Proceedings of the 2Nd Momowo International Conference-Workshop

Proceedings of the 2nd MoMoWo International Conference- Workshop

Research Centre of Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, France Stele Institute of Art History, 3–5 October 2016, Ljubljana

Ljubljana 2018

Proceedings of the 2nd MoMoWo International Conference-Workshop Research Centre of Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, France Stele Institute of Art History, 3–5 October 2016, Ljubljana

Collected by Helena Seražin, Caterina Franchini and Emilia Garda

MoMoWo Scientific Committee: POLITO (Turin/Italy) Emilia GARDA, Caterina FRANCHINI IADE-U (Lisbon/Portugal) Maria Helena SOUTO UNIOVI (Oviedo/Spain) Ana María FERNÁNDEZ GARCÍA VU (Amsterdam/Netherlands) Marjan GROOT ZRC SAZU (Ljubljana /Slovenia) Helena SERAŽIN UGA (Grenoble/France) Alain BONNET SiTI (Turin/Italy) Sara LEVI SACERDOTTI

Issued by ZRC SAZU, France Stele Institute of Art History Represented by Barbara Murovec

Published by Založba ZRC Represented by Oto Luthar Editor-in-chief Aleš Pogačnik

Layout: Helena Seražin and Nejc Bernik

The collected papers were submitted prior the 2nd MoMoWo International Conference-Workshop and written as preliminary versions of articles, which will be published in a separate, edited and peer- reviewed volume Women Designers, Architects and Enigneers betwwen 1946 and 1968 in the series Women’s Creativity. The collected papers have not been peer-reviewed. The authors hold responsibility for English language proof-reading. Abstracts are published at http://www.momowo.eu/2nd-historical-workshop-booklet/.

Publication of the Project MoMoWo (Women’s Creativity since the Modern Movement) http://www.momowo.eu

This project has been co-funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

This project is co-funded by Creative Europe programme of the European Union, Slovenian Research Agency and Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Slovenia.

Content

I Education and Publishing

Leafing Through the Pages of Specialized Magazines Seeking for Women Architects and Designers

7 Women Contribution to Design through ‘Domus’ (1946–1968) Caterina Franchini

31 Women Contribution to Architecture through ‘Domus’ (1946–1968) Emilia Garda and Chiara Serra

38 Design and Women through the Pioneering Magazine ‘Stile industria’ (1954–1963) Annalisa Barbara Pesando

48 A Portrait of the Female Mind as a Young Girl Iva Maria Jurić

Education

57 First Generations of Women in Architecture and Design at University of Ljubljana Helena Seražin

Presentation and Perception of Women Architects and Designers

63 A Storytelling Overlooked: Feminisms, Modernity and Dissemination Daniela Arias Laurino

69 Exclusion and Inclusion in Dutch Design History: Female Designers in the Goed Wonen (Good Living) Foundation 1946–1968 Ilja S.Meijer

80 AMS: The Work of Alison Margaret Smithson (1928–1993) Alessandra Como and Luisa Smeragliuolo Perrotta

87 The Makeable Landscape and Society: Gender, Representation, and the Male Architect as Post-war Hero Marjan Groot

II Politics, Policies and Political Regimes

Position of Women Architects in Socialist Countries of Eastern Europe

97 Women’s Contribution in Architectural History of Rijeka during the 1950s and 1960s Lidija Butković Mićin

108 Role of Women in Architecture after WW2 in Slovenia: Olga Rusanova Andreja Benko and Larisa Brojan

115 Exploring Female Contribution to Slovenian Conservation in the 1950s and 1960s: Case Study of Cistercian Abbey of Kostanjevica na Krki Reconstruction Barbara Vodopivec

Position of Women Architects in Western Europe

127 Marion Tournon Branly and Eliane Castelnau Tastemain: Two Leading Figures in French Architecture Stéphanie Mesnage

137 Juana Ontañón: An Architect Woman in Asturias Esther Rodriguez Ortiz

145 (Re)discovering the Objects and Actions of Lina Bo Bardi Mara Sanchez Llorens

III Research and industries

Developing Industrial Design

154 An Improbable Woman: Portuguese New State’s Dictatorship and Design Leadership Maria Helena Souto

156 Stanka Knez, m. Lozar – A Slovenian Textile Designer in the Early Socialist Yugoslavia Maja Lozar Štamcar

167 Female Design History in Croatia, 1930-1980: Context, Production, Influences Ana Bedenko

Developing Architecture and Interior Design Typologies

180 Vera Cirkovic’s Contribution to Educational Architecture in Yugoslavia Vladana Putnik

188 Remarkable Public Health Service Architecture by Architect Zoja Dumengjić Zrinka Barišić Marenić

199 Feeling at Home: Elisabeth (Kaatje) de Lestrieux’s Personal Housing Designs Florencia Fernandez Cardoso, Fatima Pombo and Hilde Heynen

Approaches

209 Three Projects for Council Houses by Lina Bo Bardi: From Virtual Vincenza Garofalo

215 Matilde Ucelay Maortua: Single-family House for Vincente Sebastian Llegat Starlight Vattano

224 Egle Renata Trincanato: Unbuilt Francesco Maggio

Innovation in Landscape Architecture

233 Elena Luzzatto Valentini, the First Italian Women Architect Monica Prencipe

242 Italy-England 1946–1954: Maria Teresa Parpagliolo, Landscape beyond Borders Lucia Krasovec Lucas

252 Architect Juta Krulc, Garden Designer Maja Kržišnik

I EDUCATION AND PUBLISHING

Leafing through the Pages of Specialized Magazines Seeking for Women Architects and Designers

Women’s Contribution through the Pages of “Domus” (1946–1968)

Design Exhibitions and Fairs (1946–68)

Caterina Franchini

The magazine Domus has proved to be an has played a pioneering role in recognising outstanding source for mapping the leading women of Modern design by contributions of female architects and publishing tributes, such as “Un omaggio a designers to contemporary design fields, Eileen Gray. Pioniera del Design” (1968), as well as for studying their visibility and that have stimulated public interest in the the reception of their works. Modern Movement legacy. In 1968, the This chapter covers primarily women’s English architectural historian Joseph contributions to the most relevant design Rykwert, author of the tribute, wrote: exhibitions and fairs that were published, It is odd how no-one has paid advertised or organised by the magazine homage to Eileen Gray for between 1946 and 1968. The chapter thirty years. […] Eileen Gray is presents some results of an original still working. What she has research study that focused primarily on done up to date must not be furnishing, furniture design and exhibition taken as just a historical set design, also taking into account document; it will remain as an organisational and editorial tasks that example of a remarkably were covered by women. humane and sensitive artist The reasons for choosing this Italian who has had the courage and magazine as a source for this historical the force to break new investigation are twofold. First, unlike its ground.2 competitors, Domus expressed a unified concept of design culture, from architecture to decorative arts and from art to industrial design, since its inception. Even today, the magazine continues to represent the world of design through a cross-sectoral approach. Second, but not least, Domus has always made a place for analysis and discussion by carefully Domus 1928-1999 (Köln: Taschen, 2006), 12 Vol. On Domus as a source for historical investigations, selecting projects, ideas and innovations, see: Fulvio Irace and Marianne Lorenz, Domus 1 including those of women. The magazine 1928-1984: from the sources of modern to neomodern resources (New York: Architectural League, 1984). 1 For a complete historical overview on the 2 Joseph Rykwert, “Un omaggio a Eileen Gray. magazine, see: Charlotte Fiell and Peter Fiell (eds.), Pioniera del Design,” Domus 469 (1968), 33. 7

Domus as a million-room house to be having gained experience at the affiliated explored: Women in the editorial office periodical Stile, where she had followed her father from 1940 to 1947. For the celebration of issue 1000 of Over the years, other women joined the Domus in March 2016, Maria Giovanna editorial staff: journalist Enrichetta – Mazzocchi Bordone (b. 1947) clearly Chicchetta– Ritter (1923–2015)6 in 1954, articulated the meaning of Domus as “a Anna Marchi in 1964 and Marianne Lorenz house of design, architecture, and urban (d. 2010) in 1965. Marianne or Marion –as planning, and of all the new dimensions she was dubbed by Lisa Ponti (b. 1922)– where the organisation of space, the became the best friend and close invention of beauty, the investigation of collaborator of Lisetta, and both women form, and the development of expertise ‘have been a central factor in the success are expressed”.3 The magazine has also of the magazine in its gold age’.7 become a ‘home’ for all exceptional men Lisa Ponti was the editor-in-chief’s right- and women, members of the editorial hand person, and at the height of the staff and consultants, whose enthusiastic 1950s, she became an independent work is still recognisable behind every overseer of the pages offered to artists. issue. She then outlined the standards of art Giovanna Mazzocchi has been Domus’s with the authority of a veteran editor until publisher, since 1975. She is the daughter the 1990s.8 In 1950, Ponti wrote to his of Gianni Mazzocchi who became the friend Gigi Radice, “My daughter Lisa is so publisher of the magazine a year after it like me at Domus, that programmatic was founded by Gio Ponti in 1928. Gio Ponti’s female relatives also collaborated with Domus. 6 Enrichetta Ritter is the editor of the book I In 1928, Ponti’s wife, Giulia Vimercati, pieghevoli, raccolta di oggetti progettati per ridurre wrote a few articles for the column on il loro ingombro (Bologna: Zanichelli, 1980). 7 plants, flowers and gardens,4 and in 1930, In memory of Marianne Lorenz, Anna Foppiano the magazine published her table-setting wrote: “Born in Vienna, Marianne studied at the German decoration, which was exhibited at the IV High School in Milan, the city she lived in having Esposizione Triennale Internazionale delle followed her father, who was in charge of the Arti Decorative ed Industriali Moderne in famous Italian Krupps branch (“Arthur Krupp Monza.5 Berndorf”). [..] Ponti often used to say, with his Later, Ponti’s daughter Lisa, who was peculiar way of smiling: “Marianne is always right”. And he also added: ‘Marianne personifies the nicknamed Lisetta, took the helm of the ancient heart of Europe’, expressing his real magazine as deputy editor (1965–86). She admiration for her as well as his deep-rooted worked for forty years in Domus’s editorial affection for Austria”. Anna Foppiano, “Marianne office under the direction of her father, Lorenz,” Abitare Archive 1 August (2010), http://www.abitare.it/en/archive/2010/08/01/mar ianne-lorenz-1932-2010-2/ (accessed May 2, 3 Giovanna Mazzocchi Bordone, “Gianni and 2017). Giovanna Mazzocchi Publishers,” Domus 1000 8 Lisa Ponti is the author of several books, including (2016), 3. the book of poems, Gio Ponti agli Amici (Milano: 4 Articles by Giulia Ponti Vimercati include the Alfieri e Lacroix, 1941), the fairy tales L’Armadio following: “Le orchidee,” Domus 2 (1928), 32, 48; Magico (Milano: Ed. Italiana, 1946) and Gio Ponti. “Piante d’appartamenti: le piante grasse,” Domus 3 L’opera (Milano: Leonardo, 1990). She has always (1928), 34; “Nuovi disegni per stoffe practiced the art of drawing, and in 1992, the d’arredamento,” Domus 16 (1929), 33, 48. Galleria Toselli in Milan hosted her first exhibition. 5 “Il concorso per l’ornamentazione della tavola Some of her drawings were also published by alla Triennale di Monza,” Domus 35 (1930), 58–9. Domus. 8 agreement with her is what is most manifesto of Italy’s rebirth and a symbol beneficial”.9 of a socially active cultural reawakening. According to Lisa Ponti, ‘Domus is a Between 1946, the year of its resumption, million-room house to be explored’10 and and 1968, the year of its fortieth what can be found within the magazine anniversary, Domus reported on major depends on which door we wish to open. design exhibitions, namely the exhibition This chapter opens the door of the female of the Association Riunione Italiana designers’ room, bearing in mind that Mostre per l’Arredamento (RIMA) at “save for a turbulent seven years (1941– Palazzo dell’Arte in Milan (1946) and eight 47), Domus was Gio Ponti’s magazine for editions of the Triennale di Milano (1947– the first 50 years, reflecting his 68).12 idiosyncrasies and his curiosity”, as Domus became not only the magazine for underlined by Fulvio Irace.11 architecture, design, art and urban As an independent magazine, Domus planning –that we all know– but also a represented a cultural project that aimed brand around which initiatives grew, to promote a so-called cultura dell’abitare giving visibility to a number of female (housing culture) and intended to Italian architects, designers and proclaim a type of modernity that did not entrepreneurs. coincide with either a style or a fashion. Except for the many competitions Therefore, since its early period – organised by the magazine, such as preceding the sSecond War World– the Formica-Domus, Vetroflex-Domus, Vis abstractionism of the artistic avant-gardes Securit-Domus, Ducotone, which were not appeared to be mitigated, and the included in this chapter due to a lack of classical or folkloristic conservationism space, these initiatives were the first two was not represented by the magazine. Eurodomus fairs (1966, 1968) and the Probably for this reason, the magazine presentation Domus Formes Italiennes at soon became successful abroad, turning the Galeries Lafayette in Paris (1967). into an ambassador of the Italian pride. As Exhibitions and fairs helped to launch a matter of fact, Domus was one of the Italian design and female designers on the few international magazines in the era of international scene. In this context, Domus nationalistic regimes, becoming an has published not only the works of archetype for successive design female Italian architects who designed magazines. furniture for leading Italian companies but Due to the war, the publication was has also highlighted the contributions of suspended in 1945 and resumed in 1946 foreign female designers and under the leadership of architect Ernesto Scandinavians to design. Nathan Rogers. From January 1946 to December 1947, the leader of BBPR (Banfi, Belgiojoso, Peressutti, Rogers) reinvented the magazine, embracing the motto ‘The home of Man’. Nineteen issues were enough to turn Domus into both a 12 For a history of the Triennali, see: Anty Pansera, Storia e cronaca della Triennale (Milano: 9 Fulvio Irace, “Lisa,” Domus 1000 (2016), 8. Longanesi, 1978). On design at the Triennali, see: 10 Lisa Ponti Licitra, “Un saluto,” Domus 669 (1986), Alberto Bassi, Raimonda Riccini, Cecilia Colombo 1. (eds.), Design in Triennale, 1947-68: percorsi fra 11 Fulvio Irace, “The editors-in-chief and the Milano e Brianza (Cinisello Balsamo: Silvana history,” Domus 1000 (2016), 5. editoriale, 2004). 9

The second half of the forties: The RIMA whose production was extensively Exhibition and the VIII Triennale di represented and advertised in the Milano magazine’s issues until 1996 (783), reaching the covers of Domus since the The RIMA Exhibition opened at Palazzo 1950s. This outstanding craftswoman, dell’Arte in Milan in 1946. From this event, designer and entrepreneur founded her Domus (212) published the chairs textile firm in Milan in 1936, and Gio Ponti designed by architects Lucia Ponti was among the artists who designed Bonicalzi for Brenna e Cazzini (Milan) and fabrics and rugs for her firm from the Emma Pasquinelli Peressutti for Fratelli outset.15 Cassina (Meda). Fede Cheti’s creations –along with those Both architects belonged to the Milanese of the renowned Gegia Bronzini (1894– circle of innovative architectural culture. 1976)16 and the less-known Emilia Bardi Lucia was the wife of engineer Giovanni from Bergamo– were published by Domus Bonicalzi, who was a professor at the (213) as examples of a productive and Polytechnic of Milan, and Emma was creative recovery of imagination and a married to BBPR’s Enrico Peressutti, who love of Italian artisans for their work, was a colleague of Domus editor E. Nathan featuring the section of the RIMA Rogers. exhibition that was devoted to textiles, Made of wood and plywood, the curtains and fabrics.17 published chairs were appreciated for The exhibition set design of this section – their plain, flexible and ergonomic shapes defined ‘graceful’ by E.N. Rogers–was and for their affordable cost, which made created by architect Lina Bo.18 She them available to the middle class.13 collaborated with Gio Ponti at the Pasquinelli’s rocking chaise-longue – magazine Lo Stile - nella casa e marked by its pierced plywood structure– nell’arredamento until 1943, and she was is pictured in a domestic environment, together with the same teddy horses that were portrayed on her children’s furniture in the previous issue (211) of the 15 About Fede (Federica) Cheti’s pioneering work, magazine, thus associating a maternal her friendship with Gio Ponti and her participation 14 concern with both products. at the Triennali, see: Chiara Lecce, “Fede Cheti The fabrics that covered the thin 1936-1975: Tracce di una storia italiana,” upholstery of the chairs designed by Ponti AIS/Design Storia e Ricerche 2 (2013), http://www.aisdesign.org/aisd/fede-cheti-1936- and Pasquinelli were designed and 1975-tracce-di-una-storia-italiana, (accessed 4 manufactured by Fede Cheti (1905–78), April, 2017). 16 After having won the first prize at the National textile competition in 1936 and the silver medal for 13 Lucia Ponti Bonicalzi and Emma Peressutti the tapestry shown in 1940 at the Triennale di Pasquinelli, “Due espositrici,” Domus 212 (1946), Milano, in 1946, Gegia Bronzini founded together 12–3. with her daughter Marisa (1920–2007) the 14 Mario Tevarotto, “I bambini nell’architettura,” Tessitura a mano Gegia Bronzini company. Gegia Domus 211 (1946), 28. In 1955, the same chaise- Bronzini received the Diploma of Honour at the X longue appeared in a long article devoted to Triennale di Milano (1954). On Bronzinis’ work, Peressutis’ home in Milan. This article highlights see: Roberto Rizzi, Omaggio a Gegia e Marisa only the pieces of furniture that were designed by Bronzini (Cesena: Clac, 2003). Pasquinelli’s husband, Enrico Peressutti and some 17 “Al Palazzo dell’Arte. Stoffe. Allestimento textiles designed by family friend Fede Cheti. dell’Arch. Lina Bo,” Domus 213 (1946), 6–7. Enrico Peressutti and Emma Pasquinelli, “Fra i Tetti 18 Ernesto Nathan Rogers, “Divulgazioni attorno a di Milano,” Domus 303 (1955), 16–26. una mostra d’arredamento,” Domus 211 (1946), 6. 10 the deputy editor of Domus from 1944 to of housing for all. Italian women’s 1945.19 contributions appeared in the exhibition For her exhibition set design, Lina Bo sections devoted to furniture and daily- stated the need to choose appropriate use objects. Domus published fabrics home textiles in an informal and designed by Fede Cheti and Vanna provocative way. She wrote on a giant Chiaretta and a dinnerware set designed blackboard, ‘vi ricordate? L’intimità by Lyda Levi (?), which was manufactured dell’abat-jour e i Damschi (finti) […] by the master of ceramics, Angelo BASTA!’ (do you remember? The cosiness Ungania.23 of the abatjour and the (fake) Damasks. On the occasion of this outstanding Enough!) 20. Triennale that focused on the house for Sharing Bo’s point of view, the magazine everyone, Cheti’s firm launched a textile appreciated Emilia Bardi’s decorative use design competition that was advertised by of warp, as well as the chromaticity and the magazine.24 One year later, the firm abstract motifs inspired by the Dadaist continued in launching design artist Hans Arp of Fede Cheti’s fabrics. competitions in collaboration with Fede Cheti provided her home textiles for Domus,25 and the firm promoted design by the widely celebrated experimental organising a travelling exhibition on Italian prefabricated residential quarter known as modern furniture in Milan, Genoa and ‘QT8’, which was built for the VIII Rome. Cheti and Ponti had the same Triennale di Milano (T8, 1947), the first purpose, spreading quality of artisanal after the war. Domus editor E.N. Rogers design productions in order to boost devoted the entire issue 221 to this Italian exports.26 historical event, which focused on housing From the furniture section of the T8, post-war reconstruction.21 In this issue, Domus published the works of young Fede Cheti’s textiles are also mentioned.22 architects Anna Ferrieri Castelli and Luisa The T8 affirmed the social aspects of Castiglioni, who graduated in Milan in architecture by emphasising the key issue 1943 and 1946, respectively. After the war, Anna Ferrieri Castelli (1920–

19 Achillina Bo (1914–92) graduated in Rome in 2006) became correspondent from Italy 1939 and later became known as Lina Bo Bardi. In for the English magazine Architectural 2014, to celebrate the centenary of her birth, Design and was the editor-in-chief of the Domus and the Museo Nazionale delle Arti del XXI other leading Italian magazine, Casabella- secolo - MAXXI organised an exhibition about her Continuità. She had been in contact with foundational years in Rome and Milan. Domus published an article she wrote in 1947 in Brazil and architect Piero Bottoni –designer and re-printed the first issue of the magazine A – promoter of QT8– and E.N. Rogers since Attualità, Architettura, Abitazione, Arte, which was published in 1946 by Editoriale Domus under the editorship of Lina Bo, with Carlo Pagani and Bruno Zevi. Lina Bo, “Tutto quello che volevo era avere Storia. All I Wanted was to have History,” Domus 986 (2014), 2–5. 23 Ernesto Nathan Rogers, “Sezione dell’oggetto,” 20 “Al Palazzo dell’Arte. Stoffe. Allestimento Domus 221 (1947), 21, 27. dell’Arch. Lina Bo,” Domus 213 (1946), 7. 24 “Nuovi concorsi di disegni per tessuti da 21 By replacing Melchiorre Bega, E.N. Rogers arredamento,” Domus 218 (1947), 53. became editor when the magazine was re- 25 “Concorso Fede Cheti – Domus,” Domus 226 launched in 1946 after its break in 1945. (1948), 9. 22 Ernesto Nathan Rogers, “Sezione 26 About this exhibition, see: Enrico Freyrie, dell’industrializzazione edilizia,” Domus 221 (1947), “Dimostrazione di qualità del nostro lavoro,” 12. Domus 226 (1948), 56–7. 11 she worked at Franco Albini’s studio, at The fifties, from the IX to the XI Triennale the very beginning of her career.27 di Milano: Scandinavian design culture as In his article (issue 221, 1947), Rogers a reference published a bent wooden armchair designed by Ferrieri Castelli and a When Ponti returned to Domus as editor- sectional kitchen for minimal houses, in-chief in 1948, he immediately resumed which Ferrieri Castelli had designed his pre-war interest in Scandinavian together with Ettore Gentili. In addition, design, at the same time promoting Italian Rogers mentioned her –together with modern design furniture.32 architect Luciano Canella and graphic In 1950, the magazine was looking at designer Max Huber– as the set-designer Swedish mass production of functional, of this exhibition section (Mobile Singolo), plain and low-cost furniture that which was awarded with a Mention of combined tradition with modernity for a Honour.28 democratic idea of design. Within this In the same article, Luisa Castiglioni context, female Scandinavian designers (1922–2015) gained visibility in Domus, were invited to write articles about publishing her metal-wooden office desk Northern design shops and firms. with chairs.29 Ten years later, her mass- Swedish furniture designer and interior produced office furniture was again designer Lena Rabenius Larsson (1919– published by the magazine.30 2000) presented the design of home Castiglioni was one of the few women to furniture that was mass-produced by succeed in gaining professional visibility Nordiska Kompaniet (NK) in her articles. outside the boundaries of ‘domestic Rabenius Larsson was an artistic leader at design’, to which most of her female NK, who suggested design solutions for colleagues were confined. However, the simplification of domestic lifestyles. Domus’s main articles focused on Considering interior design as a matter of architectural and interior design projects public interest, she recognised the NK that Castiglioni undertook in collaboration concept of furniture design as the epitome with her colleague Margherita (Rita) Bravi of practicality to be emulated by Italians. Mori (1921–2006).31 In her article, she explained how small Swedish factories, working on an artisanal 27 About Ferrieri’s life and work, see: Cristina basis, chose to sell simple elements in Morozzi, Anna Castelli Ferrieri (Bari: Laterza, 1993). order to obtain different pieces of 28 Ernesto Nathan Rogers, “Sezione del mobile,” furniture and facilitate export. Considering Domus 221 (1947), 14, 19–20. Ten years later, the magazine published an inventive exhibition set the similarities to Italian manufacturers, designed by the same architect. See: Anna Castelli Ferrieri, “Un allestimento,” Domus 322 (1956), 52. 29 Ernesto Nathan Rogers, “Sezione del mobile,” 3; “Un negozio in vetrina,” Domus 278 (1953), 44– Domus 221 (1947), 15. 6; “Aspetti di un arredamento”, Domus 299 (1954), 30 Luisa Castiglioni, “Mobili per ufficio prodotti in 35–9; “Camera studio per una persona,” Domus serie,” Domus 327 (1957), 44. In 1956, the same 299 (1954), 40; “A Torino,” Domus 315 (1956), 21– Castiglioni desk was published by Annibale Fiocchi, 7; “Una casa a Brescia,” Domus 317 (1956), 33–8. “Un ufficio a Milano,” Domus 324 (1956), 49. The 32 About this topic, see: Caterina Franchini, “From same year, a wooden desk by Castiglioni and the Embroidery to the Construction. Women in Margherita Bravi Mori appeared together with Design and Architecture: Domus 1928-1950”, in desks designed by Finn Juhl and Gianemilio Piero Ana María Fernández García et al. (eds.), and Anna Monti in the column “Rassegna Domus,” MoMoWo: 100 Works in 100 Years. European Domus 322 (1956), no page. Women in Architecture and Design. 1918-2018 31 By Luisa Castiglioni, Rita Mori Bravi, see: “Da (Ljubljana: ZRC SAZU France Stele Institute, 2016), appartamento a negozio,” Domus 278 (1953), 42– 249–53. 12 she suggested the adoption of the same The works by Scandinavian women strategy in Italy.33 appeared to focus primarily on ceramic, In addition, the internationally celebrated glass and textile complementary Swedish ceramic and glass designer Tyra furnishing, while the furniture design Lundgren (1897–1979), who had been scene appeared to be dominated admired by Ponti since 1934, wrote an exclusively by men. Not even the furniture article about Swedish designer Estrid exhibited at the T9 by Danish designer Ericsson (1894–1981), who founded the Grete Jalk (1920–2006) was published. renowned interior design shop Svenskt Complementary furnishing objects were Tenn (Swedish pewter) in Stockholm and designed by specialised artists and involved architect Joseph Frank in her craftswomen/designers who worked for furniture production.34 Ponti supported leading manufacturers in those countries. the participation of Svenskt Tenn at the Several pictures of these works were announced XI Triennale di Milano (T9, published in issue 259 (1951), and those 1951), writing an enthusiastic article on pictures were preceded by a Gio Ponti that topic.35 article that was emblematically entitled Thanks to these Swedish authors, Domus “IX Triennale di Milano. Insegnamento helped to initiate the interest of both altrui e fantasia degli italiani” (Other customers and Italian designers in people’s teaching and Italians’ Scandinavian design, thus favouring its imagination).37 The title of this article visibility at the T9 “International Exhibition clarifies Ponti’s point of view, whose of Decorative and Industrial Arts and mission was to open up new design Modern Architecture”. concepts that he considered able to The T9 opened the doors of Italy and enhance Italian design. Milan to the world, inviting foreign At the T9, among the Scandinavians, designers to ‘display to the Italians the female Finnish designers and craftswomen most efficient issue of their arts’. The aim were the most extensively represented by was to form a ‘general climate of taste’, Domus.38 An overview of the works of enhancing and regenerating ‘the some of these designers had already been traditional veins of spontaneous published by Gio Ponti a year earlier in production which clearly meet the order to stimulate readers’ interest in the requirements of modern culture’.36 forthcoming international exhibition.39 The magazine mentions female designers primarily in the pages devoted to the

Scandinavian sections of the exhibition. 37 Gio Ponti, “IX Triennale di Milano. Insegnamento Among all other national sections, only the altrui e fantasia degli italiani,” Domus 259 (1951), Italian and the French sections granted 10–3. 38 some visibility to women’s works in the “Finlandia. IX Triennale di Milano,” Domus 259 pages of Domus. (1951), 14–27. About Finnish craftswomen, see: Goldstein Gallery and University of Minnesota, Suomen naisten käsityöt eilen ja tänään - Finnish 33 Lena Larsson, “La Svezia produce in serie,” women's handcraft past and present, [exhibition, Domus 248-49 (1950), 75–9. About the NK, see by May 18-July 18, 1986], (St. Paul: The Gallery, 1986). the same author “La NK-bo di Stoccolma,” Domus 39 Lisa Johansson-Pape (1907–89) with her modern 255 (1951), 53. lamps, Helena Tynell (1918–2016) and Gunnel 34 Tyra Lundgren, “Valigia svedese. Conoscere Nyman (1909–48) with their crystals, and Ruth Svenskt Tenn,” Domus 247 (1950), 43–4. Bryk (1916–99) with her ceramics, were heavily 35 Gio Ponti, “Valigia svedese. Svenskt Tenn in promoted in the articles “Formelle di Ruth Bryk,” Stoccolma,” Domus 247 (1950), 45–56. and “Un anno di produzione d’arte finlandese,” 36 “IX Triennale di Milano,” Domus 247 (1950), 1. Domus 247 (1950), 41, 58–61. 13

The ceramics manufactured at the artist an article about her studio in Helsinki, colony Wärtsila Koncernen A.B. Arabia showing her innovative sacred tapestries were designed by Tonini Irene Muona that made her famous in this field.44 (1904–87) and Tapio Wirkkala’s wife, Ruth From the Stokmann-Orno firm were Bryk (1916–99),40 whose work inspired published the innovative aluminium lamps Italian artists at this exhibition. designed by Lisa Johansson Pape (1907– Porcelains for Arabia were designed by 89) through the exploration of the Aune Siimes (1909–64) –who received the potentialities of new industrial techniques. Gold medal in 1951 and 1954– while the Her revolutionary creations received glass-wares for Nuutajärvi-Nötsjö were medals at the IX, X and XII Triennali and designed by Gunnel Nyman (1909–48), had an enormous influence on the who received the Gold medal for the T9 subsequent design of lamps. posthumously. The article about Finnish design at the T9 Rugs made by adopting ancient täkänä offered the perception that traditional and ryijy techniques were designed by Alli materials and manufacturing techniques Koroma and manufactured by Suomen could peacefully coexist with innovative Käsityön Ystävät. The tapestries were materials and manufacturing techniques in designed by Laila Karttunen (1895–1981) the field of modern design. for Hämeelinnan Käsityöopisto and by Regarding the Danish section of the T9, Dora Jung (1906–80). Both textile blankets designed by the female Icelandic designers were mentioned in Domus pioneer of textiles and early member of several times. Karttunen had already the Danish Female Artists’ Society, Júlíana appeared in an article on the V Triennale Sveinsdóttir (1889–66), are published in (1933),41 while Jung was mentioned for the same magazine issue 259 (1951), in the first time in 1939.42 Dora Jung received addition to ceramics and textiles designed the Grand Prix at both the IX and X by other leading designers.45 Triennale (1951, 1954) for her damasks43 All works created by female Danish and at the XI Tiennale (1957) for her designers were exhibited together with curtains. In 1962, the magazine published Finn Juhl and Mogensen’s armchairs and Hans Wegner’s tables and wooden chairs. 40 Ruth Bryk’s work was published by the magazine Thus, the perception of women’s for the first time in 1949. “Ceramiche, sbalzi e contributions to design was that of playing smalti. Rassegna,” Domus 328 (1949), 38. In 1962, an ancillary decorative role in suggesting Domus devoted an entire article to the an unicum of a lively modern Danish Wirkkalases: “Viaggio in Lapponia,” and “Ritorno a Helsinki,” Domus 387 (1962), 23–36, 37–45. lifestyle, even though some of these 41 Carlo A. Felice, “Le Arti Applicate Straniere alla women designers were already known by Triennale di Milano,” Domus 65 (1933), 247. This article also shows a tapestry designed by Eva Anttila, a rug designed by Eva Brumer, ceramics 44 “Ritorno a Helsinki. Nello studio di Dora Jung ad designed by Elsa Elenius and toys designed by Eva Helsinky,” Domus 387 (1962), 46–7. Gardenberg, together with a chair designed by 45 Ceramics designed by Nathalie Krebs (1895– Alvar Aalto. 1978), Gertrud Vasegaard (1913–2007) for Bing & 42 “Artigianato straniero. Quattro nuovi tessuti,” Grøndahl and Eva Stæher Nielsen (1911–76) for Domus 136 (1939), 84; “Documenti d’artigianato Saxbo-Stentøj, rugs designed by Ea Koch (1905– straniero. Tessuti,” Domus 140 (1939), 73. In these 87), the wife of the architect and furniture articles, Finnish designers Maga Tikkanen and designer Mogens Koch, and textiles designed by Greta Skogster Lehtinen are also mentioned. Marie Gudme Leth (1895–1997), Inger Marie 43 “Finlandia forme nuove per la Triennale,” 298 Ostenfeld (1905–2016) and Helga Foght (1902–74) (1954), 46; “La Finlandia alla Triennale,” Domus are published in “Danimarca. IX Triennale di 300 (1954), 22. Milano,” Domus 259 (1951), 28–33. 14 the magazine.46 This ancillary perception 2002),51 who as director of the NK textile of female creations appears to have also department was able to adapt artisanal been assumed by the Swedish section, ideals to industrial needs since the 1930’s. where women were represented through Textile designers Märta Afzelius (1887– their home accessories in ceramic, glass 1961), Susan Gröndal (1901–95), and Sofia and textiles. Widén (1900–61) appeared for the first Ponti had already demonstrated his time. admiration for Swedish design since the In addition to the works of the ceramists 1925 Paris exhibition, publishing some Tyra Lundgren and Anna-Lisa Thomson articles on Swedish design and on the (1905–52) –recurrently mentioned in the exceptional productions of the magazine’s issues– works designed by department store Nordiska Kompaniet glass designer Monica Bratt (1913–61) for (NK), particularly the mass-produced Reijmyre Glasbruk appeared in the furniture department, which was directed magazine for the first time. by Lena Rabenius Larsson.47 Scandinavian women’s design was valued In the article devoted to the Swedish in the magazine for its poetic feeling, section of the T9, the productions of NK while Italian women’s design was are largely represented by women appreciated for its playful inventiveness. designers, some of whom were already The ‘La Garretta’ tent designed by Fede known by the magazine readers.48 Among Cheti and Gianni Ratto and a coffee set the textile designers mentioned, the most designed by the ceramic designer Antonia well known were the pioneer Märta Måås Campi (b. 1921) appeared as emblematic Fjetterström (1873–1941),49 Viola Grästen works of this trend. (1910–94)50 and Astrid Sampe (1909– The amusing weekend tent for ladies named ‘La Garretta’, in orange cintz, had great success at the T9.52 Equipped with scissors for gardening, magazines and 46 Nathalie Krebs was mentioned by the magazine small chairs designed by Marco Zanuso, for the first time in 1934 in the column “Idee per la this tent was presented as a perfect place casa dalle Riviste di tutto il mondo,” Domus 77(1934), 39. A vase designed by Gertrud for ladies to chat. The walking coffee-set Vasegaard was published in 1950. “Un negozio in black and white was also funny and 53 esemplare. Arredamento di Finn Juhl per ‘Bing & ironic, but in a different way. The Grondahl’, Chopenaghen,” Domus 250 (1950), 46. ceramic designer A. Campi was already Two vases designed by Eva Stæher Nielsen were known by Domus readers because her published in 1940. “Per voi e per la vostra casa Domus sceglie le migliori idee da tutto il mondo,” creations had been published together Domus 149 (1940), 80. 47 “Arredamento svedese con mobili tutti in serie,” Domus 250 (1950), 20; “La serie per i bambini. La Svezia ci insegna,” Domus 251 (1950), 33. 51 Astrid Sampe textiles were published for the first 48 “Svezia. IX Triennale di Milano,” Domus 259 time in 1935. E. Rosselli, “Nuovi tessuti e ricami (1951), 34–41. dalla Svezia,” Domus 94 (1935), 32–3. In 1939, her 49 Playing a leading role in the revival of hand fabrics for NK were published together with Tyra weaving in Sweden between the two wars, Märta Lundgren’s glasses for Venini and Aune Simes’ Måås Fjetterström was mentioned by the ceramics in “Come le foglie,” Domus 144 (1939), magazine for the first time in 1935, together with 56–7. Astrid Sampe is mentioned by Domus until Elsa Gullberg (1886–1984), who was a pioneer of the sixties. textile design for industrial production. Gio Ponti, 52 “Fede Cheti alla Triennale,” Domus 259 (1951), “Un arte da incoraggiare,” Domus 87 (1935), 35. 61–4. 50 Viola Gråsten, “Tappeti scandinavi,” Domus 248 53 Gio Ponti, “Sezione ceramica – Italia,” Domus (1950), 80–1. 260 (1951), 35. 15 with tapestries designed by Gegia Bronzini Reggio also designed a modern-shaped (1894–1976) in issue 252 (1950).54 armchair that experimented with this Up to this point, the perception provided traditional natural material.58 by Domus concerning the contributions of Again, Domus demonstrated its interest in women designers appears to be the use of traditional natural materials for represented primarily by fields belonging modern innovative design by publishing a to the applied arts, which were bamboo table and wooden dining table traditionally considered to be feminine, designed by Charlotte Perriand (1903–99), such as textiles55 and pottery, but some which were presented in the French exceptions appeared. A bed and a sofa section.59 This table was similar to the designed by architect Franca Antonioli table Perriand designed for her attic that (later Helg) (1920–89) were published in was published in 1946.60 Perriand was also the article devoted to the apartment the set designer of the sections “Formes realized by the Italian department store La utiles” and interior design, while the Rinascente.56 widely renowned textile designer Paule Domus offered visibility to the ‘apartment Marrot (1902–87) was in charge of the set minimum’ designed and furnished by design for the textiles and tapestries architects Luisa Castiglioni and Margherita section. Bravi. In this interior design, walls became Concerning the T9, Domus provided once closets that combined the industrial again the perception that women’s material Formica laminate with plywood, creations were mostly confined to the thus obtaining an original solution.57 This field of home accessories, even when they design was the only interior designed by were subjected to mass production, as women for the T9 that was published in was the case for the USA’s selection of the magazine issue. daily life objects.61 Alongside Castiglioni and Bravi, the young This perception changed slightly at the X architect Eugenia Alberti Reggio (d. 2015) Triennale (T10, 1954), which was devoted stands out, together with costumer Emma Calderini (1899–1975). They were the 58 “Le paglie alla Triennale,”Domus 261 (1951), 36– authors of the exhibition set design of the 7. “Straw section”, for which Eugenia Alberti 59 “Francia. IX Triennale di Milano,” Domus 260 (1951), 27–31. In the article areThe article also mentioned the ceramics designed by Guidette 54 Antonia Campi, “Ceramiche e stoffe,” Domus 252 Carbonell (1910–2008), Elisabeth Joulia (1925– (1950), 72. An ashtray designed by Campi was 2003) and the duo Pierre and Anne Mestre. published the same year in the column “Galleria 60 “L’abbaino di Charlotte Perriand,” Domus 208 della ceramica,” Domus 245 (1950), 59. (1946), 6. 55 In the Italian textile section, besides textiles by 61 Among the admirable examples of “Useful form” Cheti and Bronzini, Domus also mentioned fabrics (as defined by Belgioioso, Peressutti and Rogers, designed by Irene Kowaliska (1905–91). “La who were in charge of the US exhibition at the T9), sezione dei tessuti alla Triennale,” Domus 261 there were: a tea set designed by Hungarian-born (1951), 34–5. Born in Poland, Irene Kowaliska American industrial designer Eva Zeisel (1906- worked in Italy, becoming one of the leading 2011); a porcelain spice mill designed by the figures of the German colony of Vietri. In 1954, at ceramic entrepreneurs Trudi and Harold Sitterle; a the X Triennale, she won the Gold medal for her metal table lamp designed by Swedish architect textiles and tapestries. and furniture designer Greta Magnusson 56 Carlo Pagani, “Un appartamento per quattro Grossman (1906–99), and a hand-hold ashtray persone,” Domus 262 (1951), 2–5. designed by Japanese American pottery designer 57 “Alloggio a pareti armadio per tre persone alla IX Minnie Negoro (1919–98). Alberto Rosselli, “Gli Triennale di Milano,” Domus 262 (1951), 6–9; oggetti alla mostra U.S.A.,” Domus 260 (1951), 43– “Dispensa, tavolo e letto,” Domus 266 (1952), 64. 6. 16 to the unity of arts and to Industrial In addition to the interest shown in the design, which had its first international playful and sometimes ironic combination exhibition here. of folk tradition and modernity, the Women won numerous prizes and magazine highlighted the surprisingly awards62, and Scandinavian women innovative and inventive use of plastic in started to gain visibility in furniture designing dishes and cups that Zahara design. In addition to designs in ceramics, (Zohara) Schatz (1916–99) exhibited after textiles, and glass and the lamps designed having experimented with this new by the Finnish designer Lisa Johansson material for the creation of jewellery in Pape, who received the Gold medal,63 the USA.68 According to Domus: “Her Domus (300) published a straw and metal production in Israel is original and new, chair by the Danish designer Grete Jalk64 and has been developed in the freest and a chair by the Finnish designer Maija forms that enjoy this matter entirely Liisa Komulainen.65 pliant, weightless, transparent and with Along with Scandinavia, Austria has been the possibility of great ‘inclusions’”.69 perceived among the countries where the Concerning the section of the young State applied arts have acquired distinctive of Israel, in addition to the plastic items features. Domus explicitly recognized the designed by Zahara Schatz, the article great role played by women in this devoted to this section shows a picture of country and mentioned the textile copper dishes designed by painter Louise designers Eva Sobotka –winner of the McClure Schatz (1916–97), who was Silver medal– and Paula Ptaczek, who better known as one of the “California exhibited at the T10. The magazine prized Seven” group from Big Sur. The first the constant advancement of ceramics by received a Diploma of Honour, while the Maria Bilger Bilyan (1912–97)66, who second received the Silver medal. Zahara received the Gold medal, as well as the of was the daughter of Boris Schatz, founder Helene Fischer and the wooden toys of of the “Bezalel School of Arts and Grete Rader Soulek (1920–97), which were Crafts” in Jerusalem (since 1906), and inspired by Finnish ceramics designed by Louise was her sister-in-law. When they all Kaipiainen. 67 moved to Israel, they founded the arts and crafts workshop “Yad”, with the goal of creating and selling alternative art objects that differed in style from those of the 62 Women from Austria, Denmark, France, Bezalel School. Germany, Italy, Norway, Great Britain and Israel won medals, primarily for textiles, ceramics and Through the pages of Domus, Italian glass. Finnish and Swedish women received the women are perceived as more involved largest number of medals and awards. “I Premi than others in set design. They began also della Decima Triennale di Milano,” Domus 303 (1955), 27–34. 63 “La Finlandia alla Triennale,” Domus 300 (1954), 68 Zahara Schatz’s pieces of jewelry were part of a 18–23. large exhibition on industrial design that was 64 “La Danimarca alla Triennale,” Domus 300 organised by the Detroit Institute of Art in 1949. (1954), 30. See “Una esposizione americana,” Domus 241 65 “Allestimento per il Mobile singolo alla (1949), 15–21. Triennale,” Domus 300 (1954), 61. 69 “La sua produzione in Israele è originale e nuova, 66 See also Maria Biljan Bilger, “Ceramiche e arazzi e si è sviluppata in forme più libere, che godono di viennesi,” Domus 271 (1952), 42–3; “Maria Biljan questa materia del tutto pieghevole, senza peso, Bilger. Ceramiche,” Domus 299 (1954), 56. trasparente e con la possibilità di « inclusioni » 67 “L’Austria alla Triennale. Rassegna,” Domus 299 fantastiche”. From “Israele alla Triennale. (1954), 9. Rassegna,” Domus 299 (1954), 14. 17 to appear as members of committees and women involved in the “Mostra consultants. internazionale dell’abitare”. Architect The magazine devoted a well-illustrated Raffaella Crespi (b. 1929) was responsible article to the Hall of Honour’s interior for the Straw section of the Art design by Architects Franca Antonioli Helg productions Exhibition, and architect and Franco Albini, which received the Eugenia Alberti Reggio was in charge of Grand Prix. temporary exhibitions. Only two women In the well-known original hall, which was were commissionaires of the foreign built by Giovanni Muzio in 1935, the two sessions: Eva Benedicks (1902–75) for winners of the design competition created Sweden and Mia Seeger (1903–91) for a suspended auditorium whose structure Germany.74 supported the showcases.70 In addition, About T11, Domus published only textiles, Franca Helg conceived the set design for glass, and ceramics by female designers, both the “Retrospective” and “Italian keeping its appreciation for the Schools of Art” exhibitions,71 and architect Scandinavians, albeit female Polish Eugenia Alberti Reggio, together with ceramists also gained visibility.75 Sergio Favre, was in charge of the “Italian At the T11, many women from all commodities sector” set design.72 countries were awarded the Gold and Winner of the Gold medal for her textiles, Silver medals by the international jury, Fede Cheti was the only female member which was formed only by men. According of the organising committee, and she was to “Notiziario domus” (issue 338, 1958), in charge of the textile section, and Maria only two women received a Silver medal Luisa Pedroni was a consultant for urban for their furniture: the French designer planning projects73, a field of male Janine Abraham (1929–2005) for the prerogative, but no woman was a member metal armchair she designed together of the Board of Directors, even at the next with Dirk Jan Rol and the Cuban-born XI Triennale (T11, 1957). Clara Porset (1895–1981) for her chairs in In 1957, Milan become an aspired straw and rattan that were exhibited in destination, as the Triennale event was the Mexican section.76 The pioneer of already recognised by exhibitors as an modern furniture design in Mexico had opportunity to enter the world market, already gained visibility in Domus in 1953 and Domus publisher Gianni Mazzocchi (issue 281), publishing an article about the joined the executive committee. exhibition dedicated to ‘Art in everyday A few women succeeded in joining life’ that she curated in Mexico City in commissions, primarily as collaborators or 1952. This exhibition was based on the secretaries. Student Carla Federspiel and concept of enhancing original artisanal architect Lidia Bolieau were the only two features in association with modern

70 “Il Salone d’Onore alla Triennale,” Domus 300 74 Lists of names of the collaborators for the T11 (1954), 6–9. are published in the column “Notiziario Domus”, 71 “Le scuole d’arte italiane alla Triennale,” Domus Domus 331, 333 (1957), no page. 300 (1954), 57. 75 A rug designed by the Finnish designer Uhra 72 “Alla mostra merceologica alla Triennale,” Simberg Ehrström (1914–79) was published Domus 300 (1954), 64. together with Polish ceramics designed by Wanda 73 M.L. Pedroni collaborated together with Golakowska (1901–75), Julia Kotarbinska (1895- Giancarlo De Carlo, Gerardo Guerrieri and Jaques 1979), and Lech and Helena Grześkiewicz (1908- Lecoq in the scenario of the movie “Una lezione di 77). “Per la XI Triennale,” Domus 334 (1957), 47-8. urbanistica”, which focused on ridiculing the 76 “Notiziario Domus. I Premi alla XI Triennale di rationality of houses in Modernist cities. Milano,” Domus 338 (1958), no page. 18 design for industry, a concept that was School exhibition’.80 Here, the famous duo cherished by Gio Ponti.77 of Italian architects, Franca Helg and Franco Albini, exhibited its furniture for Poggi (Pavia).81 Unlike the foreign sections of the previous The sixties, from the XII to the XIV editions of the Triennale, the encounter Triennale di Milano: From ‘Home and with a new generation of designers was in School’ to ‘The Greater Number’ full swing.82 The magazine prized both glassware and woodenware designed by The XII Triennale di Milano (T12, 1960) the Finnish designer Nanny Still Mckinney was marked by a subtle nostalgia, as if (1926–2009), who had already received a modernism was already starting to bend Mention of Honour for a set of cutleries at inward in self-admiration. Refusing to the T10.83 become an exhibition of items, this event Eva Benedicks was again responsible for was devoted to a specific topic: ‘Home the Swedish exhibition, and for the first and School’. The contributions of three time, at the T12, Italian women were female Italian architects, Gae Aulenti appointed to design the most relevant (1927–2012, degree 1953), Anna Ferrieri spaces, even if together with their male Castelli (1920–2006, degree 1943), and colleagues. Franca Helg, clearly emerged through the Finally, when at the XIII Triennale di pages of Domus.78 Milano (T13, 1964), a new and different Gaeatana (Gae) Aulenti was in charge of world was at the doorstep, two creative creating –together with Luigi Caccia Italian women gained visibility for their Dominioni– a new route to access the emblematic works. Artwork by the young Triennial from the park, hence negating architect and artist Nanda Vigo (b. 1940) – the monumentality of Muzio’s entrance in known by magazine readers– enlightened favour of a friendlier approach to the the monumental staircase, offering to building. Moreover, Aulenti’s ‘apartment visitors a signal of an unexpected freedom for urban centre’ was considered to be in the relationship between art and among the most anecdotal works of this design.84 exhibition. Through an article published a Gae Aulenti’s ‘Arrivo al Mare’ (Arrival at few months earlier, readers were already the Sea) gained the foreground, becoming aware of Gae Aulenti’s professional a powerful iconic image of this ‘Pop practice as an interior designer.79 Triennial’ dedicated to leisure. Published Anna Ferrieri Castelli was mentioned in issue 417, this installation gave life to twice, for the prestigious set design of the Picasso’s Two Women Running on the Italian section, which she created together Beach by transforming the women into with her most renowned colleagues Achille and Piergiacomo Castiglioni, and 80 “Alla XII Triennale di Milano,” Domus 371 (1960), for her set design of the ‘House and 13–6. 81 “Alla XII Triennale nelle sezione italiana,” Domus 373 (1960), 21. 77 Clara Porset, “Sedie messicane,” Domus 281 82 See “Alla XII Triennale nelle sezioni straniere,” (1953), 50–1. Domus 371 (1960), 17–30. 78 “Notiziario Domus. Commissioni e incarichi per la 83 “Nanny Still, vetri e legni,” Domus 373 (1960), 12° Triennale di Milano,” Domus 361 (1959), no 49–50. page. 84 “Prime immagini della tredicesima Triennale. La 79 Gae Aulenti, “Due arredamenti sullo stesso sezione introduttiva e la sezione italiana,” Domus principio,” Domus 367 (1960), 11–20. 417 (1964), 2. 19 nymphs undressing to the recorded sound On 30 May 1968, the T14 was occupied by of the waves. This work criticized the spirit students on the very day of its of the whole event, which was about inauguration, thus becoming known as leisure activities, sports, hobbies, travel ‘The Triennial that lasted one day’. As and experimental movies, and it was one mentioned by Marco Romanelli, “A few of the most spectacular and best-loved days later, the front facade of Muzio’s works.85 building bore the red writing ‘La Triennale A long and very well illustrated article on è morta’ (the Triennial is dead)”.90 the interior design of the Olivetti shop in Buenos Aires by Gae Aulenti was published in issue 466 (1968), Women’s contributions to Domus events demonstrating the renown gained by the and their reverberations architect.86 In the subsequent pages of the same magazine issue, the XIV Triennale di Domus became more and more an active Milano (T14, 1968), which was devoted to stakeholder in the design scene, especially “The Greater Number”, was documented. in the fields of furniture and interior Concerning women’s contributions to this design for modern housing. From the Triennale, the magazine acclaimed white second half of the sixties, Domus began to ceramic panels designed by Rut Bryk promote new leading commercial (1916–99) for the Finnish stand87 and activities and events that shared its aim of mentioned the clothing rack shop fittings modernity, such as the Centro Flay Casa in designed by the renowned architects Milan, the Eurodomus fairs and the Paola Lanzani (b. 1933) and Enrico exhibition Domus Formes Italiennes at the Castellani.88 Galeries Lafayette in Paris. In addition, the magazine published a In 1966 and 1968, Domus inspired the first large photo of an ‘equipped space’, where two editions of Eurodomus in Genoa and Turin. Eurodomus was conceived by Gio Fede Cheti fabrics upholstered giant cushions. This space was designed by Ponti –together with Giorgio Casali and Giulio Confalonieri (1926–2008), the Emanuele Ponzio– as a the first ‘pilot graphic designer who in 1966 created the exhibition of the modern house’. legendary corporate identity of the This international exhibition concerned Eurodomus exhibition. As in an Op Art the house’s modern design for both work, a photo of a naked woman covered industrial and artisanal production, every surface of the empty cubic stand emphasising creative design values as where Cheti’s cushions were lying down those values were able to identify, on the cultural ground, the truth of the style of on the floor on both sides of the writing 91 “Ti Amo” (I love you).89 contemporary civilisation. Both editions of the event represented the most significant values of their time in terms of

85 “Prime immagini della tredicesima ..,” Domus good design, production, and utility in the 417 (1964), 12–3. new competitive market context. 86 Gae Aulenti, “Buenos Aires, il negozio Olivetti,” Domus 466 (1968), 7–14. 87 A picture of one of these panels is published in “A Milano la XIV Triennale,” Domus 466 (1968), 27. 88 A picture is published in “A Milano la XIV 90 Marco Romanelli, “Domus in the Triennale - The Triennale,” Domus 466 (1968), 38. Triennale in Domus,” Domus 1000 (2016), 35. 89 A caption of a large picture describes this stand. 91 “Fiera internazionale di Genova, Eurodomus,” “A Milano la XIV Triennale,” Domus 466 (1968), 38. Domus 436 (1966), no pages. 20

The 1st Eurodomus and Centro Flay Casa: compositions, according to the needs of Modern house design users.95 During the 1st Eurodomus in Genoa Young artist-designer Nanda Vigo of the (1966), under the overall coordination of Gruppo Zero also gained visibility with one Gio Ponti, designers wished to encourage of her ‘Cronotopi’, an outstanding light industrial standards in terms of embracing trek formed by layers of glass panels new materials or making use of traditional through which light refracted.96 It is worth materials in a new way. noting that Nanda Vigo would be the first In addition to the experimental flat by woman to conquer the Domus front cover Domusricerca, which was designed by the in 1984 (650). ‘Gruppo 1’ group formed only by men,92 Together with furniture designed by some women exhibited their works, Ettore Sottsass, Angelo Mangiarotti and whose images were published in Domus others, a photo of Poltronova’s issue 440, among the most relevant multicoloured stand showed Gae Aulenti’s designs of this Eurodomus.93 ‘Sgarsul’ rocking chair in the foreground A detail of a heavy weft furnishing fabric and the blown glass lamp/vase ‘Giova’ in and a McGuire’s chair imported from the the background.97 USA by Levi’s gallery-shop represented the In addition, Aulenti saw published her set Milanese firms Fede Cheti and Lyda Levi, design for a series of furniture items by respectively.94 The works designed by a the Centro-Fly Casa (Milan), which was young couple of architects, Afra Bianchin defined by the magazine as ‘a lively space, Scarpa (1937-2011) and Tobia Scarpa (b. almost a three-dimensional paint’.98 In this 1935) –son of the famous architect Carlo stand, she exhibited her tubular green Scarpa– featured the production of garden furniture pieces together with Stildomus, which was a firm founded in lamps designed by Umberto Riva. Rome by the equally young designer Aldo It was no accident that Aulenti designed Bartolomeo in 1956. the Flay Casa stand; in fact, she was the Designed by the Scarpas, the magazine architect –or better to say, the art published a new lamp that looked like a director– in charge of the interior design theatre reflector –equipped with two flaps of this department store for good on both sides to orientate the light– and a furnishing. For this work, she studied modular series of shelves with glass department stores, design centres and showcases called ‘Torcello’. The shelves showrooms in the USA and in Europe, thus were made of machine-made wooden achieving original results, as pointed out in panels, with the same profile on all four a well-illustrated Domus article.99 sides and held together by a special metal From the same article, we know that angle plate, thus being easy to assemble among the exhibited items that were for and adaptable to many different

95 “Le immagini…Stildomus,” Domus, 440 (1966), 76. 92 The Gruppo 1 team was formed by Rodolfo 96 “Le immagini…Nanda Vigo,” Domus 440 (1966), Bonetto, Cesare Casati, Joe Colombo, Giulio 29. Confalonieri, Enzo Hybsch, Luigi Massoni and 97 “Le immagini…Poltronova,” Domus 440 (1966), Emanuele Ponzio. “La prima realizzazione di 74. ‘Domusricerca’, ” Domus 440 (1966), 7–26. 98 “Le immagini…Centro-Fly Casa,” Domus 440 93 “Le immagini più significative della prima (1966), 44. Eurodomus,” Domus 440 (1966), 27–87. 99 Gae Aulenti, “A Milano, un ‘grande magazzino’ 94 “Le immagini più significative…,” Domus 440 per l’arredamento moderno,” Domus 438 (1966), (1966), 56 (Lyda Levi), 83 (Fede Cheti). 21–30. 21 sale in the shop, there were those visual expression, signified by designed by the women designers Renata form and colour. Bonfanti, Anna Fasolis, Graziella Guidotti, When the idea of a civilisation Majia Heikinheimo, Elwine Lavene, Jela equal for all has been finally (Gabriela) Ferrario Mari (Enzo Mari’s wife), fulfilled, there will be no fear Ornella Vitali Noorda (Bob Noorda’s wife), of uniformity, if each nation Anna Nuzzo Olivetti, Carla Venosta, and will develop the expression of Teresa Muzio Maffei in the children’s its own particular genius with corner. Furthermore, through its refined greater spontaneity and pictures, Domus advertised several of freedom.101 Aulenti’s pieces, such as the ‘Black and White chair’ produced by the Centro-Fly, In fact, following the success of the 1st her widely celebrated ‘Pipistrello Lamp’ Eurodomus, Galeries Lafayette entrusted (by Martinelli Luce) and the ‘Stringa’ series Domus with the organisation of a special of sofas and armchairs (produced by presentation on Italian productions that Ettore Sottsass’ Poltronova firm, founded were able to disclose the ‘Domus’s spirit’. in 1957). Two years later, this series This presentation, revealingly named appeared in the article devoted to Domus Formes Italiennes, was part of the Aulenti’s interior-design for Max Mara exhibition Présences d’Italie, which 2 Maison in Milan, whose modern elegance covered 2000 m of the department store was achieved through transparency and in Paris. Domus followed the principles warm colours.100 established for the 1st Eurodomus, which Opened in Milan in January 1966, the aimed to open Italian production to a Centro-Fly Casa was the first department wider international market. store in Italy to be conceived around the This exhibition features three expressions ideas of quality design items, quality in of the ‘Italian form’, each one presenting use, price and commercial quality. Aulenti itself through a modern design dedicated succeeded in creating a suitable set design to a modern audience. The first expression for this purpose. centred on the quality of products brought within reach of a wide public, without Domus Formes Italiennes and the 2nd social discrimination. The second Eurodomus: Spontaneity and freedom of expression was dedicated to the cultural design presence of a public, which plays a part in The concept of Casa Centro-Fly appears to the evolution and production of form. The correspond to the Domus definition of third expression was represented by quality, as explained in the advertisement works of art and single pieces. for the exhibition Domus Formes These three expressions were Italiennes at Galeries Lafayette in Paris characterised by the common (1967): denominator of quality, which does not discriminate among things of major or […] for Domus quality implies minor importance, thus setting up an not simply good materials, inclusive criterion for good style. perfect works and workmanship, and functional utility but also imagination and

101 “Aux Gallérie la Fayette. Présence d’Italie. Domus Formes Italiennes,” Domus 446 (1967), no 100 “Per la moda”, Domus 465 (1968) 32–3. page. 22

Through these three expressions, Domus enamelled steel, made by Martinelli Luce introduced to the public the promoters of (Lucca). a contemporary improvement of forms. Light fittings firms committed in their As advertised by the magazine, the production other women architects, such exhibitors were ‘[…] “The Italians” of that as Franca Helg, Giovanna Massari and great “international nation” of men Eleonore Riva, whose works were worthy working in “tomorrow’s hope”’.102 of publication. Out of 100 creators, there were 12 Helg’s cubic lamp in moulded glass was women, and the works of a only few of presented within the stand of Fontana those women were published in magazine Arte (Milan), together with her ceiling issue 450, namely, the carpets designed by lamps. A wide range of large glass light- Renata Bonfanti, cylindrical night tables fittings, designed by Giovanna Massari, designed by Emma Schweinberger was presented by Leucos (Mestre, Venice). Gismondi for Studio Artemide, a prototype Ponteur’s stand (from Bergamo) exhibited of an adjustable bookcase designed by the lamp designed by the young architect Piera Uggeri Raimondo for Print laminate, Eleonore (Peduzzi) Riva for Studio and a modular coloured bookcase Artemide, who would manufacture her designed by Carla Scolari and Paolo iconic ashtray ‘Spyros’ just one year Lomazzi –at that time, a couple who later.105 specialised in furniture for children– for Domus gave space to designers who the Xilografia Milanese firm. Once again, conceived furniture and home fittings that Gae Aulenti found her own place in this fully explored the possibilities of new issue, which published from the Parisian synthetic materials with playfulness. exhibition her very colourful chairs, with a ‘Cubo’, which was a cube made of frame in tubular enamelled iron and a seat expanded polyurethane foam that was upholstered with a fabric she had surprisingly convertible into an armchair designed and made in collaboration with for two, was designed by Adriana the Pistoia Art School.103 Baglione, together with Luigi Moretti and Aulenti is confirmed as a constant Paolo Orlandini, for the French firm presence in the magazine, being Airborne (Montreuil-sous-Bois, stand by significantly represented in issue 463, Olivier Morgue). which was devoted to the 2nd Eurodomus Made of PVC were brightly coloured rugs, that opened in Turin from 22 March to 4 screens and tablecloths designed by Alda April 1968.104 Casal that were presented within Domus appreciated both her Ponteur’s stand (Bergamo) as new ideas ‘Rimorchiatore’ (tugboat) and ‘La Ruspa’ for housing in a new low-cost material. (bulldozer). The first –produced by Candle Plastic laminate low tables and chairs (Milan)– is a single multipurpose object in were offered by Carla Venosta and yellow painted metal, housing two Marcello Pietrantoni within the small different lamps, an ashtray and a flower section of furniture and object prototypes. vase; the second is a table lamp in 105 Eleonore Peduzzi Riva (b. 1939) was already 102 “Aux Gallérie la Fayette. Présence d’Italie…,” known by Domus readers because her light metal Domus 446 (1967), no page. furniture pieces were published in Eleonore 103 “« Domus Formes Italiennes » una mostra a Peduzzi, “Mobili italiani in grande serie, in lega Parigi,” Domus 450 (1967), 11–38. leggera,” Domus 396 (1962), 52. In 1963, her works 104 All of the above-mentioned design pieces are were advertised in the column “Domus per chi published in “Eurodomus 2 in Turin,” Domus 463 deve scegliere mobili in serie,” Domus 399 (1963), (1968), 5–68. d105; Domus 401 (1963), d122. 23

In addition to this section of prototypes position that was later covered by Ponti’s for mass production, the magazine prized daughter. the small section devoted to Italian Except for a few Swedish women handicraft, which was organised under the designers who have written articles on supervision of Eurodomus. In this section, design companies in their country, Renata Bonfanti and Sandra Marconato women’s contributions to the magazine gained visibility through their artisanal have been limited to ‘female’ columns and items. topics, such as “Plants, flowers and Do-it-yourself furniture pieces were gardens” (Giulia Vimercati Ponti and Maria exhibited by the French firm Sébillean Teresa Parpagliolo), “Antiquities” (Anna (Rendon, France). In addition, Domus Marchi) and “Art” (Lisa Ponti). published a range of chairs and tables Well-skilled professional figures belonging called ‘Puzzle-wood’, which were made of to the milieu of the high Milanese wood bricks designed by Nicole industrial bourgeoisie entered Domus’s Schneegans and others, for both children editorial office in the mid-1960s, such as and grown-ups. When unpackaged, the Marianne Lorenz, who had already parts fitted one into the other like a received a master’s degree in the USA –a puzzle, but they were packed in flat boxes rather unusual choice for the time– and for shipment. had gained her first working experience in Unlike in the issue devoted to the 1st Gio Ponti’s office. Eurodomus, this time, Lyda Levi’s and Fede During the short leadership of Ernesto N. Cheti’s firms were finally presented Rogers, the magazine published furniture entirely by their stands. Lyda Levi showed designed by women belonging to the Whonen-Kurt Freygag (Hamburg) and Milanese circle of innovative architectural McGuire (San Francisco) pieces of rattan culture, who were wives or partners of the furniture for which she was the agent for magazine editor’s friends. Their creations Italy, while Fede Cheti designed the stand at the RIMA Exhibition (1946) were of her firm as an all-white show-window considered to be advanced in terms of the to exhibit her new creations of furnishing use of materials and techniques, as well as fabrics, printed cotton velvets, linen and of their affordable design, which made silks, which were all designed by her and them available to the middle class. specifically manufactured for the 2nd Although women’s works remained a Eurodomus. minor presence in the magazine during the period covered by this study, Domus offered to its readers a lively perception of Conclusions their contributions to the most relevant design exhibitions and initiatives. This From the mid-1940s to the first half of the perception seems to be related to the 1950s, the presence and role of women in capability of women designers to express Domus appeared to be secondary, their creativity in both artisanal and remaining in the shadows of their relatives industrial fields, experimenting with both or colleagues. Later, women slowly began natural and artificial materials and often to gain ground. developing playful and iconic items. This During a transitional period of the approach enabled design to cross the magazine’s history, the young architect boundaries of narrow circles of Lina Bo was able to become the deputy connoisseurs, thus directing modern director of Domus from 1944 to 1945, a design to the widest public.

Once cited by Domus, women designers’ for products designed for mass names had a tendency to become production. recurrent over the years. Textile and In addition to the great visibility offered to furniture entrepreneurs, such as Fede women designers in the fields of textiles Cheti, Gegia Bronzini and Lyda Levi, and ceramics, Italian women gained remained a constant presence for entire visibility before Scandinavian women in decades. Works by Gae Aulenti have furniture design. The young Milanese dominated the scene since the 1950s, architects Anna Ferrieri Castelli and Luisa passing unconventionally through interior Castiglioni gained visibility in the magazine design, industrial design and exhibition set due to the publication of their furniture design, before conquering architecture. creations, which were exhibited at the The multiple appearances of the Finnish courageous VIII Triennale di Milano ceramist Ruth Bryk can be explained by (1947), “A Home for Everyone”. Ponti’s admiration for Finnish design, as Nevertheless, furniture and industrial well as by the fact that she was the wife of design appeared to be a marginal option the more well-known glass designer Tapio for women until the second half of the Wirkkala. fifties. Mass-produced office furniture The perception of a gendered hierarchy in pieces designed by Luisa Castiglioni Domus’s ‘unity of the arts’ clearly appears remained an exception of visibility from this study. Considering the full range achieved outside the boundaries of of design, the ‘male nature’ of furniture “domestic design”. design was still dominant in the 1950s, In the sixties, this perception began to especially in the context of Scandinavian gradually change due to the commitment design. Conversely, ceramics, glassware of young Italian women to the growing and textiles were perceived as ‘female’ field of industrial design. These women fields of design, as these fields were were primarily young architects who traditionally associated with domestic belonged to a Milanese progressive elite. origins and were typically hand-made. Considering the established male Ponti’s interest in artisanal tradition is domination of architectural practice, the played out in the pages of Domus, and commitment to furniture design, interior women made up the majority of those design and exhibition set design would practicing the modern craft-based design have appeared as a real professional that was able to re-invent folk shapes and opportunity for those women. Although motifs. the presence of women in Domus In the 1950s, Scandinavian women’s increased, at the exhibition Domus Formes contribution to design helped to change Italiennes (1968), out of 100 creators, just the pre-war crystalline and paradigmatic 12 were women.106 interpretation of modernity. Through the The history of women designers that pages of Domus, these women revealed emerges through Domus appears to be an indisputable ability to master different more like a sequence of differences or materials, forms and production techniques, demonstrating their 106 The women designers participating at Domus important role in the history of Formes Italiennes were Titina Ammannati, Gae Scandinavian design. Their contributions Aulenti, Renata Bonfanti, Anna Ferrieri Castelli, Franca Helg, Maria Lai, Liisi Meronen Beckmann, facilitated the development of a more Gabriella Saladino, Emma Schweinbeger Gismondi, ‘humanistic’ design approach, especially Carla Scolari, Piera Uggeri Raimondo, and Nanda Vigo. “« Domus Formes Italiennes » una mostra a Parigi,” Domus 450 (1967), 38. 25 exceptions rather than a progress in time, “Artigianato straniero. Quattro nuovi thus revealing Gio Ponti’s idea of History, tessuti,” Domus 136 (1939): 73. as her daughter Lisa pointed out –by quoting Edoardo Persico– when she left Aulenti, Gae. “A Milano, un ‘grande Domus in 1989.107 magazzino’ per l’arredamento moderno,” Domus 438 (1966): 21–30.

Aulenti, Gae. “Buenos Aires, il negozio Olivetti,” Domus 466 (1968): 7–14.

Aulenti, Gae.“Due arredamenti sullo stesso principio,” Domus 367 (1960): 11–20.

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Architecture and Urban Planning in the Italian Panorama

Emilia Garda, Chiara Serra and Annalisa Stella

This paper investigates the female survey aims to put the attention on the declination of architecture during the architectural works through their features reconstruction years in Italy, using and characteristics, in order to show the «Domus» magazine as a privileged tool female designers’ specific approach to and point of view. The study offers the architectural research. The final outcome results of a first systematic and critical is a rich collection of projects and women survey on the presence of women architects that contributed to the Italian professionals in «Domus», between debate and animated the reconstruction January 1946 (n. 205) and December 1968 period, giving their creative and personal (n. 469). By observing the pages of 276 solutions. The number of projects signed magazine issues - published on a monthly by female professionals published on the and bi-monthly basis by the Editoriale magazine issues is remarkable. By Domus (Milan) - this paper specifically presenting some representative case focuses on articles dealing with studies, this paper finally aims to offer architecture and urban planning. The visibility to less known - and often research aims to reconstruct a historical forgotten - architectural projects as well as frame and to map the contribution of to their authors. women architects in the Italian architectural panorama. The objective is to critically analyse works and projects in The Italian panorama: from the order to show who the women are and reconstruction to the sixties how they had taken part in the Italian architectural debate during these two From 1946 to the end of the decade, due decades, highlighting their theoretical to the critical situation left by the contributions as well as the technical devastation of the Second World War, a aspects in terms of innovation and huge mobilisation for city reconstruction - creativity. houses, public structures and areas - took To critically understand and frame part in the whole country. The urgency of professionals women’s contribution in the reconstruction had also to face the need field of constructions we intersected the for new low cost housing to host middle specific investigation through the pages of and working class people and in order to «Domus» with a wider overlook on the provide “a house for everyone”1. To this Italian architecture of the second half of purpose in 1949 the INA-Casa programme the XX century, in order to contextualise was launched by the Italian government in women’s work within this very particular order to implement public housing. The historical period. After a general introduction, the paper presents a 1 Adalberto Libera, Gio Ponti, Giuseppe Vaccaro, comparative study among selected “Per tutti, anzi per ciascuno. Appello di tre projects that were classified into specific architetti per la Carta della Casa”, in Giorgio Ciucci categories of intervention. In fact, the and Francesco Dal Co (eds.), Architettura italiana del Novecento, (Milano: Electa, 1990) 31 programme was thought to solve the Colombini (Cervinia, 1949-51) a season problem of unemployment through the known as ‘Neorealism’ characterised the development of the building sector as a architectural production. The critical tool to foster the Italian postwar economic revision of the Modern Movement was recovery.2 Architects started to be supported by several authors, such as involved in the project of wide public Bruno Zevi in his Verso un’architettura residential estates, located in the urban organica (Towards an organic peripheral areas. With these large new architecture, 1945). In this vivid debate neighbourhoods a season of great the role of the most important experimentation began, which concerned architectural magazines was crucial in the the urban vision up to the detail scale. dissemination of the new ideas. The Proposals for self-sufficient modern contribution of «Domus» had been communities were designed which remarkable especially under the direction combined the traditional building of Ernesto Nathan Rogers (1946-47), then typologies and techniques with the use of replaced by Gio Ponti (1948-79). By experimental precast concrete elements, showing a wide and open range of giving a specific Italian declination to this architectural projects «Domus» succeeded wide international phenomena. Even if in in bringing tangible examples of the some articles of «Domus» several projects cultural and theoretical panorama. By for INA-Casa neighbourhoods were observing the pages of the issues, it can be presented and shown, through them the noticed that in the articles the attention contribution of women does not seam to focuses mostly on the architectural works emerge. conceived as process/products as well as Starting from the INA-Casa works of arts/building. One of the main experimentations, in particular from the themes emerging from the magazine beginning of the fifities, it started to be articles and the published projects, is the evident that the architectural language crucial role of history and traditional was moving from the essential modern architecture in the ex-novo projects. The aesthetic towards a more organic most recurring topics of research, conception of architecture. From the especially in private houses, were the project for the Tiburtino public residential relationship between the new building neighbourhood by Ludovico Quaroni and and the surrounding context - urban or Mario Ridolfi (Rome, 1949-54) to the landscape -, the way in which the building Pirovano Refuge by Franco Albini and Luigi touched the ground and the reinterpretation of traditional typologies, 2 On 24 february 1949 the italian Parliament architectural elements and materials. approved the law proposed by the Minister Among the women, this research is well Amintore Fanfani under the name “Measures to epitomised by architects like Anna increase workers' employment, facilitating the Bertarini Monti who worked together with construction of houses for workers”, also known as ‘Legge Fanfani’. The INA-Casa programme was her husband Gianemilio Monti and his launched by the State in order to realise residential brother Pietro, or Franca Helg with Franco public complex on the whole country. It was Albini and Luisa Aiani Parisi with her adopted for two cycles of seven years each, from husband Ico Parisi. 1949 to 1956 and from 1957 to 1963. It was The sixties were characterised by a vivid founded by the Istituto Nazionale delle Assicurazioni (National Institute of Isurance). See discussion about the relationship between Paola Di Biagi, La grande ricostruzione: il piano Ina- architecture, urban planning and Casa e l'Italia degli anni cinquanta. (Roma: Donzelli governance, and their specific roles. Some Editore, 2001) 32 of the most influential architects like Aldo design, pavilions and temporary structures Rossi, Carlo Aymonino and Guido Canella and some of the most prolific designers supported the position that architecture is dealing with this research were Eugenia an urban phenomena, able to shape the Alberti Reggio, Luisa Aiani Parisi and city. The outcome of the architects’ Franca Helg. Working alone or together commitment to find solutions and with their husbands, the contribution of strategies for the future development of women architects was specifically evident the cities are visible through some in these projects. In fact, this meant the proposals for large plans, such as the possibility for women professionals to competition for the new directional centre express their ideas and to manage the in Turin (1962), published in November whole architectural process, from the 1963 in «Domus» n. 408. The first prize drawing up to the construction and the was gained by the proposal ‘Biancaneve e i interior design. sette nani’. In the winner team the architect Gigetta Tamaro was the only women working with other eight well The female contribution: observing the known architects - Giuseppe Samonà, pages of Domus Nino Dardi, Emilio Mattioni, Valeriano Pastor, Alberto Samonà, Luciano From the first systematic survey on the Semerani, Andrea Vianello Vos. Also in the presence of women professionals in second awarded project, named ‘Akropolis «Domus» issues, between January 1946 9’, Gabriella Esposito was the only female and December 1968, a rich collection of architect collaborating with Mario Bianco, projects and women professionals Roberto Maestro, Sergio Nicola, Ludovico emerges. We analysed 276 issues Quaroni, Antonio Quistelli, Nello Renacco, collecting 197 projects and 39 women, Aldo Rizzotti, Augusto Romano. In these mostly Italian, active in the field of both projects the two women architects gave architecture and design. Although the their contribution within the design works by women constitute a minority teams, yet not emerging as distinct compared to the whole number of personalities within them. projects described, we noticed that these On the other hand, the emphasis on the projects well represent the particular importance of tradition and identity Italian architectural panorama and its role became stronger and stronger during models exported abroad. In fact, to these years. In fact, the majority of critically analyse and interpret these architectural projects, showed in the projects, we chose to divide them into issues of «Domus» during the sixties, four categories of intervention and regards renovation, transformation and research which were more constant and reuse of historical buildings such as the frequent. Intersecting this survey with the numerous works by Anna Castelli Ferrieri, more general bibliography about the Luisa Castiglioni e Rita Mori Bravi. Another Italian context we also found that those recurring typology of intervention categories could well epitomise the concerns ex-novo proposals for suburban debate of the two decades analysed. Thus, villas and holiday houses, where the by putting the focus of attention on the female contribution by architects like most representative projects in terms of Emma Pasquinelli Peressutti and Anna architectural research, quality and value, Bertarini Monti was consistent. Finally and looking at their female authors, we there were numerous projects of interior could understand in which way women

33 professionals contributed in spreading towards the sea, influenced the entire ideas, creativity and innovation in the organisation of the building. In both of the Italian architectural panorama. projects Bo Bardi showed her research in The first group of projects deals with a the use of experimental materials and constant research in the dialogue between structures for the support of the buildings: the building and the surrounding context. in the first mentioned case of ‘Casa de This kind of research is particularly evident vidro’, steel slim pillars were used to allow in ex-novo projects for residential or a free plan, while in the second case five public buildings outside the urban reinforced concrete portals were designed consolidated fabric. This contact with the to support the whole building. Another landscape and the natural environment relevant case under the category of the lets the architect free to create and research in the relationship between the experiment. The Italian architect Lina Bo building and the natural environment is Bardi faced and solved this issue in her the ‘Villa in the pine grove’5 in Arenzano, own way through an experimental Genoa. Designed in 1961, by Anna Castelli relationship between solids and voids, Ferrieri, the house is a well-structured built and unbuilt spaces. There are two building where the slabs, passing through remarkable projects. The first is ‘Casa de the indoor volumes, reach the external vidro’ in Sao Paulo, Brazil (1951) and the environment as cantilevered plans. On second is the project (not realised) for the these surfaces, terraces have been Museum of Modern Brazilian Art in Sao designed to create continuity between the Vicente, Brazil (1951). The buildings seem indoor and the outdoor spaces, allowing to be suspended in order not to break the the open view of the sea in front of the surrounding landscape, that continues villa. uninterrupted even under the buildings. A second group of projects goes under the Gio Ponti, who had a particular admiration category of the renovation and reuse of for Lina Bo Bardi referring to her as an historical buildings. Concerning this “extremely clever woman”, dedicated a theme, there is an interesting comparison long and very inspired article to ‘Casa de between two different architectural vidro’ in the pages of the magazine. He approaches, that reflects the debate of describes this architecture as a perfect those times: the renovation of Regina example of “those principles towards Isabella Thermal Baths6 in Ischia, Naples which modern architecture moves in its (1952) and the renovation of a Villa7 in more clever exponents”. Through those Somma Lombardo, Varese (1952). principles of “essentiality”, “expressivity”, In the first case, Elena Balsari Berrone and “fantasy of precision” and “personality” Ignazio Gardella were assigned to renew the house “has to be recognised as and make the thermal baths in Ischia more modern architecture. It honours Brazil efficient. They chose to reconstruct the that inspired it, and the Italian school from whole thermal complex, just preserving which it derives”3. In the ‘Museum on the the original colonnade as evidence of the seashore’4 for the Modern Brazilian Art former building. In this way the the conception of the continuous internal colonnade, contrasting with the new and external spaces, that directly look

5 “Villa nella pineta di Arenzano”, Domus 392 3 Gio Ponti, “La Casa de Vidro”, Domus 279 (1953), (1962), 15 19 6 Gio Ponti, “Primizia su Ischia”, Domus 268 (1952), 4 “Museo sulla sponda dell’oceano”, Domus 286 2 (1953), 15 7 “Applicare una facciata”, Domus 274 (1952), 12 34 modernist façade, aims to highlight the indoor layout with a new entrance, intervention. In order to further underline bathroom, corridor, porch and terrace, by this contrast, the colonnade has been kept adding the new structures in a very clever separate from the façade and supported and refined way. The renovation is through a system of beams. In the case of conceived to preserve the external the Villa, Luisa Aiani Parisi and his husband existing walls and to maintain the Ico Parisi - together forming the Studio La relationship between the renovated Ruota - were assigned to renew a single- building and the historical context of the family house, where the original village. conception of the building and the limited A third collection of projects deals with available budget did not allow substantial the research in the reinvention of the changes. They chose to add an external ‘rustic’. The ‘House for fishermen’10 in reinforced concrete structure, totally Como (1955), by Anna Bertarini Monti independent from the existing building - with Gianemilio and Pietro Monti, well for technique and materials -, in order to epitomises this theme. In this project the change the aspect of the villa significantly architects’ research emerges at the and to create new outdoor spaces. different scales and in specific elements. Therefore, starting from different points The prevalence of a simple architectural of view, in both cases the architects’ composition aims to reinterpret the research in highlighting as much as traditional typology of a fishermen shack possible the contrast between the new with its wooden light structure. intervention and the old pre-existence Furthermore the use of local and clearly emerges. Another notable traditional materials epitomises the intervention is the one of Franca Helg and research in linking the new building with Franco Albini for the reuse of an old tower its natural context. The same research in the Lombard moorland8, in Somma emerges in two projects published in 1959 Lombardo (1960) to host a single-family in a «Domus» issue specifically dedicated house. The project allowed the existing to the theme of the house. They are the building to be maintained structurally ‘Country house for a weekend’11 (1959) in intact and to create new spaces through Como designed by Luisa and Ico Parisi and the use of infill walls and partitions and a country house 12in Morbegno, Sondrio through the opening of holes in the (1959) by Anna, Gianemilio and Pietro original walls to create a functional Monti. In both these two projects the distribution of the interior spaces. The reinterpretation of the traditional addition of new components, designed to typology is referred to a farmstead. In the respond to a modern conception of first project, an external brick wall architecture, respects the character of the surrounds the house, while the internal existing building and never tries to change concrete pillars support a pitched roof its vocation. Similar to this intervention is with a complex geometry. In the second the one by Luisa and Ico Parisi on a ‘Rustic one, the structure is made by load-bearing building facing the Como Lake’9 reused as brick walls and some typical elements a holiday house for a couple. Here the two evoked in a modern way, such as the architects succeeded in renovating the

10 “Una casa di pescatori, sul lago di Como”, Domus 8 “In una antica torre nella brughiera lombarda”, 302 (1955), 31 Domus 365 (1960), 23 11 “Casa di campagna per il fine settimana”, Domus 9 “Sul lago di Como un rustico trasformato”, Domus 350 (1959), 17 395 (1962), 19 12 “A Morbegno”, Domus 350 (1959), 23 35 pitched roof and the porch. In 1962 Franca field of architecture.16 Helg and Franco Albini designed a three Secondly, while the architectural projects flats house13 in Forlì where the reinvention selected by «Domus» are signed mostly by of vernacular building is refined and Italian women, a considerable number of referred to the use of traditional design products are signed by foreign materials. professionals17, probably due to the Gio The fourth and last group of projects Ponti’s particular passion and interest in epitomises the research in innovative the Scandinavian panorama. building typologies, technics and From our research it also emerges that the materials. Concerning the research and most mentioned professionals are profiles investigation in experimental building of women who dealt with both typologies, there is the representative architectural projects and interior and case of the ‘Cemeterial Towers’14 designed furniture design, such as Luisa Parisi, Anna by Nanda Vigo and Cesare Tacchio in 1961 Monti, Luisa Castiglioni and Franca Helg.18 to solve the problem concerning the Concerning the architectural panorama, horizontal expansion of the cemetery in we found that women designers gave the city of Pavia. Four squared towers are their contribution mostly to housing disposed, marking the corners of a projects - from ex-novo, to renovation and squared space and each tower has a interior design - with just sporadic central block of service and distribution exceptions.19 Additionally, in a few cases with circular staircases and a lift. The these professionals women worked alone, external façade was thought to be made while most of them worked together with of serial glasswork or precast brise soleils. a relative such as Luisa Parisi with her Another remarkable example in this husband Ico Parisi or Anna Monti with her category of intervention is the residential husband Gianemilio Monti and her building15 in Milan (1954) designed by brother-in-law Pietro. 20 To conclude the Anna Monti, together with her husband output of our research we cite the women and his brother. Here the use of precast who used to signed their projects alone reinforced concrete in the façade system, and those who are the most frequently allows a uniform external surface and mentioned in the magazine. In the first great flexibility in the design of indoor group we find Gae Aulenti, Lina Bo Bardi, spaces. Anna Castelli Ferrieri, Luisa Castiglioni, The research and systematic survey through the issues of «Domus» provides 16 In the 276 Domus issues we analysed, the whole quantitative datas, which allow some final number of female architects is 39 while the considerations and results. First of all number of designers is 123. comparing the whole number of female 17 On the whole 39 women architects 25 are italian designers and architects mentioned and (64%), while on the 123 designers only 51 come published in the magazine, the from Italiy (41%) 18 On the 39 women professionals mentioned in contribution of women professionals is the issues of Domus, 22 are women active in both larger in the field of design than in the the fields of architecture and design 19 The total number of architectural and urban planning projects by women professionals in the 276 analysed issues is 90 and 50 of them are for residential buildings. 13 “Una casa a Forlì”, Domus 383 (1961), 19 20 On the 90 total architectural and urban planning 14 “L’idea del cimitero a torre/Cemeterial Towes”, projects by women professionals in the 276 Domus 423 (1965), 8 analysed issues only 20 of them are signed by 15 “Elementi di una facciata”, Domus 292 (1954), 20 women alone. 36

