouble to amass wealth and , as might be inferred , he Showed himself deﬁcient in the wealth

: O producing qualities industry , bedience , applica tion and Soforth . But he was not SO much a dullard as a philosopher ; he was content with what sufﬁced

o f i o f for his wants , and the grim story the kill ng Valdivia (whose mouth was ﬁlled with molten gold ) indicates in his captors at any rate a contempt for the coveted metal . Cruel he was but not more so than the Christians who sought to dispossess him Of his ancestral forests . The Araucanians were a nomad pastoral people they understood the value of organization at any rate for military purposes they could compute times and seasons and their religious beliefs were of a relatively high order . Their best known quality was their courage , but what stamps them as a superior race was their adaptability . They learned tactics from the Spaniards and soon proﬁted by the knowledge that the old- fashioned

- re . musket took time to load Beaten , they retreated where no Spaniard could follow, to reappear some dark night in some incautious settlement . 26 THE CHILEAN

Twice they burned Concepcion . But the details o f their resistance to the power o f Spain must no t occupy us here . Its importance lies in the success

1 6 0 that attended it . By the treaty of Quillin in 4 the Spaniards left them the land t o the so uth o f the

- no t 1 8 Bio Bio river . It was until 70 that they

To - recognized the authority of Chile . day they are

n amalgamated with their ancient foes in o e Virile race . They brought more with them to the union than their indomitable courage . By preventing the Spaniards from taking peaceful possession o f their country they inﬂuenced the character o f the future — Chilean nation and inﬂuenced it for its good .

The continual warfare , it is true , kept the population at a low level it was an obstacle to the mating o f

the Spaniard and the Indian ; it checked immigration , a n d it absorbed energies that might otherwise have been devoted to the development o f the country ;

o n but the other hand , it forged a hard , patriotic ,

- self reliant people , and its demands had to be met by

o f a steady inﬂux soldiers from Spain , a circumstance to which the Chilean owes his high percentage o f white blood . It will be noticed that Mr . Perez Canto says The mass o f the population o f Chile is o f pure

e o f European desc nt with traces the aborigines , forming an homogeneous people with characteristics o f the su perior race THE CHILEAN 27

In the greater part o f South America during the colonial period the people were to be divided into

: ﬁve classes Spaniards born in Spain , Spaniards born in the colonies , Indians , half castes , and negroes .

In Chile , as will have been gathered , there were certain differences to be noted : the last class was absent ; the fourth was less numerous than else

o f where ; the proportion soldiers was higher , and

o f the Indians , instead being cowed and submissive bondsmen , were warriors whose blood was little likely

to emasculate any race . Under these circumstances it is no t surprising that the part taken by Chile in expelling the Spaniards was out o f all proportion t o her population ; it was largely with Chilean forces that San Martin and Cochrane conquered Peru and

thus made South America independent . When the destructive work o f expelling the Spaniards had been completed the Chilean ceased to be a minor he was now called upon to Show his

constructive capacity . It was no longer possible to attribute ill -success to the mismanagement o f alien ofﬁcials ; Chile was now to become just what the f Chilean could make o her . Fo r some years the attempt at self -government met with precisely that measure o f success which — might have been expected that is to say it met with

no success at all . There is this advantage in living 28 THE CHILEAN — under a despot ; if individuals evade the burdens

SO laid upon them , much the better for them it is

’ the despot s business to keep the machinery o f state running ; it roads and bridges are allowed to fall into decay , and if brigands ﬂourish , there is little

so wealth left for the despot to tax and the despot ,

o f . in his own interest , preserves some sort order But if for despotism there is suddenly substituted government by the people fo r the people it may well happen , Since all taxation is unpopular , that there will be no central authority strong enough to exact the working expenses without which no com munity can be held together until these new governors become educated , such taxes as are allowed to reach the treasury must be expended o n popular obj ects and in the absence o f some compelling force the public services languish . At the time o f writing ( 1 91 1 ) the English papers are ﬁlled with complaints that the social programme o f the radical party precludes a proper outlay o n the

navy Should the alarmists be right , the masses will suffer more from invasion than they have escaped in taxation . If these fears can be expressed , not without

w old some Show of reason , in a country gro n under i Slowly acquired representative institut ons , what was to be expected from a young community which had suddenly Shaken itself free from the swaddling bands THE CHILEAN 29 in which it had been tightly conﬁned ? Composed o f heterogeneous and imperfectly amalgamated races ,

- conﬁdent self and inexperienced , the wonder is not

o f that , in its ﬁrst years independence , it Should have

o f revealed little sense corporate responsibility , but that in the Short Space o f' a century it should have secured the recognition so freely accorded by the

Older nations at the recent centenary celebrations . The Spanish ofﬁcials who had monopolized the chief posts under the colonial system were often idle and corrupt , but they had brought with them from Spain some knowledge of the routine of government with their departure disappeared all adm inistrative

fo r experience their successors , the most part , were

or either adventurers publicists ; from the former. nothing good was to be looked for, and the latter

To were dangerous in proportion to their energy . a country governed as Chile had been the peculations o f a few professional politicians more o r less were negligible evils the people wanted rest while their undeveloped powers were gently stimulated ; they — were incapable o f deciding as they were called upon — to decide between the merits of different constit u

- tions . It would have been an ill constructed con stit ut ion indeed which could have caused more evil than did the civil disturbances which accompanied

the amendments . But the Chilean had learned from 30 THE CHILEAN

Araucanian wars the value o f peace the rhetoric o f

R in the French evolution , which is still in demand

o f him some parts South America , did not intoxicate for long . He decided to sacriﬁce the ideal for the practical what he wanted was a strong government this he had failed to Obtain from the Liberals whom R the evolution had left in power , and he now turned to the Conservatives . The latter promulgated the

o f 1 8 constitution 33 that , with certain modiﬁcations , — is still in force t o - day from which circumstance it may be inferred that the Chilean knows his own

mind . Much power was allowed to the executive , but the Chilean secured for a long period the stable and intelligent government o f which he stood in need . During the next half century Chile made steady — progress progress the magnitude of which can only be appreciated by comparing her with the Sister republics but starting as She did SO far behind the

o f great powers in the race nations , Chile had much ground to make up before approaching the leaders . A large proportion Of her territory remained u np ro du c t iv e ; from the standpoint o f Europe or the United States the means o f communication were

f - insu ﬁcient and ill organized , to improve them would

in cost money , and money was hard to come by

in a sparsely populated country . This deﬁciency

3 2 THE CHILEAN

in rs bairn the nu ery rhyme , She has had to work hard for her living . The rich nitrate deposits of which the desert was composed lay for the most part beyond — her frontiers in the Bolivian province o f Anto fa ast a o f g , and in Tarapaca the southernmost part

Peru . The energetic Chileans poured across the

nk borders , sa their capital in the new enterprise ,

t o do Wh and proceeded a lucrative trade . en the owners of the soil awoke to what was going on they acted as the late President Kruger acted towards the mining interests o f the Transvaal . To develop the

for new industry called foresight , vigour , and courage to bleed it white by taxation meant nothing more than the creation o f a few new posts in the custom

e — O ’ hous the very posts for nephews f politicians . The easy course was adopted unreasonable imposts

n were demanded , and then the Chilea s disclosed — another o f their national characteristics the ability t o di o f 1 86 learn by experience . In their spute 5 with

e of Spain , the bombardm nt Valparaiso had taught them tha t a nation with a long coast - line and no

f set warships cannot a ford to quarrel . They to — work , therefore , Scanty though their resources were — to build up a ﬂeet . With a grasp of the inter national Situation of which Bismarck would have r approved, the Chilean statesmen ecognized the crucial importance o fthe nitrate district and prepared THE CHILEAN 33

' t un saw o ﬁght for their place in the s . They clearly that war was inevitable . Bolivia proceeded with her policy of taxation it led t o the seizure o f the property o f a Chilean nitrate company doing business in her territory . Chile sent troops to defend her national interests ; and thus a war broke o ut which merits some description because its result seems likely t o have an incalculable

o n o f inﬂuence the development three young nations . Future historians may regard it as we regard the wars epitomized by Marathon and the Metaurus . But before entering into details it is desirable to sa y a few words about the object of contention ,

is n which was Simply manure . This o place to

o f moralize upon the foundations national greatness , but the product mentioned is of such local importance that it calls for mention . It has been to the west coast what coal has been to England . These barren Shores have long furnished means for the raising o f crops elsewhere their contribution recalls the story o f the poor widow casting in her mite . Long before the nitrate ﬁelds were recognized as

o f valuable , the guano deposits the Chincha Islands

fo r o f had been used purposes fertilization . Guano is the excrement in a certain state of decomposition of sea birds . How far this bald statement is from exhausting the interest o f the subj ect will be gathered from the C 3 4 THE CHILEAN

’ Mz ns s o a following excerpt from Mr . H . J . admirable work Along the Andes a nd Down the Amazon

The Chincha Islands are small barren rocks , but it may well be doubted whether any equal area o f ’ the earth s surface has yielded a greater amount o f treasure . They , from time immemorial , have been

SO - u — the home of the called g ano birds pelicans , sea- — gulls , marine crows and cormorants which have made those immense deposits , almost two hundred fo r feet deep in places , that , more than half a century , have supplied the world with its richest and most z pri ed fertilizer .

But this is only o ne o f several groups o f gu ano islands found all along this wonderful rainless coast from Los Lob os to Tarapaca . New deposits are continually being made by the millions o f birds that TO frequent these islands . enable the reader to form some idea o f the countless myriads o f birds that congregate on these rocky islets fo r purposes o f o r f e roosting at night rearing their young , it su fic s to s tate that no less than five thousand tons o f guano are deposited ann ually o n a Single one o f the Chincha Islands and that o n an area not exceeding fifteen in acres extent . Although guano was extensively used as a

i it - w as rac t i fertilizer during the t me of the Incas , p cally lost Sight of after the conquest until the time I llS o f o . Humb ldt true value , however , was not “, i - recogn zed until some decades later , when Justus von Of fi Liebig , the father agricultural chemistry , de nitely rm z dete ined its importance as a fertili er, and , at THE CHILEAN 35

the same time , demonstrated that it was one of the o f o f greatest assets the republic Peru . Had the Peruvian government adopted wiser methods in exploiting these valuable deposits , and enacted w suitable la s for their conservation , and then employed the immense wealth accruing from the sale o f guano in developing and building up a mer

- chant marine and navy , She would to day be , in proportion to her population , second to none of the f republics o South America . It is only recently that She has enacted laws looking towards the preservation o f her guano deposits . In doing this She has done little more than revive the Old Inca regulations which enforced rotation in digging and protected the birds in closed seasons . “ ” o f Kin S I nc aS w rit eS In the times the g , Garcilaso de la Vega , such care was taken to preserve these o ne o n birds , that it was unlawful for any to land the islands during the breeding season under pain o f no t o r death , that the birds might be disturbed N o r driven from their nests . was it lawful to kill on or the birds at any time either the island elsewhere , f ” under pain o death . This is o ne instance in which the Peruvians o f ' to - day c an learn from their Inca predecessors o f four ’ centuries ago .

The suggestiveness o f this extract must be the apology for its length . It will be noticed how a study o f this prosaic commercial product , guano , throws li n a ght o historical and arch eological problems .

see o f t he Here , once more , we the gifts gods Slipping

c z 36 THE CHILEAN through the ﬁngers o f the langu id Peruvian ; and the knowledge colours o ur feelings when he complains that he has been robbed o f his nitrate . His case is

o ne a hard , but it was no bad thing for the world at large that the nitrates Should have been transferred t o more appreciative possessors . In this matter the attitude o fthe modern Peruvians suffers by comparison with that o f the Incas whom

not they deposed . The latter were contented with land which energy and enterprise could improve as h as been seen they both used and conserved the guano o f the islands from which it is to be inferred that the men o f the mountains established relations with the maritime races o f the coast who would alone have

o f been capable procuring it . But we are straying

ou r b from su j ect . It is a curious coincidence that nitrate beds Should

so o f u have been discovered close to those g ano , for both are valuable fertilizers . The explanation lies in the peculiar climatic conditions which have enabled both products to develop the properties which agriculturists look fo r in manure . In the north o f Chile the mountains are separated from the sea by a desert in the form o f a plateau : except for an occasional oasis where some small river supplies moisture the district is dry and barren but rich in saline and mineral deposits . How these came THE CHILEAN 37

to be formed is a matter of conj ecture . We learn from geology that the district in which they lie has slowly emerged from the sea in comparatively recent times . As it rose , it is suggested , the marine plants

rose with it and then , from lack of moisture , Slowly decayed into the fertilizing medium we are discussing . The extreme dryness o f the climate calls for some

for explanation , it is owing to this peculiarity that the decomp osing vegetable matter has been preserved in a valuable form . The prevailing winds in this region are from the east ; they sweep from the Atlantic over the eastern plains o f South America and are deprived o f their humidity in crossing the cold summits o f the Andes to them the narrow strip o f o n no t coast the west must look for rain . And no help comes from the sea the rainless coast is washed by a cold current from the Antarctic which leaves

the sea winds with no moisture for the warmer Shore .

‘ Out o f these dep ressing c o n dit io ns has been built up a great industry of which some description will be o f fered later . This digression has been necessary to bring out

o f the importance the nitrate beds , to explain the — — ardour o ne might almost say the ferocity which marked the struggle for them ; and especially to emphasiz e the capacity Of t h e Chilean to make a

f fo r AS great e fort a great obj ect . an agriculturist 3 8 THE CHILEAN o f the west coast he well knew what the Chincha

Islands would have been worth to him , and the knowledge coloured his feelings towards those who would exclude him from participating in the nitrate industry . Documents now in course of publication support the Chilean contention o f having been provoked and compelled to ﬁght ; they Show that ,

not far from seeking war , they were prepared for the struggle , and were obliged to take up arms to defend the rights o f their countrymen . The Chileans thus entered Bolivian territory in 1 879 to protect the interests of their countrymen in Antofagasta the Bolivians could make little resis

o f tance , and the brunt the conﬂict had to be borne by Peru , which was united to Bolivia by a secret treaty . By the time Peru had declared war Chile was in possession o f the ports of Bolivia and had thus

o f — secured a base operations indeed , all through the conﬂict Chile advanced from o ne position to another with a decision o f purpose which showed that her plan Of campaign had been carefully conceived .

The Chileans blockaded Iquique , and Shortly afterwards took place two sea-ﬁgh t s which probably

o ne f decided the issue . The Peruvians lost o their

two formidable Ships by running her aground , and

H uascar the other , the , was captured by superior

40 THE CHILEAN the defenders ; organized opposition was no longer

on possible the seaboard , but the stubborn Peruvians retired to the mountains and there maintained

for a determined resistance . It was impossible the small forces at the disposal o f the Chileans to dislodge

them , and a deadlock resulted . The Chileans had no desire to maintain an army o f occupation ; it cost money , and they could not Shift the entire burden to their adversary , for they had already seized what

o f She had value ; moreover , they were anxious to devote themselves to the development o f their new acquisition . R ealizing that Peru could not but desire to see their backs , the Chileans extricated themselves from f their di ﬁculty with considerable Shrewdness . Peru , as was to be expected , was torn by political dissen Sions to o n e of the contending parties the Chileans accorded their support and with its leader they negotiated terms o fpeace which will be again referred to later . These terms included th e cession to Chile

t h e of nitrate district . With the close o f this war commences the latest s o f tage Chilean development . Previously Chile had distinguished herself from her neighbours by the greater solidity of her institutions ; henceforward Sh e could also point to direct ﬁnancial security when

Sh e appealed to the foreign capitalist . The nitrate THE CHILEAN 41

industry was harnessed , as it were , to the chariot of government , and was compelled to do a third of the work . The export duty which was placed upon its product enabled the Chilean treasury to dispense with or to diminish certai n import duties and thus

’ to stimulate trade . It is Mr . Perez Canto s province to Show the commercial effect o f these changes

f ou t here it must su ﬁce to point that , as trade has improved , greater facilities for communication have been demanded . The extensions completed and pro j ect ed in the railway system indicate that the Chilean

o f Government is in touch with the needs the people , and that it is as well prepared t o lead them to the triumphs of peace as to those o f war . The new rail ways will do more than open up undeveloped and fertile districts in Chile by enmeshing more o f the population in the web o f commerce they will emph a

’ size the Chilean s belief in the value o f order ; more over , they will give his combative instincts full play in the competitions o f the manufacturer and the

- agriculturist . The water Shed controversy already referred to affords evidence that the necessary lessons have been learned ; that adaptability o f which the Araucanian gave SO many proofs in the ﬁeld o f battle is still a national quality . The conspicuous success which is analysed in — The Wealth and P rogress of Chile is the result the 4 2 THE CHILEAN — inevitable result o i the characteristics of the Chilean people ; and for that reason no set -back is to be apprehended . The Chilean has been content to hurry Slowly ; having tasted o f anarchy he acquiesced — in the Constitution o f i.i the s urrender o f administrative power to those best qualiﬁed to u se it the suffrage is still such as to leave the gu idance o f the nation to the classes which have most to lose

s - by ra h and ill considered actions , but the tendency has been towards the liberalizing o f political institutions ; as the people become educated , they f will automatically obtain their Share o power .

At present the governing class is the aristocracy , but the Chilean takes so keen an interest in public affairs that any abuse of authority would be fraught with extreme danger it is only fair to add that his political leaders as a class are t o o patriotic to incur risks o f the kind implied . They are fortunate in the people it is their duty to guide ; the backbone o f the nation is the

r agricultu ist , indeed , until recent times the small population o f Chile was practically concentrated in the longitudinal valley o f which so much h as already been said . m A rich soil , a war yet temperate climate and an inexhaustible supply o f water from the mountains have combined to make the cent ral district o f THE CHILEAN 43

i Chile remarkably fertile . The condit ons are such

for that , while hard work is called , it is amply rewarded by kindly nature . As a consequence the patient Chilean peasant has developed into an agriculturist to whom no class o f farm - work comes amiss : he is equally skilful in raising crops or in l hand ing stock , and he and his fellows will survive to make the Chilean race formidable , even if certain dismal forebodings Should be realized and the mining classes Should disappear with the exhaustion of the mines . It was inevitable that the men o f the centre Should devote themselves to agriculture and to stock raising ; it was also inevitable that Chile should breed sailors . Magellan was not the ﬁrst to cleave the Southern Paciﬁc . Long before his famous voyage its waters had borne the frail Skiffs o f the

f o f natives o the coast . Some the aborigines of the south were so markedly maritime in their habits as to be called canoe Indians Indeed they had to ﬁsh to live not only were they penned between the mountains and the sea like all the inhabitants o f Chile but the narrow strip o f land that intervened

- was , in their case , covered with forest clothed bogs and marshes ; animals could no t subsist in them — — no r if they had done SO c ould hunters have found

o f foothold . The men Chiloe and the neighbouring 4 4 THE CHILEAN

coast are sailors by inheritance , a fact which explains f the victories o Cochrane . Sir Edward Grey may have b een thinking o f the peasants and ﬁshermen o f Chile when , in congratulating her on her peaceful

one it policy , he added that no would attribute to weakness . III

THE STRANGER WITHI N THE GATES

I N the last chapter an attempt was made to Show that the progress o f Chile had been due to the characteristics o f the Chilean some reference must no w be made to the assistance which he derived f from helpers o other nationalities . The Spanish conquest was not the work o f Spaniards alone when

o f Pizarro sent home tidings his prize , there came ﬂocking to his banner soldiers o f fortune from all — countries from Italy , from Germany , from the

Netherlands . With the establishment of a settled government the opportunities o f aliens diminished the Spanish authorities were chary o f permitting their own countrymen to settle in the new colonies , and they regarded foreigners with the greatest

for suspicion . South America the Spaniards was

o not their p licy , and in furthering it they did hesitate to impose restrictions which stunted the develop

o f ment o f their possessions . The attempts the smugglers and buccaneers to evade these restrictions make on e o f the most interesting chapters in the

o f no t history the continent , but they need detain 46 THE STRANGER WITHIN THE GATES

us here , for Chile , being poor and inaccessible , presented no great attractions to these adventurers . Yet if the foreigner could n o t force himself upon

o f Chile with a cutlass , he undermined the authority the Spanish ofﬁcials with more dangerous weapons . The doctrines o f the French R evolution and the Declaration of Independence o f the North American colonies opened the eyes of the Chileans to the character of the government under which they lived . When they threw off the yoke o f Spain they put an end to the restrictions which were a feature of her

‘ ’ policy . Nothing had galled the criollos more than the system o f reserv ing all high places for

o ne o f Spaniards born in the Peninsula ; indeed , the ﬁrst uses to which the Chi leans put their liberty was to throw open such places not only to their ow n t o war countrymen but foreigners . In the o f independence they were content to follow San

o f Martin and Cochrane , who were neither them

o f o f Chileans . The deeds the former make part

o f o f the general history the struggle , but those

o f Cochrane are the peculiar glory Chile .

o f Thomas Cochrane , tenth Earl Dundonald , was

1 born in Lanarkshire in 775 . He rose to a high position in the British Navy only to lose it o n a charge that was afterwards Shown to be unfounded . Be fore his dismissal from the service he had made

48 THE STRANGER WITHI N THE GATES the revolution : the feats o f arms which cost the Spaniards South America were comparable t o those which had gained it for them . Cochrane soon became such a terror to the R oyalist forces that they entitled him cl diablo warships — — b oomS fortresses nothing was safe from Admiral

Devil . Disappointment , far from daunting him ,

o n did but make him more dangerous . On e occasion he obtained rockets from the insurgent government and entered Callao bay in order to burn the shipping

not there . But the rockets would catch fire they had been filled by Spanish prisoners who had taken care that they Should be useless . Thereupon Cochrane planned to capture with his flagship alone

o f V the numerous forts and the garrison aldivia , a fortress deemed impregnable It is in his o w n account o f this proj ect that he deems it advisable to assure his readers that rashness , though often

t o o f imputed me , forms no part my composition Some idea of the difﬁculties he had to contend against may be inferred from another passage

‘ From excessive fatigue in the execution o f t o subordinate duties I had laid down rest , leaving o f the Ship in charge the lieutenant , who took o f advantage my absence to retire also , surrendering the watch to the care o f a midshipman who fell ’ asleep . THE STRANGER WITHIN THE GATES 49

fiv e Cochrane awoke to find the flagship on a rock ,

out o f feet of water in the hold , the pumps order , the

’ o ne carpenter , only by name , and insufﬁcient boats

’ for the Ship s company . Having some skill in carpentering he took o ff his coat and mended the pumps , while the whole crew were set to baling out the water with buckets .

no t To our great delight the leak did increase , o ff upon which I commenced heaving the Ship , the ofﬁcers Clamouring ﬁrst to ascertain the extent o f x e the leak . This I e pressly forbad , as calculated to damp the energy of the men , whilst , as we now gained w on the leak , there was no doubt the ship would s im Sh e as far as Valdivia , after which might be repaired at leisure . The powder magazine having been under water , the ammunition was rendered unser v iceab le , though about this I cared little , as it involved the necessity of using the bayonet .

The ship did swim to Valdivia , which was captured with all its munitions of war . The Spaniards were

o f thus deprived their chief stronghold in the south , while the moral effect o f SO daring and successful a raid was of the utmost value to the insurgents . There is no room here to describe how Cochrane subsequently cut o u t the frigate E smeralda from under the guns o f Callao h is ow n account o f that and many other exploits may be read in his N aval

S ervice in Chile P eru and Brazil insu rrec , , , a record of

D 5 0 THE STRANGER WITHIN THE GATES

r tion , battle , and adventure in which an int epid , di unaccommodating , and contra ctory character may be observed in Situations most calculated to st imu late it . In little more than two years he drove the Spaniards from the seaboard ; that done , he laid down his

Command .

’ No one who reads Cochrane s autobiography can avoid noticing the kindliness o f his references to — William Miller a testim ony o f importance as

o ne t o o coming from none easily satisﬁed . Miller was born in Kent in 1 795 he entered the

British army at an early age , fought in the Penin

1 8 1 1 o f sula from to the close the war , and after

o f wards took part in the battle New Orleans .

18 1 was In 7 he j oined the Chilean insurgents , and given ﬁrst o f all a post in the artillery and sub se quently the command o f the marines serving under

not Cochrane . If he had had enough ﬁghting before , he must surely have been satisﬁed now ; for hi s

’ knack o f coming by hard knocks became proverbial . On one occasion he w as terribly scorched and nearly blinded by an explosion ; a little later he w as so badly wounded in an attack o n Pisco that his life was despaired o f ; nevertheless in discussing his Valdivia enterprise Coch rane says

’ I felt quite sure o f Major Miller s concurrence THE STRANGER WITHIN THE GATES 5 1

b e when there was any ﬁghting to done , though a ball in the arm , another through the chest passing o u t at his back , and a left hand Shattered for life were not very promising incentives .

Miller had sufﬁciently recovered to lead the

t h e attack , and was again hit three times . But Chilean navy did its work so well that there was soon n o more to do . Miller was not the man to be left d on i le , and before long was soon ﬁghting land to such purpose that he became Chief of the Staff to General

o f i Bolivar . Appointed Colonel cavalry , he d stin gui sh ed himself at Junin and also at Ayacucho the great battle that was fatal to the pretensions o f

Spain . Bolivar and San Martin vied with Cochrane in their eulogies of Miller ’ s character and of his services to the cause o f the insurgents . In June 1 834 he was made Gran Mariscal and afterwards

- f Comandante General o the Peruvian army . Then his o w n country claimed him and he was appointed

r - 1 8 B itish Consul General in the Paciﬁc . In 59, being taken ill in Peru , he expressed the desire to die under the British ﬂag . Accordingly he was t N o . . . aiad transferred H M S , then in Callao Harbour ,

on o f and it was board her that his death took place . A career even more remarkable for the distance travelled between it s lowly commencement and its

’ l was o f O Hi ins n bri liant end that Ambrose gg . Bor D $ 5 2 THE STRANGER WITHIN THE GATES

1 20 in Ireland in 7 , his ﬁrst occupation was that of errand -boy to Lady Bective ; later he went to

z Cadi , where an uncle charged himself with his

e education . He next emigrated to P ru , where he is ﬁrst heard o f as a small tradesman . He also

- worked at road making , and it was to his Skill in this capacity that his advancement was due . He became a military engineer , and was soon entrusted with high command in the Araucanian wars . He had n o w found his true vocation ; his tact , humanity , and knowledge o f human nature enabled h im to maintain some sort of an understanding with the

Indians , and his success was speedily followed by m promotion . He continued to Show ad inistrative

o f o f talents a high order , and much the ravaged c ountry to the south of the Bio - Bio became habitable under his ﬁrm and kindly Sway it is interesting to note that his practical knowledge o f road -making n o w R stood him in good stead , for , like the omans before him , he looked upon the road as an engine 6 O f z . 1 civili ation Finally , in 79 , he was appointed V iceroy of Peru , and he held that magniﬁcent posi tion until his death , some ten years later . Thus he attained almost kingly rank by his

n o w unaided talents ; at the same time , the ample recognition which was accorded to those talents in the person o f a plebeian foreigner suggests that THE STRANGER WITHIN THE GATES 53 historians have no t always been j ust to the colonial f system o Old Spain .

His n ot gifts did die with him , for he left a natural

’ so n O Hi ins , Bernardo gg , who became the ﬁrst president of independent Chile . But Bernardo , who was born in Chillan , can hardly be classed as a stranger ; and there is little need to refer to his

services here , for they are chronicled at length in every account of the struggle fo r independence .

’ O Higgins is no t the only Irish name that is written

n in Chilean history . Patrick Ly ch distingu ished

r himself in ﬁghting the Pe uvians in the Nitrate War ,

for in and as the sailor , Arturo Prat , who was killed

H u ascar boarding the , Chile has no more popular

o f E smeralda hero . His defence the wooden against the ironclad Per uvian ; and his desperate attempt t o H u ascar t o capture the as She drew in ram , have ﬁred the national imagination . He and the E s meralda are to Chile what Sir R ichard Grenville

R even e and the g are to England . AS the result of surveys made by English naval ﬁ of cers , English names are applied to many land marks o n the southern coast it was then only to be expected that England would be concerned in the

o f sea development the communications of Chile , and we ﬁnd that the ﬁrst attempt to put an organized steamship service o n the coast w as made with 54 THE STRANGER WITHIN THE GATES

English capital . The leading spirit in the enterprise was not , however , an Englishman , but William

o f Wheelwright , a citizen the United States of

t o North America , whose energy reference is made below by Mr . Perez Canto . What Wheelwright ,

fo r with his Paciﬁc Steam Navigation Company , did

sea o f the , a countryman his , Henry Meiggs , did for the land .

