THE OTHER 99% – NEGLECTED NATURE

The delicate umbrellas of this Mycena species last only fleetingly, while its fungal mycelium persists, mostly obscured within the log it is rotting. Photo: Alison Pouliot

A Forgotten Kingdom Ecologically industrious and alluringly diverse, Australia’s puffballs, earthstars, jellies, agarics and their mycelial kin merit your attention. Ecologist Alison Pouliot ponders our bonds with the mighty fungus kingdom.

s the sun rises, I venture off-track Fungi have been dubbed the ‘forgotten into a dripping forest in the Otway kingdom’ – their ubiquity and diversity ARanges. Mountain ash tower contrast with the sparseness of knowledge overhead, their lower trunks carpeted about them, they are neglected in in mosses, lichens and liverworts. The conservation despite their ecological leeches are also up early and greet me significance, and their aesthetic and with enthusiasm. natural history fascination are largely A white scallop-shaped form at the unsung in popular culture. The term base of a manna gum catches my eye. ‘flora and fauna’ is usually unthinkingly Omphalotus nidiformis, the ghost fungus. A assumed to cover the spectrum of visible valuable marker. If it’s dark when I return, life. I am part of a growing movement of the eerie pale green glow of this luminous fungal enthusiasts dedicated to lifting fungal cairn will be a welcome beacon. the profile of the ‘third f’ in science, Descending deeper into the forest, a conservation and society. It is an damp funk hits my nostrils, signalling engrossing quest, not only because of the fungi. As my eyes adjust and the morning alluring organisms themselves but also for lightens, I make out diverse fungal forms the curiosities of their social and cultural in cryptic microcosms. Elegant pink associations – featuring fears and fables, parasols adorn a fallen log. Carmine superstitions and suspicions, reverence and fungal brackets wear lichen skirts. revulsion. There is much to explore, not just The ghost fungus (Omphalotus nidiformis), Transparent goblets capture morning in the wild, but in the many ways for us to a saprobe, forms clusters of fruitbodies on drizzle. With so many fungi to meet, perceive, know and appreciate fungi. living and dead trees. It can glow in the dark (bioluminescence), which may attract nocturnal identify, contemplate and photograph, animals that help to disperse its spores. Photo: there’s no time to waste. Alison Pouliot

14 | Wildlife Australia | SPRING 2014 The strawberry bracket fungus (Aurantiporus The leathery goblet (Cymatoderma elegans) pulcherrimus) grows on living or dead forms funnel-shaped fruitbodies on rotting Eucalyptus and Nothofagus species. logs in wet forests. Photo: Alison Pouliot Photo: Alison Pouliot

Fungi are … fungi also in the exoskeletons of arthropods Because their mycelial tapestry is Without the insights or instruments of such as crustaceans and insects. These hidden from view, fungi are usually only modern science, the Swede known as and other traits not only distinguish conspicuous when, every now and again, the father of taxonomy, Carl Linnaeus, fungi from plants, but reveal their closer in response to changes in temperature, could be forgiven for his two-kingdom relatedness to animals. Fungi share a water and other factors, their fruitbodies categorising of life as either animals or more recent common ancestor (thought emerge. Most appear sporadically and plants. But three centuries later, confusion to be a flagellated protist) with us than fleetingly, some for just hours, while about the identity of fungi is still so with plants. others such as bracket fungi are persistent prevalent that erudite British mycologist For over half a century fungi have and perennial, and others such as Paul Cannon found it necessary to been assigned their own kingdom. truffles do not emerge at all. From these characterise them like this: ‘Let me Some fungi (such as the chytrid fungi fruitbodies, spores (the fungal equivalent start by saying what a fungus isn’t... It that infect amphibians) and fungus-like of seeds) are discharged and dispersed isn’t a plant, and it isn’t an animal. It’s organisms (such as slime moulds) occupy by all manner of ingenious mechanisms. a ... fungus.’ A good start. But forging a two further kingdoms – the Chromista Gilled fungi use an elaborate ballistic popular identity for fungi needs more than and Protoctista. mechanism (ballistospory) to explosively a definition by exclusion. While for many people the word catapult spores into the air, triggered by The historical lumping of fungi with fungus implies a cap-and-stalk style changes in turgor pressure. Puffballs rely plants seems reasonable as fungi, like mushroom, this structure represents just on the energy of a raindrop or the nudge plants, are immobile and were presumed the proverbial tip of the fungal iceberg, of a clumsy animal to compress their to photosynthesise. But we now know its fruitbody (or sporocarp). The actual peridia (the ‘balls’ packed with spores) that fungi obtain their food externally fungus consists of a network of elongated and ‘puff’ the spores out through a by secreting enzymes to break down cells called hyphae (collectively known pore on top. Flies spread spores for complex organic compounds that they as mycelium) within soil, wood or other stinkhorns, drawn to the irresistible stink absorb as simple sugars. Also unlike substrates. They range in size from of a slimy spore-mass atop their phallus- plants, the cell walls of fungi contain millimetres to hundreds of hectares, the shaped fruitbodies. chitin, a tough polymer that features largest organisms on Earth. Their aesthetic and natural history fascination are largely unsung in popular culture.