Eugenia Alberti Reggio, while in the second group there are Luisa Aiani Parisi, “Elementi di una faccaiata”, Domus 292 Anna Bertarini Monti, Luisa Castiglioni, (1954): 20 Franca Helg and Rita Mori Bravi. “Una casa di pescatori, sul lago di Como”, Domus 302 (1955): 31-33

Bibliography “Casa di campagna per il fine settimana”, Domus 350 (1959): 17-20 Ciucci, Giorgio, and Dal Co, Francesco. Architettura italiana del Novecento. “A Morbegno”, Domus 350 (1959): 23-28 Milano: Electa, 1990 “In una antica torre nella brughiera Di Biagi, Paola. La grande ricostruzione: il lombarda”, Domus 365 (1960): 23-29 piano Ina-Casa e l'Italia degli anni cinquanta. Roma: Donzelli Editore, 2001 “Una casa a Forlì”, Domus 383 (1961): 19- 24 Domus magazines: all issues from Domus 205 (1946) to “Villa nella pineta di Arenzano”, Domus Domus 469 (1969) 392 (1962): 15-26 In particular: Ponti, Gio. “Primizia su Ischia”, Domus 268 “Sul lago di Como un rustico trasformato”, (1952): 2-5 Domus 395 (1962): 19-26

“Applicare una facciata”, Domus 274 “L’idea del cimitero a torre/Cemeterial (1952): 12-13 Towes”, Domus 423 (1965): 8

Ponti, Gio. “La Casa de Vidro”, Domus 279 http://www.domusweb.it/it/shop/archivio (1953): 19-26 _digitale.html, (accessed September, 20, 2016) “Museo sulla sponda dell’oceano”, Domus 286 (1953): 15

Design and women through the pionieering magazine «Stile Industria» (1954- 1963)

Annalisa B. Pesando forma dell’utile, cared by the BBPR (Banfi, Belgiojoso, Peressutti, Rogers) and promoted at the IX Triennial, it opens a A "new" magazine in line with the times deep and methodological reflection. This will inspire the address of «SI», about the importance the use of products as cause of the choice of shapes and materials Since the fifties, Italy through a period of used. This vision, comprised by industrial exceptional economic recovery driven by aesthetics and by the functionalism of the the industrial sector. The reasons for this product, becomes the leitmotif of the new increase depend on different factors: low magazine. The aim is to qualify the design cost labour, salary restraint with the effect discipline in relation to the industrial of competition in market prices and development, especially toward the exports (especially in the metallurgical, building components for a renewal of mechanical, automobile and chemical) and architecture even before the study of monetary stability. This "economic furniture and interior. These unreleased miracle" is also facilitated by a policy to analyzes go towards a responsible bestow public budgets for the approach to technological problems, development of industry which also methodological, formal and also entails a significant change in the social environmental related to the product of structure of the Country, which has industry. agricultural vocation goes to industrial and Significant that magazine birth coincides tertiary1. with the establishment of "La Rinascente In June 1954 in this climate of renewal and Golden Compass Award" (1954) aims to development comes a new trade honor the merits of industrial, artisans and magazine «Stile Industria» (hereafter designers which give the products the «SI»). The magazine is dedicated to quality and form of presentation such as Industrial Design and is published by to make unitary expression of their Gianni Mazzocchi as a magazine affiliated technical, functional and aesthetic. with the best-known architecture Among the great themes of Italian magazine «Domus». It is entrusted to a reconstruction, in addition to the member and son in law of Gio Ponti, industrial issue, also appears the woman Alberto Rosselli2. question. From the Second World War, Rosselli since 1946 writes a column with the recruitment mass of female dedicated to "Design per l’industria". labor, women acquire awareness of their Notably in 1951, with the exhibition La active role in society. In Italy, the universal suffrage the right to vote to women takes place in 1945, with participation in the 1 Nicola Crepax, Storia dell’industria in Italia. Uomini, imprese e prodotti (Bologna: Il Mulino, first parliamentary elections on 2-3 June 2002) 1946 for the Referendum on the State 2 Amalia Fracassi and Simona Riva (ed), Stile institutional form: the monarchy-republic. Industria: Alberto Rosselli (Parma: Artegrafica Silva, Twenty-one women out of 556 deputies 1981) 38 participating in the Italian Constitution, a design work. It is interesting to note such small but significant number of an ongoing as the birth of the main and wellknown change process. It will be the policy of the magazines in Italy after 1950 in the Left to deal with continuity of women's newsrooms are found placed the life issues through media tools such as the partners of the important artistic figures. magazine "Noi Donne" (the page of the Affections often born by affinity of studies lady of "L’Unità" is supervised by designer at school with circles of mutual friends Lica Steiner since 19563) and the social that facilitate the insertion in professional struggle against layoffs, strikes, wage fields still rather unusual for women or disparities and foreclosed careers. Unlike new experimental such as magazines6. the Democratic policy pushes little but In newsroom of «SI» comes Franca strong women like Angela Maria Cingolani Gualtieri7, Carlo Santi’s wife, while Julia Guidi, the first woman in the history of Banfi, BBPR Gianluigi’s wife8, is editorial Italy to be part of a Government (1951)4. assistant of «Casabella Continuità». Under It is in this period of renewal that the the direction of Ernesto N. Rogers (1953- Italian woman comes knowingly outside 1964) are inserted two other female its traditional home boundaries, taking figures who are going to succeed in scenarios and their anticipations of the architecture sector, first students then intellectuals and artists of Futurism the assistants of Rogers at the Milan early Twentieth Century (Rose Roso, Fulvia Politecnico: Gae Aulenti (graduated in Giuliani, Benedetta Cappa Marinetti, 1953) made her debut in «Casabella» with Georgina Rossi...), claiming an active social Gregotti, Purini and Aymonino and deals role of women and subverting, in with graphic layout (1955-65)9, and particular, consolidated scales of values5. Matilde Baffa (graduated in 1956) as In architecture and design the role of young editor10. Achillina Bo, a young women in postwar period is still a Roman architect, arrives in Milan entering secondary role, composed of figures the drafting of «Domus» of Gio Ponti and professionally competent, faded due to a Pagano11. While still in «Casabella- well-established history in the shadow of influential husbands and companions with 6 Claudia Mattogno, “Muse, committenti, whom often they share the study and progettiste. Il lungo percorso delle donne in architettura”, Che “genere” di città per il futuro, vol. 6 n. 10 (giugno 2013): 71-82; about the women 3 http://www.enciclopediadelledonne.it/biografie/; professionals see the researches of Vanda. Teorie e http://www.onalim.it/anna-steiner-racconta-i- opere femminili in architettura: suoi-genitori-albe-e-lica/ http://www.tempiespazi.it/spazi/findex1/; Alice T. 4 See the papers of the Centro Interuniversitario Friedman, Woman and the Making of the Modern “Per gli studi sulle donne nella storia e nella Architecture. A Social and Architectural History società”, directed by Ginevra Conti Odorisio, (New York: Abrams, 1998). Sapienza Roma. Overall: Paul Ginsborg, L’Italia dal 7 Franca Santi Gualtieri, Design in redazione dopoguerra ad oggi (Torino: Einaudi, 1989, 2 vol.); (Mantova: Corraini, 2002); Ead., Succede di passare Alisa Del Re, Valentina Longo, Lorenza Perini, I attraverso la storia (Milano: FSG ed, 2008). confini della cittadinanza. Genere, partecipazione 8 Gian Luigi e Julia Banfi, Amore e speranza politica e vita quotidiana (Milano: FrancoAngeli, (Milano: Archinto, 2009). 2010). 9 Nina Artioli (ed), Omaggio a Gae Aulenti 5 Katrin Cossetta, Ragione e sentimento (Mantova: Corraini, 2016) dell’abitare. La casa e l’architettura nel pensiero 10 femminile tra le due guerre (Milano: Franco Angeli, http://www.acmaweb.com/costruirelemodernita/ 2000); Elena Doni and Manuela Fugenzi, Il secolo profili/albini/matildebaffa.htm delle donne: l'Italia del Novecento al femminile 11 Lima Zeuler, Lina Bo Bardi (London: Yale (Roma: GLF Laterza, 2008). University Press, 2013) 39

Costruzioni» architect editor is Anna Anatomy of a magazine: articles, writing Castelli Ferrieri12, who graduated in 1943 and women's contribution enters to work in the studio of Franco Albini getting in touch with Piero Bottoni The milieu in which the «SI» born is that of and Ernesto N. Rogers. In 1947 she won a circle of friends and long-standing the gold medal at the VIII Triennale in partners, from cultural garde anti-fascist Milan, with the competition organized by of Milan, that shares the enthusiasm to the Ministry of Public Works related to search for the new in the formula "more single-family homes for veterans to QT8 beauty utility". Especially in the early years district in collaboration with Franca Helg, of the magazine, Rosselli enclose friends and in 1951 founded the company Kartell who share thoughts and ideals in order to with Giulio Castelli. The magazine identify a specific and clear boundaries «Metron» founded in 1945 and directed field for the Industrial Design. Meeting by Piccinato and Ridolfi, presents only place is “Jamaica”, a dairy-bar, whose woman in a board of nine men, Margaret name comes from the 1939 film "The Roesler Franz as editorial secretary. tavern of Jamaica" by Hitchcock, where Similarly in the early Sixties this young intellectuals and artists comparing introduction by influential people of wives the experiences of the modern and daughters within the newsrooms movement, before the war, and then since continue. For example since 1962 Anna 1948. Here come together students, Grasselli (philosopher Giulio’s wife) and professors and professionals coming from Letizia Frailich Ponti (Gio Ponti’s and the Brera Academy and the Milan George Frailich’s wife who in those same Politecnico (the architects Banfi, years began to write articles for the Belgiojoso, Peressutti, Rogers, Pagano, magazine) are aggregated to «SI». Giolli, Albini, De Carlo, the painters and The magazine and editors experiences designers, Mucchi, Veronesi, Huber, start to women professional career. In Treccani, Birolli, Guttuso, Sassu ecc.). particular for «SI» Franca Santi Gualtieri, The editorial staff that Rosselli sets up is with the closing of the magazine in 1963, composed of only four people, two men joined the almost exclusively female and two women: Alberto Rosselli, director, editorial staff of «Abitare», directed by Giancarlo Pozzi (1954-1957) architect- Piera Peroni (1923-1974) out of which designer at the time engaged with the afterward sheself becomes director. While company Cassina, her friend Franca Santi Maria Bottero, only female signing on the Gualtieri, just graduated at Brera, and magazine, from 1963 to 1974 became Luciana Foschi first employed as a editor of the trade magazine «Zodiac» by secretary and since 1957 elevated to Bruno Alfieri. editor. In April 1955 the team is joined by the graphic designer Michele Provinciali e Mario Galvagni, who works at “Notiziario Tecnico” (1954-1959). Organized by the critics and designers referenced articles on the emerging discipline of Industrial Design, the magazine will change over time and increases of collaborators with the entry of Angelo Tito Anselmi (since 1957), Elena 12 Claudia Donà (Ed), Anna Castelli Ferrieri: Viganò Scarpetta (Vittoriano Viganò’s architecture and design (Milano: FAAR 1997) 40 wife), secretary in 1956, later replaced by protagonists of the modern period of the Gisella Forni. Since 1957 Enzo Frateili Cultural Revolution (Alfieri, Gio Ponti, Max writes reviews and technical news that in Bill, Zanuso, Dorfles) divided into three 1959 switch to another woman, Maria sections: industrial graphics, graphics and Bottero. In the same year Costantino packaging14. At the end there are news Corsini and Giorgio Wiskemann dealing with publications, exhibitions, events, new with interviews in industry and Giorgio productions and competitions. Feature of Moretti Madini in charge of technology in the magazine is the rich photographic industrial design, joined the historical material supplied content, with images in group Rosselli-Anselmi-Gualtieri. Since n. black and white and color (still anonymous 35 of 1962 the editorial staff expands with format) and Italian and English captions two women collaborators Anna Grasselli that increase the circulation and visibility (reviews) and Letizia Frailich Ponti (news) from a European perspective. replacing Maria Bottero work. Among the most important results of this The magazine design, whose layout is editorial experience we note the entrusted by Provinciali since 1955, foundation of the Association of Industrial includes a cover impactful commissioned Design (ADI) on 6 April 1956 that in the to revolutionary-masters of visual footsteps of a new "Deutscher Werkund" communication. Meaningful it is the brings together professionals and critics choice of the cover for the first issue of such as Rosselli (president), Ignazio the magazine edited by Albe Steiner Gardella, Vico Magistretti, Angelo presumably with the inseparable wife Lica, Mangiarotti, Marcello Nizzoli, Enrico of which still today it is hard to distinguish Peressutti, Giulio Castelli, Antonio the authorship of the works13. Albe, Pellizzari, Gillo Dorfles, Bruno Munari and recognized graphic setting proponent of Albe Steiner, rapresentatives of major much of the press of the Italian Left, sets italian companies like Finmeccanica, the cover of the magazine in four colors - Olivetti, Pirelli, Motom, Necchi, Borletti, according to solutions of the post- Cassina and la Rinascente for a total of 60 revolutionary Russian avant-garde - initial members. choosing the profile of a chair in the sheet The role of women in the magazine is by Rima and the Olivetti’s typewriter keys ancillary, always crowning and final identified as production symbols of the assembly of articles by renowned experts Italian industry. and signatures of the design theme, hardly The magazine, first a quarterly than bi- prominent. Franca Santi in her book monthly circulation, provides a set of Design in redazione tells how Rosselli building industrialized and furnishing relationship with women was sufficiency companies advertising pages and the and tolerance, "Also a woman could do opening with the editorial signed by this" the motto with which he used to Rosselli, generally addressed the moral attend a job he thought was simple. A value research of the correct form of the striking example of the hidden women object, according to recipe made of the work can be the article appeared on the relationship between form-function, form- numbers 26-27 of 1960 titraded 1939- environment, form-fabrication, form- 1959 Appunti per una storia del disegno material, form-mechanism. Followed by industriale in Italia that collects a first practical articles written by the main 14 Grace Lees-Maffei and Kjetil Fallan (Ed), Made in 13 Anna Steiner (ed), Albe Steiner (Mantova: Italy. Rethinking a Century of Italian Design Corraini 2006); (London: Bloomsbury, 2014) 41 critical investigation of the design of the accordance with already well-established last two decades. The article is signed by habit in the Bauhaus school (revolutionary Bruno Alfieri with Anselmi captions, while Russia will give more free working area for article mounting, images search and women), many professional women are selection are edited by Franca Santi, but directed to carry out work in the more the only name mentioned is Alfieri. traditional field of textiles and With this spirit of mission, the new manufacturing. magazine takes headway in June 1954 and The interest in Manifattura Jsa, founded in ends with n. 41 in 1963, with a section 1949 and constantly quoted in trade dedicated to the farewell and thanksgiving magazines («Domus» and «SI»), is taken to who contributed to making important up in 1960 with an interview with Grampa «SI». Ninety-six figures are shown with led by Corsini and Wiskemann (Indagine photos among these are five women: Mia sul tessuto stampato. Manifattura Jsa, Seerer, Jane Fiske Mc Cullough, Josine des 28/1960) which discusses the drawing Cressonnières, Franca Santi Gualtieri, vision printed as a natural evolution of Luciana Rosa Foschi. modern architecture. The Manifattura Jsa is at the forefront of technological and production process of Design and women: critical success of the the sector, combining vocation for product made by women integration of artistic research in manufacturing with a continuous Analyzing a magazine that aims to defend comparison with the large international and define the field of Industrial Design companies of design textiles such as Artek and presenting scientific papers involving of Alvar and Aino Aalto, Grantex of Arne the main professionals and critics of the Jacobsen and American example of Italian scene of the Fifties, the role of Charles and Ray Eames. The goal of the women can be identified in two parallel Italian factory is producing modern areas: the drafting work for research and decorative fabrics with Italian selection of objects to be published under characteristics and Mediterranean colors. headings (Franca Santi and Maria Bottero Among the female personality, stable in as examples) and the work of established the company, there are Cecilia Mora, professionals in the design field. Marta Latis, Marianne Feldner and Among the first women mentioned on Margherita Patocchi. “SI» it is cited Anna Castelli Ferrieri in 1955 Absence of qualified designers in the (n.3) for housing built in Milan with textile field and ostracism of the big Gardella and Menghi, and the German names to deal with what they consider a Marianne “Mawi” Feldner, graduated too humble field as patterned fabrics are from the Academy of fine arts of Monaco among the main problems in stressing the and wife, at the time, of the American importance of the printed fabric. Although photographer Hans Wild who works for tissues are still relegated to a mainly the magazine «Life», for the textures female work, it is interesting to note that produced by the famous company in committee juries of competitions there Manifattura Jsa of Busto Arsizio15. In are still no women. An example is the renowned competition organized by the XI

15 Flaminio Gualdoni (Ed), La Manifattura JSA e gli Triennale di Milano with Jsa in 1957 which anni Cinquanta: tessuti d’arte, tessuti d’artisti has an exclusively male jury (Ivan Matteo (Busto Arsizio: Museo del tessile e della tradizione Lombardo, Tommaso Ferraris, Giuseppe industriale, 2002) 42

Ajome, Johannes Itten, Luigi Grampa, In 1958 (n.16) about Sergio Asti review on Marco Polacco and Alberto Rosselli). Stockholm exhibition of five industrial Particularly it should be noted that in designers (Stig Lindberg, Sigurd Persson, conjunction with the Triennial of 1957 Sven Palmqvist, Carl Axel Acking and Alice dedicated to the textile sector there is the Lund) about the technical innovation in first woman awarded the “Golden homeware, mentioning the male figures Compass”, Ruth Christensen with a higher but not Alice that in 1930 opened her own premium, and Rita Rylander, with an alert, textile atelier. both in the context of production for In the field of analysis on teaching in Manifattura Jsa (15/1958). For another European and Italian schools for the report it must wait until 1961 Raffaella construction of industrial design sections Crespi, with "wicker toy" produced by G. are mentioned courses taught by Lidia Masciadri and the fabric for curtains Nicolisi and Marialuisa Scalvini at School of designed by Renata Bonfanti (30/1961). Naples. Bonfanti will be awarded the “Golden The 1960 seems to open new frontiers to Compass” for her tent fabric "JL" in the professional women, thanks to the edition of 1962 and she is the first Italian industry highly sensitive to the Italian woman to win the Prize. Instead to find industrial design. Although the reports of the first woman to participate in the their work are still marginal and confined commission of the “Golden Compass to sections of exhibition or secondary Award” you have to wait 1984 with Cini articles, greatly increase women's works Boeri16. often laced with short but incisive critical One of the first cases in which the comments. An example takes place in the magazine dedicates an important space to packaging sector (26/1960) with the the product of a woman is in 6/1956, catalog of the exhibition "Packaging" at when it is described a modular stand the Museum of Modern Art organized by Balzaretti and Modigliani, designed by Mildred Constantine which from 1943 to Luisa Castiglioni architect, graduated in 1970 worked in the department of 1946 at Milan Politecnico. The stand, with architecture and MOMA design17. The its modular structure and easy to review reportes Constantine opinion assemble, is appreciated for its ability to about an extension of the consideration of rationally solve the problem of the stands. packaging-term also addressed the Two pages are dedicated to project with "bodywork" of the mechanical devices captions in Italian and English, images, and (telephone, radio, fridge) resulting drawings to complete. The works of Luisa publicity shock due to the rapid aging tied Castiglioni, Albini and De Carlo’s pupil and to market forces. This annotation allows collaborator, are published on «Metron» the drafting to highlight the importance of and «Domus» since 1947, while on «SI» it a good design with quote Banham. Or the remains an isolated case. mobile toilets designed by Dorothy Lee The attention to the female work in the (with attached photo) and full page «SI» remains generally anchored to the published in the magazine «Design» of textile world, the Italian prominent figure March 1960 as "the pace setters", that is Renata Bonfanti art director of «SI» comes very close to Gerrit Rietveld’ Rossifloor. Besides she is the architectural culture of northern Europe to excel. 17 16 Cecilia Avogadro (ed), Cini Boeri, architetto e https://www.moma.org/explore/publications/moF designer (Milano: Silvana Editoriale, 2004). rdern_women/history#lexicon7 43 works of 1917, raising questions on of Jsa tissues of the painter Hella Henner originality of the woman's design. Schmit and the work of Ponti’s daughter, In the same section “Notizie. Mostre ed Letizia, about the exhibition of Design in Esposizioni” of 1960 it is mentioned the London. Among women, famous wives of opening of "The four Seasons" restaurant many influential architects, it mentions in the Seagram Building (closed July 16, the birthday card drawn by the journalist 2016), where it is not cited the architect Fernanda Pivano and Ettore Sottsass Jr., Mies van der Rohe but the designer her husband. couple Louis and Ada Louise Huxtable for Of particular relevance to the issues and designing tableware. Ada L. Huxtable for greater involvement in the women’s (Landman's maiden name) wins in 1970 debate, the contributions that appear the first Pulitzer Prize for Criticism for the from number 28 of 1960 on the XII first time bringing the debate on Triennale devoted to the themes of the architecture to the general public18. house and the school, where Rosselli 1960 opens the door to the great theme opens an "invitation to the discussion" to of Italian design crisis enshrined in the involve visitors themselves in the debate non-award of the National “Golden on Industrial Design. A footer there is Compass Award”; to this crisis Rosselli inserted the images and opinions of devotes a lengthy report (Crisi del disegno twenty-one professionals, industrial and o crisi del Premio?, 26/1960). The article critics among the most influential of the shows forty interviews to Italian and period, including four women, the foreign designers including one feminine American journalist Janice Elliott, the opinion, that of Jane McCulloch Fiscke, German designer Mia Seeger, the editor of New York’s magazine «Industrial Design» «Domus», Henrietta Ritter, and Alima editorial director. Jane, better known by Backer. In the next number (29/1960) it her married surname Thompson, at that starts publishing the opinions of time working with Walter Gropius in a journalists, critics and designers. Thirteen new American Bauhaus project. Jane critics are consulted, including Banham, brings a breath of fresh air in a long and Misha Black, Andrè Bloc, and the journalist serious debate considering herself "as of English magazines, as Arianne Castaing every American" confused and amused to of «Woman», Janice Elliott of «Sunday hear about the crisis of Italian design. The Times», Monica Pidgeon, director of cover of the magazine announcing the «Architectural Design», Patience Gray of Italian design crisis is curated by Gae «The Observer», Ann Ferebee of Aulenti already graphics of «Casabella «Industrial Design» of New York and Continuità». Crisis that «SI» also locates in Margit Staber of «Neue Zürcher Zeitung» the Mostra di nuovi disegni per il mobile of Zurich. The main critical points that italiano addressed to Neoliberty and emerge are: the recognition of a dead proposed by a group of young architects, Italian architecture with a fallback to with the graphic catalog edited by Gae mannerism, a return to class- Aulenti. Next to the news finds place the differentiations (neo-liberty), lack of useful attack of Bruno Zevi to new trends contributions on the theme of the design (Masochismo e neoliberty). and of the house, nothing new in the field To this announced Italian furniture crisis, it of school, still turned to crafts items and contrasts the reporting of work in the field not to the industry, failure of the productive and social progress of the 18 Carter Wiseman, Twentieth-Century American Italians, and in particular shortage of Architecture (New York: Norton &C., 2000). 44 communication skills of Triennials for gold medal the weaver Paula Trock (1889- regular visitors. The article is completed 1979) for hers sophisticated processes and with photos about general views and colorful Danish wool; the innovative urban accommodation details on this designer "Nanna" Dennie (1923) with her Mannerist trend. Among the several husband, Jorgen Ditzel, rewarded for comments, Patience Gray also notes the strokes produced by Georg Nesen work of the Swedish Hertha Hillfon (1921- Solvsmedie; the Finnish textile artist Ritva 2013) about her ceramic innovative Puotila (1935), working paper yarn and technique. linen; the designer Marjatta Metsovaara Also in 1960 in the “Notizie – Premi e Nystrom (1927) for fabrics produced by varie” it reports the news that the prize Metsovaara Oy in Finlad; the architect- Kaufamm International Design is won by craftsman Ibi Trier Mǿrch (1910-1980) Charles and Ray Eames (29/1960). The with silver pots with handles in ivory; the short article announcing the prize and award-winning Finnish artist Uhra-Beata introduces a short bibliography of Charles Simberg-Ehrström (1914-1979) awarded where he indicates that he has always the Triennial of 1951, 1954, 1957 and worked in collaboration with his wife, 1960 for her textiles; the artist Kyllikki Bernice Alexandra Kaiser, which only lately Salmenhaara (1915-1981) as a reformer of the historiography has re-evaluating the teaching ceramics in Finland, already role. This recognition of Ray's work in reported at the Triennale of 1951 and 1960 is the result of the American winner of the gold medal with ceramic environment more open to women's work prod. Wartsila Arabia; the artisan Sigrun and of Charles who say “Anything I can do, Berg (1901-1982) in particular known in Ray can do better”. Oslo for her production of garments and In "Recensioni e Segnalazioni" (29/1960) it shawls, awarded with an honorary is very positively reviewed the catalog of diploma at the Triennale of 1954 and in the painter Jean Fautrier edited by Palma 1960 with a gold medal for fabrics; Grete Bucarelli for Saggiatore, at the time Rome Korsmo (1917-2010), born Adelgunde National Gallery of Modern Art’s director Margrethe Prytz, considered the queen of (1942-1975). Bucarelli, Adolfo Venturi and Scandinavian design for her works of Pietro Toesca’s student prodigy and Giulio jewelry with enamels, she already Carlo Argan’s friend, is the first woman awarded in 1954; and finally the first director of a public museum in Italy, with a woman to open a independent studio strong personality and recognized reporting of silversmith, Vivianna Bulow- scientific value, operating in a male Hube (1927-2004), Swedish, awarded with dominated scene. The Sixties were dotted silver medal at the X Triennale and gold to with numerous public recognitions for her XII with her jewels. In 1958 Pablo Picasso work. knows Vivianna and organizes an Meanwhile, in the section awards at the exhibition for her in Antibes. XII Triennale (1960) it is once again the 1961 opens with the n. 30 of January and textile sector to report women, often for the first time appears an article written faces already known and awarded by the by a woman, Billa Zanuso (30/1961) Commission of the Triennale (particularly dedicated to Buoni giocattoli e sussidi for the 1957 event sponsored by didattici alla Triennale. Billa, histrionic Manifattura Jsa). All are foreign from woman of good Milanese bourgeoisie, in northern Europe (Finland and Denmark) or 1951 founded with Franca Valeri and Czechoslovakia. They are rewarded with a Vittorio Caprioli the Teatro dei Gobbi and

45 then get on television19. Degree in future of Design in the number 36 of 1962. philosophy and specialized in psychology Now the disciplinary matter has been Billa, for her skills, is called by Rosselli to debated and with the number 41 «SI» take care of infant education through the closes. games and school play areas and identifying areas-study, adequate arrangements and sizes for baby items. Conclusions and ideas for research The toys exhibited at the XII Triennale are reported, with a particular focus on The magazines become a litmus test for innovative productions of the British Hilary identifying critical fortunes and work of Page (1904-1957) that since 1932 she women in the mid-twentieth century. In changes the face of the English toy the editing staff, the ancillary role, but industry. Among her best-known toys, the absolutely irreplaceable, of women’s patent for the interlocking brick building work, there was sorting and careful now known as LEGO brick. On the selection of the design objects that productions of Page, Billa appreciates the appeared on the market, and as recalled attention to security from non-flammable Koenig "there was a percentage of "news", material, the edges rounded off to such good and bad, vastly greater than dimensions as not to be swallowed. The today"20. In many cases this ancillary work only flaw of English productions are not be has proven to be the launching pad for directed by a stable team of educators. By bright careers. In the pratical field is rather contrast, the Ulm school opened in 1954 a interesting to note that women often rise "Committee for Quality toy" with annual in the textile sector, generally regarded as prizes to the manufacturers of the best feminine vocation - field in which takes toys. place the first award of the “Golden Also in 1961 n. 32 it is cited the entry in Compass” to woman, Christensen Ruth -, ADI the designer Renata Bonfanti from or in the area of childhood and education. Bassano del Grappa. Bonfanti, artistic Rarely women are present in the building consultant of Rossifloor, called "Miss" in sector (only cases Luisa Castiglioni and the report Wall to wall: il tappeto Anna Castelli). pavimento by Corsini and Wiskemann Through the magazines of the period, (37/1962), is interviewed on the samples however, it is also possible to develop an she designed for moquettes in wool and in alternative and less known history of Leacril using 20 colors. The designer women. The visibility given to the many explains how to work with colors on large competitions organized by companies sizes and the stranded technique (twisting (Soc. Montecatini, Manifattura Jsa, Pirelli- multiple wires of different colors and of Ferrania S.p.a., Pavoni ecc.), resulting in equal value) to obtain the melange effect, the reporting of the winners, allows you to using handlooms to reproduce as closely build a new and nurtured geography of as possible to the final result given by professional women, in particular in machine and to have certainty on the relation to northern Italy, competing and designed effect. winning awards, through which broaden One last important space is dedicated to the horizons of the future research on the Josine Des Cressonieres, figure of subject and help limit an absence international prominence, referring to the important historiographical as the lack of

19 Emanuela Martini (ed), Franca Valeri - Una 20 Giovanni Klaus Koenig, “Alberto Rosselli”, in signora molto snob (Torino: Lindau, 2000). Fracassi and Riva, Rosselli, 13-36. 46 many, almost all, biographies of contributed to the artistic and social professional women who have history of the Second World War.

A Portrait of the Female Mind as a Young Girl

Iva Maria Jurić

This year marks the fiftieth anniversary of parents as avid readers ‘fascinated by the the publication of 'A Portrait of the Female written word’, crediting his mother Mind as a Young Girl'1, a novel by the especially for her love of children’s books renowned architect and writer Alison and a passion for writing letters.3 Smithson. Even though the work of Ms Born in Sheffield in 1928, Alison Margaret Smithson and her partner Peter Smithson Gill studied architecture at the University has been a part of the architecture of Durham in Newcastle-upon-Tyne where discourse since their very first project and she had met Peter Smithson (b. 1923) the interest in their work seem to have whom she married in 1949. The young only increased throughout the years, not couple moved to London where they both much is said or written on the subject of briefly worked for the London City Council, Ms Smithson’s novel. By the time of its leaving it to set up their own practice after publication in the year of 1966 the couple winning the competition for the had already issued numerous essays on Hunstanton school. Praised for its classical architecture and urbanism and continued modernist composition combined with to do so throughout their career, but the ‘the warehouse aesthetic’ and its genuine aforementioned novel remains Ms treatment of materials, the design for the Smithson’s only published work of fiction. school ensured its authors a firm spot in Architects’ affinity towards writing dates the architecture history. all the way to Vitruvius but in regard to In the years to follow the couple Smithsons, the two practices are continued working on competitions, completely indivisible. In his essay ‘What is though with far less success. However, it about the Smithsons?’2, Charles Rattray these proposals helped them further bluntly credits their large theoretical investigate their ideas on the post-war city oeuvre to the lack of commissioned work. and housing, the topics which were part of Albeit their built work consists of no more the debate during the CIAM meetings in than a dozen of buildings, Rattray’s which the Smithsons participated. For the argument can still be disputed by the fact purpose of organizing the 10th congress in that their theoretical work never Dubrovnik in 1956, a group of younger diminished during the periods of more generation architects who opposed the active architectural practice. And it is modernist architecture traditions and precisely their critical approach and their functionalist division of the city as defined writing what made them one of the most by the Athens charter and re-introduced influential architects of the 20th century. In the ideas of belonging and context was the preface to Max Risellada’s ‘Alison & formed. The group, among whose Peter Smithson – A Critical Anthology’ members were the Smithsons, continued Simon Smithson, the eldest of the three of under the name of Team 10 with their the Smithsons’ children, recalls both of his work, which was well documented by Ms

Smithson and subsequently published, evokes that of another first novel, James even after the dissolution of CIAM. Joyce’s ‘A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Apart from the Team 10, the Smithsons Man’. 4 It was a common act of word play, were also members of the Independent adoption and referencing characteristic of Group, an informal group of artists, the Smithsons modus operandi which they architects, critics and writers who held applied throughout their work. ‘Not with a meetings at the Institute for bang but with a flicker’ an essay published Contemporary Arts in London. The group’s in 1959, borrows its title from the often work concerning the popular and quoted ‘Not with a bang but a whimper’ consumerist contemporary culture gained line from T.S. Elliot’s poem ‘The Hollow them the title of predecessors of the Pop Men’, ‘Waiting for the Goodies’ is a funny Art movement and resulted in two reinterpretation of the title of Beckett’s exhibitions; ‘Parallel of Art and Life’ (1953) seminal play while ‘The good-tempered and ‘This is Tomorrow’ (1956). Gasman’ refers to Aristotle’s ‘good- The late fifties and the sixties were the tempered man’, and so on. These most prolific time of the couple’s career associations work as calculated clues, as regarding their architectural practice keys to unlocking the ideas that succeed because of the commissions for the them. Economist Building, Robin Hood Gardens The intentional similarities to Joyce’s novel and St. Hilda’s College. Being their first do not stop at the title. Both novels can be (and last) housing project, the Robin Hood characterized as bildungsromane, a Gardens in London commissioned by the coming-of-age stories solely concerned London City Council gave the Smithson the with the development of their main opportunity to test their ideas on city and characters, mixing third-person narrative human association which they have been with indirect speech and using a language developing since the fifties. Conceived as a which evolves accordingly to the built utopia with ‘streets in the sky’ protagonists’ maturing. Since the primary designed to encourage interaction, the subject of both novels is inner worlds of architects’ vision was overshadowed by their ‘heroes’, the dialogues are kept the high crime rate in the housing estate minimal as to include more stream-of- and despite many efforts for its consciousness-like interior monologues. preservation as of August 2015 the Robin However, the dissimilarities between the Hood Gardens buildings are awaiting their two works are even greater. Where demolition. Joyce’s character’s name is an example of At the beginning of this controversial nominative determinism, an allusion to project, ‘A Portrait’ was published. Daedalus, a talented artisan from Greek mythology, in order to give emphasis to the artistic nature of the protagonist as II well as his interest to ‘fly over’ various society-imposed constrains, Smithson’s The novel was published by Chatto & main character is primarily referred to as Windus, an independent (at the time) ‘Girl’. While Stephan Dedalus engrosses London publishing house established in himself with the questions on aesthetic 1855, among whose publications were philosophy, ethics and Christianity, works of Mark Twain, Samuel Beckett and Smithson’s Girl is absorbed by clichéd Aldous Huxley. Its title ‘A Portrait of the notions of great romances, escapes from Female Mind as a Young Girl’ deliberately

49 the mundane of her small-town life, and a ‘choice; identity; possibilities for change; ‘big ring.’ connection (both actual and the sense of); “‘Marry you.’ ‘Big ring.’ ‘Have a baby.’”5 protection from violation (by noise; of But the essential difference between the one’s sense of privacy; and so on); release two novels is that one is concerned with a from pressures of all kinds’.9 For development of - a girl. Smithsons, the concept of personal space The anonymity of the Girl is a method to and a home of one’s own is essential to emphasize her ordinariness - she is any the development of identity, especially girl, but it also serves as a straightforward after the loss and destruction that was the way of introducing the reader to the WWII. They stated: ‘We have to satisfy our central theme of the novel – the search for need for a sense of “a place of our own”, one’s identity. Girl’s name nor those of her not in a “universalist” way, but in a free parents, the name of the street nor the way that allows for change and for town she wants to escape from are never everyone to be himself’.10 This is given. The reason for it is simply that employed in the novel as well, the those names bare no significance and the insufficiency of Girl’s own space and the Girl’s inability to associate herself with any incapability to connect with that of her of them creates an interior struggle that parents makes her question her true self: takes up most of her adolescent years. In “’But what is my own image?’ She pivoted order to find happiness, she has to make a her head and glanced back at the room. name for herself: “’I have to do Was that her squinched in the mirror. something. I refuse to be a nobody just Parents’ furniture. ‘What could one do because he’s already out of it. ... Invent with it? Paint it like the magazines said?’ something? Find something? Both unlikely She considered the work involved. The – she had nothing to invent anything with walls, the floor. ‘The beds would still look – and she had no land to find anything in. wrong. No, things are all the wrong Then she would never get away like he shapes.”11 did.” 6 However, the real association for the The concept of identification takes a Smithsons began at the doorstep. Their central part in the Smithsons’ work ‘doorstep philosophy’ implies that ‘the involved with CIAM and the Team 10. At basic relationship between people and life the 9th congress held in Aix-en-Provance in begins with the contact at the doorstep 1953, they offered their own version of between man and man’.12 This didn’t the four functionalist divisions of the make things any easier for the Girl: “’To modernist city constituted by the Athens merge. Somehow others had always Charter, proclaiming that ‘life falls through seemed to integrate better. It had always the net of the four functions’.7 Living, been a constant slipping and struggling working, recreation and circulation where back, not easy to stay one of them.”’13 not to be replaced but rather As a result, she often secluded herself supplemented with ‘a set of associative from the outside, retreating in her room relationships or links that tied together to give into adolescent day-dreaming. the house, street, district, and city’8 The Girl lies in her bed and tells herself presented within their Urban Re- stories. Over the course of time, she Identification Grid proposal. They would construes in her mind (at least) seven further explore these ideas within the different stories. Although the complexity Team 10, resulting in a new terminology of of these tales progress alongside their the post-war architecture, composed of maker, they are in their essence quite

50 unremarkable, always ending in the same towards good container-spaces, and even manner. The commonness of the stories is the same sort of forms can be found in of course premeditated and serves to both the books and in the post-war works depict the ordinariness of the teenage of architects.’15 According to Ms Smithson, imagination and its preoccupation with it was the same with furniture: ‘In Beatrix affairs of the heart. Potter’s interiors, objects and utensils in Their interest in the ordinary and the daily use are conveniently located, often everyday Smithsons started developing in on individual hooks or nails, and are all the early fifties and it coincided with their ‘decoration’ the ‘simple’ spaces need, or engagement with the Independent Group. in fact can take.’ This appeal of the simple In fact, it was their photographer friend everyday objects is disclosed in the novel Nigel Henderson, a member of the IG, who as well: “I am fond of my hairbrush. And inspired it. His experimental photographs all the brushes I have had. And some other of street life in Bethnal Green, a London people had. A cast aluminium one like the neighbourhood in which he lived with his Fougasse, we got while getting petrol wife and children proved crucial for outside those walls on flat ground French Smithsons’ own development as well as go in for outside walls – sort of beaten the following ‘This is Tomorrow’ mud with a kerb round.”16 Or: “I have exhibition. Henderson took the couple and known some good windows. So I like their mutual friend and collaborator from windows. Particularly bedroom windows. I the IG, sculptor Eduardo Paolozzi with him have known and liked those that did not on one of his regular walks in the East End. face south or the rising sun but looked Although the area was ravaged during the upon it. West windows have been my war, the elements of the simple everyday greatest – I am a sucker for sunsets.” 17 life, such as children playing in the street, In the Architectural Design text Ms survived. The ‘actuality’ they saw in Smithson emphasizes their importance in Henderson’s photographs and on the walk an even more convincing manner: ‘Here lead them to the concept of ‘as found’. then, we find basic necessities raised to a ‘Thus the “as found” was a new seeing of poetic level: the simple life, well done. the ordinary, an openness as to how This is in essence the precept of the whole prosaic “things” could re-energise our Modern Movement in architecture’.18 inventive activity. ... We were concerned Although in reality a great deal of with the seeing of materials for what they modernist architecture doesn’t fit this were: the woodness of wood; the description, as pointed out by Dirk van sandiness of sand’.14 The newly discovered den Heuvel in his outstanding dissertation fascination with the ordinary is particularly on the Smithsons 19, the idea of ‘simple visible in some of Ms Smithson’s own life’ was indeed behind most of the writing. Just a year after publishing of ‘A couple’s projects for private houses, from Portrait’, her text ‘Beatrix Potter’s Places’ Sudgen house to their own Fonthill was printed in Architectural Design. Her weekend retreat. Solar Pavilion or Upper admiration for the work of the great Lawn Pavilion as it was originally named illustrator and writer Beatrix Potter was was Smithsons’ own private refuge in a already well-known, but in the published small village of Fonthill, designed by the text Ms Smithson proclaims that interiors couple in 1959. Built on the remnants of depicted in Ms Potter’s books and the an old stone wall which became the ones of modernist villas are in fact quite essential part of the design, the two- similar. It is ‘the same sort of striving storey structure is so clean and basic that

51 it gives off a sense of utter essentiality. essay on couple’s VW Beetle by Ms Envisioned as an opposition to the bustle Smithson. In ‘Mobility. Road systems’ they of the metropolis, the house in Fonthill declared: ‘Mobility has become the became a focal point in Smithsons’ familial characteristic of our period. Social and and creative life. The ideas of the physical mobility, the feeling of a certain domestic simplicity as constructed in the sort of freedom, is one of the things that house are again presented in the novel, as keeps our society together, and the the Girl often fantasizes about the symbol of this freedom is the individually easiness of the country life: “This house owned motor-car’.23 has not the ad’s idyllic situation, fresh air Furthermore, the idea and the symbolism blowing in, lambs; when I hang out I’m not of the car take central part again in the on the sand dunes hanging out all yellow novel. In her fantasies, the Girl devises washing. But in the suburbs, in fine romantic plots between different (yet summers they reach their apogee – for similar in character) men and women, theirs is the world of Sunday grass cutting alternately playing both parts. While – the sound pushes and pulls that you women are often depicted as being held have not given up to be a free girl in the captive by their specific situation or country.”20 And:“When they wanted to position in the society, men are epitomes tear them down for road widening she of freedom whose lives are results of their wanted for herself an alms cottage, a own choices entirely. Mill owners, simple cell, one of a row filled with friends scholars, engineers or car-owning soldiers ( -set in an area of sparse grass and old they are always emblematic of the Girl’s concrete?- ) out of which she could make own inadequacies and desires: “He was her croft. There is nothing between the bringing the railway, whence, by buying a basic simplicity of a cowboy’s existence ticket a brave person could leave. Leave and Getrude Lawrence’s bedroom.”21 the appalling lack of privacy. Go among Smithsons’ travels to the Fonthill strangers. That I wanted as much as residence are well documented by Ms marriage itself.”24 And: “A Cadillac, I Smithson in her notable book ‘AS in DS’ thought. I have never been in an American published in 1983. The book which is car. What a way to travel! Somehow I designed in the shape of a Citroën DS is a must get to ride in it.” 25 Men’s attributes diary of travels to and from Fonthill, filled are conspicuously inspired by the Girl’s with photographs, maps and sketches of real life neighbour Chris Downs, a the journey, or as Ms Smithson stated ‘A charismatic race car driver and an Diary of a Passenger’s View of Movement embodiment of independence whom we in a Car’, but it is also a celebration of learn near the end of the novel the Girl movement and freedom made possible by married, accomplishing what she had set the invention of modern vehicle.22 The out for herself: “She had always felt Smithsons’ thoughts on automobiles and divided from what she was seeing but now their impact on city and modern life are – in a fast car – it all dropped into expressed in their Golden Lane meaning. Living inside herself and feeling competition entry from 1952 in which as though she were forcing forwards they first developed the concept of through life with this high wind at the ‘streets in the sky’ as to separate sides of her head.” 26 pedestrian communication from the During the course of the novel, the Girl’s traffic, their 1958 essay ‘Mobility. Road stories regularly end with marriage systems’ and the 1965 ‘Love in a Beetle’ between the two characters, but in her

52 last one she takes us further. As a Appear like a model or lose your husband consequence, this is where the story line nags all the time while dusting.’29 Just like gets complicated: the distinction between in the groundbreaking 1963 book by Betty direct and indirect speech, fantasy and Friedan ‘The Feminine Mystique’ with reality as well as the past and the present, whom Ms Smithson must have been is blurred. Similarly to Virgina Woolf’s acquainted with, the Girl is left with the novel ‘Mrs Dalloway’, Ms Smithson consequences of following the wrongfully alternates modes of narration between established social conventions, becoming third-person perspective and interior a victim of the romanticized but in reality monologues in a stream of consciousness oppressive notions of marriage: ‘You manner. The language becomes more marry, and what happens to all those joys complex as we learn the Girl is now a and tears? Now it’s all yours. You’re Married Woman, finally earning her name. driving.’30 In the book which is credited for Although it is in fact her husband’s: ‘’And inspiring second-wave feminism, Ms Mrs Downs, what does it feel like to be the Friedan describes ‘The Problem that Has wife of a racing driver?’’27 No Name’31, the extensive frustration and unhappiness of suburban housewives of the 1950s and 1960s America as a result of III society directing women exclusively in the roles of wives and mothers, suppressing In the aforementioned essay ‘Mobility. their personal identities and abilities. She Road Systems’ the Smithsons attached an deduces that the question of advertisement for a Plymouth car stating: contemporary women is a centuries old ‘Don’t be dependent on your husband’s problem of identity, of never being free time or your neighbour’s good expected to find their true selves. ‘Marry nature. Go where you want, when you me to be going on with and then it’s rush want in a beautiful Plymouth that’s yours rush to get things done for you feel you and nobody else’s.’28Collecting was a habit must have been wasting time all this day of the couple, especially of Ms Smithson dreaming. Then you’re exhausted and all is for whom it is said collected various done the kids in bed short and there is magazine cut-outs from an early age, actually nothing left to do but hate the which resulted in the 1953 Independent shape, the unmouldability of face and Group exhibition ‘The Parallel of Life and unwillingness of hair to create ideals.’32 Art’ and the influential ‘But Today We And the Girl’s disillusionment caused by Collect Ads’ essay from 1956. Although the unfulfilled promise of happiness which praised as forerunners of Pop-Art, should come with marriage and children rebelling against high-brow culture, leaves a lingering bitter taste, long after Smithsons’ stance on consumerist culture the novel is finished. was a far more critical one and in her As being a happily married mother of novel particularly Ms Smithson tackles the three at the time of writing the novel with imposed ideals of womanhood as a fulfilling career to boot, Ms Smithson portrayed by the advertising industry: bares little similarities to the Girl in her ‘Peculiar frustrations engendered by their later years, but the writer’s insight of the education, ricochet among self-doubt, formative period in a woman’s life are of half-accepted freedom, house floundered particular importance. In 1966 there was cut-off from society half explored. ... We still very little literary works that tear ourselves apart and shred ourselves.” portrayed girlhood, especially regarding

53 the expectations of girls to follow the 3 Simon Smithson, “Foreword: On Editing discriminating paths of their ancestors. and Pruning”, in Max Risellada (ed.), Alison And if believing that every creative work is & Peter Smithson. A Critical Anthology in its essence autobiographical, it is in this (Barcelona: Ediciones Poligrafa, 2011), 14- part of the novel where we can observe 17. the distressing interior struggles which 4 James Joyce, A Portrait of an Artist as a must have preoccupied Ms Smithson Young Man (New York: B.W. Huebsch, being a teenage girl in 1940s. Therefore, 1916) ‘A Portrait’ can be read as a cautionary 5 Smithson, A Portrait, 9. tale, a letter to young women who too 6 Smithson, A Portrait, 9. often neglect their own potential in order 7 Alison Smithson, Team 10 Meetings to fulfil the society appointed roles. 1953-1984 (New York: Rizzoli, 1991), 9, in Although her feminist believes can M.Christine Boyer, “Why Do Architects sometimes be questioned, especially Write? The Case of Team 10 and Alison & regarding the celebration of women Peter Smithson”, in Max Risellada (ed.), architects almost exclusively as halves in Alison & Peter Smithson. A Critical creative partnerships, as observed by Anthology (Barcelona: Ediciones Poligrafa, Beatriz Colomina in her essay ‘Couplings’33 2011), 46. (though this can be attributed to the 8M.Christine Boyer, “Why Do Architects perhaps romantic fascination with artistic Write? The Case of Team 10 and Alison & relationships and shared production), Ms Peter Smithson”, in Max Risellada (ed.), Smithson’s ‘A Portrait’ is still a strong Alison & Peter Smithson. A Critical feminist piece of writing that gives much Anthology (Barcelona: Ediciones Poligrafa, needed account of the too often 2011), 45. neglected world of girlhood, as well as the 9 Alison Smithson, Team 10 Meetings anxieties and sorrow that come with 1953-1984 (New York: Rizzoli, 1991), 9, in feminine adjustment, ingeniously M.Christine Boyer, “Why Do Architects interwoven with themes from its author’s Write? The Case of Team 10 and Alison & architecture practice. Proving by example Peter Smithson”, in Max Risellada (ed.), that women can remain non-conforming Alison & Peter Smithson. A Critical individuals even within strong Anthology (Barcelona: Ediciones Poligrafa, partnerships, the novel is a testament of 2011), 44. Alison Smithson’s great artistic talent. Not 10 ‘CIAM-RE-ORGANISATION’, typoscript simple, but well-done. dated 28-29 August 1957, in Dirk van den Heuvel, Alison and Peter Smithson. A Brutalist Story (diss., TU Delft, 2013), 100.

11 Smithson, A Portrait, 93. Notes 12 Alison and Peter Smithson ‘Draft Framework 4, 1956’, in M.Christine Boyer, 1 Alison Smithson, A Portrait of the Female “Why Do Architects Write? The Case of Mind as a Young Girl (London: Chatto & Team 10 and Alison & Peter Smithson”, in Windus, 1966) Max Risellada (ed.), Alison & Peter 2 Charles Rattray, “What is it about the Smithson. A Critical Anthology (Barcelona: Smithsons?”, in Paul Davies and Torsten Ediciones Poligrafa, 2011), 41. Schmiedeknecht (eds.), An Architect’s 13 Smithson, A Portrait, 30. Guide to Fame (Oxford: Elsevier 14 Alison and Peter Smithson, “The ‘As Architectural Press, 2005), 3-16. Found’ and the ‘Found’”, in David Robbins

(ed.), The Independent Group. Postwar Bibliography Britain and the Aesthetics of Plenty (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1990), 201- Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. 202. New York: W. W. Norton, 1963. 15 Alison Smithson, “Beatrix Potter’s Places” in Architectural Design, December Highmore, Ben. “Streets in the Air: Alison 1967, 573; re-published in Judy Taylor and Peter Smithson’s Doorstep (ed.), So I Shall Tell You a Story... Philosophy”, in Neo-avant-garde and Encounters with Beatrix Potter (London: Postmodern: Postwar Architecture in Warne, 1993), 78. Britain and Beyond (Studies in British Art 16 Smithson, A Portrait, 279. 21), edited by Clare Zimmerman and Mark 17 Smithson, A Portrait, 274. Crinson, 79-100. New Haven and London: 18 Alison Smithson, “Beatrix Potter’s Yale University Press, 2010. Places” in Architectural Design, December 1967, 573; re-published in Judy Taylor Joyce, James. A Portrait of an Artist as a (ed.), So I Shall Tell You a Story... Young Man. New York: B.W. Huebsch, Encounters with Beatrix Potter (London: 1916. Warne, 1993), 78. 19 Dirk van den Heuvel, Alison and Peter Rattray, Charles. “What is it about the Smithson. A Brutalist Story (diss., TU Delft, Smithsons?”, in An Architect’s Guide to 2013) Fame, edited by Paul Davies and Torsten 20 Smithson, A Portrait, 263. Schmiedeknecht, 3-16. Oxford: Elsevier 21 Smithson, A Portrait, 255. Architectural Press, 2005. 22 Alison Smithson, AS in DS: an eye on the road (Delft: Delft University Press, 1983) Risselada, Max, ed. Alison & Peter 23 Alison and Peter Smithson, “Mobility. Smithson. A Critical Anthology. Barcelona: Road Systems”, in: Architectural Design, Ediciones Poligrafa, 2011. October 1958, 385; in Dirk van den Heuvel, Alison and Peter Smithson. A Robbins, David, ed. The Independent Brutalist Story (diss., TU Delft, 2013), 95. Group. Postwar Britain and the Aesthetics 24 Smithson, A Portrait, 74. of Plenty. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 25 Smithson, A Portrait, 133. 1990. 26 Smithson, A Portrait, 210. 27 Smithson, A Portrait, 278. Smithson, Alison. A Portrait of the Female 28 Alison and Peter Smithson, “Mobility. Mind as a Young Girl. London: Chatto & Road Systems”, in: Architectural Design, Windus, 1966. October 1958, 385; in Dirk van den Heuvel, Alison and Peter Smithson. A Smithson, Alison. AS in DS: an eye on the Brutalist Story (diss., TU Delft, 2013), 95. road. Delft: Delft University Press, 1983. 29 Smithson, A Portrait, 263. 30 Smithson, A Portrait, 208. Smithson, Alison and Peter. The Charged 31 Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique Void: Urbanism. New York: Monacelli (New York: W. W. Norton, 1963) Press, 2005. 32 Smithson, A Portrait, 224. Smithson, Alison and Peter. Without Rhetoric: An Architectural Aesthetic 1955- 1972. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1974.

Van den Heuvel, Dirk. “Alison and Peter Taylor, Judy,ed. So I Shall Tell You a Story... Smithson. A Brutalist Story.” Diss., TU Encounters with Beatrix Potter. London: Delft, 2013. Warne, 1993.

Education

First Generations of Women in Architecture and Design at University of Ljubljana

Helena Seražin

By now very few studies have been her and the first male colleagues inscribed published that tackle the theme of women in 1919 was due to the Austro-Hungarian Slovene architects and civil engineers who Empire school legislation (Slovenia was a studied at University of Ljubljana. As far as part of Austria Hungary until its I know there are two articles only on dissolution in 1918). This legislation didn’t female students at Jože Plečnik’s school by allow women to graduate with complete my former doctoral candidate and final exam of maturity at the gymnasium research assistant Tina Potočnik, or realschule which was University study published in last two years. In this paper I requirement. With their “incomplete” will try to find some answers to the a middle school education women could couple of questions. continue their studies only on specialised high schools, open only for women. After the end of the First World War, 1. What access did female students when Kingdom of Slovenes, Croats and have to schools of architecture, Serbs, later Kingdom of Yugoslavia was design and building engineering? established, the legislation was changed and women were allowed to inscribe at all To understand how the study and the role schools and universities in the country. of women had changed after the 1946 in First Interbellum generations of women Slovenia, we have to present the study of had to finish middle school first with the architecture at University of Ljubljana proper final exam to be able to enter the from its founding in 1919. The first courses university studies. This could took place at the so-called Faculty of Technical only from the study year 1923/24 on. The Sciences began under professor Ivan situation hasn’t changed after the Second Vurnik in 1919 already, although in 1920 World War: study of architecture and civil with the arrival of Jože Plečnik true studies engineering at the Technical Faculty was in architecture had taken place. open to all potential students regardless Since I so far didn’t have the access to sex under the condition that they had data about all inscribed students to the obtained the required middle school architecture courses, I can’t say with education. The only time that women and certainty in which year the first woman men couldn’t enter university studies was was inscribed in studies of architecture; during the Second World War. Faculty of from the documents of all graduated Technical Sciences was closed in 1941, students it seems as that the first female between 1943 and 1945 the the entire student was Dušana Šantel. She enrolled University of Ljubljana was closed. to study architecture in the year 1925/26 Although it seems that at least on paper and graduated in 1932. The gap between Yugoslav women had equal access to

57 education before and after the second “As far as women are concerned, they will world war it is important to note that find it easier to thrive in the administrative societal and political conditions for department, whereas as an independent women in general were very different: architect they would not always be able to Slovene women got the right to vote first enforce their will at workers properly. in 1946 under the socialist regime when Most suitable for them would still be they gained also constitutional freedom designing interiors (Innenarchitekt), which for the first time, which meant equal requires a separate specialization.” rights and position in society. “The fact that the building engineer has to know itself from practice the demanding handling with materials and sundry sort of 2. Did women experience obstacles? work and that he must have authority enforced to workers in any position, will From the manual “Academic Profession: hinder women. Rather than on the The Instructions for Choosing the fieldwork, they would be likely to succeed Profession” written by Lovro Sušnik in in the internal preparation, drawing plans 1932 it is obvious that study of and others.” architecture and civil engineering at the With such recommendation we cannot Faculty of Tehnical before 1945 wasn’t find it odd that before 1945 only 2 women warmly recommended to women. graduated in civil engineering, Sonja In this manual we read “Women are less Lapajne and Zorka Sodnik. Never the less recommending for technical professions. at least 21 women began to study For studies itself, which comprise the vast architecture before 1945, but only 10 of majority of no classical subjects, does not them graduated by that year. fit the female psyche. Even more difficult, Before the war Slovenians have not however, women will enforce their will in appreciated women in the so called men practice. Design of devices in uninhabited occupations: as it appears from by and hard to reach places, management of sporadic biographies of women architects buildings in adverse living and housing they mostly originated from from middle conditions, work in factories and plants class families which were directly with predominantly male working forces, connected with technical, artistic or movements in the mines and on high political world. These families supported buildings, living among unskilled male their daughters and through higher workers and employees are circumstances education tended to acquire better which will be only hard to meet a woman occupation for them apart from more and which will rarely achieve better common women occupation, low-payed results. Exceptions prove the rule here. primary school teacher. The most suitable profession for women Bogo Zupančič believes that apart from would be architecture - interior design and general social prejudices, also chauvinistic chemistry. In other professions, they will attitude of the male students and also be taken into consideration only for a professors at the Faculty of Technical limited range of activities, particularly for Sciences itself made female students feel internal jobs in offices and technical unwelcomed. This contributed to the low offices. In the fieldwork women engineers number of graduated women architects will - at least for now - difficult achieve and civil engineers before the war. Just for suitable position.” the illustration: professor Foerster stated in 1928 for one of the female students

58 that he will sooner become an astronaut engineering and artistic considerations of then she a civil engineer – and she really architecture were approached equally. hasn’t finished her studies. Plečnik’s idea differed substantially; he But during the second world war situation wanted to found his own school, which of women slowly begun changing: one of from afar seemed similar to the Wagner’s the female students in architecture Albina school in a form of seminar: a novice first Zorka Gradišnik was killed in summer 1944 received a small task of craftwork, this was during the fights between partisans and followed by a small monument, German army; as so many other Slovene tombstone etc. in the second year. In the women she was member of partisan third year architectural drawing was troops and was fighting shoulder to replaced by architectural composition shoulder with men to liberate the country. with more monumental tasks, such as During the war through their active role in buildings or urban planning. As we can see the resistance movement Slovene women from the 4th book of Plečnik’s students gained power and more equal position in titled Lučine, which represent their the society, which after the Second World achievements between 1928 and 1937, War, in 1946 resulted in vote rights and there wasn’t any difference in completed changed state legislation with which they projects as regards the gender: all became equal citizens to men in every students had to work equally hard after aspect of human life. professor’s ideas. Because of two different As a result, in the country quite approaches 2 schools developed and in devastated by war, architecture and civil the end women students were more or engineering were highly in need and less equally divided among them: each consequently no longer considered professor had 33 graduated female inappropriate for women. This resulted in students. increased inscription of women to studies Dušana Šantel, who was the first female to of architecture and civil engineering; but graduate in architecture in 1932, after from 48 inscribed students in architecture failing final exam twice, was Vurnik’s in the study year 1946/47 (among them student. Gizela Šuklje who was second were 13 women) only 25, that is 52 % woman to graduate in architecture in the graduated, among them only 6 women, same year and passed with rather high which means only 46% of all inscribed notes in comparison also with male women of that generation finished their students ended studying with Plečnik. study. As I don’t possess numbers of all After the second world war study of inscribed students yet, I can only confirm architecture was reorganized and more that number of graduated women in seminars thought by new professors were architecture during 1950s was slowly organized. Tina Potočnik analysed the increasing, and in 1960s almost tripled. position of female students in Plečnik’s seminar in comparison with others. She found out that between 1944 and 1956 3. How were women students the majority of his students were women. included in the education process? She sees two reasons of the situation; one is that they were rather unsuccessful at In 1919 Ivan Vurnik planned the study obtaining place in other seminars, programme of architecture similar to that especially in seminar by professor of the pre-war Faculty of Technical Ravnikar, and second that that more Sciences in Vienna , which means that female students were inscribed in

59 Plečnik’s seminar because of the nature of 4. How were women his teaching, which was prone to the professionals included in the artistic expression rather than toward education process? How were they more engineering aspects of architecture. represented in the academia? Many of them even studied at the Academy of fine arts at the same time and It is needless to say that before 1945 later became artists as Vladimira Bratuž. among professors and assistants at If we look at the first post-war publication architecture and civil engineering studies of student’s achivements from 1946/47 there wasn’t any woman; it is recorded we see, that several of the presented though that Gizela Šuklje worked in projects were made in collaboration Plečnik’s seminar as assistant volunteer between female students and professor for the architectural drawing between Ravnikar or professor Mihevc, which 1934 and 1938. Unpaid assistant means that not all female students landed volunteers, who were hoping to get at Plečnik. Far more interested is position at the university/ tenure and with Potočnik’s second hypothesis since it is that a position at University were quite inevitable to notice that when in 1960/61 common on all faculties, but women in the experimental study of design, called B general rarely achieved the academic course was established, which was in the position: until 1945 they were only 3 in first study year attuned to the fine arts, total. They still had to fight prejudices almost half of the students were women. about their supposedly lesser talent, According to the topics of their diploma grater emotionality and natural role as projects it is obvious that professors housewife. And even if they were allowed included all their students in their regular to work at University they could do it only work regardless to sex; it is true though, until they got married, since their role as a that they always had their favourites but mother was considered more important this dependent on student’s abilities and it would obstruct their academic rather than on gender. Seminars were carrier. often organized as professors’ It didn’t become any easier for women in architectural studios and students worked academia after the second world war: on very specific tasks which were part of a because of the big competition for rare larger project. Among diploma works academic positions in general, prejudices made by women we can find projects for a survived for a very long time in spite of building of Slovene parliament, which was political proclamations of gender equality. first topical in 1947, or urban planning for From the establishing of the University of Slovene coastal towns, plans for first Ljubljana in 1919 until 1968 only two Ljubjana’s skyscraper built according to women among 42 men achieved position Mies van der Rohe’s principles called of assistant professor in civil engineering: Metalka, in the end planned by professor Carmen Jež Gala, who was assistant for Mihevc, or planes of stores in the Ursuline iron constructions between 1952 and convent, which were included in 1960 and assistant professor for firmness Ravnikar’s project of the Revolution between 1960 and 1965; the other was square. Darinka Battelino assistant for soil mecanics between 1964 and 1987, when at last she became assistant professor. She will tell us more about her professional experience tomorrow at the interview.

60 Situation was a bit better at architectural managed to climb the academic ladder to studies: position of associate professor in 1974. First woman assistant was Jožica Strašek, She also became the first and the last assistant in urban planning at prof. Edvard woman head of department of Ravnikar between 1951 and 1954. In 1954 architecture in 1969, but we will hear she was followed by Milica Detoni, about this remarkable woman more in one assistant in history of architecture and of tomorrow’s paper. Let me conclude this restoration of architecture at professor short presentation with information that Mušič between 1954 and 1961, and Olga speaks for itself: for the first woman full Rusanova assistant in interior design at professor in architecture, Živa Deu, professor Edo Mihevc between 1954 and Slovenians had to wait until 2014, almost 1961. Next women assistant followed in 100 years after the study of architecture in 1963, Majda Verčnik Pehani, who was Slovenia was established assistant in urban planning until 1970. From 1919 to 1968 there were only 5 women employed as assistant among 43 men and only one of them, Olga Rusanova Andrej Hrausky, “Nekatere opombe k Vurnikovi zadružni gospodarski banki=Some This research was co-financed by remarks on Vurnik’s Co-operative bank,” in Slovenian Research Agency through the Ivan Vurnik: 1884–1971: Slovenski arhitekt= research programme Slovene Artistic Slovenian architect, edited by Janez Koželj Identity in European Context (P6-0061). (Ljubljana: Arhitektov bilten, 1994), 73–8, Special issue of Arhitektov bilten: International Magazine for Theory of Architecture, 24, Bibliography 119/124 (1994).

Maja Lozar Štamcar, “Furniture Designed by Alojz Cindrič, Študenti s Kranjske na dunajski Ljubljana Architects in the 1920s and 1930s,” univerzi 1848–1918 (Ljubljana: Univerza v Predmet kot reprezentanca: okus, ugled, moč Ljubljani, 2009). = Objects as manifestations of taste, prestige Fakulteta za arhitekturo, gradbeništvo in and power (Ljubljana: Narodni muzej geodezijo: 1919–1979: Ob šetdesetletnici SLovenije, 2009), 471–531. visokošolskega študija arhitekture, https://www.academia.edu/8802842/Pohi%C gradbeništva in geodezije v Ljubljani ( 5%A1tvo_slovenskih_arhitektov_v_dvajsetih_i Ljubljana: FAGG, 1979). n_tridesetih (accessed June 18, 2016).

Tatjana Hojan, Naše prve maturantke, Od Judy Pearsall (ed.), The New Oxford Dictionary mature do mature: Zgodovinski razvoj mature of English (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), na Slovenskem: 1849/50–1994/95. (Ljubljana, 1410. Šolski muzej, 1998), 68–75, exhibition Tina Potočnik, “Female Students of Jože catalogue, 62. Plečnik between Tradition and Modernism,” Tatjana Hojan, “Žensko šolstvo in učiteljstvo Investigating and Writing Architectural na Slovenskem v preteklih stoletjih,” Zbornik History: Subjects, Methodologies and za historiju školstva I prosvjetu, Zagreb, 1968, Frontiers: Papers from the Third EAHN 47–81. International Meeting, edited by Michela

61 Rosso (Turin: EAHN, 2014), 876–884, Lovro Sušnik, Akademski poklici: Navodila za https://eahn.org/app/uploads/2015/07/EAHN izbiro stanu (Ljubljana: Slovensko katoliško 2014proceedings.pdf (accessed June 18, akademsko starešinstvo, 1932). 2016). “Vilfan Jela,” Slovenska biografija (Ljubljana: Damjan Prelovšek, Gizela Šuklje, Delo Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti, 12.11.1994, 8. Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU, 2013), http://www.slovenska- Damjan Prelovšek, “O dekorativnosti zgodnje biografija.si/oseba/sbi787650/#slovenski- Vurnikove arhitekture=Decoration in Early biografski-leksikon (June 3, 2016). Vurnik’s Architecture,” in Ivan Vurnik: 1884– 1971: Slovenski arhitekt= Slovenian architect, “Vurnik in Plečnik: Ustanovitelja slovenske edited by Janez Koželj (Ljubljana: Arhitektov šole za arhitekturo,” in Fakulteta za bilten, 1994), 64–72, Special issue of arhitekturo, gradbeništvo in geodezijo: 1919– Arhitektov bilten: International Magazine for 1979: Ob šetdesetletnici visokošolskega študija Theory of Architecture, 24, 119/124 (1994). arhitekture, gradbeništva in geodezije v Ljubljani. Ljubljana: FAGG, 1979, 26–27.Bogo Damjan Prelovšek, Preskromna, da bi si Zupančič, Umetnica, razpeta med kiparstvo in prizadevala za lastno slavo: Vladimira Bratuž arhitekturo: Usode ljubljanskih stavb in ljudi, Laka 1923–2006, Delo 15.2.2006, 17. Delo, 11.3.2006, 4. Helena Seražin, “Decoration of the Bogo Zupančič, Ljubljanska inženirska Cooperative Business Bank,” in MoMoWo – zbornica: Chamber of Engineers of Ljubljana: 100 Works in 100 Years: European Women in 1919–44 (Ljubljana: Inženirska zbornica Architecture and Design – 1918–1018, edited Slovenije, 2013). by Ana María Fernández García et al., 30–31 (Ljubljana: ZRC Publishing House, 2016), Bogo Zupančič, Zapuščina arhitektke Gizele Exhibition catalogue. Šuklje (1909–1994), Večer 28.10.2009, 15.

62 Presentation and Perception of Women Architects and Designers

A Storytelling Overlooked. Review to Reconstruct

Daniela Arias Laurino

This article introduces an ongoing those who compose it by constructing an research focused on studying and specific understanding of the past of that revealing how the contributions of women profession.2 As Hilde Heyne3 points, there architects in the construction of modernity is a built image that implies crossings out were invisibilize by the official history of and exclusions, because it keeps alive architecture. There are four approaches to certain memories while others are the subject which I consider essential for deleted. this research: the concept of ‘invisibility’, In the architectural field this has the need to revisit the historiography of implications in a number of practices and modern architecture, the incorporation of conventions that can be found at all levels gender as a category of analysis and of discourse and in the practice of the deconstruction of the hegemonic profession: discourse. ‘… in its rituals of legitimation, hiring practices, classification systems, lecture The invisibility of modern women techniques, publicity images, architects canon formation, division of labor, bibliographies, design ‘Women in history are like a conventions, legal codes, sand wall: entering and leaving salary structures, publishing the public space without a practices, language, trace, the footprints erased’1 professional ethics, editing protocols, project credits, The historiography of a profession shapes etc.’4 its identity along specific guidelines, which Thus, the input provided by female often have implications in terms of architects to the construction of gender. According to Joan Wallach Scott it modernity and its consequent omission in is not the lack of information on women the official history of architecture but the idea that such information had nothing to do with the story that led to the invisibility of women in the narratives 2 Sandercock, Leonie. Making the invisible visible: A of the past. The historiography of modern multicultural planning history. Vol. 2. Univ of architecture is not an exception to this California Press, 1998. rule, because as a profession (like urban 3 Heynen, Hilde. "Places of the everyday. Women planning) tends to shape the identity of critics in architecture." Proceedings of the Conference, Gendered Landscapes. An Interdisciplinary Exploration of Past Place and 1 Amorós, Celia. "Espacio público, espacio privado y Space. 2000. definiciones ideológicas de ‘lo masculino’ y ‘lo 4 Mark Wigley, "Untitled: The Housing of Gender," femenino’" Feminismo, igualdad y diferencia in Sexuality & Space, ed. Beatriz Colomina (New (1994): 193-214. York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1992), 329.

63 represents one of these discriminatory include two approaches about the concept practices. of omission: On the one hand the The different forms of dissemination and consideration that the invisibility is also media (which are a portrait of social, found in the ways of production and work. cultural and political contexts of their own The role of partnerships, collaborations or time) have played a critical role in the joining work teams with those most transmission and construction of new published and renowned architects paradigms. In particular media that belong (according also to the official history) is exclusively to the field of architecture essential in order to analysis the notions which produces influence as well as are of ‘individual and collective’ in the influenced by the discourses and practices architectonical field.5Secondly, the of the professional body. diversity areas for the performance in the In general terms there is an origin and profession: architecture, design, urbanism, common cause of those discriminatory structure, history and theory, teaching, practices related to language and etc. seems to be another obstacle, as communication. The best known aspect in some fields are much more recognized Spanish (and from English translations) is and mediatics and therefore more the use of masculine as generic. Nouns, published and more visible than others. articles and adjectives written in the form of masculine subsume the feminine, in other words, they consider the feminine Review the historiography of modern as part of a broader whole or submitted to architecture. a general order. According to the Spanish Association of Professional Women in The construction of the architectural Mass Media (AMECO), derive from this narrative constitutes a central element as procedures the phenomenon’s of a starting point for exploration the aspects Invisibility (not recorded); Exclusion (are that caused such invisibility. A formal and omitted); Subordination (in a position of content review through the foundational passive object); and Impairment (are texts of the Modern Movement, could mention them in a comparison as an disclose, (in addition to mechanisms of example of inferiority). exclusion) the roles, work and Be conscious of the communication forms contributions of modern women is critical for the analysis of absence: architects played that at the same time. language is also a cultural construction This means search for relevant works or and therefore a political issue. projects coincident chronologically, in the One of the main questions on the issue of same lines or opposed to those shown in invisibility also involves the review of the relevant historical narratives; search mechanisms that operate in the transfer also for secondary publications; academic of information, the ‘lost time’ in which a texts or manifestos. Also a complete contribution made by a woman architect review from the gaps (reading between (practical or theoretical), than even though it materializes (a building, design, 5 In words of Muxí and Montaner ‘(...) the planning, article, book, etc.) cannot reach construction of the myth of the creators often the status of being mention and even less considered geniuses, is based on highlighting at the individual rather than teams. According to this a reference in the main texts of modern simplifier device ‘(...) employees and collaborators architecture. In order to address this are deleted’. Muxí, Zaida y Montaner, Josep Mª, La reflection in a complete way we should construcción del relato arquitectónico, Revista SUMA+ No.143, 2015.

64 the lines) or through the relevant works of their thesis as well as justify the new the movement and the male figures of architecture based on the reference of the reference. work (and name) of male architects. On The history of modern architecture has its Pevsner's narrative the figure of reference basis mainly in texts considered essential is Walter Gropius; On Kaufmann, Berlage, as those of Emil Kaufmann (1933),6 Adolf Loos and Le Corbusier; On Giedion, Nikolaus Pevsner (1936)7 and Sigfried Mies Van der Rhoe, Gropius and Le Giedion (1941).8 On these authors the Corbusier. In order to face the enormous history and theory of modern architecture changes brought by the new architecture, was built after 1945. At the same time, the authors seek to link the architecture of except for Henry-Russell Hitchcock and the past by using different genealogies Philip Johnson in the United States (1932) and give a logical continuity that settle the or Manfredo Tafuri into the second half of foundations of this new movement and the century, both Bruno Zevi (1951),9 and thereby give historical legitimacy.13This Leonardo Benevolo (1960)10 also put their rupture juncture is also identified through investigations into with these genealogies. the work of individualities such as William All of them give protagonism to the male, Morris, Claude Nicolas Ledoux going outstanding and remarkable figure (that it through Arts & Crafts precursors, metal is not disputed), also on numerical engineering or the Art Nouveau; Tony majority, since architecture has been Garnier, Adolf Loos, Peter Behrens and the historically a masculinised and close to organic architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, power profession. Thus the history of among others. architecture that is built is based on The absence of women in these texts is individuals, the most published names and evident. On one hand are the narrative therefore the most recognized and visible, structures that, since its inception, remain giving that way value to the creative man, entrenched patriarchal patterns in the often into detriment of the piece of exaltation of heroism. This is about an architecture.11 historical cultural construction in which Beyond the nuances into speeches of women are not part of the active class those renowned theoretical authors, there (granted to public) and is relegate to the are structural similarities such as in private sphere. In addition, although Kaufmann and Pevsner12who demonstrate during the 20s and 30s the women access to Universities was limited to a minority, those women architects who could 6 De Ledoux a Le Corbusier: origen y desarrollo de la arquitectura autónoma. studied did it with the conviction of 7 Pioneers of modern design: from William Morris practice and stand out. Women embraced to Walter Gropius the modern era, were eager to learn, to 8 Espacio, tiempo y arquitectura. address the workplace and live the 9 Historia de la arquitectura moderna relegated recreation. The women 10 Historia de la arquitectura moderna 11 This pattern of heroic perpetuity refers to the architects were among the first respect earned and continuous assessment once achieved merit. 12 To prove the thesis that architecture is new, both authors make an exhibition of their opposite 13 In the case of the theory of Giedion, the (the antithesis) by morphological components. historical continuity is global and covers past, From a global interpretation of history, Giedion present and future. With this timelessness seeks to also uses opposites with a more complex demonstrate that the Modern Movement and its genealogy based on the language of historical architecture was not a style. styles of the nineteenth century.

65 protagonists of a unprecedented socio have been produced significant progress cultural change. with the incorporation of so-called ‘women's studies’ as a new paradigm, in technical areas of knowledge seem to Gender as an analytical category continue belted to their specificity. Gender itself is an interdisciplinary field,17 Gender as a social category, is one of the is a cross-category, which develops a most significant theoretical contributions comprehensive approach and refers to of contemporary feminism. This analytical traits and psychological and socio-cultural category emerged in order to explain functions attributed to each of the sexes inequalities between men and women and at every historical time and at every emphasizing the notion of multiple society18. identities. The feminine and masculine are The historical constructions of gender are formed from a mutual, cultural and dominion systems with a hegemonic historical relationship. As stated Norma discourse that reflect the existence of Blazquez Graf defines science as free of social conflicts. Questioning these gender bias would be a simplification as well as a relations should be the way to stop the false representation of science itself, since implicit idea of it natural character. It's not the objectivity is not just in individuals but about activism vs. academia, but the on the result of consensus, reached in the approach from academia to reality, scientific communities working within a without implying a lack of rigor of any cultural context.14 investigation. The women's studies faced a challenging problem to academic legitimacy. They should demonstrate their academic Deconstructing the discourse integrity to colleagues who doubted about them: those who disapproved all The positions taken by both Derrida and interdisciplinary program and those who Foucault (and sometimes, post- felt that the explicit connection between structuralist like Roland Barthes and the political and culture was a violation of Jacques Lacan) have much in common the academy commitment to impartiality with feminist theories, especially in its or objectivity.15 rejections to a universal subject, the Talk about feminisms related to original essence and the notion of architecture and the city still an unknown objective truth. Feminine becomes and unexplored field in the Latin American ‘missing’, ‘absence’, ‘cannot be academic context.16 In contrast to other represented’; in other words, ‘the other’.19 ‘disciplines’ as the social sciences, where 17 As a field of study emerged from different disciplines: of sociology from the 1950s, theories of 14 Blazquez Graf, N. (2010). Epistemología psychoanalysis and the work of feminists such as feminista: temas centrales. Norma Blazquez, Judith Butler. Fátima Flores y Maribel Ríos (Coords.), 18 Gamba, Susana Beatriz, et al. Diccionario de Investigación feminista: epistemología, estudios de género y feminismos. Vol. 38. No. 396. metodología y representaciones sociales, 21-38. Biblos, 2009. 15 Scott, Joan Wallach. El problema de invisibilidad. 19 The debate on ‘the other’ is being developed by Instituto Mora, 1992. contemporary philosophers as Gayatri Chakravorty 16 Scott (1992) points out that the study of Spivak and Rosi Braidotti. The critics related to women's history originated in the American architecture and practice has been exposed by Academy Community much earlier and more Mary McLeod and Francesca Hughes and the successfully than everywhere else. criticism of historiography, Hilde Heynen, Doris

66 In the light of this thought, an architecture essential realize of the other side. Unveil that seeks to represent ‘the presence of the women architects contributions to the absence’, other architecture, it could be modernity based on the predominant linked to the practices of women. genealogy implies the establishment of Deconstruction as a strategy is useful for some links that allow us to establish a the rereading of the main foundational state of the art and complete what is now texts, not in the sense of negation of the presented as fragmented and isolated texts itself, but opening up a range of information on the real contribution of other possible readings and assuming that these women. These connections would it is not only about communication but of be established: Among significant significance. These theoretical writings, as milestones in the history of modern well as the historians themselves have architecture (the CIAM, the Bauhaus, played a key role in shaping and exhibitions and Symposiums in America positioning the Modern Movement. They and Europe, etc); By relevant works, as have introduced theoretical and well as work and personal ties of these methodological approaches in certain with the most renowned architects and contexts in which Art History was not even architects published. considered a separate discipline. They If we delve, despite the fragmented and have influenced many generations of dispersed information into the architects (women and men) and have contributions of female architects born in been subject of investigations, criticism the early twentieth century21 (those whom and continuity of thought. The fact reached an academic and professional remains that as an Art historians they had activity towards the 50s), several a distant theoretical approach of questions arise: If all these women architectural practice, away from the exemplified had a professional material work and even more from the relationship (directly or indirectly) with environmental, social policies, small-scale renowned architects in one way or urban planning or habitat of everyday life, another, or were drivers or essential part even Bruno Zevi from its political, inclusive of the key events in shaping the modern and democratic vision. movement; Why their contributions were Publications such as Befreites Wohnen relegated to a second plane?; Can we talk (1929) translated as Liberated Living about another way of exercising the Sigfried Giedion, which was a manifesto of profession, other practices?; In which the domestic aspects of everyday life, with areas?; From what social and political strong considerations in reference to the places?; Is it possible to discern a trend political and social, clashes with the towards a more inclusive architecture, less classical notion of modern architecture in elitist and linked to the immediate social Space Time and Architecture, written 12 years later (1941).

Nowadays an historiographical review 21 20 As Marion Mahony (1871), Lilly Reich (1885), with gender perspective become Aino Marsio (1894), Sibyl Moholy-Nagy (1895), Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky (1897), Jakoba Mulder (1900), Charlotte Perriand (1903), Lotte Stam- Cole and Susana Torre, are some of the Besse (1903), Catherine Bauer (1905), Jaqueline contemporary authors of reference. Tyrwhitt (1905), Sadie Speight (1906), Jane Drew 20 ‘Gender’ as substitute of ‘women’ is used to (1911), Minnette De Silva (1918), Anne Tyng suggest that information about female architects is (1920), Elissa Aalto (1922), Urmila Eulie Chowdhury necessarily information about male architects, as (1923), Blanche Lemco (1923), Alison Smithson one study implies the other. (1923) or Raili Pietilä (1926) among others.

67 and physical environment?; So, Is it Call into question involves, as well as possible to talk about another way of contributing to the visibility of women doing architecture?; Is it possible to say architects in history, build a broader, that the invisibility of women arises from inclusive and overcomes vision of a the inability to have or create their own paradigm so far hegemonic. space of action?, put it another way, made us invisible integrate a community that until then was exclusively male?.

68 The Women of the Goed Wonen Foundation

Ilja S. Meijer

and 1960 the Dutch population grew from 9,3 to 11,5 million) contributed to the

reality that families were still living in Just after WOII a foundation called Goed small unhealthy spaces. Large-scale Wonen (Better Living) was founded in the building campaigns marked the post-war Netherlands. Stichting Goed Wonen was reconstruction of the Netherlands.2 ‘born from the critique on the disorder The goal of Goed Wonen was to promote and lack of style of the old-finish furniture better living standards in as many layers of that was prevailing in the Dutch interiors the society as possible. They directed [sic]’ at the time.1 One of its initial and against ‘lack in style, scarcity of materials most important goals was to promote a and housing shortage [sic]’.3 An essay by better lifestyle through better designed Goed Wonen-founder and activist Arnold interiors. This research investigates some Bueno de Mesquita was called ‘The social of the leading women designers of Goed function of the interior architect after the Wonen. It’s a case study that tries to shine war [sic]’ (1945). Bueno de Mesquita a light on the process of writing design wanted designers to lead the ‘taste of the history and formulating design canons, in masses’ and pressed on the ‘social which selective inclusion and exclusion, demand’ of feeling at home in one’s own either conscious or unconscious, plays an house. important role. Keywords were lightness, airiness and spaciousness. The ideals of Goed Wonen were rooted in the pre-war movements of The Rise and Fall of Goed Wonen functionalism and modernism.4 Furniture needed to be functional, preferably The establishment of the Goed Wonen produced by machine, low in cost and with foundation on 11 November 1946 was a light and clear structure; interiors preceded by a century of civilization needed to be open, easy to clean and with efforts inside the home, making them a flexible lay-out. ‘The home needed to more hygienic, healthy and homely. In the radiate an optimistic and happy attitude of nineteenth century people were living in life [sic],’ as Van Moorsel explains. Key in small spaces with big families, without achieving this was the admittance of lots decent sewage facilities, which was a big of sunlight and air in the house.5 risk for public health. Because of WOII these problems intensified. Besides 2 infrastructure, around 87.000 homes were Ellinoor Bergvelt, et.al., “Goed Wonen: Een destroyed and more than 300.000 were Nederlandse Wooncultuur 1946-1968,” Wonen- TA/BK 4/5 (1979) 9, 2-3. damaged, creating big housing shortage. 3 Renny Ramakers, Tussen Kunstnijverheid en The so-called baby-boom (between 1946 Industriële Vormgeving: De Nederlandse Bond voor Industrie (Utrecht: Reflex, 1985), 84. 4 Moorsel, Contact, 53. 1 Wies van Moorsel, “Contact en Controle: Het 5 Noud de Vreeze, Goed Wonen: Geschiedenis van Vrouwbeeld van de Stichting Goed Wonen”(PhD een Keurmerk (Bussum: Thoth, 2015), 51; Moorsel, diss., University of Amsterdam, 1992), 53. Contact, 55.