Perri From Ecuador to Patagonia , through , ’ Bolivia and Chile , Meiggs enterprises extended , and the result is a series of railroads at right angles with t he coast connecting the interior of the country with the seaports and giving the estates and the mines in the mountains , the sugar haciendas and the t r nitrate beds easy outlets o the ocean . Nearly eve y port on the west coast has its little railroad from t o twenty two hundred and ﬁfty miles in length , some o f them reaching into the very heart o f the ’ Andes , the arteries of the continent s commerce , and intended to make proﬁtable possessions which would ’ 1 n otherwise have o worth . It will be gathered that there is much for which

h as t o Chile thank foreigners , and foreigners , it may

o w e be added , a debt to Chile , who has allowed them f to enj oy the fruits o their enterprise . They have still much good work to perform , but the Chileans are now developing their country themselves , directing their attention , particularly , to banking

’ 1 l Am er ica Curt is s The C apita s of Sp a n ish .

56 THE STRANGER WITHIN THE GATES

da zu Doch trat , die harte Lage mildern der sch Onst e $ u des z g chilenischen Volkes , die unbegren te R ’ Gastfreundschaft , in ihre vollen echte . One learns that these German settlers took fo r — ‘ their device Kannst du den Vo lkern nicht die

so Tyrannen nehmen , nimm den Tyrannen die

’ VOlker , thus suggesting a parallel with the Pilgrim

Fathers o f the northern continent . This chapter cannot be Closed without a passing

To u n en s reference to Antoine de , a French adventurer ,

1 861 who in proclaimed himself Orelie Antoine I ,

o f o f King Araucania , the French , course , being invited to assist him by their subscriptions to

w as maintain their national credit . He soon caught by the Chileans , who Showed their good sense by

fm art v r m refusing to give him the advertisement o do .

—as They sent him back to France a madman . IV IMPRESSIONS OF CHI LE

CHILE is so varied in physical features that even the most self- c onﬁden t of globe-trotters would search in vain for a general formula to apply to the whole

t h e country . Journeying from north to south , traveller passes in turn through regions given ove r

t o to mining , agriculture , to viticulture , to forestry , and to Sheep -farming from the arid desert o f Tarapaca to the storm - beaten cliffs o f Magallanes

n o n - n the annual rainfall , existe t at ﬁrst , rising with every few degrees o f latitude . In the changing scene that which is constant most impresses him —the

o n sea o n mountains his left , the his right , and the character of the man who dwells between them .

is If the ﬁrst View of Chile obtained at Iquique , the following passage may be read with interest it was written seventy- ﬁv e years ago

The whole is utterly desert . A light shower of rain falls only once in very many years ; and the ravines consequently are filled with detritus and t h e mountain sides covered by piles o f fine white sand o f even to a height a thousand feet . During this o f o f season the year a heavy bank clouds , stretched 5 8 IMPRESSIONS OF CHILE o o e ver the cean , s ldom rises above the wall of rocks c o f o n the oast . The aspect the place was most gloomy the little port , with its few vessels and small of e group wretch d houses , seemed overwhelmed and u t o f o of all proportion to the rest the scene . The inhabitants live like persons on board a ship every n ecessary comes from a distance water is brought in boats from Pisagua , about forty miles northward , a n d is sold at the rate o f nine reals an eighteen w g allon cask . I bought a ine bottle full for three p ence . In like manner firewood and , of course , f r e very article o foo d is imported . Ve y few animals ’ 1 ( can be maintained in such a place .

What Darwin says here of the natural conditions O f Iquique applies with little alteration to the whole

O f . o f the nitrate coast This is a land business , n ot o f pleasure ; it is said that the Incas knew the f z o f ertili ing value the nitrate deposits , j ust as they k o f i new that guano , but , scient ﬁc agriculturists t hough they were , the knowledge was not utilized , a n d this forbidding country was left to later treasure s - n eekers . TO day the high plateau bordering o the c oast is seamed with the Short railways that convey t h e nitrate to the ports , and which take up in turn the m e o f . anifold requisites a modern factory Sinc coal , f — - ood , water , forage everything has to be imported , the upgoing trains are as full as those which descend . The nitrate is found close to the surface in marble

1 ’ ul 1 2 1 8 Darwin ournal R esearches . J y , 35 s j of IMPRESSIONS OF CHILE 5 9

o f like deposits , to the various layers which special

e s e nam s are given . Tho e ngaged in extracting it begi n by boring a shaft through the hard bed to the gravel below in this , through the agency of a small

a c av it o is boy , y is sco ped out a dynamite cartridge inse rted and ﬁred and then the fragments thrown up

by the explosion are removed to the factory . Here ,

e aft r being crushed by machinery , they are placed in tanks through which boiling water is passed ; when hot the wate r take s up more of the nitrate salt than it can hold in solution when cool the salt is therefore precipitate d during the cooling process into

pans , from which it is collected . Of course , the procedure is more complicated than is here rep re sented the rough blocks have to be treated in a variety o f ways before they yield the pure crystals which are eventually sent down to the coast in bags , each containing two hundred pounds . Thus little settlements are to be found at intervals in the four hundred miles o f desert plateau which runs p arallel t o the sea at a he ight o f three to ﬁve thousand feet .

Darwin , we may be sure , would recognize the district

re - desc ri at a glance , but he would have to write his p

o f tion o f Iquique . It is now a city large open squares and broad streets intersecting o n the North

American system ; it possesses tramways , electric

e i lighting , clubs , n wspapers , and substantial build ngs ; 60 I MPRESSIONS OF CHI LE

- above all , a constant water supply is now brought through pipes from Pica . But in spite o f this evidence o f prosperity it is no t without a feeling o f relief that the traveller takes Ship and leaves the rainless coast ; the eye wearies o f o f its dull , monotonous colouring as it wearies

sn owﬁeld fo r a ; it longs some more restful hue ,

one and should Valparaiso be the next port of call , is little inclined to question the appropriateness o f the name . At one time , indeed , the surrounding hills w ere covered with trees , as is still the case with

the hills of the south , and then the contrast to the nitrate coast must have been even more apparent

- and welcome . To day the forest has disappeared , but there are abundant Signs that the traveller has reached a land where there is no want o f anything that is in the earth The harbour o f Valparaiso is a semicircular bay facing the north ; it is surrounded by hills upon the sides o f which the houses balance themselves

’ o n leaning one another s shoulders , as it seems , in order to keep in touch with the shipping upon which

sea prosperity depends . It is this pressing to the which characterizes the city . The people , and the

buildings , the land itself, all seem animated by

the same tendency . The hills , forced outwards by the

mountains behind , push out into the water and leave IMPRESSIONS OF CHILE 61

f but a narrow strip o ﬂat foreshore along the quays .

o f Here are found the two chief streets the town, the others arrange themselves along the hill -sides or run inland when the Slope is less severe : space is o ne valuable , and the houses rise above the other to an undesirable height —undesirable because Val

z paraiso is Situated in an earthquake one . It is this peculiar and inevitable disposition o f the buildings which accounts for much o f the damage

1 06 caused by the earthquake o f 9 . This terrible disaster brought o u t the ﬁne qualities in the Chilean character ; aid was immediately rendered and the

i o n port s now once again ﬂourishing . Destruction this wholesale scale was perhaps less overwhelming to Valparaiso than to a town less familiar with calamity fate has dealt it many grievous blows in the past , and from each it has risen to increased

1 prosperity . When Francis Drake took it in 579 it contained but a dozen houses , a church , and a couple of shops in 1 594 it was sacked by R ichard

Hawkins , whose act was imitated a few years later

No ort by the Dutchman , Van ; an even more serious inj ury was dealt by the hand of Spain when She bombarded it in 1 866 and did damage t o the extent o f twelve million dollars . After the defeat o f Balmaceda it was plundered by the Chileans them

1 06 selves . The crowning visitation of 9 was b uv t h e 62 I MPRESSIONS OF CHILE latest o f a series of earthquakes it s toll is estimated f ’ at ninety per cent . o the houses . Mr . Perez Canto s comment is an epitome of the intrepidity o f this phoenix City : The new Valparaiso will be better

’ planned in every respect . — — If as is usually the case the traveller approaches

Santiago from Valparaiso , he will be impressed at once with the contrast in the disposition of the

of streets , in the architecture the houses , and in the general character o f the city . The difference is easily explicable : the design o f Valparaiso w as forced upon those who built it ; that o f Santiago was deliberately selected . In Valparaiso all else had t d o f o be subor inated to the needs the port , in Santiago man has moulded natural features t o his

l —for o f a wi l instance , the rocky fastness Santa Luci h as been converted into a pleasure -gro und ; where a foreigner would call Valparaiso b -usy he would — describe Santiago as elegan t and this in spit e o f its possession o f the substantial buildings to be expected in a seat o f government which is also a commercial centre ; to the ear the former is

is German to the eye the latter a town of Old Spain . In the capital of Chile space seems o f little account :

u a the ho ses are built up on , generous plan which ignores the price of land but the stranger who goes to bed censuring this apparent wastefulness may have

64 IMPRESSIONS OF CHILE thing o f a shock : it recalls Hercules tricked out by Omphale . The hill has known other days : it was here that Valdivia and h is handful o f Spaniards stood at bay like the builders of the Temple They which builded on the wall and they that o n e o ne bare burdens , every with of his hands wrought in the work and with the other hand held ’ a weapon .

To - day Santa Lucia rises peacefully against her mountain background t o bear witness that neither

Indian nor starvation could prevail against Valdivia . As the traveller proceeds southwards he ﬁnds that the central or agricultural district is being swallowed

s up in the forests . It is not easy to ay where the former Should be deemed t o end ; at present the

- boundary may be taken to be the Bio Bio river , but there is a strong disposition to clear away the trees a nd establish arable and pastoral industries where they once grew thickly in the present condition o f the lumber market there is little inducement to c is onserve timber , and there reason to suppose that t his policy will be continued . It is not unattended w ith risk , for with the disappearance of the trees the f i . s rainfall may be a fected However , it not the w hole o f the forest country which it would pay to

C lear large tracts are hardly more than bogs , from

w . so hich no return could be expected Indeed , I MPRESSIONS OF CHILE 65

impassable are they that t wo of the ﬁrst German

colonists were engulfed and killed . The famous Lota Company has interested itself in afforestation

and plants many trees annually in the neighbourhood . Lota is practically the creation of the Cousiﬁo family and possesses a history in which Chileans may take pride . About the middle of the last century energetic steps were taken to develop the coal -ﬁeld which had been known to exist there for some time and now the wealth obtained from the mine has enabled the

t o proprietors lay out the famous park of Lota , and to carry o n their business not only o n practical

n but also o philanthropic lines . This is the more

t o r creditable thei energy since the coal extracted ,

Of no t being comparatively poor quality , was able t o compete on the nitrate ﬁelds with that brought

o f from England . The cost haulage was such that it paid the companies to buy the best fuel and this they obtained comparatively cheap because the steamers which brought it were sure o f a nitrate cargo for the return voyage . The proprietors met the situation by establishing at Lota a drain- pipe

-ﬁeld - factory, a brick , glass works , and a copper foundry . Further south yet another instance is to be found o f Chilean pertinacity . One would have thought that the incessant rain and bitter winds o f

Magallanes would have repelled the hardiest pioneer . E 66 IMPRESSIONS OF CHILE

Nevertheless , it has been discovered that it pays to

keep grazing stations there , since Sheep , forced either

o f t o to grow thick ﬂeeces or to die cold , tend the former alternative . The former convict station of

Punta Arenas has thriven on the new industry . The nation which has established prosperous towns on the nitrate desert and in the Straits of Magallanes can face the future with conﬁdence . V

NATIONAL FINANCE

THE following information , embodied in the last Presidential message to Congress with regard to

ﬁnance and other subj ects upon which Mr . Perez

Canto has not touched , seems an indispensable addition to the introduction section . The ordinary national revenue o f Chile in 1 91 0 was

esos 1 1 in notes (p of approximately d . ) and in gold (pesos o f If to the note revenue be added the proceeds of

o f o f the sale the gold , the revenue will stand at notes and gold ,

o f To the equivalent , together , ( this total the Customs House contributed— as import

duties , as export duties on nitrate and iodine , as warehousing , lighthouse and buoys dues , and as wharfage , unloading and transit dues , whence it will appear that the national income is principally derived from the

Customs House . ) The ordinary and extraordinary expenditure amounted to in notes

E 2 68 NATI ONAL FINANCE

o f and in gold , leaving a deﬁcit

in notes and in gold , which was incurred mainly through expenditure

n di o railways and public works in general . Ad ng to this the ﬁgures corresponding to 1 909 there results a deﬁcit at the end o f 1 91 0 of

o f in notes and a surplus in gold , and if the latter be converted into paper money it reduces the net deficit to o r {29 63 5 1 3 w i The follo ing figures , however , w ll Show that in reality this deficit represents an investment o f capital perfectly j ustifiable in a new country if it wishes to develop its sources of produc tion

’ The so - called deﬁcit amounted in the years

1 0 1 1 0 9 9 and 9 to paper currency . A close examination o f the budget of those two years Shows that the following amounts were

‘ ’ invested in the construction or equipment o f

or railways public works and buildings . These may be looked upon as reproductive works , as the former is an industrial enterprise and the latter are represented by water- supply works on a paying basis , and by buildings for public services which ,

o n before their construction , paid rent premises let at high rents . NATI ONAL FINANCE 69

190 9 P A P ER C U RREN CY

Co nst ruct io n o f railw a s e ui me nt o r y , q p

s a m e a n d b uildin s . I n du st r a n d , g y P li c W o rks D a rt m e nt 20 8 ub ep $ , 3 P li W r il i H o m e ub c o ks an d Bu d n g s . De p art m e nt -0 0 P u b li l in s t ic D art m e n t c Bui d g . Ju s e ep 99 P b li B il i P lic I n t r c t io n De u c u d ng s . ub s u p art m e nt P ub li W o rks Financ D a rt m e nt c . e e p

Pub lic Buildin W ar D art m ent 1 2 8 OOO . OO g s . ep , 9 , Pu b lic W o rks N a D e art m e nt . v y p

G O L D

P li W o r N a De a rt m e nt . ub c ks . v y p 33 33

Adding to this amount o f the f 6 is premium o 5 per cent . for gold it equivalent in paper currency to Therefore the ‘ investments which appear in the ‘ 1 909 budget as expenses amount to

I 9 I O P A P ER C U RREN C Y

r ilw a I n d st r a n Co nst ruct io n o f a ys . u y d P ub lic W o rks De p art m e n t -00 P li ldin s Ho m D e art m nt u b c Bui g . e p e 1 P li ildin s u st ic D art m t u b c Bu g . J e ep en P l il in s Pu b lic I n st r ct io D ub ic Bu d g . u n e p art m e nt P l W rk Fin a n c D a rt m n ub ic o s . e e p e t P l il i W a r D art m e n ub ic Bu d ng s . ep t P W rks N a De art m e nt ub lic o . vy p

8269 97 5 68 4 6

G O L D P urc h ase o f Lo co m ot ive s P W rk N a D e art m n ub lic o s. e t I 80 OOO .OO vy p , 3 , 7 0 NATI ONAL FI NANCE

o f 6 At the average premium for gold 5 per cent . this last su m amounts to in paper

‘ ’ o f currency , thus making the investments this year amount to

But in addition to this there is also a sum o f gold which cannot be considered as an expenditure , since it was the amount which was deposited in cash in European banks to increase what

Chile calls her conversion fund , and which amounted

o n 1 1 1 0 1 zs . December 3 , 9 , to The sum of gold which appears to the debit o f the 1 91 0 ﬁnancial exercise has therefore no t been spent It lies in the vaults of European banks , and in order to Show Chilean ﬁnances in their true light it is necessary to add this amount o f

lus o f6 t gold , p the gold premium 5 percen , o r in all to the sum o f

‘ invested thus forming a total amount o f which covers approximately the so - called deﬁcit o f the 1 91 0 ﬁnancial exercise .

‘ f 1 o 0 v iz . If we add the investments 9 9,

‘ o f 1 1 0 to the investments 9 , which amount to we arrive at the ﬁgure o f

e which cov rs , leaving a surplus , the so - called deﬁcit o f

The Chilean Government , therefore , cannot j ustly be charged with allowing deﬁcits in its budget , though

72 NATIONAL FINANCE

R n a contract with Messrs . N . M . othschild So s to t ake up one -half o f the unissued loans sanctioned u p to that date by special Laws , the transaction

for being completed The Internal Debt ,

1 1 1 0 on December 3 , 9 , stood at gold and

or notes , approximately

o f The total public debt Chile is , therefore , at present as follows

E x t e rnal D eb t

I nt ernal D eb t

According to moderate estimates the value o f the Chilean State railways can be reckoned at from to The ‘ conversion fund ’ amounts to 1 2s . deposited in European banks and in mortgage bonds (Bonos

la de Caj a de Credito Hipotecario) . Besides this the Chilean Government holds another

in these same mortgage bonds , which makes the total amount o f this item o r approximately in pounds sterling The Chilean Government owns nitrate properties

o f worth several millions pounds , and an enormous

o f extent agricultural and forest lands in the south , which by themselves would cover several times the

of total amount the public debt . NATIONAL FINANCE 73

’ From this it is evident that Chile s means o f paying her debt are n o t only the ordinary means o f taxation t o which every country can resort , but also industrial , mineral la nd and properties , and actual cash in hand which at any moment sh e can dispose of for this purpose .

’ o n To supplement Mr . Perez Canto s chapter the population it may be mentioned that during 1 91 0 the R Civil egister recorded births , deaths , and marriages .

’ Chile s progress in educational matters deserves

of 1 1 0 recognition . At the end 9 there were , according to the Presidential message , State primary schools , with teachers , or 334 schools and

t 1 0 37 1 eachers more than in 9 9 . Of the teaching staff about a quarter had been trained in the normal

of 1 schools , which there are 5 , attended by pupils of both sexes . The number of pupils in the Government schools was an increase of

on 1 0 the 9 9 ﬁgures , and the proportion of

as attendance was 57 per cent . This is recognized unsatisfactory , and steps are being taken to improve

1 1 0 2 r it . During 9 , normal schools , 43 p imary

for r schools , and 9 buildings intended seconda y and superior education were completed , and recently the Ministry for Instruction sanctioned the erection of r a fu ther 43 educational buildings . 74 NATIONAL FINANCE The State subsidizes private schools to the extent o f 1 1 0 annually , and these , in 9 , were a ttended by pupils . In schools not State a ssisted the pupils numbered The Govern ment believes ﬁrmly in the value of technical schools , o f 228 which at present there are , and proposes to double the grant in aid of these institutions in the coming year .

1 1 0 In Chile , during 9 , 74 male and female colleges

. were opened , and were attended by pupils The Government assists 1 9 institutions providing secondary instruction for men and 47 fo r the educa l tion of women . To the excel ent University of Chile various professional schools are attached , and the a ttendance at these of male pupils during 1 91 0 was

1 Finally , pupils , or 95 more than in

1 0 . 9 9, attended Chilean commercial institutions During the year under review much was done in

- the direction of public works . A drinking water s upply service will very Shortly be completed in the cities of San Felipe , Los Andes , Casablanca

e Col u ech ura l Yu n ai Cauqu nes , Quirihue , q , Chi lan , g ,

Concepcion , Talcahuano , Angol , Temuco , Victoria ,

Nacimiento and Osorno , and the same may be said o f the drainage works in Antofagasta , Serena , Taltal , C urico , Chillan , Talca and Concepcion . The sewerage works at Santiago , completed towards the end of NATIONAL FINANCE 75

1 0 9 9, are in satisfactory working order , and the draining and paving works already carried out in

Valparaiso , together with the construction and

o f repair public buildings , parks and squares , has greatly contributed to the sanitation and embellish ment of the chief port of Chile . The committee appointed to study the improve

of ment Chilean harbours having reported , tenders for the extensions at Valparaiso and San Antonio were invited in Washington and New York and in

o f eight European capitals , and the end this year

s should ee the beginning of the works proposed . As to the construction o f the new graving- dock at

o f Talcahuano , the tender a French syndicate for the su m of was accepted and work is already

in progress . It Should be completed within four

years .

on o f Mr . Perez Canto in his chapter Means Communication gives an account of the activity in

railway construction . The question o f the adv isa b ilit is y of electriﬁcation under discussion , and it is

l n quite possible that , fol owing the lead of the Brighto R ailway , the Chilean Government may substitute electric traction for steam on the Santiago and Val R paraiso ailway . According to Mr . Philip Dawson , the consulting electrical engineer of the Brighton

R s ailway , it is quite feasible to electrify that famou 76 NATI ONAL FINANCE

in railway to Brighton , and this may be done in the t erest of f f economy and o a more e ﬁcient service . The high price of coal in Chile is an additional reason for the change in that country from steam to electricity . In military and naval matters there was con siderab l e activity . New artillery supplies were

o f contracted for with the ﬁrm Krupp , and aviation

r r was deﬁnitely introduced into the a my se vice , ofﬁcers and mechanics being selected to study the

of science in Europe . The construction two battle ships of the Dreadnought type , Six destroyers and two submarines has been contracted for , and the Government is studying the question of coast fortiﬁcat ions and naval arsenals . Another matter which is occupying the attention of the Government is the establishment of wireless telegraphy stations at Punta Arenas , Talcahuano , Caldera , Antofagasta , and Arica . At the time of writing the only station in operation is the one at the fort at Talcahuano , in

Valparaiso , which places the city in communication — with the men- o f war and merchant vessels passing the coast .

AS th e to land communications , the laying down of new cable in the Cordillera in the section between

n e Pe on and Juncal was successfully accomplish d, and further extensions are in progress . VI THE FUTURE OF CHILE ENOUGH has been said to Show that Chile has little cause to view the coming years with apprehension .

There are a few clouds on the horizon , but compared to that of many other nations the Chilean outlook R is a matter for congratulation . eference has already been made to the disappearance of timber — in the central distri cts a disappearance due in part to the unthrifty methods of the people . But danger from this source can be met by a policy of afforest a tion . On the other hand , the proﬁts derived from the nitrate deposits are paid , as they are in British coal mines , out of capital ; the beds will not be relaid in our epoch . Chilean Government experts have calculated that if the consumption of nitrate in the world continues in future years to develop on the same scale as it has done during the last 25 years , the explored nitrate ﬁelds Show that there is

f 1 0 su ficient nitrate for another 5 years . Besides this , there are a great many fields which have not yet been explored . At present the Government derives a third of its revenues from nitrate , and it 78 THE FUTURE OF CHILE could not but be embarrassed if it were to lose such a proportion of its income . But this problem does not demand immediate solution . More serious than a future Shortage of timber or of nitrate is the present shortage of Chileans . There are but a little over — three millions of them a number insufficient to develop the resources of the country or to defend without ruinous effort so long a seaboard against a powerful foe . And this brings us to the discussion o f rm a aments . One View of the question was put forward with much lucidity by Senor Agustin de las Manos Albas in the South American Supplement

T imes 2 1 1 1 he T o n . issued by July 5 , 9 He regards the importation o f the problem of armaments into the intern ational life o f South America as an unhealthy Sign copied without discrimination from Europe together with the other paraphernalia of civilization .

The conditions of the South American countries , o f however , do not call for any such manifestation national life no reasonable dispute can exist as to territory where the land lies waste and desert for o f thousands and thousands miles , and where the whole population of the continent could be housed comfortably in any single one of the larger nations o f x hatred race or international rivalry do not e ist , and the conﬂict o f vital interests is unknown x Budding prosperity begins , however , to be ta ed

8 0 THE FUTURE OF CHILE hot - blooded young countries when party feeling has been aroused . Chile , as we know , came very close to war not long ago with Argentina over the watershed

controversy , and She has still upon her hands a perplexing dispute with Peru . In the treaty which marked the termination o f the Nitrate War it was agreed among other things that Chile Should enter into occupation of the provinces of Tacna and Arica ; these provinces are

o f now practically Chilean , and the question owner k ship is not li ely to be seriously raised by Peru , though we occasionally hear that Peru is anxious that the plebiscite Shall be held . Any such preten sion is regarded by Chile as incompatible with her f sovereignty furthermore , She a ﬁrms that the proviso about retrocession was o nly inserted to enable the

r Pe uvian negotiators to pacify their own countrymen , and that this was understood by the responsible parties on both sides . Be that as it may , Chile asserts that these provinces were as much the prize of w ar as Tarapaca ; and so ﬁrmly resolved is sh e not to give them up that She declines to submit the dispute e li to arbitration . Here th n may be found the possibi ty

Sh of trouble . Fortunately for Chile e would enter into a struggle with Peru with excellent prospects of

o ne victory indeed , cannot help thinking that a moment w hen magnanimity could not be construed THE FUTURE OF CHILE as weakness might be seized by her to cement a friendship with her northern neighbour . The Peruvians must recognize the difﬁculty o f with drawing from occupied territory— it is a difﬁculty which is proverbial— and no doubt they would renounce their claims to the provinces in dispute for no large sum they are concerned rather for their national honour than for any material advantage , and a Settlement might be reached if Chile offered a price at which the removal of anxiety would be cheap . The other neighbours o f Chile are Bolivia and

No a re Argentina . danger is at present to be pp

wh o hended from the former , is inclined to seek Chilean assistance in utilizing her undeveloped

for sh e resources . As Argentina , and Chile have faced o n e another with their knives ou t long enough to recognize what a protracted an d p roﬁt less busi ness a war between them would be . Moreover, they will have difﬁculty in striking one another’ s Vitals ; the Andes and Cape Horn are cogent peace makers . But in former times the Andes acted as a barrier against the merchant as well as against the invader Chile and Argentina were allowed little opportunity o f discovering and developing their common interests .