69 Initially, the foundation was a During the 1960s, Goed Wonen lost its collaboration between designers, popularity: with increasing welfare people manufacturers, distributers and choose comfort and status over consumers. The designers were united in functionalism and durability. It also the GKf or Gebonden Kunsten Federatie became clear that to achieve better living (Related Arts Federation), which was conditions, Goed Wonen had to look already established in September 1945. beyond the inside of the home: their focus Willem Sandberg, director of the Stedelijk shifted towards architecture and the built Museum in Amsterdam, became the first environment. The end of the 1960s chairman.6 The manufacturers were coincides with the end of Goed Wonen, united in the pre-war Bond voor Kunst en which in 1968 changed its name to Industrie or BKI (Association for Arts in Stichting Wonen (Living Foundation) – Industry), in existence since 1924. From hence losing the pedagogic Goed the beginning they set out to produce well (Better).10 designed industrial products.7 Every group had a designated task: the consumer group’s goal was to educate and provide Output and Ongoing Influence information to the consumer; the designers obviously designed ‘good’ As a self-proclaimed educator, Goed furniture, which the manufacturers would Wonen produced a very concrete and produce in series and low in costs; and versatile output. Firstly, they opened a finally the distributors, who would present showroom with non-commercial and all the approved objects in their window advisory purposes in 1948. It was run by displays.8 The networking circles of Goed Jos (Josine) Wibaut and Bé Niegeman- Wonen also included many likeminded Brand until 1957. The showroom provided organisations, such as the Nederlandse information on specific products and Huishoudraad (Dutch Housekeeping furniture, organized small exhibitions and board), architect-associations, housing hosted lectures. Most importantly, it was cooperatives and many women possible to get personal interior advice for organisations, such as local advise a small fee. The goal was not to tell people committees.9 exactly what to do, but to use scale After a couple of years, conflicts arose models and teach people to come up with between the sociocultural interests of the their own solutions. On average, the Consumer's Foundation and the economic showroom had 20.000 visitors a year, with benefits of the manufacturers and an absolute high in 1961 with 60.000 distributors. This lead to the visitors. In 1962 Goed Wonen moved from dismantlement of the four-pillar Rokin 56 to the Leidsetraat 5 in federation in 1954. From that moment on, Amsterdam. Five years later, a second Goed Wonen was led by the successful showroom was opened at the Lijnbaan in Consumer’s Foundation; the GKf and Rotterdam and in 1968 a third one in distributor’s group remained active on the Heerlen.11 side-lines, while the BKI ceased to exist. The Institute for Arts and Crafts (IvKNO) in Amsterdam, later known as the Rietveld Academy, was closely connected to Goed

6 Ramakers, Kunstnijverheid, 81. 7 Ramakers, Kunstnijverheid, 124. 10 Vreeze, Keurmerk, 51-52; Bergveldt, 8 Moorsel, Contact, 54. “Wooncultuur”, 2, 8. 9 Vreeze, Keurmerk, 50. 11 Bergveldt, “Wooncultuur”, 34-35.

70 Wonen. Director Mart Stam and teacher special selection committee. On behalf of Johan Niegeman educated the new the distributors a couple of product generation of interior designers in the catalogues were published. Most of the light of the Bauhaus, where they both had time, however, furniture that matched the been teachers. On Saturday, Niegeman aesthetic, constructive and social often let his students work in the standards of Goed Wonen was featured in showroom of Goed Wonen.12 The the magazine.16 academy in The Hague, under supervision Other popular channels of communication Cor Alons, also trained some proper were the lectures and courses that were modernist designers, such as Goed organized throughout the whole country Wonen-frontman Wim den Boon. 13 at housewife-societies, schools and art The magazine ‘Goed Wonen’ was the best academies. In particular Cora Nicolaï- way to reach out to the consumer on a Chaillet and Huyb de Wijs were active large scale, although it never had more lecturers. In 1962 Charles Huguenot van than 7300 members. The first issue der Linden made a small educational appeared in February 1948. It featured movie – in color – called ‘Mens en Ruimte’ different sorts of articles on design, (Human and Space), which was shown in aesthetics, family life, subsidized housing, the showrooms and during lectures. decorating advice and much more. The Goed Wonen foundation functioned Illustrative of their pedagogic goals were as a much-needed platform for architects the photos in which a ‘right’ and a ‘wrong’ and designers after WOII and has been interior were shown next to each other, crucial in the formation of interior design with a big cross across the latter.14 as a professional field in the Full-page illustrated articles were Netherlands.17 Nonetheless, they only dedicated to the model houses that were reached a limited audience during their furnished between 1948 and 1969. They active years. Many people still preferred were part of subsidized housing projects, fake antique and old finish furniture or which perfectly showed the possibilities of just couldn’t afford the modern objects, a modern interior in a limited space. Each which were still quite costly despite the model interior was designed with a fictive efforts of the designers and family and budget – representative of the manufacturers. future neighbours – in mind.15 The rubrics with individual interior advises were featured in a comparable manner: the Where Are the Women? composition of the family, including their profession, study and interests, was The Goed Wonen foundation has been explicitly described before any reference formative for the Dutch design climate in to the rooms and décor was made. the second part of the twentieth century. Successful – although short-lived – was Many of its contributors have secured a the use of the Goed Wonen-quality label, permanent place in Dutch design history. given to objects that were approved by a Unfortunately, this almost solely includes male designers and architects. To restore part of this wrongly gendered bias, this 12 Gert Staal and Hester Wolters, Holland in Vorm: research investigates some of the leading Dutch Design 1945-1987 (The Hague: Stichting Holland in Vorm, 1987), 141. female designers and architects that were 13 Moorsel, Contact, 56. 14 Bergveldt, “Wooncultuur”, 32. 16 Bergveldt, “Wooncultuur”, 14. 15 Bergveldt, “Wooncultuur”, 37. 17 Bergveldt, “Wooncultuur”, 18.

71 active in Goed Wonen. Who were these narrative: it’s shaped by the process of women? How are they represented? And discourse, which is an intersubjective what can be said about their place in phenomenon that produces and Dutch design history? naturalises a reality or truth that becomes This case study tries to shine a light on the generally acknowledged in a specific process of writing design history and discipline.19 formulating a master narrative of Dutch Most important actors in this process are design, in which the politics of inclusion the academic world and museums: and exclusion are an important factor. In scholars and curators are purposeful the comprehensive review, primary and individuals that shape the meaning and secondary literature as well as a few significance of individual objects on the general surveys that cover the subject of basis of their own sets of ideas, attitudes Goed Wonen will be discussed. Besides and beliefs. By means of discussions, providing a small description of the publications, exhibitions and other output different publications, it will be pointed they have the power over what is included out which female designers are featured and excluded from the historical narrative. in every source. After this, the lives and This is called cultural politics, for it ‘implies careers of the most prominent women will the possibilities of agency.’20 be described biographically. Accordingly, I Eileen Cooper-Greenhill writes about the will elaborate on their positions within creation of meaning of objects – and thus Dutch design history and hopefully clarify their significance – as a part of the that situation as a conclusion to this museum narrative in her book ‘Museums research. and the Interpretation of Visual Culture’ (2000). She writes that museums are ‘one of the West’s signifying systems that have The creation of a narrative been used to construct dominant canons.’21 She also makes an obvious but ‘In the most general term, to narrate is to important statement, writing that ‘[o]ne tell a story,’ as Peter Lamarque sets out his critical element in the construction of article on fictional narration. Although meaning in museums is the presence or design history is more a factual than absence of particular objects’.22 For fictional narrative, it’s true that ‘any kind example, the omittance of female involves the recounting and reshaping of designers in the display of post-war Dutch events.’18 design, signifies that there were no A history of design tells the story of important women to be included in this frontrunners, iconic objects and part of the historical narrative, which is a extraordinary accomplishments; it wrong assumption. feminist critique has recounts people, artefacts and events that already exposed this ‘primacy of the male’ have contributed to the evolution of in such master narratives of the arts.23 design at a particular time and place. This story will be written down in history books. But it’s not a given or fixed 19 David Macey, A Dictionary of Critical Theory (London: Penguin, 2001), 100-101. 20 Eilean Cooper-Greenhill, Museums and the 18 Peter Lamarque, “‘Narrative and Invention: The Interpretation of Visual Culture (London/New York: Limits of Fictionality,’ in Cristopher Nash (ed.), Routledge, 2000), 19. Narrative in Culture: The Uses of Storytelling in the 21 Cooper-Greenhill, Museums, 140. Sciences, Philosophy and Literature (London/New 22 Cooper-Greenhill, Museums, 3. York: Routledge, 1990), 131. 23 Cooper-Greenhill, Museums, 140.

72 Other than constructing, museum are also in this period.26 Although her work confirming the dominant discourse, predates the period of Goed Wonen, it is according to the words of art historian an inspiring work that is in desperate need Hans Belting. He states that a museum of a successor of the period after 1940. ‘collects and displays only art that had Another excellent but now unusable already gone down in art history.’24 This research, is the PhD-thesis of Wies van equally counts for design history. The Moorsel on the image of women that continuous interplay between the master permeates through the pages of the narrative and the museum and academic magazine Goed Wonen and other media. literature – which have similar roles in Although it was a very modern creating narratives – remains diffuse, foundation, she sets out that Goed without a clear beginning nor definite end Wonen’s ideology of a family and the of the construction process. Besides that, woman’s role was rather old-fashioned.27 there are many uncontrollable factors that This review is about ‘finding women influence the amount of attention the designers’ rather than critically describing ‘curators and scholars’ a movement, the relevant publications. The most useful organisation or individual designer source for this research is, of course, the receives. Some simple things can make magazine ‘Goed Wonen’ itself. Quite a lot acquiring information much more difficult, of women were active as editor, writer or like the availability and accessibility of photographer. One of the prominent archives, ego documents and the figures in the editorial board is Bé existence of actual work/objects.25 Niegeman-Brand, who participates from Despite the impalpable process of the beginning in 1948 until August 1960. discourse and the nature of a master More important are the women who are narrative, I believe it’s possible to the subject of the articles, especially the understand some of its workings by features on interior advice and decorate analysing the stories that have been model houses, because they include clear written down – or shown in museums – comments, photographs and floor maps. over the course of years. The most recurring names are Bé Niegeman-Brandt, Cora Nicolaï-Chaillet, Lida Licht-Lankelma, Anne Margreet Six- Written Histories van Krimpen, Elsbeth van Blerkom and Ineke Boks (who often worked together), An exemplary book on the subject of and in a lesser degree Grete Neter-Kaeler, Dutch female designers, is the Jo Elffers, Titia Kuipers and Dora Mees. comprehensive publication ‘Vrouwen in Most of the designers also wrote articles. de vormgeving 1880-1940’ (Women in Browsing through the product catalogues design) by Marjan Groot (2007). Besides and the catalogue-pages of the magazine, providing an extensive sociocultural there are surprisingly little women to be context, Groot highlights the pioneers as found. In the catalogue of 1964 Lisa well as the lesser known female designers Johansson-Pape, a Finnish designer best known for her lamps, is the only one.28 Jo

24 Hans Belting, Art History after Modernism 26 Groot, Vrouwen, 15-27. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 8. 27 Moorsel, Contact, 106-116. 25 Marjan Groot, Vrouwen in de Vormgeving in 28 Catalogus: Meubelen en Lampen catalogus van Nederland 1880-1940 (Rotterdam: 010, 2007), 15- de Distribuantenvereniging Goed Wonen 27. (Rotterdam: W.L. & J. Brusse, 1964), 97-99.

73 Elffers, Grete Neter-Kaeler, Bé Niegeman- design, discusses the theoretical work of Brand, Emmy Andriesse, Lida Licht- Cora Nicolaï-Chaillet elaborately. Lankelma, Ans Bago and Lucie Bakker are The book written by Mienke Simon about the only female Dutch designers Thomas is one of the few surveys that mentioned in the catalogue-pages of the gives an broad historical overview of magazine. Although not every interior Dutch design. But the omnipresent designer is also a furniture designer, this is problem with big surveys is that there is a disappointing finding. very little room for details and in-depth In the fourth issue in 1955 a list is stories. In Dutch Design – A History’ (2008) published in ‘Goed Wonen’ with all the is remarked that Bé Brand and Cora members of the GKf. From a total of 51 Nicolaï-Chaillet were both pupils of Johan names, 11 are women. In the ensuing Niegeman at the IvKNO; that Brand magazine feature, however, the work of married Johan Niegeman; and that five female GKf-members is highlighted in Niegeman-Brand managed the showroom a total of about ten selected designers. It of Goed Wonen together with Constance illustrates that what women designers lack Wibaut, what should have been Jos in numbers, they make up for in quality. 29 (Josine) Wibaut.31 In another big survey on An interesting piece of secondary Dutch design, called ‘Holland in Vorm’ literature, is the publication ‘Intra Muros’ (1987), Niegeman-Brand, Nicolaï-Chaillet (1992) about twelve Dutch female interior and Dora Mees are again cited as students designers. It accompanied a small of Johan Niegeman. A paragraph later, exhibition in Amsterdam reflecting on the Niegeman-Brand is also noted as a board professional contribution of women member of the foundation.32 designers on the growing discipline of The newest book on Goed Wonen was interior design during the twentieth published in 2015 and is a popularly century.30 From the period between 1946 written history that, at the end, states that and 1968 they choose to elaborate on the where Goed Wonen failed in achieving a lives and careers of Cora Nicolaï-Chaillet, better living standard for everyone, the Lida Licht-Lankelma, Bé Niegeman-Brand global firm of Ikea has succeeded in this and Elsbeth Bout-van Blerkom. It’s goal. Still, it’s valuable to note that specifically stated that the first three Niegeman-Brand is mentioned specifically names were connected to Goed Wonen, as a furniture designer, just as Dora Mees, while Bout-van Blerkom preferred to work who is praised for her children’s furniture. on a smaller scale. Interior designer Nicolaï-Chaillet is noted A small survey called for her lectures at the art academies.33 ‘Binnenhuisarchitektuur in Nederland 1900-1981’, which gives a description of the institutional movements and Biographies important figures in the field of interior As other publicists have acknowledged, 29 “Afbeeldingen en Plattegronden van Werk van monographic and biographic research G.K.f.-binnenhuisarchitecten,” Goed Wonen 8 remains important to be able to nuance (1955) 4, 57-65; Most information in this and deepen further research and come to paragraph comes from my overarching analysis of all volumes of Goed Wonen magazine from 1948 to 1968/1970. 31 Mienke Simon Thomas, Dutch Design: A History 30 Nio Hermes, Intra Muros: Twaalf Nederlandse (London: Reaktion, 2008), 118 and 122. Interieurarchitectes van deze Eeuw (Amsterdam: 32 Staal, Vorm, 141. Furie, 1992), 9-11. 33 Vreeze, Keurmerk, 52, 59.

74 critical analysis.34 The women discussed and studied Psychology for a little while. In below are the most prominent designers, 1938 Nicolaï-Chaillet joined the London based on the literary research. Some of School of Interior Design, but when the them already have their biography war broke out she was forced to quit. published, some of them have not: Instead, she graduated on Interior Design nonetheless, they are all introduced in an at the IvKNO and proceeded with a part- equal way. time education in the field of engineering The first one is Bé Niegeman-Brand (1921- (VHBO) in Amsterdam. After the war she ?). As a child she suffers from prolonged met her future husband Arno Nicolaï at illness. In better health, she starts the the architectural agency where they both gymnasium (Latin School) in 1933 after worked. Arno got to work for Cora’s which she proceeds to the Interior Design father, who was now the director of the course at the IvKNO. Her career as interior Dutch Oil Company (NAM). She started designer starts in 1946 at a new housing working as interior designer with a variety project in Hengelo, where she gives of commissions and clients. Sometimes interior advice from an emergency store. she worked together with her husband for Niegeman-Brand becomes one of the the NAM. Nicolaï-Chaillet provided founders of the Consumer’s Foundation lectures on high schools, engineering and stays involved with Goed Wonen for academies and other educational centres. years to come. From 1948 until August Her expertise interior design and the 1960 she’s part of the editorial board of home was particularly appreciated by the the magazine; in roughly the same period Bond van Plattelandsvrouwen (Union of she manages the showroom together with Women of the Countryside). At Goed Jos Wibaut. Some years later she become Wonen, she was an educator and featured board member of the foundation. She also regularly in the magazine with model gives interior advice, writes articles, houses, interior advice and in-depth illustrates, decorates model houses, writes articles. She also wrote articles for a wide the booklet ‘Wonen in de Lage Landen’ variety of other magazines. In 1960 she (1958), takes seat in panels and became a member of the GKf, where she committees and works on private later became chairwoman and board commissions. Exceptional is her member for several years.36 In 1955 commission on the design of the first post- Nicolaï-Chaillet wrote a book called ‘Woon war built hospital (1951). This is a small Prettig en Practisch’ (Live Pleasant and breakthrough for her career as a self- Practical) which included guidelines and employed interior designer. A well-known her almost spiritual theories about human furniture design of Niegeman-Brand is her scale inside and outside the home. It was a kinderblokstoeltje (children’s’ cube chair, big success and was reprinted a year 1949). She marries her former teacher later.37 Johan Niegeman.35 Lida Licht-Lankelma (1920-?) was born in Cora Nicolaï-Chaillet (1919-1975) was Purmerend. After three years of HBS born in Borneo and lived as a child in (higher education) she quit in 1935 and Venezuela and Romania, because her switched to the IvKNO in Amsterdam. father worked for BPM (now BP). In 1932 she moved to The Hague, were she 36 Wies van Moorsel, Cora Nicolaï-Chaillet: completed the gymnasium (Latin School) Interieurarchitecte en Woonpedagoge 1919-1975 (Rotterdam: Stichting Bonas, 2004), 7-48. 34 Groot, Vrouwen, 22-23. 37 Cora Nicolaï-Chaillet, Woon Prettig en Practisch 35 Hermes, Intra, 48-53. (Assen/Amsterdam: Born, 1956).

75 Licht-Lankelma wanted to become a design initiative.40 From 1948, Mees is a painter, but joined the course of Interior self-employed interior designer located in Design pressured by her father. In 1941, Amsterdam. Two years later she sets up during WOII, she graduated. In 1944 she the foundation Mens en Huis with Den met her husband Gerrit Licht, who was Boom and J.W. Jansen. In 1953 she active in the resistance and went into marries engineer W.J.G. Mees. In the hiding at her parents’ house. Between same year she’s invited by Olivetti – 1948 and 1974 Lida and Gerrit, who was a manufacturer of typewriters – to help furniture maker, managed their own store design a small village for the staff of the for furniture and interior design called Het factories in northern Italy. A small Woonbaken (Beacon of Living). It was a newspaper article notes that ‘this unique store at the time with modern invitation by Olivetti is an important furniture, textiles, carpets, crockery and moment in her early career[sic]’. In her more. Lida gave interior advice to the earliest years she likely worked at the customers and got in touch with Goed agency of Gerrit Rietveld. 41 Wonen in the late 1950s. For Goed Elsbeth Bout-Van Blerkom, Ineke Deenik- Wonen, she furnished many model houses Boks, Anne Margreet Six-van Krimpen, and joined selection committee of the Grete Neter-Kaeler and Jo Elffers are a few Goed Wonen-label. She was a successful of the other names that repeatedly came designer and got grand commissions like a up during the research. All these women nursing home, doctor’s residences, have interesting stories and careers that bookstore, music store and school for are worth being retold and reshaped into toddlers. Licht-Lankelma drew in every pieces of history. interior design a special place for the sowing machine – as a personal touch – claiming a private spot for women in their What is their position in the Dutch design own houses.38 After 1974 she moved to history? the island Texel, stopped working as interior designer, started painting and Going through all the issues of ‘Goed went camping in Scandinavia a lot. During Wonen’, it’s clear that the field of design an interview published in a local historical and interior architecture was still newspaper, the 92-year old Licht- dominated by men at the time. The Lankelma told the interviewer that her designs or articles of well-known Dutch apartment was still filled with her own designers like Willem Hendrik Gispen, designs and paintings.39 Willem Penaat, Coen de Vries, Paul Dora Mees (data unknown) was a pupil of Bromberg, Gerrit and Wim Rietveld, Cees Cor Alons at The Hague Art Academy, but Braakman and others adorned many completed her training together with Wim pages; foreign names like Le Corbusier, den Boon, Hein Stolle, Pierre Kleykamp Frank Lloyd Wright and Alvar Aalto were and Coen de Vries on an exchange treated like deities. But women claimed programme at the IvKNO in Amsterdam. their rightful spot too. In every editorial Part of this group founded the Groep& board one to three (out of four to eight) women were present and many of the articles were written by them as well. 38 Tim Peeters, “De Vrouw in de Bouw,” Pantheon 9 (2006) 3, 38. 39 Ruud Luiks, “Ik Leerde het Vak van de Beroemde 40 Staal, Vorm, 143. Mart Stam,” Historisch Purmerend 36 (2012), 44- 41 “Architecte Vliegt Uit,” Telegraaf, January 24, 48. 1953, 2.

76 More importantly, as already discussed, proved to be good writers and even were all the female designers that claimed theorists. their rightful place in the foundation, its Compared to some male designers that activities and in the magazine. This is were very active in the Goed Wonen illustrative for the presence of women in Foundation, these women accomplished the entire field of interior design in the just as much or even more in their Netherlands at the time – professionally or professional careers. Still, men like Willem not. Penaat, Hein Salomonson, Coen de Vries, ‘There were female architects in those Alfred Bueno de Mesquita, Johan years, but not many,’ Lida Licht-Lankelma Niegeman, Wim den Boon and Paul tells in an interview. ‘I didn’t had any Bromberg are given more credit in general troubles, being a woman. But I did buy publications on Goed Wonen and in myself a pair of thick black glasses once, historical surveys. They can also count on just to look stricter [sic].’42 Even before more individual attention in printed WOII a couple of women had already monographs or, for example, online settled themselves as independent publications. Therefore, I presumed that designers and architects. Margaret Staal- these men would also more present in Kropholler is named the first female Dutch museum collections, which is an important architect; Truus Schröder-Schräder step in establishing a dominant canon. But cooperated with the architect Gerrit with the exception of Willem Penaat – of Rietveld and had a very outspoken few on whom a total of 26 pieces of furniture is living spaces, although she’s best known scattered between the Stedelijk Museum as the commissioner of the Rietveld- and Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, the Schröderhuis in Utrecht; and Ida Gemeentemuseum in The Hague and the Falkenberg-Liefrinck, who had a very solid Centraal Museum in Utrecht – almost no education, worked for the architect J.J.P. objects of these male designers can be Oud on the Weissenhofsieflung in found in museum collections.44 Stuttgart (1927), and for the well-known That male as well as female interior store Metz&Co in Amsterdam.43 The last designers are difficult to trace in museum, two had much in common with Goed is probably because museum rely on Wonen in style and ideology, while Staal- material and preferably visually incentive Kropholler had success in de style van de objects to convey the reality. ‘Seeing the Amsterdam School and Arts and Crafts. concreteness in objects enabled abstract Also Lotte Stam-Beesse and one ideas to be sustained’.45 Not all interior mysterious engineer W.C.M. Jansen were designers also designed furniture, and if frontrunners in the architectural world in they did, it probably wasn’t on a large the Netherlands. scale or with a clear personal brand or Like these pioneers, the women of Goed label. So even if someone like Lida Licht- Wonen were also full-fledged interior Lankelma fabricated her own designs designers and architects. They have together with her husband, and even if impressive lists of works, ranging from they survived the ravages of time, it would advising, to the decorating of small probably not be identifiable as her work. homes, to the remodelling of public Interiors are not durable works of art; buildings. Besides that, Niegeman-Brand, what is left are drawings, photographs, Licht-Lankelma and mostly Nicolaï-Chaillet 44 Noted that some of the online catalogues are 42 Luiks, Leerde, 48. more complete than others. 43 Hermes, Intra, 13-29. 45 Cooper-Greenhill, Museums, 103.

77 descriptions and maybe a scale model. But in quality and sometimes even in Most of the archives of Dutch designers quantity, they weren’t subsidiary to men and architects are located in the New at all. But that doesn’t really matter, Institute in Rotterdam. The Bonas because the life stories and careers of foundation creates small biographies these women – and many more women – online or in written form, just like the are just too plain interesting to not be told monograph of Cora Nicolaï-Chaillet. and remembered. It’s all about politics, Still, the question arises why the women and we have the agency to write design of Goed Wonen are relatively neglected in history. secondary literature and design surveys? A History is about recounting and reshaping couple of explanations is already provided stories. by Marjan Groot in relation to the women designers in the period 1880-1940. She writes that many women were only active for a short period of time, produced less work in comparison to men, they were badly documented by others, there are no ego documents like diaries and letters and their work just didn’t survive the ravages of time because of vulnerable materials.46 This is also applicable to the period after WOII, when women were still expected to raise a family and care for the house. Many designers worked part-time. What is striking, is the apparent influence of the husband and his profession of architect or designer. Several cases show how women started working at the agency of their husband, working on projects collaborative as well as solo. Bé Brand marries teacher and designer Johan Niegeman, Cora Chaillet marries architect Arno Nicolaï, Lida Lankelma marries furniture maker Gerrit Licht and Dora Mees marries engineer Wouter Mees. Half a century ago, it must also have really made a difference that their husband shared their interests and supported them in their professional careers, because it wasn’t self-evident that women pursued a career at all. It’s not a competition on who should become part of history and who shouldn’t. The women of Goed Wonen were in some ways less noticeable than the male designers, due to their positions in society.

46 Groot, Vrouwen, 23.

78 Bibliography Macey, David. A Dictionary of Critical “Afbeeldingen en Plattegronden van Werk Theory. London: Penguin, 2001. van G.K.f.-binnenhuisarchitecten,” Goed Wonen 8 (1955) 4, 57-65. Moorsel, Wies van. “Contact en Controle: Het Vrouwbeeld van de Stichting Goed “Architecte Vliegt Uit,” Telegraaf, January Wonen.” PhD diss., University of 24, 1953, 2. Amsterdam, 1992.

Belting, Hans. Art History after Moorsel, Wies van. Cora Nicolaï-Chaillet: Modernism. Chicago: University of Chicago Interieurarchitecte en Woonpedagoge Press, 2003. 1919-1975. Rotterdam: Stichting Bonas, 2004. Catalogus: Meubelen en Lampen catalogus van de Distribuantenvereniging Peeters, Tim. “De Vrouw in de Bouw,” Goed Wonen. Rotterdam: W.L. & J. Brusse, Pantheon 9 (2006) 3, 38-40. 1964. Nicolaï-Chaillet, Cora. Woon Prettig en Cooper-Greenhill, Eilean. Museums and Practisch. Assen/Amsterdam: Born, 1956. the Interpretation of Visual Culture. London/New York: Routledge, 2000. Ramakers, Renny. Tussen Kunstnijverheid Fuhring, Peter, and Eggink, Rudolphine. en Industriële Vormgeving: De Binnenhuisarchitektuur in Nederland 1900- Nederlandse Bond voor Industrie. Utrecht: 1981. The Hague: Ulysses, 1981. Reflex, 1985.

Groot, Marjan. Vrouwen in de Vormgeving Simon Thomas, Mienke. Dutch Design: A in Nederland 1880-1940. Rotterdam: 010, History. London: Reaktion, 2008. 2007. Staal, Gert, and Wolters, Hester. Holland Hermes, Nio. Intra Muros: Twaalf in Vorm: Dutch Design 1945-1987. Nederlandse Interieurarchitectes van deze Eeuw. Amsterdam: Furie, 1992. The Hague: Stichting Holland in Vorm, 1987. Lamarque, Peter. “Narrative and Vreeze, Noud de. Goed Wonen: Invention: The Limits of Fictionality,” in: Geschiedenis van een Keurmerk. Bussum: Narrative in Culture: The Uses of Thoth, 2015. Storytelling in the Sciences, Philosophy and Literature, edited by Cristopher Nash, 131- Bergveldt, Elinoor, Martens H, and 153. Vreeburg G. “Goed Wonen: Een Nederlandse Wooncultuur 1946-1968,” London/New York: Routledge, 1990. Wonen-TA/BK 4/5 (1979) 9.

Luiks, Ruud. “Ik Leerde het Vak van de Beroemde Mart Stam,” Historisch Purmerend 36 (2012): 44-48.

AMS: the work of Alison Margaret Smithson (1928/1993)

Alessandra Como, Luisa Smeragliuolo

Introduction of Peter; they were a perfectly complementary team>. Moreover, their Alison Smithson’s work is known as work extends in the common family life, intrinsically linked to that of her husband involving the personal spaces, the houses, and work partner Peter Smithson with their children who have an important role whom she worked at their studio, founded in the photographs that show their in 1950 in London. Alison Margaret Gill architecture. For the Smithsons, in fact, (1928-1993) and Peter Smithson (1923- architecture is actual and real, and the 2003) were pioneers in architecture ideas lived moments and activities in the spaces and experimentations during the post-war reveal its meaning. period, becoming soon influential through If it is clear that the Smithsons were an their design projects and theoretical entity, yet there are specific and individual writings in the architecture scene within contributions. As Peter himself explained and beyond UK, in particularly with strong when he was asked about the connections with Holland and Italy, here collaboration with Alison2: . each other and building a discourse This paper aims to focus on the specificity through the single voices. De Carlo wrote of Alison contribution looking at her in his obituary article about the individual work, developed with her own indivisibility of the couple:

80 strong and essential part of her role. As modernity, through the observation from Peter said: . The paper goes through the most travel by car? How the car changes the important texts, constructing a trace of city and the landscape? thought within the variety of the topics on which Alison dealt with. Alison’s authorship production as writer, editor 1. Alison’s Modernity and critic consists in reporting the Team Group 10 activities – in books, articles, . With these words A. S. Architectural Design and The opens the article The legacy of the Modern Architecturale's Journal. Over the years Movement: some threads published in the the topics Alison covered in her articles magazine Spazio e Società in 1982. In this are many. Alison writes about architecture paper Alison reflects on the legacy of the crossing it in a transversal way in time; she Modern architecture of the '30s. Weaving writes about ancient culture, historic and her thoughts to the words of Peter – who modern architecture, the contemporary is frequently mentioned in quotation city, and about urban and landscape marks – she discusses the main issues. Those reflections are brought back architectural, urban and more broadly into the design project work developed cultural transformations of the period. within the studio with Peter. The ancient As she wrote later on the paper, the main and modern architecture are great topics are discussed in the text written references, as well as the ancient culture with Peter The Heroic Period of Modern in general. Alison often quotes myths, Architecture, the text to which they had legends and tales. Central in her interest worked on for twenty years and published are the masters of modern architecture it in 1981. In the metaphor of the needle and she writes on the role they assumed which continuosly weaves a canvas, for the education and development of the moving and coming back, there is all the new generation of designers to which feeling of the new generation of architects Peter and Alison belong. The topic of towards their predecessors. It is a bond Modernity and its legacy – faced with which in Alison's words takes on the Peter in the text The Heroic Period of power of the myth, recognizing the role Modern Architecture (1981) - is for Alison and precluding the right to . The Spirit of yet it remains an enigma complex to be Hope – as defined by the same author - fully deciphered. In the article The legacy who had invested the architecture after of the Modern Movement: some threads the First World War is not Modern era left in order to find its sense something that you can recreate. . Yet

81 cycle>, it is not like fashion, it doesn’t which we see hope, in England particulary, easily end without leaving a trace. If it is for people taking back from administrators impossible to repeat that Heroic Spirit of the responsability for the quality of the early Modern architecture, Alison places>. retraces its steps to look for its traces – Therefore in Alison's words the Christmas reconstructing the myth – till the finding myth is intertwined with architecture of the thread from which return to weave threads, with reflections on Modernity the canvas. and on the city. Christmas celebrates the Using the metaphor of the Christmas renewal and its myth is kept alive tradition and observing its transformation, regenerating itself through the individual Alison refers to Modern Architecture contribution. clarifying the signs of its legacy from As fragments of a single reflection to where it is necessary to start again mend, Alison then returns to the legacy of [ripartire]. the early Modernism: . needs to know about to do with the fabric During those years the technology and the of cities: but for what life style is this engineering had opened the doors of a renewal to be for?>. new and unknown universe. The new The Christmas festivity becomes in Alison's building potentialities and the new words the image of the change: the construction materials had brought the change that brought the Modern birth of a new spirit in architecture. The Movement's Spirit of Hope in its early new transport means had changed the years and yet the change that invites to dimension of the world, making the look at the city with a spirit of renovation. distances small, creating a new collective Through the power of images the myth of imaginary - which Alison recalls in her the Christmas celebration is renewed – paper quoting fragments of texts and with Santa Claus, the stocking, the white stories - related to transportation and to roofs, the reindeers and the chimneys; its sites. Landscapes and cities were similarly the two British architects – writes getting ready to change and to adapt to Alison - chose for their text on the Heroic the Modernity and the new transportation Period of Architecture, images that could means. The face of the city and the be influential. . And as in the tram or by car, or viewing the city from a United States the Christmas has built his plane has become today habitual for the legend renewing itself through the city and for its inhabitants, what is left of contribution of the traditions of the Modernity? people who migrated bringing with them According to Alison this is certainly their local culture baggage, in the same something that is not in the architectural way Alison hopes for a new idea of the city books - especially those of the time – in from the individual contribution.

82 cities we are on thin ground for the bulk of 2. Alison’s narration our inheritance of the Heroic Period is in individual buildings>. The strongest reference to the newfound With the Modernity the city has changed sensitivity, consequence of Modernity, is but the effects of its transformation were Alison’s book AS in DS: an eye on the road. soon assimilated without leaving the time Here she writes: . The text is a the contribution of the 1930's ...whose diary recording her travels from London to import was that the new technology had Wiltshire driving a Citroën DS. Here she been absorbed and was practiced in a observes the change of sensitivity in the quiet, unobvious manner. [...] The change perception of space. What does it mean between the 'twenties and the 'thirties travelling by car, going along the roads was one of sensibility, because in that connecting cities, with the rain or the time, the presence of machines became shine, during day or night, crossing the normal>. landscape which links distant places? The Alison shows the change of the «subtle» journey becomes a search of the car's sensitivity through four different phases meaning and role in the perception of the that range from the emphasis of the city and of the landscape. The narrative novelty, to the celebration of the begins with the awareness of the new kind machine's myth, until its total acceptance of freedom offered by the car. . The legacy of the the benefits of 'nature' …these we should Heroic Period is therefore a new begin to envisage as we look out while sensitivity which reflects the changing of moving past everything in our own- the way of crossing through and living in climate-cell>. the city thanks to the new transportation The car, the , as defined means. . In her travelogue Alison alternates short writings, broken phrases, with sketches, fragments of maps, single and sequence of photos as a movie clip. From the detailed

83 description of what she sees along the describes an unusual landscape where path she then describes the perceptions . Also day and night contribute to a geography, but also the effects of the new interpretation changing the meeting with other cars, other people and perception of the things: . sounds, noises, smells, the play of light of In the experience of the route and in the the car headlights, the road illuminated by observation of the outside world from her the sun or the moon, the water and the car Alison measures the sensitivity and the rain that read the landscape in different understanding of things also in relation to ways: . sensation of movement becomes an Physical and natural elements are oblique side-slip, a gravity-freed, trajectile intertwined in the description of the sort of movement, as seen in some feelings that arise from the movement in sequences of moon-Iandings>. the car. The car follows the topography of The tracking of the sensations linked to the land forming a single compact element the movement, which Alison describes with it, together with the landscape with within her text, is the recording of the its natural elements which follows the change in the sensitivity inherited from rhythm of the car's route. . The road, with its forms, changes the 3. Alison on habitation perception of things that are around. The long streets expand the time, the winding Alison dedicates many writings on the streets like snakes move the horizon line. topic of habitation. Her specific The landscape closes and opens, shrinking contribution involves a personal and the view and the understanding of things experiential realm, which shifts the changes along with the car’s movement. attention toward the investigation of the The journey's account records the change meaning of dwelling. of the seasons through the change of the In the text Beatrix Potter’s Places3, Alison nature's colours. identifies a connection track between the The landscape is animated also with houses designed by Beatrix Potter in the something that is not visible; the perception turns on the imagination and 3 Alison Smithson, Beatrix Potter’s Places, in the real is intertwined with the unreal Architectural Design, vol. 37, December 1967, through associations of images. Alison p.573, and Wiederhall architectural serial, 19, 1996, p.8-9.

84 famous children's book, a classic in Alison’s article on Beatrix Potter’s places is England, and the architects’ imaginary. therefore a clarification of the approach . physical and perceptual experience the Proximity is pushed to the point of finding real meaning of architecture: . Also in other drawings by Beatrix Potter and modern articles and texts Alison develops this architecture is the centrality which issue. The lecture Signs of Occupancy4 is acquires the space observed in the real explicitly and primarily the description of and lived life, as well as the attention to the approach to the place in the the objects and the everyday: . Alison highlights that those who are well as being dominant is the one that the user requirements, the so called needs mainly focuses on the topic. - a central issue for the architecture of the The selected images besides presenting Modern - can rise to poetic fact, as in the their design projects show their life scenes of Beatrix Potter. Alison shows that moments, in particular through scenes of in the drawings by Beatrix Potter the the play of their children, which the utensils are drawn with accuracy, the architects observe and portray to hook, the handle, and so on are observed understand the meaning of architecture. in the foreground and arranged in central The topic becomes here the poetic places of the interior spaces; those that relationship between space and body; are secondary objects of sporadic use are some projects – the Economist Building as on the contrary housed in cubicles, a way the Robin Hood Gardens - are commented that resembles the modern architecture though images which catch precise container-spaces. . this picture was taken, appears empty; yet In the text this sensitivity is attributed to a it is, by reflection of the sunlight off the common line of thought which involes windows, already occupied by the certain artists, poets and architects, presence of the buildings themselves. It among which she cites Whistler, was our intention that the plaza would Wordsworth, Norman Shaw. To them is become decorated in this way, decorated also associated the name of Lutyens, in by the weather, the seasons, people using the article quoted through the story of a it, but also, hopefully, that things would moment of life, a note from a diary happen on the plaza>. The space among describing the drinking of hot elderberry wine and the eating of almonds, next to 4 Unpublished lecture by SMITHSON, Alison and the fire place of Jertrude Jekyll cottage. Peter. Signs of Occupancy, 1979; British Library and PIDGEON DIGITAL.

85 the buildings is , and it becomes was the most natural thing in the world>, a plaza through the occupation of the showing as in the simplicity of the space, first through the traces of light on everyday, in absence of any redundancy, it the stone paving, and then through the is possible to grasp the meaning of Paolozzi sculptures; when because the space changes when the point of view and the relationship between things change. A Conclusions small repositioning can generate a new meaning. Several images follow the play of Alison’s texts – here selected and children: the way of occupying the site commented in an attempt to narrate and demonstrate aspects of her thought and of her and the experimentation in the moving individuality. It is not clear and easy to , so that the between Alison and Peter for each work, objects design the occupation of space. but certainly in these writings Alison has The topic is also interpreted as the leaving left some traces of important reflections. of traces, as in the case of fragments of Her inner world and her feelings are a wall paper in their bathroom at 46 creative reserve where she often takes Limerston St of Chelsea, placed , and in this more important thoughts. Her life and way the space changes, you have a experience are occasions of thought. In . All this is of a family life with children - such as the which Alison highlights as . It is also a reflections. The focus on the sensory sensitivity in finding the poeticism of a aspect of architecture, materiality, and the place and in particular moments, that city are a unique contribution that Alison - which it is shown as a although she was not the only creator - discovery, as in the image of a simple shelf cultivated in a personal way. Her photographed after the removing of reflections open up a world of experiences flower vases and . The image and the

86 The Makeable Landscape and Society: Representation, Gender, and the Male Architect as Post-War Hero in a Dutch Film Documentary

Marjan Groot

Introduction and was financed by the Dutch Ministry of Housing (Volkshuisvesting) and Building During the 2nd MoMoWo conference in (Bouwnijverheid). It combines several October 2016 in Ljubljana, Slovenia, we categories of documentaries: those which watched the documentary Een nieuw dorp are intended for institutional clients, op nieuw land (A new village on new land) interest groups within architecture, and directed in 1960 by Louis A. van Gasteren newsreel shots for promotion of after a scenario by Wim Povel. The aim of infrastructure and architecture.2 The our collective viewing was to discuss the director made other documentaries, also value of film and film documentaries for on housing, but this one was the first to the history of architecture, urbanism, gain him more recognition at the time for engineering, and design between 1945 its style and narrative composition of and 1969, the time period covered by the imagery .3 2nd MoMoWo conference. Historians in Idealising life in the new polder, these fields usually work with static visual the filmic style contributed to the primary sources such as maps, plans, and documentary’s fame and to the visual architectural drawings. The representation impact of the architecture. Its realist mode of architecture and its effect on and didactic tone fit into the first Dutch inhabitants is, however, significantly ‘documentary school’ after 1945, while mediated through photography and film the topic of exploration reminds us of the as well. optimism of modernist architects and The documentary in question designers after the First World War. Visual offers a good historical example. It style elements of the film are derived from narrates the strict planning and realisation the 1920s-1930s avant-garde as well. Its of the modernist post-war village of striking variety in camera positions offers Nagele (1958–1963) in the newly drained a powerful interplay of birds eye Noordoostpolder (Northeast Polder) in the perspective and the classical fine-art linear Netherlands. The village has become well perspective with a central vanishing point known in the history of Dutch architecture because it is the only one of ten new (Amersfoort: Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel villages in the area that shows the ideal Ergfoed, 2016). modernist planning and architecture on 2 Categories indicated by Andres Janser, ‘Only Film land between 3 to 4 metres below sea Can Make The New Architecture Intelligible!’, Hans level.1 The documentary lasts 30 minutes Richter’s Die neue Wohnung and the Early Documentary Film on Modern Architecture’, in François Penz, Maureen Thomas (eds.), Cinema & Architecture. Méliès, Mallet-Stevens, Multimedia 1 Zef Hemel, Vincent van Rossem, Nagele. Een (London: BFI publishing, 1997), 34−46, here 37. collectief ontwerp 1947–1957 (Amsterdam 1984); 3 Patricia Pisters, Filming for the Future. The Work recently also as regards the monument value of of Louis van Gasteren (Amsterdam: Amsterdam the village, Anita Blom, Peter Timmer, Willemijn University Press, 2016), Chapter 1 ‘Land, House Zwikstra, Nagele. Een moderne erfenis and City’, 21−36.

87 at the horizon suggesting eye-level; the and realisation of the village of Nagele and main visual feature of vast polder- its green plan. Among them were Jaap B. landscapes in themselves invites to such Bakema, Aldo van Eyck, Cor van Eesteren, filmic and photographic play with these F. van Gool, Ernest Groosman, Benjamin camera positions. In addition, the film Merkelbach, Johan Niegeman, and Gerrit employs a frog perspective from below Rietveld. Two women took also part: Lotte and effects of shadows. The shots of Stam-Beese and Mien Ruys. overall perspectives alternate with This paper considers gender powerful close-ups of people and aspects enclosed in the cinematic personages, who in their turn form a representation of the village and by contrast with abstract-rectangular documentary photography afterwards. compositions of lines by zooming in on The first is heroic storytelling with a male architectural details, such as a doorbell, voice-over supporting a male perspective. mailbox, masonry, parts of a wall or Secondly, it looks at the contributions to window. the architecture and landscape design of Such 'trivial' architectural details Nagele by architect Lotte Stam-Beese and become elevated to meaningful elements landscape architect Mien Ruys, and at how by visually supporting the narrative of the both women feature in the film voice-over. The authoritative ‘voice-of- documentary as architects-designers next God’ narration mode with a voice-over to male colleagues and female village that offers a clear opinion about past, inhabitants. Thirdly, it is concerned with present, and future continues the style of how the spatial layout and planning in the 1930s documentaries as well. Its film support gender roles as well as the documentary form represents what has modernist ideology to make and master a been called a discourse of ‘civil sobriety’ new, modern, and supposedly social and ‘democratic civics’: publicity and communal future and society by means of propaganda for dominant or desired forms post-war modernist architecture and of behaviour.4 The composition and landscape architecture after 1945. Fourth didactic imagery of architectural planning and finally, it observes how later are very important: within the overall documentary photography continued to narrative of the optimistic preparation of adhere to gender roles. new land the documentary presents a All these are powerful factors in group of leading male architects whose the representation of design and modernist buildings had an impact in the architecture, and the Nagele documentary Netherlands after the Second World War above all pictures architects as heroes of a and who were involved in the planning new age–they feature as male protagonists in a Dutch north-eastern 4 Frances Bonner, ‘Recording reality: documentary Western for whom the conquering of this film and television’, in Stuart Hall, Sean Nixon, land, and thereby this age, holds endless Jessica Evans (eds.), Cultural Representation. opportunities. Second edition (London: Sage/The Open University, 2013), 60−119, here 60−74, 106−7. The reality- Nagele and the polder context factor of film documentaries is a much theorised The village of Nagele was planned in the issue. For an elaboration on this and notions of 1950s for 2500 inhabitants, mostly land objectivity and subjectivity, see Noël Carroll, workers for the polder farms.5 It was Theorizing the Moving Image (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), ‘Part III: Avant- 5 Garde and Documentary Film, XV From Real to It currently has 1885 inhabitants on 5039 Reel: Entangled in Nonfiction Film’, 224−252. hectares, of which 33 hectares are various areas of water.

88 designed in 1956 and built and developed after 1945, and made a house or farm in between 1958 and 1963 from scratch in the polders highly attractive, all the more the newly drained Noordoostpolder so because it was customary for the oldest (Northeast Polder, 48,000 hectares) in the son of a family to inherit the farm of his Netherlands. This particular polder was father, leaving younger brothers to look one of several so-called IJsselmeerpolders for a farm elsewhere.7 that were developed to provide new land Such were the conditions for for agriculture and residential area, Nagele village in Noordoostpolder as well. beginning in the mid-1920s with a test However, while houses in most polders polder in Andijk. The first polder realised were designed in a popular traditional was Wieringermeer in 1930.6 style related to the so-called Delft School, Young men began the digging of ditches Nagele celebrated functionalist and drainage for the Northeast Polder in modernism in all its finesse as a statement 1942 while living in barracks. A strict of the new architecture of the groups ‘De government population policy for the 8’ and ‘Opbouw’. It was presented as a polders selected the best candidates concept at the Congrès Internationaux interested in becoming future farmers or d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) in land workers because the polder simply Bergamo in 1949 and as a final plan in had to become successful. Men were Dubrovnik in 1956.8 Its architecture has tested for their good farming practices, made it a protected heritage site today, business insight, character, and pioneering admired by architects and designers who spirit; their (future) wives had to support very seldom live there themselves. them and be eager to live with them in the The presence of architect Lotte Stam- new polder. Both men and women had to Beese and garden architect Mien Ruys invest in community building too because The two women involved in the planning previous nineteenth-century polder and building of Nagele village, Lotte Stam- projects had proved that life in a bare and Beese and Mien Ruys, briefly feature vast empty polder may be hard and halfway through the film. Their brief required good health and a positive presence in the narrative makes them mindset. Selection protected individuals as visually less important than their male well as the community from any problems colleagues but their inclusion as such is coming from misplacement. The strict important to notice. The fact that both selection was able to function because a women participated meant that their lack of affordable housing was one of the ideas were recognised as being on a par most urgent social problems in the with those of male architects. Lotte Stam- Netherlands for the first twenty years Beese was educated at the Bauhaus in Dessau the 1920s. Having pioneered with https://www.oozo.nl/cijfers/noordoostpolder/nag ele, (accessed January 29, 2018). Noordoostpolder measures 595,41 km² of which 460,05 km² land 7 Gort, Van Oostrom, Uitverkoren. Also, more and 135,36 km² water. recently, Eva Vriend, Het nieuwe land: Het verhaal 6 Margreet Gort, Anja van Oostrom, Uitverkoren. van een polder die perfect moest zijn (Amsterdam: De kolonisatie van de Noordoostpolder 1940–1960 Balans, 2012). (Zwolle: Waanders, 1987). The 1930s 8 Recently for this Nelson Mota, ‘Dwelling in the Wieringermeerpolder featured briefly in the Middle Landscape: Rethinking the Architecture ‘Itinerary of The Netherlands’ in MoMoWO Women of Rural Communities at CIAM 10’, in Akos Architecture & Design Itineraries across Europe Moravánszky and Judith Hopfengärtner (eds.), (Ljubljana, Turin: Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, 2016), East West Central: Re-Humanizing 142−3. Architecture, Vol. 1 (Zurich: Birkhauser, 2016), 311–24.

89 the context of modernist social housing than larger middle-class houses by projects in the Soviet Union in the early architects F. van Gool and J. Niegeman 1930s, she developed her reputation (presumably from 1954). However, when when working as an urban planner on the considering the village’s status as a redesign of the war-devastated city of national monument in 2010 their concept Rotterdam after finishing architectural was found to be still ‘modern’ and to meet studies in 1945. Mien Ruys began in the present standards, and the advice was to 1920s as a grower before turning to change floor plans only and leave the garden design. She visited Berlin and took exterior as originally designed.10 They are classes there at the Landwirtschaftliche now protected specimens of post-war Hochschule in 1929-30, followed by Dutch modernist architecture and architecture classes at Delft Technical exceptional in the oeuvre of Stam-Beese. University in 1931-32. During the war she The plan is to furnish one of the houses as designed gardens, taught at an a model museum house in the near architecture school in Amsterdam, and future.11 became involved with ‘De 8’.9 The second female architect-designer The documentary first features involved was Mien Ruys; she is shown Lotte Stam-Beese. The shot is a few individually and, in comparison to Lotte seconds only and shows her sitting at a Stam, appears more actively involved table in an office, presumably her own through her design for the greenery plan office in Rotterdam. She is in tandem with of Nagele, on which she collaborated with the co-designer of the Nagele house-block the landscape architect W.C.J. Boer from and examining their plans and scale the first plans for the village in 1948. The model. Clearly visible in the background is film documentary shows her while a photograph of a high-rise building, composing the ‘green plan’ in her office in altogether something entirely different a canal house at Amstel River in from their houses for Nagele. Amsterdam and the voice-over calling her Together with Ernest Groosman, Lotte the garden architect explicitly presents Stam-Beese designed the first one of the this design as her personal achievement. seven residential courtyards in the village, The final ‘green plan’ was established in the Karwijhof – named after an old anise- 1953–1956, after the overall village plan flavoured spice. The exterior of Stam- 10 Beese’s houses has subtle differentiations Ontwerplab Nagele, M Karwijhof Advies in design and lacks a visual hierarchy (Emmeloord: Ontwerplab Nagele, 2010), 16, 19-21. Online report of 31 pages with renovation- between front and back, in line with the compass for monument status commissioned by ideology of the entire village; all had to Noordoostpolder Municipality and housing deny visible distinction and underline association Mercatus, equality of form in a spatial setting, and all https://archisarchief.cultureelerfgoed.nl/e- houses and other buildings had flat roofs. bibliotheek/extern/Boekje%20M,%20Karwijhof.pdf , (accessed January 29, 2018). Although the volumes of her concrete and brick blocks impressed as ‘labourers’ 11 The house-block with 32 dwellings was for sale villas’, these houses were the smaller ones before it was adopted for protection by monument and seemed to have functioned less well organisation ‘Vereniging Hendrick de Keyser’. See https://www.hendrickdekeyser.nl/huizen-van- hendrick/de-hele-collectie/flevoland/nagele- 9 The most recent biography about Mien Ruys is karwijhof, and Leo den Dulk, Zoeken naar de heldere lijn. Mien http://www.flevolanderfgoed.nl/home/erfgoed/no Ruys Tuinarchitect 1904−1999. De complete ordoostpolder-2/nagele-3/karwijhof.html, (both biografie (Rotterdam: De Hef, 2017), 50-4, 96-105. accessed January 29, 2018).

90 and during realisation of the contributions Band music, and quacking ducks are the of the various architects. The design on only other distinctively audible elements. Figure 8 shows the south-east corner of Secondly, the cast overwhelmingly Nagele. Rows of houses are marked in supports gender roles by representing dark grey, and above to the right is the male architects as busy planners, village centre, which is largely an open draughtsman, and visionary intellectuals. grass lawn. A wide forest girdle marked It is modified only by the brief indication the outer border in the landscape and of role-breaking female colleagues; further protected the village from the wind comparative investigation would be sweeping mercilessly over the flat land. needed to find out whether their inclusion Green wedges separated the living areas in such architectural documentaries is and incorporated the main traffic loop into exceptional for the time.12 The the village centre. Each living quarter was architectural heroism clearly forms an planned round a green court. intellectual counterpart to land development and building construction works by workmen who, literally, work Women and gender with their hands. They too are male, presenting the village as an opportunity The female architect and female garden for male entrepreneurs, men who – as designer certainly defy the stereotypical farmers or land workers – have the energy gender roles of women in most societal to work the bare new land ‘conquered’ classes; the difference with the other from the sea and grow new crops. While women in the documentary: the new the architects use their design ideas to inhabitants of the village, is clear and create and master a makeable, new, and becomes even stronger visually when supposedly social, communal future and comparing the sets of screen shots of society by means of modernist Figures 5 and 7 with 9 and 11. The short architecture and landscape architecture, duration of the presence of the female the labourers and farmers living there had architect and garden designer, however, to ‘prove’ that this future worked. The undermines their emancipated role when only woman who performs a continuous compared to the greater attention for though minor counter-role is the wife of female inhabitants of the village; the time the pioneering family that we see leaving of focus on female and male personages in their old-land-house to move to the new effect supports traditional roles within the overall topic of the film. The documentary 12 CIAM (modernist architecture) and CICI (Congrès is drenched in post-war idealism and International du Cinéma Indépendant for the art determination, and the confirmation of film that was active until 1930) were both founded stereotypical male and female gender at La Sarraz in Switzerland by Hélène de Mandrot roles that at the time were more or less and already cross-referenced at the time, sometimes demonstrating avant-garde filmic unquestioned in the societal status quo concepts and interventions. A comparison of some operates at various levels. late 1920s-early 1930s German and French Firstly, there are no female voices. documentaries about modernist architecture The narrator is a male voice-over and offers Janser, ‘Only Film’, 34−45. Documentaries other spoken commentary is also by men; are generally shorter than fiction film and more resemble scientific and industrial films. they dominate the discourse in sound and Representations of women in film tend to focus thus in overall authority. Carillon bells, a more on fiction film. Further analysis of their role loud overall sound track of jazzy and Big in non-fiction documentaries about architecture and design is interesting.

91 land. When they cross the border into the town of Emmeloord, just 9 km from new land, she does not want to get out of Nagele and the first town in the new the truck that is loaded with their polder, was planned by an architectural furniture and other possessions to look town office and did not get the with the rest of the family at the land lying architectural acclaim of Nagele village. The ahead; instead, she is seen relatively long, documentary begins with this central for about seven seconds, in close-up while town and we can see that its architecture sitting alone in the truck. Slightly later, we is less exceptional. Above all, the Nagele get to see her when she enters and documentary tells how architects take the inspects her new house. She embodies the role as ‘heroes’ of a new age. Of the contrast with the educated female attention paid to the two women, Lotte architect and garden planner most Stam-Beese and Mien Ruys, there is a poignantly. Other new inhabitants longer focus on Mien Ruys. This works to perform traditional gender roles while confirm a more accepted role for a representing a more sophisticated life- singular and highly radical female designer style, such as the couple in Figure 11 focusing on the spatial environment of where the wife serves tea to her husband gardens, nature, and greenery rather than in their house furnished with new modern built architecture which as modernist furniture. This furnishing has a didactic achievement carried the most overt incentive: that is how it should be in a masculine ideology. modernist house. A third gender discrepancy We get to see and hear how the inherent to the village design is more male architects heatedly discuss their subtle and lies in how it advocates plans in unarticulated voices, sleeves (in)equality among inhabitants. It rolled up, drawing and measuring, sitting propagates religious inclusiveness and round tables full of coffee cups and balanced tolerance by including all of the ashtrays and also heavily smoking, all then-dominant religions in the indicating that planning and design is hard Netherlands while simultaneously work. There is a special pedagogical role separating them by three different church for the architect Aldo van Eyck who, in a buildings facing the central lawn: Catholic, seemingly simple drawing activity, Reformed Protestant, and Protestant / explains to the viewer in his own voice the free thinkers.13 These correspond with differences between the spontaneous lay- three different primary schools. This out of old country villages developed equality was surpassed in the design of a around a farm with houses lining a road, communal graveyard by Mien Ruys. and the rationale behind the rectangular Instead of burying the dead in a yard of open-spatial centre of the planned new their specific church, she designed one village. It was unavoidable for the female graveyard where all inhabitants would be architect and garden designer to adhere to together after their deaths. Although the this masculine modernist ideal and that Catholics had their own section in the demonstrates the gendered nature of the yard, Ruys wanted to underline equality by ideological power of modernist not dividing the yard’s planning into luxury architecture. The architects involved in the Nagele project were all well educated. 13 Catholic church designed by Aldo van Eyck and Most of them studied at Delft University Daniël van Ginkel; Reformed Protestant by Jo van of Technology, at the time called Technical den Broek and Jaap Bakema; and Protestant / free High school Delft. In contrast, the central thinkers by Wouter van de Kuilen.

92 and modest graves, as well as by creating modernist designs. For one, this became a common entrance covered by a berceau obvious through the group who stayed in of hornbeam. In its intended effect, the village during the day: women. In however, the berceau was not realised 1976, the documentary’s maker Van until 2010!14 In contrast to this balance of Gasteren wondered about the 90-degree class, religious groups and unity of grid of streets lining rectangular green inhabitants after death, the documentary lawns when he saw a mother simply features living men and women in gender traversing the lawn between straight stereotypes that in effect meant unequal streets as she pleased while pushing a positions: men are farmers or land pram, leaving a trail behind her that would workers, or have such jobs as postman, soon become a footpath in the grass: ‘It owner of a bicycle shop, doctor, and makes you think: why aren’t there, when milkman; while women are housewives, such projects are being built, any lanes mothers, or are passively sitting in a house and roads made that really suit the at the window watching men who are people, who are coming to live there?’16 working on the garden. In the morning Figure 12 shows this shot to the left as they see their husbands going off to work, opposed to a shot of one of the planned leaving them to do the housework and streets to the right. care for the children. At most they are Such an observation debunks the spatial shown working as assistant of the barber, design concepts of Mien Ruys and or helping their husband, who is butcher architect J.T.P. Bijhouwer, who also or milkman, in their shop. This extends to contributed to Nagele. Writing shortly the gendering of space represented in the after completion of the Nagele green plan documentary: women are only pictured in in a book called Leven met groen in the village context and near houses and landschap, stad en tuin (1960), they scaled residential areas, while men are also the Dutch attitude toward nature and shown leaving these spaces to go out and green in landscape, city, park, and private returning to them, allowing for a powerful garden, arguing that the Dutch preferred identification-effect of recipients and ‘order’ and ‘clarity’ in their gardens above audiences with such different roles and meandering lines: 15 spatial areas. And in the bigger park we The functioning of the village in rightly do not tolerate real life, gendered as it was, sometimes confusedness; there we disregarded the architects’ ideal demand clarity, with far sightlines, which definitely 14 cannot be obstructed by all http://www.museumnagele.nl/images/documente n/2012/Berceaufolder_defLRes.pdf, (accessed kinds of ‘junk’. [...] This all February 3, 2018); Den Dulk, Zoeken naar de means that in the Netherlands, heldere lijn, 129−30. where types of vegetation that 15 For gendering of spaces also Hilde Heynen, ‘Modernity and domesticity: tensions and contradictions’, in Hilde Heynen, Gülsüm Baydar 16 Quote in Dutch in Bert Hogenkamp, De (eds.), Negotiating Domesticty. Spatial productions Documentaire Film 1945–1965. De bloei van een of gender in modern architecture (London/New filmgenre in Nederland (Rotterdam: Uitgeverij 010, York: Routledge, 2005), 1−29; Jane Rendell, 2003), quote on 237, in Dutch: ‘Dan ga je denken: Barbara Penner, Iain Borden (eds.), Gender, Space, waarom worden er, als zoiets gebouwd wordt, Architecture. An interdisciplinary introduction geen wegen gemaakt die echt bij de mensen (London/New York: Routledge, 2000). horen, die daar komen te wonen?’

93 are not regulated by humans however, the model architecture did not are rare, and becoming still compensate for the feeling of being lost in rarer, the concepts of a vast land with a sometimes hard climate; ‘naturalness’ of vegetation are they left. These circumstances are also not derived from nature but indicated in the film. In a way this was that we continuously, often confirmed at our MoMoWo conference in unconsciously, are actively Ljubljana in October 2016 by some seeking the reasonableness of participants from Middle and Eastern the self-created in Europe who said that planned villages naturalness.17 such as Nagele in remote areas failed for This mode of planning was, however, just women, who became isolated and as time specific as it was supposed to unhappy housewives. For other underline a Dutch identity, and became inhabitants of Nagele, however, things did challenged in the early 1970s by the ‘wild work out. They socialised effectively and garden’, less orderly parks and even semi- together built community life. While the wild areas featuring Scottish highlanders modernist planning was not always in Dutch landscapes in the early 1980s.18 practical, it did make inhabitants proud of With regard to the pioneers who their modernist village experiment. first came to live in one of Nagele’s one- 1980s to 2010s: continuation and re- family houses, the documentary evaluation? emphasises the advantages of the new In 1985, ‘25-year-old’ Nagele featured in a houses and the new life by showing a photo exhibition about life in post-war woman as a housewife turning a kitchen areas organised by the national tap and opening windows, reacting Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. Trees and enthusiastically to streaming clean water greenery had grown and the planned and fresh air coming in. These were environment of the village architecture seemed to have succeeded, although the luxuries unknown in the old houses that they came from, even though their new community was found to be conservative houses did not have showers. For some, and time seemed to have stood still. Photographers Theo Baart and Cary Markerink revisited it in 2005 to 2006 to 17 J.T.P. Bijhouwer, Mien Ruys, Leven met groen in record what had changed after they had landschap, stad en tuin (Amsterdam: Moussault, documented the village in 1988 in their 1960). The title translates as Living with green in book Nagele N.O.P. They noticed how landscape, city and garden, green in Dutch indicating plants and bushes as well as their colour. public space seemed to have been Mien Ruys wrote the section on ‘The green in the untouched by any intervention during the residential area’, 32−40.This quotation on 10 and 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. Nonetheless, 11 in Dutch: ‘En in het grotere park verdragen wij houses had become too small, some were de verwardheid eerst recht niet, daar eisen wij uninhabited, people had left. As in 1960, klaarheid, met verre doorzichten, die zeker niet door allerlei ‘rommel’ mogen worden toegenepen. home interiors were furnished in [...] Dat alles betekent, dat in Nederland, waar niet traditional styles, making them ‘curses’ to 19 door de mens geordende begroeiingen zeldzaam puritan modernist architecture. zijn, en nog steeds zeldzamer worden, de denkbeelden over ‘natuurlijkheid’ van begroeiing niet aan de natuur zijn ontleend maar dat wij 19 Theo Baart, Cary Markerink, Warna Oosterbaan, voortdurend, onbewust vaak, bezig zijn er de Nagele [revisited]. Een modernistisch dorp in de redelijkheid van het zelf-geschapene in te zoeken’. polder (Rotterdam: NAi Uitgevers, 2006), 18 Also Den Dulk, Zoeken naar de heldere lijn, 218- photographs between 1986 and 1988 on 68, 76−8; 9. revisited in 2005−6 on 90, 106−7.

94 Theo Baart also realised that the photographs he took in 1988 had hardly focused on the group of pioneering women who helped on the farms and socialised village life by actively being involved in schools, clubs, and societies. Fourth and final, then, a gender bias in documentary photography was recognised and corrected in 2005 to 2006 by a new photograph section in the book Nagele [revisited]. Een modernistisch dorp in de polder (Nagele [revisited]. A modernist village in the polder).20 In this photo book it was concluded that the village had become more open and outward looking. While increased motor mobility had stimulated inhabitants to buy their daily foods in widely assorted supermarkets a bit farther away and forced village shops to close down, relatively cheap rents had attracted newcomers, some from nationalities other than Dutch. Although a place may be admired for its static architectural design, its dynamics are made visible through such recordings; what at first sight seems dull and unchanged proves to be the development and ongoing growth of a community aware of its special situation and proud of its surroundings. It also proved to confirm gender roles, and only in 2005 was a modest gender correction made in new photo documentary, specifically by including two recent portraits of older women and two of younger women.

20 Baart, Markerink, Oosterbaan, Nagele [revisited], 2-7, photographs from family albums depicting women between 1943 and 1963 on 20−1, 26−7, 30−1, 37; 1986–8 on 63, 70; revisited in 2005−6 on 91 and the recent portraits of women on 124−5.

II POLITICS, POLICIES AND POLITICAL REGIMES

96 Position of Women Architects in Socialist Countries of Eastern Europe

Women's Contribution to the Architectural History of Rijeka during the 1950s and 1960s

Lidija Butković Mićin

Following the trail of women architects1 in What were their chances of professional Croatia: research problem affirmation? How were they regarded by As is the case in many other countries, their male colleagues? Were they researching the role of women in the encouraged to pursue their own ideas? history of Croatian architecture still A comprehensive research of the represents a pioneer undertaking, one of documentation (mainly building permits taking the road less travelled, so to speak. and other public records)2 preserved at For the researcher, this seems to entail a the State Archives in Rijeka,, as well as the laborious ‘filling of blanks’, sifting through perusal of local newspapers (Riječki list, primary sources to map out the activities Novi list), gradually uncovered the of the forgotten or neglected women activities of about ten women architects protagonists in order to learn and and urban planners that helped shape the understand their individual biographies new urban physiognomy of Rijeka and oeuvres, so as to enable the objective between 1950 and 1970. In the social assessment of their achievements and climate that supported talented their full (re)integration into the national architects, what with the shortage of architectural history. Applying this educated professionals in immediate post- approach to the case study of Rijeka in the war times and the complexity and scope 1950s and 1960s, I hoped to find answers of the rebuilding tasks, women architects to questions such as the following: Were found the opportunity to establish there any notable women architects? themselves among their male peers. They designed apartment blocks, mass housing 1 The title is referencing a book by Sena Sekulić- Gvozdanović Žena u arhitekturi: tragom žene 2 The documentation kept at the State Archives in kreatora i žene teoretičara u povijesti arhitekture Rijeka (Državni arhiv u Rijeci, HR-DARI) dating from [Woman in Architecture: Following the Trail of the period between 1945 and 1970 is relatively Woman Creator and Woman Theoretician in the well preserved and open to the public, although History of Architecture] (Zagreb: Croatian none of it is digitalised and only basic search tools Architects’ Association, 1998), a comprehensive are available (index lists). It contains only the historical study that first introduced this topic into public records of various branches of communal the Croatian scientific circles. Sekulić-Gvozdanović government, including location and building (1916–2002) was a renowned Croatian permits with attached copies of project blueprints. architectural historian, the first woman to be Unfortunately, most of the architecture bureaus appointed assistant at the Architecture and building companies active in the former Department of the Technical Faculty of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) University of Zagreb (1948). She was subsequently were liquidated or privatised after 1990 and their appointed associate professor (1962), full documentation was not handed over to the State professor (1975), dean (1979–82) and, after her Archives, which represents a serious obstacle for retirement in 1986, professor emeritus at the same researching Croatia’s architectural production after institution. World War II (WWII).

97 projects, schools, hotels, department out as the most telling and valuable stores, buildings for fine art galleries and women’s contributions to the workers’ education – some unfortunately architectural history of Rijeka in the first unrealised – and accepted managerial post-World War II decades. Their local positions in architecture and urban oeuvres were presented at the exhibition planning offices. All graduates from the in the Municipal Museum of Rijeka in Architecture Department of the Zagreb 2013/14 and in the accompanying book5 Technical Faculty3, they represented a that delved into the achievements of novelty in the local milieu, as real other female protagonists working in trailblazers in their line of work.4 Judging Rijeka in the 1950s and 1960s. by their reception in the media and, more Social housing: an opportunity for importantly, the quantity and quality of professional affirmation the realised projects, the cases of Ada The Allied bombardments of Rijeka Felice-Rošić and Nada Šilović clearly stand demolished a relatively small part of the town’s housing capacities, mainly the 3 Up until the end of WWI, Croatian architects already dilapidated structures of the Old gained their university diplomas abroad, mainly in Town and several housing blocks in the the leading centres of the Austro-Hungarian city centre’s nineteenth- and twentieth- Empire (universities in Vienna, Budapest and century extensions. However, the strain Prague). Since the founding of the Architecture Department of the University of Zagreb’s Technical on the housing infrastructure was a Faculty in 1919, prospective architects, including constant characteristic of the following female ones, could study in their homeland. Out of decades, due to Rijeka’s intense expansion 1250 graduates between 1945–62 (when the of industrial and harbour facilities that Faculty of Architecture was established), 317 were made it a very desirable destination for women. The architects relevant to Rijeka’s history graduated as followed: Nada Šilović, Nada Uhlik migrating workers from all over and Sonja Zdunić in 1948, Ada Felice in 1949, Yugoslavia. Thus, Rijeka’s population Tatjana Lučić in 1952 and Milena Frančić in 1955., increased from around 68,000 inhabitants Mladen Obad Šćitaroci (ed.), Sveučilište u Zagrebu in 1948 to almost 130,000 in 1971. The – Arhitektonski fakultet, 1919./1920.-1999./2000. demographic growth was compensated Osamdeset godina izobrazbe arhitekata u Hrvatskoj (Zagreb: Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb, for with an infusion of investments in 2000), 313–5. socially funded housing, which had, before 4 Before WWII, there was only one registered case the establishment of the first complex in Rijeka of a building project done by a female residential neighbourhoods in the late architect: the train station in Sušak by Leposava 1950s, mainly entailed the insertion of Dinić, dating from 1938/39. Dinić wasn’t a resident of Rijeka, but was completing the commission as multi-storied apartment blocks and an employee of the Ministry of Building in clusters of free-standing housing towers Belgrade. The project underwent much scrutiny by into the already defined urban tissue of the local architectural community and press due to pre-war Rijeka, or the building of housing the perceived lack of transparency of the decision- rows along the newly constructed making process, as well as the outdated, Neo- Historical look of the finished structure. thoroughfares at the outskirts of the Nevertheless, it is worth noting that the public existing city limits (Marksa i Engelsa debate and negative criticism were never aimed at Boulevard on the west and Janka Polića the author’s gender, i.e. the project was not Kamova Street on the east). These housing targeted and/or discredited because it was thought projects adhered to the aspirations of out by a woman; in fact, that aspect wasn’t even discussed. The case is well-researched and published: Julija Lozzi-Barković, Moderna 5 Lidija Butković Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i Nada arhitektura Rijeke i Sušaka (Rijeka: Adamić, 2015), Šilović – ženski trag u arhitekturi Rijeke (Rijeka: 23, 38, 414–21. Municipal Museum of Rijeka, 2013)

98 inter-war Modernism with their focus on instance, in another three-storied housing achieving comfortable, functional and slab in Janka Polića Kamova Street9 (1954- contemporary living accommodations, 6), Šilović allowed space for a small garden providing all the amenities, such as built-in along the front façade, adding to the closets and rational kitchens, in the indoor already dominant “green feel” of this design, as well as, whenever possible, desirable new residential community. She enough outdoor space by including also collaborated with Rijeka’s prominent loggias, balconies and shared roof painter Vladimir Udatny on the façade’s terraces. Šilović and Felice-Rošić’s colour scheme, adding her own residential buildings are among the most contribution to the “hot topic” of the notable examples, matched only by a few 1950s, i.e. the unity of visual arts and other locally active architects, such as architecture. These quite delicate and Kazimir Ostrogović and Ninoslav Kučan. unobtrusive, but intriguing examples of The interpolation at the intersection of attention to the built environment Račićeva and Omladinska streets by Šilović confirmed Šilović’s wide range of interests, (1954–6)6 introduced a creative shift in which she will continue to nurture after the conceptualization of a standard city leaving Rijeka for Šibenik in 1957, and block by lifting the central three-storied then for Zagreb, where she would gain volume onto pillars, therefore allowing for permanent employment in the city’s natural ventilation of the inner courtyard. departments for urban planning. Ada Her distinct housing solitaries along Felice-Rošić, Šilović’s co-worker at the Marksa i Engelsa Boulevard7 (1954–7, Construction and Planning Institute today Liburnijska and Zvonimirova streets) (Građevno-projektni zavod [GPZ]) during fully exploited the sea views and southern her eight-year stay in Rijeka (1948–56) and exposure, while simultaneously providing personal friend, exhibited the same adequate protection through insulation willingness to pursue recent trends in and the extension of usable space. At the housing architecture. Her two projects in time, the two-bedroom apartments with Janka Polića Kamova Street10 granted good-sized kitchens and dining areas, as Rijeka some of the most individually well as living rooms bathed in light, were articulated 1950s façades: from the publicized as a model for affordable carefully balanced orthogonal network of middle-class flats.8 Nada Šilović was not windows and loggias crowned by a pergola only keenly interested in up-to-date on the three-storied building adjacent to tendencies in modern housing, but always Šilović’s previous one (1953) to the took into account the micro-urbanistic polychromatic experiment on the opposite setting of her buildings and how they side of the street (1955–7), where the could humanise their surroundings. For horizontal parapets of deep red are flanked by light green wings, and on the southern façade, delicately perforated 6 Građevinski arhiv Skupštine općina Rijeka 1945.- 1990. (JU-169), Folder 389, 857, 938, 1140, 2176, State Archives in Rijeka (HR-DARI), Lidija Butković Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i Nada Šilović, 38–41. 9 HR-DARI, JU-169, Folder 11, 383, 1119, 1715, 7 HR-DARI, JU-169, Folder 31, 491, 1035, 1055, 2088, Lidija Butković Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i Nada 1303, 1585, 1916, HR-DARI, Narodni odbor općine Šilović, 20–9. Zamet 1955.-1962. (JU-112), Box 108, Lidija 10 HR-DARI, Narodni odbor općine Sušak 1955.- Butković Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i Nada Šilović, 30– 1962. (JU-111), Box 235, “Zgrade po nacrtima žena- 7. arhitekata,” Riječki list, August 28, 1953, Local 8 B. D., “Novi moderni stanovi,” Novi list, July 31, news section, Lidija Butković Mićin, Ada Felice- 1955, Culture section Rošić i Nada Šilović, 20–9.

99 concrete brise soleils shadow the deep communication between family members. loggias. (Fig. 3) Ada Felice-Rošić was especially The images of residential buildings by interested in the topic of housing design Nada Šilović and Ada Felice-Rošić were and also possessed a very pronounced reproduced countless times in the local sense of moral obligation as an architect press, more than other local examples, to engage more publicly and selflessly in and their authors were interviewed on women’s social issues. She became a several occasions. The newspaper articles, member of the Progressive Woman however, reveal certain, probably Society, founded in 1954 as the first unintentional, gender preconceptions women-only organization in the Rijeka about women working in the field of region, with the aim of helping women architecture. Although the media coverage take full advantage of their civil, workers’ was overwhelmingly supportive, it implied and domestic rights. Alongside another that it was only natural for a woman architect, Alisa Lovrić-Ilijašić, Ada Felice architect to be so effective in housing volunteered at the Society's Council by design, given her own experience and giving free advice on modern home natural predilection for domestic affairs. In design, offering practical solutions for the case of the apartment building clients and drawing blueprints for simple commissioned by the paper factory in cabinets and kitchen furnishings that Strossmayerova Street11 (1954), a joint would fit in most modern flats and that work by Šilović and Felice, the journalist any carpenter could make.13 In 1959, she stated the following: ‘Everything about the also took on the adaptation of a former interior design of this property was dry-cleaning business venue in Križanićeva thought out, and the architects, Street into the headquarters of the themselves young women, always kept in regional branch of the Institute for Home mind the needs of the contemporary Improvement, that housed a room for woman, who is a worker, a mother, and a lectures, exhibitions and practical lessons homemaker’.12 This building in particular in modern cooking and use of kitchen served to educate the readers on equipment, similar to the ones set up in contemporary living in modernly furnished Zagreb and other major towns in flats: the architects considered the Yugoslavia.14 Ada Felice’s penchant for woman’s role in the household by trying ethical involvement came to the forefront to ease the burden and isolating feel of in another housing project: an apartment domestic chores. The efficient block for the Association of the Visually organization of the kitchen space reduced Impaired (1956–61)15, a project that the time and manual effort needed for included specially furnished homes and preparing meals and taking out the trash common rooms for the tenants, (there were vertical garbage tunnels presenting her, from the architectural attached to the building, at that time still standpoint, with the opportunity to work an unusual feature in housing in the historical setting of Rijeka’s Old architecture), while the spatial interconnection of the kitchen and the 13 B. D., “Dva nova savjetovališta,” Novi list, living room helped improve September 20, 1957, Culture section 14 HR-DARI, JU-111, Box 124, R. N., “U Rijeci su otvorene prostorije Centra za unapredjenje 11 HR-DARI, JU-169, Folder 50, 534, Lidija Butković domaćinstva,“ Novi list, July 24, 1957, Front page Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i Nada Šilović, 14–9. 15 HR-DARI, JU-169, Folder 855, 995, 1523, Lidija 12 T. F., “Kuća kod Piramide,” Novi list, May 23, Butković Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i Nada Šilović, 52– 1954, Local news section 5.

100 Town, where combining traditional and tasks as young, untried architects’.17 What modern features was a welcoming their bureau couldn’t provide in terms of challenge. It is worth mentioning that Ada the diversity of project tasks, they sought Felice was one of only a handful of through open competitions, regularly architects who would be given a chance to achieving peer recognition, for example, build interpolations into the city’s for the apartment block for the Vulkan historical core during this period, due to factory in XIII. divizije Promenade in 1952. the sensibility, knowledge, skill and Although it was a joint project, the final patience that this type of assignment design was signed only by Josip Uhlik and required. seamlessly merged with the adjacent Another opportunity to discuss the role of inter-war modernist housing blocks. Their women in housing architecture came up other successes at competitions in Rijeka during an open competition for individual included the first prize for the preliminary family home units organized by the Rijeka sketch of the open and closed swimming City Council in 1955. Nada Uhlik pools in Pećine (1950, unrealised) and the triumphed in all categories, winning a total second prize for the design of the of six prizes in a contest with 50 other department store in Brajdica (1956).18 As participants. On that occasion, she gave a for realised works by Nada Uhlik, it is still short interview for Novi list, mentioning uncertain whether her blueprints for that her own experience as a homemaker family home types were distributed to had helped her understand the interested citizens, as was originally functionality of living space, therefore planned19, and even their layouts have not inadvertently affirming the already yet resurfaced in Rijeka’s State Archives. widespread ‘positive prejudice’ that As was the case with Nada Šilović, Nada housing architecture is the natural domain Uhlik continued her career in Zagreb, of female architects.16 This will be the only finding employment at the City public competition she entered into Department for Housing Planning. independently during the ten years she The late 1950s brought significant change spent in Rijeka (1948–58) working in housing policies, advocating stricter alongside her much more prolific and rules and norms for socially funded ambitious husband Josip Uhlik in the housing enterprises that now strived more Central Planning Bureau (Centralni biro za towards cheaper, uniform, standardized projektiranje, later reorganized and building practices. Ada Felice-Rošić, having renamed Rijeka-projekt). Employed in a transferred from the GPZ to the project bureau that had, until the mid-1950s, bureau of the Primorje construction specialized mostly in building projects for company in 1958, had a major role in industrial complexes and infrastructure introducing large-scale housing (port facilities, bridges), the couple, as developments in Rijeka by participating in Nada Uhlik put it in another interview, the first open competition for the layout ’feared that accepting a position away from the main centres would impair their 17 “Posjetili smo Josipa Uhlika,” Riječki list, July 25, chances for professional growth, but the 1953, Culture section 18 experience was a completely opposite one Vicko Lucić, “Narodna vlast rješava važno pitanje – here they were given important project unapredjenja plivačkog sporta u Rijeci,” Riječki list, March 26, 1950, Sports section, Zdenko Kolacio, “Prilog uredjivanju budućeg trgovačkog centra,” Novi list, May 12, 1956, Culture section 16 R. N., “Razgovor s dobitnicom šest nagrada,” 19 “Dobre i jeftine kućice,” Novi list, August 9, 1955, Novi list, June 28, 1955, Culture section Local news section

101 of the new housing estate in Turnić and its Apart from housing projects, women rational housing types (1958).20 The architects were given other sorts of prefabricated, mass-produced apartment opportunities to showcase their skills. As buildings that were successively built in Rijeka was becoming the main the southern part of Turnić reflected the metropolitan centre of the westernmost then predominant principle of valuing region of Croatia and the host to many economic calculations above the comfort new institutions and functions, there was of the tenants. However, the initial a pronounced need for new spaces for experiments were soon dropped in favour administration, education, culture and of more accommodating solutions, such as leisure services. The first reaction was, the rows of aesthetically unpretentious, naturally, to make use of the existing but quite decent five-storied structures buildings through necessary alterations. and 12-storied towers in northern One of the first and most encompassing Turnić.21 With the latter, Felice got the initiatives of this kind was that of restoring chance to try out the design of the high- an impressive late-nineteenth-century rise apartment building for the first time, Neo-Renaissance edifice in Dolac Street, here still holding on to the square shape severely damaged in the war. Nada Šilović with a centrally placed communication took on the assignment of turning this core (elevators and staircases) surrounded former Italian school for girls into a by flats. A few years later, her designs got multifunctional cultural hub, the new seat bolder, keeping pace with Primorje’s of the Modern Gallery and the University substantial investments in building Library. She coordinated with many mechanisation. The series of four 12- experts, first on the methods of storied towers in Kozala22 (1971–3) stands renovating and consolidating the building out because of their X-shaped, indented and then on the functional aspects of the forms which enabled the architect to interior design. For instance, the Gallery’s create more intimate dwellings with cross- new office furniture was designed by ventilation and plenty of sunshine. Sonja Zdunić, another architect working at Perched on top of the Goljak hill the GPZ, while the furniture and the overlooking the canyon of Rječina, they complex system of storage and pulleys for are Felice’s last contribution to Rijeka’s the Library was drawn by the architect housing architecture, and still a marked Klement Miculinić. Nada Šilović herself reminder of the bold and optimistic spirit focused on the features of the Gallery’s of the 1970s. main exhibition hall: the disposition of Building the city: education, culture, rooms, light fixtures and exhibition community life panels, although some of her ideas remained on paper.23 The new House of Culture was officially opened in 1956, after two years of intense construction, 20 I. Sabol, “Za milijun dinara jeftiniji stan,” Novi list, February 4, 1959, Local news section, “Uz welcoming its visitors to a fully restored natječaj za predio ‘Turnić’ Rijeka,” Čovjek i prostor entry hall with new wall decorations by 88–89 (1959), 6., Vana Gović, Andrija Čičin-Šain Vladimir Udatny and prestigious (Rijeka: Municipal Museum of Rijeka, 2010), 19–20. exhibitions of contemporary Yugoslav fine 21 HR-DARI, JU-169, Folder 900, 2136, Lidija arts. The building has retained much of its Butković Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i Nada Šilović, 60– 7. 1950s renovations to the present day and 22 HR-DARI, JU-169, Folder 518, 621, 622, 628, 645, 781, 810, Lidija Butković Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i 23 HR-DARI, JU-169, Folder 77, Lidija Butković Nada Šilović, 84–91. Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i Nada Šilović, 42–7.