This is no longer the case . Since the completion of 8 2 THE FUTURE OF CHILE the Transandine tunnel it is possible to travel by railway by way o f Mendoza the whole distance between Buenos Aires and Valparaiso . This is but

ne o f o many new lines proj ected by the Chileans , who ,

’ o f O Hi ins from the time Ambrose gg , have recognized that nothing contributes to wealth and progress so much as improvement in communications . The Transandine railway is universally regarded not only as a convenience but as an instrument which must make for a better understanding between the countries it connects . As the Argentinos and Chileans come to have interests in common they will ﬁnd themselves dependent o n o n e another ; their relations will grow more complex , and the dislocation that war would bring with it will be viewed with dismay there are obvious disadvantages in shooting

’ the man who buys one s cattle and sells o ne his coal . That the Transandine railway has answered ex p ect at ions may be inferred from the activity in the Chi lean railway world it might have been supposed that it s leading spirits would have rested content with the substitution o f an unbroken train- j ourney o f some thirty- Six hours for the cold voyage by

o f steamer with its fortnight rough weather . But this is not so . The Buenos Aires Great Southern R ailway Company are credited with the intention o f pushing the Neuquen line across the mountains THE FUTURE OF CHILE 8 3

into Chile , presumably with an eye to Talcahuano

as the western terminus . It would not have been surprising that such a proj ect should have been

entertained while the Andes were still untunnelled , for the passes near the Bio - Bio are lower and present fewer difﬁculties to the engineer than is the case in the latitude o f Mendoza ; but that it Should meet with favourable consideration n ow that a competing line is in operation is both surprising and gratifying ; it can only mean that practical men have made up their minds about The Future o f Chile The district that would thus be put in direct com mu nic at io n with the east is already the seat o f

-ﬁeld a thriving trade . It comprises the Arauco coal — together with the factories o f Lota about which

a a rev ious something was s id in p chapter ; Talcahuano ,

on o ne the ﬁnest harbour the coast , and the which the Government have made the head- quarters o f the Chilean navy ; and the corn-g rowing district o f

i AS which Concepcion is the d stributing centre . the population o f North America becomes denser less

o f wheat will be available for export , and an era

is great prosperity then anticipated for Chile , whose cereal products already enjoy a high reputation . Any such development could not but stimulate trade in the region traversed by the proposed line . Chile has never shrunk from railway enterprise ; handi

F 2 84 THE FUTURE OF CHILE capped by the engineering di fﬁculties which her

territory presents , She has obtained less assistance than the other Latin republics from foreign ﬁnanciers . She herself has had t o ﬁnd much o f the money whi ch her railways have demanded—this being the explanation o f the large extent o f line belonging to

o f a the State . On the plains the e st the construction o f a permanent way meant little more than the laying down of Sleepers in Chile even the longi t u dinal railway was expensive to build ; it had t o traverse not only the spurs o f the mountain system but also the innumerable streams that rushed from

se the heights to the a . With such a country for his Sphere the railway

i o f t o i n o t eng neer Chile has come ask h mself , Is this difﬁcult but I S this practicable 9 and his

f For answer has usually been in the a ﬁrmative .

n o t instance , he has rested content with the railway

o f from Antofagasta to La Paz by way Oruro , but he hopes t o complete another line to La Paz next

o f o f year from the port Arica . The capital Bolivia will thus be brought within twelve hours o f the

Paciﬁc . The map reveals the secret o f this solicitude about

l i ri Bo iv a ; that country marches with Per , Brazil ,

as Paraguay , and Argentina , well as with Chile , and it is the inevitable international competition for the THE FUTURE OF CHILE 85 trade of a count rywith no seaport of its ow n which has — constrained the far Sighted Chilean to these exertions . And this brings us to the subj ect which is the pre - occupation o f all who u se the western coast : What changes will be brought about by the greatest improvement in natural communication that the world has yet ventured upon How will Chile be affected by the opening o f the Panama canal P The

de du cedfrom answer may be the fact that , to shipping , the Paciﬁc ports o f South America will be brought — o n an average Tour thousand ﬁve hundred miles

nearer to Liverpool , and that the saving in the case f i o w . New York will be t ce that amount Chile , in fact , stands to gain from the canal in many ways more than any other South American State . Hence forward her great reproach will be wiped ou t She will no longer be the distant country at the back o f

sh e di the west wind . The energy has splayed in binding Bolivia to herself with ropes o f railway steel i is now easily intellig ble . At present , perhaps , there is no great advantage in building a second exp en sive mountain railway t o connect an undeveloped country with the coast but Bolivia ’ s development has yet to come her mineral wealth is well known She too will follow the example of her neighbours and utilize her resources ; and then the port o f Arica will offer importers ’ steamers the inducement 86 THE FUTURE OF CHILE

o f a cargo home . When this happens it may be l anticipated that freights wil be reduced , not only in proportion to the miles and the days saved by the

canal , but also in proportion to the increased pro b ab ilit y that the shipowner may obtain further busi ness . This Should mean a notable decrease in the price at which imports can be sold in Chile— with a couse quent Cheapening in the cost o f production which Should enable the exporter of Chilean commodities to enter markets hitherto closed . What is said of

— mu tatis the trade of Arica , of course , applies — mutandis to the whole trade of Chile . And the new conditions should do much to solve the immi g rat ion problem . But the future of Chile does not rest merely upon the material advantages which have been enumerated it is securely based upon the intense patriotism o fthe inhabitants and upon the sacriﬁces they can be relied

ak upon to m e for their independence . Liberty , says

: Wordsworth , rej oices in two voices asher chosen music

Two voices are there one is of the sea , ’ One of the mountains each a mighty voice .

The Chilean has listened to both o f them from his cradle .

R . P . P .

1 0 BA B U RY R OAD O X FOR D 8 N , ,

October 1 1 I . 1 3 , 9

CHAPTER I

THE PROGRESS OF CHILE

To appreci ate the true importan ce of a people from the e conomic point of View it is necessary to study not only the conj unction o f the elements which combine to produce its wealth , but also the social facts that exercise a more or less direct inﬂuence upon its well—being and upon its material f . sa or R prosperity If we y , instance , that the epublic o f Chile has an area of square miles , that its t population is composed of inhabitants , tha its territory extends to the foot o f the Andean range , and that its coast is washed by the waves of the Paciﬁc Ocean for thirty- eight geographical degrees of longitude ; if we add that by reason of its peculiar situation and the long southerly reach o f its domains it exhibits the most varied physical and climatological characteristics , we shall merely

have given an idea , superﬁcial though suggestive , o f the natural conditions by which the country is favoured .

If, however , we point out that its population is equally distributed between the land and the cities ; t hat its agriculture amply provides for the necessities 90 THE PROGRESS OF CHILE o f its inhabitants and still leaves an appreciable surplus for exportation ; that its mineral wealth surpasses that of any other country in South America , and that its economic activity is represented by an exterior commerce amounting to we shall have broadened considerably the horizon of our ideas as to Chile . Yet neither the area of its territory and its natural

o f conditions , nor the number its inhabitants and their industries , are wholly satisfactory elements by

as which to judge the country , either a nation or as an economic entity . To appreciate its importance from the sociological point of View it would be

of ne cessary to inquire into the origin this people , to study the formation o f its nationality and the characteristics peculiar to the race ; it would be equally necessa ry to follow the development of its economical and social advance , and to observe how the course of time has shaped its institutions . Only

al thus may we appraise its worth as a State , the v ue o f its productive powers , and its capacity for the reception from the outside world of impulses in the form of labour and capital , elements so necessary to the sparsely populated and almost virgin countries o f America . The nature o f this book will not permit o f our devoting much space to the study o f Chilean history and institutions , which will not interest us except THE PROGRESS OF CHILE 91 in so far as they help t o explain the economic ev olu tion of the country . We propose , rather , to treat o f the results of private and State initiative in the development o f its industries and its commerce , of the sources o f its wealth and o f the elements which it possesses as a workaday and progressive nation . The road al ong which this country has travelled in its ﬁrst century of independent life is marked by

rom ul events which have made epochs , such as the p — g at ion of the Political Constitution of 1 833 to this — day the Magna Charta o f the people the reform o f

al - f the Coloni Spanish legislation , the di fusion of free public education , the construction of the ﬁrst rail

in r road South Ame ica , the introduction of steam

of of - o f navigation , the telegraph , lighting gas , urban tramways and o f many other advantages o f civilization . In virtue of its progress and by favour of the attributes of the race and the fore

of u sight its r lers , Chile stands now at the head of

- the Latin American peoples . Chile , which was the poorest of the Spanish colonies , which boasts neither the area nor the population o f other American countries and which lies most distant of all from the great centres of civilization , has nevertheless suc ceeded in reaching one o f the foremost positions among the nations of the New World , and this with but little of the powerful assistance which the currents 92 THE PROGRESS OF CHILE o f foreign immigration have afforded to some of its neighbours . Upon its completion of a century of independent existence Chile h as been able worthily to celebrate

olit ic al the glorious date of its p emancipation , and the manner in which the great European nations have Shared in the public rejoicing affords eloquent testimony o f the cordiality of the relations that it

of cultivates with all civilized peoples , as also their

o f o f appreciation its wise organization , the order and peace in which its institutions are developed , and of the guarantees enjoyed on Chilean soil by all legitimate interests . The foreign embassies and

’ missions sent to celebrate the centenary o f Chile s independence were able to appreciate the active commercial movement which , quickened by the brains and the capital o f foreign residents o f all

r nationalities , pulses through the whole count y . Particularly could they note the utilization o f the

r manifold natural resources of the ter itory , the development of mining , agricultural and industrial f o f . a fairs , and the increase international commerce

of b en eﬁc ence o f The fertility the soil , the the

o f - climate , the abundance water for land irrigation , and the inexhaustible mineral wealth of the moun tains ensure for Chile a brilliant future if it can count upon the elements necessary for the development of its production . Like all the other South American THE PROGRESS OF CHILE 93 countries Chile needs the c o operation of foreign brains , labour and capital to give its existing

o f industries a wider scope , to open new ﬁelds

t o activity, to populate the uninhabited regions ,

o f perfect the means transport , and to facilitate relations with the nations which offer a market to its products . With this purpose in View we have written this f book , j udging impartially and relying upon o ﬁcial information and trustworthy private data . It will

nl o serve as a safe guide not o y to the tourist , but als to all who would make the acquaintance of what is . one o f the best organized countries of Latin America .

t h e and , without doubt , that which is blessed with li greatest diversity of products , the ﬁnest c mate the most picturesque scenery . CHAPTER I I

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

THE R epublic of Chile occupies that southern l portion of South America which , closely fol owing the meridian , extends from the river Sama to Cape Horn ° ' ° ' within the parallels 1 7 1 5 and 5 5 59 o f latitude south . It thus forms a long littoral zone , stretched like a ribbon between the Andes and the Paciﬁc and covering a longitude of thirty- eight geographical degrees . To the north the rivers Sama and Mauri

ri separate it from Per , to the east it is bounded by R the epublics of Bolivia and Argentina , and to the south and west the Great Ocean bathes it s coasts . The most recent cal cul ations assign to Chile an

o f area square miles , the equivalent of the combined areas of Germany , Switzerland , Denmark ,

l . Ho land , and Belgium The length of the territory

r is miles , and its breadth va ies between a maximu m of 248 and a minimu m of 1 05 miles . In addition to its island region south o f the 4 1 st parallel Chile possesses numerous islands in the

o f o f Paciﬁc , some them a certain productive impor tance , such as Juan Fernandez and Easter Island, which lie far from the coast .

96 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS south it takes the form of a Chain of mountains of considerable height , prolonged in diminishing eleva tion as far as Cape Horn , the last manifestation of the range in the southern extremity of the continent . R egarded as a whole , the base which supports the lofty masses of the Andes exhibits from north to

r south a very notable inclination . In the northe n region and in the Atacama desert its average height is approximately feet between the twenty Sixth and twenty-eighth parallels it reaches an altitude which may be estimated at feet .

South of this it Sinks a little , but rises to over feet , its greatest average height , between the thirty

- Second and thirty fourth parallels , in which region are found some of the highest peaks o f the continent :

on Aconcagua , the Argentine frontier , and , among others , Mercedario , Juncal , Tupungato , and the é San Jos volcano , near Santiago . Thence to the south there is a much more appreciable and rapid diminution in its height down to the Straits of

00 o r 800 Magallanes , where it reaches to only some 7

a - feet above se level . In its long course the range Splits into two parallel branches which as a rule do not travel far from the watershed and whose heights are not materially reduced . Frequently it happens that the highest s ummits o f the Andean system are found in these secondary branches . PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 97

l l In these ramiﬁcations of the Cordil era lie va leys , very appropriately called caj ones or boxes closed in by high scarped cliffs which drop from the zone ll where no vegetation wi grow, a region situated at a higher o r lower altitude according to the latitude and the meteorological conditions of the district . The line of perpetual snow also varies according to the same conditions , but as a rule it lies between and feet in the central region of the

o f - country . South the thirty second parallel the ﬁrst glaciers are met with in the heights which run

t o - from west east , and from the forty sixth parallel glaciers extend almost down to the shores . Throughout its course the Cordillera exhibits in its transverse proﬁl e considerable inequality ofgradient while on its eastern Side its Slopes are smooth and gentle and the Spurs which branch from its summits lose themselves gradually in the broad plains or

of on pampas Argentina , its western side , overlooking

Chile , the descent is rapid and precipitous and the mountain streams fall from a height o f feet without travelling more than feet westward

r from their source . The rivers are to rents cascades

all of and waterf s abound , and the ruggedness nature contributes to the grandeur of the splendid scenery o f the Chilean Andes . At the foot o f the great Cordillera spreads the

or al un central longitudin valley , which extends G 98 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS broken from the thirty- third parallel t o beyond the

- t o f of forty ﬁrs . Traces the existence this notable phase of the territory begin to be apparent in the vicinity o f Tarapaca and in the Atacama desert .

of Ch aﬁarcillo The valleys and Huasco , and various plains , accentuate the territorial depression further south ; between the rivers Coquimbo and Choapa valleys disappear , to begin again before the Chacabuco

‘ branch is reached . From this point to the crater of R eloncav i the central valley travels for upwards of six hundred miles with a breadth which varies

6 . from 7 to 5 miles In form it is very irregular , and is interrupted in some parts by ramiﬁcations of

or the Andean chain the coast range . The most interesting characteristic to be noted in this part of the territory is the grand slope of its transverse

on proﬁle , which has permitted the development a large scale of land- irrigation by means o f artiﬁcial

- canals . For instance , the height above sea level of

Santiago , a city situated at the foot of the Andes , is

o f feet , while that of the plain , at the foot the

o f eastern base the coast range , is but feet . The differences in level from east to west thus amount 6 0 8 00 to 5 or feet . Central valley lands are the most fertile in the country , and agriculture there is an industry of considerable importance . This is also the most u pop lous region and the site of the principal cities .

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

o f many eminences considerable elevation , such as R the oble , with its feet , and the Campana , near

al V paraiso , with feet . South of the river Maipo the Cordillera trends further and further from the Andes , leaving between the two ranges the plains which form the great longitudinal valley . From the river R apel southwards the range is less confused and much lower , taking , between the rivers

- o f Itata and Bio Bio , the form of a broad ridge but little elevation , with isolated hills . To the south of

N ah u elb u t a this latter river is the range , which extends to the river Imperial . South again of this

- river the Cordillera is low lying , though at intervals occur eminences of some altitude . Gradually the range becomes lo wer and ﬁnally it

se a passes into the , from which , here and there , rise its highest peaks , forming the archipelagos which extend south of the Chacao Canal as far as Tierra del Fuego . Between these archipelagos and the continent are found great channels Similar to the

Scandinavian fj ords , and these constitute the pro l long at ion of the central val ey . CHAPTER I I I

MINERAL RESOURCES

FROM the geological point of View Chile is one o f the most interesting countries for the study of the manifestations of the internal forces which have operated upon the conﬁguration of the ground .

The great volcanic cones , the thermal Springs , the sulphur pits , the metallic seams , the carboniferous

o f ro cksalt pockets , the deposits nitrate , borax , , and other substances , are not merely objects of scientiﬁc

’ investigation ; they are the country s most impor

Con ﬁnin tant source of wealth . g ourselves strictly

- C to the subject matter of the hapter , we must consider the geological formation in its relation to the two great extractive industries which constitute the basis o f — the national economy mining and agriculture . The stratiﬁed formations pertaining to all the great geological periods are represented in Chile , and are distributed in reefs more o r less parallel to the coast and Andean ranges , but intersecting them at a Sharp angle and approaching nearer to the sea as they

z advance northwards . The a oic areas , composed o f gneiss , mica schist , lustrous schist , Slate and MINERAL RESOURCES

quartzite , occupy , together with granitoid rocks , the

- south west part of Tierra del Fnego , the Patagonian islands and the coast of the continent . In the Arch ip l elag o de los Chonos granitic rocks seem to f preponderate . The western coast o the island of

e o f Chilo is composed crystalline schistose rocks . North of this point these rocks constitute the western part o f the coast range in the form of a reef which gradually narrows until it passes into the sea south of Caldera . The palaeozoic beds , composed of quartzose and micaceous sandstone with c on glomerates of granitoid and crystalline rocks , bitu minous slate and some calcareous strata , extend to the edge o f the azoic formation from the province

o f of Llanquihue to the east the coast Cordillera .

an d In Valparaiso they reach the shore , further north they extend , alternating with granitoid rocks , to the neighbourhood of Taltal . Around the mouth of the river Choapa well - deﬁn ed fossils have been disinterred which correspond to the Upper Devonian

z z ic or Lower Carboniferous beds . The m e o o beds pertaining to the Triassic , Jurassic and Cretaceous periods are composed of calcareous rocks with in t ru sions , and of marls and quartzose sandstone , but are especially characterized by the great preponder ance o f colouredporphyritic material . The Cretaceous formation has been found from the eastern side of the Andean Cordillera to the south o f Patagonia ; and

1 04 MINERAL RESOURCES

al Shown in the interior of T tal , at the La Brea station ,

- 2000 feet above sea level . The quaternary formation is manifested in the alluvia which in the longitudinal valley overlie the tertiary strat a . These alluvions penetrate along the course o f the rivers to far within the Andean

. range , and probably are due to the melting of the ancient glaciers of the glacial epoch .

To the quaternary period , and perhaps partly to

sub - the tertiary , belong the beds of aerial origin with their various s alts (amongst them s altpetre) which of cover the desert Atacama , and whose formation is variously attributed to the chemical decomposition o f o r the feldspathic rocks , the action of the wind , the a ccidental alluvia which throughout long intervals a ccumulated the materials formed by these agents . In the geology o f Chile eruptive rocks largely preponderate , occurring from the earliest epochs up to present times . It is to these that Chile owes the

- principal characteristics of its land forms . They may be classiﬁed as granitoid rocks , which com prise Sienite , granite , and diorite quartziferous and

or h feldspathic porphyries , basic trachytes and p p y ries o f dark and variegated colours . The granite sienite and other granitoid rocks are found from

Tierra del Fuego to the desert o f Atacama . They form in Patagonia the greater part of the islands which extend to the south of the Archipié lago de los MINERAL RESOURCES 1 05

Chonos , and also occupy great tracts in this region

f o f o the continent . In the centre and north the country they are found in belts from the Andean

Cordillera to the coast . Trachyte is the most usual form of Chilean volcano m aterial . A large proportion ofthe volcanoes are found in the peaks o f the Andean range ; in the provinces o f the south they descend of to the slopes and to the foot the principal chain , while in Patagonia they are again found amongst the summits . They are very unequally distributed in the Andean Cordillera , for while there are long r stretches exhibiting no trace of them , in other pa ts they form the highest peaks . In the coast Cordillera and the entire Patagonian archipelago there are neither volcanic craters nor volcanic rocks . The metalliferous deposits are for the most part closely connected with the eruptive rocks . The true granites and also some quartziferous porphyries contain vei ns of gold besides seams of copper with

ab ronit es out gold the diorites , g and homogeneous greenstone usually contain copper without gold or silver , and Sienites are found with argentiferous

- lead ores . The stratiﬁed variegated porphyrites display veins of copper with Silver , especially when they are traversed by intrusions of felsites or quartziferous porphyry .

The metalliferous deposits occur in veins , in pockets or in placers . 1 06 MINERAL RESOURCES

In the sedimentary rocks small veins and nodules o f auriferous quartz are frequently found amongst the crystalline schists . The calcareous and marly formations of the Jurassic epoch commonly contain

- l veins with lead ores , but on y in certain strata , especially the bituminous . Cobalt and nickel occur in veins in the variegated porphyries and the diorites . Gold washings abound in the vicinity of the granites and crystalline schists .

of In the northern region , where , on account the

o f infrequency of rains , the zone oxidation has not been destroyed , it is easier perhaps than in any other part of the world to study the products of the oxidation and Chlorurat ion o f the metalliferous

ox chlorides deposits . The oxides , carbonates and y o f copper and of lead , and the chlorides , bromides and iodides o f silver are found in abundance . In f o i . e . the centre and south the country , in the rainy 1 region , there are few oxidized metals . The superﬁcial layers of the geological formations have been rendered cultivable by the action o f the atmospheric agents , by vegetation , and by the labour

in situ m o fman . Where these layers remain they al ost always participate in the nature of the rocks whence W they originate , but such is not the case here they

- - a re water borne lands . The arable bottom lands

1 L r z S n dt Annuario estadfstico de la R e blica o e n o u , pu

de Chile 1 0 . 66 . , 9 9 , p

CHAPTER I V

CLIMATE

THE climate of Chile exhibits the characteristics of the various latitudes in which the territory is situated . In the north it is dry and hot in the central region it is temperate , with regular rains throughout the winter , and in the south the temperature is low (though not so low as in the corresponding zone o f northern Europe) and rain is more abundant than f in the centre . The conﬁguration o the land con tributes to augment this diversity of climates , for , in consequence of its gradual elevation from west to

as out o f east , it is possible to p s the temperate zone o f the coast up to the icy peaks o f the Andes within the same latitude .

It is , therefore , obvious that the climate of Chile varies both according to its latitude and in respect

f a - o its height above se level . Given these circum

r stances , the territo y may be separated into three

: o f o f zones that the coast , that the longitudinal

o f re Valley , and that the Andean Cordillera , whose s ec t iv e p climates , with gradual modiﬁcations as they

v own . ad ance south , still preserve a character of their CLIMATE 1 09

As in our hemisphere , the seasons are the opposite to those o f the northern hemisphere ; the months of December , January and February constitute the

Chilean summer , and those of June , July and August its winter . In the coast zone the mean annual temperature t varies little from one latitude o another . Thus in

60 Iquique it is Fahrenheit , in Caldera in ° Coquimbo and Valparaiso and 5 1 8 in Au cu d. Between the eighteenth and twenty-fourth parallels ° the thermometer never sinks below 5 0 Fahrenheit nor ri ses above between the twenty-fourth and thirty—Sixth parallels it rarely descends below

° or 3 2 rises above Further south , however , the temperature falls considerably . In the longitudinal valley the greater elevation of the land and its distance from the sea combine to establish important variations of temperature . In the north the climate is Characterized by the extreme range o f the diurnal and nocturnal temperatures .

In the desert of Atacama , for example , at altitudes not exceeding feet the thermometer not ° unusually rises during the day to 1 0 0 Fahrenheit ° ° and falls at night to 36 or 37 . 5 Fahrenheit . These o for variati ns are much less sensible in the south , the reason that the vapour present in the atmosphere resists both the action of the sun and nocturnal radiation . In Santiago , which stands feet CLIMATE

- al above sea level , the temperature f ls on winter ° ° 2 o r 28 nights to 7 Fahrenheit , and in the summer ° the maximu m day range varies between 84 4 and

Occasionally it snows , but the snow does not long ni remain on the ground , nearly always va shing at

o f su n the ﬁrst rays the , even at altitudes of over

feet . On clear June and July days the ° ° thermometer frequently rises as high as 68 to 77 ° 2 o r l Fahrenheit , but at night it falls to 3 sti l lower .

During the summer these variations are less marked , for the temperature of Santiago seldom exceeds

° 8 2 -4 during the day or falls at night to below 53 Such oscill ations are due to the proximity of the l Andean Cordi lera , which in winter is covered with snow above the feet line . The air cools at its contact and during the night Spreads over the plain . In the zone of the Andean range the temperature

al f ls in proportion as the height increases , and is subj ect to wide variations at sunrise and sunset . The winds which prevail in Chile depend upon the conﬁguration of the land . The trade winds which blow — from the south east across the pampas of the Argen R tine epublic encounter the Andean range and ,

nl rising to the high regions of the atmosphere , o y descend at a great distance from the coast . More frequent winds are those which proceed from the

south , varying in each locality according to the NN season of the year and swinging from W . to SSW .

CLIMATE average velocity of the wind increases steadily from

September to January , when it decreases until April . During May and June the wind is general ly a light

- intermittent breeze . Storm winds usually blow from

NW . and SSW . The mountain chains which traverse the territory from north to south are sources of modiﬁcations in the general system of the climate and the winds . The bleakness o f the northern areas and the ex uberant vegetation of the southern region are , in their turn , inﬂuences which modify and alter the

o f of - hygrometry the air . The quantity water vapour contained in the atmosphere varies in inverse ratio to the latitude , and , as opposed to what happens in other parts , the rains are most abundant furthest from the Equator . In Tarapaca rain is unknown except in certain

o f o f districts . In the desert Atacama not a drop water may fall for several years Showers there are purely local and come from storms which arise over isolated mountains . Between the twenty-seventh and twenty - ninth

l n paral els rain is less rare , for even when it happe s

o ne or o n that for two years no rain falls the plain , storms supervene irr the Andean Cordillera and the

sea snow feeds the nearest rivers which ﬂow into the . Between the twenty- ninth and thirty- second parallels it rains at least once a year . CLIMATE 1 1 3

Further south the depth of rain and the number of days on which it falls increase progressively as far as the province of Valdivia . ° North of parallel 37 rains are more frequent in the western region of the coast Cordillera than in

' v alle b ut the central y, towards the south they have

C a more general haracter , extending over all the area comprised between the Paciﬁc and the Andes . Localized to the south of the thirty-eighth parallel during the months from November to March , they

’ then begin to Spread north , following the sun s progression . The ﬁrst rains fall generally in the region lying within the thirty- eighth and thirty-ﬁfth l para lels , and subsequently they extend more to the north . R ains are most frequent during June and July ,

sun when the is near the solstice , and they fall not o nl y in the central region but also in the province o f Coquimbo . After July they recede further and l further , unti in December they are again conﬁned

- to areas south of the thirty eighth parallel . Snow- storms are known only in the Andes and in the southern regions , rarely descending upon the

- l plains . The snow falls of the Cordil era are most frequent in autumn and winter ; in the summer months they are neither abundant nor much t o be feared . In the longitudinal valley the commonest pheno ~ H 1 1 4 CLIMATE mena are torrential rain- storms which fall for sev eral d successive days , especially to the south of the thirty eighth parallel . In Tierra del Fuego and the seas which surround

al o f it the norm state the atmosphere , even in the of middle summer , is tempestuous . The temperature of I n W i this season is higher than nter , but the winds blow with more violence and there are fewer days of sunshine . The hygrometri c state of the air exhibits the — peculiarities of the various regions m orst in the southern pro vinces and dry during the summer in the central and northern regions . The highest degree of relative humidity coincides with the rainy season and the lowest with the hot season . In this latter period a great discrepancy is observable in the — degree of air saturation , which decreases with the

o f heat instead increasing . The hourly variation is very regul ar ; the baro

’ meter rises every m ornmg until 9 or 1 0 o clock and ’ l r thereafter falls unti 4 o clock in the afte noon , reaching the maximum again at the end of six hours . l l The greatest irregu ar variations occur in June , Ju y ,

of — and August north the thirty sixth parallel , and in

January , February , and March south of that latitude . Winds from the West and the north-west produce ri h a fall of the barometric pressure , which ses wit

- southerly and south west winds .

CHAPTER V

RIVERS AND LAKES

THE most important rivers of Chile rise in the il Andean Cord lera at a Short distance from the coast , and their system is subordinated to the climatological conditions of the regions which they traverse . North of the twenty- eighth parallel they carry but

and - ﬁfth little water , and between the thirtieth thirty degrees they are mere torrents , but in the south they acquire the volume and the smooth ﬂow of the great

As rivers . to the lakes , the most notable are to be

or found in the southern region , either in the centre ll at the feet of the Cordi era de los Andes .

In the northern district , from the river Sama to the end of the desert of Atacama , there are but two permanent streams which reach and ﬂow into the h s ea . t e The ﬁrst is the river Azufre , which waters province of Tacna , and the valley which it traverses ,

u ebrada de Lluta known as the q , is very fertile and variously cul tivated . In the province of Tarapaca small rivulets which descend from the Andean

Cordillera are utilize d industrially and agriculturally . In the pampa del Tamar ug al the subterranean RIVERS AND LAKES 1 1 7

current which exists beneath the plain , and feeds the wells that have been sunk there , constitutes an inval uable auxiliary to the exploitation o f the nitrate deposits . The second permanent stream to which

Lo a we have referred is the , whose waters are utilized — for the irrigation o f the region around Calama a — veritable oasis of the desert and as a motive force provide power for some install ations recently estab h d lis e . In the remaining rivers the greater part of the water is lost by evaporation and the rest ﬁlters into the soil , to reappear here and there in the form o f small springs , whose water , laden with saline sub stances , is unﬁt for drinking purposes . To the south of Atacama the river Huasco is the

sea ﬁrst to reach the , and thereafter commences the

o f second hydrographic region the territory , which comprises no less than eighteen important rivers , distributed in a particularly uniform manner . From these rivers is derived the water for irrigation in the longitudinal valley and the transverse valleys .

o f The rivers the second hydrographic region ,

- fifth which extends to the thirty parallel , are subject to two annual floods . The first corresponds to the rainy season , and is extremely variable the second is the result o f the melting o f the snows and occurs during November and December . In these months the rapidly melting snow Slips in great masses down

of the ﬂanks the mountains , carrying with it the 1 18 RIVERS AND LAKES rocks and earth which lie in its path and which are

t o thus precipitated o the bottom f the torrent . It is for this reason that these streams , in their course through the longitudinal valley , are invariably turbid and deposit a large quantity of mud , which is to the Chilean plains what Nile mud is to the lands of

Lower Egypt . These ﬂoods , which continue for al sever months , begin to slacken (though their waters remain swollen and muddy) at the beginning of

r minimum Janua y . In February they reach their , l but do not recover their clearness unti March , when the melting of the snow is over . In the rivers situated south of the thirty- fifth parallel the summer flood is not particularly ap p re ciab l e . The water from the melting of the first snows Sinks into the soil of the forests which hereabouts cover the Andean Cordillera , and is relieved of the

so earthy matter accompanying it , that these rivers preserve their limpidity throughout the fine- weather season . The great winter floods occur during June d and and July , when the rivers flow turbi ly frequently overflow their banks . As the sources o f these rivers are found at con siderab le heights , while their course is relatively

Short , they invariably exhibit in their upper and middle parts , and often indeed in their lower course , Sharp inclinations which could easily be utilized for the generation of hydraulic motive power , and

RIVERS AND LAKES

d l . istance of 4 mi es NNE of Cape Humos , and close inshore , rises a rock which from its resemblance to a church has been given the name of La Iglesia . One

o mile further n rth stands a remarkable whitish rock , 8 0 feet in height , and known as the Lobos , which marks the mouth of the river Maule . The entrance cannot well be mistaken for the reason that from the south side the ground is high and the coast rugged , while from the north the low and sandy Shore extends for a considerable distance . The city of Con st it u ci0n is situated on the south bank of the river o e n mile from its mouth . The whole district is very fertile and the interior can be reached by means o f this beautiful river , at whose mouth , however , there is a bar which is constantly shifting . From September to February the channel forms close to

1 1 1 6 the Lobos rock , and has a depth of to feet at low tide . In March and April the Channel shifts gradually towards the north until it lies in the middl e of the entrance , or even further north , with from 6 to 8 feet at low tide . In May the rains begin and

- 6 the ebb tide , ﬂowing at a rate of from 4 to knots , renews the bar which forms from north to south , the channel returning to its position near the Lobos rock . The anchorage known as La Poza is from 1 6 to 26 feet deep almost opposite the city . ° ’ The river Bio - Bio is situated at 36 49 south

o f latitude , and its position , together with that RIVERS AND LAKES

Concepcion Bay and San Vicente Bay , may be 800 recognized by two notable hills , some feet in

- height , called the Tetas del Bio Bio , which rise towards the north o f the entrance . This river is not navigable on account o f its sandbanks . 8 ° The river Imperial discharges , at latitude 3

Ch olh u i hi at the foot of the hill , south of w ch there I s a small bay into which Lake Budi sometimes drains . From its mouth to the conﬂuence of the Ml Mocho or o cu its course is almost from north to

0 . south , with a breadth of some 44 yards Towards its left bank there are a few shoals , but close under the right bank there are 1 8 feet o f water when the tide is ﬂowing at a rate of two to three miles an hour . The shoal which forms the bar of the river crosses its mouth from north to south , leaving a channel to the

of Ch olh ui southwest and another to the west . The mouth is practicable for vessels drawing not more

8 o f than feet , but vessels deeper draught can enter during the rainy season . It is navigable by vessels o f the draught mentioned to about 1 9 miles from o f its mouth , as far as the city Carahue , which is situated on its left bank , and forms the terminus of the railway that links it to the central railway

AS f system in Temuco . the inﬂuence o the tides 21 n f reaches some miles i wards rom the mouth , small craft can navigate far into the interior . The Surrounding region is a very important one and RIVERS AND LAKES constitutes one of the wheat -growing centres of the country .

° ' The river Tolten is Situated at 39 1 5 south latitude . The depth of water over the bar is as 1 0 much as feet , but breakers are constant and only 6 those vessels can enter which draw less than % feet . Past the bar the depth of water increases gradually

2 u - o f to 5 feet p stream . The banks the river abound in timber . Valdivia is the name given only to that portion of the river Calle - Calle which is Situated between the port o f Corral and the city of Valdivia . The mouth ° o f this river (39 has a variable channel full of

Shoals , which occasionally obstruct navigation and only admit vessels drawing less than 9% feet of water . In former times the river Torna -Galeones offered a greater depth , though the route was longer , but it has now been reduced at many points . Large vessels discharge in Corral and their cargo is trans

in 60—1 00 t o n ported lighters to Valdivia , which city lies 9 miles from Corral on the left bank of o f the river . In the port Corral large foundries have been erected for the manufacture o f iron and steel . Five and a h alfmiles north o fMilagro creek the coast ° ' 0 1 6 recedes and forms a small bay into which , at 4

R io . south latitude , ﬂows the Bueno This bay is quite rm sh elt ered from the winds , with the result that the

1 24 RIVERS AND LAKES

Yelch o Corcovado Gulf it drains Lake , Situated at a distance o f 35 miles above its mouth . This lake is 1 7 miles in length and from 3% to 5 % miles in of 21 0 sea breadth , and lies at an altitude feet above level . Before it enters the lake the river is known as the Futaleufu , and ﬂows across the boundary line between Chile and Argentina at a distance of

n some 32 miles from the lake . Continuing i land it l 2 col ects , in a course of 4 miles , the surplus waters of the lakes Menendez , Barros Arana feet above sea- level) Jorge Montt , Bravo , and Nicolas feet

- Yelch o above sea level) . The is navigable as far as the lake of the same name , and even further

- for light draught steamers . The entrance is low al lying and here the river divides , forming sever mouths . ° 6' The river Palena ﬂows , at 43 4 south latitude ,

- of into the south west the Corcovado Gulf . It is 22 navigable up to its ﬁrst rapids , a distance of miles , by vessels drawing 9 feet of water . The entrance is

of obstructed by a bar shifting sand , which leaves a channel that varies according to the time of the year and the weather prevailing in the gulf . Past 21 the bar depths are found at low tide of 1 5 to feet .

Soundings generally give irregular results , but the river always affords a channel of not less than 1 1 feet dedth in , and in some parts a depth of as much as

66 - feet is found . The ebb tide has a velocity of two RIVERS AND LAKES 1 25

to four miles an hour . Above the ﬁrst rapids the current is very strong and at every half- mile there are other rapids . The Palena ﬂows across the frontier lin e with Argentina at a distance of 89 miles from its mouth and continues into Argentine territory 6 for a further 9 miles , as far as Lake Palena , in which it has its source .

Further south are the rivers Aysen , Baker , and

Pascua . The ﬁrst is navigable for 73 miles , to near

u the ﬁrst rapids , and the stream is broad and f ll , 1 8 with an average depth of feet . Its entrance is by 1 a narrow channel 3 feet deep at low tide . The Baker has a length of 97 miles and rises in Lakes

Buenos Aires and Cochrane . The Pascua is also a river with plenty of water , but its current is very l strong . Sma l boats can get as far as the ﬁrst

22 . rapids , miles from its mouth It rises in Lake San Martin and ﬂows for 35 miles through a narrow channel . To complete the description of the hydrographic aspect o f Chile we should now refer to the lacustrine region , which also exhibits interesting characteristics

o from the point f View of industry and civilization . The principal lakes are found in the provinces o f Valdivia and Llanquihue and are as follows

o f 286 Llanquihue , which has an area square miles R 1 6 ll 6 6 auco , 9 Vi arrica , 9 Puyehue , 3 , and Todos 0 Santos , 5 square miles . “ 1 26 RIVERS AND LAKES

Steam navigation has been established on Lakes

Llanquihue and Todos Santos . In this region , thanks to the excellence of these lakes as means of communication , some little trade with Argentina is being developed .

1 28 POLITICAL DIVISIONS

The mineral kingdom includes immense saline deposits and rich metalliferous veins . The second zone covers the area from the southern end of the desert of Atacama to the beginning of the l longitudinal val ey , and comprises , politically , part o f the province of Atacama and the whole of the l provinces of Coquimbo and Aconcagua . The val eys which it contains are o f greater dimensions than those of the preceding zone they are better irrigated , and their rivers in every case reach and discharge

sea into the at all seasons of the year . Throughout

o f this zone agriculture is the most varied nature ,

- especially in respect of fruit growing . The vine is very successfully cultivated and excellent wines are

al is produced . The princip industry , however , mining , many copper , silver , iron , manganese , lead , and other mines being exploited .

' ° ° u l 2 F rther south , between paral els 3 and 43

- is the third zone , the mid southern , which comprises

’ o f O Hi ins the provinces Valparaiso , Santiago , gg , C N olchagua , Curico , Talca , Linares , Maule , uble ,

— Mall c e o Concepcion , Arauco , Bio Bio , , Cantin , Val d o f ivia , Llanquihue and part of the province

Chiloe . In this zone the great longitudinal valley separates the Cordillera de los Andes from the coast ranges . Over most of its extent the land is watered by numerous rivers , which cross the territory from e ast to west . Veg etation is of vigorous growth and POLITICAL DIVISIONS 1 29

increases as it advances south . The forests abound

w o f ith timber and ﬁrewood excellent quality , and agriculture and cattle- rearing have reached an

advanced stage of development . The mineral king dom is notable for the large deposits of fossil coal and lignites which exist on the coast and extend i nl and as far as the longitudinal valley within the

area of the provinces of Concepcion and Arauco .

The last zone is the southern or austral , which is

° ' situated between parallels 43 30 and embracing

the region of the archipelagos , the continental belt

l . . of Chi ean Patagonia , and Tierra del Fuego , i e the

o f e southern part of Llanquihue , the province Chilo ,

r and the whole o f the Magallanes territo y . Here the longitudinal valley disappears and is replaced by the gulfs and channels which extend south o f

el n ca i R o v . The western Slopes of the Andes descend in to the sea and the coast Cordillera breaks up into

islands which preserve the geological formation . The entire zone abounds in forests and in lands s - - uitable for cattle rearing , this and timber cutting

being the principal industries . The fishing industry in this zone has immense possibilities . If the division o f the territory in respect o f its physical peculiarities corresponds more or less e s xactly to the four zone which we have enumerated , c lassification from the industrial point of View is S implified by considering only its climatological 1 30 POLITI CAL DIVISIONS

and its conditions principal products , which fall into three well - deﬁned regions C The northern region , haracterized by its nitrate

al al and met lic we th , comprising the provinces o f Tacna , Tarapaca , Antofagasta , Atacama , and

Coquimbo .

r The central region , characterized by its ag icultural

emb rac products , proper to the temperate zone , and ing the provinces of Aconcagua , Valparaiso , Santiago ,

’ O Hi ins gg , Colchagua , Curico , Talca , Linares , Maule ,

N - Ma lleco uble , Concepcion , Arauco , Bio Bio , , and

Cau t in t o sa , that is y, the most populous and most productive part of the country .

Finally , the southern region , characterized by

o f the abundance its forests , and comprising the

th e provinces of Valdivia , Llanquihue , Chiloe , and

of - territory Magallanes and Tierra del Fuego . Administratively the country is divided into

s n Th e province , with subdivision i to departments . latter are divided into sub -delegations and these again into districts . There are twenty- thr ee provinces and one coloniza

— o f l in tion territory that Magal anes , which also th clu des Tierra del Fnego . Local government is in e

f - 1 6 l o 2 . hands of municipa ities , which there are The area of Chile is calculated at square

of a roxirnat el miles , which p p y are occupied n by the northern provi ces , by the central

POLITICAL DIVI SIONS

Lands irrigated by artiﬁcial means form 2 5 per cent . of the total . The area occupied by the longi t udinal valley and the transverse valleys is estimated

n o t as square miles , and consequently more

’ than half o f the available area o f the country s richest zone is cultivated . The area occupied by natural pasture lands is

1 . 3 per cent o f the total . In great measure they comprise the lands suitable for cattle- rearing in

ue Magallanes and Tierra del F g o . 6 - 2 . Forest lands cover 5 per cent of the total area , and it is estimated that at least half o f them could be used for agricultural and industrial purposes .

The barren lands , which , as we have seen , are occupied by the Andean and the coast ranges and

o f . the pampas and deserts the north , form 57 per cent of the territory . From an industrial point of View it is in these tracts that the most important sources o f inex wealth are found , for here lie the almost h austib le o f salitre or o f deposits nitrate soda , and al the richest , most varied , and most abundant met

f r us li e o lodes in South America .

For of the rest , much land which in the north the country now ﬁgures as dead ground , barren from

of ll lack rain , wi be transformable into magniﬁcent cultivable soil upon the completion of the dams and

o f reservoirs for the winter ﬂood waters , and other hydrological works which are proj ected . POLITI CAL DIVI SIONS 133 The great longitudinal extension of Chile offers an adequate ﬁeld fo r the development of industries o f o f every description , and the diversity the pro ducts o f the various zones makes that active inter change oi merchandise possible which maintains the

’ prosperity of a country s commerce . CHAPTER VI I

DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST

I N the year 1 534 a R oyal Licence issued under the hand and seal o f the Spanish monarch conceded to

ca itan the p Don Diego de Almagro , for conquest and of colonization , the region extending to the south

ri Per . Almagro undertook the mission in person ,

o f 1 and , leaving Cuzco towards the middle 5 35 , crossed the plateaux o f the Andes and reached x Copiapo after si months of hardship and sufferings .

Thence he descended into the valley of Aconcagua , discovering a region which its inhabitants called

Tchili , probably from a word meaning , as some

’ ’ think , cold , and as others hold , beautiful . Not

ﬁnding the riches which he sought , Almagro with drew without fulﬁlling any o f the purposes of his visit , founding no great and powerful kingdom and leaving untouched the hidden wealth of precious metals . The failure o f the enterprise in no way damped

o f 1 0 the covetous ardour the Spaniards , and in 54

ca itan another p , Don Pedro de Valdivia , of the own armies of Pizarro , formed at his expense a troop

1 36 DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST

Canete and Osorno , and dispatched an expedition , under the command of the famous pilotos Ladrillero and Cortes de Ojeda , to reconnoitre the southern coasts and the Strait of Magallanes , discovered in

1 20 1 5 , of which they took possession , in 557 , in the f name o f the King o Spain . Since this date the

’ Strait has remained under Chile s jurisdiction . With the termination of the period o f the conquest

o f began the organization the colony , whose com plet ion of three centuries of existence was Signalized by the scientiﬁc expeditions dispatched to study the country and by the founding of numerous towns and cities .

’ During Don R odrigo de Quirog a s government General Don Martin R uiz de Gamboa founded by

1 6 1 80 his order , in 5 7 , the city of Castro , and , in 5 ,

Chillan . Don Alonso Sotomayor founded Arauco in 1 1 59 , and Lebu and Nacimiento were founded by

R 1 60 1— Don Alonso de ivera in the period 5 . 1 6 2 1 0 0 Between 9 and 7 Chimbarongo , Taltal , Itata , and R ere were founded by Don Tomas Marin de

Poveda . The founding of Quillota by Don José de Santiago Concha followed in 1 7 1 7 of San Felipe

1 0 by Don Antonio Manso de Velasco in 74 , of e 1 2 Los Angeles and Cauqu nes in 74 , of Melipilla , R 1 1 ancagua and Curico in 743 , Copiapo in 744 , and San Fernando in 1 745 ; all ' b y the same V el asco . DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST 1 37

R Conde de Don Domingo Ortiz de osas , known as

P oblaciones r Coclem a , founded Qui ihue , , Florida ,

Casablanca , Petorca , Ligua , and Illapel between

6 1 ll Gon zaca 1 74 and 755 . Don Antonio Gui y founded R ere , Yumbel , Tucapel , and Talcahuano , and also translated Concepcion to the Site on which it stands

- to day .

’ l O Hi ins Final y , Don Ambrosio gg founded during — the period 1 788 96 the cities of Santa R osa de lo s

Comb arb ald l é Andes , , Va lenar , Constitucion , San Jos de Maipo , Linares , and Parral . R The epublic organized , the Government perceived the necessity o f peopling the vast territory of the south of the country , and , attacking the problem 1 8 1 vigorously , succeeded by 5 in establishing foreign

o f colonies in the provinces Valdivia and Llanquihue . Val The iant Araucanian tribes , however , still retained

- the territory between the rivers Bio Bio and Tolten ,

sea o f from the to the Cordillera , and the state insecurity in which the boundary region remained by reason of the depredations of the Indians led the

1 861 aciﬁc at ion Government , in , to undertake the p

f 1 88 w as o Araucania . By 3 the entire territory subdued and incorporated under the laws of the R epublic . The lands which the Araucanos had defended with such valour were given over to colonization ; a network of railways grew across them , and numerous towns sprang up which now are 1 38 DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST

ﬂourishing cities , like Victoria , Temuco , Traiguen ,

l . Col ipulli , and others Of recent years the efforts of the State have been directed towards the colonization of the territory o f

' - - Magallanes , where to day the cattle rearing industry prospers wonderfully , its capital , Punta Arenas , being

o f the centre considerable commercial activity .

1 40 THE POPULATION

l a remote epoch . The Chi ean Indians did not form a body politic with a common denomination , but were separated into tribes distinguished by the designation of the territories in which they lived . Those in the north were called Picunches Puelches were those who dwelt in the east and in the

o f H uillich es valleys the Andes , and were the southern tribes , but these denominations were vague

o f Araucanos and indeterminate . Even the name which the Spaniards applied to the natives was unknown to them , and the probability is that it is derived from a Quechua or Peruvian word meaning enemies Under Spanish dominion these races were greatly reduced , but they were not totally exterminated , and

- even to day , when three hundred years have elapsed , representatives exist of the ancient owners of the soil .

Of the races mentioned , the Araucano , and in particular the Pehuenche tribe , which inhabited the

- district lying between the Bio Bio and the Tolten , was the ﬁnest type , breeding warriors who fought valiantly and tirelessly in defence of their native

u land , unda nted by innumerable defeats sustained in their long wars with the armies o f Spain . From t he intercourse o f the Spaniards with the native women sprang the present race , in which

o f traces survive ancestors on either side , though the THE POPULATION 1 41 mental and moral characteristics of the superior l breed have prevai ed . In the early times of the conquest there was no particular class of Spaniards ; those who came to

America were the bold , adventurous spirits of the period , and with them came other Europeans Flemings and Portuguese and Italians— whose inﬂuence can be traced in Chile . But from the intermixture of inferior races such as the African , which has gained such a hold in other parts of the continent , Chile has fortunately been free .

o f o ula It may be said , then , that the mass the p p tion of Chile is of pure European descent with

o f l m traces the aborigina , forming a ho ogeneous people with the characteristics of the superior races . The historian Don Toribio Medina estimates the population of Chile at at the time of the

no r arrival of the Spaniards , but although t ustworthy data exist to contradict him these ﬁgures seem l exaggerated . The population was very unequal y distributed ; in the north , between Copiapo and

no t Aconcagua , there were more than Indians , though their numbers increased further south . The most populous districts were those beyond the

- e Bio Bio and in the island of Chilo .

con u istadores al As to the q , their numeric strength

t h e was not very considerable . Towards the end of 1 42 THE POPULATION sixteenth century the male population of Spanish origin did not exceed of which a quarter lived in Santiago and the rest were distributed amongst — l nine small cities La Serena , Chil an , Concepcion ,

ll r Angol , Imperial , Vi a rica , Valdivia , Osorno , and 1 6 0 Castro . About 3 their total would be less than or In 1 730 the number o f inhabitants was calculated to be approximately and forty years later this ﬁgure was increased by

al h f .

1 1 o f In 79 , under the Presidency Don Ambrosio

’ O Hi ins al gg , the ecclesiastic authorities conducted a census of the population of Chile which returned

r inhabitants for the Bishop ic of Santiago ,

r and fo that of Concepcion . Some years previously a census taken in Chiloe returned the population ofthe islands as souls . Estimating the independent population of Araucania as ap p roxi mately Indians , Chile may be reckoned to have had towards the end of the eighteenth century from to inhabitants .

o f 1 8 1 0 o f The population Chile in , the period the l Independence , is calcu ated to have been The War o f Independence and the political and social disturbances which preceded the deﬁnitive organiza tion of the country did not p ermit o f statistical

e 1 8 1 investigations , but when p ace was declared in 3

al a ﬁrst parti census was taken , being completed in

144 THE POPULATION for this purpose the territory may be considered under the following sections

$ on es A rea

In this repartition the nitrate and mining zones comprise the northern provinces ; the central and agricultural zones embrace the provinces o f Acon cagua and Concepcion ; the Araucanian zone con sists of the provinces of Arauco and Valdivia , and the antarctic zone of Llanquihue and Magallanes .

AS may be seen by the foregoing table , the central ,

ri al o f ag cultur , and Araucanian zones , comprised the provinces of Aconcagu a and Valdivia (that is to say the best cultivated region , with an area of only — square miles less than a quarter of the whole

r territo y) , contain inhabitants , leaving but a ﬁfth o f the population for the arid zones of the north and the forest lands o f the extreme south . The proportion of the sexes in Chile is exceptionally l and wel balanced , for there are males

r nl 8 . females , a female maj o ity of o y 37 This naturall y does not mean that the sexes p reserve this THE POPULATION 1 45 numerical equality throughout the country ; fem ales predominate in the urban districts and males in the

o f rural parts . In the provinces the north and the extreme south the number of females is very limited . o f ﬁgure in the The proportion foreigners “which l p opu ation of Chile is particularly small , amounting only to or 4 1 per Of these are Peruvians , Bolivians , Spaniards ,

Italians , Germans , English ,

s French , Argentinos , Austrian ,

o f Swiss , and the remainder various national ities . The total number o f Araucanian Indians in t h e

o f 1 0 country is , according to the census 9 7 , distributed over the provinces of Bio - Bio t o the south

o f R elon c av i m as far as the Gulf , many of the forming part of the working population o f this great region . Nearly all the inhabitants profess the R oman

all . Catholic faith , but religions are tolerated

of 60 . The proportion illiterates is per cent , and shows an appreciable decrease at each census . It is considerably lower than in many other South

American countries . 6 6 To every inhabitants there are 5 unmarried , 268 6 married , and 7 widowed . Considering the movement of the population over K THE POPULATION — long periods of time the co efﬁ c ien t of the marriage rate may be calculated at 5 -5 per of the birth rate at 37 per and of the death - rate at 30 7 per The physiological increase of the p op ula 6 tion is therefore , on an average , 3 per With respect to these ﬁgures we Should remark

- r that while the birth rate is very satisfacto y , the death- rate seems excessive in a country whose climatic and productive conditions are so favourable . The explanation is to be found in the heavy infant mort al ity due to the indifference to hygienic rules which prevails amongst the lower classes . The remedying o f this social evil is receiving the earnest a ttention of the Government and of philanthropists .

148 COLONIAL PERIOD vitality and activity of the colony increased in proportion as the affairs of war permitted of the

o f r development ag iculture , and , thanks to the

of encomiendas o f l of system , the uti ization native labour . Thus gradually were formed the farms and estates o f the colony , which gave the Spaniards deﬁnite possession of the great longitudinal valley as far as

of - of the banks the Bio Bio , where by force arms they held in check the warlike Araucanian tribes .

C On these estates , as in the ities , Spanish and native

in t erniin le blood began to g , and soon a new and

mestizo vigorous race was born , the race of the , which to -day forms the great maj ority o f the inhabitants R o f the epublic . The upper classes maintained more or less the

o f purity their European blood , and their descendants

- enjoyed an advantageous pre eminence in society , while some o f them received the further considera tion due to the administrative functions which they

a . disch rged Owing to the wars with the Araucanos , Ship - loads of European soldiery were arriving in the colony , and while the population was augmented by their numbers the encomiendas beneﬁted by the additional native labour which they forced into their service .

i sa The creole Span sh , that is to y the white race

dm x r o f without a i tu e Indian blood , occupied second COLONIAL PERIOD 1 49

place in the social hierarchy , but formed , by virtue o f their industry and intelligence and their attach

r ment to the country of their birth , the pat ician class which secured the independence of the colony and organized the most prosperous R epublic of South

America . The third social element was constituted by the mestizos o f , born the intermingling of Spanish and

Indian blood , to which class we have already referred . Chile has never suffered to any appreciable extent from the negro and mulatto element which , in other o s r c untrie , has been the ge m of the rebellious and disorderly Spirit that has caused so many revolutions and civil contentions .

The native , regarded by the law as an individual

w as who needed protection and segregation , in reality , during the colonial period , a member of a vanquished race , and as such was subjected to forced labour . His wages were heavily taxed , and in addition to the constant toil which was exacted from him he had to suffer the cruel treatment of his

e xt inc masters . The consequence was the gradual tion of the Indian inhabitants . The excesses and abuses committed against the natives towards the end o f the eighteenth century aroused the humanitarian sentiments of the Governor

’ o f O Hi ins Chile , Don Ambrosio gg , who represented to the monarch the necessity of sup pressing the 1 39 COLONIAL PERIOD e ncomiendas then in existence , Showing how the abolition of forced labour must bring as an immediate o nseque nc e the industrial and agricultural prosperity o f the country . A royal Act o f 1 791 ordered the incorporation to the crown o f all the encomienda s of

Chile . By this time the number and importance of the Indian allotments had dwindled considerably , while the free and independent working- class had

u increased in extraordinary fashion . The f lﬁlment o f the royal wishes , however , encountered some opposition from the usufructuaries of the system and contributed to the alienation of a part o f the p op ula

of AS t o tion from the maintenance Spanish rule . the natives themselves , their ignorance prevented them from understanding that the king had given them their liberty , and they continued to slave for their masters under the designation o f inqu ilin os

tenants a name which is still accepted , without protest , by the free labourers who settle on a farm or estate t o work for the proprietor . The reforms accomplished during this period mark the dawn o f a new era in Chilean history . The colony now relied upon the original institutions for the formation o f a people capable of self- govern

For ment . nearly three centuries the absolute authority o f the Spanish monarchs had prevailed without let or hindrance the king was arbiter and

o f sovereign lord the country , dictating his commands

COLONIAL PERIOD

The government of the country was invariably

r entrusted to a personage of high milita y rank , who

a m o f - ssu ed the title Captain General , Governor , and P resident of the Kingdom of Chile . His residence

w as in the city of Santiago , and he exercised his $function subject to no authority but that o f the m onarch , save in the event of war , when he was

ri obliged to consul t with the Viceroy of Per . In his q uality of Captain- General he had under his command all the military forces and the heads o f the garrisons

‘ of Chiloe , Valdivia , Valparaiso , and Juan Fernandez . A S President he controlled the highest tribunal o f

. R Justice the oyal Audience , or Chancery .

$ I ntendentes The p rovinces were governed by , in

o f theory appointed by the king , but , in View the m distance fro Madrid , usually nominated by the

governor . In the province capitals a municipal corporation

alcaldes re idores known as the Cabildo , composed of , g ,

n al f . and other magistrates , admi istered loc a fairs

o f In respect the ecclesiastical government , the

r o f territo y was divided into two vast dioceses , that

Santiago and that of Concepcion , in the charge of

f o f su fragan bishops o f the Archbishopric Lima . The system of taxation in vogue in the American

Colonies followed no theoretical principle , and was designed solely to secure the greatest possible proﬁt

n r t he to the crow , without regard for the inju y that COLONIAL PERIOD 1 33 imposts might occasion to the prosperity of the country and the welfare of its inhabitants . The principal revenues o f the Treasury consisted of the

diezmos customs house duties , the or tithes , the taxes on mining and agriculture , and the product of the sal e of public ofﬁces and of Papal bulls . It is probable that these revenues would have f su ﬁced for the ordinary expenditure , but they failed to cover the heavy cost of the wars against the

Araucanos .

Chile , at the period of the Independence , was in

r n o reality a milita y colony , which contributed

r R fo r su plus to the oyal Treasury , and which , its own support , had need of the endowment of ducats which was voted by the Laws o f India and l annua ly received from Lima .