102 still houses the same institutions, despite ground. It was the case of the ambitious the many promises of more adequate Workers’ University, envisioned around solutions having been made over the 1960 for the North Delta — an underused, decades. but potentially very valuable plot of land With the strengthening of the public situated at the very heart of the city, sector came a much-needed financial between the Mrtvi kanal and Rječina boost for erecting new schools and other waterways, at the time under concession educational facilities. During the 1950s to import-export companies working out and early 1960s, the municipality of Rijeka of the Rijeka Harbour. From the first post- invested in additions and adaptations of WWII general urban plans onward, the many existing school buildings and Delta was singled out as the most suitable financed the erection of five new primary area for situating new culture, leisure, schools, while the regional branch of the sporting and administrative facilities Chamber of Commerce accepted the befitting a metropolitan centre like Rijeka. responsibility for accommodating the The Workers’ University, with its library growing student population of the High open to the public, a large cinema and School for Commerce. The project for the lecture, concert and exhibition halls, new school building was entrusted to Ada would have provided an all-in-one solution Felice-Rošić, who made the most out of a to the deficiency in available space for very unfortunate location provided by the cultural activities, as well as housed city authorities (Vončina Street, 1962–5). supplementary education programs for On an unwelcoming, sloping terrain, she workers and headquarters of political placed two superimposed horizontal organizations.25 This mixed-purpose volumes, the lower enveloping a spacious facility would have encompassed more vestibule and the upper three-storied one than 6000 m2 of usable space in a six- holding classrooms and faculty offices. The sided, distinctly articulated structure with resulting disposition made the building a flexible ground plan. The Workers’ appear more monumental and imposing University concept design was a then it actually was. It’s a shame that collaboration of three architects: Milena some of the proposed finishing details Frančić-Sulovsky, Tatjana (Tanja) Lučić and weren’t executed, such as bright yellow Ladislav Sulovsky, Milena’s husband.26 shutters and blue curtains on windows. Tanja Lučić most likely oversaw the When in use, they would have created a project, while the latter two had a decisive kinetic, ever-changing appearance of the creative role in the process. Milena Frančić building’s outer shell, a very Zeitgeist idea was already known to be a promising of the 1960s successfully explored by young architect, having been awarded the Felice’s peers, for example Ivan Vitić on his second prize at the competition for the famous Laginjina Street housing block in Health Centre in Virovitica in 1956, right Zagreb (1958–62).24 after graduation, and her husband also It would seem that the growing economic enjoyed some success after pairing up prosperity of the late 1950s and 1960s with Rijeka’s well-known architect Dušan didn’t automatically imply a generous budget for education and culture. Another 25 very important project was not only left S. Škrbec, “Na Delti će se graditi nova zgrada Radničkog sveučilišta,” Novi list, December 28, unfinished, but never really got off the 1958, Local news section, S. Škrbec, “Dom Radničkog sveučilišta,” Novi list, May 13, 1959, 24 Lidija Butković Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i Nada Culture section Šilović, 68–73. 26 HR-DARI, JU-111, Box 168

103 Marčeta on his competition projects. 72), the GPZ executed many outstanding Tanja Lučić’s talents, on the other hand, projects30, including the extension of the leaned more towards management and Bonavia hotel, the most substantial organization, so she soon steered her investment in tourist accommodation in career away from practising architecture. Rijeka after WWII. Tanja Lučić teamed up Some of her projects can be traced in the again with Milena Frančić-Sulovsky and archival documentation, such as the Vlado Sulovsky on the design and adaptation of Rijeka’s main market-place construction of an annex to the Bonavia pavilion, a few housing developments, the hotel in downtown Rijeka (1959–65)31, this office complex in Brajdica, the time acting as co-author and project enlargement of the primary school in manager. The old nineteenth-century Pećine, along with her most notable nucleus of the hotel was already expanded realization: the new Employment Office in in the 1930s, so many of the original Oslobođenja Boulevard, Sušak (1962).27 decorative features were lost, replaced by Her most interesting concept was, a more modern, smooth façade perhaps, the proposal for improving the perforated by an uneven rhythm of communal standard of the local beaches windows. After its nationalization in the commissioned by the district of Sušak in late 1940s, the Bonavia was considered 1957.28 Lučić’s plan was to erect uniform the best city hotel, although changing stalls made from low-cost undercapacitated for Rijeka’s new materials, such as coloured linen and business, transit and commercial metal bars required to stretch them into relevance in socialist Yugoslavia.32 After triangular and rectangular shapes. The the prospect of a grandiose hotel at the stalls could be quickly assembled and city’s waterfront fell through (and it’s disassembled each day by hired personnel interesting to note that the concept design and also stored at the end of the bathing was prepared by Nada Šilović in 1949), the season. The first batch was tried out in Executive Council of Croatia allocated the Grčevo, Sablićevo, Martinšćica and funds for the extension of the Bonavia in Žurkovo, but the implementation was met 1959. The plot between the original with too many practical problems and structure and the public stairway leading some very unconscientious citizens, so the to the Governor’s Palace was cleared of idea was finally dropped.29 the remains of a dilapidated building to Commercial enterprises: tourism, accommodate the new, seven-storied business, shopping annex. The authors insisted on a very As previously mentioned, Tanja Lučić clean, almost ‘box-like’ look that was in showed more zeal and skill for project contrast with the predominantly leadership than architectural design, so in nineteenth-century context of Dolac 1958, she ran for and was offered a Street, but fitted well with the desired directorial position in Rijeka at the GPZ, image of a modern establishment for the one of the most prolific architectural firms business clientele. The horizontal stripes in the region. Under her leadership (1958– of windows crossed by shallow vertical lines epitomized the early 1960s

27 HR-DARI, JU-111, Box 196 28 HR-DARI, JU-111, Box 111 30 “Post festum srebrnom jubileju GPZ Rijeka,” 29 N. V., “Dovršava se uređenje obala duž Pećina,” Čovjek i prostor 248 (1973), 12–3. Novi list, July 20, 1957, Local news section, N. V., 31 HR-DARI, JU-169, Folder 742, 824 “Još nije sve uredjeno,” Novi list, July 2, 1958, Local 32 Igor Žic, Riječka gostoljubivost (Rijeka: Adamić, news section 2000), 131–2, 144–7.

104 enthusiasm for geometry, repetition and several existing buildings along the precision of form. The extension northern front of Korzo Street dating from comprised the ground-floor restaurant, the eighteenth to the twentieth century fully air-conditioned, other joint into a unified, free-flowing space, while recreational spaces on the upper floors deciding which ones to keep almost intact and about 300 beds.33 The Bonavia hotel and which ones to restore, alter or tear was completely remodelled and down. With the advice and supervision of refurbished in 2000 by another woman the local conservation experts, the final architect, Jasenka Rechner, after being result was a mix between the old and the sold to an international investor. new, Felice’s main contribution to the The representative Bonavia hotel Korzo side being a continuous glass wall completed in 1965 symbolically marked where an inconspicuous façade of the Rijeka’s turn towards catering to big previous structure had been. The businesses: financial institutions and department store also gained an extension service industries that could invest in in Kobler Square, an introverted structure impressive office and commercial spaces constructed in reinforced steel and in the city centre. The new enterprises panelled with bihacite stone in a were to liven up the neglected Old Town cannellated motif. The interior was and Korzo Street and bring a much- dominated by sculpturally shaped needed infusion of capital, though escalators, a novelty for the era. An sometimes at the expense of conserving interesting point of the design was the the historical authenticity and ambient. inclusion of an inner street, an alternative The revitalization of Rijeka’s city centre shortcut from Korzo to Kobler Square took off in earnest by the late 1960s with through the department store, beneficial three neighbouring building sites for for the citizens and store owners. The department stores. Their projects were Korzo department store was a great entrusted only to the most accomplished success when it opened its doors in 1973, local architects that could be counted on as the first of the three, becoming the to deliver solid architectural designs highlight of its author’s career, although it paired with the most advanced did receive mixed reviews by some art technological solutions. Ninoslav Kučan historians who felt it overimposed on the secured his commission through an open inherited character of its historical competition (for the Ri department store), surroundings.34 Igor Emili was the logical choice for the Conclusions and notes for further research Varteks store in Kobler Square, given his The vast diapason of assignments that previous experience with historical awaited architects, engineers and urban structures in the Old Town, while Ada planners during the turbulent post-WWII Felice-Rošić worked on the Korzo decades in Rijeka left enough room for department store (1968–73), arguably the educated women to join in and do their most complex of the three. Its complexity part. The circumstances of dynamic lay in the creative problem of connecting rebuilding and urban expansion had the side.effect of a more egalitarian attitude 33 “Donesen projekt za dogradnju i modernizaciju towards female architects, who had a ‘Bonavije’,” Novi list, April 5, 1959, Local news greater chance to work on their own and section, “Prošireni hotel ‘Bonavia’ imat će 207 soba sa 310 kreveta,” Novi list, October 21, 1960, Local news section, S. Kosier, “Do kraja 1965. kompletna 34 HR-DARI, JU-169, Folder 781, 792, 863, 864, 868, Bonavia,” Novi list, September 23, 1964, Local Lidija Butković Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i Nada news section Šilović, 74–83.

105 be accepted by their male counterparts. of Rijeka, although very likely not unique Their achievements were followed by local in the context of the former Socialist media and almost unanimously welcomed Federative Republic of Yugoslavia, is a and endorsed as a sign of the overall telling one. By looking closer at Rijeka’s advancement of women’s equality in experiences, we can infer a lot about the work, although occasionally exhibiting overall representation of women ingrained concepts of gender-appropriate architects in post-WWII Yugoslavia and tasks, mostly when it came to housing see how the proclaimed support to designs. Women formed a relatively small women’s economic emancipation and group within the local architectural more prominent participation in the new community and the number and scope of socialist society was implemented in the their realised works certainly reflect that field of architecture, as well as how that fact. The long-lasting and fruitful career of ‘redistribution of power’ affected future Ada Felice-Rošić was an exception rather practices. than a rule, and some of her success must be attributed to the business prowess of

Primorje’s management, i.e. to their ability to secure prominent commissions. Her Books and exhibition catalogues own recollection of working side by side with her male colleagues in an Butković Mićin, Lidija. Ada Felice-Rošić i atmosphere of mutual respect and Nada Šilović – ženski trag u arhitekturi consideration35 corroborates the notion Rijeke. Rijeka: Municipal Museum of that Rijeka showed a precocious Rijeka, 2013. willingness to accept women professionals in arts and architecture. Other examples Lozzi-Barković, Julija. Moderna arhitektura point to the same conclusion: in the early Rijeke i Sušaka. Rijeka: Adamić, 2015. 1950s, art historians Iva Perčić and Radmila Matejčić served as director of the Obad Šćitaroci, Mladen, ed.. Sveučilište u Conservation Office and director of the Zagrebu – Arhitektonski fakultet, Museum of the Croatian Littoral, 1919./1920.-1999./2000. Osamdeset respectively. Furthermore, architect Mira godina izobrazbe arhitekata u Hrvatskoj. Ružić was in charge of the first Regional Zagreb: Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb, Urban Plan of Kvarner (1955–7), 2000. developed by the Centre for Urban Planning in Rijeka, and simultaneously Žic, Igor. Riječka gostoljubivost. Rijeka: worked on several proposals for the Adamić, 2000. General Urban Plan of Rijeka, while her colleague at the Centre, architect Erika Gović, Vana. Andrija Čičin-Šain. Rijeka: Roset, executed layouts for several new Municipal Museum of Rijeka, 2010. housing estates built in the 1960s. The role of these women, as well as of others whose names appear only once or twice in Journal articles the archival sources, should be a part of further research, considering that the case “Uz natječaj za predio ‘Turnić’ Rijeka,” Čovjek i prostor 88–89 (1959), 6., 35 While conducting several interviews with Ada Felice-Rošić in 2013, I noted her explicit viewpoint on this issue.

106 “Post festum srebrnom jubileju GPZ V., N. “Dovršava se uređenje obala duž Rijeka,” Čovjek i prostor 248 (1973), 12–3. Pećina.” Novi list, July 20, 1957, Local news section

V., N. “Još nije sve uredjeno.” Novi list, July Newspaper articles 2, 1958, Local news section

D. B. “Novi moderni stanovi.” Novi list, July “Posjetili smo Josipa Uhlika,” Riječki list, 31, 1955, Culture section July 25, 1953, Culture section D., B. “Dva nova savjetovališta.” Novi list, September 20, 1957, Culture section “Dobre i jeftine kućice,” Novi list, August 9, 1955, Local news section F., T. “Kuća kod Piramide.” Novi list, May “U Rijeci su otvorene prostorije Centra za 23, 1954, Local news section unapredjenje domaćinstva,“ Novi list, July Kolacio, Zdenko. “Prilog uredjivanju 24, 1957, Front page budućeg trgovačkog centra.” Novi list, May 12, 1956, Culture section “Donesen projekt za dogradnju i modernizaciju ‘Bonavije’,” Novi list, April Kosier, S. “Do kraja 1965. kompletna 5, 1959, Local news section Bonavia.” Novi list, September 23, 1964, Local news section “Prošireni hotel ‘Bonavia’ imat će 207 soba sa 310 kreveta,” Novi list, October Lucić, Vicko. “Narodna vlast rješava važno 21, 1960, Local news section pitanje unapredjenja plivačkog sporta u Rijeci.” Riječki list, March 26, 1950, Sports section Archival documentation N., R. “Razgovor s dobitnicom šest nagrada.” Novi list, June 28, 1955, Culture State Archive in Rijeka, Građevinski arhiv section Skupštine općina Rijeka 1945.-1990. (JU- Sabol, I. “Za milijun dinara jeftiniji stan.” 169) Novi list, February 4, 1959, Local news section State Archive in Rijeka, Narodni odbor općine Zamet 1955.-1962. (JU-112) Škrbec, S. “Na Delti će se graditi nova zgrada Radničkog sveučilišta.” Novi list, State Archive in Rijeka, Narodni odbor December 28, 1958, Local news section općine Sušak 1955.-1962. (JU-111)

Škrbec, S. “Dom Radničkog sveučilišta.” Novi list, May 13, 1959, Culture section

107 Role of women in architecture after WW2 in Slovenia: Olga Rusanova

Andreja Benko and Larisa Brojan

Introduction Marion Mahony Griffin, Bea Betz, Denisse Scott Brown, Ann Tyng ...) who stood next

to male colleague and pave the way to The role of women architects in the younger generations of female architects. architectural design after WW2 was In this paper we discuss the work of the negligible. One can say that that launched Slovene architect, Olga Rusanova, whose as well WW2, as women started to deal position in society we compare to position with once men work and they became as of female architects in Europe. good at it, but especially they were needed since WW2 demanded massive tax in human lives and as well as in ruined Early life homes. The need for engineers who could help with the knowledge right after WW2 Olga Rusanova was born on 28th April was in that way valid. This led to the fact 1927 in Murska Sobota (Prekmurje) to a that women often decided to study Russian immigrant Igor Rusanov and a engineering profession although, they Slovene mother in Murska Sobota as only were mostly still reserved for male child. Her father was employed in the colleagues. Women position was no longer meat factory and her mother was working only at home, taking care of family and as a teacher in primary school. home. Olga finished primary school and In time, the number of women in secondary school (gymnasium) in Murska architectural teams started to grow. Sobota, which she graduated from in Women did become part of the designing 1945. In the school year 1945/46 she teams mostly as project co-workers, but became a student of “Department of team leaders were still mostly men. architecture” at “Technical Faculty of However, women in architecture were University of Ljubljana”. In October 1954, showing more precision than their male right after obtaining her diploma in colleagues but mostly not that tough – but August, she became a teaching assistant of they became valued in the business Prof. Edo Mihevc at the same department. because of their dedication and hard work. And in time they got a chance to do their own less significant projects – maybe Research work and work on faculty of that is why women mostly did focus on arhitecture the field of interior design. Projects were mostly less significant but they were In 1957/58 she was hearing lectures and visible and people noticed them. researching study cases at the Ecolé de However, the position of women in Beaux Arts with a scholarship at University Slovenia (former Yugoslavia) did not defer of Nancy (France). Interior and industrial from the position of women around design was the main focus of her Europe or even in the world. But there academic researches and architectural were exceptions (for example Zaha Hadid,

108 practice. Faculty of Architecture. The number of In January 1961 Olga Rusanova became them is still not equal to male colleagues lecturer of courses named "Furniture and (38). Equipment". She focused on working with Along her academic career Rusanova students, lecturing the importance of published several scientific and theory and practice to successfully deliver professional papers. In her papers she an architectural idea and its execution. focused on the process of interior design She was introducing students to and furniture. The same topic was architects, civil engineers and other discussed in few handbooks she wrote. members of building industry. In her academic career as lecturer, she In 1966 she went on exchange with the was also mentor to several diplomas at help of an international foundation to visit Faculty of Architecture, University of Switzerland and to conduct her knowledge Ljubljana, mainly concerning interior and on hotel business and design. There she furniture design. was able to get in touch with hotel design In 1990 she retired from the work at experts. In year 1969 she was elected as Faculty of architecture. Assistant Professor for the course "Furniture and equipment" and in the year 1974 she was promoted to Associate Her architectural practice Professor for the same course at University of Ljubljana. During her professional career Olga Rusanova was mostly focusing on the In the winter semester of 1967/68 she was interior design and designing/creation of guest student of Dutch government at the interior space. She was monitoring the Faculty of architecture in Københawn whole production process of her designs (Akademi for skønne Kunster) at the with various wood furniture factories. Part department for interior design and the of her project which cannot be overlooked department for residential and non- are interior designs of children’s’ facilities residential buildings. In 1968 the Swedish and in facilities for disabled people. She Committee for on International Health had a special attitude for such a projects. Relations enable her to visit and study facilities for the mentally and physically As it was outlined in previous paragraphs, disabled young people in Stockholm, Olga Rusanova took various study trips to Upsally and Malmö. The knowledge got foreign countries to learn and study from there, she started using in her own the best and she was implementing new practice. knowledge to her architectural practice. In Rusanova set a milestone to Slovene the next paragraphs some of her most academic field of architecture by important works are outlined. Her projects becoming first a lecturer and later a head can be divided into three periods: of the Department of Architecture of 1. Work in France during her exchange Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering (between years 1957 and 1958), in 1969 and until 1971. Noteworthy is 2. work with professor Mihevc information that for several years (between years 1952 and 1971), Rusanova was the only female lecturer of 3. her late work. the department in comparison to the year 2016, where there are 18 female During the first period she was an assistants or associate professor at the exchange student of French University

109 (1957-58), meanwhile she was also - interior design of Rectors room of working in the design studio of architects University of Ljubljana (1969), Prouvé and Louis. She collaborated on - interior design of bookstore and projects such as: pharmacy in Portorož (1971), - Project of holiday houses in Azure Beach - idea design and project for building (architect Prouvé), permit for primary school in Črni vrh - project of skyscrapers in Nancy (architect near Idrija (1971). Prouvé), Third period - period of her late work: - architectural competition for children’s This period consisted of mostly her own sanatorium near Nantes (architect Louis), projects – those were mostly interior - project of blood transfusion object in designs and design of single family houses. Nancy (architect Louis), In that period, we can expose for example - project of youth home in Nancy a study of puzzle furniture for flats – (architect Louis). working together with architect Kerševan and architect Mušič in 1966; plans for Her second period was also the most interior design of special teaching classes productive period. From the second on primary schools and secondary schools period – collaboration with Edo Mihevc, – working together with architect Lapuh. the following works can be outlined: In the year 1974 she as well designed the - the interior design of Hotel in Koper idea plan for a special school near hospital (1952), Valdoltra in Slovenia. - interior design of bar Slon and Based on her works in architectural business place in Belgrade (1952) practice, she was mainly dealing with a - store Omnia in Koper (1952), more social building and living space. Her - interior design of bookstore in focus was mostly on other forms of Trieste (1955), temporary or seasonal dwelling and with - interior design of hotel in Ohrid the educational objects, although she also (1957), designed few single family houses. In - plans for the Slovenian students' collaboration time with architects Vladimir dormitory in Trieste (1958), Brezar in Janez Mušič, she was dealing also - plans for the Yugoslavian pavilion in with the problematic of Yugoslavian Klagenfurt (1957), dwelling architecture and mass production - interior design for the Home of of furniture in the special elaborate for the sailors in Piran (1958), "Boris Kidrič Foundation". - execution plans and plans of interior Besides her work in architectural practice design for the primary school in she was also participating in legislation Koper (1962), preparation since her knowledge on social - participation and work on execution building was massive. For example she plans and the plans for the interior was part of a collaboration process with architecture for the "Slovenian the governmental working group for new Cultural Centre" in Trieste (1964), building norms for the "students’ - organisation of 5th congress of ZKS dormitories in Slovenia" in the year 1976. (Zveze komunistov Slovenije) in Also, her participation at competitions Ljubljana (1964) should be mentioned. In collaboration - study of hotel furniture (1966), with architect Marjan Amalietti they won - refurbishment of the hall of the second prize for new urban University of Ljubljana (1969), arrangement of Ljubljana Castle. The third

110 prize was won at architectural competition The existence of Slovenes in Trieste has for the equipment of educational throughout been linked to cultural institutions in 1971 launched by AS activities and the attention given to the Design. Slovene language. Efforts towards the building of the Kulturni dom began in late 1950. In February 1951 a committee was Slovene cultural center founded which began a campaign of collecting funds among Slovenes in Reviewing and studying Rusanova’s work Trieste, in Slovenia, in Yugoslavia and it is evident that one project stands out. It among Slovenes living in the USA. The first is important to outline the project in plans were created in 1951, the main collaboration with architect Edo Mihevc – plans in 1954 and the foundation stone the biggest project in Trieste (Italy) – was laid on 21 July 1957. Construction was “Slovene Cultural Centre”. The project is finished just over seven years later. The important and significant for her career building is the work of the architect not only from an architectural perspective, Professor Edo Mihevc (1911-1985), who more over it has a massive importance for was born in Trieste and graduated under Slovenian history and its heritage. The Jože Plečnik, and was very much in favour importance of the Slovene Cultural Centre of modernist trends in architecture. His was recognized by Trieste locals and it still buildings, such as the Impex business widely and commonly visited as a cultural complex (1953-57) and the business and gathering point of Slovenes living in Italy. the residential building Kozolec in None the less Slovene community in Ljubljana (1955-57), as well as the Kulturni Trieste is massive. This project led to other dom in Trieste (1964) show that he was projects in Trieste like the design of a well acquainted with the work of Le student dormitory and also a Slovene Corbusier, Walter Gropius and Mies van bookstore. The project is fully described in der Rohe. Olga Rusanova, his assistant in the following words: designing the Kulturni dom, says that "The Kulturni dom (Cultural Centre) in Mihevc during the time before he drew up Trieste, housing the Permanent Slovene the plans travelled a great deal to Vienna Theatre (in Italian Teatro stabile Sloveno) and around Germany where he studied represents a phenomenon among theatre theatre buildings. He had his own way of buildings in the Slovene cultural space. In tackling the tasks he was given and order to understand this one has to know resolving any problems, says Rusanova, the history of Slovenes in Trieste and their adding that he also had a very good literally fiery theatrical history. It was built mastery of space. Due to the small size of in under twenty years after World War 2, the plot the building is built on – 1900 in 1964, as a reaction of the Slovene square metres – he designed the theatre community to the burning down in 1920 so that space was provided by its height, of the Narodni dom (National Centre). The the balcony had very soft lines, whilst the first, burned down was designed by the ceiling in the auditorium and the foyer architect Maks Fabiani (1865-1962), was provided a pleasant ambience. The finished in 1904 and united under its roof contact between the walls and the floor is various activities such as theatre, a executed in such a way that it seems as if printing house, two cafes and a hotel, and everything is floating, which gives the housed various societies and offices. impression of spaciousness and grandeur.)

111 Discussion engineering business or architecture for that matter. However, nowadays we can Even today, women architects are still expose few female individuals who left a having difficulties to succeed in the mark in architecture. One of the most academic field. Women are nowadays remarkable or the most remarkable encouraged to apply for the academic representatives of contemporary positions all over Europe, doing so they architecture is Zaha Hadid whose work get extra credit for it. As well they are well simply cannot be misslooked. She drew known for the work they are doing. Maybe divisive response and was praised for in near future, there will be no more showing how female architects can be well questions about the gender in respected and successful, but criticized for architecture, but the most important thing failing to achieve work/life balance. A will be the work and its results. That is special milestone in architectural practice what architecture should be about. was placed by Marion Mahony Griffin. She The role of women in architecture calls was not only one of the first licensed various research field to discuss the topic female architects in the world, but was the (historians, psychologists, sociologists, first employee of Frank Lloyd Wright, one architects) which is rather complex. The of the greatest architects of his time. reasons we forget women architects are Rackard (2013) wrote: "Being his first varied. Until recently, historians assumed employee, Mahoney exerted a that there were no female practitioners considerable influence on the development before the mid-20th century of the Prairie style, while her watercolor (https://placesjournal.org/article/unforget renderings soon became synonymous with ting-women-architects-from-the-pritzker- Wright's work. As was typical for Wright at to-wikipedia/). the time, he credited her for neither. The discussed topic is becoming more However, she has become known as an appreciated, since also female architects architect who always put people first in are getting more common in the business her work, creating beautiful architecture" all over Europe. We can find as well books The role of Olga Rusanova was mostly no about women in architecture (for example different than the role of her women Münchener Nachkriegs Architektinnen: predecessors and colleagues across Bea Betz and Edith Horny), where we can Europe and the world. They had the find out what women in architecture knowledge, they knew how to work and struggled with in the years after WW2 in design, but they still stayed in the shadow Germany. But outlined problems can be of their male colleagues. The reason of the correlated to the problematic of women in mentioned situation or better said, status engineering business all over the world. of women in architecture, was partially Women who found the passion and their clarified and discussed by Desapina life mission in designing or architecture Stratigakos were simultaneously forced to deal with (https://placesjournal.org/article/unforget extra pressure by confronting different ting-women-architects-from-the-pritzker- obstacles leading many at the time to to-wikipedia/) who wrote: "Women have highlight that woman had no place in the sometimes contributed to their own world of architecture. The role of women disappearance. Male architects do not in the engineer business was and still is hesitate to take an active role in hard. Women have to break through the preserving their legacies by writing idea, that they are not suitable for the memoirs and ensuring the safe-keeping of

112 their models, drawings and Sources correspondence. Women — taught that self-promotion is an unattractive female Trieste Permanent Slovene Theatre alias trait — have made less effort to tell their Cultural Centre, http://www.theatre- stories. Among older generations, some architecture.eu/db.html?filter%5Blabel%5 women in partnerships have chosen to D=Slovensko+stalno+gledali%C5%A1%C4% stand in the shadows in order to shine the 8De+Trst&filter%5Bcity%5D=&filter%5Bsta spotlight on their husbands." te_id%5D=0&theatreId=277. Accessed September 20, 2016.

Conclusion Unforgetting Women Architects: From the Pritzker to Wikipedia, Female architects are involved in https://placesjournal.org/article/unforgett architecture and its practice for a long ing-women-architects-from-the-pritzker- period of time, but not discussed often as to-wikipedia/. Accessed September 20, their male colleagues. Their position of 2016. discretion is justified on various grounds. However, there are numerous individuals Here's a Timeline of the History of Women who demonstrate the ability to work in in Architecture, architecture and be successful. http://www.curbed.com/2012/3/21/1038 One of them is Olga Rusanova who is one 6730/heres-a-timeline-of-the-history-of- of the most recognizable women women-in-architecture. Accessed architects in Slovenia, who was able to September 20, 2016. fight the general belief, and make a position and a career in the area (quietly) The 10 Most Overlooked Women in reserved for male colleagues, and which Architecture History, was quite an achievement for that specific http://www.archdaily.com/341730/the- time period. Rusanova achieved to get her 10-most-overlooked-women-in- own course at faculty and was elected for architecture-history. Accessed September the academic habilitation of associate 20, 2016. Professor at Faculty of Architecture; for longer time she was the only woman in Häupl, Nadja, editor. Münchener architecture holding that position. She did Nachkriesarchitektinen: Bea Betz und Edith stand out of the shadow and worked as an Horny. München: Tehnische Univeristät independent architect collaborating with München, 2010. male colleagues but anyhow stayed in the Biografije in bibliografije univerzitetnih shadows until present time. Her academic učiteljev in sodelavcev: Univerza v journey and architectural practice was full Ljubljani, 1957. of determination, perseverance, and dedication. Olga Rusanova, who lives by Biografije in bibliografije univerzitetnih the Slovene seaside, presents a path for učiteljev in sodelavcev, Druga knjiga 1956- active female architects and the one who 1966: Univerza v Ljubljani, 1969. wants to become one. Biografije in bibliografije univerzitetnih učiteljev, znanstvenih delavcev in sodelavcev, tretja knjiga 1966-1976 I. del: Univerza Edvarda Kardelja v Ljubljani, 1979.

113 sodelavcev, tretja knjiga 1966-1976 II. Del: Biografije in bibliografije univerzitetnih Univerza Edvarda Kardelja v Ljubljani, učiteljev, znanstvenih delavcev in 1981.

114 Exploring female contribution to Slovenian conservation in the 1950s and 1960s: Case study of Cistercian Abbey of Kostanjevica na Krki reconstruction

Barbara Vodopivec

Introduction in the educational system).3 However, exercising of this formal equality was Definition of female contribution to neither fast nor predictable or monolith Slovenian conservation in the first two process. The gap between law and decades after the 2nd World War should practice persisted till the end of the derive from the knowledge of socialist regime at least. As Mateja Jeraj conservation profession’s history and put it in her study on women in socialist should be placed in a broader context of regime: »In the atmosphere, still quite political and social development, related unfavourable to women, legally especially to the gender studies issues. guaranteed rights were not easily Gender studies as a distinctive research implemented.«4 This development, along field in Slovenia have been addressed in with slow male-oriented mentality shift,5 the 1980s and 1990s,1 whilst the indicates why in the 1950s and 1960s historiography has not dealt with the topic women’s participation in education6 and till the beginning of the 21th Century.2 In consequently in professions, including the period from 1945 till 1991 Slovenia conservation, was rather slow despite was part of the Yugoslav state, what formally given equal rights. determines a specific context for the History of contemporary Slovenian monument protection field, as well. conservation can be followed primarily Position of women in Slovenia after the through extensive reviews, induced by 2nd World War has changed for the better important anniversaries7 or through at least in formal terms. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 3 Mateja Jeraj: Ženska naj bo mati in delavka (Vloga adopted in 1946, laid legal foundations for in položaj Slovenk v socializmu, s poudarkom na equal treatment of men and women 1945-53). In: Žižek (ed.), 2004, p. 368. 4 Mateja Jeraj: Ženske v slovenski politiki v (provisions on the right to vote, the right socializmu. In: Antič 2011, p. 64; Mateja Jeraj: to equal payment for equal work, access Ženska naj bo mati in delavka (Vloga in položaj to all public services and equal treatment Slovenk v socializmu, s poudarkom na 1945-53), In: Žižek (ed.), 2004, p. 367. 5 Cf Verginella, 2006. 6 Aleš Gabrič, in Žižek (ed.), 2004. 1 E. g.: Marta Verginella. Ženska obrobja. Vpis 7 For the basic overwiev of Slovenian conservation žensk v zgodovino Slovencev. DELTA: Ljubljana, see Sonja Ana Hoyer: Spomeniško varstvo. 2006; Aleksander Žižek (ed.). Ženska skozi Enciklopedija Slovenije, Ljubljana. Mladinska zgodovino. Zbornik referatov 32. zborovanja knjiga, 1987. Pp. 214—217. See also: Baš, F. slovenskih zgodovinarjev, Celje 30. september – 2. Organizacija spomeniškega varstva v slovenski Oktober 2004. Ljubljana: Zveza zgodovinskih preteklosti. In Varstvo spomenikov, pp. 13-3, društev Slovenije, 2004; Milica Antić Gaber (ed.). V/1953-54.; Komelj, I. Leto 1945 in varstvo Ženske na robovih politike. Ljubljana: Sophia, 2011. kulturnih spomenikov na Slovenskem, Varstvo Zbirka Refleksija; 2011, 3. Cf Verginella, 2006, pp. spomenikov, pp. 5-53, Ljubljana, XX/1976; Peskar, 186-189. R. 60 let Varstva spomenikov. In Varstvo 2 In Slovenian historiography, the first thematic spomenikov, pp. 7-16, 44/2008. Important push issue was: Žižek (ed.), 2004. forward in reflection of Slovenian conservation was

115 outlines, introducing certain thematic conservation profession in the 1950s and studies.8 However, female contribution to 1960s. Slovenian conservation has not been among reflected topics, yet. Thus, exploring this not-yet revealed aspect of Emergence and contribution of female Slovenian conservation profession should conservators rest upon primary sources analyses: above all professional periodicals such as journal At first, conservation was predominately Monument Conservation. A Periodical for in hands of art historians but gradually Research and Practice of Monument from the 2nd half of the 20th Century on Conservation (Varstvo spomenikov. Revija other professions, such as architecture, za teorijo in prakso spomeniškega varstva; history, archaeology and ethnology, hereafter Varstvo spomenikov) 9 and became involved in the field of monument archives of the Institute for the Protection protection. Equally, in the 1950s and of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia, kept by 1960s women started to appear both as the INDOK Centre of the Ministry of designers and experts working on-site, as Culture, where also some conservators’ well as authors of professional and personal archives are held. Process can be scientific articles and contributions. studied in details through the case studies. Review of the professional periodical Conservation project of the former journal Varstvo spomenikov, which is Cistercian Abbey in Konstanjevica na Krki published since 1948, reveals that in the reconstruction is presented in the third period from 1948 till 1975 female authors section of this article as a case study and is were present, but in a smaller number aimed to explore inclusion of women in compared to their male colleagues. The majority of women contributions anniversary »100 let službe za varstvo kulturne were papers, then conservation reports dediščine na Slovenskem / 100 Years of Service for and finally, in the minimum they were the Protection of Heritage«, resulting in a number engaged in editorial roles. The ratio of studeis and publications, most notably Sto let v broken down by the type of contribution is dobro dediščine, Ljubljana: Zavod za varstvo kulturne dediščine Slovenije, 2015 in Varstvo comparable between male and female spomenikov 47-48, Zavod za varstvo kulturne authors. dediščine Slovenije, Ljubljana: 2014. First female editor in chief of the journal 8 E. g. Črepinšek, M. Prenova stavbne dediščine v was Mica Černigoj in 1962, who in 1965 Sloveniji = The renovation of the Slovene also became first principal of the Institute. architectural heritage Info press, Ljubljana, 1993; Pirkovič, J. Osnovni pojmi in zasnova spomeniškega In the same year, 1962, Helena Menaše varstva v Sloveniji. Zavod RS za varstvo naravne in became member of the editorial board kulturne dediščine, Ljubljana, 1993. Vodopivec, B., and remained there till 1975. Seven years Žarnić, R.: Cultural heritage data management in later, in 1969, another woman Iva Mikl the context of historical development of Curk became member of the editorial monument protection in Slovenia, in: Heritage protection from documentation to nnterventions : board and in 1974 also main and proceedings of the EU-CHIC International responsible editor of Varstvo spomenikov. conference on Cultural heritage preservation, 29 Even though the ratio is firmly in favour of May - 1 June 2012, Split, Croatia. male authors, female experts contributed 9 Journal is the central periodical publication for significantly as authors of professional conservation profession, however to obtain the 10 complete picture, also other publications should be papers. Marija Verbič published an taken info account, such as publication of the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage 10 Women were almost equally represented in the Vestnik (since 1962). field of natural protection from the beginning of

116 article on the preservation of archives in Nataša Štupar Šumi and Fanči Šart. 1949 as the first from the field of culture. Authors Olga Zupan, Andreja Volavšek and Among earlier authors were also Špelca Sonja Hojer wrote most frequently on the Čopič, who in 1951 wrote about the issues monuments of the Slovenian Liberation of museums and exhibitions, Marija Movement. Jagodic, who in 1955 contributed a paper The largest number of female authors was on the Anton Aškerc homestead and Milka engaged in preparing conservation reports Čanak-Medić, who published two articles on archaeological monuments. Most on Kostanjevica na Krki reconstruction (in reports were contributed by Elica Boltin 1958 and later in 1967). Cultural heritage (Tome), Ljudmila Plesničar Gec, Iva Mikl protection was more frequently Curk, Vera Kolšek, Vida Stare, Mehtilda represented by female authors in the Urleb, Zorka Šubic, Tatjana Bregant and 1960s: Fanči Šarf (ethnology, 1960), Marija Jevremov (Tomanič). Authors of Nataša Štupar Šumi (build heritage and less than four reports in the period 1948- methodological issues, from 1962 till 1975 were: Mirina Zupančič, Tatjana 1975), Olga Kastelic (monuments of the Bregant, Marija Rutar, Anja Uršič, Peoples’ Liberation Movement, 1960), Bernarda Perc, Sonja Petru, Paola Korošec, Ksenija Rozman (restoration issues, 1965 Anja Zwitter, Biba Teržan, Irena Horvat till 1968), Ljudmila Plesničar Gec and Anja Šavelj, Irena Sivec, Mira Strmčnik and Novak (archaeology, 1965), Majda Žontar Nada Osmuk. and Mirna Zupančič (castles in Western However, it is worth mentioning herewith Slovenia, 1967), Vlasta Koren (ethnology, that those authors do not represent the 1975) and Juša Vavken (Ljubljana, 1975). whole group of female experts, active in Several female conservators were the field of conservation in the period engaged in writing conservation reports.11 1948-1975. There were several others, Among the authors of conservation engaged in a number of projects, such as reports for artistic and urban monuments Alenka Železnik or Staša Blažič, but they Špelka Valentinčič-Jurkovič (regularly from did not contribute to Varstvo spomenikov 1960 till 1975), Olga Zupan (2nd half of the in the researched period. 1960s), Andreja Volavšek (1966-1972) and Nataša Štupar-Šumi (regularly from 1965 till 1975) were the most frequently Case study of the former Cistercian represented. Among authors were also Abbey in Konstanjevica na Krki Vlasta Koren, Breda Kovič, Ksenija reconstructions Rozman, Ada Baar, Elica Boltin (Tome), Juša Vavken, Majda Frelih Ribič, Miša In the late 1950s and in the 1960s a Logar, Sonja Hojer and Anka Aškerc. number of large renovation projects, led Etnographic monuments were covered by by Institute for protection and study of Ada Baar, Olga Zupan, Andreja Volavšek, cultural and natural monuments (hereafter Institute), begun in Slovenia. the journal on – Angela Piskernik published papers Strong focus was placed on the continuously from the 1949 on. Ana Budmar and monuments, which were destroyed during Tatjana Bregant also published papers on natural and after the 2nd World War, Kostanjevica protection in the journal in the period 1948 -1975. na Krki among them. These projects 11 Conservation reports are short reports on conservatiorn works, carried out in a certain period demonstrate shift from urgent on a specific object. Reports, even though short preservation measures to integrated and inexhaustible, are a rich and valuable source renovation approach, gradually comprising for conservation history studies.

117 reconstruction designs, valorisation The Cistercian monastery was established methods and revitalisation plans. In this in 1234. Between 1739 and 1747 the chapter, early involvement of women in major reconstruction in the Baroque style conservation is explored through the case was carried out, which gave some of the study of Kostanjevica former Abbey most distinctive artistic features to the reconstruction . complex: free-standing Baroque façade of Art historical evaluation places former the church, reconstruction of the entrance Cistercian Abbey in Kostanjevica na Krki with two towers and newly built wings.16 among the most prominent architectural However, in 1786 the monastery was monuments in Slovenia.12 Reconstruction dissolved; consequently the altars and and revitalization of the monument, which other church fittings were taken away or was badly damaged during the 2nd World sold in the next decades.17 The monastery War, was one of the first large building became headquarters of the conservation and reconstruction projects regional administration (thus, the object carried out in Slovenia after 1945, and was also called the castle); yet the which was ended only recently.13 monastery church, now without function, The whole complex of the former was due to the absence of maintenance Cistercian Abbey St. Mary’s Spring/Fons and thus improper use (storehouse and beatae virginis Mariae in Kostanjevica na cart shed) left to decay.18 It was only in the Krki was declared monument of national 1920s that France Stelè, head of the importance in 1999 due to its cultural, Monument office for Slovenia, started archaeological, landscape, artistic, consolidation and renovation works, architectural and historical significance.14 which ended in 1933. The campaign saved Today the complex is devoted to secular the monument, and by introducing purposes only, especially appreciated for stylistic renovation through presentation the reach collection of Slovenian 20th of older architectural elements, it was also Century artists (in 1974 Božidar Jakac important for development of gallery was established),15 Forma Viva (the conservation profession in Slovenia: “… it largest 20th Century collection of wooden was one of the largest conservation sculptures in Slovenia, est. 1961), and as actions in Slovenia. With brave disclosure temporary visual arts exhibitions and and reconstruction of the authentic concerts venue. building elements, priority was given to the original construction design.”19 In 1941, the Italian army used monastery 12 France Stele, separat, p. 9; Zadnikar, 1994, p. as a headquarters and a firewood 171, 186; More on art historical description of the 20 complex see Komelj, VS 1960; Zadnikar 1994; warehouse. On 29 September 1942 21 Smrekar 2015; Smrekar (ed.), Vekov tek, 2003. partisans set the building on fire, what 13 Železnik, p. 463. In: Smrekar (ed), 2003. caused major demolition, followed by the 14 Odlok o razglasitvi Območja gradu Kostanjevica s collapse of the church vaults in 1942, an samostanom in Galerijo na prostem – Formo vivo za kulturi spomenik državnega pomena. Ur. l. RS, št. 81/99, 55/2002, 54/2003. The firs decree 16 Zadnikar 1994, p. 41 protecting the site was issued by Svet za prosveto 17 Zadnikar 1994 , pp. 43, 51-71. in kulturo LRS in 1952 (Ur. l. LRS, 15/7-1952, str. 18 Miklavčič, web exhibition: 20). http://www.kd100let.si/dosje-nekega-spomenika/ 15 Among artists Božidar Jakac (1899-1989), France - accessed 16. 9. 2016 Kralj (1895-1960), Tone Kralj (1900-1975), Zoran 19 Komelj, VS 1958-59, p. 30. Didek (1910-1980), Janez Boljka (1931-2013). 20 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski Železnik, pp. 82-83. In: Kulturna dediščina meniških povzetki, p. 16. redov, 1996. 21 Ibidem.

118 intentional blasting of the part of the west Kostanjevica, “… on whose shoulders a wing in 1947 (to enable heavy trucks to large part of our work rests”29 had to easily access wine cellar, which was then return to Ljubljana for another project. in the monastery), the collapses of the Only on 12 July 1955 restoration works south wing in 1948, the west wing in 1949, begun again, this time in more systematic the south-east wing in 195822 and the manner.30 Even though in years from 1947 major collapse of the bell tower “… on till 1955 conservation actions were limited Sunday, 14. 4. 1956, twelve minutes to urgent interventions, the Institute was before 9 AM.”23 active in preparing basis for proclamation In 1946 and 1947 Emilijan Cevc from the of Kostanjevica (in 1951 local people were Institute organized art history students of taking material from the ruins)31, but to do the Faculty of Arts of the University of that ownership and related management Ljubljana (in the second year few students issue had to be resolved first. In 1952 of architecture and high school students Commission for the Agrarian Reform joined) to clean the ruins of the collapsed issued decree, according to which church.24 Art historian Ivan Komelj, from Ljubljana diocese was expropriated and the middle of 1950s in charge of the the Kostanjevica complex with the garden project, was among those students, as became people’s property.32 On 30 May well.25 1952 OLO Krško assigned the Institute to Architect Marjan Mušič draw plans for the manage Kostanjevica complex.33 Since the roof cover of the church in 194726 and a legal issues were resolved, soon the number of conservation proclamation act followed,34 and recommendations, however latter were foundations for larger conservation action not carried out.27 In addition, architect were laid down. Milica Detoni28, who worked in

diplomantov Fakultete za arhitekturo Univerze v 22 Miklavčič, web exhibition. Works described also Ljubljani) . in: Milka Čanak, Konsolidacija samostanske cerkve 29 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski v Kostanjevici na Krki, Varstvo spomenikov, 7, povzetki, p. 5. 1960, pp. 37 – 48; Ivan Komelj, Cistercijanski 30 Komelj, VS 1960, pp. 21-36; Čanak VS 1960, pp. samostan v Kostanjevici na Krki – njegova usoda in 37-48. konservatorski posegi. Varstvo spomenikov, 7, 31 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski 1960, pp. 21 – 36; Andrej Smrekar, Kostanjevica na povzetki, p. 16. Krki. Zbirka vodnikov Kulturni in naravni spomeniki 32 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski Slovenije, Zavod za varstvo kulturne dediščine povzetki, p. 20. Slovenije, 2015; Alenka Železnik: Kostanjevica na 33 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski Krki – prenova samostanskega kompleksa, pp. 455 povzetki, p. 21. Institute signed a contract with – 465, in Vekov tek: Kostanjevica na Krki 1252- Vinarska zadruga (winegrowers' Cooperative) to 2002: zbornik ob 750. obletnici prve listinske manage the object and to manage the omembe mesta, Andrej Smrekar (ed.), Kostanjevica maintenance and restoration works in close na Krki. Krajevna skupnost, 2003. cooperation with the Institute. Works were done 23 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski by Gradis and Pionir. In 1959 the Institute povzetki, p. 31. terminated the contract and management of the 24 Cevc, VS 1948, p. 14. complex was given to the Community Videm-Krško 25 Dokumentacija Galerije Božidarja Jakca, Zapiski with the contract, signed on 25. 7. 1959 – Ivana Komelja, p. 3. Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski 26 Prav tam. povzetki, p. 61. 27 Zadnikar 1994, p. 48. 34 Zaščitna odločba Sveta za prosveto in kulturo LRS 28 Milica Detoni was born on 25 September 1926. (Ur. l. LRS, št. 20-109/52, dated 15 July 1952). She studied architecture and graduated with Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski professor Jože Plečnik on 27 June 1952 (Knjiga povzetki, p. 33.

119 Based on the recommendation from On 24 July 1957 she is mentioned to be architect Marjan Mušič, in 1955 the present on the meeting of the expert Institute invited The Federal Institute for Committee,42 which implies that she might the Protection of Cultural Monuments be a member or at least an important from Belgrade to participate in the project expert support, while on 16 September and to nominate architect Milka Čanak35 1958 she is already mentioned as a as a design engineer.36 Indeed, Čanak representative of the national institute,43 arrived to Kostanjevica on 8 September what confirms her as an employee of the 195637 and in the following two years institution. prepared plans for the conservation Architect and conservator Špelka project, from 1957 in close cooperation Valentinčič-Jurkovič was born on 10 with static engineer Oskar Hrabovski.38 October 1931 in Ljubljana. She studied Even though not all of her ideas were architecture and graduated with Jože realized, the integrated renovation of the Plecnik in 1956and in 1958 she started to complex in the following years and work at the Institute, where she also decades largely derived from her plans retired in 1992. Ever since the student and drawings. years, she has been working in the field of protection of cultural heritage, starting in Both institutes established joint Expert the municipality Šmarje. For more than 30 committee for the restoration of the years she was in charge of renovation of monastery complex, comprised of France castles in Dolenjska and Bela Krajina, Stele, president, and Vlado Madjarić which were ruined during and after the 2nd (president of the federal institute), Edo World War (Mokrice, Prežek, Stari grad at Turnher (director of the national institute), Novo mesto, Hmeljnik, Otočec, Kostel, architect Marijan Mušič and engineer Pobrežje, Soteska, Turjak, Žužemberk) and Svetko Lapajne as members.39 Experts churches in Pleterje, Žužemberk and from Slovenia, appointed to the project, Pobrežje. Till the recent years she has were conservator Ivan Komelj, static cooperated with conservation engineer Stojan Ribnikar and architect professionals as an adviser; among others Špelka Valentinčič.40 But both females, also on the project of Kostanjevica na engaged in the project, were not members Krki.44 of the Committee. The campaign is in details described by Špelka Valentinčič was first mentioned in Komelj, Čanak and Železnik.45 Main pillars relation to Kostanjevica on 7 December of the project were initial urgent 195741 and then periodically thereafter. intervention works (church, arcaded halls and south and west wings consolidation), 35 CV podatki 36 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski 42 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski povzetki, p. 33 and Dokumentacija Galerije povzetki, p. 47. Božidarja Jakca, Zapiski Ivana Komelja, p. 29. 43 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski 37 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski povzetki, p. 48. povzetki, p. 33. 44 http://www.nm.sik.si/si/eknjiznica/bioleks/ - 38 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski accessed 16. 9. 2016. povzetki, p. 39. 39 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski 45 Naštej. Alenka Železnik. Cistercijanska opatija povzetki, p. 38. Kostanjevica, Cistercian Abbey of Kostanjevica. 40 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski Kulturna dediščina meniških rodov - The Heritage povzetki, p. 42. of Monastic Orders, Zbirka Dnevi evropske 41 Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK center, Arhivski kulturne dediščine, 1996. Zavod za varstvo povzetki, p. 42. kulturne dediščine, 1996.

120 which lasted from 1958 till 1961, church in Kostanjevica town.50 The letter subsequent reconstruction works (bell suggests that she was also actively tower reconstruction in the Baroque style following cultural life in Kostanjevica and in 1969 and free-standing façade certainly conservation project of the reconstruction in 1970) and revitalization former abbey complex, as well.51 Thus, she plans, which were intensified from the was another woman along with local 1970’s on. functionary Vilma Pirkovič, related to the In her extensive project documentation, project. After 1970 national Institute dated 1970, Milka Čanak-Medić continued the works with its team of emphasised urgent definition of the experts, especially Ivan Komelj and content for revitalization of the complex, Marijan Zadnikar, and under the stressing the importance to understand leadership of Špelka Valentinčič-Jurkovič and interpret the object as an integral and later Alenka Železnik.52 Nowadays, whole with ex gardens and economic renovation works are almost completed.53 facilities (well, workshops, mill), once used Renovation of the monastery, which by the monks. In addition, she foresaw started in the 50ties, was unique some new functions, such as restaurant, conservation project in Slovenia. There are art gallery, headquarters of the regional at least two reasons. It was the first large conservation institute and premises of one reconstruction of the monument, which of the strongest reginal companies Krka. was badly damaged in the 2nd World War; She cooperated closely with local due to its’ complexity it is even compared authorities. Municipality Videm-Krško to reconstruction interventions in Warszav established Fund for Preservation and and Dresden.54 And, it was the first project Management of Kostanjevica Castle,46 after 1945 in Slovenia, where federal and based on the initiative of Vilma Pirkovič.47 national conservation institutions jointly Local initiative in Kostanjevica was by no worked together.55 Implementation of the means passive, at all. Especially active was 50 cultural worker Lado Smrekar, who was Documentation UIFS ZRC SAZU, France Stele correspondence, 1947. inter alia establisher of Božidar Jakac 51 48 Implication was confirmed by Marinka gallery. Emilia Fon, head of the Dražumerič, conservator in ZVKDS OE Novo mesto pharmacy in Kostanjevica, known also for (phone conversation 31 August 2016). 49 being centre of the local social life, 52 Alenka Železnik (1952), conservator, worked at wrote a letter to France Stele on 30 May the Institute from 1980 till 2013 and was in charge 1947, urging him to visit Kostanjevica due of many renovation projects, one of the most notable castle Rajhenburg .She won Stele prize for to the bad condition of the St. Nicholas outstanding achievemnets in conservation in 2012. See more: http://www.mestnimuzejkrsko.si/arhiv/alenka- zeleznik-steletova-nagrajenka-za-leto-2012 – 46 Miklavčič, web exhibition. accessed on 18. 8. 2016 47 Vilma Pirkovič (Bebler) (1918—1996). See more: 53 Smrekar 2015, p. 64 http://www.nm.sik.si/si/eknjiznica/bioleks/ - 54 Miklavčič, web exhibition. accessed 16. 9. 2016 55 Initially, works were financed by Sloveniain 48 Lado Smrekar (1928). See more: Institute and later on by the federal institute, http://www.nm.sik.si/si/eknjiznica/bioleks/ - Republiški sklad za pospeševanje kulturnih accessed 16. 9. 2016. dejavnosti and community Videm – Krško. 49 Emilija Fon (1897 Celje – 1984 Kostanjevica na Cooperation with federal institute was beneficial Krki). More in: Elizabeta Petruša Štrukelj: Emilija for the monument both from the perspective of Fon, lekarnarica iz Kostanjevice na Krki, in njena expert support as well as from the perspective of povezanost z arhitektom Jožetom Plečnikom, pp. financial support. Ministrstvo za kulturo, INDOK 627—635. In Smrekar (ed.) 2003. center, Arhivski povzetki, p. 48.

121 project was led by a female architect and involvement of female conservators in the conservator Milka Čanak-Medić (1929) reconstruction project. True, male art from Belgrade, whilst architect Špelka historians were in charge of the project; Valentinčič advanced her professional before the war France Stele, after 1945 career on this project, especially after Emilian Cevc, from 1947 on Ivan Komelj. taking the lead after 1970. In addition, But it were women who from the late implementation of the project revealed 1950s led design work and the projects’ many modern conservation doctrine implementation, first Milka Čanak-Medić elements, such as interdisciplinary team of (from 1956 till 1970), then Špelka experts (e. g. static engineers, geologists), Valentinčič- Jurkovič (from 1970 till 1992), strong cooperation with local community later Alenka Železnik (from 1992 till 2013), (municipalty Videm-Krško), and integrated whilst now Marija Režek Kambič is a approach with emphasised issue of conservator, responsible for the complex. function and programme from the Beyond this chronological order, they beginning of the project. Art historian often worked together on terrain; Čanak- Emilijan Cevc already in 1948 stressed the Medić and Jurkovič-Valentinčič closely renovation of the object and its potential cooperated from 1957 on. administrative, touristic and cultural function as an opportunity to foster development of “industrially passive Conclusions Kostanjevica.”56 In addition, definition of the renovation guidelines was neither Women were notable part of the earliest simple nor evident. In 1956 decision has conservation projects after 1945. Their been made that the church should be share compared to their male colleagues conserved as a ruin,57 but as Ivan Komelj was in average 24%, as the analysis of reports, in 1962 team of experts decided Varstvo spomenikov revealed. This for reconstruction; Čanak, Pirkovič and percentage is comparable to the share of Valentinčič were in the team of experts.58 women students enrolled to the higher When Ivan Komelj, long-time head of the institutions in Slovenia in the 2nd half of project, decided to advocate primarily the 20th Century; their share was 29% in cultural function of the object, it was the school year 1953/54. Aleš Gabrič another important decision.59 This estimates that share of female students at development reveals that refinements of the architecture, which recruited many conservation approaches were constantly post war conservators, was “important”, in the centre of reflections throughout the whilst at the human and social sciences Kostanjevica project and thus in turn faculties in the 1950s and 1960s women Kostanjevica project also influenced students represented half of all students.60 development of conservation profession It can be argued, that female professional in Slovenia. engagement in conservation at that time But above all, Kostanjevica as a content- was in close correlation with their rich case study proves significant possibility to access the higher education. Based on the Konstanjevica na Krki case study it cannot be argued that relatively 56 Varstvo spomenikov, 1948. modern conservation approach, 57 Miklavčič, web exhibition. 58 Dokumentacija Galerije Božidarja Jakca, Zapiski implemented in the project, was Ivana Komelja, p. 60. 59 Dokumentacija Galerije Božidarja Jakca, Zapiski 60 Aleš Gabrič: Od moškega do unisex šolstva, in: Ivana Komelja, p. 66. Žižek (ed.) 2004, p. 220

122 consequence of the gender issue, but it shifted the approach.63 She recalls quote has more to do with the rhythm of the from historian Peter Vodopivec, who in conservation profession development in 1994 claimed that women in Slovenian Slovenia and Yugoslavia. historiography were treated: “…as more or However, one can argue that female less anonymous and self-explanatory part conservators from the 1950s and 1960s, of Slovenian history.”64 Rare studies, many of them are mentioned in this devoted to the history of conservation, article, are not as well-known (or are not reflect the same approach. 65 known, at all) as their concurrent male The situation, especially the lack of female colleagues, such as France Stele, Marijan conservators’ work evaluation, has also a Zadnikar, Ivan Komelj, Emilijan Cevc and lot to do with the absence of conservation others. This has to do with undisputable profession self-reflection. It is especially male domination in the profession in the worth mentioning that there is no 1st half of the 20th Century, what gave undergraduate conservation study them better starting position and visibility programme in Slovenia, and thus the also instantly after the 1945, whilst profession remains on the level of women only started to establish specialization of some basic disciplines. themselves at that time. Another objective Only recently, in the school year reason can be suggested that conservation 2009/2010, University of Ljubljana, Faculty profession extensively developed in the of Arts, accredited doctoral study 20th Century not only in terms of programme “Heritology”, devoted to internationalization61 but also in terms of heritage studies. This, alongside with multidisciplinarity and specialization of epistemological and theoretical specific knowledges and skills, what shifts endeavours, promoted by the Slovenian focus from one-man band projects to monument protections service 100th groups of experts, making it more anniversary, indicates emergence of demanding to detect extraordinary deeper insights into conservation experts, both male and female. profession development. At the same But contemporary weak awareness of time, also project Momowo,66 reflecting contributions of some excellent female female contributions in traditionally male conservators, which is still persisting dominated professions, enables promising today,62 has to do also with male-oriented insights for the history of conservation historiography. Marta Verginella in 2004 profession in Slovenia. doubted, if Slovenian history has already caught the gender equality trend and thus

61 The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments. International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, 63 Marta Verginella: Zgodovina žensk ali ženska Athens 1931; The Venice Charter: International zgodovina, in Žižek (ur.) 2004. Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of 64 Peter Vodopivec: Kako so ženske na Slovenskem Monuments and Sites. ICOMOS 1964. v 19. stoletju stopale v javno življenje, Zgodovina za 62 Situation is gradually getting better. Among 27 vse, I, 1994, 2, str. 30. lavreats of the Stele awards, given from 1990 on by 65 See footnote 9. Slovenian Conservation Society for outstanding 66 Momowo – Women Creativity since the Modern achievements in conservation, there are 8 women Movement is and European project, financed by so far. http://www.s-kd.si/steletove-nagrade/ - the Culture 2007-2013 programe; accessed 19. 8. 2016. www.momowo.eu

123 Acknowledgements Antić Gaber, Milica (ur.): Ženske na robovih politike. Ljubljana: Sophia, 2011. Research for this paper has been done in Zbirka Refleksija; 2011, 3. the framework of the project Momowo – Women’s Creativity since the Modern Antić Gaber, Milica: Zakaj (na)pisati knjigo Movement, financed by the EU program o ženskah v slovenski politiki. In: Antić Culture 2007-2013. Professional advice Gaber, Milica (ur.). Ženske na robovih and support in searching for the relevant politike. Ljubljana: Sophia, 2011. Zbirka material and information by INDOK centre Refleksija; 2011, 3). of the Ministry of Culture (Metka Košir), Božidar Jakac Gallery (Goran Milovanovič), Cevc, Emilijan: Kostanjeviški samostan. Institute for the Protection of Cultural Varstvo spomenikov 1 (1), 1948 Heritage of Slovenia, Reginal office Novo mesto (Marinka Držaumerič) and Ljubljana Čanak, Milka: Konsolidacija samostanske (Marija Režek Kambič, Sabina Ravnikar), cerkve v Kostanjevici na Krki, Varstvo prof. dr. Josip Korošec, and colleagues spomenikov, 7, 1960, str. 37 – 48. from the Fran Stele Institute of Art History ZRC SAZU are greatly acknowledged. Čanak, Milka: Projekat za adaptaciju cistercitskog samostana u Kostanjevici za savremene potrebe. Jugoslovenski institut Sources za zaštitu spomenika kulture, zvezek 1, Beograd, 1970. INDOK centre MK RS, Galerija Božidarja Jakca, dokumentacija zbirka elaboratov. Ministrstvo za kutluro. INDOK center, Kostanjevica na Krki, arhivski izvlečki Čanak-Medić, Milka: K preučevanju cerkve Ministrstvo za kutluro. INDOK center, cistercijanskega samostana v Kostanjevici, Kostanjevica na Krki, zbirka elaboratov Varstvo spomenikov, 11, 1967, str. 34—39. »Odlok o razglasitvi Območja gradu Kostanjevica s samostanom in Galerijo na Čanak-Medić, Milka: Projekat za prostem – Formo vivo za kulturi spomenik adaptaciju samostana u Kostanjevici. državnega pomena«, Ur. l. RS, št. 81/99, Jugoslovenski institut za zaštitu spomenika 55/2002, 54/2003. kulture, Beograd, 1970. INDOK centre MK RS, zbirka elaboratov. UIFS ZRC SAZU. France Stele, korespondenca 1946, 1947 Enciklopedija Slovenije 15, Žensko UIFS ZRC SAZU. Steletovi terenski zapiski. časopisje (Smilja Amon).

Kostanjevica, samostan, samostanska Enciklopedija Slovenije 15, Žensko gibanje cerkev Ministrstvo za kulturo. INDOK (Maca Jogan). center, Ivan Komelj, terenski zapiski ZVKDS OE Ljubljana, dokumentacija in Enciklopedija Slovenije 15, Žensko šolstvo fotodokumentacija. (Tatjana Hojan).

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124 zgodovinarjev, Celje 30. september – 2. Plečnikom, str. 627—635. In: Vekov tek: Oktober 2004. Ljubljana: Zveza Kostanjevica na Krki 1252-2002: zbornik zgodovinskih društev Slovenije, 2004. ob 750. obletnici prve listinske omembe mesta, ur: Andrej Smrekar, Kostanjevica Jeraj, Mateja: Ženska naj bo mati in na Krki. Krajevna skupnost, 2003. delavka (Vloga in položaj Slovenk v socializmu, s poudarkom na 1945-53), str. Smrekar, Andrej: Kostanjevica na Krki. 357-372. In: Žižek, Aleksander (ur.). Ženska Zbirka vodnikov Kulturni in naravni skozi zgodovino. Zbornik referatov 32. spomeniki Slovenije, Zavod za varstvo zborovanja slovenskih zgodovinarjev, Celje kulturne dediščine Slovenije, 2015. 30. september – 2. Oktober 2004. Ljubljana: Zveza zgodovinskih društev Stele, France: Samostan v Kostanjevici. Slovenije, 2004. Koledar Mohorjeve družbe, Celje: 1947 (str. 99-101). Separat, str. 5–9. Jeraj, Mateja: Ženske v slovenski politiki v socializmu, str. 63-81. In: Antić Gaber, Vekov tek: Kostanjevica na Krki 1252- Milica (ur.). Ženske na robovih politike. 2002: zbornik ob 750. obletnici prve Ljubljana: Sophia, 2011. Zbirka Refleksija; listinske omembe mesta, ur: Andrej 2011, 3). Smrekar, Kostanjevica na Krki. Krajevna skupnost, 2003. Komelj, Ivan: Cistercijanski samostan v Kostanjevici na Krki – njegova usoda in Verginella, Marta: Ženska obrobja. Vpis konservatorski posegi. Varstvo žensk v zgodovino Slovencev. DELTA: spomenikov, 7, 1960, str. 21 – 36. Ljubljana, 2006.

Kostanjevica na Krki. Samostan. Program Verginella, Marta: Vstop žensk v slovensko spomeniških del. Zavod za spomeniško politično areno, str. 3-20. In: Antić Gaber, varstvo LRS, Ljubljana, 1961?. INDOK Milica (ur.). Ženske na robovih politike. centre MK RS, zbirka elaboratov. Ljubljana: Sophia, 2011. Zbirka Refleksija; Kostanjevica na Krki: 2011, 3). http://www.kd100let.si/dosje-nekega- spomenika/ Verginella, Marta: Zgodovina žensk ali ženska zgodovina, str. 7-11. In: Žižek, Miklavčič Pintarič, Magda: Kostanjevica Aleksander (ur.). Ženska skozi zgodovino. monastery. Documenting heritage forever Zbornik referatov 32. zborovanja – preserving our history forever. Virtual slovenskih zgodovinarjev, Celje 30. exhibition, Heritage Information and september – 2. Oktober 2004. Ljubljana: Documentation Centre (INDOK Centre) of Zveza zgodovinskih društev Slovenije, the Cultural Heritage Directorate at the 2004. Ministry of Culture, 2013. http://www.kd100let.si/en/vecnost- Zadnikar, Marijan: Kostanjeviški klošter dokumentiranja-dediscine-eng/ - accessed »Fontis S. Mariae«, Družina, Ljubljana, 18. 8. 2016 1994.

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125 Krki 1252-2002: zbornik ob 750. obletnici Uprava Republike Slovenije za kulturno prve listinske omembe mesta, ur: Andrej dediščino, 1996, str. 76—83. Smrekar, Kostanjevica na Krki. Krajevna skupnost, 2003. Žižek, Aleksander (ur.). Ženska skozi zgodovino. Zbornik referatov 32. Železnik, Alenka: Kostanjevica na Krki. zborovanja slovenskih zgodovinarjev, Celje Cistercijanska opatija Kostanjevica. V: 30. september – 2. Oktober 2004. Kulturna dediščina meniških rodov - The Ljubljana: Zveza zgodovinskih društev Heritage of Monastic Orders. Ljubljana: Slovenije, 2004.

126 Position of Women Architects in Western Europe

Marion Tournon-Branly and Eliane Castelnau-Tastemain: Two leading figures in French architecture

Stéphanie Mesnage

My paper relates to two women architects However Eliane Castelnau and Marion born in the 1920s in France, and who Tournon-Branly seem to be two succeeded in doing two things which were exceptions to this rule, although they also almost inaccessible for women at the had very diverse professional activities, in time, that is before 1970: the manner of their lady colleagues. - Eliane Castelnau has designed and was responsible for directing the works on public buildings as part of I – Panorama of Marion Tournon-Branly important programs and Eliane Castelnau’s careers - Marion Tournon-Branly has attained a form of recognition from her a - The Ecole des Beaux-arts in Paris colleagues, architects In effect my research, as focused on the Marion Tournon-Branly and Eliane work of women architects before 1970 in Castelnau studied architecture at the Ecole France, has already allowed me to des Beaux-Arts in Paris2, which had conclude that they mostly attended their welcomed women in its architecture business along variegated lines, investing section as from 1898, when Julia Morgan their energies in many professional was admitted to second class3. sectors such as urban planning, As a whole, the school enrolled 576 landscaping, journalism, the writing of women out of a total of 18,141 students history, etc. together with other, more traditional, practices such as project management. My research also allowed me to make the Shadows,” in MoMoWo · 100 Projects in 100 Years. assumption that this professional European Women in Architecture and Design · 1918-2018, by Alain Bonnet et al. (Ljubljana: positioning of women, so to speak, did not Založba ZRC, 2016), 266–71. give them access to important 2 Marie-Laure Crosnier Leconte, “Tournon-Branly, architectural commissions and is one of Marion,” Dictionnaire Des Élèves Architectes de the reasons why the work of women l’École Des Beaux-Arts (1800-1968) (Paris: INHA, architects is neither known nor 2016), http://www.purl.org/inha/agorha/002/149045.; acknowledged – considering the Marie-Laure Crosnier Leconte, “Castelnau, Eliane,” architectural community only Dictionnaire Des Élèves Architectes de l’École Des « acknowledges » the work of project Beaux-Arts (1800-1968) (Paris: INHA, 2016), managers1. http://www.purl.org/inha/agorha/002/156371. 3 Lydie Mouchel, “Femmes Architectes ‘une Histoire À Écrire’” (DEA Histoire socio-culturelle, 1 XXXXXXXXX, “Éloge de L’ombre,” Criticat, no. 10 Université de Versailles Saint Quentin en Yvelines, (automne 2012): 40–53. ; XXXXX, “In Praise of 2000), 23.

127 between 1800-1968 – women thus Eliane Castelnau's career path is less well representing 3.17% of this number4. known but we know that she spent much Marion Tournon-Branly and Eliane more time within the school: she Castelnau worked in a studio run by graduated in 1954 after 11 years of Auguste Perret5, the famous french study11. architect, who was head of his own studio at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts between 1923 – 1930, then between 1942 - 19546. b - Marion Tournon-Branly’s career Marion Tournon-Branly was the first woman to be admitted to the studio in Marion Tournon-Branly exercised her 1942 – the second was Eliane Castelnau profession in a very comprehensive and the following year7. According to Marion diverse manner: As from 1950, she was a Tournon-Branly, Auguste Perret insisted to journalist for Maison et Jardin12. Shortly have her admitted within the studio, as afterwards she set up her own office, opposed to everyone's opinion8. within which she carried out many As a whole 13 women were to be architectural projects (child care centre, admitted to the studio between 1942 - secondary schools, private homes, offices) 1955, out of 291 students over the period and urban studies among which we can 1923-1954. mention: a planning study for the Beside Marion Tournon-Branly and Eliane Mehringplatz neighbourhood in West- Castelnau, these thirteen women were: Berlin (with Pierre Devinoy and Bernard de Jacqueline Desprez, Nadia Godar-Devinoy, la Tour d’Auvergne)13 in 1962; a nursery Annette Duflos-Stoppa, Agnès Gelain, rue Boulard, in Paris about 196314; a club Ismene Georgiafendi-Benoit, Marie-Louise on the Champs Elysées in Paris (with Chassot-Janin, Vera Jansone-deFisher, Bernard de la Tour d’Auvergne) for the Jacqueline Laisney, Victoria Melchoff Martini-Rossi company about 196415; the Joubert, Nectar Papazian, Carina Sperling9. provincial House of African Missions Marion Tournon-Branly graduated rapidly, located 31 rue du Général Brunet and 36- in 1946 after four years of study with a 40 rue Miguel Hidalgo in Paris conceived project called La Maison des Marionnettes with Pierre-E. Devillers about 197316. As (The Puppets' House)10. her father, Marion Tournon-Branly also worked a lot on religious buildings: we can

4 Personal research based on “Dictionnaire Des Élèves Architectes de l’École Des Beaux-Arts (1800- 11 Crosnier Leconte, “Castelnau, Eliane.” 1968),” Base de données ; programme de 12 Marion Tournon-Branly, Interview of Marion recherche (Paris: INHA, 2016), Tournon-Branly by XXXXXXX, July 1, 2016. http://www.purl.org/inha/agorha/001/7. 13 “Mehringplatz, Berlin (Allemagne) : Étude 5 Crosnier Leconte, “Tournon-Branly, Marion”; D’aménagement, Fonds Tournon-Branly, Marion Crosnier Leconte, “Castelnau, Eliane.” (1924-2016), Dossiers 352 AA 2/3, 352 AA 2/4, 352 6 Marie-Laure Crosnier Leconte, “Perret, Auguste,” AA 3, Cité de L’architecture et Du Patrimoine, Dictionnaire Des Élèves Architectes de l’École Des Centre D’archives D’architecture Du XXe Beaux-Arts (1800-1968) (Paris: INHA, 2016), siècle/IFA,” n.d. http://www.purl.org/inha/agorha/002/82151. 14 Éric Lapierre, Guide d’architecture Paris : 1900- 7 Crosnier Leconte, “Castelnau, Eliane”; Crosnier 2008, ed. Pavillon de l’Arsenal (Paris: Éd. Pavillon Leconte, “Tournon-Branly, Marion.” de l’Arsenal, 2008), 1963. 8 Entretien Avec Jean Le Couteur, VHS, Entretien 15 “Club Aux Champs Elysées, Paris,” L’Architecture (Académie d’Architecture, 1999). D’aujourd’hui, no. 112 (1964): 102–3. 9 “Dictionnaire Des Élèves Architectes de l’École 16 “PC 37255/71 - 31 Rue Du Général Brunet, 36-40 Des Beaux-Arts (1800-1968).” Rue Miguel Hidalgo - Cote : 1178W 2300 - Archives 10 Crosnier Leconte, “Tournon-Branly, Marion.” de Paris,” n.d.

128 mention the extension of Saint-Benoit-sur- Several elements testify to this: Loire monastery (1962-1991)17 and the In a 1957 issue of L’architecture renovation of the Saint-Esprit church in d’aujourd’hui, one of the most important Paris (1972-1979)18. architectural journal in France, Marion In 1956 she took part in the International Tournon-Branly appears with Bernard de Congress of Modern Architecture (CIAM) la Tour d’Auvergne among the seven in Dubrovnik, where she was Sigfried architectes français de demain (french Giedion's secretary and translator19 architects of tomorrow). This includes a In the 1950s and 1960s she carried out common project for a tourist centre at the two surveys for the Ministry of Health on Saut du Doubs (Doubs river waterfall), and Mother and Infant Health Protection a project by Marion Tournon-Branly for a Centres and Medical-Educational church at Le Hourdel23. The others Institutions20. architects are: Olivier Vaudou avec J.P. She also devoted a large part of her career Jausserand24, Henri Maillard25, Roger to teaching: Anger26, Michel Andrault avec Pierre In 1958 she began teaching at the Parat27, Alain Bourbonnais28 et Jean- American Art Schools in Fontainebleau, a François Zévaco29. position she kept till 1998. She was also Marion Tournon-Branly also won prizes: in head of the Art department of that 1951 she was awarded the first team prize institution between 1975 - 1989, and as a reward for a projected church, as again between 2000 - 200321. presented within the framework of an As from 1966 she also taught in the USA at Exposition d’art sacré at the Municipal California State Polytechnic College in San Museum in Metz30. Luis Obispo, then in Paris as from 1968 at A few years later, she took an active part Unité Pédagogique 4 (UP4), then at UP7 as in the International competition for the from 1975 - these Unités stemming from restructuring of Berlin City Centre with the the splitting of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in french architects M. Devinoy, J. Faugeron 1968. She also taught in Lebanon at the Université du Saint-Esprit in Kaslik as from 22 1980 . 23 “Marion Tournon-Branly (1924) Bernard de La One of the interesting features of Marion Tour d’Auvergne (1923),” L’Architecture Tournon-Branly's career is that she was D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 (1957): 13. 24 recognized by her peers and integrated “Olivier Vaudou (1926) et J.P. Jausserand (1924),” L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 into the ‘recognition system’ of her (1957): 7. profession. 25 “Henri Maillard (1924),” L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 (1957): 8–9. 17 Marjorie Renaut and Centre des archives 26 “Roger Anger (1923),” L’Architecture contemporaines, eds., Le don de l’architecture: D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 (1957): 10–12. Paul Tournon (1881-1964), Marion Tournon-Branly 27 “Michel Andrault (1926) et Pierre Parat (1928),” (1924) (Pierrefitte-sur-Seine, France: Archives L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 (1957): 14–15. nationales, 2013), 63. 28 “Alain Bourdonnais (1925) Michel Fourtané 18 Ibid., 64. (1926),” L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 19 Tournon-Branly, Interview of Marion Tournon- (1957): 16–19. Branly by XXXXXXXXXXXX 29 “Jean-François Zevaco (1916),” L’Architecture 20 Renaut and Centre des archives contemporaines, D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 (1957): 20–21. Le don de l’architecture, 62–63. 30 “Nouvelles Lorraines,” Le Pays lorrain : revue 21 Ibid., 63–64 régionale bi-mensuelle illustrée 9e volume (1951): 22 Renaut and Centre des archives contemporaines, 202–3, Le don de l’architecture, 63–64. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6580643f.

129 and Bernard de la Tour d’Auvergne31. country, came to Auguste Perret's studio Their project was graded in 1958 H. to hire assistants. Henri Tastemain was Second achat among the 10 published and chosen; she was not38. prize-winning projects which were mostly She then worked for another architect, designed by german architects. The Jean Chemineau, who was residing in winner of the competition was a german Morocco, and for whom her husband team of architects and engineers headed worked between 1949 - 195039. by F. Spengelin, F. Eggeling and G. Henri Tastemain and Eliane Castelnau Pempelfort32. then began to work together on their own In 1968, she began to teach architecture projects, but they rapidly kept their at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, in the respective activities separate40. UP4; thus, she became the first female At the same time Eliane Castelnau teacher in architecture in the Ecole des continued her studies and drew for her Beaux-arts33. diploma a project for a primary school41, In 1975, Marion Tournon-Branly was the which was later built, while she monitored first woman to join the Académie the progress of the work42. d’Architecture, an elitist professional Her record for (diploma) admission, as association of architects, created in presented by Auguste Perret43, was 184034. accepted on 9 March 195444. Now I think, but this is still a conjecture, that this could be the Rue Petit-Jean c - Eliane Castelnau’s career school complex in Rabat, of which the plan and some photographs were published in After her internship with Paul Nelson in 1955, in an issue of the journal Paris35, Eliane Castelnau went in 1949 to l’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui - although in Morocco to join her husband, Henri that paper the project was ascribed to Tastemain36, who worked in the Urban Eliane Castelnau and Henri Tastemain45. Planning Department of Morocco, chaired Between 1956 - 1962 she was Building by Michel Ecochard37. The latter, as an inspector for the Province of Meknès and architect and urban planner, then in for the Prefecture of Rabat-Salé46. charge of plans for several cities in the Eliane Castelnau then developed several projects in her own name, among which a 31 “Centre de Berlin (Allemagne) : Structuration hotel and seaside resort complex at (1958), Fonds Tournon-Branly Marion, Dossiers Skrirat, which was built in 1963; the hotel 352 AA 2/1 et 352 AA 2/2, Cité de L’architecture et Du Patrimoine, Centre D’archives D’architecture Du XXe siècle/IFA,” n.d. 38 Castelnau, Interview of Eliane Castelnau by 32 “Berlin Capitale,” L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, XXXXXX. no. 80 (1958): 47. 39 Henri Tastemain, Eliane Castelnau : Réalisations 33 Renaut and Centre des archives contemporaines, 1950-1974. Le don de l’architecture, 12. 40 Castelnau, Interview of Eliane Castelnau by 34 XXXXX, “Éloge de L’ombre,” 49. This association XXXXXX. was founded as the Société Centrale des 41 Crosnier Leconte, “Castelnau, Eliane.” Architectes in 1840 and became the Académie 42 Castelnau, Interview of Eliane Castelnau by d’Architecture in 1953 XXXXXXXXX. 35 Henri Tastemain, Eliane Castelnau : Réalisations 43 Ibid. 1950-1974 (Chiasso (Suisse): Ed. Score, 1975 ?). 44 Crosnier Leconte, “Castelnau, Eliane.” 36 Eliane Castelnau, Interview of Eliane Castelnau 45 “Groupe Scolaire Rue Petit-Jean À Rabat,” by XXXXXXX, January 26, 2012. L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 60 (1955): 61. 37 Henri Tastemain, Eliane Castelnau : Réalisations 46 Henri Tastemain, Eliane Castelnau : Réalisations 1950-1974. 1950-1974.

130 comprised 26 rooms, a restaurant, a (totally) by herself the building of the lounge, an entrance hall, utility rooms, specialties hospital53, the general services and an outdoor pool (33 m pool), together buildings54, and the extension of Avicenne with changing rooms, showers, and General Hospital which had been built in paddling pool47. 1953. At that time Eliane Castelnau also A few years later Eliane Castelnau was pursued, following her diploma, various entrusted – together with her husband, projects for school buildings: in 1964 she Henri Tastemain, and two other architects, built a school complex, Rue de Pau in Y. Melehi and A. Guedira - with the Rabat: The Takkadoum secondary building of Mohamed-V Military school48. Instruction Hospital in Rabat55. When the Ministry of Public Health We know that the majority of projects as decided to set up a Centre Hospitalier undertaken by Eliane Castelnau and Henri Universitaire (CHU) (Teaching Hospital) in Tastemain were carried out by the one or Rabat in the 1960s, Eliane Castelnau was the other, and very seldom by both as a called upon by the Health Minister to take couple. However, some documents, care of the construction of this building. including the book they published around She asked for two days to be allowed to 1975 about their work maintain some think it over, and accepted the offer49. In ambiguity about the authorship of the 1970 she became the architect for the various projects, which are presented as Rabat Teaching Hospital50, an office she common achievements56. held until 198451. But how can one explain that these two Eliane Castelnau designed and took ladies, moreover, had access to charge, together with Louis Riou, of the exceptional commissions and positions? In work for the children's hospital and the order to answer this, some clues may be maternity ward52. She designed and ran found in their background.

47 “Ensemble Hôtelier et Balnéaire, Skrirat, Fonds Tastemain, Henri (1922-2012) et Castelnau, Eliane (1923-), Dossiers 420 IFA 100/26, Cité de L’architecture et Du Patrimoine, Centre D’archives D’architecture Du XXe siècle/IFA,” n.d. Du Patrimoine, Centre D’archives D’architecture 48 “Groupe Scolaire Rue de Pau, Rabat, Collège Du XXe siècle/IFA,” n.d. Takkadoum, Fonds Tastemain, Henri (1922-2012) 53 “Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Ibn Sînâ, Rabat, et Castelnau, Eliane (1923-), Dossiers 420 IFA Hôpital Des Spécialités, Fonds Tastemain, Henri 100/18, Cité de L’architecture et Du Patrimoine, (1922-2012) et Castelnau, Eliane (1923-), Dossier Centre D’archives D’architecture Du XXe 420 IFA 100/12, Cité de L’architecture et Du siècle/IFA,” n.d. ; Henri Tastemain, Eliane Patrimoine, Centre D’archives D’architecture Du Castelnau : Réalisations 1950-1974. XXe siècle/IFA,” n.d. 49 Castelnau, Interview of Eliane Castelnau by 54 “Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Ibn Sînâ, Rabat, XXXXXXXX. Services Généraux, Fonds Tastemain, Henri (1922- 50 Henri Tastemain, Eliane Castelnau : Réalisations 2012) et Castelnau, Eliane (1923-), Dossier 420 IFA 1950-1974. 100/17, Cité de L’architecture et Du Patrimoine, 51 “Archiwebture — Tastemain, Henri (1922-2012) Centre D’archives D’architecture Du XXe et Castelnau, Eliane (1923-). 420 Ifa,” siècle/IFA,” n.d. Archiwebture, accessed November 10, 2016, 55 “Hôpital Militaire D’instruction Mohamed-V, http://archiwebture.citechaillot.fr/fonds/FRAPN02 Rabat, Fonds Tastemain, Henri (1922-2012) et _TASHE. Castelnau, Eliane (1923-), Dossiers 420 IFA 100/15, 52 “Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Ibn Sînâ, Rabat, Cité de L’architecture et Du Patrimoine, Centre Hôpital D’enfants et Maternité, Fonds Tastemain, D’archives D’architecture Du XXe siècle/IFA,” n.d. Henri (1922-2012) et Castelnau, Eliane (1923-), 56 Henri Tastemain, Eliane Castelnau : Réalisations Dossier 420 IFA 100/16, Cité de L’architecture et 1950-1974.

131 II – Some clues to understand those 10 by Eugène Raymond Castelnau61, professional trajectories following the divorce (1924) and remarriage of her mother with the latter a - Family networks (1925), who was also a medical doctor62. Thus it seemed that she had no architect Marion Tournon-Branly was born 23 in her family circle. September 1924; she was the daughter of Eliane Castelnau studied in a secondary Paul Tournon, an architect, and Elisabeth school for girls in Cannes and grew up in Branly, a painter57. Paul Tournon was a the south of France in a protestant renowned architect, recipient of the family63. second Grand Prix de Rome in 1911, Although she had no relatives in the professor and head of the Ecole des architectural profession, the family Beaux-Arts between 1942 and 194858. « network » seems, once more, to have Now Marion Tournon-Branly succeeded in helped this architect: According to her, the joining the Ecole des Beaux-Arts the very fact that she belonged to a protestant year when her father became head of that family from Montpellier, a religious institution. There is no doubt she was affiliation she shared with the then Health admitted in a regular manner, but we minister of Morocco, did help her to know her father helped her to succeed by obtain the position of Head architect of giving her various lessons59. the Teaching Hospital in Rabat, which she Apart from this, Marion Tournon-Branly was granted in the 1960s64. was able to meet, thanks to her father, many other architects, among whom Tony Garnier in France or Julian Clarence Levi in b - Personal situations the USA, during her post-graduation study trip; which, moreover, allowed her to The personal situations of these two meet various architects in every american architects are very symptomatic of the city she visited, and where she was problems encountered by women recommended through many architects with their family life: acquaintances60. Marion Tournon-Branly remained single all Eliane Castelnau had a totally different her life, just as her sister, Florence, who profile: was a painter65. She gave several times her Eliane Castelnau was the daughter of opinion on this matter, notably in a paper Eugène Antoine Perpère, a medical published in Le Monde, a french doctor, and of Geneviève Jeanne Marie newspaper, in 1963, about the activity of Percepied, without a profession. Born 1 women architects: ‘I quite often return to September 1923, she was adopted at age work after supper, until midnight or one

61 Acte de Naissance, Perpère Castelnau Marie Anne Eliane, 1923. 57 Renaut and Centre des archives contemporaines, 62 “Acte de Mariage, Castelnau Raymond et Le don de l’architecture, 9. Percepied Geneviève” (1925). It should be noted 58 Marie-Laure Crosnier Leconte, “Tournon, Paul,” that her mother divorced for a second time in Dictionnaire Des Élèves Architectes de l’École Des 1957. Beaux-Arts (1800-1968) (Paris: INHA, 2016), 63 Castelnau, Interview of Eliane Castelnau by http://www.purl.org/inha/agorha/002/82851. XXXXXXXXXXX. 59 Tournon-Branly, Interview of Marion Tournon- 64 Ibid. Branly by XXXXXXXXXX. 65 Tournon-Branly, Interview of Marion Tournon- 60 Ibid. Branly by XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX.

132 o'clock in the morning. Fortunately I am those who went to Morocco by the mid- single: it is hard to imagine a husband 1920s and in the early 1930s. Finally, the putting up with such working hours’66. third one, including Eliane Castelnau who Thus her life as an architect, head of her arrived in 1949, was made up by architects own office, seemed to her totally who were active as from 194569. Many of incompatible with a married life, and them left Morocco after the country certainly with a family life. became independent, in 1956; but Eliane From this point of view Eliane Castelnau's Castelnau and Henri Tastemain belonged situation was completely different: She to those who settled for good. married in 1949 Henri Tastemain67, an French architects had the opportunity to architect she had met in Perret's studio, design a large number of projects in and gave birth to four daughters. It seems Morocco for various reasons: on the one that Eliane Castelnau was here again an hand, the country had no or only few exception to the rule – which may be moroccan architects; and on the other explained in the context of Morocco. The hand the economic situation there was couple never left Morocco thereafter, very favourable to the construction of new after 1949; thus Eliane Castelnau could buildings. Expat architects thus had access benefit from the local house help system to many architectural commissions, which, to raise her children, which allowed her to moreover, allowed them a greater devote a lot of time to her professional freedom of expression, legal regulations activity – much more than for an architect not being very restricting, and private living in metropolitan France68. practice being open to modern architecture70. Eliane Castelnau's career fits well into this c - General context perspective. On the other hand the french context did Here again, we cannot but observe that not allow Marion Tournon-Branly access Marion Tournon-Branly and Eliane to very large construction programmes; as Castelnau have evolved in environments far as I know, her most important public which were quite distinct, but which commissions were the coeducational unmistakably have had an influence on technical secondary schools in Grasse and their career paths. Manosque, and the Central University Eliane Castelnau belonged to the many Library of La Source in Orléans (for the french architects who, after graduating latter building, with O. Cacoub)71. from the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, became Besides Marion Tournon-Branly expats in Morocco, which at the time was complained that women architects in still a french Protectorate. Three ‘waves’ France were marked out to design certain of arrival may be distinguished as from specific programmes. Thus in an interview 1912: the first one was made up of those with Le Monde, she summed up the architects who came during the First situation: ‘Women architects come up World War; the second was made up by against the same problems as all those

66 Nicole Bernheim, “Trois femmes architectes parlent de leur métier” Le Monde, September 5, 69 Jean-Louis Cohen and Monique Eleb, 1963. Casablanca: mythes et figures d’une aventure 67 Acte de naissance, Perpère Castelnau Marie urbaine (Paris, France: Hazan, 1998), 460. Anne Eliane. 70 Ibid., 419. 68 Castelnau, Interview of Eliane Castelnau by 71 Renaut and Centre des archives contemporaines, XXXXXXXXX. Le don de l’architecture, 63.