ﬁscalizat ion The collection , management , and of the

au dien cias revenue were entrusted to the presidents , , f al . roy o ﬁcials , and other administrative authorities The administrative system suffered from the spirit o f mistrust which prevailed in the Spanish govern

o f ment , and which was the cause of a confusion

authorities and departments . It was responsible , too , for the appointment of commissioners , auditors , and paymasters o f the royal ofﬁces in order that they might secretly and reciprocally keep watch upon

n o e another . Another of the marked peculiarities of the colonial 1 54 COLONIAL PERI OD regime was the farming of revenues and the sale o f f R public o ﬁces and appointments . oyal patronage extended not merely (as was natural) to the highest appointments , but also to the nomination and conﬁrmation o f even the pettiest o f employees .

These appointments , frequently entirely unsuitable , provoked the discontent o f the colonists and caused f no little embarrassment to public a fairs . The economical policy pursued by Spain in her relations with her South American possessions was n the expressio of the ideas of the time , and consisted o f a combination of restrictions and prohibitions whose object was to assure to Madrid the commerce

o f of India , to safeguard the navies Spain from the attacks of enemies and pirates , and to hinder the agricultural and industrial competition of the colonies . This protectionist system , designed to

o f revive the prosperity Spain , failed completely by reason of her political decadence , the bankruptcy of her treasury , and the absolutism of her kings . The manner in which the lands were apportioned and the organization o f labour could not but retard

dist ri the progress of industry . Vast estates were

buted among a handful of proprietors , who exploited

encomenderos o r them through factors . These , as a

o f rule , were devoid all agricultural experience and worked the properties by means of the forced labour o f x the Indians , who could not be e pected to interest

1 5 6 COLONIAL PERIOD qual ity and price in each locality of the goods on

l x sa e , which also paid the e cise duty .

Intercolonial commerce , when not prohibited altogether , was subject to import and export duties , though in Chile the export o f wheat and ﬂour was free . Commerce with Spain could not be effected direct from Chile , but was carried on through the medium

ri of Per , and , as regards commerce with foreign countries , this was prohibited absolutely , under pain of conﬁscation and death . These excessive restrictions underwent a remark able transformation with the advent of the edict o f 1 8 free trade issued by Carlos III in 77 , but freights were so high that Chile proﬁted very little by the change .

al Such was the political , economical , and soci

o f condition Chile when events in Spain , consequent f upon the Napoleonic invasion , e fected a notable al teration in the situation of the colony . CHAPTER X

THE REPUBLI C

THE capture of Ferdinand VII aroused the patriotic sentiment of the Spaniards and incited the glorious war in which a whole people fought for its independence and sovereignty . In the name of the

o f monarch a central Junta , representative the e ntire nation , took over the government of Spain , and other Juntas were organized in the provinces for

d f 1 80 the a ministration of local a fairs . In 9 the Central Junta declared that the colonies were not dependencies of the crown but integral parts thereof , with rights equal to those of the Spanish provinces . At this period the United States was already l a powerfu nation , and had proclaimed the right of independence as a part o f American public right . The ideas of the French philosophers of the eighteenth century had also pierced the dark clouds o f ignorance in which the people lived . Chilean society included men who were capable of understand of ing and following the evolution the new ideas , and thus it was that the Spanish people ’ s cry for liberty

- could echo so loudly in that far distant colony . 1 5 8 THE REPUBLI C

Noble Spirits in Chile clearly perceived the defects o f re ime the Spanish g , the unjustiﬁable preference enj oyed by the peninsular Spaniards in the dist rib u

fﬁ o f tion of public o ces , and the evils the restrictions and prohibitions which impeded the progress o f civilization . They pitied the situation of a people

o f sunken in the depths ignorance , and deplored their lack o f industrial and commercial activity ; and of these sentiments were born aspirations towards a better government in which their ideas of reform could be made to prevail . This superior class of

w as o f criollos Chilean society formed the Spanish , descendants o f ancient families who had settled in

- C the country , and some of the better lass foreigners who had kno wn the beneﬁts of a more advanced civilization . The peninsular Spanish population , composed of public employees , magistrates and high functionaries , and of the military forces and their

o f families and relations , united by the bond origin and cherishing the same ideals and sentiments , naturally resisted all innovation and fought with vigour and energy to maintain monarchical traditions and institutions . AS the masses were in no way prepared for the

’ as reception of the patriots ideas , and the opposition which the latter encountered was exceedingly strong and active , the struggle assumed from the beginning a co ercive character .

1 60 THE REPUBLI C

1 8 1 8 i in de en April 5 , ) Ch le was able to conﬁrm her p 1 821 dence by dispatching her armies , in , to liberate

ri Per .

2 1 8 1 8 On October 3 , , the Provisory Constitution i was proclaimed in Ch le , a Constitution which is considered to be one o f the bases o f her present form 1 8 1 82 o f government . The Constitutions of 22 and 3

o f perfected the political organization the country , but as they did not satisfy the aspirations of the people they were replaced by other statutes in 1 825 and 1 828 these in turn gave place to the Const it u

of 1 8 l . tion 33 , which stil prevails While in the constitutional statutes the surest

one o f z means were sought , says writer , organi ing

of r the public powers and constituting the count y , the administrative and legislative acts manifested a no less decided intention to ameliorate the industrial

Situation . It was desired to embrace in the most extensive and comprehensive manner the varied ﬁeld of the civil law ’ s action to settle in liberal and suitable fashion the status of individuals to organize agriculture , industry , commerce , and transport to keep a critical eye upon the public services and the general arrangement of the Treasury ; to moderate the taxation as far as practicable , and thus to form a system as perfect as was possible in that period . The state of the country did not permit of any z particularly drastic reforms . The Cortes of Cadi THE REPUBLI C had abolished taxation of the Indians and the system of mita personal service known as , had conceded to the colonists liberty to cultivate whatever nature or the art of man might provide , and had ordained that Americans might occupy in Spain positions or appointments of any and every description . The statesmen of Chile followed the movement o f reform by establishing the liberty of Slaves and the freedom o f the Press , and by opening primary schools and

o f generally improving the condition the natives , declaring them to be Chilean citizens , as free as all

1 8 1 the other inhabitants . In 3 the first national Government had decreed the establishment o f free trade with the object of stimulating the development 1 8 2 of commerce and the shipping industry , and in 4 arrangements were made to facilitate the introduction o f foreign immigrants and of new industries , and to assist the development of mining by suppressing the o ld taxes . In the same way important improvements were effected in the public services , such as the creation f of the superior Treasury o fices , the suppression o f o f the sale appointments , the regulation of the imposts and the coining of the national money . The cost o f the emancipation of the country had made great demands on private fortunes and had necessitated sacrifices of all descriptions which for THE REPUBLIC some time embarrassed the progress of public d a ministration . To this was to be added the lack o f prudence amongst the political leaders and

o f parties , which reduced the country to a state disorder in which it was impossible to gather the fruits of the reforms initiated in the preceding years . It is therefore no matter for surprise that the public revenues showed but a triﬂing development , and that when the ﬁrst balance of the national Treasury was struck in 1 830 the resul t Showed an average annual ingress of but for the previous

ﬁve years .

After this epoch , and under the protection of the

o f 1 8 Constitution 33 , commences the period of the real political and economical organization of

Chile .

al The Government of Gener Don Joaquin Prieto , supported by men of worth and experience such as

al R To cornal Port es , Egana , engifo and , initiated the

o f reform civil and administrative legislation , with the object o f bringing it into harmony with the new constitutional institutions of the republic . In economic matters they adopted the principles o f free trade and the ﬁrst efforts were made to attract foreign commerce , to which end warehouses were

1 8 r established in Valparaiso , in 33 , for the g atuitous reception and warehousing of goods in transit .

In this way commerce increased appreciably, and

1 64 THE REPUBLIC commenced seriously to attend to the education o f the people with the object of preparing them for the national life , and for the ﬁrst time individual action w began to make itself felt . Attention was also dra n to the municipalities , whose working demanded

- r c o ordination . During this pe iod many important al laws were enacted , dealing with elections , intern

o f government , means communication , statistics , weights and measures , immigration and colonization ,

of t administration j ustice , elementary and universi y

of of education , taxation licences , coining money , and

- the administration of the custom houses , in such a way that in the laws , decrees and regulations which were then promulgated are found the germs of the greater number o f the institutions which were developed later . During the presidency of Don Manuel Montt

1 8 1—61 ( 5 ) the Civil Code was enacted , which has served as a model to most o f the other Latin American nations schemes were approved for the establishment of Chairs of Political Science , Law , l Medicine , and Physica and Mathematical Sciences the professions of Civil Engineers , Geographers and

’ Architects were created ; girls schools were organ ized ; private libraries were founded , and through the medium o f the law o f elementary instruction o f 1 860 the principles of the preceding legislation were systematized . THE REPUBLI C 1 63

The same period saw the completion of the scheme for colonizing the territori es of Valdivia and

Llanquihue . To stimulate the development of agriculture the

Ca a de Credito Hi otecario j p was created , on the lines

é oncier of the French Cr dit F , and banking laws were passed which are in force to this day . In the Treasury branch the customs -house service was improved and the old system of payment of

diezmos taxation in kind , known as or tithes , was abolished and replaced by a territorial impost based

n o the income derived from the property .

Thanks to the impulse given to education , individual

’ re ime action , encouraged by a stable civil g , became more general , leading to the expansion of industries and undertakings of all kinds . Exterior commerce increased agriculture , with the employment of agri i cultural machinery , began to mprove and extend , and the ﬁrst banks of issue and discount banks were installed . The mining industry developed con siderab l y, and manufactures came into being on a more deﬁnite basis . The establishment of railways and telegraph- lines contributed immensely to the diffusion of progress and served to stimulate pro d uction . 1 861 In the period which followed , commencing in

o f é with the presidency Don Jos Joaquin Perez , national inst it rrt ions and legislation continued to THE REPUBLI C

C al improve . The ommerci Code was enacted with various complementary regulations ; public educa tion was extended and several reforms were effected in the administration o f the national Treasury . The Araucanian campaign and the depredations o f the Spanish ﬂeet o n the coasts of Chile in 1 866 put to the proof the solidarity of the administration and the temperament of the public spirit . Following up the impulse which the previous Government had m i parted to progress , the party then in power urged on the construction of railways and other public works . President Errazuriz governed the country from 6 1 8 1 8 1 t o 1 8 . September , 7 , the same date in 7 Until his term o f ofﬁce the Constitution o f 1 833 had

re - so permitted the election of presidents , that

Prieto , Bulnes , Montt , and Perez each governed for ten years . President Errazuriz , however , reformed the Constitution in his first year o f office and remained in power for five years only , the period which obtains to this day . During his occupation of the presidency a great im pulse w as given to public works ; new railroads were constructed and the Congressional Palace and the Normal College of l Agricuture were built . In the latter was held, for t h e m first ti e in America , an International or rather a Universal Exhibition . During this period the w Penal Code was enacted , together ith the Code

1 68 THE REPUBLIC

ri she was secretly allied Per , indeed , being the

o f fﬁ i . instigator the di cult es Making a strong effort ,

Chile succeeded in conquering the allied forces and ,

’ r sh e ca rying the war into the enemy s country , 1 821 occupied Lima , the Peruvian capital , not , as in

1 8 ri and 39, to liberate Per from her tyrants , but to ensure for Chile the peace under whose Shelter she has gained all her liberties , her most progressive institutions , and the name and credit which she enj oys . A country possessed of such energy Should give 1 88 proofs of her capacity for progress , and in 4 , with the war barely at an end , Chile made haste to celebrate its conclusion by means of a memorable

o f National Exhibition , which marked the point departure of a new development of her productive powers . From 1 88 1 to 1 886 the government of the country

- was entrusted to President Domingo Santo Maria , to whom it fell to terminat e the war in the manner to which we have referred . The conclusion of peace

r brought Chile the rich Tarapaca te ritory , while the recovery o f lands in the occupation of Bolivia pe rmitted of the uninterrupted exte nsion of her territory to beyond the eighteenth parallel of' latit ude south and of the expansion of comm erce and indus trial activity over a vast zone . The p aciﬁcation of all the Araucanian tribes rendered an extensive THE REPUBLIC 1 69

region in the south available for agricultural exploita

z tion , and to hasten the peopling and the civili ation o f this large tract foreign colonies were founded and railroads were constructed to put it into c o mmunica

tion with the rest of the republic . 1 8 1 886 On September , , commenced the presi

C deney of Balmaceda , haracterized by great activity in the direction of public works and especially in

Un for the construction o f schools and railroads . t u nat ely this progress was abruptly arrested upon ’ the termination of President Balm ac eda s administra tion by the struggle which began between the 1 8 1 Executive Power and Congress , and which , in 9 , i plunged the country into civ l war . Upon the defeat of the Governmen t forces the parliamentary authorities summoned the people to elect their

president , and the choice fell upon Admiral Jorge

o f Montt , whose task consisted principally fostering the progress of the country and of soothing the antagonisms o f the past struggle by means of

a government which respected the rights of all . During his term various measures were introduced for the redemption o f the emissions of paper-money

re - C and the establishment of the coinage , but ircum

stances were not favourable , and the conversion 1 8 1 8 8 attempted in 95 failed in 9 , when the country

returned to the regime o f paper currency . 1 8 1 8 6 On September , 9 , began the presidency of THE REPUBLIC

z z wh o fﬁ Don Federico Erra uri , retained o ce until

1 0 1 . 9 During this period , and throughout the term o f f o f R o ﬁce his successor President iesco , the boundary dispute with Argentina was one of the matters which most absorbed the interest of the governing bodies and o f the whole nation . By a fortunate agreement between the Governments o f fre the two countries the controversy , which had quently menaced the maintenance o f international

w as o f peace , submitted to the arbitration King

1 0 2 Edward VI I , whose award , issued in 9 , put an f end to the di ferences of the Sister republics . In 1 90 6 the Presidency was entrusted to Don Pedro fi o f Montt , who continued in of ce until the state his 1 1 0 health obliged him to relinquish it . In 9 he left on r a voyage to Europe , where , upon his a rival in

Germany , he died , in August of the same year . Gifted with extraordinary energy and im bued with

ad patriotism , President Montt infused into his ministration an activity which the country will be better able to appreciate some years hence . The

of construction railways and public buildings , the

n improvement in the sanitary conditions of the tow s , the creation of schools and establishments o f general

al and profession education , the reform of many of the public services , and the high level at which all the institutions were maintained , are , amongst

o f 1 1 0 others , the characteristics the Government of 9 ,

CHAPTER X I

THE CITIES

OF the inhabitants of Chile about 43 per cent . , or live in groups of more than a thousand individuals . The remainder live on the

Sites of farming , mining and other operations , and in small rural villages . The proportion of the urban

1 86 population to the total was 29 per cent . in 5 and 1 88 34 per cent . in 5 , ﬁgures which clearly indicate the tendency towards concentration in cities .

There are 2 cities o f more than imb abi ~

6 1 o f tants , of more than 4 more than and 1 70 towns of more than Of rural hamlets there are In 1 885 there existed 2 cities of more than 28 inhabitants , 3 of more than of more than 1 70 townships of more than and 435 village s .

The principal cities , which are at present capitals o f the various provinces into which the territory is

t o divided , and their populations according the last census , are shown in the following table THE CITIES

NORTH ERN REG ION

Other important cities are Pisagua , Tocopilla ,

Taltal , Vallenar , Coquimbo , and Ovalle .

C ENTRA L REGI ON Sa n Felip e V alp araiso Sa nt iag o R anc ag u a Sa n Fe rna n do

Cu ric o

Ta lc a

Lin are s Cau qu ene s Chillan

’ Co nc e p cic m Le b u LO S An g eles An g ol Te m u co

This enumeration of the cities which are heads of their respective provinces merely gives an idea o f their relative importance , and it should be remem bered that there are other cities o f still greater importance than some of those we have named ,

as such , for instance , Los Andes , Quillota , Limache , 1 74 THE CITIES

R San Bernardo , engo , Parral , San Carlos , Mulchen ,

Traiguen , and Victoria .

S O U TH ERN REG ION

Other cities o f importance are La Union and

Osorno . The City of Tacna and the port of Arica constitute the ﬁrst important nucleus of population to be found

ﬁrst - in the northern provinces . The named is situated in a fertile valley from which it derives

o f resources every description , and it is linked by a railroad , 39 miles in length , with the port of Arica . The latter is Situated at the outlet o f the Azapa

° ' 1 8 21 28 valley , at latitude south , and lies 9 miles from Valparaiso . The port has a commodious and sheltered anchorage , and its commerce , owing to the

o f construction the railroad to La Paz , the capital of Bolivia , is beginning to develop . The most important city of the northern region is ° ' 20 1 2 the port of Iquique , which is situated at 8 1 m latitude south , at a distance of 7 miles fro f Valparaiso . The bay a fords good anchorage and the town is spread over a broad foreshore . The buildings are of unsubstantial construction and t h e streets are very broad and S pacious .

1 76 THE CITIES

l 0 i a rai road 5 m les in length . The port has a shel t ered is V harbour and 393 miles from alparaiso . The capital of the province o f Coquimbo is the beautiful city of La Serena , which stands on the

o f on southern bank the river Coquimbo , raised a low

- table land which dominates the bay of Coquimbo ,

8 is miles distant . It connected with the port of Coquimbo by a line that forms part of the great Longitudinal R ailway which traverses the country from north to south .

° ' a 2 This port , whose geographical situ tion is 9 57 d latitude south , possesses a ﬁne roadstead , very broa

I t s and commodious . distance from Valparaiso is 1 97 miles . The town lies at the foot of the eminences which form Pelican Point it is an important centre o f commerce and an outlet for the mineral and agricultural products of the province . To the central region belongs the most important

o f — t city Chile San iago , capital of the republic ,

1 1 al founded in 54 by Don Pedro de V divia . It is situated towards the centre o f a broad and fertile

Ma ch o o plain traversed by the river p , and , as has

- been said , stands feet above sea level . In the

Ma ch o o centre of the city , on the south bank of the p , rises a small hill , the Cerro Santa Lucia , anciently

H u elen known by the natives as , a word which signiﬁes pain From its summit the city can be

on seen in panorama , bounded the east by the THE CITIES 1 77

Cordillera de los Andes , whose peaks in winter are

. M a och o covered with snow The little river p , which runs through the city in a bed of rubble masonry , divides it into two districts , north and south . From the Cerro Santa Lucia westwards the avenue named Alameda de las Delicias in its turn divides the south district into two sections , cutting it at a sharp angle

o f with the course the river . To the north the hills

al t o Navia , Blanco , and San Cristob set a limit the city .

o f The general plan Santiago is very regular , and for the most part the streets are straight and broad . The district south o f the Alameda covers an

- approximate length of a mile and three quarters , Mh and north o f the ap o c o the precincts of the city extend for over a mile and a half . The angle formed by the river and the Alameda contains the commercial part of Santiago . The growth of the population has during recent years considerably extended the urban district so that it has the proportions of a gfeat metropolis .

Co usiﬁo The Alameda , the Park , the Normal t he College of Agriculture , the Santa Lucia hill , and Parque Forestal with its various plazas and gardens are popular resorts which help to maintain the salu b rit y of the city while adding greatly to its beauty .

The public buildings , the private mansions , the

’ monuments erected to CMhile s illustrious men , the 1 78 THE CITIES churches and the theatres are all in point of arch it ec ture and proportions worthy of Santiago and of the r epublic . The Palacio de la Moneda , the residence of the president of the republic and containing the

ﬁ is of ces of the ministers of State , an ediﬁce notable both o n account o f its dimensions and for its age .

al The Congressional Palace , the Municip Theatre , the

m al o f Museu , and the P ace Fine Arts are all worthy o f r mention , and the University , the Libra y , the li School of Medicine , the State Prison , the Mi tary

o f School , and the Ministry Industry and Public

Works are structures o f equal importance . ’ di The Archbishop s Palace is a Splendid buil ng , and the Cathedral is one of the ﬁnest churches in

AS South America . to private ediﬁces , there has

o f lately been a revival construction , and some of the factories and industrial concerns are housed in very costly premises .

Santiago is the seat of the Public Authorities , which are represented by the President of the

R al o f epublic , the Nation Congress , and the Courts

- Justice . It is also the head quarters of the General f Sta f of the Army , whose most important buildings

o f are the Academy War , the Military School , the m Arsenal , and the A munition Factory . The water supply is brought from the Cordillera

of by means pipes , and a sewerage system ensures the hygiene of the city .

THE CITIES

- breakwaters and mooring stages . At present the port possesses various ﬂoating wharves , of which the most important is the ﬁscal wharf , a work of some technical ingenuity . It is provided with the necessary lading and unlading machinery , worked by hydraulic power , and vessels of any draught can come alongside . The machinery for the transport o f merchandise from and to the custom-house is also hydraulically

f - worked . The bonded warehouses o the custom house a re - spacious and well built structures . For the repairing of vessels there are two ﬂo at ing d ocks owned by a private concern . AS regards its architecture it is painful to record that a great part of Valparaiso was destroyed by the e o f 1 0 6 arthquake 9 , when within a few Short moments palaces and houses and , what is still more regrettable ,

t w o . thousand of its inhabitants , disappeared Since t hen the reconstruction of the city has proceeded a pace , and the new Valparaiso will be better planned

r in eve y respect .

AS is natural in a populous city , and in the principal commercial centre of the country , all the necessities o f life and commerce are to be found in Valparaiso .

The town can boast large and valuable buildings , public and private , and there are many social

. institutions , factories , banks , and shipping companies Among the most important industrial establishments THE CITIES 1 8 1 in Valparaiso and its vicinity should be mentioned the factories of the Sociedad de Maestranzas and of

h o Co . W Balfour , Lyon , undertake the construction o f machinery o f all kinds . Valparaiso has many public educational and charitable establishments and other institutions . The

- o f o water supply is worthy attention , for Valparais was one of the ﬁrst cities in South America to use iron pipes for this purpose . Of recent years the supply has been perfected by means of the con

e Peﬁuelas struction of an immens darn on the plain , which collects the rain-water from a hydrographic

as b in with an area of 22 acres . The water is led by

- 1 2— an aqueduct to two distribution tanks , 3 miles

- from Peﬁu elas and nearly feet above sea level .

o f From these two tanks the main pipes , capable providing for a daily consumption of 1 43 million gallons , carry the water into the city . Another important feature of Valparaiso is the d rainage of the city , which was carried out on the

-ﬁv e separate system twenty years ago , by a com pany formed in England with a capital of There are electric trams in the level part of Valparaiso and a service o f lifts which facilitates communication between the lower levels and the hills . Valparaiso is the seat of the superior authority of

the provinces , the Superintendent of Custom Houses , 1 82 THE CITIES

- of the Director General the Fleet , the Naval School , and the principal ofﬁcials connected with military f marine and navigation a fairs . To the north of the provinces of Santiago and

o Valparais is the province of Aconcagua , renowned fo r r its ag icultural wealth , whose capital is the ﬁne city of San Felipe . It is 7 2 miles by railroad from al V paraiso , and at an equal distance towards the l R Cordil era is the city of Santa osa de los Andes , the point of departure o f the Transandine R ailway R which unites Chile with the Argentine epublic . Concepcion comes third in importance among the cities of Chile and together with the port of Talca~ huano forms a centre of Civilization and commercial

al activity Similar , though on a smaller sc e , to those which are represented by Santiago and Valparaiso further north . Concepcion is situated in the Mocha

- Valley , on the right bank of the Bio Bio , and is

1 i e . 4 3 m l s from Santiago Its streets , buildings , and public services place it on a level with the modern cities of the same proportions . The port o f Talca huano lies at a distance of 9 miles from Concepcion 6° in latitude 3 south , in a broad bay in which there an are various small ports . It possesses a Sheltered c h ora e - g towards the south west , and at its entrance is the island Quiriquina , which to some extent o protects the bay from the north winds . Talcahuan is 240 miles from Valparaiso .

1 84 THE CITIES from each of which it is distant approximately

is o f 3 § miles . It the centre a great industrial and agricultural trade , and an important fair is held there 2 every Saturday . It is 45 miles distant from

Santiago . In the southern region is the city and river port

C t of Valdivia , historically elebrated for the mili ary importance of the fortiﬁcations which defended the river mouth and which were attacked and taken by Lord Cochrane when ﬁghting in the service of Chile against the Spaniards . Valdivia lies at a distance o f 1 1 miles from the sea and is the centre of important industries . The network of navigable routes which connects it with the river Valdivia also facilitates w communication ith the inland towns , while the Longitudinal R ailway puts Valdivia in connexion with the rest of the republic . In the Straits of Magallanes is the principal city o o f f the Antarctic region the continent . It is the

o n free port of Punta Arenas , Situated the eastern

- coast of the Brunswick Peninsula . Cattle rearing ,

ﬁshing , and gold washing are its principal industries , and its geographical position renders it a centre o f considerable commercial activity . CHAPTER X I I

COLONIZATION AND IMMIGRATION

THE mere physiological increase of the population , f even under the best possible conditions , is insu ﬁcient n for a cou try like Chile , which is beginning to exploit its sources o f wealth ; it can neither provide the labour needed for its growing industries nor people

o the uninhabited public lands . The development f the mining and nitrate concerns of the north is the cause of a continued exodus of the inhabitants of the central region—the most populous— and hampers the progress o f agriculture and the other industries o f this part o f the territory . The problem o f the increase o f the population has thus be come o ne of much moment , and the successive Governments of f the republic have made constant e forts to solve it . If the results have not been all that could be desired it has been for reasons which are easily explained .

o f Chile , a land order and progress , gifted with a b en eﬁcen t Climate and choice and abundant natural

products , a country where rights and liberty are

t o s on t a perfectly secure , has been unable attract p n eo us currents o fimmigration by reason of its peculiar 1 86 COLONIZATION AND IMMIGRATION geographical Situation— its great distance from m Europe . It is co mon knowledge that the European emigrant prefers to settle in the countries nearest at hand , in the ﬁrst place because the voyage , being shorter , is less expensive , and secondly because these countries are usually more familiar to him h e has heard more about them , probably from friends o r relations , who encourage him and help him to

one emigrate . Chile , unfortunately , is not of these

’ r countries . Distant thirty or fo ty days steaming from Europe , it will surmount the strong barrier set up by distance only when it is brought nearer to the emigrants ’ countries by the improvement of transport facilities and by new means of communi R l cation , amongst which the Transandine ai way to Buenos Aires has already commenced to exercise a favourable inﬂuence , while the Panama Canal will soon do the same on a vaster scale . It is worthy of record that one of the ﬁrst acts o f the free Government organized by the Supreme

’ r O Hi ins Director , Don Be nardo gg , was to instruct the Plenipotentiary accredited to the Court o f

’ St . James s to promote immigration , Irish and Swiss in particular , into the republic , and this though the 1 1 Government was preoccupied with the war of 8 7 . Many subsequent acts testify to the interest with

’ r which Chile s ulers regarded this problem , whereof no practical solution was forthcoming until a number

1 8 8 COLONIZATI ON AND I MMIGRATION

e c ntres , and after these come the industrious colonies o f Trum a of g , on the river Bueno , and Puerto Varas and Octay on the Shores o f Lake Llanquihue . The second attempt to colonize State lands was an undertaking of a more ambitious nature . The

o f brave Araucanian tribes , after the emancipation

m o f the country fro the crown Spain , retained the territory which they had possessed in the colonial period . This was the territory between the rivers

- Bio Bio and Tolten , extending from the sea to the

Andes Cordillera . Northwards the frontier line was defended by a series of forts occupied by military detachments . The constant depredations of the Indians induced the Government o f President Perez

ac iﬁc at io n to commence the p of Araucania , and the frontier line was pushed southwards to the shores o f

Mal on lec o the , various townships being founded land won from the savages during the years 1 861 to

1 86 . 9 Yet total conquest could not be achieved , and to this end new forts were constructed thirty

n t o miles from the river Ca tin . Settlers began arrive and little by little the natives adopted a

C z ivili ed life . After a rising which was easily subdued , the Government o f President Santa Maria aecom p lish ed the complete p aciﬁcat io n of the Araucanian

1 88 C o f V territory in 3 , occupying the ity illarrica , which marked the southern limit o f the region that the native tribes had possessed for centuries . With COLONIZATI ON AND I MMI GRATION 1 89 o ut loss of time this territory was set apart for foreign

i colon zation , and railways were constructed in order that it might be infused with the Spirit of civilization .

By means of government agents , French , Swiss ,

German , and Basque colonists were secured , and with them were founded the agricul tural coloni es of V ictoria , Quechereguas , Quillen , Ercilla , Traiguen ,

Contulmo , Quino , Temuco , Lautaro , Galvarino ,

- Puren , and Imperial . To day it may be said that these colonies have been incorporated into the community and have ceased to be ofﬁcial institutions . The task begun by President Santa Maria and continued by President Balmaceda in Araucanian territory had as its principal obj e ct the handing over o f the region to private individuals for exploitation , and with this end in View vast tracts of land , which

r now fo m valuable agricultural properties , were sold to the highest bidder . The lands have appreciated v in alue , the population has increased , trade has

- Mall c o e grown , and to day the provinces of and

Cantin , which compose the ancient Araucanian terri

r tory , are amongst the most productive dist icts of

- the country in point of cultivation , cattle raising , and

- timber working . The Government of Admiral Montt having decided to establish colonial centres in the public lands o f t h e Island of Chiloe and on the river Maullin in t h e o Llanquihue Province , the colonies of Chaca , 1 90 COLONIZATION AND IMMIGRATI ON

uet almah ue Huillinco , Mechaico , Q , Queilen , Quellon , R i and o Gato were founded . This undertaking has

f o s met with some di ﬁculties , but the regi n lend itself admirably to the development o f thriving townships .

o The climate is mild , temperate , and unif rm , land

se a r commu is cheap , and the facilities for and iver n c at n f i io may without di ﬁculty be perfected . The

o labourer , too , is steady and s ber , and wages are low . Although the cultivation of cereals is less remunera

al i s tive than in the centr prov nce , they are produced

f for s in su ﬁcient quantity con umption , and the yield

- o could easily be increased . Pasture lands ab und,

- s and forage roots can be grown with excellent result , so that the cattle - rai sing industry has wide scope for development . Flax and fruit trees thrive , and the forests yield timber of the best description for

o s the construction of h uses and ves els , some of the

al o for species being so used , through ut the country , sleepers on the railroads . But the most characteristic i e product of Ch lo is the potato , which is considered

of a native the region , and of which many varieties

— t o aut h ori more than a hundred , according some — ties are known . Potatoes are sown in dry soil twice a year and yield from ﬁfteen to twenty tubers apiece . Fishing is another industry which provides abundant food for the population of the islands of the archi

r pelago . The ﬁsh swa m in these waters to such an

corrales extent that they are caug ht in , low circular

192 COLONIZATION AND IMMIGRATION

m frozen lamb , and amongst them the South A erican Export Syndicate (Ltd) and the R efrigerating Company of Patagonia can prepare and Ship to carcasses a year . The Tierra del Fuego Development Company is the most important of the

- sheep rearing concerns . The working of coal deposits and of gold placers is another possible source of wealth to the Magallanes territory . Apart from the official or government colonies of which we have spoken , a number of private colonies have been established by means of contracts for the concession of lands made by the Government with certain colonizing concerns , amongst which the

New Italy colony is the most important . This

Malleco colony was founded in the province of , and to - day forms a very ﬂourishing agricultural centre . With the idea of attracting back to the country

o f the large number Chilean citizens who , in the

o f course years , had settled in the neighbouring

Argentine valleys and territories of the south , the G overnment decided to form national colonies by o ffering lands and other beneﬁts , and in a short time created ten colonial centres in about acres , whereon over three thousand souls settled permanently . At the same time as the work of ofﬁcial and private COLONIZATION AND IMMIGRATION 1 93

colonization was proceeding , the Government made efforts to civilize the natives and to reform their communistic habits by marking out the lands they

Should occupy . To appreciate as a whole the activity of the State in the matter of colonization it will be sufﬁcient to quote particulars of the lands which have been surveyed and measured up to the present , and of the manner in which they have been distributed . In the

Mall eco provinces of , Cantin , Valdivia , Llanquihue ,

Chiloe , and Magallanes , acres have been devoted to colonization , acres have been sold , and acres have been chieﬂy conceded to private undertakings in the three last - named provinces . In addition , acres have been set apart for natives . In the colonized lands there are

al al . 37 colonial agricultur centres , nation and foreign The laws in force permit the Government to concede to the colonists brought out by their agents a certain extent o f territory for each head of the family and w for each son over ten years of age , together ith pecuniary assistance and many other beneﬁts . The Government may also sell lands in public auction in

t o lots not exceeding acres , with facilities as payment therefor . Without reckoning the immigrants who have settled in the agricultural colonies , a certain number of persons have entered the country as free or N 1 94 COLONIZATION AND IMMIGRATION

l t o industria immigrants , whom the State has granted the whole o r part o f their passage from Europe . These immigrants are recruited by the Government

or agents , come at the instance of industrials who e o wn or ngage them for their account , are encouraged to come by relatives already established in the al country . In this way some individu s have e ntered the country . It is very difﬁcult to calculate even approximately the area o f the public lands available for sale or

for colonization , the reason that their measurement is not yet completed ; but according to existing statistics the level lands suitable for agricultur e or cattle- raising already explored between parallels ° ° 1 6 4 and 5 exceed in extent acres . It is estimated that o n the explored lands south o f parallel that is to say the region north o f Magallanes , the Brunswick Peninsula , Dawson

o f Island , and the northern part Tierra del Fuego , there is space for 7 or 8 million head o f sheep or horned cattle .

1 96 MEANS OF COMMUNICATION After examining as a whole the network of rail roads which facilitates communication in each of the industrial regions of the country , we will study the statistics of the private and state railroads . In the northern provinces the principal lines are those o f the nitrate region in Tarapaca and Anto fa ast a g . The most important railway o f Tarapaca is

- the Iquique Pisagua line , constructed to serve the

o ne nitrate industry . It is composed of main line and eighty- eight secondary branches to the oﬁcinas where the nitrate is worked . Its total mileage is 325 miles and its value amounts to

It is owned by the Nitrate R ailways Company . With this line is connected that which runs from

o cina Junin to the Carolina ﬁ , covering , with its 6 branch lines , a length of 5 miles . It belongs

to the Junin Nitrate Company , and its value is

Between Caleta Buena and Agua Santa there is a railroad 64 miles in length serving the nitrate workings of the district . Its value is Between the Granj as station of the railroad to Lagunas and Cerro Gordo and the mines of Chaya collo there is a line 22 miles in length which belongs exclusively to a mining company . In the province of Antofagasta are the railroad m fro Tocopilla to the Toco nitrate beds , with a MOF EANS COMMUNICATION 1 97 length of 76 miles and a value o f the

- R 1 Antofagasta Bolivia ailway , 7 5 miles in length , with branches to Collah u asi and Boquete totalling 83 miles ; the line from Caleta Coloso to Aguas

1 1 6 l Blancas with mi es , and the branches to various l o cinas 2 . ﬁ , which total 4 mi es The Chilean section o f the Antofagasta and Bolivia R ailway runs between Antofagasta and Ollagiie over a distance of 274 miles . Including several branch lines the total mileage o f this section amounts to

497 miles . It belongs to an English company , the R Antofagasta (Chile) and Bolivia ailway Company , originally ﬂoated with a capital of Its present capit al is The railway from Caleta Coloso and its branch lines has a value of The line from Taltal to Cachinal de la Sierra is 2 f 9 miles in length , and its di ferent branches have

o f 1 8 l an equal mileage , which gives a total 4 mi es .

o n e Its value is over million sterling .

In the mining zone , which extends from the

o f o f province Atacama to that Coquimbo , there are several railways of importance . The line from

Ch aﬁaral 0 to Pueblo Hundido has a length of 9 miles ,

t o and its branch from Inca Chule a further 54 miles . The railroad from Caldera to Copiapo was the ﬁrst to be constructed in Chile , and for this reason deserves

. was we that its origin Should be known It due , as 1 98 MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

Wh eelri h t have said , to g , who , after having intro duc e d steam - navigation on the coasts of Chile in

1 8 0 o f 4 , began the construction the line in March , 1 8 0 5 , with a capital of subscribed almost

z in entirely by Chilean citi ens , and completed it

December of the following year . The line had a

0 length of only 5 miles , and in subsequent years

o f additions were built , at a cost until

1 a total of 50 miles w as attained . This railroad has several branch lines of minor importance . In the same Atacama province and a little t o the south o f Caldera is the line from Carrizal to

Yerba Buena , which serves an important mining

it s 1 1 region and , with branches , has a length of 5 miles . From the port of Huasco there is a line which reaches the City o f Vallenar after traversing 3 1 miles . In the province of Coquimbo there are three

l : - rai ways the Coquimbo Ovalle line , 73 miles the

- R 0 Serena ivadavia line , 5 miles ; and the line from l Tongoy to Trapiche , with 37 mi es . Their combined 1 6 mileage is therefore 0 miles . The lines from

Ch afi aral , Huasco , and Coquimbo are owned by the State . From the province of Aconcagua southwards runs t m the central railway sys e of Chile , belonging to the

State . It traverses the whole territory as far as the

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

8 Collielfu R cion , 3 miles to Lake inihue , 44 miles ,

o f l and , in Magallanes , the short line 5 mi es from

Punta Arenas to Loreto . R ecapitulating the foregoing details , we ﬁnd that the railway system o f Chile consists of miles o f o f of line , which are privately owned rail

o f roads and lines belonging to the State . There are no statistics by which we may estimate t h e total val ue and the movement o f passengers and

AS of . freight the private railways to the State lines , the most recent calculations assign them a value o f - of a freight movement tons , and a passenger- movement o f

r o f There are two inte national railways , that

Antofagasta to Bolivia , to which we have already

o f referred , and that Los Andes to the Argentine

see R epublic . Next year will the completion of a third international railroad , which the State is

o f constructing between the port Arica and La Paz , the capital of Bolivia . The line from Los Andes to the Argentine frontier

of has a length 43 miles , and was constructed by an English company which was guaranteed an interest o f o n o f 5 per cent . a capital From the Argentine frontier to Mendoza there is a privately own ed line which connects with the railway system o f Buenos Aires . The railway from Arica to La Paz has a length of MEANS OF COMMUNICATION 20 1

286 l mi es , and its construction was undertaken by Lt d the English ﬁrm Sir John Jackson (Chile) , for the sum o f To complete the railway system at present in operation , and to facilitate transport in productive regions which for the time being are isolated and suffer from the disadvantages o f costly and difﬁcult communication , the State has commenced the construction o f numerous branch lines on the central system , and is approaching the solution of the problem o f extending this system to the northern region o f the country by means of a line which shall serve to connect the isolated railways in the nitrate and mining districts with the rest of the republic . e It is this idea , at onc politic and economical , that is no w being put into execution by means o f contracts

. o f with two English companies One these , the R Chilean Longitudinal ailway Construction Company , 26 will build an extension 4 miles in length , between Pueblo Hundido (on the Ch aﬁaral line) and Lagunas

(on the Iquique line) . The other , the Howard 1 o f Syndicate , will construct 37 miles railway to complete the line which is to link the station of

Cabildo , in the province of Aconcagua , with Toledo ,

of in Copiapo . These contracts involve an outlay

Of the branch lines of the central system at present under construction , some run towards the MEANS OF COMMUNICATI ON Andes Cordillera to communicate with the Argentine R — — epublic , while others the more important are designed to provide an outlet to the coast fer the

o f . products the interior Of these , the principal is that of Chillan to Tome , in Talcahuano Bay , which 8 l will have a length of 5 mi es . In the present year ( 1 91 1 ) the railroads from

Arica to La Paz , Cabildo to La Serena , and Osorno to Puerto Montt will be inaugurated . The total mileage of the railroads under const ruc tion for the State is miles , and the cost of these amounts to There is a further total 0 00 of 93 miles projected , of which about 3 have been sufﬁciently studied to determine their construction . Seeing that the railways are merely the great arteries o f o f circulation , it is very necessary , while the lines local interest are being developed , to give serious attention to the preservation and development of the

’ highroads . It cannot be said that Chile s highroads are adequate to the demands o f her production and f industry , but the e forts of the State to improve them are continuous , and have not been without result . There are about miles of road in the

republic , and they exhibit peculiarities varying according to the country which they traverse . Thus ,

o f in the provinces Tarapaca and Antofagasta , and in part of Atacama , with few exceptions the roads serve to connect the mining centres with the principal

204 MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

small craft , which occur in the territory of the re public , are in the nature of highways which facilitate

o f communication between the cities the interior, ff and a ord transport to the coast for their products . These means of communication are found in the provinces from Maule to Llanquihue , and we have alluded to them in another chapter . With particular reference to small - craft navigation we may mention here that the river Maule is navigable for 74 miles , from its mouth to San Javier de Loncomilla , and

ﬂat - or even further for bottomed launches , rowed

1 1 o f towed , with 4 or 5 tons cargo . The river Itata

o f is navigable in the same way , in certain seasons

— as the year . The Bio Bio can be navigated as far

0 Paic av i 9 miles from its mouth the , in the province o f 1 6 Arauco , is navigable for miles , and the Lebu for a mile and a quarter . Lakes Lanalhue and

- 1 1 8 l Lleu lleu , 7 and miles respective y in length , are also navigable . The river Vergara , in the

- o f Bio Bio . province , is navigable for 9 miles The large river Imperial , in the province of Cantin , can be navigated during the winter between Carahue 1 and Nueva Imperial , a distance of 4 miles , and the river Cholchol; from that city to the town of the

Mncul 2 . o same name , or over 3 miles The river is T lh 1 as rov o ue . navigable for 5 miles , as far the Lake of In the province of Valdivia and in part of Llan quih u e there is a thorough system o f navigation by MEANS OF COMMUNICATION 26 3

2 0 means of little vessels of 5 to 3 tons , the rivers

fﬂu nt s being more utilized than the roads . The a e of the river Valdivia alone represent nearly 1 25 miles of navigable ways . In this province; and in that of

Llanquihue , the river Bueno , which serves as a e boundary betwe n them , facilitates the exportation o f their agricultural and industrial products from the departments o f La Union and Osorno . The river R ahue is navigable from the last - named city

c o to its onﬂuence with the Bueno near Truma , 28 a distance of miles . 1 The river Negro is navigable for 5 miles , from

Osorno to the township of Negro , and , ﬁnally , the great river Maullin can be navigated for the same distance from its mouth .

The numerous rivers and lakes of this vast region , and of that which extends farther south and is still uninhabited , will undoubtedly , in the future , be among the principal factors in its development and o f its wealth . Urban and suburban communications in the chief

of cities Chile are effected by means of tramways ,

- which are propelled by electricity or by horse power . 1 86 These lines have a total length of miles , and carry during the year not less than passengers ,

for of which Santiago is responsible .

The maj ority of the telegraph lines in Chile form ,

u a like the posts and railways , part of the ind stri l MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

services of the State . In the telegraph service the

’ Government s object is to favour general interests , and to this end it carries wires to , and establishes f l o ﬁces in , places where no private undertaking wou d

ﬁnd it proﬁtable to maintain them . In this way the telegraph system of the State has been extended until it perm its of communication between the most

—o i- - distant and out the way cities and towns , from

r f . Tacna to Chiloe , at moderate and unifo m tari fs At the present time there are miles o f national telegraph lines in existence , without reckoning those t which belong o the railways . Local telegraph lines are o f less importance chief among them is that which belongs to the Commercial

Telegraph Company .

It Should be mentioned , with reference to the international telegraph lines , that the State system is connected with the Argentine lines Via Mendoza ,

v ia with Bolivia Antofagasta and Tacna , and with

Perri Via Sama . The special line from Punta Arenas to the eastern entrance of the Strait of Magallanes connects at the latter point with the Argentine national lines , and the telegraphic service with the rest of the continent and the outside world is in the hands of the West Coast o f America Telegraph

Co . Ltd . , and the Central and South American

v ia . Telegraph Company , Colon The principal cities of Chile also possess telephonic

CHAPTER X I V

NAVIGATION

THE geographical Situation of Chile gives it advantages which no other South American country can boast for the development of shipping enter The prises . great length of its coasts , and the comparative proximity o f the ports to the producing l centres of the interior , faci itate communications by

o f sea means the , which for Chile is the natural transport - route between the various parts of the territory . At the present day there are nearly a score o f ports open to international commerce and twice that number intended for coastwise trade . They have an annual exterior commerce movement o f and a coastwise trade movement o f

0 b v essels 5 , carried y representing tons and tons respectively . It is easy to understand , from these figures , that maritime navigation exercises a direct influence upon the economic prosperity o f the country . As soon as the first Government independent of the Spanish metropolis was organized , the ports of NAVIGATION 209

Chile , as we have said , were opened to the commerce o f all nations . Among the ﬁrst vessels to arrive , as a result of this opening of Chilean harbours , history records the name of the frigate Galloway from New

al York . She anchored in V paraiso at the beginning o f 1 8 1 1 - November , bringing the ﬁrst printing press

r and the American p inters Johnson , Burbidge and

Garrison , who produced in Santiago , for the Govern ment and under the direction o f the ecclesiastic

Camilo Henriquez , the ﬁrst Chilean periodical ,

L a de a Au ror Chile .

Valparaiso , Talcahuano , and Coquimbo were at

that time the ports for foreign trade , and upon the attainment of national independence their maritime fﬁ tra c commenced materially to increase . For 1 8 1 t o 1 822 instance , from 7 the number of vessels 2 entering Valparaiso was 5 3 .

Chilean capitalists , assisted to some extent by the advantages which the laws conceded to national

vessels in the coastwise trade , and especially by the

e xemptions which the Government granted to them , formed in 1 8 1 9 a company with a capital of

for direct trade with India , and although this

attempt ended unfavourably , it demonstrates the progr essive Spirit which at that time animated the

men of the country . al Thanks to a good Government , extern commerce l Val and the mercantile marine developed rapid y . o NAVIGATION

paraiso , the principal centre of mercantile trans actions , had considerably augmented its population

u 1 822 inh ab i and co ld count , in , nearly

AS 60 tants . a rule no less than vessels were anchored in the port . At this period the national merchant marine w as composed o f 40 fair-sized

r a vessels , engaged , for the most pa t , in the co stwise f tra ﬁc . With the recovery from the political upheaval s which preceded the deﬁnitive organization of the republic , external commerce and navigation attained 1 8 a more considerable development . In 34 the

o f of 80 trade the port Valparaiso , representing per

. o f al 1 al cent the tot trafﬁc , was carried by 34 nation 6 and 2 0 foreign vessels . The Chilean marine at that time consisted o f 57 Ships . In 1 835 Congress conceded to the North American

ll Wh eelri h t o f n citizen , , Wi iam g , the privilege carryi g on fﬁ for o f the coastwise tra c , ten years , by means

- steam navigation . This concession enabled a com pany to be formed in London to conduct the daring enterprise . To appreciate the importance to which the

of execution this proj ect was destined to attain , it must be remembered how backward was the state

o f . 1 1 8 0 navigation at the time On October 5 , 4 ,

v ia o f there arrived in Valparaiso , the Strait

Chile P aru Magallanes , two vessels , the and the ,

NAVIGATION

between Valparaiso and Liverpool , via the Strait

’ o f Wh eelri h t s Magallanes . Thus g concern not only facilitated communication with the countries of the e o f ast coast America , but also brought Chile nearer

- Europe , by reducing by two thirds the time usually occupied by sailing vessels obliged to follow the longer Cape Horn route . The prosperity of the company was thenceforth assured , and the enterprise which began so modestly came to be one of the most powerful in the world . The Paciﬁc Steam Navigation Company is now amalgamated with the R oyal Mail

Steamship Company , having been purchased by the latter for the sum of In 1 870 Chilean capitalists formed a new steamship c con unc ompany , which subsequently operated in j tion with the existing concern , the two composing

Com aﬁia - the p Sud Americana de Vapores , with a c o f h apital T is company , subsidized by the Government with extended its naviga t ion as far as Panama . Shortly before the war with Perri the mercantile m arine of Chile possessed a total tonnage of t ons . This ﬁgure was considerably reduced during the war, but afterwards it again increased rapidly .

1 88 1 0 In 9, for example , it comprised 5 sailing vessels w 2 ith a total of tons , and 9 steamships with

tons . As external commerce developed foreign Shipping NAVIGATION 21 3 m became more and more i portant , and among the oldest of the concerns which carry on the coastwise f tra ﬁc is the German Kosmos line , which was 1 8 0 initiated in 7 . From the history of Chilean maritime navigation we may now turn to the study o f the present im portance and condition of the shipping industry . The transport service in Chile is in the hands of private native companies and shipown ers and o f agencies of n foreig companies and shipowners . The native companies possess a tot al o f 5 2 vessels with an

r of agg egate registered tonnage tons , the most important of these concerns being the above

Com aﬁia - mentioned p Sud Americana de Vapores , which has a ﬂeet of 21 vessels with a total tonnage o f tons and an estimated value of This company at present maintains the following lines

: with a fortnightly service Valparaiso to Panama , i miles ; Valparaiso to Eten , m les ; Val paraiso to Junin , miles ; Valparaiso to Puerto

Montt , miles Valparaiso and Chiloe Channels ,

o f - miles . It also has a service river boats on the

R io ul l . Ma e , Imperial , Valdivia , Bueno , and Mau lin The shipping ﬁrm of Braun and Blanchard o f Punta Arenas maintains a line between that port and

Valparaiso . The merchant sailing vessels belonging to native

n 1 of shipow ers amount to 4 , with a total more than 2 14 NAVIGATION

tons . The most important ﬁrm is the Com

h al o f al pa ia Nacion de Maderas y Buques , V paraiso , which owns 1 5 sailing vessels with a total tonnage o f o f tons , engaged in the freighting native timbers and in importation from abroad . Several

n al shipow ers of Valparaiso , T cahuano , and Punta

Com aﬁia Arenas are engaged in whale ﬁshing , the p

o f ﬁrst - Chilena de Balleneros , the named port , being

o f the chief these . The foreign shipping companies which carry on the coastwise and external trade are the following ‘

a The Paciﬁc Steam Navigation Comp ny , now amalgamated with the R oyal Mail Steamship

on Company . It maintains the line from Valparaiso 1 al to Liverpool 5 vessels with a tot of tons , and on the line along the coast to Panama 1 2 vessels

al of with a tot tons .

Com aﬁia The p Alemana de Vapores Kosmos , which runs a line of steamships from Hamburg to Callao and another to Vancouver in British Columbia , with a ﬂeet o f 42 vessels tons) .

The West Coast Line , belonging to various English and North American shipowners , conducts a service o f - cargo boats between England , New York , and the

o f i 1 0 . ports Ch le ( vessels , tons)

’ The Merchants Line , belonging to various English shipowners , with 7 vessels tons) plying between the same ports .

2 1 6 NAVIGATION

The total tonnage o f the vessels engaged in the coastwise trafﬁc whi ch entered Chilean ports is

o f tons , and that the vessels which

of cleared , The total movement external and coastwise navigation is represented by

or al tons entered and tons cleared , a tot a ﬁ o f m ritime traf c tons . The Share of each of the principal nations in this

f i u tra ﬁc is seen from the follow ng ﬁg res , which Show the entries and clearances o f all the ports o f Chile in 1 91 0

French , Norwegian , Italian , and Japanese ﬁgure

o f to a much smaller extent . The proportion vessels

h l 2 or ﬂying the C i ean ﬂag is 3 per cent . nearly a quarter of the total movement . When it is remembered that ten years ago the total Shipping movement was tons , and

’ that last year s ﬁgures compared with those o f 1 90 1

1 . Show an increase of 33 per cent , it is obvious that the industry has an important Share in the commercial activity of the country . Such an augmentation o f trafﬁc h as brought in its train the necessity for various reforms , and amongst these the improvement of the vessels NAVIGATION 217 and o f the conditions of the ports are the most urgent . At the present time Chile ’ s navigation laws are l most liberally framed . In Chi ean ports foreign

o n f o f vessels can carry the tra ﬁc importation , exportation , and the coasting trade under the same conditions as the native vessels . There is no tax o n the shipping other than a very moderate one collected once a year to cover the cost o f the light

of com house service . The vessels the ﬁrms and p anies which have regular lines established between Chilean ports enj oy the packet privileges and are granted facilities of every description for the lading and discharge of cargo . Finally , foreign vessels are at liberty to engage crews in Chile . To stimulate the service the State grants large subsidies to several native companies and for a long time has subsidized the P aciﬁc Steam Navigation

Company for the mail to Europe . The necessity for maintaining direct relations with the ports of the Atlantic and with the markets of the Mediterranean is now recognized , and a scheme designed to interest foreign companies in the estab

lishme nt of new steamship lines is being studied . The organization and direction o f the Shipping services is under the charge of the superi or au t h ori

ties o f the National Fleet . The littoral is divided

m - into aritime governments whose head quarters , NAVI GATION

from north to south , are situated in the follow : al ing ports Arica , Iquique , Antofagasta , C dera ,

o Coquimb , Valparaiso , Constitucion , Talcahuano ,

Corral , Puerto Montt Ancud , and Punta Arenas . These governments are subdivided into sub

fﬁ al delegations , to whose o ci s is entrusted the inspection of Shippin g and the protection and assisting o f vessels . In places where the conditions of the ports render their services necessary there are skilful pilots . The service o f lighting and buoying the coast

1 was inaugurated in Chile in the year 837 . There

0 o f o f are 5 lighthouses , which 4 are the ﬁrst class ,

2 o f 1 6 o f of the second , 3 the third , the fourth , and 25 of the Sixth class ; Thirty- one of these lighthouses

o f all are in the form towers , and nearly of them are connected with the head- quarters o f the maritime

o f l authorities by means te egraph lines . 1 8 The Hydrographic Bureau , created in 74 , directs coastal exploration and the publication o f charts . It also issues the Hydrographic Annu al of the Chilea n

N av o ne y, which for some years has been considered of the best works o f its kind .

220 TRADE AND COMMERCE

stations . It may be estimated that the commerce o f the maritime ports represents 90 per cent . of the

i . total movement , and that of the rema nder 7 per cent correspond to the land port trade and 3 per cent . to the ﬂuvial commerce .