133 who enter into professional competition considering she had been an outstanding with men: it seems that some jobs « suit » student at the school75. them, while others do not. They are offered to build schools, child care centres, private homes, or decoration d – Others networks work, but never factories, and even less official buildings. Yet private practice is It is interesting to observe that Marion hardly enough to get along’72. Tournon-Branly began her career writing Here an important factor must be papers for a journal, Maison et Jardin, underlined: All architects who were launched in 1950, and published by the Beaux-Arts graduates were not offered Condé Nast Publishing House. the same career opportunities. This varied She refused to sign her articles, but notably according to their activities at the carried on this work during many years76. school, the studio they had been in, and It seems that it was the head and chief whether they had obtained a Grand Prix editor of the Journal, M. Thomas Kernan, de Rome, or not. who really ‘launched’ Marion Tournon- In their work on the city of Casablanca, Branly's career by offering her to build in Monique Eleb and Jean-Louis Cohen make Garches (in the Paris area) the house of an interesting observation: those Mr. and Mrs Barbas77, the latter being no architects who were active in Casablanca other than the sister of Jean Patou, the between 1912 – 1960 generally came from famous fashion designer. Marion Tournon- a modest family background, were not the Branly hesitated, pleading her lack of sons or daughters of architects, and had experience, but finally yielded on M. not been particularly outstanding students Kernan's insistence. The house was at the Beaux-Arts. All in all, it is easy to planned around a painting by Dunoyer de think that for these architects, whose Segonzac, and the garden was designed by future was not at all certain in Russell Page, the famous landscape metropolitan France, Morocco gardener. This project later allowed her to represented an interesting career obtain many commissions for other opportunity73. private homes78. We are bound to observe that these Marion Tournon-Branly seems to have typical portraits apply to the two ladies I kept excellent relationships with the am studying today: Eliane Castelnau did Condé Nast Publishing House, seeing that not come from an architectural family, she designed at least two office projects and received neither medals nor prizes 74 during her studies . She thus corresponds 75 Crosnier Leconte, “Tournon-Branly, Marion.” She rather well to the typical profile as drawn obtained during her studies varius medals : two up by the two historians. « 3è Médailles » in construction and history of As to Marion Tournon-Branly, she chose to architecture ; one « 3è Médaille » in building legislation ; two « Secondes Médailles » for stay in metropolitan France, as she was projects ; Fist Prize and « 1è Médaille » at the assured of her family network, and « Concours d'art monumental » 76 Tournon-Branly, Interview of Marion Tournon- Branly by XXXXXXX. 77 I think that the project of M. Tournon-Branly, published in La maison suburbaine in 1961, is the 72 Bernheim, “Trois femmes architectes parlent de Barbas’s House as it’s located in Garches but I’m leur métier” not absolutely sure it is. 73 Cohen and Eleb, Casablanca, 460. 78 Tournon-Branly, Interview of Marion Tournon- 74 Crosnier Leconte, “Castelnau, Eliane.” Branly byXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX.

134 for them : in 1961 she filed an application Bibliography for a planning permission relating to a project for heightening by two storeys an “Alain Bourdonnais (1925) Michel Fourtané existing three-storey building located in (1926).” L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. Paris, 4 Place du Palais Bourbon79 ; in 1966 73 (1957): 16–19. she filed another dossier pertaining to an application for a planning permission with “Berlin Capitale.” L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. the Town Planning Department of the 80 (1958): 42–47. Préfecture de la Seine, concerning the extension of an office building, situated at Bernheim, Nicole. “Trois femmes architectes the same address. However this parlent de leur métier.” Le Monde, application was cancelled in June of the September 5, 1963. same year, following the owner's withdrawal80. “Club Aux Champs Elysées, Paris.” L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 112 (1964): 102–3. Cohen, Jean-Louis, and Monique Eleb. Conclusion Casablanca: mythes et figures d’une aventure urbaine. Paris, France: Hazan, As zooming on two career paths of two 1998. women of the same generation who studied in the same studio at the Ecole des Crosnier Leconte, Marie-Laure. “Castelnau, Beaux-arts in Paris, we can see they had Eliane.” Dictionnaire Des Élèves very different careers partly determined Architectes de l’École Des Beaux-Arts by the general context, their networks, (1800-1968). Paris: INHA, 2016. etc. It’s important to study all those http://www.purl.org/inha/agorha/002/15 processes to understand how they could 6371. manage to access to exceptional commissions and positions. ———. “Perret, Auguste.” Dictionnaire Des Élèves Now, Eliane Castelnau’s career is more Architectes de l’École Des Beaux-Arts readable. (1800-1968). Paris: INHA, 2016. But data are missing to understand how http://www.purl.org/inha/agorha/002/82 Marion Tournon-Branly accessed to 151. architectural institutions, how she began the first female architectural professor at ———. “Tournon, Paul.” Dictionnaire Des Élèves the Ecole des Beaux-arts and how she Architectes de l’École Des Beaux-Arts attained a form of recognition from her (1800-1968). Paris: INHA, 2016. professional environment. http://www.purl.org/inha/agorha/002/82 851.

———. “Tournon-Branly, Marion.” Dictionnaire Des Élèves Architectes de l’École Des 79 Paris, Seine, and Paris (Département / 1975- ), Beaux-Arts (1800-1968). Paris: INHA, 2016. “Demandes d’autorisation de construire,” Bulletin http://www.purl.org/inha/agorha/002/14 municipal officiel de la Ville de Paris, December 21, 9045. 1961, 2925, Ville de Paris / Bibliothèque de l’Hôtel de Ville (BHdV). Available on Gallica : http://gallica.bnf.fr/ “Dictionnaire Des Élèves Architectes de l’École 80 “PC 33027/66 - 4 Place Du Palais Bourbon 7e - Des Beaux-Arts (1800-1968).” Base de Cote : 1178W 683 - Archives de Paris,” n.d.

135 données ; programme de recherche. Paris: “Michel Andrault (1926) et Pierre Parat (1928).” INHA, 2016. L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 (1957): 14–15. http://www.purl.org/inha/agorha/001/7. “Groupe Scolaire Rue Petit-Jean À Rabat.” Morand, François-Charles. La Maison suburbaine , L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 60 France, Grande-Bretagne, Belgique, Suisse, (1955): 61. Italie, Espagne, Allemagne... Paris: A. Morancé, 1961. “Henri Maillard (1924).” L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 (1957): 8–9. http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb33104832r. Henri Tastemain, Eliane Castelnau : Réalisations Mouchel, Lydie. “Femmes Architectes ‘une 1950-1974. Chiasso (Suisse): Ed. Score, Histoire À Écrire.’” DEA Histoire socio- 1975. culturelle, Université de Versailles Saint Quentin en Yvelines, 2000. “Jean-François Zevaco (1916).” L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 (1957): 20–21. “Nouvelles Lorraines.” Le Pays lorrain : revue Lapierre, Éric. Guide d’architecture Paris : 1900- régionale bi-mensuelle illustrée 9e volume 2008. Edited by Pavillon de l’Arsenal. 1 (1951). vols. Paris: Éd. Pavillon de l’Arsenal, 2008. “Marion Tournon-Branly (1924) Bernard de La http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6580643f. Tour d’Auvergne (1923).” L’Architecture “Olivier Vaudou (1926) et J.P. Jausserand (1924).” D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 (1957): 13. L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 Mesnage, Stéphanie. “Éloge de L’ombre.” Criticat, (1957): 7. no. 10 (automne 2012): 40–53. ———. “In Praise of Shadows.” In MoMoWo · 100 Renaut, Marjorie, and Centre des archives Projects in 100 Years. European Women in contemporaines, eds. Le don de Architecture and Design · 1918-2018, by l’architecture: Paul Tournon (1881-1964), Alain Bonnet, Elena Dellapiana, Ana María Marion Tournon-Branly (1924). Pierrefitte- Fernández García, Wenche Findal, Marjan sur-Seine, France: Archives nationales, Groot, Aleksandra Ilijevski, Claude 2013. Kovatchévitch, et al., 266–71. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, 2016. “Roger Anger (1923).” L’Architecture D’aujourd’hui, no. 73 (1957): 10–12.

136 Juana Ontañón. An Architect Woman in Asturias

Esther Rodriguez Ortiz

Historical Framework. Introduction. se ven truncados desplazando a la mujer al ámbito de lo privado. Para comprender el retroceso que Tampoco debemos olvidarnos de los alcanzó la mujer durante la dictadura cambios introducidos en el sistema debemos remitirnos a un periodo de educativo español, que comenzaron a tiempo anterior como es el de la II notarse ya a finales del siglo XIX, a través República, un periodo en el que las de la figura de Julián Sanz del Río, un mujeres logran posicionarse, profesor de la Universidad Central que gradualmente, en el ámbito de lo público viajó a Alemania y se dejó influenciar por ostentando cargos de responsabilidad la corriente Krausista. Quizá una de las jurídica, además de conseguir el sufragio iniciativas más importantes que se universal, participar de forma activa en instauraron en España y, cuyo fundador los partidos políticos, e incluso lograr fue Francisco Giner de los Ríos, fue la que el código penal fuera modificado1. La Institución Libre de Enseñanza. Esta Constitución de la República Española de Institución fundada en 1876 tiene un 1931 dice en su artículo 43 que “el proceso evolutivo paulatino pero firme matrimonio se funda en la igualdad de que se ve interrumpido sobre todo derechos para ambos sexos, y podrá cuando estalla la Guerra Civil, asentaba disolverse por mutuo disenso o a sus pilares educativos en “unos petición de cualquiera de los cónyuges, principios constantes: educar antes que con alegación en este caso de justa instruir, dedicar el máximo respeto al causa”, además de otros puntos de niño, crear en la grata confianza entre interés para la mujer como es la igualdad alumnos y profesores, aproximar a las en el ámbito laboral, la protección del familias a la escuela para una mejor trabajo y el seguro de maternidad2 . La comunicación y comprensión. Formar Constitución estuvo vigente hasta el final hombres y mujeres íntegros, antes que de la guerra civil en 1939, cuando los profesionales especializados”3 Lo que posibles avances en políticas de género nos impulsa exponer las bases de esta institución no es otro motivo que este es el ámbito educativo en el que creció y se 1 QUERO HERNÁNDEZ, Isabel, JAÉN GARCÍA, Mª desarrolló Juana Ontañón, y no sólo por Dolores, “La imagen de la mujer en la postguerra asistir a las clases sino porque sus española a través de la prensa de Almería” en NASH, Mary, TAVERA, Susanna, Las mujeres y las padres, María Sánchez Arbós y Manuel guerras: el papel de las mujeres en las guerras de la Ontañón y Valiente, el primero maestro Edad Antigua a la Contemporánea, Barcelona, de Instrucción, y ella profesora, afines y Icaria, 2003, p. 459. seguidores a este sistema educativo, los 2 Constitución de la República española [en línea], mismos que asistieron a un quiebro de , [consultada el 09-02-2015]. su carrera profesional cuando fueron Sobre la situación de la mujer española en la II República y los logros de género conseguidos véase 3 ONTAÑÓN, Elvira. Un estudio sobre la Institución NASH, Mary, Mujer, familia y trabajo en España, Libre de Enseñanza y la mujer. Valencia: 1875-1936, Barcelona, Anthropos Editorial, 1983. Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, 2003, p. 203.

137 perseguidos y encarcelados por el economía doméstica y convivencia régimen franquista. social, o cocina5. Cuando comienza la Guerra Civil tanto Con la exaltación del papel tradicional de los roles masculinos como los femeninos la mujer y la glorificación del hogar se se ven alterados. Los hombres deben tiende a imponer la idea de que el abandonar sus puestos de trabajo para mundo puede progresar perfectamente salir al frente mientras que buena parte sin mujeres abogadas, doctoras o de las mujeres deben encargarse de las científicas, pero de ninguna manera tareas que los hombres han abandonado podrá progresar sin las mujeres y su en las fábricas, además de seguir a cargo papel natural, el de ser madre o de las actividades demandadas por el “sacerdotisas en ese templo que hogar. Falange Española es una alumbren el espíritu familiar con la luz de “alternativa al sistema democrático las celestiales enseñanzas, dirigiendo a representativo, con un marcado carácter sus hijos hacia el bien, la verdad y la conservador, autoritario y una férrea belleza”6. La ignorancia de las féminas se oposición a la trayectoria desarrollada premiaba al igual que la belleza, así por la República”, además, respecto a los como la discreción y el silencio. Una avances conseguidos por la mujer mujer demostraba ser más femenina durante la República consideraban que cuando reunía estas cualidades. Por el su condición, su naturaleza, o aquel fin contrario, si una mujer mostraba un tipo para el que había nacido era para de carácter fuerte e inconformista su atender las cuestiones de la patria destino era la soltería y, por lo tanto, la cuidando del hogar y de la familia, soledad. Como recoge Scanlon, “toda regresando con ello, a las costumbres mujer letrada será soltera toda la vida tradicionales4. mientras haya hombres sensatos en la El establecimiento por parte del tierra”7. Y por otro lado, como señala Ministerio de Educación Nacional del Enciso Viana en 1941 la mujer que “no bachillerato femenino obligatorio soporta un mal genio o una cara hosca, o durante los años 1941 y 1944, donde se una contestación desabrida, la tenaz en menciona que las asignaturas necesarias sostener un punto de vista, está para conseguir el grado, a parte de las condenada a sufrir mucho”8. generales como matemáticas, historia o lenguaje, entran las asignaturas de Formación familiar y social, con secciones de corte y confección, trabajos manuales, puericultura postnatal,

5 PRIMO DE RIVERA, Pilar, La enseñanza doméstica como contribución al bienestar de la familia española. Razones de la formación de la Sección 4 DÍEZ FUENTES, José Manuel, “República y primer Femenina, Madrid, Comercial Española de franquismo: la mujer española entre el esplendor y Ediciones, 1961. la miseria 1930-1950”, en Alternativas: cuadernos 6 SCANLON, Geraldine, La polémica feminista en la de trabajo social, nº3, 1995, pp. 23-40. Véase España contemporánea (1868-1974), Madrid, Siglo también GALLEGO MÉNDEZ, María Teresa, Mujer, Veintiuno de España, 1976, pp. 337. Falange y Franquismo, Madrid, Taurus, 1983 y 7 Ibid., p. 324 SÁNCHEZ LÓPEZ, Rosario, Mujer española, una 8 VIANA, Enciso, Muchacha, en DOMINGO, sombra de destino en lo universal. Trayectoria Carmen, Coser y cantar: las mujeres bajo la histórica de la Sección Femenina de Falange (1934- dictadura franquista, Barcelona, Lumen, 2007, p. 1877), Murcia, Universidad de Murcia, 1990. 121.

138 Vida y Obra de Juana Ontañón por esos años daba clases particulares a aquellos alumnos que aspiraban a acceder María Juana Ontañón Sánchez-Arbós nace a estudios en las escuelas técnicas, así que el 4 de diciembre de 1920 en La Laguna, probablemente su hija Juana se preparara Tenerife, nace en esta ciudad porque su junto a su padre para acceder a la de madre por aquél entonces daba clases en arquitectura, pues hay constancia de que el Instituto-Escuela, mientras que su padre la familia Ontañón-Suárez era una familia compaginaba las clases de la Universidad unida11. con el Instituto Escuela. Juana estudiará la carrera de arquitectura El ambiente familiar en el que creció Juana desde el año 1943 a 1949, momento en el fue un ambiente propicio para la cultura y que consigue Licenciarse y convertirse en el conocimiento, no sólo por el hecho de la cuarta mujer española en ostentar el tener unos padres dedicados en cuerpo y título, pero cabe aquí mencionar que sus alma a la docencia, sino porque ella, como estudios se vieron interrumpidos a finales no podría ser de otro modo, se formó en de 1947 porque debía compaginarlos con el Instituto Libre de Enseñanza y comenzó el Servicio de Prestación Social. Como a tener muy pronto cierta inquietud hacia mencionábamos en la introducción, una las Bellas Artes, la fotografía, el dibujo, el vez ganada la guerra y asentado el deporte y, por supuesto, la arquitectura. régimen franquista, la educación de la Debemos señalar en este punto que, tras mujer se centra en aquellas cuestiones el estallido de la Guerra Civil en 1936 atribuidas tradicionalmente a la hasta 1939, su educación se ve truncada, naturaleza femenina. Así el Servicio de no sólo por la situación bélica del país, Prestación Social era una actividad sino que se ve agravada porque su familia formativa obligatoria para aquellas atravesó una dura situación, ya que sus mujeres solteras que tuvieran entre 17 a padres fueron perseguidos, víctimas de las 35 años. Esta formación era impartida por depuraciones sufridas por los maestros de la Sección Femenina y su duración era de la República, y su madre fue cesada de su seis meses: 3 de educación teórica (buena profesión y encarcelada9. madre, buena esposa, abnegada y Juana accede a la Universidad con 19 años católica) y 3 de prestación obligatoria de en 1939, realizando el primer año un curso trabajo en comedores, hospitales u intensivo y al año siguiente cursa las oficinas12. asignaturas de Dibujo arquitectónico La situación política de España repercute elemental, Dibujo de formas en el hecho de que las escasas mujeres arquitectónicas elementales, Francés e que acceden a estudios técnicos y, una vez Inglés. Tras este año su carrera sufre un finalizados, tienen graves problemas para parón y no se tiene constancia de desarrollar su trabajo a título personal, así actividad académica hasta el año 1943, que se ven obligadas a colaborar en un año en el que ingresa en la Escuela estudio dirigido por un hombre. Este Superior de Arquitectura de Madrid en la hecho hace que sus nombres queden que es admitida10. Sabemos que su padre relegados a un segundo plano, siendo

9 Borroy, Víctor M. “Juan. María Sánchez Arbós. 11 Borroy, Víctor M. “Juan. María Sánchez Arbós. Una maestra aragonesa en la edad de oro de la Una maestra aragonesa en la edad de oro de la pedagogía”, Rolde. Revista de Cultura Aragonesa, pedagogía”, Rolde. Revista de Cultura Aragonesa, Nº 89, octubre-noviembre 1999, pp. 12-21. Nº 89, octubre-noviembre 1999. 10 Vílchez Luzón, Javier. Matilde Ucelay primera 12 Cerdeira Gutiérrez, Isabel, “Los Servicios Sociales mujer arquitecta en España. Granada: tesis del Franquismo a la Constitución”, en Cuadernos doctoral, 2013, p. 794. de Trabajo Social, nº0, 1987, 135-158.

139 visible el nombre del arquitecto varón. En Otro de los proyectos en los que participa el caso de la arquitecta que estudiamos durante la década de los 40 es el Plan de formó pareja profesional junto a su Ordenación Urbana Bidagor, impulsado marido Manuel López Mateos por el arquitecto donostiarra Pedro constituyendo ambos un estudio de Bidagor Lasarte, llevado a cabo a partir de arquitectura, este hecho hace que se 1946. Este plan de ordenación se centraba desconozcan cuáles fueron las obras en los siguientes puntos básicos: la ideadas por Juana ya que todas las fichas capitalidad, la ordenación ferroviaria, un remiten a los proyectos de su marido13. plan de accesos, es decir carreteras y Estamos frente a una de las profesionales autopistas radiales, la zonificación, la más prolijas del panorama arquitectónico ciudad antigua y su reforma, la español que comienza a participar en terminación del ensanche, la prolongación proyectos arquitectónicos de manera de la Castellana, el extrarradio, los temprana y durante su etapa de suburbios, los límites de la ciudad, la estudiante en la Escuela Superior de industria y los poblados satélites, es en Arquitectura de Madrid. Uno de sus este punto donde más trabajará Juana profesores, Luis Moya, será quien le Ontañón junto a su marido, siendo permita colaborar en la construcción de la Carabanchel una de las principales zonas a Universidad Laboral de Gijón, siendo el rehabilitar, concretamente en las Paraninfo uno de los espacios que se le viviendas sociales ubicadas en Pan Bendito atribuyen a la arquitecta y que veremos y que las realizarán bajo la dirección de con detalle más adelante. Luis Vázquez de Castro14. Un dato interesante sobre esta mujer es Estas viviendas tienen una función que junto a su marido Manuel López primordial que es la de abolir de alguna Mateos y Vázquez de Castro, participan en manera los asentamientos en chabolas la proyección del Monumento del Valle de producidos por la migración masiva de la los Caídos, todo un símbolo de la ideología población rural a la ciudad. Son franquista con el que se pretende edificaciones sencillas y temporales que conmemorar a los caídos por la patria. El constan de dos o tres dormitorios, un proyecto que presentan se caracteriza por salón, una cocina y un baño, resuelto todo poseer unas líneas modernas que se alejan ello en unos cincuenta metros cuadrados. bastante de la filosofía arquitectónica La Unidad Vecinal de Absorción se imperante durante la década de los componía además de una capilla, grupos cuarenta. Se trataba de un edificio con un escolares, guardería infantil, comercios de amplio espacio en su parte frontal en el uso diario, servicio asistencial sanitario, que los arquitectos juegan con dos servicios administrativos, la casa de baños volúmenes geométricos bien definidos, y una zona de recogida de basuras15. siendo uno de ellos el volumen vertical en En San Sebastián colabora en el Plan cuya fachada principal se ubicaría una General de 1950, debemos decir en este gran cruz, y el otro, de planta en arco y punto Juana Ontañón deja una ingente algo más discreto. El proyecto no interesó cantidad de obras en el Levante español, al caudillo y ni siquiera se llevó ningún 14 premio. Bidagor, Pedro, Sambricio, Carlos. Plan Bidagor 1941-1946. Plan General de Ordenación de Madrid. Madrid: Dirección General de Urbanismo y Planificación Regional, 2003. 13 Vílchez Luzón, Javier. Matilde Ucelay primera 15 Vílchez Luzón, Javier. Matilde Ucelay primera mujer arquitecta en España. Granada: tesis mujer arquitecta en España. Granada: tesis doctoral, 2013, p. 11. doctoral, 2013, p. 818.

140 entre Valencia y Castellón, en Burgos, Jaén pequeña selección de su ingente y Madrid, pues desde los primeros años de producción. la década de los 50 hasta la década de los Uno de los primeros edificios que realiza 80 su actividad es bastante frenética. Una es el Edificio Azabache para Alfonso actividad que compagina con su Alfranca y Alfonso Romero en 1954, que matrimonio y la crianza de sus dos hijos. está ubicado en el barrio de Carabanchel Buena parte de sus obras no han llegado a en Madrid. Se trata de un edificio de nuestros días y tan sólo queda constancia viviendas para el que tuvo en cuenta el de ellas a través de los proyectos aprovechamiento de la luz natural, y que arquitectónicos. Generalmente se trata de llevó a cabo a través de una acertada edificios destinados a viviendas, chalets o orientación, distribuyendo las diferentes casas unifamiliares, hoteles en la zona del estancias a través de una pequeña entrada levante español, y alguna que otra nave y empleando balcones al exterior. Un industrial. edificio de viviendas funcional y cuyo Su integración dentro del panorama aprovechamiento del espacio es máximo. arquitectónico español, siendo una más y Otra de sus obras, y muy cercana en formando equipo con otros muchos ejecución a la anterior, es el Chalet para arquitectos, nos consta, entre otros Aurelio Alfonso situado en la Avenida de motivos porque es la única mujer que Alfonso XIII de Madrid y que se realiza en firma el “Manifiesto de la Alhambra” de 1955. En este caso la arquitecta también 1953, y su firma está al lado de intenta aprovechar al máximo la luz arquitectos tan relevantes como Chueca natural y lo consigue abriendo un vano en Goitia, o Luis Moya. En este manifiesto cada una de las estancias. El chalet consta dividido en apartados como formas, de dos plantas y la fachada gana construcciones, decoración y jardines, se plasticidad gracias al empleo de diferentes asientan las bases de la arquitectura materiales como son la piedra y el ladrillo. española. Los arquitectos que reflexionan Para el Edificio Urrea ubicado en la calle sobre eso tienen una clara conciencia del Centenera de Madrid construido en 1969, momento de cambio en que viven y Juana Ontañón tiene en cuenta no sólo el llevarán a cabo sus conclusiones con el aprovechamiento de los recursos convencimiento de la necesidad de naturales, sino también el clima de la renovación de la arquitectura española. ciudad donde se levanta. En su fachada Sus obras están censadas en el Colegio predominan las terrazas por pisos que Oficial de Arquitectos de Madrid y parece unifican las diferentes viviendas, además, ser que rondan la cifra de 219 proyectos, estas terrazas ganan plasticidad gracias a muchos de ellos no se han llevado a cabo y la colocación de sendos toldos que sin algunos no se conservan16. El grueso de su duda aplacan el sofocante calor del verano obra está formado por mayoritariamente y proporcionan frescor a la vivienda. por edificios de viviendas, casas Una de sus obras más plásticas es el Hotel individuales, o chalets si empleamos la Koral de 1971. Está situado en primera jerga del momento, Hoteles ubicados línea de playa en El Tosalet, en Oropesa tanto en primera como en segunda línea del Mar, Castellón de la Plana y se de playa, alguna que otra nave para taller, caracteriza por ser un pequeño rascacielos y alguna escuela. Hemos recogido una que rompe con las líneas horizontales predominantes en la costa levantina como 16 Vílchez Luzón, Javier. Matilde Ucelay primera vemos en la figura 4. Para realizar este mujer arquitecta en España. Granada: tesis proyecto Juana Ontañón cuenta con la doctoral, 2013, p. 818.

141 colaboración de otra mujer, la arquitecta despampanante, si no, claro, María de Luxán y con su marido. puede quedar como un churro. Como vemos en la imagen, el hotel consta Lo que no me seduce nada es de una planta rectangular y tiene una la idea de la publicidad altura de diez plantas y la distribución de exterior”17 las habitaciones se realiza mediante el Tras leer este breve párrafo, no cabe duda empleo de un pasillo central que atraviesa de que estamos ante una mujer que ha el edificio longitudinalmente, de forma sabido adaptarse a los tiempos, que ha que todas ellas tienen vistas a la costa. Se luchado por y para su profesión, que ha trata de una fachada abierta a través del sabido trabajar desde el lugar en el que un uso de balcones individuales que se país, cerrado al exterior, hacinó a las corresponden con cada una de los mujeres a la sombra de un hogar habitáculos. construido por sueños, para unas El espíritu creador de esta arquitecta la inalcanzables, y para otras, el motor de su lleva mucho más allá, y ha dejado vida. constancia de ello a través de su Juana Ontañón Sánchez-Arbós fallece a los participación en la enciclopedia 40 años en 81 años el 13 de febrero del 2002 en la vida de España realizando sendos Madrid, en compañía de sus hijos y análisis de ciertas obras arquitectónicas de familia. relevante interés y, notable es su apoyo al rugby como deporte siendo una de las promotoras, junto a su marido, de la El Paraninfo de la Universidad Laboral de revista Arquirugby cuyo primer número se Gijón lanza en 1976 escribiendo ella misma el editorial y siendo presidenta de Honor de La Universidad Laboral de Gijón es, la sección de rugby del Club Deportivo probablemente, uno de los proyectos más Arquitectura, en el que su marido llevaba destacados en el panorama arquitectónico muchos años participando como jugador. no sólo regional sino de ámbito nacional, Su pasión por la arquitectura la lleva a tanto por sus dimensiones como por lo participar en foros de opinión como se ambicioso del proyecto, para hacernos recoge en esta noticia de ABC, a raíz de la una idea de sus dimensiones, decir que colocación de una pasarela anuncio en cuenta con una ocupación superficial de mitad del paseo de la Castellana en 1981: unos 442.550 metros, de los cuales “A mí me parece muy bien que 119.750 metros se corresponden con se haga la pasarela, ya que es superficie edificada. muy importante como acceso El proyecto lo lleva a cabo el ya citado a los mundiales. Ahora se arquitecto Luis Moya, profesor por aquel hacen pasarelas preciosas. En entonces de Juana Ontañón, junto con cuanto a si afecta a la estética otros dos arquitectos de cabecera como de la Castellana, pues es una son Pedro R. De la Puente y Ramiro Moya, cosa muy relativa. ¿A qué la ejecución de la obra se llevó a cabo por estética? Porque lo que ha parte de José Díez Canteli y se contó para gustado ayer, puede que no su realización con la colaboración de guste hoy. Hoy lo que desentonaría allí es un puente 17 gótico. Si la hacen bien, puede M. CH. G. V. “El tema de la pasarela continúa sin salir una pasarela ningún tipo de acuerdo municipal corporativo”, en ABC , 24-01-1981, p. 21.

142 Enrique Huidobro, Manuel Thomas, Juana La parcela donde se asienta el volumen es Ontañón, Manuel López Mateos y Luis una parcela irregular estando uno de sus García Amorena18. lados incrustado en la línea general del El edificio, situado en una zona elevada del edificio mientras que los otros barrio de Somió en Gijón, consta de una serie de dependencias que se articulan en torno a un patio central porticado que References organiza el espacio, siguiendo la línea de las plazas castellanas. Los elementos que NÚÑEZ IZQUIERDO, Sara. El arquitecto la constituyen son la torre de 129,25 Francisco Gil González (1905-1962) y la metros de altura, el convento, los talleres, arquitectura salmantina del segundo los jardines, o el magnífico paraninfo, un tercio del siglo XX. Salamanca, universidad ejemplo destacado de la arquitectura de salamanca, 2014. moderna asturiana concebido en forma de proa de barco. Pero además de estos Zafrilla Tobarra, Ricardo. Universidades destacables elementos, cabe mencionar Laborales: un proyecto educativo también las aulas y las viviendas para falangista para el mundo obrero (1955- aprendices que la convierten en una 1978). Aproximación histórica. auténtica ciudad del trabajo, los talleres, las granjas y los campos de deportes. El M. CH. G. V. “Aunque está encargado a conjunto se convierte en un “importante una empresa, el tema de la pasarela jalón en la difusión de cultura entre los continua sin ningún acuerdo municipal económicamente débiles”19 y se cumple corporativo” Madrid, ABC, 24-01-1981. con su construcción “una de las consignas del régimen: el mejoramiento de nuestra SOLANA SUAREZ, Enrique, “Granada 1953. cultura”20. El manifiesto de la Alhambra” en Teoría e El conjunto de la Laboral mantiene una Historia de la Arquitectura, Revista de estética clasicista y autárquica que se edificación, nº17, Mayo 1994, 71-74, acerca a la estética moderna gracias a sus BOPA, Boletín Oficial del Principado de talleres y al Paraninfo. Asturias, Decreto 19/2016, de 19 de mayo, Moya pensó el Paraninfo conectado con el por el que se declara Bien de Interés ala sur, que sería residencia temporal de Cultural, con la categoría de Monumento, los Antiguos Alumnos. Manuel López- la Universidad Laboral de Gijón. núm. 134 Mateos y su esposa, Juana Ontañón de 10-vi-2016. recibieron el encargo de diseñar este espacio singular y llevaron a cabo un Navarro-Astor, Elena and Caven, Valerie, diseño con forma de proa de barco siendo “Architects in spain: a profession under esta una solución vanguardista que risk”, Human Resource Management and rompe, pero a la vez consiguen integrar el Skills, volumen en el total del conjunto. “Accidente de coche,” Madrid, ABC, 30- 06-1959, p.48.

BOE, Boletín Oficial del Estado, LEY 56- 18 Zafrilla Tobarra, Ricardo. Universidades 1967. de 22 de julio sobre derechos Laborales: un proyecto educativo falangista para el mundo obrero (1955-1978). Aproximación políticos, profesionales y de trabajo de la histórica. P. 164. mujer, nº 175. 19 NODO 526 A, año XI. 20 NODO 526 A, año XI.

143 ONTAÑÓN, Elvira. Un estudio sobre la PRIMO DE RIVERA, Pilar, La enseñanza Institución Libre de Enseñanza y la mujer. doméstica como contribución al bienestar Valencia: Universidad Politécnica de de la familia española. Razones de la Valencia, 2003. formación de la Sección Femenina, Madrid, Comercial Española de Ediciones, FLECHA GARCÍA. Consuelo. “La 1961. incorporación de las mujeres a las instituciones de Segunda Enseñanza en SCANLON, Geraldine, La polémica España”. Historia de la educación. Revista feminista en la España contemporánea interuniversitaria (Universidad de (1868-1974), Madrid, Siglo Veintiuno de Salamanca), 17 (1998), pp. 159-178. España, 1976.

CRUZ GUTIÉRREZ, José y NAVEA, José VIANA, Enciso, Muchacha, en DOMINGO, “Nuevo Callejero de Córdoba. Juana de Carmen, Coser y cantar: las mujeres bajo Ontañón”. ABC: Viernes 15 de Julio de la dictadura franquista, Barcelona, Lumen, 2012. 2007.

NASH, Mary, TAVERA, Susanna, Las Borroy, Víctor M. “Juan. María Sánchez mujeres y las guerras: el papel de las Arbós. Una maestra aragonesa en la edad mujeres en las guerras de la Edad Antigua de oro de la pedagogía”, Rolde. Revista de a la Contemporánea, Barcelona, Icaria, Cultura Aragonesa, Nº 89, octubre- 2003. noviembre 1999.

Constitución de la República española [en Cerdeira Gutiérrez, Isabel, “Los Servicios línea], Sociales del Franquismo a la Constitución”, , [consultada 135-158. el 09-09-2015]. Vílchez Luzón, Javier. Matilde Ucelay DÍEZ FUENTES, José Manuel, “República y primera mujer arquitecta en España. primer franquismo: la mujer española Granada: tesis doctoral, 2013, p. 794. entre el esplendor y la miseria 1930- 1950”, en Alternativas: cuadernos de Bidagor, Pedro, Sambricio, Carlos. Plan trabajo social, nº3, 1995, pp. 23-40. Bidagor 1941-1946. Plan General de Ordenación de Madrid. Madrid: Dirección GALLEGO MÉNDEZ, María Teresa, Mujer, General de Urbanismo y Planificación Falange y Franquismo, Madrid, Taurus, Regional, 2003. 1983. Anes, Gonzalo, Fernando Chueca Goitia. SÁNCHEZ LÓPEZ, Rosario, Mujer española, Arquitecto, humanista y político. Madrid: una sombra de destino en lo universal. Real Academia de la Historia, 2007. Trayectoria histórica de la Sección Femenina de Falange (1934-1877), Murcia, Sambricio, Carlos, Madrid, vivienda y Universidad de Murcia, 1990. urbanismo: 1900-1960, Madird: Akal, 2004.

144 (Re)Discovering the Objects and the Actions of Lina Bo Bardi

Mara Sanchez Ortiz

When Lina Bo Bardi is remembered we to get a third one that was universal and usually think only about her built work but Brazilian at the same time. She wrote: she was more else: a lot of years, places ' Great Mechanics Cow— Sculptural and creative atmospheres where she Object / Resounding and illuminating opened new ways of creating; she installation / Container articulated replanted and rethought about all the exhibitor for Brazilian popular craftwork imaginative tools with an exceptional objects…” Miracle Box"…' thought and an energetic intellectual However, was Bo Bardi´s architecture a encourage, and she did it in a men world. playground where her objects were The first time somebody talked to me displayed? about Lina Bo Bardi it was in 2001 during a The complex creative work of Lina Bo University staying in Latin America, then I Bardi is a response to European modernity took a bus from Rosario, Argentina, to Sao from Brazil, differentiating itself from Paulo, Brazil, to visit the Museum of Art of other works in the new expressive tools Sao Paulo (MASP) that she designed in used and in the importance of that city in 1968. collectiveness in public spaces. Her work Later, in 2004, I visited the Biennial of can really be understood when user is Venice where I found as a surprise a involved and becomes a creator. monographic exhibition about the work of The limits of her creative universe Bo Bardi. Metaphorically, Lina returned to disappeared when she travelled to Brazil Italy at that moment, the country she left to live in Sao Paulo in 1947; then, a new in 1946. age of reflection and intense making In that exhibition I discovered the meaning appeared, with new criteria and priorities of the objects she created. After that that are still existing and necessary experience the fascination on her work nowadays. came and I started a deep research about Her idea on public spaces is an importance her way of understanding architecture and of her life experience, with a clear didactic world. I travelled to Italy and Brazil trying vocation, and leading her to attempt to to discover in those places her biography, teach others how to observe and act upon her writings and her vital trajectory. the reality of the world around them and In the Venetian exhibition, I discovered a transform it. For Lina, architecture was not special object designed in 1988, Grande a utopia but a way to get collective Vaca Mecânica [the Great Mechanics wishes. Cow] that it was inside a magical The second time I travelled to Brazil, I was atmosphere consisting on a forest of thirty-one, the same age that Lina was colored masts and other imaginary objects when she travelled to Brazil firstly, and I coexisting with furniture, models and followed the same steps she followed, I drawings of Lina´s projects. visited the same Brazilian destinations The Great Mechanics Cow is a display case that she loved so much: Rio of Janeiro, and it synthesizes imagination and Uberlandia, Sao Paulo, Salvador of Bahia technology. Lina linked these two worlds, and the rest of the northeast of Brazil.

145 Lina Bo Bardi opened new ways of victory in the First World War. architecture and linked our profession I was six years old. with the social problems of the moment When Rome was destroyed in 1941, Lina [very similar to the current ones] design, decided to move into Milano in search of a arts and craft, art and participation. She free cultural horizon. There, and during changed the way of understand the war, she lived surrounded by architecture and she changed the way of contemporary creators. She kept in taught understand Brazil in the world. with famous artists and intellectuals, such She said that Brazil was free of prejudices as Giorgio De Chirico or Bruno Zevi. and Occidental academicism, that Brazil Lina Bo Bardi was a legitimate daughter of didn´t have a canonical and culture the historical European Avant-garde. Her tradition but Brazil was another thing, dream was close to the willpower of Brazil was spontaneity and a bit of fullness change of this movement. She always for Lina, but that fullness was beauty her, confirmed: 'The true international Avant so I have wanted to take part of that Garde of the twentieth century, the fullness too. metaphor, is still alive.' Achillina di Enrico Bo was born in Rome in She worked for Gio Ponti. They two 1914. She graduated in the eternal city as started to review vernacular Italian an architect in 1939. Her young drawings architecture and collected crafts. Critics reveal us that she was a dreamy and remember them as the last Humanists of humorous teenager. She used to relate the last century. Those craft-objects were funny stories too, as “Stones against economically appropriate for users. At the Diamonds”, in which we can deduce her same time, she designed from that point deep character and sophistication. She of view as we can see in this emergency wrote: cot. Lina´s sister, explained: Ever since I was a child I´ve 'Lina made a cot with a box of fruit! She collected things: pebbles, found all that later in Brazil where natives shells from Abruzzi, strands of made a lamp with a can or a branch of a wire, little screws. While I was tree.' still very young I remember In nineteen forty-six, Lina Bo and Pietro something momentous María Bardi married. They moved into Rio happened in the form of a de Janeiro to create an exhibition of Italian chicken my mother was paintings. preparing for our Sunday The creative universe of Lina expanded its roast. In its stomach was a limits. The Bardi´s were invited before to collection of glass and pebbles create the first Museum of Art of São worn smooth by water, in Paulo. The couple worked very hard on shades of green, pink, black, this cultural project to open it in 1948. brown and white. My mother After moving to São Paulo, Lina began a gave them to me, and that was new stage in her life of reﬂection and the start of my collection, intense creation with new criteria and which I kept in a little powder priorities. Craftsmanship, design, and compact, a present of my aunt architectural production were all Esterina, made from the blue reconsidered and rethought, but always steel of German guns combining her creativity and intellectual abandoned after the France´s courage.

146 They lived in Sao Paulo for the rest of their with Gilberto Gil, Pierre Verger, and Jorge lives with the exception of seven years Amado and together they were able to that Lina moved to Salvador da Bahia. introduce Bahia into the country’s artistic She taught at the School of Fine Arts at circuit, which at the same time, was University of Bahia, created and directed seeking to become international. the Modern Art Museum in 1958. Let´s return to São Paulo. Before living in During those years she researched and Salvador, Lina worked as a museographer explored the native craft-production, and furniture designer. Lina intended to primal but very creative, she used to say educate "the taste of the masses" from that it was "the hand of the working- designing and turned into Brazilian class". economic driving force for change. This She collected and inventoried diary crafts, was the teaching-productive goal of votive offerings, toys, and so on. She Bardi´s and it took place successfully. deduced that recycling was the main tool, In nineteen fifty-one, Lina designed the a concept of techno-craft. Bardi´s Bowl. The deliver was in pieces: a From the ﬁrst stage in her professional spherical seat and a structure. The first career she learned the trade and the one was available in different finishes. The necessary graphic and intellectual tools for Bardi´s Bowl could be a user-adjustable the development of her career, furniture. commencing with the creation of The seat was stackable and could be museums. supported directly on the ground or on a In Bahia she imported some ideas of the metallic structure, which elevates us German Bauhaus and experimented with thirty-five centimeters from the floor. them in the Solar do Unhão that she Bo Bardi designed and industrialized this rehabilitated. The museum was a didactic chair to join functionality, seriation, experience increasing knowledge and diversity of materials and multiplicity of culture and both were completed with positions for the user. It had an animalistic each School of Industrial Design. evocation like other contemporary Lina’s contact with these Brazilian designs. handicrafts combined with European Lina devoted an enormous effort to tools, tied to new ﬁeld of design advertisement, doing a photographic motivated her to fabricate objects. She campaign. She was the woman in shadow created an inventory of human kind that in the cover of the magazine "Interiors”. changed her point of view and from which The MoMA Design Department acquired she extracted a creative process from a this magazine cover [that was awarded] country which was humble yet able to and another poster designed by Lina too, resolve everyday needs without any we refer to the sign of the Agriculture intention whatsoever of obtaining Exposition. So, the international beautiful objects, although this is exactly recognition of Lina Bo Bardi began as a what they were. Her outlook, a product of designer. the avant-garde, turned out to be The same year she created the Bardi´s anthropological, capturing the human Bowl, she made reality her own house, essence. named later the "Glass House". The house Lina Bo Bardi activated the city of Salvador was not stackable like the chair; its roof of Bahia: exhibitions, university activity, was curve slightly [like a protective hand] the Daily News of Salvador etcetera. These to throw out the rainy water. activities were developed and carried out

147 However, with this concept of house she Bowl on its structure. Symbolically, this worked the idea of an economic and social house is like a subtly supported insect that housing. She dispersed and repeated the can take flight at any moment. Glass House as a pattern on the territory. The first time I visited the Glass House it If we look at the current aerial image of was empty because of its restauration and the "Glass House" and we go across it, we it was when I could understand all this cannot discover the old scenario of this house was a piazza and a tetto. house. Previously, a tea treasury These dualities were Bo Bardi´s manifesto devastated the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. about the way of life she proposed. Bo Bardi recovered this landscape. Lina abstracted and synthesized them The first action was controlling the access when she designed an insect-lamp, to the house with simultaneous mimetic with its scenery and a kind of perceptions: a kind of a choreographic metamorphosis between nature and movement. technic. The land support was resolved with a With this bug, she reflected on the geographical strategy: a network of walls scenario in which the "Glass House" regulating the hill. The "Glass House" inhabited, this "glassy object" could incorporated time for the full meaning of disappear in front of the observer the project when it was absorbed by magically. vegetation. Was the "Glass House” a transpose of an Lina built this house with concrete, metal animal suspended on the Morumbi hill and glass; however, the geographical and ready to go? hydrographic-landscaping project was Lina used to work in the great hall of the resolved with concrete, stones, colored "Glass House" looking at the city sleeping, tile, water and green. there; she designed the new Museum of Returning to the "Glass House", we can Art of Sao Paulo, that we called MASP, find dualities. The private and individual situated in the Paulista Avenue. part of the house [as cells] is protected The MASP plays with a duality: the own from the outside and its open slightly to a concept of Museum between Le controlled courtyard, so, it´s close to the Corbusier´s and Mies Van der Rohe´s idea earth because it´s the most fragile and it results a magic and floating box in fragment. concrete and glass over eight meters high In this way, it was like the seat of the and generate a void of seventy-four Bardi's Bowl when it´s directly on the meters. ground. Bo Bardi had thought about this urban Over the years, many architects, students void at the Museum of Art in São Vicente. and artists visited the house and She tested there what happened under participated in the gatherings there: Max the building when it was left in a maritime Bill, Gilberto Gil, Oscar Niemeyer, the context. Tropicalista circle, Aldo Van Eyck, Inside, she created a space, nearly surreal. Charlotte Perriand, Alexander Calder and Let´s make an experiment now. so on. If we mix the photomontage that Lina Bo The lounge of the "Glass House" became a Bardi created for this museum with other kind of cultural forum, close to Lina´s idea of her works, we have these three of public space. drawings with different techniques. Otherwise, this public part of the house The repeated perspective is similar to the might exist or even not; such as the Bardi's surreal window. A window as a metaphor

148 of the eye and the boundary between Tropicália [also known as Tropicalismo] is inside and outside. the Brazilian artistic movement that got We could understand these three images up in the late nineteen sixties. The performed for three exhibition spaces as a Tropicalism´s circle hailed from Bahia, the single image and the result is a cluster of heartland of Afro-Brazilian culture, took an ideas. They loaded with tips, axe to these old divisions, invoking Oswald communication, research without the de Andrade's 1928 “Cannibalist intention of been modern, original or Manifesto”. This avant-garde brought art exotic, but they are created from an to life discoursing with native postulates absolute freedom of expression. and with different references of Well, in fact with this exercise we can get international art, such as Art Povera, the atmosphere that Lina designed for the Conceptual Art and above all Pop Art. MASP. The work of Lina Bo Bardi was a kind of This Museum was as if it was almost precursor of Tropicalismo because she anything, "ready to go". We deduce that created situations of group surprise, Lina Bo Bardi´s architecture was a support confusion and exaltation, generating new for activities, in which the glass was the relationships between the user and the invisible limit between illusion and reality. place and a change in the sense of reality. As a matter of act, objects converted in a Between 1968 and 1985, Lina carried out creative laboratory to get that illusion of creative works for cinema and theatre, reality comes true. and particularly for the Ofﬁce Theatre, the She created urban infrastructures to focus being on experimental culture and inhabit in them collectively and on the protests by people from São Paulo. participate, in a way of learning and The remodeling of this old garage, which playing. Lina commenced together with Edson Elito Therefore, she generated temporary in nineteen eighty, had to do with the idea atmospheres. The Great Mechanics Cow of architecture and theatre, two close that we already narrated at the beginning concepts for the architect. In fact, Lina of this lecture could have inhabited under returned a piece of street to Sao Paulo, the MASP. through the Office Theatre that is a kind of The futurist Italian artist, Fortunato magnetic public space for the city, a kind Depero came early with this idea as of assemble space. follows: "The city is a place for casual In 1977, Lina began another collective meetings, random and almost dreamlike, project in the city of São Paulo, the SESC the location of the staging of existence." Pompéia, recovering an historic barrel These are evidences for understanding the factory and turning it into a culture, double condition of Bo Bardi´s work: leisure and sports center. Bo Bardi utopian and pragmatic. incorporated the program acquired by the Until now, we have wandered around abandoned building itself and that three bobardian works. Three scales, three neighbors in the area had manipulated for situations, three actions and three spaces their own practice. for participation. This spatial idea Lina used to narrate the creation of the continued metamorphosing in other SESC as follows: objects. First, the creative process of Lina The first time that I entered got be reflected in the design of furniture; the abandoned factory after, defining the objects and the Pompeia, in nineteen seventy- atmospheres they inhabited. six, what really fascinated me,

149 thinking about a possible her look towards the elderlies recovery to transform the that were just enjoying much existing space (...), was the more time than current other rational English structure of users of the recycled factory. the nineteenth century (...) I They were dancing in a room understood in my first visit and the doors were closed that architecture was the because they were feeling natural response to a gripping embarrassed for being dancing work full of stories. My second but they were old people. visit was on Saturday, the Lina ordered to open the doors and atmosphere was completely invited young people to dance with old different: (...) fathers and people while children were running and mothers, happy children, enjoying under their legs. So the doors of elders, all of them were having the factory threw below in order that all of a very good time, all together. them were together, elderly, young and The children were running, children. All of them were dancing and teenagers were playing were taking part of the new Factory football and basketball under Pompéia. Little by little the users began to the rain that strained through lift the arms and to dance, also in the the cracks of the covers. Moms drawings that Lina made. were preparing sandwiches The annotated uses by the residents only and barbecue at the entrance needed a formal condition that it was of the street; there was also a shaping them, that was sheltering them puppet theatre... and was putting them in relation. I thought, all of this should She completed the new factory with two continue with all this interconnected towers for aquatic sports happiness. I went back again and football. She called this architectural many other times on Saturdays ensemble, cidadela da liberdade [the and Sundays, trying to fix all of citadel of freedom]. those funny and popular Since the opening there was a lingering scenes in my head. festive spirit in the inaugurations and exhibitions that acted as a catalyst for the I found architecture in reality centre. Lina developed many of these and I put it in value, to bring it activities herself, being the cultural to the surface and I gave it the director of the architectural complex. form that it needs: to allow In 1968, Lina Bo Bardi had proposed to that what already happens move out the art from MASP to the rest of should organize the city that the city. It was the “train of Arts”. In SESC we wish. Pompeia, she bears in mind to bring all the Lina completed the story of the visits to culture to SESC, and for this, she designed the factory, describing the day she found a the small train of carts. This mechanic closed door, she was fascinated with the collective and moving object was a following scene, and she deduced the final reminiscent of the factory Pompéia. topic of the project: The machinery for the train could have been the Great Mechanics Cow, which The idea of free time was the contained the popular and the high key in the project that turned culture, the creativity and the reality, the

150 freedom and the rigor. We could have on the role of emptiness, as well as on the manipulated this object to appreciate the potential of the spatial lack of way of made. architecture. Now, we can overstep the limits of culture She declared: and enter, as Johan Huitzinga said “in the In the great void of the MASP play-world”. on Paulista Avenue it was I´d like to finish this article with a reflexion possible to put up an art about the same public project I started, exhibition but also a great Park the MASP, and the first plaything I for children. Its eighty meters discovered, the Great Mechanic Cow. of light were not anything; This In 1946, Lina´s husband, Pietro María was the main experiment of Bardi, was engaged to create and direct the international scene at that the new Museum of Art of São Paulo. The moment... It was inaugurated museum opened the doors of its first in nineteen sixty-eight and it location in the center of the city, was a large commotion in the supported by the journalist Assis country. I'm not saying that Chateaubriand. Ten years later, the new the Museum of Art of São seat of the Museum was on Paulista Paulo is beautiful... it is not. I Avenue, was projected by Lina Bo Bardi. At sought not beauty, but that moment the MASP was considered freedom. Intellectuals didn’t the most important museum in Latin like it but people did. People America. liked it very much. People It was inaugurated in 1968 by the Queen wondered: who did create Elizabeth the current Queen of England. this? And It was answered: It The powerful tectonics of this well-known was a woman! work of architecture, was intensified by the red color of its structure and the The specific narration arising from the passing of time, has turned it into an complete review of the works of Lina Bo iconic image of the city of São Paulo. Bardi in this lecture aims to: research her The Great Mechanic Cow, designed by theoretical and practical experiences, as Lina Bo Bardi twenty years later, was a well as the academic keys defined by my zoomorphic object, a cow with a futuristic own as “vital laboratory of Lina Bo Bardi”; appearance to be displayed in the MASP: reflect on her collective actions- learn, an expositor within another expositor. All inhabit, play- and from a different playful of the objects that Lina found in Salvador standpoint, a selection of objects or of Bahia could be inside this cow, so those collective toys and the key actions are objects were art too and they were established once, place over them on the exhibited inside the MASP. public spaces which the objects inhabit This collective toy focused on the and conclude that these, objects and simultaneity between the popular and the collective actions, are precursors to Lina mechanical, and it created a playful Bo Bardi´s architecture. atmosphere. Both expositors speculated These are the reasons of why Lina was, on the identification and contemporary and still is, a source of inspiration. role of the museum. In the temporary When the Almirante Jaceguay made port dialogue between that toy and the in Rio de Janeiro in 1946, an Italian couple museum Lina expanded on the airy disembarked, carrying in their baggage no essence of the museum, on freedom and small number of paintings: the man was a

151 gallery owner and art critic who since the thirties had developed the idea of bringing BO BARDI, Lina (1958). “Arquitetura e culture to Italian immigrants in South natureza ou natureza e arquitetura”. America. But they carried something else Conferencia pronunciada en la Casa da with them too. The woman, his wife, França. Salvador de Bahia. brought the desire to create modern architecture in a young nation, to create a BARDI, Lina Bo. Museu de Arte Moderna new world and Lina created nearly da Bahia [1959?], ICAA | MFAH, impossible worlds, full of irony and International Center for the Arts of the fantasy, all for people relating Americas at Museum of Fine Arts, intellectuality and playful, a big party for Houston. children and adults, dreaming, playing and learning, all together. BO BARDI, Lina (1959). “Entrevista In other words, we could say that Lina Bo manuscrita de Lina Bo”, Página Cultural Bardi developed a sort of “Spatial del Diario de Noticias, Salvador. Symphony” in which she designed objects to display, to get a playful spirit thanks to CLARK, Lygia (1960). A morte do plano, the actions, that make closer the collective The world of Lygia Clark. memory to all of us. The combination of her languages close to DUNN, Christopher (2001). Brutality children's was an expression of playful, Garden: Tropicália and the Emergence of a dreamlike and childish because when Lina Brazilian Counterculture, UNC Press Books. was creating she was like a little girl playing to build cities. FAVARETTO, Celso (2000). Tropicália, alegoria, alegria. São Paulo: Ateliê. FOSTER, Hal, KRAUSS, Rosalind, BOIS, Yve- Alain & BUCHLOH, Benjamin (2006). “1960. Neovanguardia y espectáculo”, Arte desde 1900, Londres, Akal.

JORGE, Luis Antônio (1997). “As lições da Bibliografía arquitetura brasileira de Lina Bo Bardi”, Projeto Design, São Paulo, Arco. ALMEIDA LIMA, Zeuler. “Lina Bo Bardi, entre margens e centro”, Arquitexto 14 MENDES DA ROCHA; Paulo (1992). “Imagem do Brasil”, Caramelo. São Paulo, BASUALDO, Carlos (2007). Tropicália: Uma FAU- USP Revolução na Cultura Brasileira (1967- SANCHEZ LLORENS, Mara (2015). Lina Bo 1972). São Paulo, Cosac Naify. Bardi. Objetos y acciones colectivas. BO BARDI, Lina (1943). Arquitetura e Buenos Aires, Diseño. natureza: a casa na paisajem, Milán, Domus 191. ZEVI, Bruno (1992), Um arquiteto por um camino ansisoso, Caramelo, São Paulo, BO BARDI, Lina (1957). Contribução FAU propedéutica ao ensino da teoría da ZEVI, Bruno (1995). L´Impasse del design, arquitetura, São Paulo, Instituto Lina Bo & São Paulo, Charta. P.M. Bardi.

152

III RESEARCH AND INDUSTRIES

153 Developing Industrial Design

An Improbable Woman: Portugese New State’s Dictatorship and Design Leadership

Maria Helena Souto

Portuguese design has played a key role in These actions began at the Marinha our aesthetic and cultural memory Grande’s manually crafted crystal-ware between the late 1950’s and 1974, the era factory, the Fábrica-Escola Irmãos of the discipline institutionalization Stephens (Stephens Brothers’ Factory through the INII (National Institute of School), where Maria Helena Matos had Industrial Research). Here the actions of a already worked, and where she deepened group of women designers lead by Maria her knowledge in glass design through a Helena Matos (1924-2015) became scholarship granted by Fundação Calouste fundamental for the affirmation, Gulbenkian (Calouste Gulbenkian strengthening, authorship and disclosure Foundation). Knowing her work, process of Portuguese Industrial Design. Magalhães Ramalho invited her at the end In the late 1950’s, economic policies of the of 1960 to collaborate with the Art and Portuguese New State's dictatorship Industrial Architecture Nucleus, where she changed with an enhancement of the would replace Teixeira Guerra as industrial sector. One of the dynamic responsible for it. efforts to increase this sector was the Under her leadership, the Nucleus establishment of the INII which began organized in 1965 the 1st Fortnight of work in 1959 and was composed by Industrial Aesthetics, presenting a series several laboratories associated to of conferences lectured by several technology that had the purpose of European experts on industrial design supporting industrial sectors, within a especially concerned “to make accessible policy defined in the second Foment Plan to all officers, technicians and artists the (1959-1964), which led to significant most modern ideas and work processes changes in the 1960s. that interest the progress and expansion In 1960, the architect António Teixeira of industrial activities and about the most Guerra (1929-2012), with the support of important and increasing current problem the INII’s director, engineer António of industrial design”2. Magalhães Ramalho (1907-1972), created This event was accompanied by an the Art and Industrial Architecture International Exhibition of Industrial Nucleus, whose first activity was to Design3 which established a milestone in develop aspects related to the designing the Portuguese design history: it of products and their production methods, 2 establishing a seminal industrial design Tradução das conferências proferidas durante a Iª sector.1 Quinzena de Estética Industrial. (Lisboa: Ministério da Economia - Instituto Nacional de Investigação Industrial, 1966), p. 1. 1 Maria Helena Souto, “Design em Portugal (1960- 1974): Dialéctica entre tradição, modernidade e 3 Exposição Internacional de Industrial Design. utopia”, Arte & Utopia (Lisbon: FCSH / CHAIA / (Lisboa: Instituto Nacional de Investigação DINAMIA’CET / FCT, 2013), 171-81. Industrial, 1966).

154 simultaneously materialized the first making it "accessible to the general design display in Portugal and also public”4. In November, this exhibition had integrated the English term design in the a second presentation in the city of lexicon of the official discourse, when Oporto, on the Stock Exchange building appearing in the title of the exhibition and whose iron and glass structure, welcomed its catalogue. the display of the Portuguese design This was a daring realization by Maria products. Helena that contributed decisively to the Following this 1st Exhibition, the Art and assertion of design in Portugal. Moreover, Industrial Architecture Nucleus finally she leveled men and women as designers, changed to Industrial Design Nucleus with overcoming gender and putting in Maria Helena Matos as leader and, in 1973 dialogue different crafts, such as Daciano the Nucleus organized the 2nd Portuguese da Costa (1930-2005) and José Maria Cruz Design Exhibition. de Carvalho (1930-2015) industrially Once again, this exhibition was shown at produced furniture along with her own the FIL (International Fair of Lisbon), in glasses and Miria Toivola (1933) ceramics March 10-22, 1973, conducted by the for SECLA Factory. Nucleus, and conceived by António Sena Subsequently, in 1970 Maria Helena gave da Silva (1926-2001) and the Cooperative a favourable response to the challenge Praxis. As a result of this display, the presented by designers Cruz de Carvalho design finally began to have a larger public and João Constantino (1940-1999) to recognition in Portugal and ceased to be gather a Portuguese Design Exhibition in understood as a simple embellishment of 1971, under the patronage of the INII the product to a higher level of sales, but through the Art and Industrial as a project-based subject that ensures Architecture Nucleus. In order to develop the quality concept of industrial products, this remarkable task, she had the approval confirmed by the large number of stands, of the engineer José de Melo Torres shown through the products Campos (the second Director of the representative from various companies, Institute), to hire two young women products submitted individually or designers – Alda Rosa (1936) and Cristina through the attention given by the general Reis (1945) - to assist on the exhibition and specialized press.5 production, namely working on its visual In the aftermath of the Nucleus actions, identity. Maria Helena would influence some Held in March 20-29, 1971 at the FIL enlightened industrials to understand that (International Fair of Lisbon), the main a metadesign approach in Portuguese goal of this exhibition was to bring industry answered to the quality demands together the work that best represented of its industrial products, in order to the state of art in Portuguese design, for achieve a competitive global market. which included the projects presentation of sixty-seven designers, as a total of two hundred and sixty products. Most of these came from forty-five manufacturers, with only a few pieces submitted individually. In the exhibitions catalogue, the Nucleus 4 Iª Exposição de Design Português. (Lisboa: established design as a "democratization Instituto Nacional de Investigação Industrial, 1973), of useful-pleasant, useful-comfortable p. 115. that is no longer a privilege for a few" 5 IIª Exposição de Design Português (Lisboa: Instituto Nacional de Investigação Industrial, 1973).

155 Stanka Knez, m. Lozar - A Slovenian Textile Designer in Early Socialist Yugoslavia

Maja Lozar Štamcar

The purpose of pattern in printed textiles came from Ljubljana and Zagreb Art should be the expression of flow and Academies and adhered to contemporary rhythm which will move sympathetically artistic movements grown in Vienna, with its surroundings, distribution of Prague, Italy and Germany. Knez was colour areas, and to give visual pleasure tutored by architects Bogomila Avčin and tranquility on the one hand, and Pogačnik, Janko Omahen and Gizela interest and thrill on the other. Šuklje, a student of Prof Jože Plečnik, Tibor Reich 19601 Srečko Kotar, the sculptor, Marjan Stanka Knez was born into a clerks' family Pogačnik the printmaker, Stane Dremelj in Ljubljana in 1935. She was always the sculptor and medal maker, and Nikolaj passionately drawing, a coloured pencil Omersa the painter and illustrator. In constantly in hand, and at fourteen was addition to the general secondary-school enrolled in the Arts and Crafts School in curriculum with art history and history, her home city. Prof Črtomir Zorec (1907- the main subjects of the first year were 1991),2 a pre-WWII student of the Arts modelling, freehand and architectural and Crafts School in Prague, induced her drawing; of the second year textile fibres, to enlist in the five-year textile course he dyeing, technology, decorative, freehand created after he had been a teacher, and figurative drawing; of the third year textbook author and principal at the technology, types of weaving, surface Textile school in Kranj. In the chaotic designing, printing, freehand and revolutionary post-Second World War professional drawing as well as hands-on years students at the Ljubljana Arts and training; of the fourth year, freehand Crafts School were provided with a drawing and hands-on training, and of the creative as well as structured fifth year creative drawing and costume environment.3 Many of the teaching staff history. Summers were partly spent in textile factories where young designers

1 Lesley Jackson, Twentieth-Century Pattern got first-hand knowledge of actual fabric- Design. Textile & Wallpaper Pioneers (New York: making processes. Of all the school's Princeton Architectrural Press, 2002), 105, after Terence Conran, Printed Textile Design (Studio Publications: London, 1957), 48.

2 Gregor Kocjan, »Črtomir Zorec, oris njegovega Secondary School of Design and Photography dela« / a sketch of his works, in Beba Jenčič et al. (Srednja šola za oblikovanje in fotografijo: (eds.), Avguštinov zbornik Gorenjski kraji in ljudje Ljubljana) 1996. The atmosphere at the school 24 (Kranj: Gorenjski muzej 2003), 194-200. itself and in the artistic circles in Ljubljana in the 3 Cf. Spominska knjiga 1888-1938. Ob wake of the Second World War has been superbly petdesetletnici izdala Državna tehniška srednja šola sketched in the memoirs of Marjan Pogačnik Ljubljana / The 1888-1938 Commemorative Album. (Milček Komelj, Kronika Marjana Pogačnika o (On the 50th Anniversary Published by the State zaljubljencih v umetnost / The Chronicle of Marjan Technical School of Ljubljana: Ljubljana, 1938; Pogačnik about People in Love with Art (Ljubljana: Andrej Bremec, 50 let ustvarjalnega pogleda 1946- KUD Logos, 2005, passim). In 1960 the school's 1996. / Fifty Years of a Creative Point of View. name was modernized into the School of Design.

156 courses4 the textile curriculum was best Dior took off with a new femininity of full suited to the industrial type of design. bell-shaped skirts in an abundance of silks After graduation, together with several of and other fine fabrics. In bankrupt her schoolmates Knez soon found countries, on the other hand, the quickest employment at the Pattern Design Studio5 way to express the overwhelming joy at in Ljubljana, launched a few years the arrival of peace was by using cheap previously with the intention of providing colourful floral cotton-printed fabrics. Due weaving and printing designs to domestic to the measures introduced by the first fabric-making factories. Industrious and and second five-year economic plans of creative, meticulous and brisk, the newly communist Yugoslavia which unassuming and sociable, Knez found had little to do with the existential needs herself fully equipped to work in her of the population, for Slovenians the after- chosen profession. At just twenty-one, in war relief was delayed for almost a 1956 she became a full member of decade. To avoid hunger, large imports of Slovenian Designers' Association grain and other foodstuffs, raw materials, (DLUUUS).6 fuels and machinery had to be bought in In the first half of the twentieth century, the West. The badly needed convertible the aftermath of both the First and the currency could only be obtained by Second World Wars brought about a exports of consumer goods. At home, on pressing need to provide the market with the other hand, staple foods, let alone unexpensive yet also good-quality goods. consumer goods such as ready-to-wear Following the horrors of the 1940s, Europe clothing7 were rationed well into the on both sides of the Iron curtain was keen fifties and in the decades to come to embrace life and have fun again. In the shortages were permanently connected USA the New Look of 1947 by Christian with daily life. There were no imports either. The ideologically-bred distribution 4 Architecture, Artistic metalwork, Ceramics, of goods standing for genuine markets Decorative painting, Embroidery and lace-making, provided extra limited assortments of Interior decoration, Print-making and Wood- home-made low-quality fabrics, for carving. 5 Together with the Experimental Weaving Shop in womanfolk to sew for themselves what Kamnik, the studio was affiliated to the Textile clothes, curtains and other items their Research Institute in Maribor. Uroš Vagaja, »O families needed. Since 1955 the Ljubljana tekstilnih vzorcih« / On Textile Patterns, Arhitekt Fair annually staged the national Fashion 2/3 (1952), 18-20; Franjo Lipovec, »Kamniška Fair, and in the late 1950s and early 1960s tekstilna industrija« / Kamnik Textile Industry, Kamniški zbornik 1 (1955), 245-249. to the model of similar western displays in 6 The same Association bore a succession of official Croatia the Zagreb Fair intended the names: since its foundation in 1951 till 1954: Family and Household exhibition to Društvo za dekorativne umetnosti / The Society of improve the quality of home-made goods. Decorative Arts; between 1954 and 1967: Društvo Slovenian exhibits there were by far the likovnih umetnikov uporabne umetnosti Slovenije 8 (DLUUUS) / The Association of Slovenian Visual best on all counts; so huge was namely Artists of Applied Arts; between 1967 and 1975: Društvo likovnikov-oblikovalcev Slovenije (DLOS) / 7 Marija Simčič, »Konfekcija v ilegali« / Clandestine The Association of Slovenian Visual Artists - ready-to-wear clothing, Tovariš, 5, 1968, 6061. Designers; and since 1975: Društvo oblikovalcev Slovenije (DOS) / Slovenian Designers' Association. Lozar Štamcar, Maja. »Društvo oblikovalcev Slovenije prvo desetletje (1951-1961)«, Acta 8 Cf. Informator [Newsletter of the DLUUUS], 22. 6. Historiae Artis Slovenica 15 (2011), 164 and note 1961, 11; Informator, 12, 1962, 3-4; Informator, 16, 25. December 1963, 4; Informator, July 1965, 9.

157 the difference in comparison with the rest artistic directors in manufacturing,10 and of Yugoslavia, made up of countries with next to none knowledgeable wholesalers little or no tradition either in textile or shop managers,11 among the few industry, fashion or interior decoration available products there were even fewer design. The fabrics and clothes shown by attractive ones. The vicious circle was home manufacturers in trandy patterns complete and there was little that the and colours in the three Slovenian-made many talented designers cought in the (and translated to other Yugoslavian middle of it could do. languages) existing magazines Naša žena Despite the fact that most of Slovenian up- (Our Woman since 1945), Maneken (The to-date pre-war manufacturing machinery Fashion Model since 1957) and Naš dom and expertise were exploited to build (Our Home since 1967) were not on offer factories in the south of the vast state, the in shops, except as export left-overs. In long-established Slovenian know-how in the early 1950s export-oriented textiles together with their Central government-appointed directors of European work-ethics were still capable - nationalized factories drastically increased until the arrival of the overwhelming the numbers of the unqualified workforce exponential western advancements in and mass-produced domestically-woven technology and materials – of producing woolen, flaxen, some silk, and above all saleable fabrics, albeit for mostly low-end cotton textiles. By mid-1960s these shifted markets. Textile designers, predominantly towards various mixtures and synthetics. female, were the uncredited first link in Our industry was unable to follow in the this production chain. To stay abreast with steps of the western development of the latest Italian trends, the Pattern cellulose and synthetic fibre fabrics, which Design Studio team (including Stanka were sturdier, cheaper, lighter, easier to Knez-Lozar) were sent yearly to fashion maintain and had wholly novel trade shows in Milan, and were given characteristics. And it was not only with access to international quality fashion and the materials that our industry could no design magazines.12 In the 1960s longer keep up with. Home consumption incomplete market-oriented reforms remained almost depleate of appealing hoping for infusions of capital, technology patterns even though they were being and managerial know-how somewhat made by our designers. Journalists as well 10 as designers were rhetorically asking why, Poglajen, Viljem, »O odnosu tekstilne industrije over and over again and at the same time do potrošnika / On the attitude of the textile industry to a consumer«, Sodobno gospodinjstvo 7- careful not to expose the core of the 8 (1956), 831-32. problem. Slovenian society namely had 11 To by-pass the rigid and unyielding wholesale been thrown into an over-all and retail managers, in Ljubljana in 1961 the egalitarianism.9 Pre-war educated and consortium of Slovenian textile producers opened affluent consumers were mostly gone and the House of Fashion department tore in which their production was sold directly to consumers. with them their cultivated tastes. As the (Cf. Tovariš, 50/8, 1961, 8; Sever, Meta, »Kako je z result of an almost complete absence of izbiro blaga na našem tržišču? / What about the variety of goods on our market?,« Naša žena 22/2, 1962, 46-47). 12 The British export magazine The Ambassador, 9 »On the street one still meets men and women in The European Textile-Export Journal. totally identical coats, suits and dresses, as if there Internationale Messe Frankfurt. Export- und were wearing uniforms«. An anonimous article Mustermesse Top Textile, the Italian design commenting on the Ljubljana Fashion Fair, Naša magazine Domus, French and German women's žena 21 (1961). magazines Elle and Burda and a few others.

158 alleviated the domestic day-to-day immediate urban surroundings as well as situation. In addition, Cold War threats by nature and came up with a profusion of prompted the USA to continue providing joyful images. In addition to a variety of Yugoslavia with aid, in finance, equipment, original patterns for gay floral cotton expertise and supplies, as well as in prints, breathing natural spontaneity or sporadic pop-culture treats, such as outlining a rigorous stylization, she Hollywood films, jazz, rock-and-roll revealed a unique lyrical vain with childlike dancing, art and design exhibitions. In the motifs suited for summer cotton prints early 1960s came a somewhat differently and nursery furnishung fabrics. Her crisp based approach to textile design than the geometrical configurations were widely previously primarily Italian dolce-vita usable both for clothing and home- variant. After several courses for decorating. Here her accute sense of architects, in June of 196313 and 1964 a rhythm kicked in, structuring, as well as group of eminent Swedish textile teachers sub- and super-structuring individual came to Ljubljana to promote minimalistic shapes and motifs. Simultaneously the Modernist Scandinavian design, which was very first choice of colours came to life, then at its peak of popularity both in sometimes creating an overall-sensation Europe and in the USA. The goal was not of a fine melody. Lozar proved herself to only for Slovenians to work with Swedish be an outstanding and unorthodox and Near-Eastern textile producers, but colourist. She was proficient at both the carefully prepared lectures and intense and mute colour spectra, and workshops were aimed at the education of seemingly never reused a single hue again. the entire textile designer – producer – In the strict professional manner her seller – consumer sequence. Lozar also meticulously executed designs were joined the so called Colour and Shape Club adapted to the capacities of existing roller by attending the courses on colour and screen printing machines and to the compositions of textile patterns based on poor availability of dyes (normally the Swedish colour-spectrum scheme. permitting only four- or five-colour In the Pattern Design Studio, Knez (Lozar schemes) in textile factories. She was also after the marriage in 1958) had already noted while designing to also bear in evolved a distinctive style. Her designs in mind, if known, the intended uses of the gouache (opaque watercolour) on paper, printed (and woven) yardage, such as the hightened with Indian ink, were charming, various types of clothing or furnishings. As light and lyrical, detailed and balanced, textiles' functions alternate between the engaging and with ever new vibrant colour stretched and free-flowing modes, hang hues. Young Lozar, in her twenties and well or are at their best with folds, her soon early thirties, liked to have fun. She designs, taking into account the properties was an enthusiastic dancer of swing, of the materials and all-important element charleston and twist and in 1959 attended of motion, were conceptualized the first Louis Armstrong jazz concert in accordingly. Lozar was also accomplished Ljubljana just a few weeks before giving in customizing patterns' shapes and sizes birth to a baby girl. Her bright personality to general fashionable and popular cuts of was reflected in her designs. A keen womens' skirts and dresses, even though observer, Lozar was inspired by her the few active Slovenian fashion designers were not encouraged to work together 13 Informativni bilten kluba Barva in oblika / with their textile colleagues. And yet it Information Bulletin of the Colour and Shape Club, was frequently precisely a successful 1/3, September 1963, 19.

159 pattern and the idea captured in its lines combinations, divisions, circlings, etc. The coupled with an attractive colour scheme selected designs were set in a proper that gave the garment and a furnished repeat, choosing from a diversity of room a soul and a meaning, to the point of manners: in fashioning an interlocking creating a certain atmosphere.14 A density, by bridging or tiling, i.e. by patterned fabric might be able to make identical-plane shapes covering an area one feel and communicate in a certain without overlapping, by either creating way, create the mystery and elegance of seemless mirror repeats on both axes, an evening and the vivacity of a summer half-step, half-brick or half-drop repeats. day. Its rhythms could conjure up either a With her fine paintbrush, Lozar perfected sense of orderliness and decisiveness, or these miniature masterpieces, not by of wit and teasing. Lozar's imagination mechanical repeation, but by knitting a provided whole sets of variants inside pattern of variations on the chosen specific families of patterns, such as the by theme, balancing the new and the old, the then popular paisleys, distinctive intricate vibrant and the quiet. Next still came the patterns of curved feather- or droplet- putting-together of diverse colour ways, shaped figures based on an Indian pine- i.e. combinations of ground-versus-motif cone design on Kashmir shawls. She colour and shade schemes, from which the pushed on to explore the upcoming black- manufacturer was to choose the final one and-white op-art options15 as well as the or several of them to actually print on colourful psychedelic style16 which in the textiles. It is quite magical how with hippy era was seeking to express the inner different colour compositions a pattern life of the psyche. By the mid-1960s, can change drastically, can not even be fashionable pattern motifs were being recognizable as the same one. Colour-way sourced on the one hand from the creating was therefore again an dynamic pop culture (with the newly- opportunity for Lozar to play with her cherished television, car, plane and space imagination and usually come up with imagery) and on the other hand from more propitious design studies than history and art history at large and needed. Sometimes the studio also worldwide impressive prehistoric and provided the technical service of carrying ancient civilizations in particular. out the colour separations of a particular The next stage in the working process was design pattern for the factory print to translate the design into a true pattern. production itself. Lozar's work was Having mastered the ancient art of one- continuously being selected for (mostly and two-way infinite pattern by balancing export-oriented) printed textile yardage attractive singular motifs, Lozar skillfully production by Slovenian factories such as composed sequences, repetitions, the largest Tekstilindus Kranj (a merger of Tiskanina and Intex), MTT Maribor, Svila /

14 The eminent English art historian Ernst Gombrich Silk Maribor, and Zvezda – tiskane tkanine dedicated one of his most unique books The Sense / printed fabrics Kranj and IBI Kranj; home- of Order to the importance of patterns in the arts. textile manufacturers, such as Svilanit 15 A Lozar's op-art design and a dress with its print Kamnik (towels), Volna Laško (woolen on fabric made by MTT were shown by fashion covers), Tekstilna tovarna Prebold (table designer and journalist Eva Pavlin (»M kot moda,« Tovariš 3, 1966, 67; and »M kot moda,« Tovariš sets, kitchen cloths, aprons), Induplati 16, 1966, on the inner back cover). Jarše (curtains), Metka Celje (patterned 16 Cf. Eva Pavlin, »M kot moda,« Tovariš, 4, 1967, bedding for adults and children) and 67. Tekstilana Kočevje (bed covers); as well as

160 others, Eksperimentalna tkalnica / affordable home furnishings and clothing Experimental Weaving Workshop Kamnik, textiles. In the 1940s, American painter Štora Ljubljana and Pletenina / Knitwear Jackson Pollock introduced an immanent Ljubljana. Commissions also came from pattern-like quality into his dynamic exclusive Yugoslav producers and Action-painting, and so did the American manufacturers in Sweden, Denmark, and Italian Abstract Expressionists19 in the Germany and Greece. Lozar's work was 1950s. At the same time Italian textile shown each year at the Ljubljana Fashion design was much influenced by Lucio Fair. From the late 1950s to the early Fontana's spatialism, seeking expression 1960s her work was also included into the through the exploration of infinite and Family and Household exhibition at the interflowing spatial dimensions. There was Zagreb Fair. Several of her designs which furthermore a fascination for wax-resist had been used for ready-to-wear outfits dyeing or discharge printing techniques were published in the Maneken magazine. and the aesthetics of batik.20 Under the This portion of her work was mostly impression of these global occurences anonymous, whereas her other activities with a strong impact on fashion and textile inside the Slovenian Designers' Association design, Lozar's explorations went into were not. In the 1950s and 1960s the several directions. Between her abstract, textile design section of the Association typically organic shapes, floral and water- was strong and thriving and Lozar was its related designs she developed a gentle very active member. For the country's and sensitive style of multi-layered depths textile (as well as furniture) exports it was of colour, commanding her virtual space very important that, as a subtle way of with an overlapping of lines, streams advertising, our top-quality design was behind main motifs with various shown at design exhibitions abroad. Hence orientations, gradations of tonality and the Yugoslav union of designers' light, and shortenings. She arranged her associations appointed juries for various fine airy motifs in stripes or dispersed occasions and Lozar's designs were structures, creating a series subdued and reguarly chosen to appear abroad. With graceful, discreet and gauzy images with the need to please the home no limitations in colour, line or surface. manufacturers much less in mind - few of Several of this-style textile designs were her designs of this sort were used in fabric proposed and accepted in 1960 for printing, Lozar was free to experiment. publication in the issue of Mozaik The twentieth century brought an exciting dedicated to textile art.21 At the fourth 17 cross-fertilization between the fine and textile arts. After the Second World War, 19 After Second-World-War painters were inspired Italian, British, American and Scandinavian by the very first abstract compositions of 1910-12 artists and designers18 were again keen to by Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944), who in translate fine arts' latest movements into connection with abstract painting emphasized its proximity to the applied arts. Cf. Herbert Read, Zgodovina modernega slikarstva od Sezanna do 17 Many greatest painters and sculptors of the Picassa / Helena Menaše, trans., A Concise History period were interested in making textile patterns, of Modern Painting, Ljubljana: DZS 1969, 218-89, among them Henri Matisse, Paul Klee, Juan Miró esp. 248. and Henry Moore. 20 Malaysian batik was put forward as fine art in an 18 Lucienne Day, Natalie Gibson, Alexander Girard, exhibition in London in 1959, triggering huge Jacqueline Groag, Maija Isola, Marian Mahler, interest (cf. »Textilkünste der Primitiven,« Top Verner Panton, Giò Pomodoro, EmilioPucci, Ken Textile, 1960, 41-43). Scott, Piero Zuffi, to name but a few of the most 21 Mozaik. Časopis za umetnost i industrijsku well-known. estetiku / Revue d' Art et d' Industrie (Beograd), a

161 DLUUUS exhibition at Modern gallery in and fashion so close beyond our western 1961 in Ljubljana, Lozar was awarded and northern borders, but simultaneously second prize for her textile-print designs the scope of possibilities to do so and the and hand-painted headscarfs. After having understanding of the deep economical, been commended at the internal technological and social changes which Association's competition,22 in 1963 along yearly generated the newest fashion with the selected fellow DLUUUS trends were narrowing steadily. The members, she represented Slovenian- organizers of the first three editions of the Yugoslav design with a hand-painted new institution of the Biennale of length of silk for a dress and a headscarf at Industrial Design in Ljubljana in 1964, 1966 the Fourth International exhibition of and 1968, mostly men and architects, Industrial Design23 at the Louvre Musée particularly shunned textile design, even des Arts Décoratifs in Paris. In 1964 the though it represents an industrial type of Yugoslav Designers' Association design par excellence. Towards the end of participated at the founding congress of the 1960s the enthusiasm for launching the World Council for Applied Arts in New fine textile design was largely spent. York. Lozar's artwork was also included into the photographic presentation.24 In 1966 Lozar showed her silk headscarfs Lozar's Collective Exhibitions painted in the batik technique at the home exhibition of the DLUUUS section of 1956 First Yugoslav Exhibition of the Art one-off artwork in Ljubljana. In 1969 she and Industry, Museum of Applied Arts, again exhibited her textile designs abroad, Beograd, Yugoslavia this time in the very heart of Italian textile industry, in Busto Arsizio north-west of Since 1956 Lozar continuously took part in Milan. the designing of fabric collections for the The extanded decade between the mid- yearly fashion shows, Ljubljana Fashion 1950s and mid-1960s in Slovenia was full Fair, Slovenia of moderate optimism. In the slackened socialist-regime's daily routines the living 1957 Second DLUUUS Exhibition, Modern standard was slightly improving, while the Gallery, Ljubljana gap between our stagnation and western rapid advancement was widening. It was 1957 – 1961 Yearly Exhibitions of Textile important to imitate the styles of living Design at the »The Family and Household« Exhibit, Zagreb Fair, Hrvaška Yugoslav magazine in Serbian and French, 11, 1960. 22 1958 Third DLUUUS Exhibition, Modern »President's [Niko Kralj] report of the work done Gallery, Ljubljana, Slovenia in the two previous years«, Informator, 22 June 1961, 11; »Report on the work of the DLUUUS«, Informator 15, and 16, 1963, str… in julij 1965… 1959/1960 The Yugoslav Associatoin of 23 The exhibition was companion of the Third ICSID Applied Artists Exhibition, Poland – International Council of Societies of Industrial (Warshaw) and the Soviet Union (Kiev, Design – Congress. Informator, 15, 1963, 7. Ukraine and Tbilisi, Georgia) 24 Informator 25, 1965, 7-8. The photos were afterwards left at the Applied Arts Museum and the Museum of Modern Art, both in New York, 1961 Fourth DLUUUS Exhibition, Modern USA. The World Council for Applied Arts is today Gallery, Ljubljana, Slovenia known as the World Crafts Council, and its base is in Geneva.

162 1963 Fourth International Exhibition of Industrial Design ICSID, Louvre / Museum Second Prize for textile print designs and of Decorative Arts, Paris, France hand-painted headscarfs at the Fourth DLUUUS Exhbition (1961), Modern Gallery, 1964 Federal Exhibition of Applied Arts, Ljubljana Municipal Gallery, Ljubljana, Slovenia

1966 Slovenian Designers' Association Bibliography One-off Design Exhibition, Ljubljana, Slovenia Anonymous. »Textilkünste der Primitiven«, Top Textile [European Textile- 1969 Sesta Esposizione Mercato Export Journal. Internationale Messe Internazionale di Disegni per l'Industria Frankfurt. Export- und Mustermesse] Tessile, Busto Arsizio, Italia (1960): 41-3.

Anonymous. Informator [The DLUUUS Her Published Works Newsletter], 22. 6 .1961.

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Anonymous. »Poročilo o modnih novostih Mozaik: Časopis za umetnost i industrijsku za pomlad-poletje 1968: Veliki tiski estetiku (Beograd), 11, 1960, 14, 21, 26, secesijskih vzorcev, nekoliko močnejših 27, 31, 36, 37, 39, 44, 45, 46, 54, 62, 64. barv, v črtah oblikovani geometrijski liki,

vijuge, rozete, stilizirano cvetje v stilu leta Razstavni katalog Društvena razstava 1900« / Report on the Fashionable DLUUUS, 1961, Moderna galerija, Novelties for the Spring-Summer of 1968: Ljubljana, [4, 10]. Large Prints of Secessionist Patterns, in

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Anonymous. »1. razstava tekstila z Maneken, June 1967, 29. mednarodno udeležbo na Gospodarskem

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Anonymous. »Izvoz iz Slovenije je zelo

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165 Shih, Joy. Couture Fabrics of the 50s. Commemorative Album. On the 50th Atglen (Pennsilvania, USA): Schiffer Anniversary Published by the State Publishing, 1997. Technical School of Ljubljana: Ljubljana, 1938. Simčič, Marija. »Konfekcija v ilegali« / Clandestine ready-to-wear clothing, Vagaja, Uroš. »O tekstilnih vzorcih« / On Tovariš, 5, 1968, 6061. Textile Patterns, Arhitekt 2/3 (1952): 18- 20. Skinner, Tina. Designer Fabrics of the Early '60s, Atglen (Pennsilvania, USA): Schiffer

Publishing, 1998.

Spominska knjiga 1888-1938. Ob petdesetletnici izdala Državna tehniška srednja šola Ljubljana / The 1888-1938

166 Female Design History in Croatia, 1930–1980: Context, Production, Influences – Tracing the Female Presence

Ana Bedenko

Introduction complex and ambitious endeavour is prerequisite for the continuity of the The project Female Design History in research and will be explored later with Croatia, 1930-1980: Context, Production, great assiduity. Influences1was initiated in 2014 with the The article will try to trace possible aim of elucidating the female presence, thematic directions in which the research along with its implications, on the Croatian could develop at a later stage, therefore it design scene.2 functions as an overview of the potential Since designers launched it, one could research trajectories. argue that the primary impulse for this The title of the project “Dizajnerice”, a type of gender exclusive research was the Croatian word for a woman designer, was need to identify one’s predecessor and to chosen deliberately in order to avoid the learn more about the history and misconception that women were merely evolution of one’s profession. Conjointly, passers-by instead of active participants in it raises certain questions like - what was it their respective fields. The meaning is like to be a woman and to work as a however lost in the translation since there professional designer at a certain period? is no English equivalent and the closest The article will further explain how the thing to it would be a woman designer or research went, present the results, and a female designer, a syntagm that plays also roughly examine the female design right into the sexist linguistic mechanisms. narrative through several political and The term female designers or female socio-economic system shifts. Due to the design that we must recur to, if only for sheer volume of historical periods, we will the sake of acknowledging the existence not be able, at this stage, to probe more of women designers, leads us to envision profoundly specific historical backdrops of female design/art/architecture as a each designer. Nonetheless, a more unified, ideological category. However, in the words of G. Pollock, to interpret the 1The project was initiated by Maja Kolar and Maša works of women only in the light of their Poljanec, members of the Croatian design femininity is to reproduce the tautological collective Oaza. Ana Bedenko works as a principle that teaches us nothing about researcher on a project. Responsible for the what it is like to be a woman, do and organization: Croatian Designers Association and 3 Croatian Designers Association Gallery. create something as a woman. A potential 2Design scene is a somewhat misleading term since trap of these types of projects is that, there is no consistent historical overview of the while they strive to illuminate and confirm Croatian design and its protagonists. The historical women’s role and contribution to a narrative focuses mainly on the 1950s, a period of great enthusiasm and in a sense utopian lens certain field, they inadvertently through which the design was viewed. The 1960s were a period of a more scientific approach, 3Griselda Pollock, “(Feministička) socijalna povijest influenced greatly by the HfG in Ulm, but it has to umjetnosti?” in Ljiljana Kolešnik (ed.), Umjetničko be noted that the later period hasn’t been properly djelo kao društvena činjenica, (Zagreb: IPU, 2005), and systematically researched. 268.

167 undermine their active participation in but were absent from specialized said field by reducing their engagement to literature so contacting them or their a vacuum existing female sphere. That is families personally was the only way to why the research of a female design obtain any information on their work. history should be thoroughly revised in Additionally, the material that we had the broader context of Croatian design used in the research is dispersed within historical narrative, however fragmentary several institutions6 and gathering and flawed it may be. necessary data wasn’t time efficient and required roaming through numerous archives, magazines, various publications Project Research Methodology and periodicals. The greatest obstacle to researching the A relatively non-selective data gathering history of industrial design was the fact that would give us an approximate idea of that after the disintegration of Yugoslavia the quantity of the designers and design most of the factories were closed and niches in which they operated marked the their rich archives irreparably lost. beginning of the research. Going through the archive of Croatian Association of Artists of Applied Arts we assembled a The Issue of the Context and the Time large number of names. It was the only frame place to start since the Croatian Designers Association hadn’t existed up until 1985. Since there were so many designers Unmistakable discrepancies in the degree belonging to various periods of the to which the designers had been twentieth century, and to different socio- researched were evident from the start. political systems, the first part of the Some women like Ivana Tomljenović project did not, and deliberately so, focus Meller4 or the designers from on trying to explain or present each profile Jugokeramika5 had been thoroughly within the complexities of its specific researched and even presented in the context. Instead, we were aiming for an exhibition and exhibition catalogue forms. overview of female design history. Others, like Jagoda Kaloper, Sanja Iveković Through information gathering we wanted or Jagoda Buić-Bonetti were well known as to examine who were or are these artists or filmmakers but their women, and later on, hopefully, through contribution to the field of design is the differences in their professional marginalized or even utterly unknown to careers, personal struggles and paths, a the greater public. There were women pattern would emerge that would help us who have had lifelong careers in the fields reconstruct how the times in which they of industrial design and even engineering lived and worked influenced their careers. At this stage of the project we have

4Bauhaus Ivane Tomljenović Meller: Radovi iz decided to position the time frame of the Kolekcije Marinko Sudac, Radnička Galerija research between the years 1930 and http://www.avantgarde- 1980. Therefore, the researched decades museum.com/production/_files/file/admin/Bauha us-IT-Meller_katalog.pdf (accessed April 16, 2015) 6Museum of Arts and Crafts; Association of 5Koraljka Vlajo, (ed.), Porculanski sjaj socijalizma, Croatian Artists of Applied Arts archive (ULUPUH), Dizajn porculana Jugokeramika - Inker 1953. - The Archive of Fine Arts, Croatian Academy of 1991. exhibition catalogue (Zagreb: Muzej za Sciences and Arts (ARLIKUM), National and umjetnost i obrt, 2010) University Library in Zagreb

168 fall into the period of the so-called Second exclusively male and often from other Yugoslavia.7 fields like architecture, which is Anything earlier than that, doesn’t really understandable considering the lack of belong to the territory of design in the continuous design education throughout “modern” sense and is instead linked to our history. arts and crafts. Certainly, it is a period strongly influenced by Bauhaus and the When we talk about Croatian design participation and contribution of Croatian history (with the assumption that before alumnae such as Ivana Tomljenović Meller the 1950s we can’t talk about design in and Otti Berger should unquestionably be the modern sense of the term), however delved into. fragmentary, we can discern roughly three However, it is only after the 1945 that periods. First is the somewhat utopian favourable conditions for the period, brought about by the post-war development of design in the modern rapid industrialization and the significant sense emerge (i.e. political and economic influx of people to the big cities. tendency towards modernization and a It is an era that praised science, modernized industrial production).8 technology and industrial development all The part of the title “Context” is therefore, wrapped in the total plastic synthesis i.e. at least at this point, a bit misleading. It is total design.10 The designer strives to re- extremely challenging to write about the educate the public; apartments should context when the whole period become didactic environments for encompasses at least five or six decades. obtaining visual literacy, a sort of polygons To give each designer her historical mise- for reprograming of the society. It was en-scène as well to position and anchor certainly an ambitious, if somewhat her work takes more time but is a utopian idea. The artistic community direction that should by no means be wanted to change the world that we live in avoided. In like manner, the context, and design, as a discipline of giving shape specifically when we talk about to objects and phenomena, seemed like professional domain of design, is not easy the perfect tool. The idea to bring the to reconstruct, since a consistent written artist into the industrial process and thus design history in Croatia doesn’t exist. create design was an underdeveloped and relatively erroneous conceptual basis for This reconstruction of history9 is cultivating design methodology. It is a undertaken in a climate of an increased process far more complex than the simple interest for Croatian design and fact of merging a creative force in the specifically the archaeological efforts to form of an artist with factory mechanisms. systemize its history and historical During the 1960s there is a gradual theoretical development. However, the increase in the interest for science and results are still scarce, it is primarily a technology, doubtlessly influenced by the succession of several famous names, Hochschule für Gestaltung (HfG), which unfortunately closed in 1968. A noticeable 71945-1990 effort to give the industrial design a more 8 Feđa Vukić. Prilog poznavanju teorije dizajna u serious theoretical and terminological Hrvatskoj http://hrcak.srce.hr/18282, (accessed April 20, 2016) 10The concept of “total plastic synthesis” was the 9The method of history reconstruction calls to main tenet of the group EXAT 51. Members of the mind the introduction to the East Art Map by group also advocated the eradication of the IRWIN difference between the fine arts and applied arts.

169 basis is evident. The main principles of the Arts and Design12 educated generations of 1950s are being methodically elaborated women designers. A notable contribution and their theoretical approach to design to the industrial design is evident in the based on a concept of an “artist in collaboration between the school and industry” is being critically re-examined on Jugokeramika factory13 that gave a more scientific basis during the 1960s. 11 scholarships to students and employed them later on. The factory is an example The science and technology principle is of gender exception since it employed likewise visible in the organization of the mostly women.14 Designers who worked series of international exhibitions in for Jugokeramika (Department of Zagreb titled New Tendencies, which, at Prototypes) were Jelena Antolčić, Marta least in the beginning, explored the Šribar, Dragica Perhač Hercigonja and Mila development of science and computer Petričić. The pioneers of the modern technology and all the possibilities that ceramics in Croatia, Blanka Dužanec and this evolution entailed. Stella Skopal, were responsible for the While the 1950s and 1960s were relatively education of young designers. Their thoroughly researched, the question of progressive educational principles and historical design narrative during the new methodological approaches helped 1970s and 1980s remains underexplored, raise a generation of exemplary industrial specifically regarding the industrial or designers. Dužanec, the first designer of product design. The 1990s mark a serious industrial ceramics and a teacher, break with the Yugoslavian political, modernized the educational curriculum economic and cultural sphere and should and introduced new subjects like Technical be examined separately at a later stage of drawing of serially produced objects15 the project. with the aim of preparing her students for their future work within the industrial domain. A lot of the students continued Overview of Designers and Their Work their education at the Academy of Applied Art16, a progressive institution that Due to a significantly heterogeneous character of the designers, we will at this 12The School of Applied Arts and Design in Zagreb point present only several of the names, is a successor to the School of Crafts established in their work and a contextualized, if 1882. 13 somewhat simplified, historical narrative The factory was founded in 1948 but the building wasn’t completed until 1951. in which they operated. The 14Koraljka Vlajo explains in Porculanski sjaj heterogeneous selection criterion is socijalizma how this specific gender politics were chosen with the aim of demonstrating the due to the primarily “feminine” nature of the art of wide range of domains where female ceramics and porcelain and how some of the designers were represented. female students remember their teachers saying that had they been men, they’d advise them to With a strong applied arts and especially enroll into the sculpture department instead. ceramic tradition, the School of Applied 15Vlajo, Socijalizma, 12. 16The Academy of Applied Art was opened in 1948 and closed in 1954. Branka Frangeš Hegedušić, cofounder and co creator of the educational program for the Academy of Applied Art, a 11Feđa Vukić. Prilog poznavanju teorije dizajna u renowned Croatian painter, illustrator, textile and Hrvatskoj lace artist, as well as educator, was the first and http://hrcak.srce.hr/18282, (accessed April 20, only female director of this prestigious institution. 2016) Within the Academy she founded the first program

170 brought about a more studious approach product, he stressed how it was made to design that will be further, and on a manually with no hope for mass more scientific and methodological basis, production and how consequently the elaborated in the late 1950s and 1960s industrial design had been transformed under the significant influence of into its antithesis – the fetish.19Mirjana Hochschule für Gestaltung (HfG) in Ulm.17 Šimanović Tavčar20 and Milica Rosenberg Designers gathered around Jugokeramika Bjelovitić21were among the few early demonstrated how, contrary to the female architects22. The work of Slava popular belief, the medium of ceramics Antoljak represents a similar example didn’t lie exclusively within the sphere of because her textiles were featured in the decorative but instead was an active prestigious exhibitions23 alongside the participant of the industrial development products of renowned Croatian male and an important agent in implementing architects and designers, just like the the principles of visual education via living textile of Jagoda Buić Bonetti. environment, i.e. interior design of the Antoljak’s work was featured, alongside epoch. that of her male collegues, in various Some of the ceramics designers, like specialized journals and reviews such as Milana Hržić Balić, primarily produced Čovjek i Prostor (Man and Space) or their work in small series and in that case Arhitektura (Architecture). Likewise, we cannot talk about industrial mass Ljubica Kočica Ratkajec, designer of glass produced objects. products, participated at the didactic Hržić Balić’s work was nonetheless of exhibition Porodica i domaćinstvo (Family significant quality, marked by the and Household).24 application of simple and clean geometric structures and the use of brown clay, left in its natural state, which became her trademark. 19A similar tendency can be noticed in Her collaboration with Julija Pavelić- contemporary Croatian design which is nicely Glogoški, a graphic and packaging illustrated in Vesna Vuković's article: Vuković, Vesna, Dizajn: od proizvodnje za život do životnog designer, shows their awareness of the stila, Bilten need to work collectively and develop the http://www.bilten.org/?p=14211 product integrally – from the production 20Šimanović Tavčar was among the awarded to packaging and visual identity. participants at the Milano Triennial in 1957. She However, a grimmer picture is painted by also participated at the exhibition Stan za naše 18 prilike (An Apartment for Our Needs) in Ljubljana Tomislav Kožarić : while praising their (1956). See: Arhitektura 1-6 (1956): 49 21Rosenberg also worked with glass and her work of higher education for textile and costume design was highly esteemed byRadoslav Putar who called and taught the study of nude. She was also one of the only authentic designer in the sea of kitsch. the cofounders of ULUPUH (Association of Croatian 22The tern “early” is used in the context of the Artists of Applied Arts) in the 1950s. project, meaning these architects were already 17A more scientific understanding of design is active during the 1950s. especially evident in the work of Tomas 23Antoljak was awarded third prize at the first Maldonado, school’s director who espoused an edition of the Zagreb Triennial in 1955 for applied integral and methodological approach to design. textile used for seating furniture. See: Maldonado, Tomas; Gui Bonsiepe, Znanost i 24Porodica i domaćinstvo was a series of didactic dizajn, Bit International, 4(1969.): 29-51 exhibitions held in Zagreb between 1957 and 1960. 18Tomislav Kožarić. “Fetišizam industrijskog See: Galjer, Jasna and Ceraj, Iva. “Uloga dizajna u oblikovanja: U povodu izložbe “Urbanizam, svakodnevnom životu na izložbama Porodica i arhitektura, oblikovanje” na “Zagrebačkom salonu domaćinstvo 1957.-1960.”, Radovi Instituta za 1966.””, Čovjek i prostor 160-161 (1966):14. povijest umjetnosti 35, (2011): 277-296.

171 With the advent of a more market 1972 at the Furniture Fair in Beograd. oriented economy in the 1960s, Kučinac spent most of her professional life commercial sphere and graphic design as a head designer within the Design continued to interlace increasingly.25 Department of the furniture factory Ivo However, a lot of graphic designers Marinković in Osijek where she designed worked primarily for the cultural and oversaw the development of serial institutions and organizations. production of various elements and The work of a graphic and textile designer systems for the equipment of interiors.29 Marija Kalentić26was particularly prolific in Her furniture series Osijek I, II, III have the context of the cosmetic factory been produced in 250 000 sets. Most of Neva.27 the models were exported to England, As an author of complete visual identities Switzerland and the former Soviet Union. she had worked for Neva for decades. Her The work and career of Blaženka Kučinca body of work should be further explored should unquestionably be examined within the context of a relatively new further, preferably in a monograph form. Yugoslavian consumer society28 with all of A lot of designers worked within the its implications, ranging from the often domain of graphic design. The example of undervalued field of packaging design to Sanja Iveković and Jagoda Kaloper is the latent ideology of beauty industry and intriguing, primarily because both of the the social construct of women as passive authors made a name for themselves in consumers in the society. different artistic spheres.30 Iveković’s work The example of Blaženka Kučinac is included poster design31, graphic design of particularly striking and perplexing in the books and of various publications. She context of industrial design history and worked for the Croatian Graphic Bureau research. An architect and predominantly (HGZ) and for the Zora publishing. a furniture designer with a copious body of work, Kučinac is utterly, and unjustly so, absent from the more recent research in 29 design history. Kučinac is an expert in chair design and she is an author of models like Zebra, Skakavac, Dora, One of her first employments, as an Fotelja 49, A-1, T etc. She believes that the “industrial aesthetician” was for the industrially produced design should have an furniture factory Mobilia. She is an author educational role in the society and should of a modular room for children called introduce users to the advantages of the “Pipi” for which she received an award in contemporary furniture. 30Both Iveković and Kaloper were active participants of the so-called New Art Practice 25Following an economic reform from 1965 whose phenomenon (ca 1966-1978). Iveković is a world goal was to establish a more market oriented renowned conceptual, new media and activist socialist system, i.e. the increased integration into artist while Kaloper has been predominantly the international market sphere. occupied with the film medium, both in front of 26Kalentić studied at the Academy of Applied Art in and behind the camera. Iveković stated that Zagreb. graphic design was first and foremost a way to 27An excellent study of Kalentić's work is given by make a living and to continue her artistic Koraljka Vlajo in the exhibition Marijina industrija development. She never felt the need to interlace ljepote: Marija Kalentić i «Neva», dizajn ambalaže those two spheres. 1963.-1985. The beautiful design of the catalogue, 31Poster was an important art form within the a sort of an homage to Kalentić's elaborate and synergetic atmosphere of the New Art Practice and refined packaging, was made by Bilić_Müller many artists advertised their actions and Studio, a (female) design duo from Zagreb. performances in this manner, so the merging of 28Most of Kalentić's work was made during the the graphic design and conceptual art was indeed 1960s, 1970s and the 1980s. quite logical.

172 According to her testimony she was one of Electrical Engineering Institute Rade the few women who worked at the HGZ. Končar where she participated in product Kaloper’s work demonstrates a strong research and development. She published creative and artistic impulse. Her best several specialized articles and obtained a work is probably the one made in the field magister degree in 1980.34 of graphic book design and illustration. Jasenka Mihelčić, at this point the Design and illustration of the children’s youngest designer in the research, worked book Tonkica Palonkica or the exhibition primarily in the domain of machine tools design for Marx and the Century of design, their development and Marxism in the 1980s. From 1975 she implementation and later also as a graphic worked for Yugodidacta as a toy designer designer.35She is a member of the Team and also as a graphic designer for Školska for the Product Development at the knjiga publishing in 1975. She has also Institute for Machine Tools (Research and worked for Zvijezda oil factory for which Development Institute) at the Faculty of she designed some of the iconic Mechanical Engineering and Naval packaging.32 Architecture. She is also one of the Another graphic designer and painter has founders of The Association of Croatian been marginalized in the context of poster Designers in 198536 and participated in design research during the 1970s and creating of a part of the curriculum for the 1980s – Nada Falout. Falout has produced Zagreb School of Design. numerous poster designs for the Gavella Theatre, all of them testifying to her awareness of and receptiveness to Design Niches through the Gender Lens contemporary trends, and also for the Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb. It is no coincidence that most of the Although she has received her share of women designers asserted their publicity, the historical narrative of professional authority within domains that Croatian poster design from late 1960s to are usually considered more feminine. 1980s seems to perpetuate the graphic That might imply that the aforementioned triumvirate made of M. Arsovski, B. Bućan fields or skills are in fact more suited to and B. Ljubičić, in that exact order.33 women or rather that the women are Within the realm of engineering and predestined to excel in those particular technology two names need to be spheres. This mode of reasoning is mentioned: Marija Jeličić Plavec and precisely the type of trap one must be Jasenka Mihelčić. Jeličić Plavec worked at careful to avoid. Male work was valued the Department of industrial Design of the more, industrial design had always been

34The subject of Jeličić Plavec's magister degree 32It is interesting to observe how Kaloper's visual thesis was Analysis of the Office Workspace from a identity of Zvijezda is not very well known yet Human Perspective. She produced other papers, all Zvonimir Faist's commerical graphic design for the dealing with design and typization of workspaces, same factory has been included in almost every which shows a high awarness of the need for publicaton on Croatian graphic, commerical and scientifically based environment design and entails poster design. To the defense of the design the understanding of sociological and psychological historians, Faist is an author whose career begins aspects of designing a space in consonance with in the late 1930s while Kaloper was born in 1947 so the human needs. there is a considerable time gap between the two. 35Mihelčić developed a visual identity for the 33A very important step was made on the 21st of Prvomajska factory where she was employed. January 2016 when an exhibition of Falout's 36The association was later renamed The Croatians theater posters was opened. Designers Association.

173 considered more serious and more Maroje Mrduljaš has convincingly argued important than for instance weaving. Not that, in Croatia, applied arts had been coincidentally, all those fields are in one unfairly neglected and underestimated way or another linked to home compared to the industrial, mass- management, bearing and raising children, produced objects.39 On the contrary, looking pretty etc. Male roles become countries with a much stronger design associated with culture while female are history like Finland or Sweden value their linked to nature; thus the rational vs. traditions of crafts, hand-made objects irrational bifurcation is perpetuated.37 and materials such as wood, glass, and Judy Attfield notices that women’s’ work, wool. The value and significance of the considering the epithets it is assigned - hand crafted and traditional objects soft, subtle, decorative - becomes highlighted even Radoslav Putar, Croatian identified with form, that which is on the curator, design critic and theoretician, outside, the superficial. The logical and when he wrote about the exhibition scientific imperatives, the technology and Scandinavian form held at the Museum of science, i.e. function is associated with Arts and Crafts in Zagreb. He believed that men. Resulting from this syllogism is that crafts and manually produced objects form follows function, which again puts could serve as a platform for relevant women in the position of subordination.38 prototype research and experiment as Women excelled in certain fields because well as a valuable addition to the they worked hard and took their careers industrial mass production.40 seriously. The reason they chose those This seems to be the direction in which specialties or were pushed in that the more recent Croatian design has direction is due to a patriarchal social headed. However, the produced objects system, which gave gender prefixes to have a very narrow audience, due to their professions. Men were architects while relatively high prices. Surrounded by an women were ceramicist or textile aura of exclusivity and elitism their target designers. audience is primarily young professionals Some women were women architects or from creative industries. The social women sculptors but never just architects, component or agenda is largely lost and so just sculptors. After all, even at a school as seems to be the tie with the past. progressive as Bauhaus, the backward and The “stigma of femininity” is however not prejudiced attitudes of Walter Gropius completely lost. In the elaboration of their kept women from enrolling in architecture decision at the relatively recent design course so they had to choose weaving or competition, one of the male jurors other “feminine” departments instead. praised the winning work and added how

39Maroje Mrduljas and Mirko Petrić, “Komunikacija ili manipulacija sitnim strastima, Nacionalna dizajnerska konvencija, 9. i 10. lipnja 2006.; Izložba 37Cheryl Buckley, “Made in Patriarchy: Towards a hrvatskog dizajna 040506, Galerija MMC-a i Feminist Analysis of Women and Design (1986)” in Galerija Adris, Rovinj, od 9.do 23. lipnja 2006.” Feđa Vukić (ed.), Teorija i povijest dizajna: Kritička http://www.zarez.hr/clanci/komunikacija-ili- antologija, (Zagreb: golden marketing – tehnička manipulacija-sitnim-strastima (accessed May 2, knjiga, 2012) 390. 2016) 38Judy Attfield, “FORM/female FOLLOWS FUNCTION/male: Feminist Critiques of Design”, in 40 Radoslav Putar, „Skandinavski oblik: izložba u Feđa Vukić (ed.), Teorija i povijest dizajna: Kritička Muzeju za umjetnost i obrt u Zagrebu”, Vijesti antologija,(Zagreb: golden marketing – tehnička muzealaca i konzervatora Hrvatske 5 (1962), 134- knjiga, 2012) 403. 137

174 a lot of the recent Croatian design material – is levelled with the “power” of production is made by women and how the user.42 one could notice the emergence of a With the development of information women’s writing41 in the realm of design. technology, the classical archival topos is Even though they were probably harmless joined by its digital version. The dynamic and made with best intentions, these type character of temporary storages of remarks evoke the binary division of art substitutes the static trait of the archive as and design into feminine, soft and poetic a place of permanent information storage; niches and male, rational and scientific archives become places of constant data fields. transfer.43 The hybrid form of the platform, between the digital archive and a curated web page, is formally and Online Archive as a New Knowledge conceptually open, and its blanks and Dissemination Platform voids are left visible intentionally. (fig. 8). Its subversive concept is based on a The main platform for the presentation of democratic potential through giving a the project is a web page in the form of an voice and visual space to unknown or online archive www.dizajnerice.com. Thus, neglected female authors. we can also observe the research through The almost unavoidable question of the prism of a digital archive, a medium of diminishing the worth of an object or work growing popularity. With the aim of a by reproducing or digitizing it seems facile and uncomplicated search process, unsubstantiated in the context of the archive is organized around three industrial, serially produced objects. They content axes – design, designer and text. might be negatively affected more, were The contents of all three categories are they assigned an aura and therefore intertwined, however. If one could fetishized. Moreover, the digital reproach an archive, the overly simplified “surrogate” takes on the role of a conception and mode of presentation, it is mediator between design and audience precisely this quality that makes the and in this manner accentuates once more platform user-friendly. From the user the principle of free knowledge perspective, the topos of the material dissemination.44 storage is simultaneously the place where the material is presented to the user suggesting that the power of archont – the one with who keeps and interprets the 42Jacques Derrida and Eric Prenowitz, “Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression”, Diacritics 25/2 41The women's writing remark doubtlessly refered (1995): 9-63. to the minimalistic and delicate design of the work https://monoskop.org/File:Derrida_Jacques_1995_ – an unusual collection of poetry made by Archive_Fever_A_Freudian_Impression.pdf , Bilić_Muller Studio. However, the subversive and (accessed May 5, 2016) ironic procedure of collaging fashion adds instead 43Wolfgang Ernst and Jussi Parikka, Digital Memory of actual literature seems to be lost on him. The and the Archive, (Minneapolis: University of conceptual aspect of the work and Studio's Minnesota Press, 2013), 95. penchant for experiment are far more important 44Deirdre Brown, “Te Ahu Hiko: Digital Cultural than the form, however elegant and beautiful it Heritage and Indigenous Objects: Traditional may be.One of the first steps, according to C. Concerns, New Discourses” in Fiona Cameron and Buckley, is to recognize the ideological nature of Sara Kenderdine (eds.), Theorizing Digital Cultural the expressions such as feminine, subtle or Heritage: A Critical Discourse, (Cambridge: The MIT decorative in the context of female design. Press, 2007), 77-93.

175 Conclusion: A Path Worth Exploring chairs made by male architects for the 1950s and 1960s design exhibitions.49 The Croatian design developed and Once all the relevant names have been evolved, for the greater part of its gathered, it is imperative to review them existence, in the context of Yugoslavia in their specific context and determine (Yugoslavian artistic and cultural realm)45, their quality without sentimentality or which implies a co- dependent bias, especially once a wider “Yugoslavian” relationship with other centres of the picture emerges. And while the country. Design is a collective endeavour; comparison with their male colleagues its meaning can be determined only by certainly won’t be completely fair50, their examining the interactions of individuals, work should nonetheless be examined in groups, institutions and organizations the entirety of its context. within the specific social Regardless of the potential flaws and structures.46Therefore, in order to get a evident neglect of their participation, the clearer picture of a female design history it important conclusion is that there were is crucial to explore the parallel quite a few women who worked as phenomena in other republics, i.e. to professional designers. The niches within extend the research and include all of the which they acted varied considerably. The Yugoslavian female designers. majority of their work could be positioned Likewise, what was unjustifiably left out in within the fields of ceramics, glass or the first phase of the project - fashion, textile production. There exists, however, textile and toy design47 - will be a substantial number of female designers industriously researched and included in who worked within what were the existing database. Fashion design has traditionally considered “male” fields of been one of the most innovative creative expertise which shows that women fields in the twentieth century, yet the equally excelled in more technologically modernist principles considered it less based domains even at the time when significant since it supposedly reflected a socio-ideological constructs presented more traditional, sometimes even trivial, obstacles to their professional field, primarily associated with women. development. Fashion was regarded as a marginal design sphere since it fulfilled the socially constructed needs and desires of women. The truth is exactly the opposite; fashion is 49There is a similar tendency in the work of the often subversive and accentuates the 48 architectural studio 3LHD from Zagreb who often relativity of aesthetic dogmas. S. collaborate with a (female) fashion design duo I- Antoljak’s or J. Buić-Bonetti’s textile GLE. I-GLE created curtains for the Hotel Dolder in designs were just as important as the Switzerland and the maids' uniforms for the Hotel Adriatic in Rovinj (both buildings were designed by 3LHD). A similar example of architecture-fashion 45Dejan Kršić, “Grafički dizajn i vizualne collaboration can be seen in the award winning komunikacije 1950-1975”, in Ljiljana Kolešnik (ed.) design from 2012 for the Donassy Fashion Studio, a Socijalizam i modernost; umjetnost, kultura, work by Vanja Ilić, architect. politika 1950.-1974. (Zagreb: MSU and Institut za 50 Linda Nochlin, “Why have there been no great povijest umjetnosti, 2011) women artists?” 46Buckley, Antologija, 396. http://davidrifkind.org/fiu/library_files/Linda%20N 47The work of Božena Šulentić, a textile and toy ochlin%20%20Why%20have%20there%20been%20 designer should be explored as well as those of no%20Great%20Women%20Artists.pdf (accessed Nada Traub, Melanija Velikonja and Vlatka Truta. March 2016) 48Buckley, Antologija, 397.

176 Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Bibliography: 1996.

1. Attfield, Judy, “FORM/female FOLLOWS 9. Brown, Deirdre, “Te Ahu Hiko: Digital FUNCTION/male: Feminist Critiques of Cultural Heritage and Indigenous Objects: Design”, in Teorija i povijest dizajna: Traditional Concerns, New Discourses” Kritička antologija, edited by Feđa Vukić, Theorizing Digital Cultural Heritage: A 402-418. Zagreb: golden marketing – Critical Discourse, edited by Fiona tehnička knjiga, 2012 Cameron and Sara Kenderdine 77-93, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2007 2. Banić, Marta, Bedenko, Ana, “www.dizajnerice.com – prikaz kroz 10. Buckley, Cheryl, “Made in Patriarchy: arhivski diskurs”, Život umjetnosti 99 Towards a Feminist Analysis of Women (2016) and Design (1986)” in Teorija i povijest dizajna: Kritička antologija, edited by Feđa 3. Bauhaus-Archiv Berlin, Stifftung, Vukić, 389-402, Zagreb: golden marketing Bauhaus Dessau, Klassik Siftftung Weimar – tehnička knjiga, 2012 (eds.), Bauhaus a Conceptual Model: exhibition catalogue (Ostfildern: Hatje 11. Derrida, Jacques and Prenowitz, Eric, Cantz Verlag, 2009) “Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression”, in: Diacritics, Vol. 25, No. 2 (1995): 9-63. 4. Bauhaus Ivane Tomljenović Meller: https://monoskop.org/File:Derrida_Jacque Radovi iz Kolekcije Marinko Sudac, s_1995_Archive_Fever_A_Freudian_Impre Radnička Galerija ssion.pdf , (accessed May 5, 2016) http://www.avantgarde- museum.com/production/_files/file/admi n/Bauhaus-IT-Meller_katalog.pdf 12. Ernst,Wolfgang and Parikka, Jussi, (accessed April 4, 2015) Digital Memory and the Archive, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013 (1-245) 5. Baunet projekt, "Otti Berger on Baunet project", http://www.baunet- info.com/research-networking/artists- 13. Galjer, Jasna, Dizajn pedesetih u groups-topics/otti-berger/ (accessed June Hrvatskoj: od utopije do stvarnosti, 2016) Zagreb: Horezky, 2004

6. Bernardi, Bernardo, “Definicija i društveni značaj industrijskog 14. Galjer, Jasna, Doprinos arhitekta oblikovanja”, Arhitektura 13(16) (1959): 6. Zvonimira Radića teoriji oblikovanja http://hrcak.srce.hr/10791 7. Bilandžić, Dušan. Historija SFRJ, glavni (accessed May 5, 2016) procesi 1918-1985, Zagreb: Školska knjiga,1985. 15. Galjer, Jasna and Ceraj, Iva. “Uloga dizajna u svakodnevnom životu na izložbama Porodica i domaćinstvo 1957.- 8. Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social 1960.”, Radovi Instituta za povijest Critique of the Judgement of Taste, umjetnosti 35, (2011): 277-296.

177 16. Horvat-Pintarić, Vera. "O vizualnim 25. Maldonado, Tomás and Bonsiepe, Gui. komunikacijama u Jugoslaviji", Bit “Znanost i dizajn”, Bit International, 4 International, 4 (1969): 93-103 (1969): 29-51

17. “Izložba “Stan za naše prilike” – Ljubljana, 1956. godine., Arhitektura 1-6 26. Mihelčić, Jasenka. "Razgovor s (1957): 49. Vladimirom Robotićem", Život Umjetnosti 54-55 (1994): 16-24. 18. Košak, Gregor, Radić, Zvonimir and Stojanović – Sip, Dragoslav (eds.), Oblikovanje v Jugoslaviji. Beograd : Savez 27. Mlikota ,Antonija, Otti Berger – likovnih umetnika primenjenih umetnosti Hrvatska umjetnica iz Tekstilne radionice Jugoslavije, 1970. Bauhausa http://hrcak.srce.hr/65242 19. Kožarić, Tomislav. “Fetišizam (accessed March 23, 2015) industrijskog oblikovanja: U povodu izložbe “Urbanizam, arhitektura, oblikovanje” na “Zagrebačkom salonu 28. Mrduljaš, Maroje and Petrić, Mirko. 1966.””, Čovjek i prostor 160-161 “Komunikacija ili manipulacija sitnim (1966):14. strastima, Nacionalna dizajnerska konvencija, 9. i 10. lipnja 2006.; Izložba 20. Kritovac, Fedor. "Pedesete – dizajn hrvatskog dizajna 040506, Galerija MMC-a namještaja i standard življenja", Život i Galerija Adris, Rovinj, od 9.do 23. lipnja umjetnosti 54-55 (1994): 10-16. 2006.” http://www.zarez.hr/clanci/komunikacija- 21. Kritovac, Fedor. „Što je Environmental ili-manipulacija-sitnim-strastima Design (dizajn okoline)?”, Čovjek i (accessed June 11, 2016) Prostor 197 (1969): 8-9. 29. Nochlin, Linda. “Why have there been 22. Kršić, Dejan. “Grafički dizajn i vizualne no great women artists?” komunikacije 1950-1975”, in Socijalizam i http://davidrifkind.org/fiu/library_files/Lin modernost; umjetnost, kultura, politika da%20Nochlin%20%20Why%20have%20t 1950.-1974.edited by Ljiljana Kolešnik here%20been%20no%20Great%20Women Zagreb: MSU and Institut za povijest %20Artists.pdf umjetnosti, 2011 (accessed March 23, 2016)

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178 37. Vlajo, Koraljka (ed.), Porculanski sjaj 32. Putar, Radoslav. "Dizajn proizvoda u socijalizma, Dizajn porculana jugoslavenskoj industriji", Bit International Jugokeramika - Inker 1953. - 1991.: 4 (1969): 83-93. exhibition catalogue (Zagreb: Muzej za umjetnost i obrt, 2010) 33. Read, Herbert. Art and Industry: The Principles of Industrial Design, London: 38. Vukić, Feđa. Prilog poznavanju teorije Faber and Faber Limited, 1956 (1-205) dizajna u Hrvatskoj http://hrcak.srce.hr/18282 34. Sinobad-Pintarić, Vera. “XI. Triennale“, (accessed April 20, 2016) Čovjek i Prostor 66 (1957): 4-5. 39. Vukić, Feđa (ed.), Od oblikovanja do dizajna – Teorija i kritika projektiranja za 35. Tickner, Lisa. “Feminism, Art History industrijsku proizvodnju, Zagreb: Meandar, and Sexual Difference”, in Umjetničko 2003. djelo kao društvena činjenica edited Ljiljana Kolešnik 167-245. Zagreb: IPU, 40. Vukić, Feđa. The Other Design History. 2005 Zagreb: Upi2M, 2015

41. Vukić, Feđa. Stoljeće hrvatskog dizajna. 36. Vlajo, Koraljka (ed.), Marijina industrija Zagreb: Meandar, 1996 ljepote: Marija Kalentić i “Neva” dizajn ambalaže 1963. – 1985.: exhibition 42. Vuković, Vesna, Dizajn: od proizvodnje catalogue (Zagreb: Muzej za umjetnost i za život do životnog stila obrt, 2013) http://www.bilten.org/?p=14211 (accessed July 5, 2016)

179 Developing Architecture and Interior Design

Typologies

Vera Cirkovic's Contribution To Educational Architecture In Yugoslavia

Vladana Putnik

Women Architects and Educational schools throughout the country3 and Architecture in Serbia and Yugoslavia Desanka Manojlovic was the author of two elementary schools in Yugoslavian capital The Serbian and Yugoslavian territory has during the 1930s.4 Apart from the well surprisingly produced first female known, there were several almost architects at the turn of the twentieth unknown female architects of the interwar century. Since the first female architect period that also designed educational Jelisaveta Nacic, women architects in buildings, such as Jelena Bokur.5 Even Serbia and later in Yugoslavia were though a significant number of male designing educational architecture. architects designed schools, this frequent Jelisaveta Nacic was the author of 'female' project task can be interpreted in Elementary School 'King Petar I a classical gender role manner. Since Karadjordjevic' in Belgrade in 1906.1 The women's role in children education was interwar period was marked by many far more distinct then men's throughout more female architects that often were the history, it was stereotypically responsible for designing educational presumed that female architects would objects. Milica Krstic designed the Second design better schools. The same theory Female Gymnasium in Belgrade in 1929,2 can be applied to the presence of female Jovanka Boncic Katerinic was responsible architects in furniture and interior design, for designing numerous elementary since interior is generally seen as a 'female' space.

1 Дивна Ђурић Замоло, “Грађа за проучавање 3 She was also the author of Women's College for дела жена архитеката са Београдског Teaching and The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; универзитета, генерације 1896-1940. годинеˮ, Ђурђија Боровњак, “Архитектура два школска Пинус записи 5 (1996), 45-49; Милан Минић, објекта Јованке Бончић Катеринић у Београду: “Прва београђанка архитект - Јелисавета зграде Женске учитељске школе и Начићˮ, Годишњак града Београда 3 (1956), 451- Ветеринарског факултетаˮ, Годишњак града 458; Зоран Маневић (ed.), Лексикон неимара Београда 55-56 (2008-2009) (Београд: Грађевинска књига, 2008), 296; Дивна 4 Недељко Трнавац, Лексикон историје Ђурић Замоло, Градитељи Београда 1815-1914 педагогије (Београд: Завод за уџбенике, 2012), (Београд: Музеј града Београда, 2011), 218-228. 19. 2 Дивна Ђурић Замоло, “Грађа за проучавање 5 Дивна Ђурић Замоло, “Грађа за проучавање дела жена архитеката са Београдског дела жена архитеката са Београдског универзитета, генерације 1896-1940. годинеˮ, универзитета, генерације 1896-1940. годинеˮ, Пинус записи 5 (1996), 44-45; Недељко Трнавац, Пинус записи 5 (1996), 51-53; Vladimir Mitrović, Лексикон историје педагогије (Београд: Завод Arhitektura XX veka u Vojvodini (Novi Sad: за уџбенике, 2012), 19. Akademska knjiga, 2010), 350.

180 After the Second World War educational Again many female architects successfully architecture witnessed an expansion. It designed school buildings, such as was estimated that 14% of schools in Nadezda Bogojevic,12 Dana Milosavljevic,13 Yugoslavia were destroyed and 36% were Branislava Mitrovic14 and Branka Milovic.15 damaged in the Second World War.6 The Some female architects even specialised in increase of natality after the war faced educational architecture, for example Yugoslavia with a lack of schools by the Olivera Obradovic,16 Tatjana Savic mid 1950s. By that time numerous Venjifatov17 and Vera Cirkovic. countries developed a serious strategy Vera Cirkovic's contribution to educational concerning the construction of modern architecture is significant but so far has schools.7 Yugoslavian architects followed not been recognised as important in the their example and in 1954 invited history of architecture. Some critics, like architect Alfred Roth to give a lecture in Uros Martinovic, have named her co- Ljubljana on new tendencies in worker Nikola Sercer the author of her constructing schools.8 Alfred Roth projects by mistake. Unfortunately, there published his capital work ‘Das Neue is not much information about her life nor Schulhaus’ in 1950 and in 1953 in Zurich was her work the subject of a more he organised an exhibition on school detailed analysis. She was born in architecture. He was considered one of Dimitrovgrad in 1911. She studied the most eminent specialists for architecture in Belgrade between 1930 educational architecture. He even and 1935. After graduation she started designed one secondary school in Skopje, working in the Ministry of Civil Engineering Yugoslavia in 1969.9 where she stayed until 1947 when she The strategy of building modern schools transferred to the architectural bureau continued and in 1957 a Conference ‘Plan’.18 This first period of her work in the concerning educational architecture was Ministry is completely in the shadow, organised in Zagreb.10 In accordance with since the only known project is a Ladies' the International style, Yugoslav architects such as Mate Baylon promoted the idea of 12 Nadezda Bogojevic designed Elementary School school buildings which would be 'Veljko Dugosevic' in Belgrade in 1949; Трнавац, adaptable to various functions. However, Лексикон, 18. a good school position and orientation 13 Dana Milosavljevic designed the Elementary was the main feature apart from the School in Fransuska Street; Uroš Martinović and important green areas in the courtyard.11 Bratislav Stojanović, Arhitektura Beograda 1945- 1975 (Beograd: BIGZ, 1978), 179. 14 Mitrović, Arhitektura, 379. 6 Leon Kabiljo, “Izgradnja osnovnih školaˮ, 15 Branka Milovic was the author of the Elementary Arhitektura urbanizam 6 (1960), 4. School in the Block 11C; Martinović and Stojanović, 7 Leon Kabiljo, “Izgradnja osnovnih školaˮ, Arhitektura, 184. Arhitektura urbanizam 6 (1960), 4; Radmila 16 Olivera Obradovic designed several elementary Aćimović, “Povodom izložbe “Školske zgrade and high schools between 1959 and 1980; Зоран Beogradaˮˮ, Pedagoška misao 7 (1963), 473. Маневић (ed.), Лексикон неимара (Београд: 8 Mihajlo Mitrović, Arhitektura Beograda 1950- Грађевинска књига, 2008), 305; Трнавац, 2012 (Beograd: Službeni glasnik, 2012), 69. Лексикон, 19. 9 Adolf Roth, Alfred Roth: Architect of Continuity 17 Зоран Маневић (ed.), Лексикон неимара (Zürich: Waser, 1985), 118, 174. (Београд: Грађевинска књига, 2008), 349; 10 Leon Kabiljo, “Izgradnja osnovnih školaˮ, Mitrović, Arhitektura, 398-399; “Tatjana Savic Arhitektura urbanizam 6 (1960), 7. Venjifatovˮ, WANS: Women Architects of Novi Sad, 11 Mate Baylon, Opšta pitanja u vezi sa izgradnjom http://www.w-a-ns.com/ (accessed August 22, školskih zgrada (Unknown: Savez društava 2016) arhitekata FNRJ, Unkwnown), 3-5. 18 Трнавац, Лексикон, 19.

181 Gymnasium in Kragujevac in 1940 which gymnasium, however in 1957 the was never constructed. The year 1947 has Committee of Education and Culture of proven to be very important in the work of Belgrade decided to readapt the building Vera Cirkovic, since she participated in and turn it into a Chemical and national competitions for the Communist Technological School. Nikola Sercer did Party of Yugoslavia's Central Committee the adaptation in 1957 which consisted building and the building of the Federal only of adding another wing for the Executive Council. laboratories.21 The period of her working in the The school was built on a vast lot which architectural bureau ‘Plan’ is especially was bordered by three streets: Ljeska, important for this research since she Petra Mecave and Lazara Kujundzica designed almost all her school projects Street. The entire lot surfaced 24345 m2 during that time. Architect Nikola Sercer19 while the school complex was 2730 m2. was the director of the bureau and her co- The main entrance from Ljeska Street author on most projects. Apart from serves also as a connection between the educational buildings, she also specified in gym on the left side and the cabinet wing projects for residential architecture and on the right. The gym is directly connected mass housing. Her most significant and with the outdoor recreational area, memorable work is a residential complex referencing a pre-war concept of which consists of three towers ‘Rudo I, II designing sport centres such as Falcon and III’, popularly known as the ‘East Gate Halls.22 The cabinet wing is again of Belgrade’, constructed in the period connected on the other side with the between 1972 and 1980. Apart from many classroom wing which is facing South on important edifices she constructed, she the courtyard side. The composition of the also did the interior reconstruction of the cabinet wing's facade represents the main National Theatre in Belgrade in 1966. She artistic and visual feature of this building. died in Belgrade in 2002.20 This is one of the first school projects Even though Vera Cirkovic was the author where long terraces were introduced on and co-author of seven schools in the first and second floor). Although this Belgrade between 1954 and 1960, the architectural element is not typical for focus of this research will be on three educational architecture, Cirkovic and educational objects she designed that Sercer withdraw the longer side of the depict her architectural approach and wing and placed the terraces so that the innovations in the most distinct manner. eastern side can be more protected from the sun. In her later projects this will become a common solution, but never on the longer side of the wing. All wings were covered with two-sloped Chemical and Technological School roofs, which Cirkovic and Sercer used in all their later school projects due to its Vera Cirkovic originally designed this functionality considering the humid school with Nikola Sercer in 1954 to be a

21 Historical Archives of Belgrade, Technical 19 Зоран Маневић (ed.), Лексикон неимара documentation, f-55-1-1957 (Београд: Грађевинска књига, 2008), 378. 22 Владана Путник, Архитектура соколских 20 Зоран Маневић (ed.), Лексикон неимара домова у Краљевини Срба, Хрвата и Словенаца (Београд: Грађевинска књига, 2008), 369; и Краљевини Југославији (Београд: Филозофски Трнавац, Лексикон, 20. факултет, 2015)

182 continental climate. The communication classroom wings is very similar. Since Roth hall which connects the cabinet and gave lecture in Ljubljana in 1954 it is very classroom wings is especially well possible that Vera Cirkovic and Nikola designed. The architects used two Sercer both attended that lecture in order modular elements: a smaller rectangle and to specialise in educational architecture. a larger square and placed them in a Roth's influence will be visible in their particular order as frames for glass on later projects but more in spatial both sides of the hall therefore making a organisation than in visual design. geometrical pattern which was a typical visual motif of the 1950s architecture in Yugoslavia).23 Vera Cirkovic did not use Elementary School ‘St Sava’ this pattern in her later projects for schools, but she did apply it as a In 1957 Vera Cirkovic designed the decorative brise-soleil grid on residential extension of the Elementary school ‘St buildings she designed in the same Sava’. Unlike other projects, this school period.24 was located in an enclosed small lot which The laboratory wing is detached from the faced the two parallel streets, War Invalids rest of the complex and it is only (now Makenzijeva) and Avalska Street. connected by a long covered pathway. The original school was designed by a Since the schoolyard occupied a large prominent architect Dimitrije T. Leko in area, it was very precisely designed, with 1908.27 However, it was demolished in several playground and green zones.25 1940 in order to build a new and One of the greatest qualities of this contemporary facility. Unfortunately, the project was that the concept of school project designed by architect connecting school space with nature has Marko Andrejevic28 was never finished entirely succeeded. This school complex is due to the outbreak of the Second World one of the rare examples in the region War.29 The part which was constructed where pupils can still enjoy their breaks in consisted of two detached buildings which green environment unlike the majority of Vera Cirkovic connected by adding concrete schoolyards. another three wings therefore forming a The school design is very similar to Alfred U-shaped plan. The new part was again Roth's Elementary School in Berkeley St functionally divided: the left wing was Louis, USA from 1953.26 Roth detached the reserved for the gym, while the gym in the same way as Cirkovic and classrooms were located in the right and Sercer did, and the position of the central wing. The administration was located on the ground floor of the central, 23 Many architects of that period used this model most representative part of the new for complex brise-soleils or glass windows such as school. The gym was connected to the rest Milorad Macura. See: Зоран Маневић (ed.), of the building by a ground corridor. Лексикон неимара (Београд: Грађевинска књига, 2008), 267-272. 24 Residential building on the corner of Kneza Milosa and Krunska Street from 1954, residential building on the corner of Dusanova and Francuska Street from 1959 and residential building in 26-28 27 Ђурић Замоло, Градитељи, 208-218. Makenzijeva Street from 1957. 28 Зоран Маневић (ed.), Лексикон неимара 25 Historical Archives of Belgrade, Technical (Београд: Грађевинска књига, 2008), 4. documentation, f-55-1-1957 29 Маја Николова, Школске зграде у Београду до 26 Mate Baylon, Školske zgrade (Beograd: 1941. (Београд: Педагошки музеј, 1999), 24; Građevinska knjiga, 1962), 118. Трнавац, Лексикон, 18.

183 Cirkovic also placed the locker rooms on Unlike her other projects, Vera Cirkovic the both sides of the corridor.30 had certain limitations considering the Apart from the well planned and schoolyard design. The pre-war functionally composed project, the main parameters for schools did not include facade is by far the most memorable large open areas for recreation, therefore achievement of Vera Cirkovic. Unlike the schoolyard in the Elementary school traditional spatial organisation and ‘St Sava’ is rather small. Although Cirkovic architectural treatment of the main designed green areas, the effect is far facade, Cirkovic pulled the hallway from her other projects. towards the main street so that the classrooms could face а more quiet courtyard. With the hallway behind the Elementary School 'Filip Filipovic' main facade, Vera Cirkovic decided to position narrow windows to face the This school represents one of the four South-East, therefore gaining more light. elementary schools Vera Cirkovic designed The new placement of the windows together with Nikola Sercer as a part of caused a zig-zag form of the main facade, prefabricated experiment. The project was with the narrow window part and the designed in 1958 and the school's wider part which consisted of terra-nova construction was finished in 1960. The panels.31 This composition formed a architectural and visual elements on all trompe d'oeil: when observing the front four schools of the group are identical. facade from the West, one cannot see the The only difference was in the position windows, only panels. However, when the and interrelation of the wings. The main observer moves its position to the East, concept Vera Cirkovic and Nikola Sercer the windows emerge and the panels seem applied in every school was to merge more narrow than they actually are.) similar functions in the same wings which This original solution was proven to be would then be functionally very inspirational for other Yugoslavian interconnected, therefore applying a architects as well. A similar solution was Bauhaus-like functional organisation. The produced by architect Leon Kabiljo in his classrooms were positioned towards the project for an elementary school in Ulcinj South. Like in Cirkovic's earlier projects, in 1956.32 Architect Danilo Furst also used the gym was detached from the rest of the a similar zig-zag form in his design for an school in a separate wing connected with elementary school in Strazisce. However, a ground hallway. he positioned the classrooms instead of a The gym, cabinet and classroom wing are hallway in such position in order to gain all connected in a manner so that they more light.33 The same concept was again form a circular connection, which was applied by Oton Gaspari on his project for different than Cirkovic's previous the elementary and high school in Nova solutions. The front facade of the main Gorica.34 entrance to the administrative and cabinet wing is especially memorable. Below the 30 Historical Archives of Belgrade, Technical two-sloped roof the facade is slightly documentation, f-75-8-1957 withdrawn, leaving enough space to form 31 Ibidem. terraces on the first and second floor like 32 Зоран Маневић (ed.), Лексикон неимара (Београд: Грађевинска књига, 2008),185. in Chemical and Technological School. One 33 Leon Kabiljo, “Izgradnja osnovnih školaˮ, of the strongest elements in Cirkovic's Arhitektura urbanizam 6 (1960), 3, 5. composition is certainly the transparent 34 Ibidem, 18.

184 staircase which is positioned in the central the same visual appearance was once part of the building's front. Certain parts more achieved by using the same of the facade were covered in selected architectural elements. Like Elementary industrial Rohbau brick, while the rest was School ‘Vozd Karadjordje’ this building is terra-nova.35 also H-shaped, but the gym is positioned As in previous project tasks, Vera Cirkovic by 90° to the classroom wing.40 managed to express her affection towards Elementary School ‘Jovan Sterija Popovic’ the landscape architecture and was the fourth in the Cirkovic-Sercer series horticulture. She designed a detailed plan of prefabricated educational buildings. of the courtyard and managed to connect Unfortunately the technical the educational zone of the classrooms documentation was not preserved, so it with the recreation zone of the courtyard. cannot be determined whether this team She enriched the school garden by of architects were the authors or in which positioning a fountain in front of the year it was constructed. However, based transparent staircase and flanked by the on the visual appearance and the spatial two main wings. This type of schoolyard organisation it is very likely that Vera was the example Baylon gave in his book Cirkovic with or without Nikola Sercer was on school buildings in 1962.36 also the author of this project. The school The first project assignment of this type has the same circular shaped base and all was in 1953 when Nikola Sercer and Vera the architectural elements are the same. It Cirkovic designed the extension of the can even be concluded that this school is Elementary School ‘Vozd Karadjordje’. practically a copy of the Elementary Although this was one of their first tasks, School ‘Filip Filipovic’. It is also probable Cirkovic's name is signed only on the first that the school was constructed in a later draft of the project, while a more detailed period, together with the construction of project from 1954 was entirely signed by the residential block 63 on Novi Beograd Sercer.37 Unlike Elementary School ‘Filip in 1977-9. Filipovic’, the base of this building is H- It can be firmly concluded that Vera shaped with an additional original school Cirkovic with Nikola Sercer tried to building. The classroom wing is ending develop a specific prefabricated system with characteristic terraces on both sides for schools and used this project as a while the cabinet wing connects it with prototype for the later designed projects. the gym.38 This was not an isolated case, but a The Elementary School ‘Marija Bursac’ was product of a general strategy since a large another project from 1955 that Sercer and number of educational objects needed to Cirkovic designed.39 The visual and be constructed in an efficient and organisational concept was very much economic way.41 similar to the 'Filip Filipovic' Elementary It is interesting to observe that there were School. Although they are not identical, some similarities with the construction and composition treatment between the 35 Historical Archives of Belgrade, Technical mentioned schools and an Elementary documentation, School 'Leonardo da Vinci' in Terni 36 Baylon, Školske zgrade, 218. 37 Historical Archives of Belgrade, Technical documentation, f-6-9-1954 38 Ibidem. 40 Historical Archives of Belgrade, Technical 39 Historical Archives of Belgrade, Technical documentation, f-43-26-1955 documentation, f-43-26-1955; Baylon, Školske 41 Zoran Bajbutović, Arhitektura školske zgrade zgrade, 44. (Sarajevo: Svijetlost, 1983), 383.

185 designed by Mario Ridolfi in 1961.42 Even their design strategy. However, the though the materials and the environment production has never reached a more are different, it is visible that Ridolfi also impressive number and with tasks such as chose to make the facade more dynamic the Elementary School ‘St Sava’ Vera by introducing the protruding terraces on Cirkovic showed it is not possible to treat the corner in a very similar manner as each project assignment the same way. Vera Cirkovic and Nikola Sercer, which is The post-war architecture in Yugoslavia highly unusual for educational buildings. was marked by a significant number of collaborations and co-authorships, like in the case of Vera Cirkovic and Nikola Conclusion Sercer. Due to the nature of their work, it is very difficult to determine the In her approach to modernise educational contribution of each party when analyzing architecture, Vera Cirkovic introduced a their projects. However, based on the system of functional groups, most likely project Cirkovic did without the co- adopted from Alfred Roth. In her projects authorship of Sercer, it can be concluded for school buildings, she managed to that her contribution was not only arrange these functional groups in technical. Both her and Nikola Sercer are different well interconnected wings. This understudied and their work should principle proved to be highly functional become the subject of a more detailed and very influential in Yugoslavian research. educational architecture which Mate Vera Cirkovic also continued the tradition Baylon recommended in his studies on of female architects in Yugoslavia school architecture from 1962.43 By that designing educational building of high time, Cirkovic's schools served as an aesthetic and functional quality. Her work example for younger architects. Some of in the field of school architecture showed them chose to embrace that principle and a great affinity towards flexible and elaborate it, such as Petar Petrovic in his functional buildings, which appeared to be masterpiece project for the Elementary a very important feature of educational School 'Ratko Mitrovic' in Belgrade from architecture in later decades.46 1972.44 Together with Nikola Sercer, Vera Cirkovic tried to form a distinct type of elementary school that could easily be multiplied. This was a very typical architectural approach in the 1950s, since there was a great need for schools, therefore a quick and efficient solution was favourable. The widely used term ‘factory schools’45 could apply to

42 Gianni Accasto, “La scuola di Terniˮ, Controspazio 111-112 (2005), 134-139. 43 Baylon, Školske zgrade, 135. 44 Зоран Маневић (ed.), Лексикон неимара (Београд: Грађевинска књига, 2008), 318; mplicity/article/viewArticle/8713 (accessed July 8, Mitrović, Arhitektura, 69. 2016), 20-21. 45 Rena Upitis, “School Architecture and 46 Milutin Đorđević, “Neka pitanja izgradnje i Complexityˮ, Complicity 1 (2004), organizacije školskog prostoraˮ, Pedagoška https://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/co stvarnost 6 (1979), 522-523.

186 Bibliography Маневић, Зоран. (ed.), Лексикон неимара. Београд: Грађевинска књига, Accasto, Gianni. “La scuola di Terniˮ, 2008. Controspazio 111-112 (2005), 134-139. Martinović, Uroš, and Stojanović, Aćimović, Radmila. “Povodom izložbe Bratislav. Arhitektura Beograda 1945- “Školske zgrade Beogradaˮˮ, Pedagoška 1975. Beograd: BIGZ, 1978. misao 7 (1963), 470-476. Минић, Милан. “Прва београђанка Bajbutović, Zoran. Arhitektura školske архитект - Јелисавета Начићˮ, Годишњак zgrade. Sarajevo: Svijetlost, 1983. града Београда 3 (1956), 451-458.

Baylon, Mate. Opšta pitanja u vezi sa Mitrović, Mihajlo. Arhitektura Beograda izgradnjom školskih zgrada. Unknown: 1950-2012. Beograd: Službeni glasnik, Savez društava arhitekata FNRJ, 2012. Unkwnown. Mitrović, Vladimir. Arhitektura XX veka u Baylon, Mate. Školske zgrade. Beograd: Vojvodini. Novi Sad: Akademska knjiga, Građevinska knjiga, 1962. 2010.

Боровњак, Ђурђија. “Архитектура два Николова, Маја. Школске зграде у школска објекта Јованке Бончић Београду до 1941. Београд: Педагошки Катеринић у Београду: зграде Женске музеј, 1999. учитељске школе и Ветеринарског факултетаˮ, Годишњак града Београда Путник, Владана. Архитектура 55-56 (2008-2009), 265-290. соколских домова у Краљевини Срба, Хрвата и Словенаца и Краљевини Milutin Đorđević, “Neka pitanja izgradnje i Југославији. Београд: Филозофски organizacije školskog prostoraˮ, факултет, 2015. Pedagoška stvarnost 6 (1979), 522-526. Roth, Adolf. Alfred Roth: Architect of Дивна Ђурић Замоло, “Грађа за Continuity. Zürich: Waser, 1985. проучавање дела жена архитеката са Београдског универзитета, генерације “Tatjana Savic Venjifatovˮ, WANS: Women 1896-1940. годинеˮ, Пинус записи 5 Architects of Novi Sad, http://www.w-a- (1996), 1-92. ns.com/ (accessed August 22, 2016) Трнавац, Недељко. Лексикон историје Ђурић Замоло, Дивна. Градитељи педагогије. Београд: Завод за уџбенике, Београда 1815-1914. Београд: Музеј 2012. града Београда, 2011. Upitis, Rena. “School Architecture and Leon Kabiljo, “Izgradnja osnovnih školaˮ, Complexityˮ, Complicity 1 (2004), Arhitektura urbanizam 6 (1960), 4-24. https://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index .php/complicity/article/viewArticle/8713 (accessed July 8, 2016), 19-38.

187

Remarkable Public Health Service Architecture by Architect Zoja Dumengjić

Zrinka Barišić Marenić

1. Introduction achievement, "Viktor Kovačić" (1979) and "Vladimir Nazor" (1995). The entire work Architect Zoja Dumengjić with her work was researched as part of the doctoral achieved remarkable contribution to thesis of the author of this article: Croatian modern architecture of the 20th "Architect Zoja Dumengjić - the century.1 Long working lifetime of Remarkable Features of Her Ouevre in the architect Zoja Dumengjić covers almost Context of Croatian Modern Architecture", the entire last century, and professional defended the University of Architecture in activity the period from 1928 to 1981. She Zagreb in 2007. established herself in the period between The work of architect Zoja Dumengjić2 was the two world wars through her clearly seen through several periods in uncompromising achievements in the Zagreb: 1923 - 1927 the study of spirit of modern architecture. With a architecture at the Technical Faculty in number of architects of modernist Zagreb, 1928 -1930 the first professional tendencies, she contributed with her work experience in Atelier Fischer, 1930 to 1941 during, and especially after World War II the designer of School of Public Health, to the establishment of continuity of 1941-1948 the Second World War and the modernity Croatian architecture during first reconstruction of the country, 1948- the 20th century. 1954 the independent designer in She specialized early in the field of Architecture Project Institute and 1954 to architecture for health purposes, and her 1975 the head and the independent projects and realization marked this designer with Architectural project office specific segment of complex architectural "Dumengjić". During almost the entire production. The work of Zoja Dumengjić period the architect was actively involved was recognized and indexed during her life in over seventy public architectural and with two major awards for lifetime urban competitions, where she was highly ranked. 1 With her renowned contemporaries, architects Mladen Kauzlarić and Stjepan Gomboš, Marijan Haberle and Hinko Bauer, Vladimir Turina, Zvonimir Vrkljan, Antun Ulrich, Slavko Löwy, 2 Zoja Nepenina was born in 1904 in Odessa on the Stjepan Planić, Kazimir Ostrogović, Drago Galić and Black Sea in Russia. Father Peter Nepenin was a others, she represents a generation of architects general in the Russian army. Idyll of a calm and who with their work formed the corpus of Croatian happy childhood was interrupted by the October modern architecture during the tumultuous 20th Revolution in 1917 and the disintegration of the century, when Croatia was stormed in the second Russian Empire. This was followed by a three-year world war and changed the two social and three exile of the Nepen family, who wandered through political systems. Their realization marked the Europe with the two children looking for a suitable Croatian area, and the work as a whole is the location for a new home. The family settled in heritage of today's generation as a cultural or Kikinda, in Vojvodina, and young Zoja began to architectural heritage of the 20th century. study architecture in Zagreb in 1923.

188 Although the work was accomplished own innovative and aesthetic solutions, during substantially altered socio-political and efforts for enriching the space for and economic conditions of the man, she achieved consistent design environment, a detailed inspection of solutions that are recognizable in works demonstrated a clear life and expression that during decades of work professional endeavour. Set through over were transformed in accordance with the thirty years of 20th century, project work universal development of the profession of Zoja Dumengjić culminated after World and individual reflection. War II with the specific architectural expression that in a particular way enriched the Croatian architectural 3. Professional Work after the heritage. Second World War

After the Second World War the capitalist 2. Opus of architect Zoja system is changed into a socialist. This is a Dumengjić big change for the architectural profession, because private architectural Rich architectural opus consists of one offices were closed, and the whole former hundred and eighty-eight works, which in system changed. All available architects equal proportions make realization, were mobilized and organized in a number awarded competition projects and of republican ministries. The priority task unrealized projects. Architecture for was the reconstruction of the war-torn medical purposes in the opus is the most country. Problems they faced practically common, and includes a total of seventy- exceeded the material possibilities of five projects of hospitals and medical society, technological capacity and centres, specialized hospital pavilions and organizational forms. buildings of primary health care. In the After the war architect Zoja Dumengjić opus of the architect buildings for was employed in the Ministry of Health of education, residential buildings, and a People’s Republic Croatia. With a large stationary character of a building are number of projects of sanitary- highlighted. Projects of public buildings epidemiological stations, apartment were realised mainly through participation buildings, children's and student's in competitions, but also through regular dormitories, the modernist project of employment, and include administrative annex of the existing hospital in Biograd and office buildings, production facilities, should be set aside, and her sports facilities, cultural and social reconstruction and renovation for facilities, canteens and railway stations. tuberculosis sanatorium for bones and Precisely in the field of architecture for joints in 1946. medical purposes work and contribution The strongest project organization in the of Zoja Dumengjić are most distinguished, People's Republic of Croatia, National a primary tendency for enriching area of Project Institute, was founded in 1946, primary users is the most prominent. In seceding from the Ministry of the complex project tasks such as Construction People's Republic of Croatia, hospitals, the architect presented the and in 1947 was renamed the Institute of sovereign mastery of all components of Architecture Projects (Arhitektonski the discipline. By integrating the basic projektni zavod - APZ). In addition to the components of the architecture; individual joining of Engineers to the functions, structures and forms with her

189 Institute, the most prominent example of by architects Bela Auer, Ivo Bartolić, Zoja that time "disposition" is a simultaneous Dumengjić, Ivo Geršić, Lavoslav Horvat transfer of dozen "officials from and Harold Bilinić, Zlatko Neumann, department of capital construction of the Zvonimir Pavešić and Antun Ulrich.5 In the Ministry of Health, from 01.01.1948 period after World War II, based on the "federally with a telephone conversation ... observed activity in the thirties architect in the budget” of the Ministry of Zoja Dumengjić was recognized designer Construction, i.e. Institute of Architecture specializing in the field of health Projects ".."3 According to the official architecture.6 document the joining engineers are: "civil engineer Zoja Dumengjić, civil engineer Marijan Haberle, Juraj Bertol, Galina Feldt, Ivan Bartolić, Minka Jurković, and civil 3.1. Healthcare centres and engineer Vlasta Doder".4 This act buildings of primary health care completed the first project institute in the of architect Zoja Dumengjić former Yugoslavia that by1950 reached over two hundred employees. During 1948 With a number of significant to 1954 Zoja Dumengjić was an achievements regarding hospital, independent designer and head of the specialized hospital wards, in the post-war project group, i.e. of the project studio of period she distinguished herself in the Institute of Architecture Projects in cycle of health centres, whose project Zagreb, that worked in Vlaška 69. She realisation culminates in six realized realised a very large number of projects to projects in the fifties of the 20th century.7 restore the war-torn country; buildings for During 1952 to 1967 the architect realized education, buildings for collective housing, especially health buildings. 5 Independent became also Architectural project After the era of centralized planning and office Delenardo, Novak, Plehati, and Tučkorić. management in the early post-war period 6 As part of the School of Public Health and the first independent offices of achievements of Zoja Dumengjić realisation of architects Kazimir Ostrogović, Marijan Infectious Diseases pavilions of the city infectious hospital on Mirogojska cesta 8 in Zagreb in 1934, Haberle and Ivo Vitić, the Institute of the Children's spa for tuberculosis in Šumetlica Architecture Projects in 1954 was from 1936 to 1938, the Pavilion for tuberculosis transformed to as many as thirteen and infectious diseases pavilion of General Hospital architectural offices. The new design in Varazdin from 1936 to 1942, and school for offices were named after their directors, assistant nurses and boarding school on Mlinarska cesta in Zagreb from 1939 to 1941 should be former heads of studios within the noted. Institute of Architecture Projects. 7 The cycle of twenty-eight projects in primary Significant more important architectural- healthcare purposes the architect realized almost design offices were separately established during the entire professional activity in the period from 1931 to 1967. During this period a number of different socio-political systems was changed. 3 Darko Venturini Arhitektonski projektni zavod – Consequently, the various institutions also within APZ, prilog poslijeratnoj hrvatskoj arhitekturi which she participated in design on healthcare (Zagreb: APZ - Arhitektonski projektni zavod, architecture (from the School of Public Health in 1982):20 the interwar period to the post-war Ministry of 4 Venturini, APZ, 20. It is to be noticed that all Health and Institute of Architecture Projects). At architects were treated as civil engineers. The the same time there was a very intensive construction and reconstruction of the country was development of medical science during the 20th considered. A construction task and construction century. operations imposed its supremacy.

190 fourteen projects of healthcare centres. floor, the central zone was transformed Six realizations date back to the period into a waiting room area with bilateral from 1952 to 1962, and that are the lighting and cross ventilation. healthcare centres in Ploče, Kutina, Omiš, One of the design priorities of the and Trnje, Črnomerec and Medveščak in architect was to provide natural light and Zagreb. ventilation of space particularly that Articulation of the layout structure was designed for patients. The aspiration for dually conditioned; as the need of natural bilateral lighting the architect differentiation of individual tracts and resolved by cross section, by height enabling a series of separate entrances, so differentiation of the roof panel between because of the required staging the policlinic area and the waiting room. construction.8 Healthcare centres were By increasing the height of the waiting designed from the longitudinal tracts room bilateral lighting and ventilation (wings), which due to the program and through skylights was realised. Two- spatial conditions constitute indented floored wings of two-tracts disposition orthogonal structure. Longitudinal wings marks the raised central roof panels above include or tangent the external the waiting room, which allows the landscaped spaces that enrich and formation of a two-sided skylights (Trnje, humanize working medical facilities and Črnomerec, Medveščak in Zagreb). patients` waiting areas. Wings with When programming smaller healthcare ambulances are interlinked by connecting centres, she transformed striving for wings with lecture rooms or porches. bilateral lighting in specifically designed Facilities are low; having ground floor, theme of higher entrance porch and floors or extremely double-floored. In the waiting room tract (Ploče, Kutina, Omiš). ground floor there are located wards with The ground floor entrance porch was separate entrances, a shadowy porch of articulated in the distinctive tectonic the ground floor indicates the entry zone. structure. Series of columns of the early Expansion of entrance area at the first fifties of the 20th century were made of floor gallery distinguishes healthcare reinforced concrete (Ploče, Kutina), i.e. of centres in Ploče and Omiš, and Medveščak steel in the late fifties (Omiš, Medveščak). in Zagreb. Indented longitudinal facade of the porch A series of mutually isolated entrances is not flat, but plastically broken; through were formed, which where conditioned by cross section - vertically, or in plan - medical-hygienic reasons of isolation of horizontally. Vertical disjunction of individual functional groups. Such an recessed facade was realized with the aim approach enabled the reduction of the of forming skylight zone of waiting rooms. corridor, thereby achieving economical It was articulated by the lower cubes (of realization, and also better functional windshields or toilets), or by pulling the coherence i.e. required separation of facade of the waiting room in the area of functional units. By reduction of corridor skylights (Kutina or Ploče, Omiš, system of two tracts layout of the first Medveščak in Zagreb). 9

8 Deviations from the projects of architect Dumengjić in the last stages of realization, and 9 Varying depths of porch in plan (Črnomerec in frequent devastation of quality of original projects Zagreb) was realized at the same time as a theme marks the realization of healthcare centres in in much larger scale at the gallery front of the Split Kutina and Zagreb; Črnomerec and Medveščak. General Hospital.

191 Healthcare centre facilities of larger scales circumstances: a considerably sloping had indented disposition. Upper floor with terrain and the existence of small-size ambulances was marked by prominent hospital units which restricted the height corpus (with ribbon windows of the facade of the future structures. The complex is of ambulance spaces in Črnomerec and primarily designed and organized Trnje in Zagreb or first floor gallery in according to the existing units, the terrain Medveščak in Zagreb and Omiš). configuration, high-quality insolation and Denivelation of roof slab was designed views from the hospital units. due to waiting room skylights. Entrance The main hospital complex is essentially area of ground floor was articulated by the conceived as the two longitudinal, parallel shady porch and stone cladding. interconnected wings. The already built The impact of health centres realisation by four-storey surgical unit (1936-1940, arch. Zoja Dumengjić is noticeable in the Lav Horvat) is integrated within the realization of a series of health building by structure and limits the height of the architect’s contemporaries (Ivo Geršić, complex. A splendid gallery on the south- Juraj Bertol, Zvonimir Pavešić, Žarko facing facade is the most recognizable Vincek and Nada Šilović). In the context of feature of the complex. It integrates the architecture of buildings of primary several functions: it protects from blazing healthcare purposes, the impact can be south sunshine (especially in hot months); felt in realisations of Professor Mladen it serves as a parallel internal Vodička (healthcare centres in Samobor, communication link designed for the 1962-1965; 1977-1980 and Labin, 1963- patients and their visitors (and thus 1969, competition project with Boris relieves the internal corridor); it acts as a Magaš). At a time when designer shaded outdoor living room (which can Dumengjić completed her rich body of possibly be used throughout the year); it work, within the narrow profiled segment commands superb views and allows of healthcare architecture the tradition of patients to enjoy fresh air and for this quality continued by the realization of the reason has an important psychological and former assistant professor Vodička, social effect on their recovery. architect Dražen Juračić in cooperation A dynamically broken wing of the building with architect Branko Kincl, who from allows better insolation of the existing 1983 to 1988 realized noticed Healthcare Horvat’s wing, articulates a functional centre Centar in Zagreb. organization of the hospital units, ensures a better proportioning of the large scale space organization, and stimulates the 3.2. The General Hospital patients’ sense of belonging. A complex in Split dynamically broken wing of the gallery The major achievement in the oeuvre of front is articulated by the extended white architect Zoja Dumengjić is the General horizontals of the gallery and the shaded Hospital complex in Split, designed by Zoja outdoor living rooms. The patients in the Dumengjić, which was put up in stages General Hospital are almost like voyagers between 1951 and 1969. The hospital on the ships in the Split archipelago. On location is situated about a hundred their shaded galleries, like on the decks, meters from the coast and provides a they take part in this picturesque magnificent view of the sea and the Split landscape which certainly contributes to archipelago. Despite obvious advantages, their effective treatment. It is precisely the there were also some limiting architect’s care for the patient that is

192 clearly manifested in her work: in an effort Health care facilities design has proved as to maximally integrate the quality of the a rich field for some of the most wider environment and sunlight into the outstanding works of modern designed building, she successfully architecture. Creative architects know manages to adjust her design to the how to exploit and develop the purpose of the building. complementary principles of modern The polyclinic complex is organized along architecture and medical programs to the northern access square. The maximum effect. They successfully outpatients, who visit the hospital on a manage to integrate modern structural daily basis, may enjoy bright and airy and technological advances with the waiting rooms. The health care facilities humane and hygienic principles and thus designed by this architect in the 1950s and endow these facilities with psychological 1960s are clearly recognized by her and social value as well as with design intention to render the spaces for patients articulation creating an entirely new more humane. Her design is therefore architectural value. characterized by ample daylight and airy An innovative design of the Split General spaces as well as an integration of the Hospital generates themes that had features of the surrounding landscape into already been present in Z. Dumengjić’s the designed spaces. work from the 1930s. A building that The tuberculosis unit (1954-1958) was put exerted an exceptionally strong influence up first between 1954 and 1958. Its on her numerous projects was certainly specifically designed inverted cascade the Sanatorium in Paimio, Finland, section is the first step in the articulation designed by Alvar Aalto between 1928 and of the south skin. Taking into 1933. This project had an obvious considerationthe program and function of influence on the Tuberculosis Unit in the tuberculosis unit, the designer adjusts Varaždin (1936-1942) and on a splendid her work to psychological and curative State Tuberculosis Sanatorium Snopljak on purposes. She integrates various types of Medvednica from 1941. hospital room organization and in an She finally integrated all these experiences innovative way achieves a specific in her major achievement in Split in 1951. articulation of the building skin. The multi- Special care for a patient bears obvious layered south-facing building skin is resemblance to Aalto’s approach: her designed with the purpose of exploiting design of a broken southwestern wing of the quality of sunlight and the play of light the Split General Hospital provided not and shade of the Mediterranean climate. only a better insolation of the existing The architect thus successfully northern wing but also a more demonstrates her mastery of all harmonious organic integration of a architectural components. Her innovative massive building into the sloping terrain in integration of function, structure and form Firule. has ultimately produced an architectural According to dr Šegvić’s words, a work of masterpiece. Today, however, this architecture becomes truly outstanding if remarkable achievement is threatened by it makes contribution to urban design and demolition due to a tender that in its development, ensures continuity in art propositions callously foresees demolition and culture, plays an important role in and construction of the building of the society, and serves as inspiration for new Integrated emergency hospital admission works. Zoja Dumengjić was aware of the (sic!). main problem of south Mediterranean

193 architecture, in particular the need for sun pedestrian promenade is present in all of protection: she works it out in her own the above mentioned constructions. way and brilliantly succeeds in the Furthermore, cityscape component of this integration of functional and design particular hospital realization comes to components by means of a creative use of the fore in the formation of the south face the structure itself. of the city, where two hospitals of An outstanding value of this complex is architects Dumengjić and Ulrich 11 by their confirmed through its influence on the calm horizontals balance the vibrant generations of Splitbased architects, silhouette of Split at the foot of Mosor and primarily Ivo Radić, Lovro Perković, Dinko Kozjak. South views from the open sea to Vesanović and Ante Kuzmanić who dealt Split, are primarily the most important for with the concept of double skin in their the formation of the image of the city port work. from the open sea. The intervention is not far from the historic nuclei of Split. It was built in the This superb work of architecture has been vicinity of the historic nucleus - the included in the monographs on Croatian Diocletian’s palace (3rd-5th century AD) health care facilities and presented in a which is widely considered as one of the great number of international best preserved monuments of Roman publications. This paper is a contribution architecture in the world. The traces of to its evaluation and registration. Roman parcellation are still visible on the hospital site itself and form its northern boundary. 4. Conclusion An important component of the realisation of the General Hospital by Zoja The work of architect Zoja Dumengjić th Dumengjić is its cityscape component. The includes central five decades of the 20 urban layout of the facility of Split General century. Although in the terms of hospital in the context of the ancient core reference she focused on the wider area, of Split reinterprets cardo and decumanus her projects and performances were of Diocletian's Palace in the west. focused mostly on Croatian territory. After emigration from the territory of the Deflection of the southwest wing of the former Russian Empire (Odessa, now hospital is associated with a string of Ukraine), Zoja Petrovna Nepenina enrolled family houses on Bačvice in the immediate the study of architecture at the Zagreb environment of the west. On the other Technical Faculty, Department of hand, it anticipates deflection of parallel Architecture, where she graduated in streets of the urban plan of the more 1927. With professional architectural eastern Split III (Slovenian architects education she was connected in almost Vladimir Mušič, Marjan Bežanec and Nives the entire life and creative span to Croatia. Starc, 1968-69)10. The theme of the Professional activity included nearly two hundred works of various project tasks, which were mainly focused on the area of 10 The deflection of the newly formed Cardo of the pedestrian streets Ruđer Bošković which climbs healthcare architecture. towards recently completed Split campus, in Professor emeritus Bruno Milić knew and comparison to the structure of parallel pedestrian met architect Zoja Dumengjić during the street Split III, has the same deflection angle of the southwest wing of the General Hospital in relation to the basic structure. 11 Military hospital, today KBC Split, 1958 - 1965

194 Second World War and immediately after in the office: Architectural design office its completion.12 Evoking his memories, Dumengjić, Zagreb 1954-1964.14 professor emeritus B. Milić succinctly Beside professional work, architect Zoja describes the architect Zoja Dumengjić: Dumengjić presented her projects and "She held her head high and stared realization at the most important world straight ahead. ...She did not speak exhibition in Brussels in 1958 (Yugoslav Croatian entirely correctly, but that did not section at the World Exhibition), the bother her to be categorical, and to say a exhibition "Medicine and Technology" in sentence as a command. Most of the Zagreb in 1961, and the "Zagreb Salon" in women who studied and completed 1966. Beside the professional work, she architecture studies never went to the formed important and rich bibliographic construction site, did not come upon or cycle. In the period from 1950 to 1975 she overcome all the difficulties that published the many summaries of their profession on construction site and the projects, competitions and realizations in profession in society bears. Our profession professional journals (Zagreb magazine requires a hard perseverance, courage. "Architecture and Urbanism" i.e. Which woman would climb the "Architecture" and Belgrade's scaffolding? None of them dared! But Zoja "Architecture - Urbanism"). did. Great support to her professional work She climbed the scaffolding whenever it architect Zoja Dumengjić certainly found was needed. She was deeply appreciated in her husband, architect Selimir at the construction site, they had feared of Dumengjić. Architect Selimir Dumengjić her, as opposed to other young women. focused his action on programming, The women at the construction site were theoretical and pedagogy, work, and the not present. I do not know a single main highlighted features of institutions architect who was a fighter in this sence. devoted to healthcare. While her She had a hard shell, network around affirmation at first was in the shadow of a herself which protected her from the successful architect husband15, with brutality of life. She had all the attributes. today's distance situation is just the She gained a reputation in any field, not inverse. His theoretical and pedagogical only at competitions or academic level.".13 work faded with time delay, and the architect’s realization aroused the interest Such grit and perseverance led to the of the professional public. establishment of an independent There are two facts that characterize very Architectural design office Dumengjić in different starting points of architect Zoja 1954, where until her retirement in 1975 Dumengjić compared to most fellow she was director and chief designer (the contemporaries. She was an immigrant first architectural office run by a woman). from the territory of the Russian Empire, On the occasion of the tenth anniversary and a woman. There were very few of autonomous activities of Architectural women architects in the professional design office spouses Dumengjić published in 1964 the catalogue of works produced 14 Selimir Dumengjić and Zoja Dumengjić. Arhitektonski projektni biro Dumengjić, Zagreb 1954-1964 (katalog radova APB Dumengjić, 12 At the time when he worked on the tender jubilarno izdanje biroa povodom 10. godišnjice projects with architect Marijan Haberle samostalnog djelovanja). Zagreb, 1964. 13 Statement of Prof. Emerituss Bruno Milić, Ph.D., November 16 2004, Faculty of Architecture, 15 Statement of architect Juraj Bertol, November 10 University of Zagreb.. 2004, Horvatovac 62, Zagreb

195 world of architecture in the thirties, but and interviews, and included in numerous also in the post-war period. Although retrospectives of modern architecture in nowadays successful women in business Croatia and abroad.21 are not uncommon, during the first half of However, paradoxically, as only rare the 20th century it used to be the achievements of the architect Dumengjić exception rather than the rule. This is are included in the lists of protected evidenced in several inscriptions, even the heritage, her works are subjected to headlines, such as the Zagreb "News" in arbitrary user intervention and 1935: "... Female engineer built a modern devastation, and recently the demolition pavilion infectious hospital".16 Even after of the TB Pavilion in Split was announced the end of World War II in the papers (sic!). On the other hand, the youngest there were in these headlines: "Woman generation of architects and students architect executed norm "17 or "First lively resonate with the power and woman architect who carried out her five- freshness of her realisations, and the 18 year plan" . Architect Zoja Dumengjić died in the arhitekture.“ (Ph.D. diss., University of Zagreb, ninety-sixth year of life, in 2000 in Zagreb. Faculty of Architecture, 2007)

She is the laureate of the highest 21 Stjepan Planić. Problemi savremene arhitekture. professional awards for lifetime Zagreb, 1931/32.; reprint 1996.(Biblioteka achievement, "Viktor Kovačić” and Psefizma, Nakladništvo Udruženja hrvatskih “Vladimir Nazor". The latter is awarded as arhitekata, Zagreb) Lifetime Achievement Award “to … La Petite Entente des Femmes - Exposition des prominent artists who, through their Femmes Artistes des Etats de la Petite Entente creativity marked the time in which they (Belgrade - Zagreb - Ljubljana - Bucarest - Cluj - worked and whose creative path is Cernatuzi - Praha - Brno - Bratislava : Orbis , 1938) completed and works remain the Nedeljkov, Georgije. Der Krankenhausbau in permanent Croatian heritage“.19 Jugoslawien. In: Paul Vogler, Gustav Hassenpflug (edt.). Handbuch für den Neuen Krankenhausbau , However, after the end of her life her München – Berlin : Urban & Schwartzenberg, work does not fade. On the contrary, the 1962., separat 2. izdanja, : 710-718 number of publications dealing with the Neven Šegvić. Stanje stvari, jedno viđenje, 1945- topic of her work is on the rise, especially 1985. Arhitektura 196-199 (1986): 118-280 after 2007 and the finalization of theses Tomislav Premerl. Hrvatska moderna arhitektura dedicated to her integral and special između dva rata – nova tradicija. (Zagreb : work20, her work is the theme of lectures Nakladni zavod Matice Hrvatske, 1989)

Andrej Uchytil and Zrinka Barišić Marenić and Emir Kahrović. Leksikon arhitekata Atlasa hrvatske 16 Enes, „Prenatrpanosti zagrebačke zarazne arhitekture XX. stoljeća . (Zagreb : Sveučilište u bolnice doskočit će se novim bolničkim paviljonom Zagrebu, Arhitektonski fakultet, 2009) (žena-inženjer izgradila najmoderniji paviljon Darovan Tušek (edt.). Split - arhitektura 20. zarazne bolnice)“ Novosti 323 (20.11.1935) stoljeća. Vodič / Split 20th Century Architecture. A 17 J.M., „Jedanaest inženjera i arhitekata Guideboo., Split : Sveučilište u Splitu Građevinsko - Arhitektonsko-projektnog zavoda Hrvatske rade za arhitektonski fakultet, 2011. drugu Petoljetku“. Vjesnik, April 08 1950 : 10. Aleksander Laslo. Arhitektonski vodič Zagreb 1898.- 18 J.Ž.,: „Jedanaest inženjera Projektantskog zavoda 2010. (Zagreb: Arhitekst, Društvo arhitekata Hrvatske konstruiraju za drugu petoljetku“. Rad, Zagreba, 2011) May 04 1950 : 2. 19 http://www.min-kulture.hr/default.aspx?id=407

20 Barišić Marenić, Z.: „Arhitektica Zoja Dumengjić – Osobitost djela u kontekstu hrvatske moderne

196 works are more frequently included in Dumengjić, Zoja. „Opća bolnica u Splitu“. publications that present the anthological Arhitektura 152-153 (1975): 51 modern achievements of Croatia. Enes, „Prenatrpanosti zagrebačke zarazne Projects of architect Zoja Dumengjić are bolnice doskočit će se novim bolničkim marked clearly by structured functional paviljonom (žena-inženjer izgradila solutions, realized on the basis of the rigid najmoderniji paviljon zarazne bolnice)“ analysis of the project program and Novosti 323 (20.11.1935). location characteristics. Reflecting functionality not only from J.M., „Jedanaest inženjera i arhitekata rational-organizational aspect, but also Arhitektonsko-projektnog zavoda Hrvatske rade za drugu Petoljetku“. Vjesnik, Vjesnik, April from the psychological and sociological 08 1950 : 10. aspects, she focused her efforts to the primary user (patient - the patient in J.Ž.,: „Jedanaest inženjera Projektantskog medical buildings, a student in educational zavoda Hrvatske konstruiraju za drugu buildings and so forth.). petoljetku“. Rad, May 04 1950 : 2.