' From the poin t o f view of the economic activity o f the several regions of the country the relative importance o f the principal ports is as follows n In the north , the nitrate and mini g region ,

Iquique and Antofagasta .

th e l In the centre , agricu tural and industrial

an d al a region , Valparaiso T c huano , and

r al In the south , the ag icultur , forest , and cattle raising region , Valdivia and Punta Arenas . A general idea o f the activity o f the principal ports may be gained from the followmg ﬁgures showing the cargo -movement o f each during 1 91 0

Tons

V al araiso 1 8 6 Co ro n el p , 4 3 , 5 7 I i 1 1 8 2 Cal l o qu qu e 5 , 7 7 et a Co o s Ant o fa ast a 80 8 1 8 Lo g ,7 ta T alt al 4 Pisag ua Mej illo nes 1 Co quimb o

Calet a Bu e na Pu n t a Are na s

Talc ah u a no Valdi ia 3 39 , 5 5 5 v To c o p illa 3 1

The tot al cargo -movement o f last year amounted

of to tons , which tons were cargo shipped and tons were cargo discharged . TRADE AND COMMERCE 221

It is easy to underst and that Chile , with her long

coast and numerous ports , the majority of which

are unfavourably situated geographically, must give serious attention to their improvement by means of

. o f adequate hydraulic works As a matter fact , although up to the present little has been actually accomplished , the Government has schemes prepared for the improvement of the principal ports and , by

ll out a law recently enacted , wi Shortly carry the projected works for Valparaiso and San Antonio , at a cost of for the first and for the latter . To appreciate as a whole the advance of the external commerce of Chile and its progressive ill ffi increase it w su ce to study the following table , which gives the figures for the first year for which statistics were compiled and those for the end of each subsequent decade

I mports an d E xports I mports and E xp orts 1 880 1890 190 0 1 19 10

A no less remarkable development is apparent in

the coastwise trade , as to which , for the sake of will 1 8 brevity , we merely state that in 44 it amounted 1 1 1 0 to £ , o3o , 7oo and in 9 to Expressed in customs -house values the external 222 TRADE AND COMMERCE commerce o f Chile amounted in 1 91 0 to o f which represented imports and

2 662 o 8 . al £ 4 , , 3 was for exports The tot imports were made up as follows

Textile M a teria ls a n d M a n ufa ctures Co t t o n g o o ds a m o o ds inc lu din Ju t e n d h e p g , g s ac ks W o o lle n g o o ds Silk g o o ds Lin e n g o o ds

M in eral M a terials I ro n a n d st e el g oo ds Ea rt h s ub st a nc es c em ent la ss y , , g , a nd p o rc elain

I n du strial Oils an d Combu stibles

Co al

Cru de Pet ro le u m (fro m Pe rri )

Vegeta ble M a teri a ls R ice su a r oil c o ffee a n d t ea , g , , ,

M a chinery a n d Tools

Fab rile

Agric u lt u ral Mi ni ng Lo c o m o t ive Scientiﬁc Ap p arat u s

A nim al P roducts

Li or ne d ca tt le I o 2 o 2 ve h , 5 , 3

P ap er an d Ca rdb oa rd Print ing p ap er 3 5

P Ol' W aI' d

22 4 . TRADE AND COMMERCE

c o f with a value of onstituting , itself , nearly three - fourths of the total exportation of the country . After nitrate , copper is the most valu

o o f 1 1 0 able mineral pr duct Chile , and in 9 there

: &c . were exported copper in bars , , copper ore , copper and gold ores ,

Among other mineral products exported were iodine ,

and borate , Of the animal products exported the following l are the principal items horses and mu es ,

- food stuffs , industrial products , Honey represents about two - thirds of the food- stuff l exports . Among the industria products there are raw hides , sole leather, chin hi c lla skins , wool (ordinary , merino , and

a mestiza wax , and wh le o il .

of In the exportation vegetable products grains ,

- fruits , and garden stuff constitute the chief part , their value amounting to Food- stuffs represent and industrial products The exports of wheat were and of ﬂour oats were exported to the value o f and the exports of barley and clover-seed amounted to and respectively . Beans accounted for and vetches for Amongst the fruits nuts represent and of t h e other products exported quillay bark , used as TRADE AND COMMERCE 225

a detergent , was worth pressed hay (Silo) and locust -beans In the category o f miscellaneous products is

a of blasting powder, exported to the v lue The products o f anim al and vegetable origin exported in bulk as the raw material for foreign industries , and amongst which are reckoned hides

o o f and wo l , represent a value approximately If to this sum be added the value of

o f al some the miner products , such as , for instance , C m opper , it is easy to estimate the i portance of many elements of national production in the development of the manufacturing industries i l wh ch use these materia s , when foreign capitalists decide to import their enterprise and energy into a country which offers so many opportunities as h C ile . The very liberal policy that the ﬁrst Government o f h as the republic inaugurated , and which been l maintained to the present day , has undoubted y acted as a powerful stimulus to the extension of trade with foreign countries and of the shipping industry between them and Chile . We have already seen the part played by the principal nations ffi in the maritime tra c , and to complete this chapter on th e commercial relations of the country

o f the following table , which shows the value the merchandise imported and exported in 1 91 0 accord P M 226 TRADE AND CO MERCE

o f is ing to the country origin and destination , appropriate

I mp orts E xp orts G r ri 86 O I O eat B ta in 7 £9 , 9 ,

G e r m a n 8 I 22 y £ 5 £4 2 3 , 3 U nit e d St at e s

Fr 1 1 a nc e £ 1 ,4 4o ,60 0 £ 5

In the import trade the Argentine R epublic follows

: ri with next in importance being Per ,

, , India 3 Italy

Australia , Belgium , and Spain ,

In the export trade the next most important

: countries are Belgium , Holland ,

Bolivia , Spain , e Argentina , Cap Colony , and

ri Per .

228 MINI NG AND METALLURGY

- place amongst copper producing countries , but from that date the United States and other countries began to produce on a large scale , surpassing the

Chilean yield , which remained in the neighbourhood a o f tons of ﬁne copper annu lly . The most detailed statistics available with respect to the production o f copper from the commencement o f the working of this mineral to the end of 1 909 give al w al 1 a tot of tons ith a v ue of £ 35 , It is to be not ed that copper mining in Chile has not Shared the development brought about in other countries by the exhaustion of relatively high -grade

r ores , and the almost complete failu e to exploit and

r - treat the eno mous quantities of low grade ore , which is precisely what constitutes the real source o f r all al production in nea ly other countries , is so to be remarked . It is computed that more than half

’ o f the world s tot al output o f copper comes from ores of grades often inferior to 4 per cent . , whereas

o f in Chile , until quite recently , the extraction

6 8 . to per cent ores did not pay . In the last few years the attention of capital ists has been directed

of to this position the industry, and in several

- modern plants low grade ores are now being treated .

- The present progress of copper mining , according to the latest mining statistics , may be considered

ll well satisfactory , even though modern insta ations ,

are . equipped with machinery , rare Enterprises on MINING AND METALLURGY 229

a small scale , however , tend to disappear , and in their place are rising large and important establish ments . It may be expected , therefore , that in a few more years the output o f copper will increase appreciably . An idea of the present position of the industry may be gained from the circumstance that to produce f f - o r o 22 . 8 00 tons of ore a g ade 9 per cent , mines have been in operation . Of these there are al 00 75 whose annu production is above 5 tons , and together they contribute three -ﬁfths of the total output , tons being Shared by the remaining

2 o f 7 5 enterprises , which gives to each an output

less than one ton a day .

is as The tendency , we have said , towards produc ll tion on a large scale , but the movement is sti Slow l l and wi l on y assume real importance in future years . As an example of what is being done in this direction

’ we may ﬁrst cite the Braden Copper Co . s establish

of ment in Teniente , to the south Santiago , where a plant has been erected with a capacity for treating daily tons o f ore o fwhich the grade is sometimes 1 low 1 . al 0 as as 2 per cent This concern one , in 35

working days , could treat in a year tons

o f o f 2 . mineral , which at an average grade per cent would mean an annual production o f tons f o C . ﬁne opper The French Naltahua Company ,

al or 00 ready in operation , could work up treat 4 tons 23 6 MINING AND METALLURGY

f L as a day o per cent . ores . The Condes and

V i o f olcan concerns , n the neighbourhood Santiago , i are , w th others , about to increase their production ,

’ and the Cat em ri company is preparing to take ad

o f f vantage the abundance o ores which it possesses , and which at present are not exploited for lack o f i certa n smelting facilities . The region o f Coquimbo will also see its produc tion increased through the utilization o f the great

o f quantities poor oxidized ores which exist therein , and which are to be treated in the lixiviation works erected by the Sociedad Chilena de Fundiciones (Chilean Smelting The mining centres of

V Ch aﬁaral allenar , Freirina , Copiapo , , Antofagasta , ll Tocopi a and Tarapaca , in which last is the famous

Collah u asi mine , likewise promise a considerably increased yield . The production o f Collah u asi comes almost

t w o r P oderosa exclusively from large conce ns , the , d al Gran e . acquired by English capit ists , and the

a roxi It amounts to tons , which represents p p mately one-third o f all the copper produced in the country . The smelting o f ores is the principal system o f j treatment , and in this direction decided progress l can be noted , principal y manifested by the abandon ment o f the o ld- style small reverberatory furnaces and the substitution for them of cupola furnaces

232 MINING AND META LLURGY

Chaﬁarcillo of the famous mine and , subsequently , o f of many others , which ushered in an era prosperity i for Ch lean mining . From 1 845 to 1 855 the output attained the high

o f 21 ﬁgure 3 tons , but from the latter date it began 1 88 to decline . In 7 , however , following the discovery o f of further deposits ore , it recovered and reached

tons . The tot al production o f Silver from 1 692 to the

o f 1 0 end 9 7 is computed at tons , with a value o f If to this be added the yield of the

Caracoles mine , which formerly belonged to Bolivia but which was operated by Chilean capital and

Chilean miners , and was supplied , furthermore , with

al provisions and materi s from Chile , the aggregate

o f amounts to tons , with a value

1 08 o f i In 9 the production ﬁne s lver was over 43 tons , valued at

l or Broad y speaking , the production of silver , rather the working of the silver mines , is a decadent industry .

Important mines are , however , carried on in Tarapac a al and other provinces , the princip centre of production being for the present the department of Taltal . Seeing that the majority of the Silver mines are situated amongst calcareous rocks it is remarkable that the calcination process is not adopted for smelt ing with copper ores to produce argentiferous regulus , which would be easily marketable in Europe . MINING AND METALLURGY 233

Silver metallurgy suffers from the decadence of ff the ore production , but e orts are being made to apply lixiviation to silver ores . At present the most

Hu an t a a a important establishments are the j y , in

Tarapaca , and those of Taltal and Coquimbo . Statistics for 1 90 9 give the following production of bar Silver and Silver ores in ﬁne metal

B a r Silve r Silve r o re s Silve r -g old o re s

- — Silver g old co p p er o re s

Add to this the silver contained in the copper

al t o exported , and the tot production amounts just

6 o f under 3 tons , with a value

- Gold was mined in Chile in pre conquest days . The conquistadores established works in the placers which they succeeded in discovering , and it is estimated that the annual production in the ﬁrst few years was not less than ounces , the yield subsequently declining . During the seventeenth century the production appears to have been insigni

ﬁcant so , and to have remained until the following

o f ore century , when the ﬁrst veins were discovered

t Lam a ui in Copiapo , and la er in p g , Illapel , and

t o . other places , giving rise gold metallurgy Towards the end of the eighteenth century the yield again reached some ounces yearly ; at that time the 234 MI NING AND METALLURGY o re Ch am on at e deposits of Inca , , Atacama , Andacollo ,

’ Cat emri Bronce , Llahuin , Hierro Viej o , Las Vacas , , and many others were exploited whose present state of decay is noteworthy . Early in the nineteenth century the production reached its highest point

on with ounces , but later it recommenced i to decrease , ow ng chieﬂy to the greater interest aroused by the discoveries o f rich mines of Silver fﬁ and copper . Another reason was the di culty of working the ores , which increased with their distance below the surface , and the system of amalgamation

al of employed , which only yielded a sm l proportion the gold contained in the pyrites , while these ores occur always at a greater or lesser depth . The exploit ation o f new placers in Magallanes and the occasional disc ov ery o f new veins have Since then somewhat

- raised the importance of gold mining in Chile , and the establishme nt of plants for cyanide treatment also promises well for this branch of national industry . The total production of gold from the epoch of the Spanish conquest up to the end of 1 90 9 is estimated

o f at ounces , with a value

- Gold mining , in the last few years , has declined 1 0 considerably , for the ﬁne gold produced in 9 9 amounted only to ounces , as against 1 0 ounces Six years previously , that is in 9 3 . There are many gold mines w hich are not worked because

236 MINING AND METALLURGY territory the production in 1 909 amounted to

0 8 2 ounces of ﬁne gold .

o f 1 0 The total production gold during the year 9 9, and the substances which contain it or the form in which it was produced , are as follows

1 G ol in ot o ld-dust a nd iii as fro d g s, g , p m r z p la c e s o . G o ld ing o t s a n d pih as fro m mine s G o ld o re s 28 5 G old-Silver o res G old -Silve r -Cop p er o res G o ld-co p p er o re s

If to these ﬁgures we add the bars and ingots o f

o f copper with gold , the ores ordinary copper , the

‘ of ej es auriferous and argentiferous copper , and

r of other products , we a rive at a total production

of ounces , with a value Of this

o f output , however , gold commercial value only

o f amounts to ounces ﬁne .

o f The output lead , manganese , and cobalt is insigniﬁcant . In 1 91 0 was started the exploitation o f the rich

El To o iron mine f , in Coquimbo , which belongs to the French iron prospecting company that established

al blast furnaces at Corr , Valdivia , for the smelting 6 ofingots . The exportation to England of 5 per cent . ferruginous ores free from undesirable substances has also been commenced .

1 A piha is a m ass of g old o f p ineap ple Sh ap e . MINING AND METALLURGY 237

’ l ul Chi e s wealth in iron ores is fab ous , and when it is better known it will attract much attention in the metallurgical centres of Europe .

’ Nitrate constitutes the most important o f Chile s mineral products . From the time when the Tarapaca and Antofagasta territories passed into the possession of Chile the nitrate industry made great strides ; 1 8 the output , which in 79 was approximately

tons , increased ten years later to and now reaches with a customs house value o f But this enormous develop ment h as only been attained within the last ten years , during which time an intelligently conducted propaganda has succeeded in making known , in al a scientiﬁc and practic form , the advantages accruing from the use of nitrate as a nitrogenous l ferti izer in agriculture .

n Nitrate , as is well know , is extracted from the saline deposits which exist in immense abundance in o f a An the province T rapaca and tofagasta , where they form layers o f varying thickness . It occurs

ul as a r e mixed with other salts , from which it has

1 n to be separated . The raw material , know as caliche , is treated in large establishments by means

- - of of a solution and evaporation process . Some the

o cinas factories , or ﬁ , produce as much as

ni ll tons o f trate annua y .

1 1 0 e 1 08 o cinas In 9 there wer in operation ﬁ , which 2 8 M 3 MINING AND ETALLU RGY

o f employed hands . Many these factories belong to English trading companies . Nearly one - half o f the nitrate produced in Chile is

i l o n e- exported d rectly to England , and on y quarter to Germany . The remainder goes to various

u u . countries , partic larly Belgi m

i al l The pr ncip ports for export are Iquique , Ca eta

i o f Buena and Pisagua , in the prov nce Tarapaca ;

al al l ll and Antofagasta , T t , Tocopi la and Meji ones in o f i l the province Antofagasta , wh ch exports S ightly f more than that o Tarapaca .

I odium in , restricted quantities , is extracted from the liquid solution o f the nitrate deposits . The amount is limited to maintain the market price . The total production o f nitrate in Chile from 1 878

1 0 w as o f l to 9 9 tons , which the va ue is estim ated at T h e total output of

in iodine the same period was tons , worth

In addition to nitrate and iodine many other mineral substances are exploited , among which coal ,

r u m natu al borates , guano , s lphur , and co mon salt are worthy o f mention .

is d o f h Coal mining assure a great future in C ile , which possesses a very extensive carboniferous zone , but up to the present it is a source of wealth which

o n has not been exploited a very large scale . The present output amounts to about tons

CHAPTER X VI I

MANUFACTURING I NDUSTRIES

THE last twenty years , which mark an epoch of

. extraordinary progress for Chile , have seen the rapid development of a considerable number of manu fact urin g industries , whose importance has increased in proportion with the expansion o f the various enterprises and the perfectin g of the articles which they produce . 1 0 In 9 9, according to the latest statistics , there h l were in C i e industrial establishments , with an aggregate capital estimated to amount to They gave occupation to

of operatives , and employed motors various

o h kinds and f a total force o f . p . The wages o f the operatives amounted to , approximately , or and the value of the tot al output was calculated to be or The various factories consumed during the year native raw material to the val ue of and foreign raw material costing 6 752 55 2 93 . The most important group of industries is that

es - hi m r s which manufactur food stuffs , and w ch co p ise MANUFACT URING INDUSTRIES 241

776 establishments with a capital of or and an output amounting in the aggregate to the equival ent of Then come the industries connected with the preparation

of of and utilization hides and Skins , with a capital and a production val ue o f The clothing and textile industries occupy third

of place , with a capital and an output of In the fourth rank we may place the

o - l wo d working and furniture industries , with a capita o f and an output valued at Next in order come the mechanical and metal-work

of al industries , the manufacture of beverages , chemic n and pharmaceutical products , the printi g and paper

industries , the lighting industries , and others . The industries which employ the greatest number

o f operatives are the textile and clothing factories ,

- which give occupation to work people , and

the tanneries and allied industries , which engage

o f — about as many . The manufacture food stuffs employs nearly and that o f wood-work and furnitur e The mechanical and metal-work factories are carried on with somewhat less than

employees .

o f In the northern region the country , where agricultural production is either very small or al together lacking and where the energies o f the population are concerned almost exclusively with Q 242 MANUFACTURING I NDUSTRIES

s the exploitation of the nitrate and mineral resource , manufacturing industry , properly speaking , has developed but little . From Aconcagua to the south the principal l industry consists of the cu tivation of the soil , which provides easily and in abundance food for the l population and raw materia for the manufactures .

In this region , the site of the great cities and the

’ o f centre the country s economic activity , the manufacturing industries have ﬂourished exceedingly in recent years , notwithstanding the obstacles that enterprise of this nature encounters in every new country which lacks a population educated to the industrial life and must struggle with a foreign competition supported by the advantages accruing from centuries o f production .

- The food stuffs , clothing and furniture industries have for the most part been established , and have of attained prosperity , in the vicinity the great cities o f the central region . The same may be said o f of all the lighting , the mechanical , and the other

o f industries which require a great number hands .

- ll Flour mi s are found in the wheat zones , from Valparaiso to Osorno ; in the principal ports are dockyards and shipyards ; in the southern regions

ﬂourish the meat and ﬁsh preserving factories , the refrigerating establishments and the industries

out o - arising f the deep sea ﬁsheries .

I N DE X

' t o a a s t a . o e : o s e e di t io 18 A An f g Pr vinc gr xp n in , ; a e a 1 1 a o - o e s a a a t e is t s r , 3 ; c rg m v phy ic l ch r c r ic ,

o a ua . o e e t 220 a t e a n d 8 1 12 1 2 . Ac nc g Pr vinc m n , ; clim 9 , , 7 a u t u e 128 e e t a t i 1 2 o e t a a ~ o a . P o e b o gric l r , , v g n , c pp r A c m r vinc a ‘ A a o s d s o e o f i 2 0 e fe n c e o f r i ine s o f 1 a e a 1 1 lm gr i c v ry , min ng, 3 ; , g , 39 ; r , 3 ; 1 a e a 1 1 a a 8 de s t o 1 o e i i 228 e o 34 r , 3 ch r c 3 ; crip i n , 75 ; c pp r m n ng , ; g t e s t cs 1 0 o e e a s 2 1 28 1 0 o i a o s t o 10 ri i , 3 c pp r min r l , 3 , , 3 ; l g c l p i i n, 4 ; 228 d s t u t o i t a t e d u s t 2 o d- 2 e mining, ; i rib i n n r in ry , 37 ; g l mining, 34 ; min o fln dra n o u a t o 1 1 o u la t IOn 1 o t o f a s 1 0 1 p p l i n , 4 ; p , 73 ; p r , r l , 3 ; mining, 9 7 ;

du s t e s a i 1g 2 8 . a a s 1 1 in ri r l 3 r ilw y , 97, 98

a s 1 1 8 20 1 . t o a a s t a C e a nd A t a a a e 1 w y , 9 9 , An f g ( hil ) c m riv r, 5 . o a u a i 1 1 - u st e . B o i a Ra a C o m a i a tra e Ac nc g r v r, 99 , 9 liv ilw y A r l , wi t h A d i i s t a t e s s t a n 2 C e 22 e o f 1 6. m n r iv y m p hil , i e 1 1 ra ha nfzi d : a a u o a C 0 . A u n I a s b o tt e at 1 h l , 3 , 5 3 n i n Ay c ch , b l , 5 . A u t 1 lit io 1 se 1 u a o o e s 8 n o f t a a t i o o f 6 1 e 2 . gric l r l c l ni , 9 , x n , Ay n riv r , 5 I di i a e A u a t es : a t e e 1 16. n n r b ch r c r z fr riv r, A ric ult u ra lzo ne is t ics 2 1 0 1 8 de g , , 5 , 4 , 4 ; A ric u t ure 8 1 8 1 e da t o s o f 1 o u g 9, 4 , 55 , pr i n , 37 ; c n é I é t r a it e d b 18 8 ' 7, 9 y inh b y, B

ua a t a 1 6. de e de e o f I n C e Ag S n , 9 in p n nc , hil

Ba e e 2 . uas B a as 1 . 2 2 a c iﬁc a t io n o f 1 Ag l nc , 97 4 , 5 ; p , k r riv r, 5 A la c a lu fe s 1 1 168 1 o t n um Ba a e da es de a e . 88 t a t (r c ) , 39 37, , ; l lm c Pr i n , 8 8 6—1 1 1 1 1 6 6 8 . a e da 6 . b e r 1 0 1 t i a Al m , 3 in 9 7, 4 5 ; r b l 9 , , 9, 9

a o t a n de s a t i 1 Ba e o 1 6 . C a D o o s 0 . Alm gr , pi n ign n , 4 nking r f rm , 5 B a o t e u e D e o de : m ISS I o n t o a u a i a $ o e a e a 1 6 . i g Ar c n n n r nk n c rr ncy, 7 Ba s o f s s ue 1 e u 1 ro a nd o u a t o 1 6 . P r 34 : P p p l i n , 44 ; nk i , 5 ds 1 1 2 B a e a . s e t e e di t o o f o o o f 188 18 . 1 p c ing xp i n , c l nizing , , 9 rr n l n , 3 , 3 Ba o s a a a e 12 18 2 . a u a o a a 166. . , 4 Ar c n c mp ig n , rr Ar n , L k 4 Be $ ium t a de t C i e u d : o u at o 1 A a u o Ba 2 1 . Anc p p l i n , 74 ; r c y, 9 , r wi h h l

o t o f 218 . a u o . o i e : a ea 22 2 8 . p r , Ar c Pr v nc r , , 3 - - u d Ba 218 1 1 o a ﬁe lds 8 d e Bio BIO . o e : a ea Anc y . 3 ; c l , 3 ; Pr vinc r , ud G u f 1 1 s t i o 1 1 28 e 1 1 des t o 1 28 . 0 Anc l , 9 crip n , 7, ; min 3 ; crip i n , ; - da o o o ld a s s a s 1 0 e s 20 . e a s 1 0 o ula An c ll , g w hing , r l , 3 ; riv r , 4 min r l , 3 ; p p

2 2 ' o o f : da t e o f o u t o 1 1 1 t a de 18 . 3 s 35 T wn f n i n, 4 , 45 ; r , 3 - es : C o di e a de lo s da t i o 1 6 . Bro Bro e 2 26 10 0 An r ll r , n , 3 riv r, 4 , , , a a t e s t i s 1 28 i e a o de lo s C ho 1 1 -2 1 1 ch r c ri c , ; cli Arch p l g 9 , 37,

a t e 1 10 1 12 de sc ri n o s 10 . 1 8 2 188 20 . m , , ; p , 4 , , 4

B t e 1 6. t i o eo o a fo r e a o f C e 8 1 0 . t a n , 97 ; g l gic l Ar hil , 9 , 94 , ir h r , 4 B G e e 1 m a t ro n 1 10 e r e i o u da I s o a a . 0 ; t a : liv r, n r l , 5 , 3 , 5 p Arg n n —b n ry e t ua l s o - e 1 ut es 1 6 1 0 a nd Bo i i a : C e a e t a c e p n w lin , 9 7, 77 ; , 4 , 7 ; l v hil n n r n e s o f 1 16 a sa b i le t e -c o m m unic a I t o 8 e a t i o s w rt h riv r , ; Tr n n , in r n , 3 ; r l n e 16 t e le ra hrc d e t u e a u t es t o 8 1 8 2 16 C il , 7 ; , h g in nn l , f c l i i n , 7 o w it h C ile o e e d u 82. t a de t 22 o e p n p by, r wi h , c nn xi n , 6 t a de t C e 0 1: o u a t o 1 a : a e a t o o f 20 r wi h h l , , ; i An p p l i n, 73 ; Aric nn x i n by

226. re d o f 1 . C e $0 de s t o nil ing , 35 hil , 39, : crip i n , B s C e num. a e o ts 22 10 1 o rt o f 2 18 . o a Anim l xp r , 3 . 3 , 4 ; I . livi n in hil ,

A a o ts 222 i a a Paz R a a he r 1 . nim l imp r , . Ar c ilw y, , 45

B e e 1 . A t a t i o e 18 a ea 1 20 0 20 2. o u t n rc c z n , 4 ; r 7 , , q , 97 B 2 2 a nd o u a t o 1 ta a a de se t : a o a 2 . p p l i n, 44 . A c m r Alm r x , 4 , 39 INDEX 245

B ade o e C o a t i P o e : e a t de 21 21 C Can . a a C o s t 20 8 6 r n pp r mp ny, n r vinc r , ra , , 5 , ,

e e t e 1 22 . 1 1 o o at o a e 221 t a nd uo T ni n , 99 , 9 3 ; c l niz i n , cr ; ligh ing b y B a u a nd B a a d e 1 de s t 2 a o 18 . r n l nch r , g , 93 ; crip i n ing,

e s s s 2 1 . 128 1 0 . C o a e o as t e t M r , 3 , 3 chr n , Th m , n h B a o a e 1 2 C a t e 188 E a o fD undo n a ld ' t r v , L k , 4 n in riv r, rl bir h ,

- . B o e : o ld i 2 . C e t e a o f o i t a 6 a t u e o fVa ldi r nc min ng, 34 n n ry p l ic l in 4 ; c p r by,

Bru nsw ic Pe n ms u la 18 . de e de e e e a t ed v ia 8 a a , 4 p n nc c l br , , 4 , 4 9, n v l Bu 12 1 2 1 1 a se e d a e . . e e 6 a a i , L k , 9 , 7 c r r , 4 ; n v l rvic B ue o e 188 20 . C e t a a a s s te C e e u a nd B a i n riv r, , 5 n r l r ilw y y m in hi l , P r , r z l ,

B ue o s e s a e 12 . 1 8 a a t o f t at e . o o n Air , L k , 5 (S ) , 9 ; rg niz i n by, ue o s e s a a 1 86 e t a o : nd 9hile a n Na B C e a ea a . n Air , r ilw y, , n r l z n r vy, 4 7

200 . o u a t o 1 1 1 C o c le m a 1 . p p l i n , 3 , 44 ; , 37 B ue o s es G e a t t e s 1 C O i hue 1 a a st 0 . n Air r ch r c ri ic , 3 . , 99 o u t e Ra a C o m C e o a t a u a 1 6 C o a e 1 16 1 16 S h rn ilw y rr S n L ci , 7 , in g , 55 , , 7,

a 82 8 . 1 . 1 6 . p ny, , 3 77 9 B u e s e s 1 6 a o e de t C a u o 8 1 . C o a ua . ln , Pr i n , 3 , h c b c , 9 , 59 lch g Pr vinc ,

16 166 1 1 . C a a o a a 1 a e a 1 0 1 1 de sc ri 4 , , 9 h c c n l, r , 3 , 3 ; p

C a a o o o 18 . t o 1 28 . h c c l ny, 9 i n , C ham o nat e : o d- C o o a r e ime ec u g l mining, l ni l g , p

2 lia rit ie s 1 1 . ( 3 34 . , 53, 54

C a na a 1 1 8 2 0 . C o llahu a s i 1 . h r l , 99, 97, 9 , 3 , 97 - C a do 1 20 1 20 2. C ha ﬁa rc illo 8 . C o lla huas i o e e bil , 99, , , 9 c pp r min C a a de la e a C a na o s e e 2 0 chin l Si rr h rcill ilv r min , 3

R a a 1 2 2 C o lli e lfu 200 . ilw y, 9 7 . 3 . ,

C a d : t he C o t es e o s C a o s a a l o o f C o u 1 8 . iz r , r f rm h ng , r ci rigin , llip lli , 3

o f 160 1 6 1. 1 C o o 20 6. , , 3g l n , ' ’

Ca a de Cr edzfo H z o/e C hat ac o llo es 1 6. C o o a t o 1 0 1 . j ﬁ y min , 9 l niz i n , 3 , 94 ' ca r z t d 1 t s im C o t s a s fo r a nd o e a e 6 . C e a o du o s , cr , 5 h mic l pr c l ni , l w ,