For primary users she designed bright and Laslo, Aleksander. Arhitektonski vodič Zagreb airy interior spaces, enriched by the 1898.-2010. Zagreb: Arhitekst, Društvo attributes of the surrounding landscape, arhitekata Zagreba, 2011. open views and outdoor spaces. Realized through the mastery of the functional and Nedeljkov, Georgije. Der Krankenhausbau in structural components of the architecture, Jugoslawien. In: Paul Vogler, Gustav Hassenpflug (edt.). Handbuch für den Neuen design efforts of architect Dumengjić Krankenhausbau , (München – Berlin : Urban manifested in the specific design & Schwartzenberg, 1962., separat 2. izdanja) : expression, and represent an exceptional 710-718 contribution to the corpus of Croatian modern architecture. Planić, Stjepan. Problemi savremene arhitekture. Zagreb, 1931/32.; reprint 1996.(Biblioteka Psefizma, Nakladništvo Udruženja hrvatskih arhitekata, Zagreb) Sources Premerl, Tomislav. Hrvatska moderna Bibliography arhitektura između dva rata – nova tradicija. Zagreb :Nakladni zavod Matice Hrvatske, Barišić Marenić, Z.: „Arhitektica Zoja 1989. Dumengjić – Osobitost djela u kontekstu hrvatske moderne arhitekture.“ Ph.D. diss., Šegvić, Neven. Stanje stvari, jedno viđenje, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, 1945-1985. Arhitektura 196-199 (1986): 118- 2007. 280

Dumengjić, Selimir; and Dumengjić, Zoja. Tušek, Darovan (edt.). Split - arhitektura 20. Arhitektonski projektni biro Dumengjić, Zagreb stoljeća. Vodič / Split 20th Century 1954-1964 (katalog radova APB Dumengjić, Architecture. A Guideboo., Split : Sveučilište u jubilarno izdanje biroa povodom 10. godišnjice Splitu Građevinsko - arhitektonski fakultet, samostalnog djelovanja). Zagreb, 1964. 2011.

Dumengjić, Selimir. „Dom narodnog zdravlja u Uchytil, Andrej, and Barišić Marenić, Zrinka, Kutini“. Arhitektura 1-6 (1958): 31 and Kahrović, Emir. Leksikon arhitekata Atlasa hrvatske arhitekture XX. stoljeća . Zagreb :

197 Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Arhitektonski fakultet, 2009. Other sources Venturini, Darko. Arhitektonski projektni zavod Statement of Prof. Bruno Milić, Ph.D., – APZ, prilog poslijeratnoj hrvatskoj November 16 2004, Faculty of Architecture, arhitekturi. Zagreb: APZ - Arhitektonski University of Zagreb. projektni zavod, 1982. Statement of architect Juraj Bertol, November … La Petite Entente des Femmes - Exposition 10 2004, Horvatovac 62, Zagreb. des Femmes Artistes des Etats de la Petite Entente : Belgrade - Zagreb - Ljubljana - http://www.min- Bucarest - Cluj - Cernatuzi - Praha - Brno - kulture.hr/default.aspx?id=407 Bratislava : Orbis , 1938. Photo: Zrinka Barišić Marenić ... „Arhitekt Zoja Dumengjić (portret)“. Čovjek i prostor 105 (1960): 103

198 “Feeling at Home, Elisabeth (Kaatje) de Lestrieux’s Personal Housing Designs”

Florencia Fernández Cardoso, Fátima Pombo and Hilde Heynen

1. Introduction readers with innovative design and, after From the 19th century onwards, some years, becoming a role model by married women have been deemed using her own homes as experimentation responsible for the decoration of their ground. She was a trendsetter in homes.1 Professional, independent combining antique and modern furniture women might have escaped this in interiors that were not newly built, but expectation, but they often had situated in reconverted old farmhouses.2 interiorized social convention that strongly Gradually her writing shifted to another of relates women with the home. Many her interests: gardening. Upon request, professions that were seen as particularly she designed several gardens for suitable for women, such as nursing or acquaintances and clients in the interior decorating, built upon this Netherlands, Belgium and Portugal. She expertise, by professionalizing tasks that in published more than 35 books about private life belonged to the domestic plants, flowers and garden design, many sphere. of which were translated into English, Elisabeth de Lestrieux (1933-2009) French, German, Spanish, and Italian, thus - also known as Kaatje – was such a reaching a multi-cultural audience all woman, who turned feminine interests across Europe. Her influence as a mediator and expertise into a career. She was an and trendsetter is undeniable. unusual and very independent Dutch Nevertheless, her writings and designs woman, who was completely self-made have not yet received scholarly attention. and who turned her expertise in cooking, This article first introduces de decorating and gardening into a livelihood Lestrieux’s career as an architectural that brought her many admirers and writer, interior and landscape designer. followers. After unsuccessful years at the We examine her six self-designed homes, university, De Lestrieux found herself a job from articles published in multiple journals as a journalist for women’s magazines. Her and books, through which she invited profile rose over the years. Whereas she readers into her own space. We study her first was portrayed as a cooking editor, own renovated farmhouses as well as her she gradually took over other self-designed tomb in the south of responsibilities, such as the interior design Portugal. In the analyses of those case section of the lifestyle magazine Avenue. studies, we stress four elements that In this she excelled, detecting and constitute a recurrent core of her quest to describing new trends, familiarizing her 2 Karl-Richard Könnecke, ‘Ein Altes Haus Mit 1 Yves Schoonjans, ‘“Au bonheur des dames” Charme Erfüllt’, Schöner Wohnen, 11 November Vrouw, smaak en het burgelijk interieur in de 1970; Dieuwke de Rijk, ‘Zo Wonen Mensen Die negentiende eeuw’, ed. Christine Delhaye and over Wonen Schrijven’, De Telegraaf, 17 April Hilde Heynen, Tijdschrift voor Vrouwenstudies, De 1973, 37; Thea Detiger, ‘Acht Ezels in de Wei Om zij-kant van architectuur, 18, no. 2 (1997): 136–52. Te Aaien’, De Telegraaf 99 (29 March 1991): 2.

199 feel at home - nature, in-out-in, purity and transformed the previous titled Romance abundance. magazine, into a more modern magazine portraying high-level photography, in glossy pages, depicting travels, fashion, 2_The Career of Elisabeth de Lestrieux cooking as well as architecture and (1933 -2009) interior design. De Lestrieux was in charge of the last two, writing long, monthly 2.1_Kaatje: an adventurous and articles. independent woman Since the first issues of Avenue, her writings won her a spot in the architecture Elisabeth de Lestrieux was born and design milieu. Her articles were case from Dutch parents in 1933 in Maracaibo, study reports of modern living, titled Venezuela, and lived most of her life in the “Living in the Netherlands” or “Living Netherlands. Although she was parentless today” and research reports proposing at age 15, de Lestrieux carried an multiple solutions to interior design independent life. She gained a high school problems. For the latter, she sometimes diploma in garden architecture,3 but never involved another Dutch architect, Bart completed her university degree in Olof van den Berg to produce multiple French. She travelled and experimented domestic architecture designs for diverse with multiple artistic disciplines: music, styles and needs. She advised the readers theatre, cuisine, architecture and about decorating with a low budget or landscaping. From the mid-1950s, de integrating new technologies inside the Lestrieux started writing articles in several home. By writing in Avenue, a magazine journals where she focused on fashion, that had first presented itself as “the new French cuisine, interior design and magazine for the new woman,”6 de gardening.4 Lestrieux constructed her career as a De Lestrieux was an autodidactic woman, designer and invited women into the art who learned about architecture and of designing their own individual spaces. modern design through reading and In her later books, she also writing. In figure 1, de Lestrieux is defended the reader’s right to one’s own photographed in an article celebrating home design. In Decorating With Plants: nine successful culinary writers.5 She is the Living colour in the home de Lestrieux one on the bottom-right, elegantly sitting explained that the authors aimed to on the grass. “illustrate and describe” how to integrate new and traditional plants into the home, “with particular attention being paid to 2.2_De Lestrieux’s architecture writings their place in your interior design.”7 Here, she placed ownership of the design as De Lestrieux joined the staff of, being the readers’, experimenting under Avenue from its first issue in October. de Lestrieux’s advice. Finally, in The Dutch photographer Joop Swart had Modern Art of Flower Arranging de Lestrieux elucidated her overall objective 3 ‘Rijkstuinbouwschool Te Boskoop’, De Leidse Courant, 7 July 1953. 4 W. H. Smith, ‘Een Toonaangevend Tuintalent’, 6 Joop Swart, ‘Cover: Nieuw Blad Voor Nieuwe Reformatorisch Dagblad, 12 October 1990, 17. Vrouwen’, Avenue 1, no. 1 (October 1965): 1. 5 ‘Negen Prominente Kook-Redactrices Geven U 7 A. C. Muller-Idzerda and Elisabeth de Lestrieux, Tips Voor 9 Lekker-Makkelijke Pinkster-Hapjes’, Decorating With Plants, Living Colour in the Home Utrechts Nieuwsblad 71, no. 25 (29 May 1963): 22. (Arco, 1981), 7.

200 of in producing her design writings. She own home.12 Finally, in Portugal she explained, “[this book] does not aim to lay designed a restaurant for Dutch clientele down strict rules for preparing and the landscapes of a Dutch couple13 arrangements or test pieces... even less to and of a family villa14 with swimming pool give you rigid instructions (...) The Modern and contemporary art sculptures.15 Art of Flower Arranging is not just about arranging flowers, for it also has much to say about the pleasures of cultivating 3_De Lestrieux’s personal homes: from plants for yourself.”8 de Meije to Loulé.

De Lestrieux explored a quest of defining 2.3_A garden woman and landscape her own home and of keeping vivid the architect feeling of being at home in her six self- designed houses that she shared with the In her late published books public through publications and TV between the 1980s and 1990s, de interviews. Lestrieux’s interests shifted towards Her first self-renovated house was in De decorating with plants, landscaping or Meije, Netherlands—where she lived from using flowers in cuisine. De Lestrieux 1964 to 1966. Sadly, very little is known taught gardening lessons and cooking about this first project. Some information lessons for those interested. When can be found indirectly in articles about describing one of her courses de Lestrieux her other houses. In an interview with stated, “We want everyone to learn about Marian Spinhoven titled “Living for your how to use more fantasy in their house” she mentions that it was also a gardens.”9 During this time, she continued renovated farmhouse but small in size and to write in magazines like Magriet and it was here that she started her first Terdege focusing more on landscaping and garden, having lived in apartments before on integrating gardening inside the home. that.16 The author and educator also left In July 1966, she published her her mark in the built environment of second home17 which she had bought and Belgium by designing landscapes of two renovated with the financial help her own great domains: the Orshof Hotel- Restaurant in 198310 and the Gravenwezel 12 Castle run by Axel Vervoordt, in 1984.11 In J. Wentink-Frumau and J. J. Wentink, ‘Uw Probleeem Ook Het Onze’, Trouw, 12 March 1979. 1979, a prospective client of de Lestrieux 13 van Schouwenburg Nicole and van also wrote to a Dutch journal asking for Schouwenburg Pieter, About Kaatje, interview by the landscape designer’s coordinates, with Florencia Fernandez Cardoso, In person, 12 the interest of having her renovate her November 2015. 14 ‘Villa for Sale in Boliqueime, 7/8 Bedrooms’, Golden Visa Properties, accessed 2 September 2016, http://www.golden-visa- 8 Elisabeth de Lestrieux, The modern art of flower properties.com/villa-for-sale-boliqueime-78- arranging (Twickenham: Hamlyn, 1986), 7. bedrooms/. 9 Bert Huls, ‘Creatief Tuinieren’, De Telegraaf, 15 Rik Felderhof, ‘Felderhof Ontmoet’, Felderhof Woonkrant, 4 February 1987, 31. Ontmoet (Portugal and Monaco: NCRV, 23 October 10 Lannoo, Cartes topographiques Belgique, Lannoo 2000). et Touring (Brussels: Institut géographique 16 Marian Spinhoven, ‘Leven Voor Je Huis’, No national, 2005), 340. Name, No date (circa 1975. 11 Jean-Pierre Gabriel, ‘Lijnen in de Sneeuw’, Knack 17 Elisabeth de Lestrieux, ‘Voorheen Boerderij’, Weekend, 30 October 2013, 71. Avenue, July 1966.

201 inheritance in Zennewijnen.18 Interestingly The fireplace was multi-faceted and enough, de Lestrieux did not mention that geometrical providing multiple functions it was her own home that she described, depending on the needs. This was in fact, illustrated, and photographed for others an ingenious design made by de Lestrieux to discover. According to her article in with the help of her colleague, architect Avenue, it was the home of a single van den Berg (see figure 4). woman owner who worked as a On one side, the white fireplace journalist.19 proposed a fire at eye-height for a person Her home appeared as an example sitting in the living room, with a platform amongst two others. All three were on its left that proposed a sitting area or a examples of owners who had renovated space for plants in pots. On the opposite and re-designed their own homes from old side, the fireplace turned into a cooking- Dutch farmhouses. Amongst the cases, lies fire at hand-height for a person standing. a 1784 farmhouse renovated by a Dutch Finally, a wood-burning stove was woman architect, A. Neunzerling, for a connected to the ventilation of the family of a medical doctor in Zijtaart.20 fireplace to supply extra heating for the This sixteen-page long article included open space. floorplans of the three farmhouses before De Lestrieux’s third home was in and after, and construction details of de Montfoort, Netherlands from 1971 to Lestrieux’s fireplace design. The article can 1983. Interestingly, this one was also be seen as a form of invitation, placed in the eye of the public. It was encouraging the readers to also partake in published in multiple journals and this modern act of renovating one’s own rendered open to the public through an home according to one’s needs. The antique shop, social events and fashion inclusion of floorplans and technical exhibitions.22 Her farm complex in details also shows the level of precision Montfoort was named “De Witte Swaen” and the form of architectural knowledge (The White Swan). This was her biggest that de Lestrieux was transmitting. Her and the most expensive to maintain. Her citing of a non-specified woman property- interior design was similar to her owner and a woman architect are also Zennewijnen home, with a multi-faced significant in promoting women’s financial fireplace in the middle that acted as an independence and their role as architects. interactive element. Once again, she De Lestrieux’s second home was requested the help of architect van den next published in the German magazine Berg to build it. Schöner Wohnen in 1970.21 This time, As figure 5 depicts, on one side, one could however, it was openly introduced as de sit down in the couches to read and look Lestrieux’s home in a seven-page at the fireplace from sitting height. On the interview about her and her “old house other side one could use the fireplace at full of charm.” De Lestrieux’s fireplace hand height to cook and warm oneself appears in multiple photographs because near a dining area. of its placement in the open space and its significance in defining the living areas. 22 Stan Huygens, ‘Kaatje Een Week in Het Wit’, De Telegraaf, 16 November 1977; Stan Huygens, 18 Peter Brusse, ‘De Tuinvrouw’, Vrij Nederland, 11 ‘Mode in de “Witte Swaen”’, De Telegraaf, 19 April 2009, sec. Uit het leven. August 1978, sec. Journaal; Marijke Hultzer, 19 de Lestrieux, ‘Voorheen Boerderij’, 86. ‘Elisabeth de Lestrieux Laat Zien Dat Antiek Vrolijk 20 Ibid., 84–5. En Sfeervol Kan Zijn’, De Telegraaf, 24 September 21 Könnecke, ‘Ein Altes Haus Mit Charme Erfüllt’. 1977..

202 De Lestrieux bought the farm In 1995, the flooding of the river complex with a romantic partner in 1970 Waal destroyed her farm and her and renovated it according to her own neighbourhood. “The garden was buried design aesthetics and feeling at home under sandbags” stated Brusse in his sentiments. Here, she also managed her article ‘Tuinvrouw’.27 She then bought a own antique shop that she named again property in Portugal, a sunny country to “De Witte Swaen.” This shop was where she moved. “I did not run from the advertised numerous times in Dutch water, but I longed for the sun” quotes De journals and it got her notoriety in the Heer adding that “she was very fond of milieu of antique connoisseurs. southern plants.”28 In 1973, her home was published Her fifth home was perhaps her in a De Telegraaf article about how last big project. It was not published in interior designers conceived their own journals but was publicized through a TV homes.23 Her house and Dutch designer interview by Rik Felderhof in Felderhof Annelike Hooggeweegen-Reinders’ were Ontmoet29. Her house in Loulé was all shown with interviews about their white, on top of a hill with a big garden personal house projects. De Rijk area delimited by white walls. described, “If a house is the mirrored De Lestrieux carried multiple image of someone’s character, then concepts throughout the design of her Elisabeth de Lestrieux is a warm, open and houses. In her last home, we can see a down-to-earth person.”24 De Lestrieux was crystallisation of some significant design in fact intimately linked with the design of elements. First of all, all of her homes her houses. In the article she also were originally single-level farmhouses exclaims, “everyone has a right to their with four façades and big living areas with own taste and to their own kitsch corner. windows on opposite ends. In all of them, (...) I believe that a person must conceive she prioritized a connection with the their own house so that they can feel as gardens. She often made use of a large confortable and happy as possible.” fireplace to distinguish different areas De Lestrieux’s fourth home came within the open spaces. Finally, her built- from financial difficulties in 1983. After in storage shelves also covered the walls separating from her romantic partner, she in white and exposed bricks, maintaining a could no longer afford such a grand form of purity and abundance that she domain. Belgian designer, Axel Vervoordt developed in her feeling at home. helped her obtain a house in Octhen, In Portugal she continued when she could no longer sustain her gardening and designing, which resulted in previous farm plot without the second co- a lengthy book on gardening in this inhabitant and without a stable job.25 In climate and multiple client-requested March 1991, Ati Dijckmeester interviewed landscape projects. Sadly, her health her for a “Passage Extra” TV Programma regressed, suffering from back where her renovated farmhouse and pains. When she could no longer work in garden were shown to the Dutch public.26 the garden, the fun went away. “When I look outside, I always see something that

23 de Rijk, ‘Zo Wonen Mensen Die over Wonen 27 Brusse, ‘De Tuinvrouw’, 82. Schrijven’. 28 Monique de Heer, ‘Liever Planten En Dieren Dan 24 Ibid. Mensen; Elisabeth de Lestrieux 1933-2009’, 25 Brusse, ‘De Tuinvrouw’. Trouw, 23 March 2009, sec. De verdieping. 26 Detiger, ‘Acht Ezels in de Wei Om Te Aaien’. 29 Felderhof, ‘Felderhof Ontmoet’.

203 needs to be pruned, but I cannot,” she 4_De Lestrieux’s leitmotifs for feeling at said.30 home De Lestrieux who moved from several houses after transforming, De Lestrieux’ paramount statement about restoring, reforming, redesigning them to the ability of making a house into a home make them a home, was also very busy is the skill of transforming it in a cosy with her last address, her tomb in the place. She partially diverted from the cemetery of Loulé, in Portugal. Her final sobriety of modernist interiors, with their and sixth home project, also published in sparse furniture and bare decoration. several journals, is her own self-designed Despite the fact she wrote untiringly tomb. This project was built with the help about lifestyle, decoration, furniture, of de Lestrieux’s niece, Nicole van houses’ interiors and exteriors as mean to Schouwenburg in 2009.31 Her tomb create harmonious atmospheres between represents the essentials of what she people and nature, she considered that all believes are the most important elements had a right to a home design of their for inhabiting: nature, inside-outside, own.34 Therefore, she presented her own purity and abundance. house designs and interior solutions as De Lestrieux selected an old sink inspiration and not as models. She did, from where “little birds could drink the however, voice clear ideas about the water that gathers there” to signalize her recurrent core of her quest to feel at eternal home.32 home, which can be recognized in all the In the bottom of the ‘tomb-sink’ one can interiors she decorated for herself. The read the text she prepared herself, “Under authors grouped it in four main elements this stone rests as food for the roots of interplaying among them: nature, purity, flowers and trees Kaatje De Lestrieux, 08 in-out-in and abundance. 08 1933 Maracaibo, 09 03 2009 Goldra de Nature was for de Lestrieux a Cima, Loulé.”33 The scenery was partner for daily life, therefore completed with other elements brought accompanying and also influencing the by her niece and nephew: a garden chair mood of the inhabitants of the house. with her complete name, an ashtray and Plants, flowers and animals were as an oleander. Under the Portuguese sun, important elements to consider in the Kaatje symbolically remains connected design of a house as the colour of the with nature in the style she expressed walls, the angle of the fireplace or the along her life. She made the natural cycle width of the windows. ‘She had an of seasons part of her way of living, average of twenty cats, a sheep, a few supported by simplicity and wisdom. dogs, chickens and three dozen peacocks’, assured Peter Brusse.35 And ‘when the children of her sister, Nicole (who later would illustrate eight books of her aunt) and Pieter van Schouwenburg [who photographed some of his aunt’s designs], came to stay, they were allowed to sleep between the animals and were given 30 de Heer, ‘Liever Planten En Dieren Dan Mensen; Elisabeth de Lestrieux 1933-2009’, 21. 31 Alexandra Sweers, ‘Voedsel Voor de Bloemen’, Vakblad Uitvaart 27, no. 10 (November 2011): 17. 34 de Rijk, ‘Zo Wonen Mensen Die over Wonen 32 Ibid. Schrijven’. 33 Ibid. 35 Brusse, ‘De Tuinvrouw’.

204 chocolates at breakfast, but had to work in greenhouse thus is not only a transparent the garden” states Brusse.36 spot where it is possible to enjoy nature at Nature was faced in its own any circumstance but also an extension of idiosyncrasies like the transformations the house. She calls the greenhouse a brought by seasons and consequently the living room and if the greenhouse is a new picture into which falls the relation separate structure, there inevitably is a between people and nature. ‘She knew path that directly connects it to the main every plant, but she made her knowledge building. De Lestrieux argued as well for a accessible for the general public. position inside her houses from where she Decorating gardens was her greatest love could look outside broadly and in that way and she wrote one book after another. (…) breaking the boundaries between inside From de Lestrieux you could also get and outside. Figures 10 and 11 illustrate advice on how your plant carefully that permanent tendency in her propagates from a seed, how the plant architectural design. In all her houses should then be nurtured, and how the there were very open and spacious living plant finishes blooming in a pot.’37 rooms and kitchens, where intermediate In her Serres en Wintertuinen elements such as columns, low walls or (Greenhouses and Winter Gardens), de chimneys articulated the space, while Lestrieux proposes ‘one selection of allowing a generous flow of light and air. constructions in glass (…) from large In this self-designed home, she used the winter gardens to small corners in order wooden columns of the space to integrate that it can be available to everyone’.38 The nature inside the home, making them space created in a greenhouse is to her an appear as “trees”. From the couch one extension of the house and therefore could see the “trees” inside and those integrating the concept of making of a outside through the big windows. house a home. Each greenhouse, large or Even in a warmer weather, where small is a ‘mini world with the right winterhouses would no longer be temperature and humidity and above necessary, she found a way to create an everything a lot of light’39 that invites to “inside feeling” within the outside garden. relax, to contemplate the rain while Two sitting areas facing opposite enjoying the scents inside. She goes even directions can be seen. De Lestrieux further and completes the scenery of designed these to fit different needs and pleasure remembering that there is the atmospheres, proposing a sitting-eating right place to drink a glass of wine, enjoy a area with blue metal furniture and a breakfast or an autumnal dinner. cozier, laying-down area with yellow The greenhouse is also an example pillows for comfort and hanging plants of her in-out-in concept. She shared with acting as a shade cover. modernism the preference for spaces that In fact, Kaatje while searching for a were open and interpenetrating. certain interpenetration between exterior Especially the connection between inside and interior gave particular attention to all and outside was paramount for her. The spaces in-between, like windows and all sort of openings and to mimetic patterns

36 Ibid. 37 de Heer, ‘Liever Planten En Dieren Dan Mensen; Elisabeth de Lestrieux 1933-2009’. by bringing nature inside, namely flowers, 38 Elisabeth de Lestrieux, Serres en wintertuinen plants and animals. For de Lestrieux the (Zutphen; Tielt: Terra ; Lannoo, 1991), 5. absence of a garden should not be an 39 Ibid.

205

excuse to exclude the ‘green’ presence in antique shops, found objects, souvenirs, one’s life. Therefore she also focused on etc. She indeed had a lot of everything. small places like balconies or terraces Abundance is a word that describes suggesting thousand and one possibilities Kaatje. She was always surrounded by to grow plants, aromatic herbs and multiple and diverse objects, combining flowers in vases or even baskets along the modern with antique, bringing together whole year. She encouraged people to tradition and memory with innovation and ‘experiment with colours and scents’40 and surprise. even in the winter time. She wrote De Lestrieux picked white as her profusely about it in lifestyle magazines, in way of showing purity and the immobile books and by teaching courses which took elements of the home. She used bricks place in different green locations that painted white in fireplace and the walls to could ‘teach people to use phantasy in keep a minimalism in the architecture of their gardens’ as she is quoted in De her houses. She also used white bricks and Telegraaf ‘s announcement of her creative wood panels to make bookshelves and courses.41 The presence of green and kitchen storage. The elements inside the coloured flowers is a pleasure to all senses shelves were in abundance, constantly and an element needed to accomplish the changing and in different colours. idea of domesticity, feeling at home, However, the structure of the shelves feeling happy in daily life. used for storage remained the same in her Nevertheless, despite the prolific last three homes. presence of colours, her homes were also She cooked with abundance for a reference to the purity of whiteness. friends, organized exhibitions and enjoyed ‘Elisabeth is crazy about white’, writes inviting others into her own home. De Marijke Hultzer in De Telegraaf.42 Indeed Lestrieux spread untiringly and with white gave her the neutral environment exuberance her thoughts and design where objects and all sort of elements experience in newspapers, lifestyle could claim pertinence. 43 The preference magazines, books, courses, interviews, for white walls was another feature of and TV programmes. modernism that de Lestrieux adopted, next to openness. In all her homes, the majority of the walls were whitewashed – 5. Conclusion to lighten up the atmosphere and to provide a neutral background for the Elisabeth de Lestrieux was a self- many things that she collected. Indeed, made woman: without the support of she did not reject the new trends or the parents, without a formal degree and modernist designs that she encountered in without a strong social network, she was her professional life. She adopted them in able to forge a very successful career as a a selective way, idiosyncratically writer and designer. She made herself and combining them with things she liked that she did this, arguably, through the making came from elsewhere: flea markets, of her homes. Her life trajectory is punctuated by her many moves and her many houses, and she used them as 40 ‘Toppers in Potten’, Limburgs Dagblad, 12 June

1993, sec. Woonblad. 41 Huls, ‘Creatief Tuinieren’. 42 Huygens, ‘Kaatje Een Week in Het Wit’. 43 Hultzer, ‘Elisabeth de Lestrieux Laat Zien Dat laboratories for experimenting with Antiek Vrolijk En Sfeervol Kan Zijn’.

206 settings and elements that she would later Bibliography publish about. In molding her homes to suit her own way of living, she adopted Brusse, Peter. ‘De Tuinvrouw’. Vrij many ideas of professional modern Nederland, 11 April 2009, sec. Uit architects and designers, while always het leven. modifying them and linking them with her own special preferences and interests. In Colomina, Beatriz. ‘The Exhibitionist doing that, she shaped alternative models House’. In At the End of the of domesticity – not straightforward Century: One Hundred Years of ‘modern’, nor simply traditional - which Architecture, edited by Russell became very influential in the Netherlands Ferguson, 126–66. Los Angeles: and Belgium. Her preference for The Museum of Contemporary Art, reconverted farmhouses and for 1998. aesthetics of tasteful plenty certainly had an impact on a considerable amount of de Heer, Monique. ‘Liever Planten En higher middle class consumers. The Dieren Dan Mensen; Elisabeth de success of the lifestyle magazine Avenue, Lestrieux 1933-2009’. Trouw, 23 as well as the bestselling qualities of her March 2009, sec. De verdieping. books, testify to that. In her 1998 article “The de Lestrieux, Elisabeth. ‘Voorheen Exhibitionist House,” Beatriz Colomina Boerderij’. Avenue, July 1966. discusses the complex relationship between the house and the media in the de Rijk, Dieuwke. ‘Zo Wonen Mensen Die 20th century. The architectural historian over Wonen Schrijven’. De claimed that, “many of the most Telegraaf, 17 April 1973, 37. significant houses of this century did not have a conventional client. They were Detiger, Thea. ‘Acht Ezels in de Wei Om Te produced for exhibitions, publications, Aaien’. De Telegraaf 99 (29 March fairs, competitions, and journals, rather 1991): 2. than for traditional building sites. (...) In this sense, ... they are all exhibition Felderhof, Rik. ‘Felderhof Ontmoet’. houses.”44 Given that de Lestrieux Felderhof Ontmoet. Portugal and published her own houses in multiple Monaco: NCRV, 23 October 2000. books, newspapers and magazines, and used her own houses as places for Gabriel, Jean-Pierre. ‘Lijnen in de Sneeuw’. exhibitions, her houses, we claim, Knack Weekend, 30 October 2013. certainly deserve a place among these significant exhibition houses. Huls, Bert. ‘Creatief Tuinieren’. De Telegraaf, Woonkrant, 4 February 1987, 31.

Hultzer, Marijke. ‘Elisabeth de Lestrieux Laat Zien Dat Antiek Vrolijk En Sfeervol Kan Zijn’. De Telegraaf. 24

44 Beatriz Colomina, ‘The Exhibitionist House’, in At September 1977. the End of the Century: One Hundred Years of Architecture, ed. Russell Ferguson (Los Angeles: The Museum of Contemporary Art, 1998), 126–66.

207 Huygens, Stan. ‘Kaatje Een Week in Het ‘Rijkstuinbouwschool Te Boskoop’. De Wit’. De Telegraaf, 16 November Leidse Courant. 7 July 1953. 1977. Schoonjans, Yves. ‘“Au bonheur des ———. ‘Mode in de “Witte Swaen”’. De dames” Vrouw, smaak en het Telegraaf. 19 August 1978, sec. burgelijk interieur in de Journaal. negentiende eeuw’. Edited by Christine Delhaye and Hilde Könnecke, Karl-Richard. ‘Ein Altes Haus Heynen. Tijdschrift voor Mit Charme Erfüllt’. Schöner Vrouwenstudies, De zij-kant van Wohnen, 11 November 1970. architectuur, 18, no. 2 (1997): 136– 52. Lannoo. Cartes topographiques Belgique. Lannoo et Touring. Brussels: Smith, W. H. ‘Een Toonaangevend Institut géographique national, Tuintalent’. Reformatorisch 2005. Dagblad, 12 October 1990.

Lestrieux, Elisabeth de. Serres en Spinhoven, Marian. ‘Leven Voor Je Huis’. wintertuinen. Zutphen; Tielt: No Name, No date (circa 1975. Terra ; Lannoo, 1991. Swart, Joop. ‘Cover: Nieuw Blad Voor ———. The modern art of flower Nieuwe Vrouwen’. Avenue 1, no. 1 arranging. Twickenham: Hamlyn, (October 1965): 1. 1986. Sweers, Alexandra. ‘Voedsel Voor de Muller-Idzerda, A. C., and Elisabeth de Bloemen’. Vakblad Uitvaart 27, no. Lestrieux. Decorating With Plants, 10 (November 2011): 17. Living Colour in the Home. Arco, 1981. ‘Toppers in Potten’. Limburgs Dagblad, 12 June 1993, sec. Woonblad. ‘Negen Prominente Kook-Redactrices Geven U Tips Voor 9 Lekker- ‘Villa for Sale in Boliqueime, 7/8 Makkelijke Pinkster-Hapjes’. Bedrooms’. Golden Visa Properties. Utrechts Nieuwsblad 71, no. 25 (29 Accessed 2 September 2016. May 1963): 22. http://www.golden-visa- properties.com/villa-for-sale- Nicole, van Schouwenburg, and van boliqueime-78-bedrooms/. Schouwenburg Pieter. About Kaatje. Interview by Florencia Wentink-Frumau, J., and J. J. Wentink. ‘Uw Fernandez Cardoso. In person, 12 Probleeem Ook Het Onze’. Trouw, November 2015. 12 March 1979.

208 Approaches

Three Projects for Council Houses by Lina Bo Bardi: from Virtual Reconstruction to Graphical Analysis

Vincenza Garofalo

Italian by birth and Brazilian by adoption, havíamos erguido para que fossem o Lina Bo is one of the most significant espelho do nosso orgulho mais falso, da figures in contemporary architecture. nossa incompreensão da vida e dos During her activities, she is involved in homens, e por culpa nossa ruíam também architecture, design, scenography, as pequenas casas sem culpa, as pequenas museography, teaching, publishing. casas sem luzes róseas e sem drapeados She studied and started his professional de seda. Foi então, enquanto as bombas activity in Italy during the war, demoliam sem piedade a obra e a obra do collaborating until 1943 with Gio Ponti and homem, que compreendemos que a casa Carlo Pagani in Milan and also performing deve ser para a “vida” do homem, deve an intense editorial activities. In 1946 she servir, deve consolar; e não mostrar, numa marries Pietro Maria Bardi and with him exibição teatral, as vaidades inúteis do she moved to Brazil, the country where espírito humano; então, compreendemos chooses to live for the rest of her life. porque as casas ruíam, e ruíam os The war deeply marks the life and estuques, a mise-en-scéne, os cetins, os professional activity of Lina Bo Bardi. The veludos, as franjas, os brasões; porque, de rubble and destruction caused by the manhã, tudo era montinhos cinzentos bombings led her to deal with the theme desoladoramente idênticos. (...) E, pela of the house as a refuge and consolation primeira vez, os homens devem for human life. The war makes it clear that reconstruir as casas, tantas casas no the house can no longer be considered the centro das grandes cidades, ao longo das expression of unnecessary vanity, but it estradas de campo, nos vilarejos; e, pela must be agile and useful. primeira vez, “o homem pensa no ‘A casa do Homem ruiu (...) Não Homem”, reconstrói para o Homem. A pensávamos que ela fosse desaparecer guerra destruiu os mitos dos assim; era muito “segura”, era um “monumentos”, também na casa, os “baluarte”, havia alguma coisa mais móveis-monumentos não devem existir “firme” do que a casa? (...) mais, também eles, em parte, entram na Sim, não pensávamos que as casas fossem causa das guerras; os móveis devem assim frágeis, assim sutis, assim “servir”, as cadeiras para sentar, as mesas “humanas”, e que pudessem morrer para comer, as poltronas para ler e assim. Foi então, quando esperávamos repousar, as camas para dormir, e a casa naqueles momentos de pesadelo, que as assim não será um lar eterno e terrível, casas começassem a ruir que nos mas uma aliada do homem, ágil e serviçal, apercebemos que elas “eram humanas”, e que pode, como o homem, morrer’1. que eram o “espelho” do homem, que eram “o homem”. E sentimos também que 1 Lina Bo, “Na Europa a casa do Homenum ruiu”, era culpa nossa se morriam, nós as Rio 92 (1947), 53-56.

209 The house is a recurring theme of study in beams. The external walls are applied on the poetic of Lina Bo Bardi, this structure and are made of wood and Mediterranean, spontaneous, rural, rice paper panels to allow ventilation of primitive and popular home. Her the environments. The external and reflections on this subject are often internal walls are sliding, which ensures published in major Italian architectural plenty of flexibility and the possibility to reviews and already in her early articles freely adapt the space to the changing Lina observes the Italian "minor" needs of the home in relation to the hours architecture and its relationship with the of the day and the activities of the landscape. inhabitants. The houses designed by Lina have a The paper deals with three studies constant, simplicity, which is also conducted in 1951 in Brazil on the issue of expressed through the choice of furniture council houses for the people, made of that needs to be contemporary and create building materials mainly cheap and harmony between the house and its locally available. inhabitants2. In her projects there is The three examined examples were never always a great attention to man and his realized but these projects help to needs, the desire to create an architecture describe the poetics of Lina Bo Bardi, with the active participation of the users namely its commitment to divulge, even to whom the project is intended. The early among the lower classes, a “rational” way projects concern the council house, the of living, from a small house until reaching house for the man, ever since Lina arrives a housing estate. in Brazil. Her conceptual references for The archives of the Instituto Lina Bo e P. popular home are the indigenous maloca, M. Bardi collect 45 tables of geometric the Italian rural house and the Japanese drawings and sketches of council houses, house-temple. often in the form of annotations, The indigenous maloca is a community sometimes even rejected by the same house used by the natives of the Amazon. Lina3. It is inhabited by several families and has Through the critical reading of original two separate entrances for men and for drawings and sketches of the architect it women. Its rooms are arranged around a was possible to redraw and virtually central elongated space which is the heart reconstruct the houses of the three and the most important room of the projects. The drawings of Lina Bo Bardi are house. It has an inner garden, where fruit indeed dimensioned and detailed and is grown and a second garden, where often show indications on materials and manioc is grown. colors used in finishes. The Italian rural house is that of the The first project concerns a small house of peasants. The core of the house is the about 38 m2, designed for a specific but kitchen, the environment lived longer not specified location. It is a compact where the whole family gets together and volume with a rectangular plan, with a where the fireplace is located, real hearth pitched roof. Internal distribution is simple that heats and which also serves for and basic. One room serves as a living cooking food. room, study and sleeping area. From the Japanese house-temple has a framed living, through a small filter space structure made of poles and wooden between two cabinets, it leads to the

2 See Lina Bo, Carlo Pagani, “La casa semplice”, 3 http://institutobardi.com.br/ (accessed Grazia, 170, 1942, 26-27. September 2, 2016).

210 kitchen and bathroom which are of equal The housing types to which Lina Bo Bardi size and are placed against one of the has probably reference for this project are short sides of the house. Simplicity, the indigenous Maloca, community house efficient and rational distribution used by the natives of the Amazon, with characterize these small spaces in which its two entrances and its two gardens, the everything is directly proportional to the Italian peasant house with its living, the functional requirements. The whole heart of domestic life and the dom- volume has only three windows all kommuna (communal house), settlement opening on sides of the room. On the main model made in the Soviet Union between façade only opens the door and the rear 1925 and 1932, modular cell designed for elevation is blind. a full lifestyle Community. The original drawings, made with ink, In a sheet of 50 cm by 64 cm Lina draws colored pencils and graphite, are the general plan of the housing complex in contained in a sheet of parchment of size watercolor, graphite and ink and a 38 cm by 53 cm. Lina represents at 1:50 prospective sketch of the whole system5. the furnished plant, the main front and The plan is dimensioned; the three units - the two side, the longitudinal section denominate A, B and C- are furnished and passing through the kitchen, a detail in include information also on the design of scale 1:20 of the eaves and an external the floors and on the external vegetation. perspective. The designs are all The sectioned parts are red. Another dimensioned and also provide information sheet of 50 cm by 70 cm shows a on vegetation, materials, used colors: longitudinal section of the residence C, a white exterior plaster, blue fixtures (azul longitudinal section of the residence A, a marinho), red vermilion chimney and longitudinal section of the residence B, the gargoyles (vermelho). front face of the residences A and B, a side The second project involves three distinct elevation of the residence C6. The rectangular housing units that embody the drawings are made with graphite and ink. idea of the living cell as a compositional The third project concerns a urban piece of a community. The lot measures complex which is based on a typology of 35 meters by 28.50 meters. Each unit has council houses on pilotis in regular lots. two entrances: the main one on the living The complex also includes two buildings and the secondary one on the kitchen, for community services, sports equipment which is accessed through an interior and other common areas. patio. The houses are surrounded by an The drawings of this project that are part external garden on which the living room of the Instituto Lina Bo e P. M. Bardi are overlooks, the most representative space located in four different sheets. for its location and the most important for The first includes drawings made with its size and its function. The three units graphite, ink and pastel of the have three double bedrooms and two dimensioned plan, the longitudinal fronts, bathrooms, a guest room with independent access to the interior patio. The spaces of this room are separated by 5 movable curtains that make the use more http://www.institutobardi.com.br/ficha_desenho.a flexible4. sp?Desenho_Codigo=709 (accessed September 2, 2016). 6 http://www.institutobardi.com.br/ficha_desenho.a 4 L’uso di elementi separatori trova riferimento sp?Desenho_Codigo=710 (accessed September 2, nella casa giapponese e nelle sue pareti mobili. 2016).

211 a side face and the section of the roof7; of the complex Lina Bo draws some tennis the second has the redesign of the plan in courts and a large space for recreation. ink of a residence on pilotis, with an The skyline on the bottom lets imagine indication of furniture and graphic scale8; that the project has been developed for a the third contains the main front in ink9 specific place. The other perspective views and the fourth shows a series of colorful in the sheet also provide information on perspective sketches10. the choice of colors and materials for the The latter are contained within a large floors, the furnishings and interior walls. sheet of 70 cm by 100 cm, in the middle of With an original language, as if they were which Lina Bo draws a perspective with a illustrations, these free-hand drawings bird's eye view of the complex and around also dwell on the details, describing the this five internal perspective views of the tablecloth on the table, the sofa parents' room, the children's room, the upholstery, fantasies of bedspreads, a pair bathroom, the kitchen and exterior of a of shoes, a ball, an open book; they tell of residence. possible moments of life, the children The drawings are made with ink and playing with the dog on the grass watched watercolor on cardboard. The general by the mother who looks at them from the perspective shows an ordered sequence of window as the father in the background, is single-family houses all the same that are moving towards the bedroom. The distinguished by the color of the wall of perspectives of the interior are the room of the children on the rear face constructed as open boxes in which two (yellow, blue, red). The houses insist on sides were removed. rectangular lots with gardens and palm The house has rectangular plan and a trees. A reservoir with an organic shape, rational distribution, with a clear division probably an artificial lake in the between the living and sleeping area, foreground and in the center, is followed consisting of two bedrooms with the same along the central axis of symmetry, by two size. The element that acts as a hinge big collective buildings, from which it is between the two areas is the block with separated by a neat row of palms. The two kitchen and bathroom which is located at big buildings are close and placed the center of the large rectangular room perpendicular to one another, have very that houses the living. Its position defines different planimetric scheme, rectangular two elongated spaces: a loggia, one and sinuous the other. On both sides distribution filter area from the entrance on the main front that leads to the living,

7 the kitchen and the bedroom, and a http://www.institutobardi.com.br/ficha_desenho.a veranda which is developed in continuity sp?Desenho_Codigo=708 (accessed September 2, with the living area, along the rear front 2016). and which opens to the surrounding 8 landscape through a large glass area. The http://www.institutobardi.com.br/ficha_desenho.a sp?Desenho_Codigo=711 (accessed September 2, structure consists of brick walls and by 2016). two series of 4 thin pilotis that 9 characterize the entire height of the http://www.institutobardi.com.br/ficha_desenho.a longitudinal fronts, are detached from the sp?Desenho_Codigo=712 (accessed September 2, floor slab that is raised by about 1.30 2016). 10 meters from the ground and supporting http://www.institutobardi.com.br/ficha_desenho.a the roof. The longitudinal fronts are widely sp?Desenho_Codigo=703 (accessed September 2, glazed, the lateral ones are full and no 2016).

212 openings. The house opens to the light that provides new and unusual and the surrounding landscape, maybe a representations of buildings that have quote from the Casa de Vidro, architect's remained on paper. residence in São Paulo, designed and built in 1951 by Lina and her husband Pietro Maria Bardi. In the drawings of Lina Bo Bardi is always clearly delineated the relationship with the landscape and the respect for the surrounding environment11. Constant is Bibliography also its focus on rural architecture of the place and the local building materials, as Bo, Lina. “Na Europa a casa do Homenum early as the Casa sul mare di Sicilia, his ruiu”, Rio 92 (1947): 53-56. first project experience with Carlo Pagani. Her language is strongly influenced by the Bo Lina. “Architettura e natura - la casa nel European rationalist current but also by paesaggio”, Domus 191 (1943): 464-471. organic architecture of Wright. Ventilation, exposure, orientation, Bo, Lina, and Pagani, Carlo. “La casa window arrangement with respect to the semplice,” Grazia, 170, 1942. landscape features are common to the three projects analyzed. The houses have Bo Lina. “Sistemazione degli interni”, simple shapes and volumes, proportioned Domus 198 (1944): 199-209. spaces compared to the inhabitants' needs and large distribution flexibility through Cabral, Maria Izabel Rêgo. “A expressão do the elimination of load-bearing walls pensamento moderno de Lina Bo Bardi: which allows freedom in positioning the Uma análise de escritos da arquiteta para furniture that often serves to separate the revistas italianas entre 1940 e 1946”, in space12. 11° Seminário Nacional do Docomomo According to Lina Bo Bardi, the architect's Brasil. Anais do 11° Seminário Nacional do task is to intercept the needs of people in Docomomo Brasil. Recife: houses and help to solve the difficulties DOCOMOMO_BR, 2016. 12 p. that complicate life. The house is the starting point for more complex projects Carollo, M.G. “Lina Bo Bardi. Unbuilt”. that aim at the welfare of the community. Thesis, Università di Palermo, 2014. If the architectural drawings, as Riccardo Florio writes, can certainly express more Ferraz Carvalho, Marcelo, ed. Lina Bo than the built architecture13, the drawings Bardi. Milano: Edizioni Charta, 1994. that accompany this essay are a reinterpretation of the compositional Florio Riccardo. Sul disegno. Riflessioni sul process of Lina Bo Bardi. The digital model disegno di architettura. Roma: Officina is a verification tool of design intentions Edizioni, 2012.

11 Lina Bo, “Architettura e natura - la casa nel Gallo, Antonella, ed. Lina Bo Bardi paesaggio”, Domus 191 (1943), 464. architetto. Venezia: Marsilio Editori, 2004. 12 Lina Bo, “Sistemazione degli interni”, Domus 198 (1944), 199-209. 13 Riccardo Florio, Sul disegno. Riflessioni sul disegno di architettura (Roma: Officina Edizioni, 2012), 24.

213 Lima, Zeuler de Almeida. “Lina Bo Bardi, entre margens e centros”, Arqtextos 14 Miotto, Laura, and Nicolini, Savina. “Lina (2009): 110-144. Bo Bardi. Aprirsi all’accadimento”, Universale di Architettura 1998. Lima, Zeuler Rocha Mello de Almeida. Lina Bo Bardi. New Haven and London: Yale http://institutobardi.com.br/ (accessed University Press, 2013. September 2, 2016).

Maggio, Francesco. “Small towns files. Lina http://linabobarditogether.com/ Bo Bardi Unbuilt”, Disegnare Con 13 (accessed September 2, 2016). (2014): XII, 1-10.

214 Matilde Ucelay Maórtua. Single-family house for Vincente Sebastian Llegat

*Starlight Vattano

Introduction Matilde Ucelay Maórtua

In a famous passage of the proto-feminist Matilde Ucelay was born in Madrid on the novel Jane Eyre, by Charlotte Brontë, we 16th of October, 1912 and was the first of read, «Anybody may blame me who likes, four daughters. Her family belongs to the when I add further, that, now and then, Madrilenian intellectual middle class, when I took a walk by myself in the closely linked to the world of arts; indeed, grounds; when I went down to the gates her mother, Purificación Maórtua, played and looked through them along the road; an important role to the formation of the or when […] I climbed the three staircases, liberal thought of the era, collaborating raised the trap-door of the attic, and with Federico García Lorca, with whom having reached the leads, looked out afar directed a group of independent theater2. over sequestered field and hill, and along Her father, Enrique Ucelay Sanz, was a dim sky-line - that then I longed for a great man of culture, belonging to the power of vision which might overpass that local intellectual middle class who limit; which might reach the busy world, transmitted to his family the love of music, towns, regions full of life I had heard of opera and literature. Therefore, the young but never seen - that then I desired more Ucelay grew up in a very close relationship of practical experience than I possessed; with art, literature, music and a liberal more of intercourse with my kind, of political thought, which led her to carry on acquaintance with variety of character, the work despite the cultural limits to than was here within my reach»1. which women were confined during the Similarly to a barefaced Jane Eyre who long period of the Spanish dictatorship. In dreams going on the world through that period Spain witnessed the birth of a unknown travels, with her lively new form of liberalism, in which women intelligence and deep knowledge through could count on their rights including, since which juggling the conformist and ruthless 1931, also that of vote. society where the same Charlotte Brontë Matilde’s academic choices, like those lived, we recognize in the audaciousness ones of her sisters, moved toward of Matilde Ucelay a true cultural and institutions where women and men could inward challenge for her time. The compete on an equal way, such as the Madrilenian architect understands what Institute of Free Education of Madrid tools she has to use to carry out, in more (Institución Libre de Enseñanza), which than forty years of professional career, would allow Matilde to obtain economic about 120 projects, mostly single-family and professional independence, until then, 3 houses in Spain and in Italy. barred to women . We are witnessing, in those same years, the drafting of one of the most eloquent feminist treatises of the twentieth century, A room of one’s own, by Virginia Woolf, who in 1928 brings together the idea of an independent

215 woman with a restless intellect, the need a short time later, the Spanish Civil War for a wealthy economic status and the and later by the Franco dictatorship chance to grow in a social context in stopped this process leading to the spread cultural ferment. In fact, she writes: of a deliberately nationalistic architectural «Intellectual freedom depends upon style. material things. Poetry depends upon Another event that helped to spread intellectual freedom. And women have modern architecture in Spain, before the always been poor, not for two hundred stall of the Franco dictatorship, was the years merely, but from the beginning of visit of Le Corbusier at the Faculty of time. Women have had less intellectual Architecture of Madrid and Barcelona that freedom than the sons of Athenian slaves. was a stimulus to many students, including Women, then, have not had a dog’s Matilde, who glimpsed in the French chance of writing poetry. That is why I architect’s plans a new way to conceive have laid so much stress on money and a and build architecture. room of one’s own»4. While Virginia Woolf Matilde Ucelay concluded her college was working on a milestone about the career in 1936. She was not the only status of women in society, Matilde woman to study architecture in those Ucelay, in Spain, was trying to write her years, but compared to her female “poetry” through architecture. She colleagues, she managed to finish her projected the “room of her own” in the studies before the Civil War, receiving the “unlimited” paper sheet, with her professional title only in 19465. meticulous and detailed drawings; she There are very few the documents showed the path of her inward need to belonging to the academic period, assert herself in a still male sphere, getting testifying the Ucelay’s way of working. A her professional freedom only after 1940. drawing of 1931 shows the outside of a Since 1929 to 1931, Matilde Ucelay carries store, where Matilde meticulously out two preparatory courses at the elaborates the sign, characterized by University of Salamanca and later, since simple curves contrasting with the first 1931 to 1936, she attended the Faculty of rationalist influences of the time. Architecture at the University of Madrid, In 1936, Matilde Ucelay gave an interview with high marks. to Felipe Morales for the newspaper La Between 1920 and 1930, Madrid is Voz6 with no polemical tone toward actively involved in many transformations female employment status nor it is of the architectural panorama due to the revealed a sense of discrimination suffered modern architecture influence in Spain. In during the academic years7. Again quoting those years, several factors contributed to Virginia Woolf, one might say, «Here was a this change, including the establishment of woman […] writing without hate, without an important group of architects of the bitterness, without fear, without protest, whole Spain, the GATEPAC (Group of without preaching»8: the Madrilenian Architects for the Progress of architect led, so, her personal rebellion Contemporary Architecture), which into the silence of her project. included Josep Llúis Sert, Josep Torres Two days after her graduation, the 17th of Clavé and Joan Subirana, founding July 1936, the Civil War broke out in Spain. members of the Spanish group of CIAM. Matilde Ucelay moves away from Madrid The two groups helped to spread the and undertakes a long journey with her Modern Movement and rationalist culture future husband. She visits Paris, Berlin, in Spain, starting from Barcelona, although Moscow and Leningrad and, after

216 marrying José Ruiz Castillo9, in 1937, she Madrilenian environment, including moved to Valencia where she will spend Ortega y Gasset, Francisco Utray and the entire period of the war. The cultural Benitez de Lugo and entrepreneurs and working environment from which belonging to the high national and Matilde’s husband came, favored her to international nobility, as the pianist Alexis meet new future customers. The project of Weissenberg, the Oswalds, Helene Kirby or the house for the son of the philosopher Bernstein. and essayist Spanish Ortega y Gasset, Matilde Ucelay never realized public works carried out in 1958 in Madrid, is an ever since the court had forbidden her to example of it. In 1937, Matilde Ucelay was accept such assignments. However, she appointed secretary of the Official College went further the design for domestic use, of Architects of Madrid (COAM), but later also making industrial works, such as the she was banned from the profession’s Vicálvaro factory, the Laboratorios Medix exercise for a period of five years and and Gráficas Reunidas in Madrid, but also forced to pay a substantial fine. The hotel complexes, like the Arturo Soria penalty level was very high, but at no time, Hotel in Madrid, and residential as El she gave up her professional activity. In Bajondillo in Torremolinos, near Málaga. fact, during these years, two architects Most of her works is located in Madrid and with deep rationalist and avant-garde its suburbs, but Ucelay took commissions roots, with the same way of conceiving in the rest of the country: Galicia, Ávila, architecture, signed her projects; they Gran Canaria, Málaga, Seville and Palma were Aurelio Botella and José Maria de Mallorca, in some cases even going Arillaga10. beyond Spanish borders. Indeed, you can She does not consider the architect’s work trace documents testifying work requests as a solitary activity, but as a teamwork. in Italy on two occasions, a project for the She was strongly convinced that builders, house of Luisa de Present Bargose in site managers and technicians should work Boves, in the province of Cuneo and together to achieve good results, putting another project for Carlo Molineris in San their skills at the service of the project. Remo, but the only time her drawings There is often the Swiss landscapist Pedro crossed the Atlantic was for the house Couchepin among the figures mostly project in Long Island for her sister present, like for the project of a house in Margarita. Madrid for Victor Oswald in 1952, which Matilde Ucelay’s projects show a marked was the first work in which Matilde Ucelay classicism, evident in the first studies and is both designer and site manager. early works, then evolved researching a The Madrilenian architect also focuses on very personal style, linked to the the design of the details, like handles and landscape aspect of the geographical and railings, handrails, fireplaces and moldings, cultural Spanish environment, with considering the interior space as modern formal traits. In her interior important as the facade. The relationship projects, we find usually a circular path with the outside is always fluid, in a facilitating the movement of occupants continuous exchange between the inside and design details aimed at maximum and the surrounding natural environment. architectural economy, such as built-in Distinctive feature of the Ucelay’s closets occupying the unused spaces of architectural production is her clientele the house. mainly characterized by wealthy families: figures of the cultural and social

217 Projects Facades show simple lines that, in the early works consist of the classical form of You can trace some recurring elements in the pediment, framing the main entrance the Ucelay’s projects carried out between with arches and ovals; large spiral 1950 and 197011. This is, for the majority, staircases break the rigor of the straight single-family villas built in Ciudad Puerta line with large curvatures of their de Hierro, as the House of the guardian delineations. The building structure is José de Arce in 1951, the House for Victor made with reinforced concrete, while the Oswald12 in 1952, the House materials used are usually granite and Weissenberg13 in 1962, the House for Don white limestone. Guillermo Bernstein, in 1954. Other well- In some projects, Matilde uses a stone known projects are the House for base developing along the perimeter of Francisco Utray14 designed in 1960 in the building, marking the separation Somosaguas, the House Benítez de Lugo, between the horizontal plane of the in Gran Canaria in 196315 and House El ground and the vertical extent of volumes. Monte in Madrid in 1970. Moreover, often the interfloor height Her projects are mostly developed on one varies (from 2.80 to 3.20 m) furthering, as or two levels. Large gardens with a pool well, a major volumetric roof variation, so define the character of her work, along determining a skyline that seems to follow with a close relationship with orographic the lay of the land. complexity and the landscape aspect The large living space with chimney is becoming essential for the articulation of another design element, which constitutes internal paths. the invariable of her interior design, and Matilde also designs the surrounding very often the presence of a library at the landscape placing plants and transforming living room. Matilde usually makes large the natural environment aspect in relation openings using sliding doors to enter to to the passing of the seasons (petunias, the dining room, so to obtain an outright pine trees, shrubs, grass, poplars, sage and open space, generally with at least two fruit trees), also thinking of a good open sides and large windows overlooking circulation of air inside the house. the garden. The villa is conceived as a country house; it According the compositional point of view, is enveloped with typical materials of the the external volumes recall the different project area, with one or two-pitched functions of the house, the independent roofs, wood carpentry and ventilation ones, often with patio and small ponds systems in the ceiling to avoid overheating with aquatic plants, contains office, in summer. ironing, laundry, bathroom, dorm and She organizes the volumes according to garage. The spatial organization is the their functions by the complex topography result of joints and overhanging volumes of the terrain, important design feature that mark the distinct areas of the house where she usually reserved the south area outside too (public-private spaces, master- for the large garden. service spaces, day-night spaces), often The gallery with porch, along the corridor linked to the main module via an outdoor emptied by the large windows, as paved corridor. telescopes facing the landscape, defines In this way, Ucelay tries to deal with the the filter-element between inside and dynamism of the external landscape, outside. changing the surroundings by dense

218 vegetation to avoid the view from the Graphic analysis of the House for street. Sebastian Llegat in Pozuelo de Alarcón, The long career of Matilde Ucelay ends 1968-1971 without great noise, in fact, the recognition will come after years16. In In order to understand the architectural 1998, a first step was made, when the practice adopted by Matilde Ucelay, this Association La Mujer Construye exposes a study takes into account an emblematic part of its architecture at the second project of the Madrilenian architect, that meeting of Architecture at the University is the House for Vicente Sebastián Llegat in of Alcalá. On this occasion her design Pozuelo de Alarcón (Madrid), built proposals according to the new historical between 1968 and 1971. path identified in the architectural field, The goal is the knowledge, through the re- which facilitated the dissemination and drawing, of original documents that have knowledge of new ways for urban design, led Matilde towards a subjective and were considered very important. critical “crossing” process of architecture. Later, between 2003 and 2006, Matilde The archive drawings include a draft of the Ucelay’s projects will be exhibited at the master plan of the villa with the building temporary exhibition Costruir en paridad, and the pool inserted into the lot, two organized by the Instituto Andaluz de la plans of the ground floor and first floor, Mujer, with the aim to raise awareness and four elevations at scale 1:100. among women and society to become The detached villa has all the features aware about the importance of their role previously traced. The layout develops in building the city. according to a simple organization with In 2004, Matilde Ucelay, along with two modules, the “L” module and the colleagues sanctioned and disabled from rectangular one, to which Ucelay adds two the profession during the Francoist autonomous volumes, with rectangular regime, received a compensation by the layout, the garage, with a space for the College of Architects of Madrid at the boiler and the other one for garden tools, headquarters of the Ministerio de and a place to for the clothes drier, Vivienda, in order to give back professional connected to the house through a large dignity to all architects stroked by the patio. purificación profesional of 1942 and In the “L” volume, Matilde puts the recover the historical memory of time common and service spaces. There is a when everything was left hanging. barycentric office with a private entrance; Finally, the most important recognition laundry, dormitories and bathroom are on came in 2006, when many editorial staffs the right and kitchen and a small dining received a press release in which the jury room are on the left. In the corridor of the Premio Nacional de Arquitectura in providing access to these spaces, Ucelay 2004 intended to propose Ucelay as the obtains several spaces for built-in closets. winner. Therefore, at the age of 94, The “L” volume also contains a large dining Matilde saw recognized the whole her room and a living area with fireplace, both professional career17. with direct access to the veranda. Matilde gets the union between this module and the rectangular one of the sleeping area through a gallery, where also she places the main roofed entrance with a long porch, continuous to the background. This

219 other module has two double bedrooms As you can see from the elevations, the act with built-in cabinets, a single room, a of re-drawing focuses on the different shared bathroom, a bedroom with heights of the one and two pitched-roof, wardrobe and bathroom and a common dominating on the linearity of the base area. Again, she treated the volume volumes from which the three stone obtained with large windows, chimneys stand over. characterizing it by two open spaces, The garden crosses volumes shaping the where at the ends puts up two ponds with human intervention, treated as an integral aquatic plants, in order to foster a form of part of the natural landscape and intimate communication with the garden, orographic complexity. In fact, Matilde probably designed by Pedro Couchepein, inserts into the project of the surrounding as happened in other contemporary green different types of plants, trees and projects. shrubs: weeping willows, cherry, apricot, At the porch gallery, Ucelay places the poplars, lavender, sage, magnolia. staircase leading to the basement, where Sections obtained through the re-drawing you can arrive via an outside staircase that allow appreciating the inside spatial she puts in the outside, just behind the connection of the project that rhythmically living room. You can think to walk between follows the height difference, deploying the two levels of the villa, through the the spaces of the villa on two levels, observation of perspective views obtained diversifying the functions further. Once by the production of three-dimensional again, the connective element consisting model. of the porch gallery dominates the The impression that it takes is to wander drawings both horizontally and vertically, between buildings with porches, as if you guiding the viewer to focus on the internal were in one of the Spanish cities dynamics of distribution and therefore the translated into the language of the country possibility of occupants’ movement. landscape. The construction of the digital On the re-drawing of the plan, we carried model, following the analysis of the out an additional graphic interpretation, original drawings, places the knowledge of through which it was possible to trace the project in a stadium that we could call three geometric modules. “transfer”. Indeed, reading the words of The “a” module, which determines the size Karl Marx about the Hegelian dialectical of the smaller side of the two rectangles of method «according to Hegel the process the sleeping area, whose longer side of thought, that he transforms into an represents the sum of submultiples a/2 independent subject, under the name of and a/4 and of the same module “a” idea, is the demiurge of the real, while the repeated twice. The “b” module real is the external phenomenon of the corresponding at 1/3 of the longer side of though process. To me, on the contrary, the space for the clothes drier and the ideal element is nothing else than the repeated three times in the long side of material one transferred and translated the garage and four times in into the human brain»18. correspondence with the long side of the At the basement, the Spanish architect dining room. A third module “c” is used to puts a warehouse for garden tools, a identify the short side of the rectangle of pantry, female and male changing rooms the service rooms and the large dining for the pool and a living room open on two room and the sub-multiple c/2 sides for the barbecue. corresponding to the rhythm of the long porch. Another graphic interpretation

220 phase allowed to track down three drawings customizes the Spanish overturns: the longer side of the rectangle architectural vocabulary. of the sleeping area (side “d”) coincides Through this graphic analysis, the drawing with the back porch at the outer stair; the follows the relationships between diagonal “e”, drawn from the edge of the volumes, heights, distances and empties, veranda, corresponds to the service categorizing the features of Ucelay’s spaces rectangle; the side “f”, once project that, in the critical re-drawing overturned, tracks down a square with the place, become the body and forms of a insertion of two independent outside high and solemn dialogue. This is the volumes, identifying the vertex of internal silence and eloquence of representation, staircase. metaphor of oscillating thought, in a The project of the House for Sebastian transitional phase, between past and Llegat, shows an architect who through present: «Now the essence of nature must her “drawing”, conceived as other express itself symbolically; a new world of meaning of “design”, tells her architecture, symbols is necessary, the entire symbolism defines open spaces gradually resting on of the body, not just the symbolism of the orography and focused on the detailed mouth, face, and words, but the full study ranging from the handles doors, to gestures of the dance, all the limbs moving the internal and external paved areas, to the rhythm. And then the other from the color scheme of surfaces to the symbolic powers grow, those of music, material geometry, until the rhythm, dynamics, and harmony all with interpenetration of volumes, constituting sudden spontaneity»20. the new sign of the Madrilenian territory by subtraction of land. Her attention to the movement within the volumes suggests the reflection of Paul Valéry on the dynamics dissipation in connection with spatial organization, «There is a noteworthy form of this kind of Footnotes and references our forces expenditure: it is to order or organize our dissipation movements. In 1) Cf. Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre, Newton this sort of movements, Space was the Compton Editori, Rome 2015, p. 111. place of acts: it does not contain their subject. Now the Time plays the leading 2) Purificación Maórtua in 1926 founded role. It is the organic Time, which is found the Lyceum Club, the first Spanish feminist in the system of all basic functions of life. association, whose aim was to educate Each of them performs, with a muscular young women on different disciplines, acts cycle, as if the conclusion or such as literature, science, visual arts, completion of each would generate the civics, and music. Mostly middle-class pulse of the next one»19. Therefore, women formed the club, but Purificación Matilde conceives the porch gallery, that Maórtua was also committed to defending defines a dynamic space from the outside the rights of women belonging to the to the inside and from the inside to the middle class and the lower strata of outside through which to distribute the society. In fact, in 1931, she founded La movement: she punctuates her time inside Cívica, women association for civic her canvas. She provides a new identity to education, which aimed at the training of the designed landscape and with her women who had not had the opportunity

221 to attend the university (Cf. Shirley 13) The Weissenberg House was designed Mangini, El Lyceum Club de Madrid, un for the Bulgarian pianist Alexis refugio feminista en una capital hostil, in Weissenberg. “Asparkia”, n. 17, 2006, pp. 125-140). 14) Francisco Utray, Spanish Ambassador 3) Cf. Inmaculada Sánchez de Madariaga, in New Zealand. Marion Roberts, Fair shared cities. The impact of gender planning in Europe, 15) The Benítez de Lugo House was Routledge, London-New York, 2013. designed for the marquis of Lanzarote, Luís Felipe Benítez de Lugo. 4) Cf. Virginia Woolf, Una stanza tutta per sé, Bur, Milan 2013, p. 215. 16) AA.VV., 100 mujeres del siglo XX que abrieron camino a la igualdad en el siglo 5) Cf. Inmaculada Lafuente, Agrupémonos XXI, Consejo de la Mujer, Madrid 2001. todas: La lucha de las españolas por la igualdad, Aguilar, Madrid 2003. 17) Cf. Inmaculada Sánchez de Madariaga, Marion Roberts, Fair shared cities. The 6) Cf. Felipe Morales, Reportaje en una impact of gender planning in Europe, escalera, in “La Voz”, n. 3, July 1936. Routledge, London-New York, 2013.

7) Cf. Rosa Maria Claramunt Vallespí, 18) Karl Marx (ed.), Il Capitale, Libro I, Mujeres en ciencia y tecnología, Editori Riuniti, Rome 1968, p. 44. Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid 2012. 19) Cf. Beniamino Del Fabbro (ed.), Paul Valéry. Degas Danza Disegno, Abscondita, 8) Cf. Virginia Woolf, op. cit., p. 151. Milan 2013, p. 23.

9) José Ruiz Castillo was a young 20) Cf. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, Verità intellectual, who worked as a civil e menzogna, Special edition of Corriere executive for the Ministry of Agriculture. della Sera, Milan 2010, p. 38. Later he became owner of a publishing house, the Biblioteca Nueva.

10) Cf. Inmaculada de la Fuente, El exilio Full references interior, Colección Noema, Turner, Madrid 2011. 1. AA.VV., 100 mujeres del siglo XX que abrieron camino a la igualdad 11) For further deepening about graphical en el siglo XXI (Madrid: Consejo de documents of Matilde Ucelay Maórtua’s la Mujer 2001). projects, see Javier Vílchez Luzón, Matilde Ucelay: Primera Mujer Arquitecta en 2. Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre (Roma: España, PhD Dissertation, Tutor Prof. Elena Newton Compton Editori 2015). Díez Jorge, Editorial de la Universidad de Granada, 2012. 3. Rosa María Claramunt Vallespí, Mujeres en ciencia y tecnología 12) Victor Oswald, important Swiss (Madrid: Universidad Nacional de entrepreneur. Educación a Distancia 2012).

222

4. Inmaculada de la Fuente, El exilio 12. Inmaculada Sánchez de Madariaga interior (Madrid: Colección Noema, (ed.), Matilde Ucelay Maórtua. Una Turner 2011). vida en construcción (Madrid: Editorial Experimenta 2012). 5. Roberto De Rubertis, Il disegno dell’architettura (Roma: Carocci 13. Inmaculada Sánchez de Madariaga, 2004). Marion Roberts, Fair shared cities. The impact of gender planning in 6. Inmaculada de la Fuente, Europe (London-New York: Agrupémonos todas: La lucha de Routledge 2013). las españolas por la igualdad (Madrid: Aguilar 2003). 14. Vittorio Ugo, Fondamenti della rappresentazione architettonica 7. Shirley Mangini, El Lyceum Club de (Bologna: Società Editrice Esculapio Madrid, un refugio feminista en 2000). una capital hostil, in “Asparkia”, n. 17, 2006, pp. 125-140. 15. Javier Vílchez Luzón, Matilde Ucelay: Primera Mujer Arquitecta 8. Riccardo Migliari, Disegno come en España, PhD Dissertation, Tutor modello (Roma: Kappa 2004). Prof. Elena Díez Jorge, Editorial de la Universidad de Granada, 2012. 9. Felipe Morales, Reportaje en una escalera, in “La Voz”, n. 3, July 16. Virginia Woolf, Una stanza tutta 1936. per sé (Milan: Bur 2013). 10. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, Verità e menzogna (Milan: Special edition 17. Bruno Zevi, Storia dell’architettura of Corriere della Sera 2010). moderna (Turin: Biblioteca Einaudi 2004). 11. Franco Purini, Comporre l’architettura (Rome: Laterza 2000).

223 Egle Renata Trincanato: Unbuilt

Francesco Maggio

“Being an architect always led her to inserting themselves into the natural unbalance the role of technician with the environment”4. Her famous book Venezia artist’s soul. Her work as historian was minore is an example of it. It was inseparable from that of relentless published in 1948 in Milan, focused on experimenter”1. non-monumental architecture of Venice, Urban planner, designer, artist, restorer, which tries to give a new interpretation of Egle Renata Trincanato affected the the architectural heritage of Campiello Venice physiognomy due to her and Dorsoduro districts, dividing it into multifaceted figure. She was born in Rome ‘types’ through a completely original in 1910, and moved with her family to inductive method of analysis5. Venice in 1926 where she attended the Her expertise served the city throughout High School of Art2. Soon her artistic skills her career as she was a militant for the will demonstrate superior than those of protection and conservation of Venetian other colleagues, so that the sculptor buildings. Adolfo Wildt3, noting her sculptural talent During an architectural period of about in plaster models that she made, asked fifty years, a clear vision dominated her her to become her pupil in Milan. work: her message for Venice to collect However the young student preferred to and persevere6. Renata Trincanato tackled continue her studies at the High School of each of her works with a clear idea of Art. After that, she attended the college Architecture, conceived as environmental and graduated in 1938 at the Regio order, and never referred only to the Istituto Superiore di Architettura in construction element7. The ‘Venetian’ Venice. architect intended the environment as the The relationship between Egle Renata intense interweaving of cultural Trincanato and the city of Venice became expressions, economic dynamics, social indissoluble. She put her professionalism balances and political intentions. As serving her city, but it is also true that historian, she felt the need to look back Venice taught and transmitted a lot to her, not betraying the past with the project, in as it was the constant object of her order to highlight the quality of civilization studies. These ones were based on the told. understanding of the environment that In 1960, Egle Trincanato is strenuously according to Renata means being able to engaged in the battle for the protection of “feel the face of the city” and “interpret Venice against the building speculation: the feeling with which people acted 4 Maddalena Scimemi, Riscrivere l’architettura…, 1 Maddalena Scimemi, Riscrivere l’architettura: cit., p.19. Venezia minore e il volto delle città, in Scimemi M., 5 ibidem, p.12. Tonicello A. (ed.), Egle Renata Trincanato 1910- 6 Lion Angela, Egle Renata Trincanato 1910-1998: 1998, Venezia 2008, p.19. verso una rappresentazione organica di Venezia e 2 Emiliano Balistreri, Egle Renata Trincanato: dell’architettura minore, Venezia, 2000, p.61. regesto delle opere, Mestre 2007. 7 Paolo Torsello, Il restauro attraverso la 3 Adolfo Wildt, sculptor, Professor of Plastica at the narrazione, in Scimemi M., Tonicello A. (ed.), Egle Accademia di Brera of Milan. Renata Trincanato…, cit., p. 27.

224 published articles and research carried out through the technique of drawing she within the University Institute of carried out a study on the urban planning Architecture add to conferences during and the building environment of Venice in which she dealt with the situation of the book Venezia minore, published in Venice problems. 1948 in Milan, through which she added a Dates back to 1982, the award of the new method on non-monumental Pietro Torta prize for her studies about the architecture investigation. This inductive lagoon city, perhaps the most important method, based on the combination of awards related to Venice and its context. historical-critical and descriptive sheets On this occasion Egle Trincanato said: «the with several freehand drawings, will form study of the city’s monuments was the the analytical basis and modus operandi, deepest reason of my cultural life, I have which she will adopt in future. In the book been drawn in a special way by the diffuse Venezia minore you can identify the urban fabric, non-aulic architecture, as a codification of repeated and in series little expressive element of the city’s elements, while the architectural heritage image»8. is standardized into ‘types’. The building is In her autograph production we can divided into two categories: the former identify some recurring elements like the lofty and bourgeois, referred to the study of history, the importance of the palaces, the latter utilitarian and popular concept of environment, the use of one11. The alternation of text and photography as a first survey tool on the drawings, photographs, paintings to built environment, the approach of a describe particular items or technology general register to systematically collect solutions characterizes the Trincanato’s the whole knowledge about built Venice, work. The photographic document is and the detailed analysis of the therefore a useful tool for in-depth architectural elements. Drawing, investigation of reality, to study the sketching, and graphic annotation are the relationship between built and natural main tool of her way of surveying: she environment. However, this must be used the drawing as an extension of the accompanied by graphic representations, word, never abandoning new research because you have to take into account scenarios9. that the photograph of the buildings, in The Trincanato’s method was based on confined spaces such as the Venetian the drawing technique as an essential ones, is not able to return the accuracy of guide in the direct experience of the architecture because the image is building’s forms10. The survey operation at distorted by the optics of the camera. The sight is essentially linked with the drawing, hand drawing with its precision and which is able to clarify and explicate perfection completes the photographic something better than words. Indeed, documentation, which assumes a value of authenticity’s demonstration of what has 12. 8 Cfr. Egle Renata Trincanato, Il restauro della been represented by hand The method struttura edilizia più diffusa e la sua importanza nel of investigation on the built environment, futuro di Venezia, in AA. VV. Ateneo Veneto - anno adopted by Trincanato, proofs that the 1982- XX n.8, I e II semestre, vol n. 20, Venezia, recurrent element in her artistic and 1982. 9 Paolo Torsello, Il restauro attraverso la narrazione, in Scimemi M., Tonicello A. (ed.), Egle 11 ibidem Renata Trincanato…, cit., p. 26. 12 Maria Ida Biggi, L’archivio fotografico, in Scimemi 10 Maddalena Scimemi, Riscrivere M., Tonicello A. (ed.), Egle Renata Trincanato…, l’architettura…cit., p. 11. cit., p. 93.

225 architectonical research is the drawing. down the line a building»17. The critical re- Most of all this is a practical way to drawing is a complex work because it analyze the visual reality, perceive lights, means deeply understand a building even colors, masses and shadows, to include though this is a plural knowledge, because the prospective view, stereometry, there are many factors that contribute to composition and architectural the conception of the project to which the representation inserted in the urban reader should go back. For example, the context. In other words, the drawing complexity inherent to this knowledge becomes a «speculative exercise of image comes from mutual influences developed decomposition to understand each between who analyzes the object and the constitutive object of the reproduced object itself. The identification of a object “two-dimensionally” on paper»13. building, involves a preliminary Drawing is the only device of knowledge of “empathizing with it”, because the object things14, especially when we talk about is able to activate independently a unbuilt projects. If architecture has to be composite network of relations. The understood as a set of signs, then drawing analyzing subject knows that the design is a particular type of language through thinking led by the architect is so complex which express a theory, a concept, and in to make impossible its returning through a particular the perception of the telling18. The designer expresses the designer15. So representative tools, concept of drawing, referring to the including the simple line, become words representation, cataloging and making tangible an idea, create in our imagination during the architectural minds, as well as on paper, a project that process, giving rise to the observation of probably will never be built. Through the the real environment (cataloging) and line, you can understand with satisfactory then to the extraction of those concrete accuracy the structure of bodies, because objects, useful for the project to be it is what connects and separates with a realized, to the application of resolving power16. ratiocinatio19 (imagination), to express a The purpose of this study is to highlight shift intention, and representation, to some of the Egle Renata Trincanato make manifest the design intention. projects through the operation of the Representation, in fact, is an indispensable critical re-drawing and graphic tool of knowledge that need of the logos interpretation encoding the architectural and theory, reasoning, and things process at every stage, before the final intended in their empirical meaning. project. All this with the certainty that Therefore, the representation is a «the statement that no design event can conceptual and formal structure fully be reconstructed, perhaps even by (Vorstellung) not a simple graphic drawing the protagonist, even more so is based on the certainty that it is impossible to know

13 Emiliano Balistreri, cit. 17 Franco Purini, La conoscenza degli edifici, in 14 Cfr. Franco Purini, Un disegno plurale, in “Disegno” n. 8, Istituto di Rappresentazione della FIRENZEARCHITETTURA, anno VII, nn. 1-2, 2003. Facoltà di Architettura di Genova, Genova 1984, 15 Cfr. James S. Ackerman, Convenzioni e retorica pp. 161-164. nel disegno architettonico, in Architettura e 18 ibidem disegno. La rappresentazione da Vitruvio a Gehry, 19 When Vitruvio talks about ratiocinatio in De Milano 2003. Architettura he refers to the theory and meaning 16 ibidem of “reasoned calculation”.

226 an end in itself (Darstellung)20. Going back found in house projects designed for to this conceptual and formal structure Burano and Pellestrina, where we find the which gave rise to the project, one must intention of making clear the rigorous set up a parallel process to that conducted functionality, pure rationalism and witty by the designer because who analyzes a spatial organization, typical of the city. «In work has to advance some arguments, no other city like Venice, the unique urban think about the why of structural or topography has so strongly influenced formal choices and, sometimes, find close architectural features, especially the answers through a comparison with other minor one, more connected to the projects carried out by the designer, in environment, maintaining in part the order to produce a critical redrawing, original medieval appearance. [...] Of resulting in a second “representation” of course, the changes in taste and the the object and not with an “end to itself overlapping of the new buildings on the graphic drawing”. This representation will oldest ones transformed some primitive have an important task: to communicate features»21. For this very strong new knowledge. relationship between the Venetian The drawing, conceived in this sense, is territory and the forms of built the survey tool of an unbuilt and little- environment, was essential, for the known project of Egle Renata Trincanato. architect, to face to with the Venetian In the spring of 1947, the ‘Venetian’ construction in order to design several architect took part in the competition, houses in the lagoon city. The study organized by the Municipality of Venice, carried out is therefore strictly scientific, for a series of houses to be built in the analytical and technically controlled, north and south estuary of the Venetian intended to catch those formative criteria lagoon, obtaining the first and second of the system of spaces unchanged over prize, both ex aequo, with projects for the centuries22. In the project, Egle offers residences proposals in Burano and various building, from “A” to “E” types in Pellestrina. In these two unbuilt works, we Burano and from “F” to “H” types in can trace some important methodological Pellestrina. These ones do not refer to the aspects about the approach to the project general concept of ‘type’ applicable by the architect who will make Venice the everywhere because Renata banishes city subject of her later studies. According from old architecture any typological to Egle Trincanato the relation with history discourse, typical of a predetermined is necessary, because the project must reality. She is convinced that the type is highlight the qualities of told civilization as pre-eminently in the architectural she hoped an integration between mentality and that it must be linked to the conservation and innovation. Her interest context and the site in which insists. focuses on the drawing of a schematic Thinking that architecture, like Venice, layout, with the repetition of some may arise in any other city is a nonsense: building models on which to make many every place has its own unique building of formal variations. The attention put on structural elements, an architectural taste non-monumental architecture and the analytic approach highlighted in the book 21 Venezia minore published in 1948, can be Egle Renata Trincanato, Venezia minore, Venezia 1988, p. 35. 22 Cfr. Angela Lion, Egle Renata Trincanato 1910- 20 Vittorio Ugo, L’architettura e i suoi doppi, in Ugo 1998: verso una rappresentazione organica di V., Fondamenti della rappresentazione Venezia e dell’architettura minore, Venezia 2000, architettonica, Bologna 1994. p. 67.

227 formed for centuries and by society that responds to the typical layout of the lives there. Some stylistic and formal “Venetian house”, with separate living and solutions are sometimes the result of a sleeping area: the central space, where constriction with respect to the you access by the entrance, is formed by conformation of the site23. the dining area, lighted by a window, The study previously carried out by while the side and rear rooms are Trincanato on the typical features of the independent25. You can also argue that minor Venetian architecture affects a lot these houses are a modern version of the design of these houses and looks like what that Giorgio Gianighian26 called “the the son of Venetian culture while obeying complex Venetian house”27 and in a modern language. The common features particular, it can be compared with Le case between the project studied and the dei Cappello, in Calle del Magazen, dating ‘venetian house’ are not few. Indeed, we back to 1547. Furthermore, Egle Renata can catch important similarities observing Trincanato drew these houses in her book the houses in calle Cappello, going back to Venezia Minore, published a year later the seventeenth century, and type “D” of than the competition. This is due to her the house designed for Burano: «houses study on the Venetian urban fabric carried are the result of the coupling of two out over many years before the buildings, each comprising two publication of the book and then, in 1947, overlapping apartments [...] This she was very familiar with the Venetian planimetric layout, symmetrically housing types and used these knowledge repeated with respect to a central cross- for the preparation of the two projects. cut wall, presents well-structured and Among the Venetian houses and those balance. Important elements are also the ones designed for Burano and Pellestrina powerful redundancy fireplaces and you can recognize many common staircase that allows access to two features: the privacy of the entrances, two different apartments, sharing the overlapping floors, the solution of stair staircase»24. that allows each family its own entrance The planimetric layout of the project in and private staircase. After all this is a Burano consists in specular buildings in traditionally Venetian way of living, with a relation to a central cross-cut wall, like the well-equipped ground floor as service “H” type designed for Pellestrina, and room (entrance, warehouses), the first responds to the typical Venetian and second floors, where you find the residential type of twin house. However, the “D”, “E” and “B” types are row houses, 25 ibidem the “A” type is a single two-family house, 26 Giorgio Gianignian, La casa veneziana complessa the “C” type is a multi-family house, the del rinascimento: un’invenzione contro il consumo “H”, “F” and “G” types are multi-family di territorio, in houses. The distribution of the inner http://www.persee.fr/web/ouvrages/home/prescri pt/article/efr_0000-0000_1989_act_122_1_4610. spaces, common element of the houses 27 With regard to the “complex” Venetian house designed, meets an organization that Giorgio Ginighian means the residential building formed as a result of structural changes over the centuries, that already in the early sixteenth 23 ibidem century begins to make its appearance. It is 24 Umberto Franzi, Studio di restauro, risanamento, characterized by elements such as the privacy of conservazione e utilizzazioni di edifici monumentali the entrances, the presence of the inner cistern, e di complessi edilizi residenziali a Venezia, in the overlap of two noble and interdependent http://www.comune.pv.it/museicivici/pdf/atti/10 floors, and the use of stairs at the Leonardesque %20Franzi.pdf way.

228 residential functions of the family (kitchen of the whole, both for the ingenious and bedroom), and finally the loft28. distribution of their planimetric layouts, However, compared to Le case dei and for the sauciness and the picturesque Cappello you may notice some differences taste with which they are composed in the because Egle also pursues a modern facades determining the balance of language, not totally imitating the volumes. Very elementary layouts form Renaissance Venetian house, but this construction responding to the basic extracting the essential characteristics needs of housing, in accordance with the such as, for example, the overlapping local use of living, and, as far as possible, it floors in the project are not refers to “major” architecture in order to interdependent like in the Cappello imitate its characteristics32. Indeed, it is family’s houses. obvious the intention of tracing, according However, we can obtain a greater number to a pare-down issue, the porch forms of of similarities comparing the “A” type with the great stately palace with the emptying one of the two Case in Campo della of masonry masses at the ground floor Pescheria, in the Castello district: the made of discontinuous elements on distanced rhythm of the single-lancet beamed pillars, as with different taste, windows, the compositional unity of the inserting the shops, reiterated whole characterized by the balanced characteristic even after the Gothic spacing windows, the symmetrical layout period. You can catch this use in the “A” of shops at the ground floor and the type of the project for Burano. dormer which rises on the central axis of However, in minor buildings, built the two buildings with gable roof29. between the XII and XIII centuries, the You can make a comparison also between main characters are: a taste of opposing the “D” type and Case a schiera in large breaks, with a wall, and groupings of campiello e fondamenta Tron, in the close spaces in facades, from which Dorsoduro district30 where the common probably the triptych composition of the features are: the presence of powerful facades derives, with the absence of the chimneys that form a magnificent loggia on the upper floors and a architectural motif, enhanced by monumental court. smallness of square windows, the During the Gothic period, the stately distribution in rhythmic groups of doors palace is characterized by a portico in the and windows, the great simplicity of the ground floor and in the upper one stair allocating different apartments. This corresponding to a multi-arched window. is a clue of less individualism31. While the minor architecture finalizes its However, in order to explain the issue we types: it uses a more closed pattern, with need to briefly deal with the Venetian one or two doors on the canal and the architecture. calle, designed in a wide variety of ways, The buildings of the XII and XIII centuries or adopts an open layout with show, in the minor Venetian topography, a discontinuous beamed elements, inserting lively participation at the general harmony shops and the entrance rooms to dwellings, alternately arranged. 28 Ibidem During the Renaissance period, in minor 29 Egle Renata Trincanato, Venezia minore, cit. architecture, where there are no shops, 30 Cited houses in Castello and Dorsoduro, going back to the ‘700 and belong to the “minor” the part relating to the basement is full, building of Venice. with sparse high windows and some 31 Egle Renata Trincanato, Venezia minore, cit., pp. 375-376 32 op.cit., p. 51.

229 doors, echoing compositional schemes of alternating with respect to the chimneys, gothic buildings of the fourteenth and which take a rhythmic preeminent value, fifteenth centuries. Some of these often marking the ‘head’ of the building. schemes have two doors, with a different- This can be seen in the “D”, “B”, and “E” sized few decorated volume in the middle, types. which corresponds to an interesting This scheme and other ones very similar, planimetric organism of twin house that in the palaces are in secondary symmetrically disposed relative to a elevations, are taken and developed with central axis. This is also in the competition endless variations at the main facade of project of the “D”, “B”, “E” and “H” types. minor houses, where the double fireplace In Post-Renaissance architecture, the or the central one assume a prominent triptych motif is often used. It is a value in determining the rhythm of characteristic of Venetian architecture spacings. since the Gothic period, which organically You can consider very interesting the rear corresponds to planimetric configuration elevations of those buildings whose plan, of the house with central living room for the prolongation of one or two rows of overlooking the elevation through a multi- chambers adjacent to the living room over mullioned window. The two side spaces the rear wall of this, assumes an “L” or “U” overlooking with two single-lancet shape. The buildings in this case are windows, one at the edge of the building composed with vigorous spatial effects of and the other at the multi-mullioned masses: the projecting wings, often very window. This arrangement allows to narrow and high, are generally drilled in obtain in the lateral spaces a large part of the front ‘head’ by a pair of windows that wall between two windows, to lay out a allow a solid volume at the center. The piece of furniture and in many cases the built-in part, corresponding to the living chimney appears in the outside and marks room, is usually open by a continuous even more clearly the cadence of the arched fenestration. Such differences, openings. The layout just described has created by the dwelling’s internal needs, been adopted, revisited, in “A” and “H” make more picturesque the setting of types where the multi-mullioned window volumes. The “D” type resumes this turns into a central group of four particular feature of the facade. windows. In lofty architecture, the Egle Renata Trincanato, experiencing chimneys appear in the main facade while contamination between rural architecture in minor architecture these elements are building uses and modern architectural used as a picturesque resource in the features, realizes a project that consists of spatial composition of its facade. The two poles of research oscillation; layouts of this typical way of composing combining modernity and tradition, she with fireplaces and triptych elements are tries to develop a new language based on of extraordinary variety33. the knowledge of the past. Usually the ‘head’ zones, located at the The minor architecture elements of Venice end, are full, Egle Renata Trincanato have some specific features. We have repeats this in the “F” type, and only already talked about the presence of the occasionally they are linked to the main shop at the ground floor and fireplaces. facade with an angular two-mullioned However the Venetian window has a wide window. The other windows are arranged variety of forms, from the simple single- with wider and shorter spacings, lancet window, to the oldest round arched windows, to the two-mullioned and three- 33 ibidem

230 mullioned windows, to the lancet Gothic In the minor architecture since the window, to the Renaissance rounded sixteenth century a type of cross-ramps window. Egle revisits the window shape stair spreads. It is said “in the for her project, as this is more than any Leonardesque way”, which reaches two other element, a result of the style of the apartments with two independent historical period in which it was produced, entrances. The apartments are located at so she adopts a rectangular shape, more the opposite sides of the same plane or at related to the language of the modern different planes. This type of stair is widely movement. Often entrance doors, at the used until the seventeenth century even in ground floor are beamed shaped. the poorer building, for space saving, In the thirteenth and fourteenth century, which creates and independence that in place of the balconies was used a allows various entrances. The house of “C” parapet, in correspondence of the wall or type adopts this characteristic type of slightly projecting, feature that in the stair. competition project is taken for the “H”, With the “Concorso per case nell’estuario “B” and “E” type. nord e sud della laguna di Venezia” Other elements, like the chimneys, (Competition for houses in the north and contributing to the picturesque minor south estuary of the Venice lagoon) buildings, are the dormers and roof Trincanato also demonstrates a strong terraces. The dormer window is very interest not only for the building form, but common in the minor architecture and can also for the environment on which it be of two types: the former, very simple, insists. The project includes, in addition to is formed by a small elevation covered by construction of housing, a reorganization a lean-to roof and front consisting by a of the surrounding environment. rectangular window, the latter, more The real goal of this work of Trincanato is complex and generally larger is that one to strive towards a planning able to throw covered by a gable roof developing on the the preconditions for a project planning, facade as a pediment. This feature is not an end in itself, but able to clearly manifested in the “A” type. communicate with the changes that are However, the roof terrace, which is going to happen in the years ahead. So, accessed by a small skylight, is a unique the project is characterized by significant wooden terrace on the roofs; it consists in purpose as well rich in comparison with four, six, eight brick pillars, according to urban issues35. the size of the building, on which stands a The project is woven in the territory for wooden structure of pedestals and which it was designed, and if it had been horizontal beams with a rectangular or carried out, it would seem that in that round cross section34. This element are place it has always existed, both in Burano also in the “C” type and in Pellestrina, because its roots lie in Almost all Venetian palaces and many the Venetian architectural culture. stately houses owned, in the past, a portion of garden, arranged as a vegetable garden in the minor tone houses; Egle takes up again in the project an outdoor space dedicated to this latter function.

34 Egle Renata Trincanato, Venezia minore, cit., p. 93. 35 Angela Lion, Egle Renata Trincanato …, cit.

231 References Francesco Tentori, “Intervista con Egle Emiliano Balistreri, Egle Renata Renata Trincanato”, in Imparare da Trincanato: regesto delle opere (Mestre: Venezia: il ruolo futuribile di alcuni We, 2007). progetti architettonici veneziani dei primi anni ’60 (Roma, Officina, 1994). Dafne Di Girolamo, Egle Renata Trincanato. Unbuilt (Palermo: Unpublished Egle Renata Trincanato, Venezia minore dissertation, Faculty of Architecture, 2015) (Milano: Edizioni del Milione, 1948). Angela Lion, Egle Renata Trincanato 1910- 1998: verso una rappresentazione Egle Renata Trincanato, “Il restauro della organica di Venezia e dell’architettura struttura edilizia più diffusa e la sua minore (Venezia: Unpublished importanza nel futuro di Venezia”, in dissertation, IUAV, 2000). Ateneo Veneto - XX n.8, I e II semestre, vol n. 20, (1982). Franco Purini, “Un disegno plurale”, in FirenzeArchitettura, anno VII, nn. 1-2 Vittorio Ugo, Fondamenti della (2003). rappresentazione architettonica (Bologna: Società Editrice Esculapio, 2002). Maddalena Scimemi, Anna Tonicello (ed), Vittorio Ugo, μίμησιϛ mímēsis. Sulla critica Egle Renata Trincanato 1910-1998 della rappresentazione dell’architettura (Venezia, Marsilio, 2008). (Milano: Libreria Clup, 2004).

232 Innovation in Landscape Architecture

Elena Luzzatto Valentini, the first Italian woman Architect Monica Prencipe

In Italy, the question of women in This essay is one of the very first attempt3 Architecture started to become a relevant to organize the existing biographic field of investigations a couple of decades information (very few), with the new ago, especially after the foundation of the material offered by the discovery of group Vanda at the Politecnico di Milano Mauro Ferroni’s private archive, Elena in 1990. The focus of the entire group of Luzzatto’s nephew, published in this research was to deepen the role of occasion for the first time. women in the architecture of ninteenth and twentieth century1. The group actively worked until 1992 and then passed to a Early life and education (1900-1925) more ‘virtual’ stadium2, which it led slowly to an impasse. Elena Luzzatto was born the 30 October Besides this early attempt, any other study 1900, in Ancona, a capital city of Marche on women architects in Italy can be region, in central Italy, on the Adriatic coast. Elena’s father – Vittorio Luzzatto – considered an isolated effort, deepening 4 single masters of the twentieth century, was a railway engineer , probably like Lina Bo Bardi and Gae Aulenti. transferred from another city before her This lack of a long term research, without birth. In fact, even if the surname Luzzatto a more complete understanding of the was quite common for many italian jewish family, they had no relatives in the city of context where women were working, left 5 6 out a consistent part of smaller Ancona . Her mother Cloe Valentini – a protagonists, like Elena Luzzatto Valentini

(Ancona 1900 – Rome 1983), who also had 3 Elena Luzzatto’s work with a small biography was the privilege to be the first Italian women published for the first time only few months before to held a degree in Architecture in Italy. her death in 1983, in occasion of a bigger exhibition dedicated to 23 designers, enrolled within 1930 in the Board of Architects of Rome, the 1 The group Vanda focused his work mainly earlier in Italy, founded in 1923. Elena Luzzatto is towards three main fields of investigations: the the 31st person to enter the Albo of Rome, and of first on deepening the work of the “Mothers of course the first woman in the country as an Architecture”; the second to understand a architect. “feminine sense of living” and the third, the 4 Copia integrale estratta dal registro degli Atti di interest for women in urban utopias and planning. nascita dell’Anno 1900, Atto n°1301, Archivio See also Annalisa Marinelli, “‘Vanda’ una comunità storico dell’ordine degli Architetti PPC di Roma e accademica femminile”, Controspazio 1 (2000), 78- Provincia, Busta 1, matr.31. 80; Ida Faré, “Ragione e sentimento femminile 5 The city of Ancona, since the sixteenth century, della casa”, Controspazio 2 (2001), 16-19; Katrin was home of one of the most important Italian Cosseta, Ragione e sentimento dell'abitare. La casa Jewish community. According to the city jewish e l'architettura nel pensiero femminile tra le due registry there is no evidence of a Luzzatto family guerre. Milan: Franco Angeli, 2000. before the twentieth century. The Ancona Jewish 2 Annalisa Marinelli, “Vanda una comunità archive with the registry of the first part of the accademica femminile”, Controspazio 1 (2000), 80 twentieth century is today in Tel Aviv.

233 housewife- was a catholic, and Elena was Giovannoni and approved with a Regio never educated too close to any of the Decreto at the end of 191911. Preliminary two religions7. conditions for school admission were: a Only in 1942, after the 1938 racial laws by degree from a Liceo or a Physics- Mussolini, Elena Luzzatto was forced to Mathematic section of a Techincal take her mother last name Valentini, that Intitution and the positive result on a test she will continue to use until her death8. on Geometric Drawing and Architectural Finally, the difficulties related to the Ornaments. With this law, in 1920 were various versions of her last name -at the also abolished the Architetto civile course base of some misunderstanding on her life at the Scuola di Applicazione per and work- were worsened by the fact that Ingegneri, and Architettura course at the in the 1920s she married the roman Istituto di Belle Arti, both placed in Rome. engineer Felice Romoli, name that she will In this way the new born School of also use sometimes, with or without the Architecture became the only one in other two. central Italy12 devoted to educate a figure In 1920, after her degree at the Liceo of a modern designer, as conceived by Classico Rinaldini in Ancona, she moved to Gustavo Giovannoni: the architetto Rome -probably with the financial help of integrale, as ‘uomo d’arte, di tecnica e di 9 an wealthy relative - in order to attend the school of Architecture, opened for the 11 Regio Decreto legge, 31 october 1919, n. 2593, first year with 55 students10. Per la Istituzione in Roma di una Scuola Superiore The Regia Scuola Superiore di Architettura di Architettura. In Italy, the serious debate on a in Rome was founded by Gustavo reform for the school of Architecture started around 1870, with the First Italian Artistic Congress (Parma), with the proposal to release the 6 Elena’s mother Cloe, is sometimes confused with ‘Architecture’ course either from the universities of Annarella Luzzatto Gabrielli, another italian female engineer, or the school of Belle Arti. The first was architect, who enrolled few years later after Elena mainly a technical education made after a high in the Board of Architects of Rome. Name and school degree, while the second was a seven years profession of Elena’s mother as ‘Cloe’ is ensured by course after an elementary degree, focused on Elena’s birth certificate, at the Archivio storico drawing skills and art history. See also Guido dell’ordine degli Architetti PPC di Roma e Provincia, Zucconi, “Il programma dei cultori”, in La città Busta 1, matr.31. On the other hand Annarella was contesa. Dagli ingegneri sanitari agli urbanisti born Gabrielli and Luzzatto is instead her husband (1885-1942). Milan: Jaca book, 1989; Roberto last name, acquired when she married him in 1932 Gabetti, Plinio Marconi, “L’insegnamento del and moved to Genova. «Seduta 28 gennaio 1937- sistema didattico franco-italiano (1789-1922)”, XV» in Maria Letizia Mancuso, L’Archivio storico Controspazio 3-6-9-10/11 (1971); Guido Zucconi, dell’ordine degli Architetti PPC di Roma e Provincia “La professione dell’architetto. Tra specialismo e (1926-1956) (Guidonia: CSC Grafica, 2015), 84. generalismo”, in Francesco Dal Co (ed.), Storia 7 Monica Prencipe, Interview with Mauro Ferroni, dell’architettura italiana. Il secondo Novecento, 15 July 2016. Milan: Electa 1997; Barbara Berta, “Il dibattito sulla formazione della figura professionale 8 For the small retrospective organized in 1983 dell’architetto e la nascita della Scuola Superiore di (few months before her death) from the Roman Architettura di Roma”, in Maria Letizia Mancuso Board of Architects, Elena is still named as Luzzatto (ed.), L’Archivio storico dell’ordine degli Architetti Valentini. PPC di Roma e Provincia (1926-1956) (Guidonia: 9 Monica Prencipe, Interview with Mauro Ferroni, CSC Grafica, 2015), 32-48. 15 July 2016. 12 Only in 1932, with a national law, all the Superior 10 Dell’Osteria Graziella, Luigi Vagnetti, La Facoltà Schools became Universities. After Rome, other di Architettura nel suo cinquantesimo anno di vita schools were soon born throughout Italy: Venice (Rome: Edizioni della Facoltà di Architettura di (1926), Turin (1929), Florence and Naples (1930), Roma, 1955), 203. Milan (1933).

234 coltura’13 (man of arts, technique and the Santa Costanza funerary monument in culture). In few words, this new program Rome16. was studied in order to overcome the As a matter of fact, besides Vincenzo persisting separation between technical Fasolo, Elena was also trained by other classes and human studies, trying to important roman architects, like Arnaldo balance this two opposites with a more Foschini (design) and Gustavo Giovannoni mature approch. himself (restoration), who raised their These clarifications are important to students not only to Classicism, but also to understand the role of education in the legacy of the Middleage and the rural Elena’s work, who was very influenced by mediterranean architecture17. some of her teachers, like Vincenzo

Fasolo, for whom she will also work as assistant after her degree, between 1928 Early career (1926-1943): competitions, and 193414. She graduated in 1925 with first realizations and new ideas one of the highest grade in her class (100/110), with a project on a Sanatorium Very soon after her degree, in 1926, Elena on the Como Lake15. Although today there Luzzatto wins the concourse to enter the the Roman Town Planning Office (Uffici del is no trace of her thesis, is still possible to 18 have an idea of her training from other Governatorato) , were she had the works during the universities: a project for chance to deal with the designing -and an “Archeological Museum” as an exercise building- of many different public on classical orders an proportions, and a typologies. By the way, she also had the design for a “Cemetery Chapel in a opportunity to keep her own firm for countryside village” as a clear reference to private commissions, especially villas, interior designing and small shops. One of these first early works is the 1929

13 project presented at the Fondo Edilizio of Gustavo Giovannoni (1873-1947) was an influent Rome for a private house in Via Vincenzo roman architect, trained first as civil engineer at 19 the University of Rome. After that in 1897 Troya : a simple block were is still strong Giovannoni started to follow Adolfo Venturi the relation with her previous academic courses on history of Architecture. This double projects. Although it is interesting how formation was at the base of the future reform for each facade is designed slightly different the schools of Architecture. For a selection of from the other, any simmetrical reference Gustavo Giovannoni writings on the idea of ‘architetto integrale’ see Gustavo Giovannoni, is carefully avoided, and the stair connects “L’architetto e i suoi compiti”, in Guido Zucconi the outside directly with the big terrace- (ed.), Gustavo Giovannoni. Dal Capitello alla città (Milan: Jaca book, 1997), 127-150. 16 14 Renata Bizzotto, Luisa Chiumenti, Alessandra Private Archive Mauro Ferroni, Rome Muntoni (eds.), 50 anni di professione (Rome: 17 For the influence of rural architecture on the edizioni Kappa, 1983), 141. Vincenzo Fasolo (1885- roman architects at the beginning of the twentieth 1969), an influent architect during the first decades century see, Michelangelo Sabatino, Pride in of the twentieth century, was teacher at the Regia Modesty: Modernist architecture and the Scuola Superiore di Architettura since 1920, were Vernacular tradition in Italy. Toronto: University of he directed the courses of: “Quantity surveying” Toronto Press, 2010. (1920), History of Architecture (1921-54) and 18 Bizzotto, Chiumenti, Muntoni, 50 anni di Caratteri stilistici dei monumenti (1934-1941). professione, 141. Dell’Osteria Graziella, Luigi Vagnetti, Dell’Osteria and Vagnetti, Architettura, 198-9. 19 Fondo Ispettorato Edilizio, prot. n.16413, 1929, 15 Archivio Capitolino, Roma. Dell’Osteria and Vagnetti, Architettura, 203.

235 roof. On the other hand, in 1928 Elena will mathematicians from Bologna and also also design a beach house at Ostia Lido for the first women to enter an Italian Board. the fascist politician Giuseppe Bottai)20, In 1933 is the first prize for the resembling the new ideas coming from the competition on shops in Via Roma (Torino) contemporary Gruppo 7, that in the same and also a formal invitation to present a year had their first exhibition (Prima prototype at the V Triennale di Milano for Esposizione Italiana di Architettura «Public Housing and Sanatorium», the Razionale) led by architects such as same exhibition where Figini and Pollini Adalberto Libero and Gaetano Minnucci, realized the famous Casa elettrica. this one also coming from the Marche As we can see, in this period the region like Elena Luzzatto. influences of the new modern architecture The fascist decades, in 1920s and 1930s, coming from the Razionalist Movement will offer Elena many chances to compete are much more clear in the competition in national competitions, where she won projects rather than in the built ones, like several prices in different occasions21: in the big market at Piazza Principe di 1928 for a funerary tumbstones at the Napoli23 (Roma), completed in 1933 by the Verano Cemetery (Rome); in 1930 for Town Planning Office. small villas of the Società Immobiliare The concrete -and rather modern- inner Tirrena and a second award for a ‘Flowery structure is still covered with a much more Railway Station’, an early demostration of confident facade: bricks arches and interest towards landscape and greenery windows as echoes of the Diocleziano’s as “building elements”. Terme, placed only few blocks away from In 1932 Elena won the first prize for the market. housing in Genale (Somalia) by the Unione In these years Elena also marries the Agricola Coloniale, and for beach houses engineer Felice Romoli, who will at Ostia Lido with another female collaborate with her in several occasions engineer: Maria Casoni Bortolotti22, a like the competition for the new hospital in Bolzano (1934, second prize). Romoli’s work is also widly unknown, so 20 This project for Ostia is also published in: Laura Marcucci (ed.), L’altra modernità nella cultura today it’s difficult to have a precise idea of architettonica del XX secolo (Roma: Gangemi, all the collaboration between the two. 2012), 144. Romoli anyway was also well known by 21 The information are coming from the first –an other architects in Rome: one example is a only- exhibition made in 1983 on Elena Luzzatto, and published in Bizzotto, Chiumenti, Muntoni profession. Maria will open a private firm with (eds.), 50 anni, 141. Most of these references, others, including her husband Mario Casoni, a besides Elena herself, are clearly coming from a lawyer. Only in 1929, after the worldwide 1935 article: Anna Maria Speckel, “Architettura economic crisis, she moved to Rome, where she moderna e donne architette”, Almanacco della met Elena Luzzatto Valentini. See Elisa Abati, Anna donna italiana, 1935, 120-134. This essay is the Barozzi, Vittoria Toschi, “L’ultimo capitolo delle first and only article (between the 1920s and the storie di una conquista: la facoltà di Ingegneria”, in 1980s) not only on Luzzatto herself, but on Alma Mater Studiorum. La presenza femminile dal different female protagonists of that time, such as XVIII al XX secolo. Ricerche sul rapporto Annarella Luzzatto Gabrielli, Maria Casoni- donna/cultura universitaria nell’ateneo bolognese Bortolotti and Attilia Travaglio Vaglieri. (Bologna: Clueb, 1988), 215-49. 23 Today Piazza Alessandria, close to Porta Pia. This 22 Maria Casoni Bortolotti was born in Bologna in work was published by Anna Maria Speckel in 1935 1880, daughter of a railway employee, like Elena as an exemple of a ‘monumental and social Luzzatto. She graduated in Mathematic in 1916, Architecture’, against any distrust of Mussolini on and in 1918 in Engineering, and in 1919 she was be women in Architecture. the first women to enter the Board for this

236 project for a little city called Rometta, shown in the project ‘villino per Capri’, signed with the seal “Piccinato-Romoli”24. published in 1935. The two women, coming from different backgrounds, shared a series of common Later career (1944-1977) in Postwar Italy: interest, as well as a fine ‘sense of the Landscape, Funerary architecture and place’, that led to a successful plan in public Markets 1944. After the market at Piazza Principe di Although the official location -today a high Napoli in 1933, during the 1930s Elena clearing at Monte Mario- will be officially Luzzatto’s private commissions are rather ratified by the local government only in few, probably fucusing her efforts in the 1945, the French Commanders Morlot and Town Planning Office. Ruze (in charge of the choice by the army) The first major occasion presents in 1944, decided to pick this area as designated for shortly after the freedom of Rome by the the competition26. Allied troops in june. The plan had also several restrains, Elena Luzzatto, who in 1942 was forced by coming from the French regulation on Fascism to change her jewish name with military cemeteries27: a central corridor the catholic ‘Valentini’, takes part to that cuts a series of aligned rows of competition for a French Military tombstones, a bush of roses on each Cemetery in Rome, with the help of tomb, and –the most important- individual another important women of that time: stones with no distinctions between the Maria Teresa Parpagliolo (1903-1974). soldiers. The only consideration was the Maria Teresa Parpagliolo, after being the religious symbol on the grave: a cross for first woman to be involved in conferences catholic and an half-moon for the islamic on landscape in 1922 and to travel several platoons. times in northern Europe in the 1930s, in The winning project was a dynamic 1938 became part of the planning team combination of traditional elements of the for the Esposizione Universale in Rome, mediterranean and Italian gardens and proposed for 1942 and never occured.25 architecture. The entrance was placed In her designs, she was following the south, at the opposite side of the ‘piazza Mussolini’s ideals of ‘romanità’ and d’onore’, a monumental square for ‘italianità’, using the principles of Italian gatherings and commemorations, that Reinassence garden, like Elena Luzzatto faced a stunning view on the old city of was interested in both classical and also Rome from Monte Mario28. From the mediterranean rural architecture, as square, a pair of stairs led to a higher semi-circular plaza, the head of the central

26 Sonja Dümpelmann, Teresa Parpagliolo 24 Archivio privato Mauro Ferroni. The work refers Shephard (1903-1974). Ein Beitrag Entwicklung der to a close collaboration between Felice Romoli and Gardenkultur in Italien im 20. Jahnhundert Luigi Piccinato, who was trained engineer and also (Weimar: VDG, 2004), 208-9 a graduate from the roman School of Architecture 27 “Circulaire sur l’Ornementation des Cimitiéres in 1923, only a couple of years before Elena Militaires”, 24 Febraury 1927 Luzzatto. 28 At that time there were no high trees or 25 Sonja Dümpelmann, “Maria Teresa Parpagliolo buildings around the cemeteries, so the view was Shephard (1903-1974). Her development as a clear not only towards Rome, but in all directions. Landscape Architect between tradition and The description refers to the Plan for the French Modernism”, Garden History vol.30, n.1 (2002), 61- Military Cemetery, Archivio Privato Mauro Ferroni, 62. Rome.

237 long corridor, that distributed to different A plate of the competition is also ‘garden rooms’. The central axis (called dedicated to the house of the guardian30: ‘viale dei cipressi’) divided the two parts of a simple and informal house with the cemetery: the first around a Catholic references in rural italian architecture, chapel, positioned perpendicularly to the while the office has only two columns as main corridor, and a second rectangle reminiscence of a monumental building. with a Muslim chapel and a ‘secret At the end, although all architectural garden’. This last element was oriented forms are rather simple and strictly perfectly south, slightly differently from connected to mediterranean influences, the main axis, conferring the general plan their combination with a meticoulous a glance of movement, aganist the rigid study of the place and of all the green combination of the other elements. elements, makes the project a Finally a smaller longitudinal axis went monumental and evocative place, in from the catholic church to a third ‘piazza’ search of an eternal peace, so far from the with an altar, for other religious current situation of Rome in 1944. commemorations: the path was organized In 1945, very soon after this competition, in green squares at different hights, each Elena Luzzatto Valentini will also win the one with a single row of tumbs, like first price for a second cemetery: the soldiers in an official parade. ‘Cimitero Flaminio’ at Prima Porta31, today The general composition was made even built only in a small part as the original more dynamic by the difficult topography plan. This second occasion is a much larger of the place: from the central axis every application of many of the elements monumental element, as well as all the already presented in 1944: a monumental secondary ‘streets’ for the tumbs, were entrance and a series of axis combining in placed at different levels, creating a multiple ways and focusing on different complex combination of views. landmarks. The interesting elements are As a resemblance of an arabian once again the close relationship of the architecture, the Muslim chapel was a plan with the general topography of the double-hight square covered by a simple place, and also the definition of a series of dome, all clad in white plaster, also tipical sinuouse secondary paths, presenting the of the Mediterranean area29. features of english gardens. Other echos can be found with several This natural interest of Elena Luzzatto for arabian garden in Spain: like the proposal landscape architecture will become for a long strip of water coming from a stronger in the following years, after fountain (a symbol tipically connected Parpagliolo’s marriage in 1946 with the with the muslim idea of heaven and english Ronald Shepard32. In fact, in june eternal life), through the viale to the 1948, Parpagliolo was in charge of the chapel, like in the Patio dell’Acequia in the exhibition for the First International Alhambra Palace. The water fountain - Conference on Landscape Architecture, today the only element referring to the held in London. original plan for a Muslim chapel- is covered with white and blue tiles: sacred colors and also a clear reference to the 30 arabian architecture. Private Archive Mauro Ferroni, Rome 31 Private Archive Mauro Ferroni, Rome 32 Sonja Dümpelmann, “Maria Teresa Parpagliolo Shephard (1903-1974). Her development as a Landscape Architect between tradition and 29 Private Archive Mauro Ferroni, Rome Modernism”, Garden History vol.30, n.1 (2002), 64.

238 As part of the Italian delegation Elena arches to form a countinuous gallery and Luzzatto and her husband Felice Romoli the presence of long windows for natural were invited –probably by the same lighting. As we can see from the historical Teresa- with Pietro Porcinai to take part to pictures, the central area is occupied by a the conference33, starting to plan the light steel-structure, suitable for different foundation of the First Italian Association uses. of Landscape Architects (Associazione Another interesting project was finally Italiana Architettura dei Giardini e del found in Mauro Ferroni private archive in Paesaggio, 1950)34. 2016: a modern market for Piazza Monte Besides this peculiar interest in landscape d’oro (Rome), on Via Tomacelli, facing the architecture, a second typology that will ancient ruins of the Mausoleo di Augusto. characterize Elena’s work in postwar Italy This long-lasting interest in public markets is the public Market. and cemeteries though, does not conclude After the 1933 experience in Piazza Elena Luzzatto’s work, that is also based Principe di Napoli (Rome), she will on private commissions for houses, villas continue to concive different kinds of and various interiors. This second markets. The first occasion arrives in the production is still widely unkonwn, and a early 1950s, with a national competition further deepening is required. for Pescara’s Central Market. Besides this clarification, we can add only The project -signed by the team Lombardi- one interesting information: some of her Luzzatto-Pellizzari- is one of the most most important clients were psychiatrists, appreciated for its clarity, winning a due to the fact that for most of her life she second place35. The plan is a square-shape was in their care. building on three different levels, with a In fact, since early age, she was affected great void in the center, for the fresh by a form of agoraphobia, that prevented goods. The group also thinks a series of her a calm and serene frequentation of big well-detailed solutions either for the small crowds. One of her best friend was Nicola shops all round the central area, as well as Perotti, a worldwide known psychiatrist, a series of light structures (steel and for whom she also built a house in his plastic panels) for the ‘fruits and hometown, Penne (Abruzzo region)37. vegetables’ shops, at the center of the plaza36.

Some of these ideas will be also used in the Public Market of Primavalle (Via Some Conclusions Sant’Igino Papa, Rome), in 1950, built by Elena Luzzatto Valentini and the Town It is a fact that Elena Luzzatto’s fortune did Planning Office. The concrete structure is never occured, even if she worked and now completely shown outside: a series of knew many of the most influencial protagonists of her time. Only in 1983, a few months before her death (occured in 33 G.P. Youngman, “International Conference on august 1988), the Roman Board of Landscape architecture, London, August 1948”, Institute of Lanscape Architects Journal 14 Architects dedicate her a small and partial (1948/11), 15. retrospective of her work, the first Italian 34 B. Guccione, “La Storia dell'AIAPP, Associazione female architect. Italiana di Architettura del Paesaggio”, Notiziario AIAPP 12 (1988), 12. 35 Bizzotto, Chiumenti, Muntoni, 50 anni di professione, 141. 37 Monica Prencipe, Interview with Mauro Ferroni, 36 Private Archive Mauro Ferroni, Rome 15 July 2016.

239 Everything written after 1983 is mainly G.P. Youngman, “International Conference based on this catalogue. on Landscape architecture, London, In july 2016 it’s finally found part of Elena August 1948”, Institute of Lanscape Luzzatto’s private archive, held by her Architects Journal 14 (1948), 2-16. nephew Mauro Ferroni, since she did not have any children during her life. This Luigi Vagnetti, Graziella Dall'Osteria (eds.), material is now at the attention of the La Facoltà di Architettura di Roma nel suo local Soprintendenza Archivistica, in order trentacinquesimo anno di vita: anno to start the necessary cataloguing accademico 1954-55. Rome: Facoltà di operations, as a base for any further Architettura, 1955. deepening. This material is also improved by the new opening of the Archivio Privato Roberto Gabetti, Plinio Marconi, dell’Albo degli Architetti di Roma e “L’insegnamento del sistema didattico provincia, with the original panels made franco-italiano (1789-1922)”, Controspazio for the 1983 exhibition. This core could 3-6-9-10/11 (1971). today be considered the beginning of a Renata Bizzotto, Luisa Chiumenti, progressive rediscovery of Elena Luzzatto’s Alessandra Muntoni (eds.), 50 anni di architecture. professione. Rome: edizioni Kappa, 1983. Finally, deepening her work as modern female architect, is also a way to reflect Biagio Guccione, “La Storia dell'AIAPP, upon the lack of some elements, usually Associazione Italiana di Architettura del present (and highly usefull) in an historical Paesaggio”, Notiziario AIAPP 12 (1988), interpretetation: first of all a complete 12-23. absence from any contemporary magazine (with the esclusion of the 1935 article Guido Zucconi, La città contesa. Dagli written by the femal critic Anna Maria ingegneri sanitari agli urbanisti (1885- Speckel) and –last but not least- a certain 1942). Milan: Jaca book, 1989; personal misunderstanding of her value in her own contest. This is one of the reasons Renata Bizzotto, Luisa Chiumenti, why today we are left with a very small Alessandra Muntoni (eds.), part of Elena Luzzatto’s work, because she Architectonicum: vite professionali did not considered it valuable and she was parallele 1920-1980, vol. I. Rome: not interested in conserving a private Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, 1992. archive. This is a truthfull consideration on women Victoria De Grazia, Le donne nel regime in architecture in twentieth century, fascista, Marsilio, Venezia 1993. always trying to find an indipendent and Francesco Dal Co (ed.), Storia strong position in the world, but dell’architettura italiana. Il secondo sometimes not well conscious of her own Novecento. Milan: Electa 1997. value. Guido Zucconi (ed.), Gustavo Giovannoni. Bibliography Dal Capitello alla città. Milan: Jaca book, 1997. Anna Maria Speckel, “Architettura moderna e donne architette”, Almanacco Annalisa Marinelli, “Vanda una comunità della donna italiana (1935), 120-134. accademica femminile”, Controspazio 1 (2000), 78-80.

240 Katrin Cosseta, Ragione e sentimento non basta”, Storia delle donne 8 (2012), dell'abitare. La casa e l'architettura nel 185-197. pensiero femminile tra le due guerre. Milan: Franco Angeli, 2000. Laura Marcucci (ed.), L’altra modernità nella cultura architettonica del XX secolo. Gisella Bassanini, “Le prime laureate in Rome: Gangemi, 2012. architettura: alcuni ritratti femminili nel panorama italiano e straniero”, in A. M. Dina Nencini, “Elena Luzzatto Valentini, Galbani (ed.), Donne politecniche. Atti del Annarella Luzzatto Gabrielli, Cultura Convegno e Catalogo della mostra. Milano romana tra arte professione e accademia”, (Milano: Libri Scheiweller, 2001), 24-33. in Maria Grazia Eccheli, Mina Tamborrino (eds.), DonnArchitettura. pensieri, idee, Ida Faré, “Ragione e sentimento femminile forme al femminile. Milano: Franco Angeli, della casa”, Controspazio 2 (2001), 16-19. Milano 2014, 70-73.

Sonja Dümpelmann, “Maria Teresa Maria Letizia Mancuso (eds.), L’Archivio Parpagliolo Shephard (1903-1974). Her storico dell’ordine degli Architetti PPC di development as a Landscape Architect Roma e Provincia (1926-1956). Guidonia: between tradition and Modernism”, CSC Grafica, 2015. Garden History, vol.30, n.1 (spring 2002), 49-73.

Giorgio Ciucci, Giorgio Muratore (eds.), Archives Storia dell’architettura italiana. Il primo Archivio privato Mauro Ferroni, Rome. Novecento. Milan: Electa 2004. Archivio storico dell’ordine degli Architetti PPC Sonja Dümpelmann, Teresa Parpagliolo di Roma e Provincia, Rome. Shephard (1903-1974). Ein Beitrag Entwicklung der Gardenkultur in Italien im Archivio Capitolino, Rome, Fondo Ispettorato 20. Jahnhundert. Weimar: VDG, 2004. Edilizio.

Alessia Bianco, “Donne in Architettura: Sophia Gregoria Hayden, quando “tutto”

241 Italy-England 1946–1960 Maria Teresa Parpagliolo Shephard, Landscape beyond Borders

Lucia Krasovec Lucas

After her important experience started 1953, the site conditions were of ground with the project of gardens and parks for sodden with sea water, overlaid with sand the E42 in Rome with Pietro Porcinai and and strewn with broken sea defences. All Raffaele De Vico, Maria Teresa Parpagliolo vegetation was killed, even because of the Shephard moved in England, in 1946, frequent severe east wind. The problems after her marriage with Ronald Shephard. was to re-establish plant life and bring At time, she was yet well known in back the sea-side attraction, on which the London, and in the European community livelihood of the community depended, of landscape architects, as contributor for with the least possible delay. In 1954, Landscape & Garden (1) and The Journal parts of the gardens were in use in early of Landscape Architects, and for her summer and were officially opened at the participations in the International beginning of August. meetings of Landscape Architects in This first English experience of Parpagliolo Germany, Sweden, France, England. Shephard was strongly important for her Maria Teresa Parpagliolo started working future landscape projects. The in England, becoming known as Maria or acknowledgement of modelling surfaces Marie Shephard. However, she remained and the use of different materials was very always in deep contact with Italian useful for her professional growth, and it architects, especially in Rome and would be clear in the expression of the Florence. (2) gardening language she would later used. An early project of Parpagliolo Shephard The Mablethorpe’ projects (1946-1955) – was to assist Sylvia Crowe to draw up Sutton Pleasure Gardens, Bohemia plans for the renovation of sand dunes, Caravan Camp and Dune Gardens, were as and the development of a series of public a result of a strong understanding of a parks at Mablethorpe in Lincolnshire, and place and how to work on: whale-backed Sutton on Sea. One preliminary report on plateau consisting of sand and broken planting conditions of the area started in concrete, the curved terrace, the garden 1946 for the Urban District Council. (3) as a long lawn, contoured in waves, and In December 1946, Sylvia Crowe (1901- flowing up to the dunes, with planting and 1997) wrote an evidence supporting the seating bays on each side, were elements opinion that the proposed measures for able to design aesthetic and functional Dune Gardens will be successful. The aspects. (5) general idea was the building up of dunes The principal plants and wind screen were: and the reconsolidation by Marram grass, Acer Pseudo-Platanus, Huppophae, that have been yet carried out with Crataegus monogyna, Prunus communis, success both in England and Denmark, Salix vitellina, populus canescens. Holland, Germany and Northern Ireland. Huppophae, Tamarix, Euonymus Japonica, Also, she suggested to plant Thorn, Elder Olearia Haastii, Senecio greyi, Eryngium, and Privet, as trees that can grow on the Centranthus, Statice latifoglia, Armeria sand dunes (4). After the inundation of and Santolina, and for paths: Breedon

242 gravel. In sheltered parts were: roses, reflected a change of focus for a herbaceous plants; Garden: Roses, profession more concerned with everyday herbaceous, Tamarix, Olearia haastii, life and hygiene than garden design. Genista hispanica; Curated by Frank H. Clark (1902-1971) (8), About materials, for terraces were used Maria Teresa Parpagliolo Shephard and concrete paving, part coloured, and Khaki Geoffrey Jellicoe (1900-1996) (9), on a colorcrete in various finishes, exposed tight budget, the exhibition nevertheless aggregate – cobble – asphalte; and for featured materials from 13 countries on ccess road, tarmacadam. display from 10 to 21 August. The London The materials used for walls & colonnade conference and exhibition recorded the were: formal walls reinforced concrete, development of prewar ideals and their finished with cementone, rough retaining application to the reality of “rock face” walling re-inforced concrete reconstruction, the planning of new (shuttered with corrugated iron) finished towns, and land reclamation. Parpagliolo snowcem, and, for the pergola, white Shephard, a former supporter to the Third painted metal barrel. For pools: reinforced Reich landscape planning policies, concrete, Rim finished wooden bumper- presented her Roman work board and looped road. simultaneously in to the sections of Italy The 1948 founding of International under her maiden name, and Great Federation of Landscape Architects, or Britain, under her married name of M.T. IFLA, resulted from meetings held in Shephard. The differences about her London and Oxford – England, the same name, generates sometime mistakes and year. As Parpagliolo Shephard wrote, it difficulties to identify her contributions, as was a memorable year, marking a papers as works. Infact, in 1967, she wrote definitive turning point for the Institute.(6) a note in the Members Notes Section of Discussions centered on the mission of the Journal of the Institute of Landscape landscape architecture, its relations to Architects (10), to explain her identity. garden design and planning. The London On Building, about the exhibit, she wrote: conference took place between 9 and 11 “Landscape architecture is not only a August and focused on the theme “The science, but also an art. Its ultimate aim is Work of the Landscape Architect in to create beauty, and beauty is based on Relation of Society”, thus hinting at a two things, sensibility and perfect departure from the rule of aesthetic technique. Sensibility is a quality which is consultant for the elite. From Italy, the now almost old-fashioned, but it is in delegates present at the International essence that feeling which enables the Landscape Architects Conference at artist to grasp the essential structural County Hall, probably invited by basis of a composition; or, in other words, Parpagliolo Shephard, were: professor to develop its inherent ‘form’. Technique is Pietro Porcinai (1910-1986) from Firenze, an extension of this quality into the Elena Romoli Luzzato (1900-1983), with practical business of giving it expression. her husband Felice Romoli, from Rome. (…) The introductory screen of the Copiously delegates went from Austria, Exhibition, at County Hall, explained that Chile, Denmark, great Britain, Holland, the work of this profession generally takes Norway, Poland, Spain, Sweden, place in collaboration with the town Switzerland and USA.(7) planner, the architect, the engineer and Even the concurrent exhibition entitled the sociologist. And the results of this “Landscape of Work and Leisure”, team-work between the members of these

243 professions were illustrated by the After the exhibition on public landscaping excellent examples shown by such (1948), Clark and Parpagliolo Shephard countries as Sweden, Denmark, became two of the four landscape Switzerland, Poland, America and our own consultant for 1951 Festival of Britain, country. (…) Used to dealing with the slow held at the South Bank in London, Clark growth of plants, it realizes that, when being the overall coordinator (13). The planting has been done well, the reward Festival celebrated modern design and the will be sure even if it takes time. For this influence of science and was grounded in reason it looks to the future with high the 18th-century notion of Picturesque. hope.”(11) The naturalistic approach to landscape Even in England, and all over the world, design is probably England’s most landscape architecture was a young important contribution to the visual arts, profession, though based on an old and the informal tree planting, the use of tradition. One of the main objects that the water, and of natural walling and paving Institute of Landscape Architects, or ILA, throughout the South Bank illustrate this was tried to fulfil, since its foundation in preoccupation. 1929, was to establish a better training in The landscape of South Bank was this field. At time, Reading, Durham (1949) conceived as being part and parcel of and London (1949), had all their landscape architecture. Architects and landscape faculties. Shephard participated actively at architects worked as a team under Sir the Education Committees, held in London Hugh Casson (1910-1999), director of during the Fifties and managed by ILA. Architecture to the Exhibition to create a Marie T. Shephard started soon to work consciously designed townscape in the for the Institute and the Journal. In 1949 informal English tradition. Peter she wrote the Editorial (signed (A) Hon. Shepheard (1913-2002) was landscape Editor.) on the International Conference architect for the area downstream of and Exhibition of 1948 and the Hungerford Bridge; upstream, the Lectureships at Durham and London Concourse area, was by Clark and Universities.(12) Parpagliolo Shephard, and the rest by Among others echoes of the Conference, Peter Youngman (1911-2005). and reviews, she noticed that “(…) a first The Regatta Restaurant, with one side on meeting has been held in Italy for the the river Thames and beside Hungerford Establishment of a professional institute Bridge, had a capacity for 500 people; the under the stimulus received from the space had a panoramic view of the London conference.” And this, mostly by Thames and Westminster beyond. It was her, will happen in Italy only in Seventy decorated with furnishing and tableware years. derived from patterns taken from She was also influenced by her collegues crystallography, led by Cambridge and ILA members as Sylvia Crowe, Brenda crystallographer Helen Megaw (1907- Colvin (1897-1981), Frank H. Clark, and in 2002). Chairs designed by Ernest Race general by the interests of the Institute of (1913-1964) for the Festival, the Antelope Landscape Architects, about themes as: and Springbok constructed of steel rods roads in the landscape, trees in the street stove-enamelled white, filled the cafè and and in the landscape, the Japanese restaurants of the South Bank. Used gardens, the projects of Roberto Burle internally and externally in exhibitions, Marx (1909-1994). All this will influence they removed the barrier between indoor Shephard in all her projects. and outdoor furnishing. (14) The building

244 of the Regatta Restaurant has a quasi- Shephard has done a magnificent job here science theme based on molecules and in her unremitting supervision of, not crystals with a garden space surrounded indeed daily, but almost hourly clearing on three sides. Shephard, now liberated up. (…) pools with fountains seemed to from pre-war fascism, responded by come off rather better than those without designing a large amoeba bed inside its them.” (18) square pond onto which she planted a The South Bank was the focus of a mature zelkova tree as a focal point. (15). national post-war festival and thus this “Owing to the very heavy pressure of garden at the Regatta Restaurant was visitors on space, the various gardens particularly significant. Its landscape themselves are not open to the public; demonstrated the strong contribution they are barriers, vistas, or set pieces of landscape architects could make to public one kind or another with water often used spaces. Once more, the lesson of the (as in historical designs) as a hazard.”. (16) South Bank was the value of a This organic form with its swirling gravel multidisciplinary approach working and low foliage planting was probably together as a team. influenced by Roberto Burle Marx’s roof Commissions continued with Clark and the garden in Rio de Janeiro from 1937, London County Council. However in 1954 published in architectural periodicals. (17) Maria was appointed landscape consultant There were a fountain, marginal plants, for the Italian company Generale and a sculpture by Lynn R. Chadwick Immobiliare, they had a common office in (1914-2003). The garden could be viewed London – 46 Well Walk L. NW3 and 3 Lake from a variety of levels, within the glass Close Lake Road L. SW19, as Clark and fronted building as well as a series of Shephard – Landscape Architects. (19) In lightweight external stairs and terraces. In any case, Maria Shephard had always her contrast to this dazzlingly modern office in Rome in via Marianna Dionigi 29. statement, the internal jungle garden The influence of the English culture trend Parpagliolo Shephard designed, with its in the postwar era is clear in the Picturesque theme, was based on a pool Parpagliolo’s projects, which she and anchoring alder tree. participated actively in the international The scheme relied on lush and dense debates on it. Her associate Frank H. Clark, shade-tolerant and humid-loving plants to that was President of ILA in 1954, give an impression of primordial published a lot of articles on the Journal of vegetation, overlooked by an open-air at ILA and Country Life, about: “Man and the ground level. Landscape”, “The Sense of Beauty in the Clark and Parpagliolo Shephard created 18th, 19th, and 20th Centuries”, the illusion of a primeval forest in a “Landscape Architecture in New Towns”, narrow space, between the back of the “New Landscape Gardening”, “Trees”, etc. People of Britain pavilion, and the vast In 1959 R. W. Rose wrote an article (20) on brick wall of the railway bridge. Betula, the insufficient cooperation and exchange Dicksoniana and Arundinaria formed the of ideas between the engineering and canopy planting with astilbe, grasses, planning institutions and the ILA, and the ferns, and ivy as ground cover. As Sheila fault of the Institution that was not forging M. Haywood wrote, “The garden by Frank a strong link between the professions. The Clark and Marie Shephard, upon which one constitution of the ILA included, among its looks down from an elegant flight of steps, objects, “the advancement of the Art of is particularly successful. (…) Marie Landscape Architecture, and the theory

245 and practice of garden, landscape and out five questions on the field, still actually civic design”. today, as: how to revitalize the lost About the Public Works Congress, held in interest on landscape; how to establish November 1958, she wrote that twenty- the difference between garden design and two papers were being presented by landscape design; how to relate gardens Institutions representing almost all to architecture without being a technical and professional, apart ILA, compensation of it; how to manage the although at least four of the papers being limes between city and country in the new presented deal with landscape problems. era, and how architecture and landscape In the article, there are two pictures and a could help the creation of a continuous plan of Mrs. Maria T. Shephard works in urban landscape of tomorrow. Italy. He concluded: “Our culture is in a state of Vigna Clara, with a view of the terraced crisis. Someone must lead out of this. Will garden on the North side slope: the area it be the Town Planner or thee Architect? was so restricted and so steep that the Perhaps Landscape Architects will do this only way was to build on several terraces leading, if they are able to rise above their of different sizes of which the largest is big professional routine to give a modern enough for a volley ball playground and dimension to their art” another one has a hard surfaced bowling In 1963, Parpagliolo Shephard began green. landscaping the new Hilton Hotel (now the All the trees were mature specimens Roma Cavalieri) on Monte Mario in Rome. prepared and transplanted two years She designed a serpentine drive, now the before. trade entrance, which snaked up through The Casal Palocco project was a communal the grounds to the entrance circle, playground which will be owned and used allowing a quieter experience on the by ten families whose private gardens and terraces and rooms looking over the houses close it on the three sides. Play gardens and city. Today the garden appear facilities for children and adults were timeless and natural whilst the hotel, a provided: tennis court, bowling green, cutting-edge at the time, appears dated. minigolf, dancing platform, volley ball, etc. The Rome Hilton is sited on Monte Mario During the end of Fifties and the Sixties, on the right bank of the Tiber overlooking the debate about the importance of the the town. (22) Originally this area was one landscape architecture in projects of any of Roma’s Papal defences against the size, was discussed in every congress nationalist forces in the wars for organized by IFLA all around Europe, and independence from 1848 to 1870. more. The Società Generale Immobiliare bought In 1962 an article condensed the paper the abandoned fort in the 1930’s for given by Prof. Bruno Zevi (1918-2000) to future development. The Hilton Hotels the IFLA Congress in Israel, held in the Company agreed with the SGI on a same year.(21) Zevi talked about the combined venture to use the site for the importance of the history of landscape as Rome Hilton, and presented their first well as the study of the development of scheme about 1954-55. towns, for a more complete After prolonged and heated debates, the understanding of the history of City of Rome in 1958 granted license to environment, in sympathy with the wide build, provided the three following points field of design was required, in modern were taken into account: the roof level of times, of the creative professions. Zevi put the building had to be kept at 137 m.a.s.l.

246 (Monte Mario Observatory was at 155 placed in immediate proximity with the m.a.s.l.); the new construction must be city, and furthermore, communicating blended into the Monte Mario skyline; through the glass partitions with the two hills reaching 120 m.a.s.l. had to be external spaces which are disposed round built before building was started; a green quadrangle with a pool of water evergreen trees 17 m. high had to be which constitutes the point of greatest planted before the building was going to luminosity, and the ideal visual centre for emerge. the further developments of any kind. The The area of about 5 hectares has two square courtyard is completely glassed in access roads, one at 110 m.a.s.l., the other all around, with a garden which below at 88 m.a.s.l. But what with the constitutes the focal point of the whole space asked by the Hilton people and the ground floor, the point to which the height limit imposed by the City Authority, perspective lines converge and centre of the building extended sideways and had to attraction for the surrounding spaces. (24) be sunk into the ground for two floors. The patio is one of the hopeful ideas of an The hills were built with the excavated architect. It is seen from all the main halls, soil. No top soil was saved. There were no and yet it is the most awkward place for trees on the site, apart from a group of plants to live in: damp, dark with no Aleppo Pines, which have been kept on circulation of air, since no door can be left their old stand, and 5 Casuarina open even in summer because of the air Tenuissima. Of these, a Casuarina 18 m. conditioning. The suggestion to have it high had to be prepared and transplanted. paved met with a firm denial. Green it had It is now one of the features of the front to be. terraces of the Hotel. (23) There were no trees on the site, apart The area that had to be landscaped for the from one old cedar (C. Atlantica), and all RAI new offices in 1966 consisted of three the planting had to be carried out on a strips of ground along three roads, the concrete platform (the roof on the largest being on the front facing viale underground services and garages, except Mazzini, plus a patio in the centre. The for one olive tree. Unfortunately most of palace of the Headquarters of the state the ventilation shafts and the ducts for the radio and television company RAI is a air-conditioning system were sited in the building placed in Rome, not so much on largest planting area. The depth of soil the Viale Mazzini itself, as happened with allowed was 40 cm. (1 ft. 3 i.). but an even more severe design of the highest Berarducci insisted on having trees at least quality of the “Rinascente” building by as high as the first floor windows. Luckily Franco Albini (1905-1977), in accordance the soil load had been very generously with a declared intention to impose a considered so that mounds could be piled principle that would be valid for further up where the trees had to stand, giving a town planning projects, on an area more undulating earth modelling. anonymous and devoid of all meaning. Maria Teresa Parpagliolo Shephard started Francesco Berarducci ( 1924-1992), to design the garden in the patio, designer of the building, demonstrates conscious that a good drainage is with his work a cultural consciousness that essential. With such a restricted depth of freed him from manneristic displays on soil, it was necessary to find a material the one hand and conceptions of a thin enough but able to secure a clear flow monumental kind on the other. It is a of water either from rain or irrigation. group of buildings of primary functions, Roman tiles were finally chosen, placed on

247 contiguous rows towards the outlets, with The project reveals the international gravel filling the ridges between the rows. experience of Parpagliolo Shephard and The difficulty in using such a breakable how she was opened to experiments and material arose when three of the four receptive to new trends in landscape olives had to be planted. These were trees design. The geometrical organisation of of about 60/80 years old, with branches plants and paths highlights the influence 5/6 m x 5/6 m, and a root ball 1 m depth x of Japanese gardens, which had a 1 m diameter at the tree collar. substantial interest from the member of Preparation and transplanting was done in ILA (26), and Parpagliolo’s endeavours to one continuous operation in May. The tiles employ cross-cultural references and and gravel were placed first were the trees contemporary design in her works. had to stand; over them a thin layer of The garden has a square shape with the soil. side of about 15 meters overlooking the The trees, moved by crane to the site, lobby. It’s original design shows species were carefully lowed. Then before the soil belonging to the “flora classica” and low could be piled up, stone walls were built herbaceous ground, inserted wisely in a to contain the mound of ventilation shafts main modular grid of 5 meters, of which were near. Next the rose of tiles were one third is a water basin, where flows the placed over the whole surface and water of the artist’s bronze fountain immediately covered by good soil of high Federico Brook (1933-). Fifteen years ago humus content. Once the soil is in position the garden was restored by making many walking and planting does not harm to the changes, unfortunately breaking the tiles underneath. philosophical concept of the project. No staking was necessary, the weight of During the Fifties and Sixties, only the root ball was being such that the trees exceptionally it was a consultant once placed did not move. These olive landscape architect brought in trees, pruned back each year, seem not to architectural projects, as when Brenda mind the air that blows out of the Colvin and Sylvia Crowe participated in the ventilation ducts. The same applies to post-war Hertfordshire ‘Schools Planting Cotoneaster horizontalis, Juniperus Programme’. Maria Teresa Parpagliolo pfitzeriana and tamarisccifolia, Yucca Shephard and Frank Clark’s landscaping of aloeffolia. But Verbena pulchella on the the Festival of Britain site inspired many retaining walls disappeared completely British landscape architects and may help after the first year. The plants chosen after explain the decision of the London County one unsuccessful attempt are: Council to commission the pair to design Dichodendra repens as a carpeter, small the grounds of a number of new primary leaved ivy, gardenias, rhododendrons and schools in south London. (27) These azaleas in their own peat filled pits, one include Horn Park Primary School, hazel, a few Japanese maples. All plants Greenacres Primary School and Kidbrook tend to grow upwards, drawn by the sky Park Primary School, all in Eltham; 12 floor above, become spindly and need Glenbrook Primary School in Lambeth; continuous pruning and checking. To Sulivan Primary School in Fulham, and relieve the uniform green aquarium-like Langbourne Primary School in Dulwich. atmosphere, sedimental rocks of a golden (28) colour were placed in the patio, their shapes almost modern abstracts. (25)

248 Notes and the methods to be employed in the reclamation and (1) Maria Teresa Parpagliolo, “Garden development of the sand-dunes Theatre at Villa Reale di Marlia, north of Mablethorpe town Near Lucca”, Landscape & Garden, centre”, Reading Museum Archive, Vol. 1, 1934, n. 3, pages 28-29; Folder AR CRO PF7A/8. She was a Maria Terese Parpagliolo, “The member of ILA, and his office at Lost Gardens of Pompei”, time was in 28 Baker Street, W.1. Landscape & Garden, Vol. 1, 1934, n. 4, pages 24-27; Maria Teresa (5) “Work in Progress. A Scheme Parpagliolo, “18th Century Italian Prepared for the Urban District Villas”, Landscape & Garden, Vol. Council of Mabletthorpe and 2, 1935, n. 2, pages 45-48; Maria Sutton on Sea”, Journal of the Theresa Parpagliolo, “A Roof Institute of Landscape Architects, Garden in Milan”, Landscape & 1957-March, pages 10-13. Garden, Vol. 3, 1936, n. 1, pages 34-35. (6) Marie T. Shephard (A), Hon. Editor, “Editorial”, Journal of the (2) “Rome. For members who wish to Institute of Landscape Architects, spend a few weeks studying or 1949-April, n. 15, page 2. sightseeing in Rome, a self – contained furnished studio (two (7) “List of Delegates Present at beds, bathroom, small dressing- International Conference”, Journal room with built-in wardrobe and of the Institute of Landscape cupboards, stove (wood), electric Architects, November-1948, n. 14, tea kettle, toaster and cooking pages 14-15. Marie T. Shephard is ring, drawing table and easel, included in the list of Great Britain small terrace) is to be let delegates, as member of the fortnightly or monthly. Details Institute of Landscape Architects. from Marie T. Shephard, 2-4 Tudor Street, E.C.4. (Telephone: CENtral (8) F. H. Clark was a teacher and 9154)”, Journal of the Institute of authority on the 18th century Landscape Architect, 1949- English landscape garden, October, n. 16, page 12. publishing in 1948, The English Landscape Garden. By the late (3) Sylvia Crowe “Preliminary Report 1950s he was one of the most on Planting Conditions on the distinguished Modernist Sutton – Mablethorpe Coast, landscapists active in Britain, and prepared for O.A. Jellicoe”, President of the Institute of the December 12,1946, Reading Landscape Architecture. He was a Museum Archive, Folder AR CRO lecturer at Reading University until PF7A/8. 1959, and in July 1959 he was appointed senior lecturer for (4) Sylvia Crowe, “Mablethorpe and landscape architecture at the new Sutton-on-Sea. Report for architecture department at the submission to the Ministry of University of Edinburgh by Robert Health on the scope of thee plan Matthew, whom he had first met

249 whole working with the Festival (14) Lady M. Allen of Hurtwood, Susan of Britain team. He directed the Jellicoe, The Things we See: new landscape architecture Gardens, n. E07, Penguin Books, postgraduate diploma course Harmondsworth, 1949-1953. which was set up in 1962. (15) Harriet Atkinson, Mary Banham, (9) Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe was one of The Festival of Britain: A Land and the 20th century’s leading Its People, I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd, landscape architects with a career London-New York, 2012 spanning almost seventy years. A trained architect, town planner, (16) Great Exhibition. The Festival of landscape architect and garden Britain, 1951, Official Book, 11|27, designer, his interest was in Reading Museum Archive. Guide landscape design, describing it as to the Exhibition of Architecture, “the mother of all arts”. 10|15, edited by H. McG. Durnett, Reading Museum Archive. Regatta (10) “Maria Teresa Shephard (F) (Mrs. Restaurant was designed by Misha Ronald Shephard) wishes to state Black (1910-1977), with Alexander that she is not Mary Shepheard Gibson, of the Design Research (Mrs. Peter Shepheard) and her Unit – DRU, one of the most addresses are: The Four Winds significant post-war design Garden Cottage, Lynchmere, near practise in Europe. Haslemere, Surrey, or via Marianna Dionigi 29, 00193 Rome, (17) Articles, such as those that follow, Italy”. Announcement in the probably inspired Parpagliolo section “Members Notes”, Journal Shephard in her landscape of the Institute of Landscape gardens design: William McCance, Architects, n. 80, November-1967, H. Frank Clark, “The Influence of page 4. Ronald Shepheard was Cubism on Garden Design”, The another very important landscape Architectural Review, 1960-March, architect of the Institute. pages 112-117. H. Frank Clark, “Reflections on Burle Marx”, (11) Marie T. Shephard, A.I.L.A., Journal of the Institute of “Landscape of Work and Leisure”, Landscape Architects, 1956-July, n. Building, Vol. XXIII, n. 9, 36, pages 12-18. “A Garden in September-1948, pages 271-274. Caracas, by Roberto Burle Marx”, Journal of the Institute of (12) Marie T. Shephard, Journal of The Landscape Architects, 1964- Institute of landscape Architects, February, n. 65, pages 5-8. 1949-April, n. 15, page 2. (18) Sheila M. Haywood, Planting (13) Kristina Taylor, Women garden Design at South Bank, Journal of designers, 1900 to present, The Institute of landscape Garden Art Press, Woodbridge- Architects, 1951-July, pages 6-9. Suffolk, England, 2015. (19) Parpagliolo Shephard was also involved by Clark in the Education

250 Committee for the University of Reading, managed by the Institute (24) Giuseppe Mazzariol, Francesco of Landscape Architects (with G.P. Berarducci, Marziano Bernardi, Un Youngman, B. Colvin, H. edificio per la RAI, Alfieri editore, Richmond, S. Crowe, T.F. Venezia, 1967 Thomson, B. Hackett, T. Sharp, K. Booth); see Letters of Clark to (25) “The Radio-TV New Office Douglas Brown, Secretary of ILA. Building, Rome. Architect: Marie T. July 30th, 1954, Reading Museum Shephard”, Journal of the Institute Archive, Folder SR LI AO 2/2/1/22. of Landscape Architects, 1969- August, n. 87, pages 18-19. (20) R.W. Rose, “Engineers, Planners and the Institute of Landscape (26) Jeremy Dodd, “Stone Gardens”. Architects”, Journal of The Akira Sato, “Rural Landscape in Institute of Landscape Architects, Japan”. Gordon Patterson, 1959- May, n. 46, pages 6-9. “Japanese Tour”. Journal of the Institute of Landscape Architects, (21) Bruno Zevi, “A Modern Dimension 1964-August, n. 67, pages 8-10, of Landscape Architecture”, 11-14, 16-17. Journal of The Institute of landscape Architects, 1962- (27) Geraint Franklin, Elain Harwood, November, n. 60, pages 18-19. Simon Taylor, Matthew Whitfield, Bruno Zevi was at time Professor “England Schools 1962-88. a of Architectural History at the Thematic Study, research Report University of Venice, and editor of Series 33-2012”, English Heritage, “L’Architettura”. Portsmouth, UK, page 88.

(22) Kristina Taylor, op. cit. Chapter: (28) Sonja Dümpelmann, Maria Teresa “Maria Teresa Parpagliolo Parpagliolo Shephard (1903-1974): Shephard (1903-1974)”, pages Ein Beitrag zur Entwicklung der 112-117 Gartenkultur in Italien im 20. Jahrjundert. Weimar: Verlag und (23) “The Rome Hilton. Landscape. Datenbank für Architect: Marie T. Shephard”, Geisteswissenschaften, VDG Journal of the Institute of Weimar, 2004. Landscape Architects, 1969- August, n. 87, pages 15-17.

251 Architect Juta Krulc, garden designer (1913-2015) Maja Kržišnik

Juta Krulc was among the first architects acquainted with botany and knew how to who graduated from the Faculty of draw plans. Juta Krulc was fascinated by Architecture in Ljubljana, she completed the work, learning from nature which she her studies within Professor Vurnik class in loved and building good fundaments for 1937, with a thesis “Outdoor Swimming her further work. Professor Jeglič guided Pool Facility in Radovljica”. Although the and encouraged his staff to expend their topic could imply that during her studies knowledge of indigenous flora. In his she had already showed a knack for books, numerous promotional lectures positioning architecture into the and articles he tried to express his landscape, she was particularly drawn by thoughts and feelings in the spirit of his studying interior design1. After graduating idol Izidor Cankar2, which also reflected in she lived and worked in Belgrade, his descriptions of the planned planting. designed houses and surveyed their With his words Jeglič wanted to stimulate construction. After returning to Ljubljana the awareness, desire and a sense of after World War II she decided for a shift landscape architecture as well as in her life, a new beginning was needed. introducing professional terminology at Since the love of botany always the same time. His concise expression left accompanied her she began to draw traces in the description of the planting of flowers, first for herself, then for the Juta Krulc3. At that time mainly foresters Hydrometeorological Institute, where later and agronomists were still involved in she was entrusted the drawing of the creating gardens in Slovenia. In the first Phenological Atlas (published in Belgrade half of the twentieth century in Slovenia in 1955). gardens were arranged by Cecil Pinsent, During the work she met Professor Ciril Georg Potente and Ilse Fischerauer4. Jeglič, a pioneer of horticulture and Occasionally few architects were involved landscape architecture in Slovenia, a with designing gardens, as both professor at the newly founded professors, Ivan Vurnik and Jože Plečnik, Department of Landscape Architecture at like their students (in particular Gizela the Biotechnical Faculty in Ljubljana and Šuklje, Katarina Grasselli).5 he offered her a position of an assistant When Juta Krulc left the Faculty in 1957, for the course “Horticulture and landscape the profession of landscape architecture dendrology”. The young architect, was in its early days. However, the basis involved in the planning and she obtained studying in the seminar of implementation of planting within an professor Vurnik and the work with extremely extensive project of Volčji Potok Arboretum, was faced with new 2 Bogo Zupančič, Usode ljubljanskih stavb in ljudi challenges. Getting to know the technique (Ljubljana: KUD Polis, 2008), 94. 3 Juta Krulc, »Predvrt podeželske hiše« , Rože in vrt of horticulture, the history of the I, May 25, 2002, 16. emergence of gardens; she was only well 4 Gojko Zupan, Gledati, videti, razumeti, čutiti: Življenje z vrtovi (exhibition catalogue, Ljubljana, Galerija Dessa, 2015). 1 Polona Mlakar Baldasin and Matevž Granda, 5 Fran Šijanec, Sodobna slovenska likovna »Dotik z zemljo pomirja«, Hiše 76 (2013), 102. umetnost (Maribor: Obzorja, 1961), 472.

252 professor Jeglič in Volčji Potok Arboretum church and continued to the villa. The new was a good fundament for her further plan of greening largely kept the old work. There was very little professional layout but it wanted to enlighten the park literature and one had to get organized with a new life, and to provide a firm and rely on his own exploration. There foothold for further growth.8 After was almost no work in this field, only few thorough cleaning traces of the original urban reconstruction sites included the baroque arrangement of the park were planting of public areas and even fewer revealed with splendid scenic overlook to private investors for their garden designs. the sea, the scarp walls and staircases of grey local stone were cleaned. New trees and Mediterranean plants were planted; I. roses climbed over the pergola, which was Among the early works in the period supported by columns of white Istrian between 1958 and 1968, the most stone9, the original road alignment was important work is certainly planting Tartini preserved. Unfortunately the plan of the Villa Park (1958). Working there Juta Krulc park was not preserved, but its author first got acquainted with Mediterranean remembered it very well, because the vegetation, which she grew very fond of. work had taken several years. It required The coastal region was among the close cooperation with costal gardeners Slovenian public still largely undiscovered who knew the natural laws of the local and unknown world, the valuation of its flora, which grew in different conditions cultural and natural heritage was at the and climate. At that time there were only beginning. Tartini Villa with accompanying few nurseries in Primorska even with outbuildings and the church were fewer plants for sale. demolished and replaced by a new The designer of the park tackled it with all protocol building, which was planned by due respect to its original form in her architect Vinko Glanz 6 between 1958 and intuitive and, above all, creative attitude 1964. The park itself was heavily to cultural heritage, as in our country the overgrown and abandoned since nobody evaluation of historic parks and gardens lived in the villa after the death of the last began to develop just half a century later. owner in 19067. The new facility kept the Later Juta Krulc got in touch with a location of the villa from the early 18th historical garden also with a plan for the century, which was carefully placed and revitalization of Plečnik's garden at protected from the weather impacts and Karunova 4 in Ljubljana (first in 1986 and was likely to continue the ancient later in 2002). Unfortunately, the construction of the coastal area. The entry realization of her plan did not occur. to the property was ascending from the In 1960 a plan for planting a park in front pier up the stairs through the terraced of the main office building of Soline garden up to the platform in front of the Portorož was made and a plan for planting the area in front of the Institute of 6 Sonja Ana Hoyer, »Strunjan, Vila Tartini« in Forestry in Ljubljana. Zgodovinski vrtovi in parki v Sloveniji (Ljubljana: MK, Uprava Republike Slovenije za kulturno dedščino , 1995), 32-34. 8 Juta Krulc, »Moji vrtovi » (Lecture at the 7 Mojca M. Kovač, »Vila Tartini in nova vila Vinka University Botanic Gardens Ljubljana, January 12, Glanza v Strunjanu« in Patriae et orbi , Essays on 2011) Central European Art and Architecture: festschrift 9 Mojca M. Kovač and Igor Sapač, »Vila Tartini« in in honour of Damjan Prelovšek (Ljubljana:ZRC Slavne vile na Slovenskem (Praha: Foibos, Publishing, 2015),378-406. 2013),224-228.

253 The first works include planting of public perfect compositions of Mediterranean areas at the new urban planning of Radeče vegetation and stone details. A courtyard and Hrastnik (1961, 1963). Greening was planned for the family holiday house accompanied new residential building in Piran (1958) extending from the living areas, blocks of flats, the main radial room as a shallow body of water with a transport road, and a petrol station. In the few thin bamboo stems growing at the spirit of the time it was reserved for local side, then crossing it by stepping on larger residents and migrant workers in factories semi-circular natural stones and accessing to spend their leisure time. the staircase. The idea of the water was All those first realizations of greening were not realized. In all of her work carefully characterized by being repeatedly thought details can be seen, functional deviated from the original plan, since they organization of space, airiness, planned needed continuous adaptations. In spite of emphasis on the structure of green everything Juta Krulc closely monitored spaces, the principle of contrast of filled and surveyed their realizations, planting and empty spaces as well as pruned, form- lasted sometimes for several seasons. cut and wild growing, and above all, In the meantime, several gardens for fragrant Mediterranean shrubs . private clients emerged in costal Primorska and Istria. Those were smaller gardens and courtyards, atriums, mostly for holiday houses, designed for spending II. time in the open air, in conjunction with the planned interior. Professor Vurnik had With the growth of new settlements already said that the garden should be around the capital of Ljubljana, such as designed in the way that the housewife Murgle, Koseze, Dravlje, Galjevica, Mostec could see through the kitchen window the an increasing number of orders emerged one who was coming into the house10. for planting gardens around the houses, Herb gardens were near the kitchen, which occupied up to three-quarters of decorated and paved areas with pergolas the entire plot. Given the social conditions functioned as an extension of the living of the time and changing ways of living room, enrobed by the native vegetation, gardens were becoming more and more which escalated in height towards the habitable, although investors rarely borderline of the estate and locked the accounted for more than a mown lawn, a border with neighbours or opened the patio in front of the living room, and at view and became a framework for a most one tree. Garden arrangements by landscape panorama. Juta Krulc usually included peripheral plantings that bordered the property, When designing those small areas Juta encircled it; many times a pond with Krulc masterfully composed natural aquatic plants was incorporated. The exception was, in the words of the resources and the use of materials that 11 were available or accessible, fascinated by author , a very small garden near the Japanese gardens as an inspiration for lake Koseze, where the owners minimalist interventions and the themselves wanted it to be designed in exploitation of natural resources, for the accordance with the surroundings.

10 Tjaša Zorc, »Vrtovi Jute Krulc« (graduation thesis, 11 Juta Krulc, »Moji vrtovi« (Lecture at the Univerza v Ljubljani, Biotehniška fakulteta, oddelek University Botanic Gardens Ljubljana, January 12, za krajinsko arhitekturo, 2008), 2. 2011).

254 In the garden there is a pond, a wooden selection of plants is based on the footbridge connects the terrace, garden integration of native and cultivated plants and the exit from the garden into a whole, that are adapted to the spatial and climate which is highlighted by a dense planting of conditions on the site. To provide a botanical species of plants, in conjunction natural planting look the plants are with shrubs. planted in groups of the same species and Juta Krulc, in the choice of plants for in different colours; trees often in pairs planting, always adapted, looking for since the plants are mutually supportive compromises. She wanted to achieve and create better conditions for the customer’s satisfaction because that was a growth of each other. Juta Krulc was the prerequisite for the successful growth and first in our country who started development of the garden and she introducing planting perennials in adapted to the current offer from the gardens12. Perennials are beautiful in the nurseries, which was until recent years garden at different seasons, they only very limited. have to be seen in all their life cycles, in The element of water is often present in four seasons they bring gardens the plans of Juta Krulc gardens, as well as completely different effects. Only in years the focus on the scent of the plants. they show their expression, that is difficult Smaller ponds are incorporated in the to be predicted because it depends on the gardens to attract other living organisms, environment in which they are planted, necessary for a sustainable balance. We what the plant will look like depends on could say that it is a picture of paradise on many factors. In the gardens of Juta Krulc earth, resulting from the transfer of a perennials are planted in their organic, piece of nature which we cohabit with. biomorphic forms. They soften built Constant changes represent laws of all structures in the garden, in curves border processes of gardening. The development the paved surfaces, establishing the of the garden is not exactly predictable. rhythm of transitions, transitions of the Sometimes the gardens are just planted interior to the outer surfaces. For her and then never more maintained, gardens she selected the trees which have repeatedly planted according to the a more transparent leaf structure, trees changing needs of the owners, changing of which are coloured differently or bloom in the owners, and eventually there are very different seasons or have unusual bark. few gardens where the original plan can She knew that working with plants be recognized. Gardens make their own requires constant observation of the ways, have a similar fate as the carefully plants and their monitoring. designed interiors which are left to the Following and understanding the work of users to live their lives with, which is some of her contemporaries, artists, big usually quite different than planned. Of names of the world architecture and more than three hundred planned gardens garden design as well as tours in arboreta, designed by Juta Krulc, you might find parks, gardens and horticultural traces of her plan in less than one tenth exhibitions Juta Krulc gained a preserved. considerable amount of knowledge that At first glance, many of her gardens look was continually expanded. Her visits to the as if planted by themselves, as if they gardens of Belgium, Normandy, England were created by nature, only a detailed examination shows that even the chances 12 Irena Keršič, »Jutini vrtovi«, ( exhibition were well thought and considered. The catalogue, Ljubljana, galerija Marjan Lovšin, 2003).

255 and their owners (such as the garden Many plans for individual clients often Vasterival and Princesse Greta Sturdza, Le remained at the stage of sketches so that Parc des Moutiers and Robert Mallet in the clients could review and update them Normandy, Belgian Arboretum Kalmthout up to their wishes. The drawings were and Jelena de Belder Kovačič, Sissinghurst made in charcoal, a custom retained from Castle Garden in Kent or Ninfa garden in her student days, in order to facilitate southern Italy, gardens of Jacques Wirtz, further corrections. She was always Henk Gerritsen and Piet Oudolf), involved in planting, especially if there confirmed her way of thinking and were no gardeners around; she planted working. At home she had very few people the plants herself so that she was she could discuss or share her expertise convinced that the work was done with. The development and direction of correctly. She kept in touch with the profession of landscape design, as it numerous clients for many years making was developing at the newly established them happy with her hand-drawn Department of Landscape Architecture, botanical seasonal Christmas cards. was going the other direction. Her garden design was based on the tradition of

English gardens and on the laws of the period of modernism, in respect of plant III. life. Her gardens are never violent to nature; on the contrary, they are In the last two decades more and more reassuring because the awareness of the complex spatial arrangements of large needed coexistence between man and surfaces emerged, the desire for designed nature is always present. With her tireless landscapes that were the exact opposite curiosity she followed new discoveries in of the previously small gardens of the world of plants, more and more she intellectuals in residential neighbourhoods learned about the laws of nature, which or around their holiday homes. However, she respected immensely. it was the skill of the planner, which had Her sensitive observation of nature is been developed in hundreds of small proven in particular in her many botanical gardens, that was an excellent basis for drawings of plants, which were created planning the content and landscaping of from an early age on. A drawing collection large areas. The planning always began of mountain flowers, irises, hellebores, with careful transfer of the geodetic wild orchids and geraniums was created bases, measurement and orientation of with the aim to preserve the knowledge of the plot. The owners became aware of the their presence on our territory or the need to plan the surroundings, which territory of our neighbours, since they are could not be handled since it exceeded the all labelled with the location and date of interests of everyday living. Accompanied creation. by a growing ecological awareness the Juta Krulc also participated at owners were guided, some in the competitions, first with her fellow cultivation of vegetables, others in the architect Saša Sedlar in the horticultural cultivation of olive trees or beekeeping or arrangement of Skopje, continued with similar. Juta Krulc was faced either with the architect Fedja Košir in a competition steep slopes, which could be managed for the Marjan Park, Split, and a few times only by skilled gardeners with whom she with the architects Marko Cotič and Darja always cooperated, or by the siting of new Polak. olive trees on abandoned littoral terraces, or determining space for vegetable crops.

256 All these areas were integrated into a and marsh continues in the garden. Native comprehensive planned garden with indigenous vegetation relates to non- landscaped entrances or outdoor living native, creating highlights and new, spaces and ornamental plants. She unexpected compositions. There is a pond, monitored their development and growth, marsh and a creek in the garden adjacent worked with the owners and tried to guide to the river. It is different in every season, them. All those new designed landscapes largely adapted to the harsh climate were being developed for several years, conditions, long winters, short springs and including the plans that were recent hot summers. complemented over the years with the The landscape crossing into the garden cooperation of the owners and the and the garden transition in the interior is designer. aided with installations, interventions of Among these large landscaped garden different materials, with paths that are areas it is certainly the most "hers" interrupted with paving made from Kržišnik Garden in Žiri, which was evolving recycled scrap bricks, wood, stone and over twenty years during her first iron. They are incorporated in the garden periodical, then permanent residence in as visual accents and were made in Žiri In addition to this garden she created collaboration with Tomaž Kržišnik, BFA thirty gardens in Žiri, planted according to painter, who was engaged with them with her plans, which evolved since the first the same creative energy and artistic renovation of the park in front of the sensitivity as he designed the residential elementary school in 1976 (re- interior of the house. Sometimes these arrangement in 2015) to the last major visual accents are accompanied by plants work in 2015, with the architect Beta more or less obscure and overgrowing Poljanšek Koman where Juta Krulc them, the diagonal path across the garden participated as a landscape designer of the is transformed into a marsh oak lined exterior of the restored cultural centre in promenade. As it was written by Gojko the old part of Žiri. Zupan the garden had a special meaning In the Kržišnik garden all the experience to Juta Krulc – it was an experimental Juta Krulc gained throughout her work is garden area, a laboratory and her silent built in and implemented. The garden interlocutor.13 itself was not continuously growing and The essence and main characteristics of developing, it extended according to her work from the first to the last plans multiple purchases of the land of the were not changed much. Boldness and former pasture. It was changing due to the ambition in the designs of gardens was urban and land reclamation works and subject to spatial constraints and was being therefore repeatedly planned. investors. With her work Juta Krulc The wishes of the garden owners were opened new high-quality integrated taken into account, a garden which would solutions of living, much appreciated and embody a unity with the house together, a respected by numerous garden owners. garden which would be open, connected The work of Juta Krulc had long been with the environment and not a confined marginalized by Slovenian public space. Juta Krulc positioned the garden in professional interests. Similarly, the the surrounding landscape with all her awareness of the presence of professional knowledge and sense of space. It consists of different ambiences, connected into the 13 Gojko Zupan, »Gledati, videti, razumeti, čutiti«: whole. The flora from the nearby hill, river Življenje z vrtovi (exhibition catalogue, Ljubljana, galerija Dessa, 2015).

257 design gardens that are not only a Cunder Reščič, Karina. »Pogovor: Juta collection of horticultural plants or Krulc. Občutek, ko te objame lepota«. Delo vegetable garden for a useful purpose or in dom plus, April 22, 2011. formal park with green lawns. After her Vrtovi Jute Krulc. Exhibition, Žiri: galerija ninetieth birthday her lucidity and Svobode, 2011. longevity gradually awakened interests for her way of life, her thinking as well as the Kovač, Mojca M. and Sapač, Igor. »Vila specifics of her work. She was a designer Tartini«: Slavne vile na Slovenskem. Praha: who was well aware of the simultaneous Foibos, 2013. global development trends in designing gardens and landscapes, analysing them, Baldasin, Polona and Granda, Matevž, and incorporating them with great »Dotik z zemljo pomirja«, Hiše, April 2013. creative sensitivity, enormous botanical Naglič, Miha. «Stoletnica iz Žirov«. and horticultural expertise and the Gorenjski glas, April 25, 2013. knowledge of Slovenian native plants in the design of gardens. Knez, Primož. »Ljubi resnično, nenarejeno lepoto. Juta Krulc.« Dnevnik, April 22, 2013.

Keršič, Irena. »Žlahtna oblikovalka vrtov Bibliography pri stotih«. Vzajemnost, May, 2013. Šijanec, Fran. Sodobna slovenska likovna Juta Krulc, pogovorna oddaja. Intervju. umetnost. Maribor: Obzorja, 1961. Ksenija Horvat.TV Slovenija, November 17, 2003. Hoyer, Sonja Ana. »Strunjan, Vila Tartini«: Zgodovinski vrtovi in parki v Sloveniji, Kovač, Mojca M. »Vila Tartini in nova vila Ljubljana: MK, Uprava Republike Slovenije Vinka Glanza v Strunjanu«. Patriae et orbi, za kulturno dediščino, 1995. Essays on Central European Art and Architecture: festschrift in honour of Keršič, Irena. Jutini vrtovi. Exhibition Damjan Prelovšek. Ljubljana: ZRC catalogue. Ljubljana: galerija Marjan Publishing, 2015. Lovšin, 2003. Zupan, Gojko. Gledati, videti, razumeti, Krese, Meta. »Delo z rastlinami je prijetno, čutiti. Exhibition catalogue Življenje z z ljudmi manj«, Delo, May 8, 2003. vrtovi. Ljubljana: galerija Dessa, 2015. Barve jeseni. Juta Krulc. Gaga Stojan in Bojc, Saša. »Zelena simfonija.« Delo, June Marjan Ciglič. TV Slovenija, June 18, 2003. 5, 2015. Zorc, Tjaša. Vrtovi Jute Krulc. Graduation Zupan, Gojko. »Juta Krulc (1913-2015).« thesis. Ljubljana, Biotehniška fakulteta, Delo, July 1, 2015. Oddelek za krajinsko arhitekturo, 2008. Naglič, Miha. »V spomin: Juta Krulc (1913- Zupančič, Bogo. Usode ljubljanskih stavb in 2015)«. Gorenjski glas, July 7, 2015. ljudi. Ljubljana: KUD Polis, 2008. Justin Jerman, Maja. »Poslovila se je Krulc, Juta. « Moji vrtovi«. Lecture at the arhitektka Juta Krulc-avtorica številnih University Botanic Gardens ljubljana, žirovskih vrtov.« Žirovske stopinje, January 12, 2011. September 2015.

258 Juta Krulc. Čakam na kresnice. Stane Sources Sušnik, Petra Hauc.TV Slovenija, May 10, Kržišnik, Maja (ed.), Juta Krulc. Življenje 2016. med rožami in vrtovi. Texts by Jože V ospredje: pionirke slovenske arhitekture Bavcon, Stane Sušnik, Gojko Zupan. Book in oblikovanja. Exhibition catalogue, design as graduation thesis by Ingrid Ljubljana, galerija Dessa, 2016. Požvek. Ljubljana, Akademija za likovno umetnost in oblikovanje, 2006. Bojc, Saša. »Pionirke slovenske arhitekture«. Delo, July 1, 2016. Dokumentacija Juta Krulc - arhiv Moderne galerije, Ljubljana.

Dokumentacija Juta Krulc - arhiv Maje Kržišnik, Žiri.

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