C a a a d s t i t a o rt e d 22 . o e s s o s t o 16 1 8 l m i r c , irrig , 3 c nc i n , 5 , 7, ’

t o o f 1 1 . lzzle s t e a s 210 . 1 . i n , 7 m hip, 93

C a de a : o t 1 6 218 C a : de s i t o 18 C o mb a i b ald 1 . l r p r , 7 , ; hill n cr p i n , 3 , 37

a a 1 1 8 . 18 o u dat o o f 1 6 C o e e t a r ilw y, 97, 9 4 ; f n i n , 3 mm rc wi h Sp in ,

C a e t a B ue a 220 C a o u a t o 1 a a 1 6 . l n , ; p p l i n , 73 ; r ilw y 5

e t a Bu e a a nd u a 20 2 t ade o f 18 . C o e a Co de 1 66 . l n Ag ; r , 4 mm rci l ,

a t a R a a ne 1 C a i e 18 . C o e a l D e e o 6 . S n ilw y li , 9 hill n r v r, 3 mm rci v l p

C a l t a C o o so 1 220 C oe a e s 2 1 . e t l , 9 7, , hil ch nn l , 3 m n , 5 4 55 2 g C hil oe I s la nd : chi e f in C o mpa ni a Ale m a n a de

C gllao 2 1 1 . dus t rie s 1 0 o o a o e s Ko s o s 21 . , , 9 ; c l nizing, V p r m , 4 C a o B C n e de a a 8 . o a a C a ll y, 4 mp i hil n C a lle lle i e : a a Ba e e s 2 1 C a e 1 C h lo é . o e o . riv r, 35 . Pr vinc r , ll n r , 4 a 1 2 o m ﬁ N al de C a a. 1 1 e C a ia a o o u t a 10 0 . a so mp n m n in , 3 g rri n , 5 ; min ci n - C a e t e o o t a t o o w Ma e s u ue s 21 . u da t o f a s 10 a B o 1 6 . n . f n i n , 3 r l , 3 ; gr r y q , 4 - C a C o o : t a de W i t in 1 0 t e e ra h 20 6. C o m aﬁia Sud e l ny r h g, 9 ; p , p Am ri

C ile 226. C i a I s a s : de sc r i a a de a o e s 212 21 , h nch l n p c n V p r , , 3 C a e H o 1 1 o de o s t s o n c e c ié n C t : u 2 212. t o ua C . p rn , , i n , 34 ; g n p i , p i y b rn C a e H - 2 des t o u o s 120 . . o f 6 p m , 33 35 ing , ; crip i n C a ta s o f o e s C a o o : fo unda 1 8 2 d o e se o f 1 2 pi l pr vinc , himb r ng ; i c , 5

o e e t o f 1 2. t o dat e 1 6. o u da t o o f 1 1 g v rnm n , 5 i n, , 3 f n i n , 35 , 37 ; C arab ue 121 20 C o a a i e 8 10 2 1 1 o u a t o 1 1 1 2 , , 4 . h r v r, 9 , , 9 p p l i n , 79 , 4 , - C a a o e s S i e 2 2 h lc i e 20 . 1 e u d o f e . C o o r c l lv r min , 3 riv r, 4 73 ; r b il ing , C a o e o us zo e 2 8 C it ie s o a a t o o f 1 2- o e a e a 1 1 rb nif r n , 3 . , p l i n , 7 4 Pr vinc r , 3 ; - - C a o o e e t t o t a C C o e 16 . o o 8 rg m v m n , l ivil , 4 c rn gr wing in , 3 ; a o u t 1 1 2 t iv 1 i 12 e. 0 20 . C a o o fna t e s . des t o 8 m n , 9 , iviliz i n , 93 cr p i n , ; min C a a a i a 1 8 C i Re s t e st at s t i s a s 1 0 1 a a s rriz l r lw y, 9 . iv l gi r, i c r l , 3 , 44 ; r ilw y ,

C a sa a d 1 . a 1 1 10 . 1 t a e 8 bl nc , 74 , 3 7 . 9 , 73 99 ; r , 3 C a t e mii o e o 1 D o i o sé de Sa n s C W a r 18 16 . C o a c pp r w rk , ivil , 9 , 9 nch , r J 2 1 - d o d . C a o 1 t ia t ou de 3 g l mining, 2 4 e , 8 . 0 , 3 l r riv r 3 — , ci y f n by C a t t e ra is in 1 2 1 8 C a t e 6 10 8 1 1 0 . 1 g , 3 , 4 , lim , 3 , 5 , 9 3

18 18 1 0 1 1. C o a dust 1 2 1 1 C o nst ituc ié n o d dis 7, 9 , 9 , 9 l in ry, 99 , , g l C a u ué n es : o u da t o 2 8 2 . o e r 2 o t de q f n i n , 3 , 39 c v y, 3 p r , da t e 1 6 o u a t o C o a st : o u a t o 21 s t i o 1 a a , 3 ; p p l i n , c nﬁg r i n , 9 ; crip n , 5 3 ; r ilw y, 1 a 1 d e 1 2 1 a . C o a 0 12 . 7 ; r ilw y, 99 r ill r , 99, , 9 99 . z w INDEX

C o st t ut o 0 160 . E o o o ss t e s F e a 2 0 . n i i n , 3 , c n mic p ibili i , r irin , 3

C o t u o 18 . 1 62 F o e a e t s n lm , 9 o 1 2. r z n l mb , xp r , 9 e d a o u t Ed t C o s o u u a o 16 . S ee F u t o 1 0 . nv r i n f n , m n , c i n , 73 , 4 r i gr wing, 9

0 . a ls u i Ed t 7 o bl c u ca i o n . Fue m o s o u t o en P , c n ry c

C o a o. C t : de sc r i Ed a d V II K a ie 1 . pi p i y p w r , ing, rbi p by, 39 t o 1 o u da t o t rat io n o f a o u da F ut a e u i 12 i n , 75 ; f n i n , , in n ry u e . b l f r v r, 4

dat e 1 6 o ula t io n ue st o 1 1 1 0 . , 3 ; p , q i n , 6, 7, 7 P t o o o f E 1 1 a a a a 62. 73 ; r c ic l ch l g n ,

r . G i 1 . P o E e t a m 16 a t o e o . M ning , 75 l c r l r f r , 4 ‘ ’ e : a o s e x e E r a nc i at io n o a vinc Alm gr p fr m Sp in , p G a llow a a t e 2 0 . d t o 1 i 1gs y frig , 9 i i n in , 34 ; min ng Ga o a Ge e a Do n mb , n r l e t e 2 0 2 at i e, E s o o st s C e c n r , 3 , 33 ; n v ngli h c l ni in hil , a t Ru de fo un da a ta t s 1 a u e 1 M r in iz , inh bi n , 39 ; r il n mb r, 4 5 . t o o f a t 1 6 . i n by, ci y, 3 a s 1 20 1 . E n lis h t a ffi t C e w y , 97, g r c wi h hil Ga t o o e o s ic , c pp r w rk C o a o i e 1 1 . s t a t s t i s 216 pi p r v r, 9 , . i c 2 1 3 . C o o t s 22 . E a 1 e e 8 . pp r xp r , 4 rcill , 9 Ge o a a o s t o 1 1 C o e 22 - 1 E a u P es de t gr phic l p i i n , , pp r mining, 7 3 , rr z riz , r i n , - 4 . 2 18 1 6 o st t ut o a $ 39 . 7 c n i i n l (ge o o a eat u es 6 l gic l f r , 3 , C o u o Ba 1 6 . e o u de 166 16 q imb y, 7 r f rm n r, , 9 , — 10 1 . o o t i : o e 1 7 C o q u imb ( p r f r i g n 70 . G e a C o e a t a de 20 2 18 o u la Es t a t es d s t ut o o f rm n mm rci l r , 9, ; p p , i rib i n , e t e se . n rpri , 5 5 t o 1 . 1 i n , 73 5 4 Ge a : Ch e a t a de C o o e rm ny il n r o u . Et e 2 1 . q imb Pr vinc n , 3 t , 226 ; e a t o a u t u e a nd i dus Eu o e a a de o s t s wi h mi g r i n gric l r n r p n b nk p i , t o C e 1 1 8 18 t i e s 128 a e a 1 1 0 2 hil , 45 , 7 , 9 ; r , ; r , 3 7 , 7 t a t e 2 8 t ra fli c t - ni r , 3 ; wi h o d a s s 2 a i E u o e a set t e s i n flu ” g l w hing , 35 ; r l r p n l r , C e s t a t i s t 2 1 a s e e o f 1 1 hil , ic 5 . w y . nc , 4 . ‘ Gi s s o o s 1 C o u o e 8 1 1 E e ut e o e a nd C o n rl ch l , 4 . q imb riv r, 9 , 9, x c iv p w r G o d 1 2 1- 6 es s st u le e t e e l mining, 55 , 3 , g , r gg b w n , 239 . C o 1 22 21 . a 8 1g . rr l , 9 , G o d a i s g 18 . C o a o t : a o E o t s 1 1 220 l w h n , 4 rr l ( p r ) c rg xp r 4 1 5 5 1 , , G o a a D o n to o o e e t 220 C o u t s 22 — nz g , An ni m v m n , ; r 3 5 . G u t e s o u ded ill y, ci i f n by, o f ust ic e 16 . E t e n a a t e o e J , x r l m ri im m v 1 . e i K1 37 C o e S a n s 8 . e t st at st s 2 1 2 16 r l p 4 m n , i ic , 5 , G o e o s a de s i u t at ed a ds a e a v rn r , r nk , g C l iv l n , r , a t o and st a t u s 1 2. 1 1 n i n , 5 3 . F G a a s 1 6. r nj , 9 C u a a ue 1 . r nil h , 99 G e a t B t a C e a r ri in , hil n o e : e a d s a ds 1 1. C u o. a . Fa a I ric Pr vinc r lkl n l n , 9 t a de t 226. 1 1 de s t o 1 28 F e di a d V I I K o f r wi h , 3 ; crip i n, ; r n n , ing G re Ed a d t ute y , Sir w r , rib o u da t o dat e 1 6 a : a t u e o f re f n i n , , 3 ; Sp in c p r , t o C e . e a s 1 0 o ula s u lt s 1 hil , 4 4 min r l , 3 ; p p , 5 7 . G ua o : ds de n bir , 34 ; t o 1 . F a a s s 16 . i n , 73 in nci l cri i , 7 — o s t s e o ts C ust o o use dut e s 1 10 F a a st a t i st s 1 0 p i , 33 5 ; xp r , m h i , 9 , in nci l ic , 9 9 2 8 2 . 3 , 39 67. 69 . G uaya can co ppe r wo rks F st se tt e s 20 . ir l r , 2 3 1 . Fo e de t 1 . D r ign b , 5 4 , 7 m s 1 ( 3 e s 2 . Lin ( hip ) , 5 Fo e a t o 161 . r ign immigr i n ,

D eat at e 1 6. F o e e s e e t a e t o h r , 4 r ign r , p rc n g

D t s 1 6 . s o u a t he t o t a o u a t o 1 . i c n b nk , 5 l p p l i n , 4 5 H - D o e o o d e a 10 . 1 1 2 C Fo e s t a ds 6 1 . m yk r ill r , 3 r l n , 4 , 3 , 3 D rinkin o w a t e r s u Fi s dust 12 18 H a s R a d at Va l g pply hing in ry , 9, 4 , wkin , ich r ,

se e . 1 rvic 74 0 . a ra iso 6 1 . , 9 , D a e F a s a Val t F a 1 0 . a ou s Re o t o fC o m r k , r nci , l x , 9 rb r , r

a a so 21 6 1 . F o da o u da t o da t e m it te e fo r t pe s t ud o p r i , , l ri , f n i n , y f

1 . t he o e e t o f . 37 impr v m n , 75 Fo s s 1 oa 2 . He i e 2 u C a o 0 . il c l , 9 nr q z , mil , 9 F a e t a de t C e H e o e o o d E r nc , r wi h hil , i rr Vi j , g l mining, 22 2 6. 34 E a a t a t s 2 rly inh bi n 4 . F e o o st s C e Ho a d t ade W i t C i e r nch c l ni in hil , ll n , r h h l , E ast e I s a d . 18 . 22 r l n , 94 9 6 . E e s as t al o e F e N a t a ua Co m H o Ko c mm nic a ~ ccl i ic g v rn r nch l h ng ng, o u e t 1 2. a Co e 22 t o n t 21 m n , 5 p ny ( pp r) . 9 i wi h , 5. z ﬁ INDEX

n izat io n a e a e 1 0 $ o e a ea a nd No a C o e e o f , cr g , 3 , Mining n , r rm l ll g Agri la t u 2 o io n 1 . t 1 1 d s o 1 1 0 u u e 66 . 93 ; ivi i n , 9 , 3 , p , 44 c l r , 1 2 po a e 18 2 o 1 o d as L a . N a o o s t a 44 ; g l w hing, 9 , ch V ll y, rm l Sch l , r ining - M. o l e 2 f t a e s 2 2 o se e a o nc u 0 e a t . 34 , 35 ; h r r ring, riv r, 4 ch r , 73 1 1 a 2 s e e o o e do t e No t e e o e a 00 . R : a a 9 ; r ilw y, ; h p M nr c rin , 79 r h rn gi n r ,

e a 1 1 see a lso o t e u a 1 . 1 1 a a te s t s 1 0 r ring, 9 ; M n Ag il , 99 ~ 3 ch r c ri ic , 3 .

a e . t i o e N u t a t s o f a a s o t : d a g , e . o e a e a S r i M g ll n M n A m r —l J r bl Pr vinc , r , a o a t t e o f 1 . e s de t 18 1 6 1 6 . 1 1 a a t e s t s 1 0 M ip , b l , 5 9 Pr i n , 0 , 9 3 ch r c ri ic , 3 ;

~ M1 1 . r s 1 2 a i o e 0 0 1 o t t : D o n a ue P e e t o 8 . riv r, 99, , 9 M n M n l , d crip i n , - Ml e 18 . Pro nt 1 1 a e u N u e e 1 a e co a 8 s ide 18 6 : 8 . , L k , , 5 ri l bl riv r , 3 e a 1 1 o o t u a o o u e d Nue a I e a 20 e : a o . vinc r , 3 ; c l ni r l c l ny f n by, v mp ri l, 4 z at io n 18 1 2 1 de 1 1 C C o de e a t e d , 9 , 9 , 93 ; 9 ivil n c s ri t io n 128 1 0 t a de du e s de o f p , , 3 ; r , ring pr i ncy ,

1 16 . g3 . 4 O a u a t u dust e s o tt D o n Ped o es M n f c ring in ri , M n , r , Pr i d - O t a 18 8 . s t a t 1 . e t 1 6 10 1 . e o f 5 , 90 , 70 c y , , 5 n ‘ Ma c ho e 1 1 6 u e 1 1 O H i ins A o se o . p riv r, 35, 7 , M lch n, 74 , 99 g g , mbr 1 t a e e a nd de a t 77 . bir h , c r r, h - - 1 t de a a e a t e 1 6. e s fo un M rri g r , 4 5 3 ; ci i b Ma a t e 1 1 . 1 u a t a a t u i o q riv r, 9 N , 37 ; h m ni ri n P : a e a e go t s 2 1 1 a u e . o e 8 0 M l r vinc r , r , , 49, 5 ;

1 de s o 1 28 1 0 . N it o es de o f 1 2 re 1 t a e t o . C u 3 crip i n , , 3 cimi n f n pr i ncy , 4 ; au e e 18 1 1 120 da t o da t e 1 S i s t a nc e o f t o a s M l riv r, , 9 , , i n , , 3 , Sp ni h

18 20 2 1 . N a hue lb uta o u t a o e 1 . 3 , 4 , 3 m n in , 59 ‘ . (pH i s r a u C t : o ula a e 10 0 . D o n Be M llin . i y p p r ng , w rgin , t o Nat o a l a a te inﬂu na r 0 u e e D e i n , i n ch r c r , S pr m irc au i e 12 t o r F s t e s i de t o f e n c e s o n 26. : M llin r v r, 3 , , ir Pr n

18 20 21 . Nat o a e e d t u e I de e de t C e 9 , 5 , 3 i n l xp n i r , n p n n hil , 5 3 ;

e e e a t u e s 1 . i a t a t 0 1 10 6 . o o o t e d M n mp r r , 9 9 , 7 imm i n pr m

e a o 1 . t a 156. 0 N a o o e 6 68 . M ch ic , 9 i n l inc m , 7, by , ‘ e s H e a a N at o a raw a t e i a O H i ins . o e M igg , nry, r ilw y i n l m r l, gg Pr vinc

e t e se f . a e a 1 1 d s t o . e o n rpri , 5 4 240 r , 3 ; crip i n ,

e o es 220 2 8 . Nz t io nal s a s a 1 28 1 0 a a 1 . M jill n , , 3 ving b nk , , 3 ; r ilw y, 9 9 ’

Me ilo ne a 2 1 . Olla ii 1 s B g e . n y, 9 7 g , 97

e P e 1 6 O a s a 1 . a . o N a t e a ou used e M lipill r vinc , 3 , iv l b r by n ( r c ) , 39

1 1. Os o o . t : fo unda a a ds 1 . C 5 Sp ni r , 4 7 rn i y e do a Go e o D o n N a t e o u at o a t a t i o o f 1 6 o t a e M n z v rn r iv p p l i n rri n , 3 ; imp r nc G a H t a do e t s v l t o f 1 o t o 1 2 a u d e a o f he a s 1 1 . u a rci r , ci i Sp ni h , 4 , 74 ; p p l i n , 4 ;

o u de d 1 6. Nat e s a a t e s t s a a 1 . o e f n by, 3 iv , ch r c ri ic r ilw y, 99 Pr vinc

e do a . C t 8 2 1 o f ro c la im e o s 2 2 e o t a t i o M n z i y, , 59 , , 4 3, 4 4 p cr p , 4 ; xp r n

20 0 20 6. e e t e s 1 1 . o 20 a “a s 20 2. , fr ci iz n , 6 fr m , 5 ; r il y ,

e a 1 . O a e 1 e de e 2 Nat u a a st u e a ds . M n n z, L k , 4 r l p r l n , v ll , 73 O t - s 1 1 e a t e a e 20 a e a o u e d 1 2. s e e d . M rc n il m rin , 9, r cc pi , 3 y r b , 9

212 21 . Na t u a o du t 8 2 s 8 . , 3 r l pr c , 5 , 3 ' e a t s e o s N a se 1 8 f s a a . M rch n lin hip , v l b , 3

21 . N 2 4 a a o e 16 . M v l p w r, 3 , 75 , 7 P es/£3 0 a e t he 1 8 N a a e e s a n d r c , , 4 , vig bl riv r - - 1 . a e s 1 1 2 20 a t e a N a at o 4 9 l k , 9 5 , 3 5 . P ciﬁc S m vig i n e t a u 1 1 2 Na a t o a s 21 21 2 1 1 0 2 . . C o a 0 M ll rgy , 5 , 3 , 33 vig i n l w , 7 , 5 4 , , mp ny ,

a r o e e 1 22. Ne o e 20 2 1 . Mil g cr k , gr riv r , 5 . 7 t a a a N e a a a ke 12 16 . e u u e a e a . Mili ry c mp ig n , 3 q n r ilw y lin , P l n , , 5 e W a : 1 1 2 N e w It a o o 1 2 a e 1 . a t C . a e Mill r, illi m p r l l ny , 9 P l n riv r, 9, 4 t a e N a ke a i e a s C e a o s a 12 . a a a a C k n by, in hil n ic l , , 4 P n m c n l, h l W a r 6 Ni t a t e : de o s t s a e t e d 8 18 . , 5 r p i , ff c by, 5 ,

e a e o t s 22 . 8 10 1 2 P a e r u e 6 16 Min r l xp r , 3 32. 5 , 59. 77 . 3, 3 ; c rr ncy, 9 , 7, l e a a t e a s im di s t i ts 0 8 1 i . Min r m ri l r c , 4 , 5 , 44 , 9

o t e d 222. 2 p r , 2 0 e o t a t o 6 22 a o so 99 . xp r i n , 7, 3 , P p ,

e a o du t o t o t a 22 2 o v e r nme nt a a 1 1 1 . Min r l pr c i n , l 4 , 39 ; P rr l , 37, 74 , 99

a ue 1 0 2 . o e t a s ua i e 12 v a ue o f 2 . v l , 9 9 , 39 pr p r y, , 7 ; P c r v r, 5 e a e a t 1 d — a t a o a des t o 2. i us t 18 2 . in r l w l h , 3 , r , , , M 3 n y 5, 37 9 P g ni crip i n du s t 16 1 16 N t a t e a a s C om 12 a es o e ia Mining in ry, , 5 , i r R ilw y r c f rm rly 1 8 s t at st s 1 0 2 . an 1 ha tin 1 . 5 ; i ic , 9 9, 39 P y, 96 . i g, 39 INDEX 249

P at a o a I s a ds 10 2 o al o e n e t Re o o e e t s 1 0 g ni n l n , , Pr vinci g v r m n , f rm m v m n , 5 ,

1 1 1 1 2. 0 4 . 5 , 5 P e 1 1 1 2 Re e a o a at i a ass o f C u de t . t C r ci n cl hil P blic b , 9 , 7 frig r ing mp ny

a ns 1 . u e du a t i o 1 66. o f a t a o a 1 2. , 49 P blic c n , 73 , P g ni , 9

Pe e ue a a 1 . Pu a a o e 1 1 . Re o us o e ss o s o f l q n r ilw y, 99 ch c Pr vinc , 5 ligi pr f i n

e a o i t 1 6. ue o u n dido 1 20 1 a t a t s 1 . P lic n P n , 7 P bl , 97, inh bi n , 45

e a C o de 1 66. a a 1 20 2. R e lo nc av i 12 . P n l , r ilw y, 97, , 9 f d a s R e lo ncav i u 1 1 e o 1 . ue e t e o I G 8 P nc , 99 P lch rib n i n , lf, 45 , 7,

P 1 1 . 1 . 1 . e ﬁue las , 8 40 99 D o i o se o a u ue t o o t t : o ula R e lo nc avi o u t a 8 e ez . P r , r J J q in , P r M n p p M n in , 9 18 1 aC iﬁc a Sh i Re a o 1 es de t 6 : t o . Pr i n , p i n ; ? ; F‘in n ic , 99 a u a a s i R 1 t o o f 1 1 18 S e iir cg e o 2. 2 2 S . 6 i n by, Ar c ni , , ; , ngif , 1 s de 16 1 R o 1 88 e o u 2 . e . r f rm n r, 5 , 3 ng , 74 1 6 P s 1 u 6 ue t o a a 88 . R o a a t o r V r , p blic rg niz i n o e e t ou u t a e a s e o o a 0e 1 6 1 a a de c mm rc hr gh , P n Ar n , g l gic l , 3 , 37 ; r ci l o f C e and a 1 6 : o m a t o 10 o u la s e t o f a t a t s 1 8 hil Sp in , 5 f r i n , 3 p p c n inh bi n , 4 o e a e a t o s t o 1 1 1 o t 218 Re e : o u da t o da t e c mm rci l r l i n i n , 74 , 9 ; p r , , r f n i n , ,

t 2 1 1 o t e t 220 ra ilw 20 0 s e e 1 6 1 . wi h , ; fr n i r wi h ; y, ; h p 3 37 C e 1 1 ua o de e a 6g 1 1 s Re e ue 1 8 1 hil , 5 ; g n r ring , , 9 ; hip v n , 7 , 77, 7 , o s t s e at o o f 21 s tu a t o a n d R es o e s de t 1 0 1—6 p i , 35 ; lib r i n , ping , 3 ; i i n i c , Pr i n , 9 , 1 o i t a o e t o e s t e 1 60 i d s t 18 e 0 . ; p l ic l c nn c i n n u ri , 4 ; l 7

t C e dat e 1 ; a s 20 6 a e fi s R ue a e 20 0 . wi h hil , , 7 gr ph , ; wh l h inih , L k , t ade t C e 226 1 R i Bue o R e 1 1 m 2 . o r wi h hil , ; g , 4 n ( iv r) , 9, t e at t C e 8 0 u e 1 8( 1 22 1 2 2 1 . r y wi h hil , ; P r n , , 3, 3 w e 16 L 12 . R i a t o 1 o ar t C 8 u e ue a e o G . wi h hil , 3 , 7, P y h , k , 5 ,

R ts o F and C o . i n , . - e u B o i a C o e de a u de a d 2 1 . P r l vi n nf r S n rl n , 5 t o a a s t C e 16 . R e a D o ri o s o de i n g in hil , 3 Q iv r , Al n Pe u a s C e num t o u de d 1 6 . r vi n , in hil , ci y f n by, 3 b e r 1 . uechere as 1 8 . R e s des t o o f 12 , 45 Q , 9 iv r , crip i n ,

Pe t o a 1 . e t a lin a u e 1 0 . 1 1 18 rc , 37 u , 9 4 , ,

i u e t e o f I l n 1 0 . Ro d 2 2 20 . gue lo 9 a s 0 , 3 P c nch rib n ,

d a s 1 0 . u e 18 . Ro e o u t a 100 . i n , 4 Q ill n , 9 bl m n in , t o do n a P es t ea t o f t t he Ro a d e t o B e e , , Qu illin r y , wi h Pin —Anib l r i , l n Lin r m n de t 18 6 8 1 1 6 . au a a s 26. 2 1 n , 7 , 7 Ar c ni n , s da 1 . o u t o s s N . P . u e o t a R o t hschild e s . irq , 99 Quill f n i n , M r M

s a ua 8 1 220 2 8 . da t e 1 6. a nd o s Fina nc ia l C o n Pi g , 5 , 73, , 3 , 3 S n

a o o u e st o f o u t o 18 . t a t o f C e a G o e Piz rr , c nq S h Q u in , 9 r c hil n v rn

e a 1 . u ue : ou dat i o e t t 2. Am ric by, 45 , 34 Q irih f n n m n wi h , 7

P a a . da t e 1 . R o a a t e a s l cill , 99 , 37 y l M il S m hip

t a I s a d 18 2. a 1 2 2 1 o t a C o s t u t o u u C o 2 . P li ic l n i i n , Q iriq in l n , mp ny, , 4 - o de 18 1 16 2 . u o a D o n R d o Ru a a e ts 1 2. 33, 9 , 7 Q ir g , rig s r l h ml , 7 Po u at o o f C e 26 1 p l i n hil , , 36. 0 1 8 8 1 2 1 3 , 3 , 7 , 9, 4 , 43 ,

1 2 1 8 . 7 , 4 S P 162 o t a e s . r l , R ' ‘ o t s a 20 8 20 S a lzzr e de io sits 1 2. P r , princip l , , 9, , 3 — a a g 2 1 21 2 8 . Ra a e e e t s a nd 20 9 , 3 ci l l m n S m ,

o st a s st e 20 . a a te st s 20 1 a a e . P l y m , 7 ch r c ri ic , , 39 S m riv r, 9 4 o e da Do n o a s 1 S an t o o : a o u P v , T m 4 . An ni h rb r

a de 1 6. R a ue e 20 . e te s o a a M rin , 3 h riv r, 5 x n i n , 75 ; r ilw y,

P a t A t u o . R a a o st u t o 1 1 . r , r r , 5 3 ilw y c n r c i n , 4 , 99 1 6 n B d 1 e a ds 1 10 8 6 8 16 6 1 6 Sa e a o . , 6 9, 3, 5 , , 9, rn r , 74 Pr v iling win , 3 7 , — 12. 1 1 2 2. Sa n C a o s 1 . 0 4 0 rl , 74 7 , — e t o G e e a D 1 12 Sa n C e e t e 1 . o n R a in fa . Pri , n r l l , 5 7, 4 l m n , 99 o a u in G o e o o f Ra a u a : o u dat o Sa n Fe e : o u dat o J , v rn r nc g f n i n , lip f n i n , C hi e : Go e e t dat e 1 6 o u a t o da t e 1 6 o u a t o v rnm n by, , 3 ; p p l i n , , 3 ; p p l i n

s 1 . 1 . 173 ; r a ilwa y , 99 73 a s o o s s t R a e e 10 0 1 1 Sa n Fe a do : fo unda Prim ry ch l in i p l riv r, , 9, rn n

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