The map lichen (Rhizocarpon geographicum) is a true extremophile surviving some of the harshest conditions on (and off!) the planet. A sample arrived back from 16 days in space apparently unscathed. Photo: Alison Pouliot

wildlife-australia.org | Wildlife Australia | 15 Although slime moulds are not fungi, they occur in similar habitats and are included in many fungus field guides. This slime mould is known as wolf’s milk (Lycogala epidendrum). Photo: Alison Pouliot

Numbering and naming we work with in nature conservation, with a cyanobacterium. Combining their Because mycologists (scientists who humans included, could survive in a world respective talents has enabled lichens to study fungi) are rare, only about 15,000 without fungi.’ Particularly as recyclers colonise some of the most inhospitable Australian fungi have so far been and symbionts, but also as parasites, habitats on earth, from salt-ravaged scientifically described. This includes food and habitats, fungi perform vital and intertidal zones to arctic peaks, earning terrestrial species in habitats from deserts often exclusive services that underpin the them the title of extremophiles. Even a to alpine peaks, as well as marine and persistence and resilience of ecosystems. trip to outer space with extreme cosmic freshwater species. Around 7000 are The fungi known as saprobes or and solar radiation did not kill the map macrofungi, which form fruitbodies such decomposers secrete potent enzymes to lichen (Rhizocarpon geographicum), which as mushrooms or puffballs that can be break down recalcitrant compounds such was able to respire, photosynthesise and discerned by the human eye. The other as lignin and cellulose. Without them, reproduce on return to Earth. 8000 or so are microfungi observable only nutrients would remain locked up in A third common way of life for fungi with one’s nose wedged in a microscope. great mounds of organic debris, for fungi is parasitism, on hosts that include The majority of the fungus species are the major recyclers of carbon and plants, animals and other fungi. From inhabiting the Australian continent and nutrients from dead plants. the ova of barnacles to the armpits of seas are yet to be named. Estimates Other species form mutually beneficial Homo sapiens, few animals are likely to vary but the total could be as many as a relationships with plants. In mycorrhizas be free of fungal parasites. Although quarter of a million species (based on a the fungal mycelia either form a sheath parasites get a bad rap, they are a natural surmise that there are ten times as many around the tiny rootlets of plants or part of healthy ecosystems and perform fungus as plant species). One hectare of directly enter essential functions eucalypt forest may harbour 1000 fungus rootlet cells to by influencing species, possibly more. Due to our dire greatly extend The majority species interactions, lack of taxonomists, a full accounting of the plant’s regulating populations Australia’s fungal riches will be a long capacity to of the fungus species (natural biological time coming. penetrate more inhabiting the Australian control) and How many fungi can you name? And soil and gain interacting with other how does this compare with flora and access to water continent and seas are ecological drivers to fauna? If you can name even a dozen and nutrients, yet to be named. affect energy budgets fungus species, you are probably a particularly and nutrient cycling. mycologist, mycophagist (fungus-eater) important in Recent work in the or keen naturalist. Names matter – for Australia’s infertile soils. The plant returns Amazonian basin has identified a major anonymous species are inevitably the favour by providing the fungus with role for parasitic fungi in regulating neglected. One positive advance in sugars from photosynthesis. tropical tree diversity and structuring the past couple of decades has been Another symbiotic relationship with tropical forests. In what is known as a proliferation of field guides to make plants involves endophytes, which are negative density dependence, these host- identification more widely possible (see microfungi (or bacteria) that live inside specific fungi, along with plant-eating the list page 19). most plants and are thought to benefit insects, prevent single plant species from their hosts by enhancing plant growth, dominating forests because they inflict Fungal services drought and salt tolerance, as well as more damage where their hosts are Although most fungi lack names, their resistance to insects and diseases. more abundant. pivotal roles, at least in terrestrial Endophytes benefit from a protective Fungi are also a source of food for many ecosystems, are well recognised environment and supply of nutrients. animals, and potoroos and bettongs often scientifically – more than enough to justify Yet another symbiosis is that of lichens, eat little else (see Truffles & Mammals the contention by David Minter (president in which an algal and fungal partner in Wildlife Australia Winter 2013). In other of the International Society for Fungal unite, sometimes in a ménage à trois examples of cross-kingdom symbioses, Conservation) that, ‘None of the species some species of termites, ants and beetles

16 | Wildlife Australia | SPRING 2014 THE OTHER 99% – NEGLECTED NATURE cultivate fungal gardens. Ambrosia beetles rot’, actually a fungus-like organism of mutualisms with other kingdoms. inoculate galleries they excavate in wood rather than a fungus) are listed as key Through Fungimap and fungus keys and with fungal spores from their natal nests threatening processes. This is emblematic field guides, sufficient knowledge now (see The World’s Most Social Beetle in of the place of fungi in conservation, with exists for inclusion of at least some fungi Wildlife Australia Summer 2013) and African the threats of in biodiversity termites from family Macrotermitinae fungal pathogens monitoring. plant fungal spores in combs of chewed- overshadowing Many fungi are very Another up woody material inside their mounds. concerns to protect reason for the These animals effectively ‘outsource’ ecologically choosy about their neglect of fungi to fungi the digestion of cellulose. beneficial fungi. habitat, inhabiting the is that Australia’s Depending on one’s perspective, the fungi Under state laws, mycologists are, could be regarded as the active cultivators just 14 species of wood only of specific tree in contrast to in these arrangements, having enticed non-lichenised species and tree parts the plethora of their hosts to provide them with a haven fungi and one fungal species, safe from fungal competitors and with fungal community at a particular stage drastically few in ideal growing conditions. are listed as of decomposition. number. Focused The complex and convoluted threatened. on macrofungi architecture of fungal fruitbodies provide Because are just two important invertebrate real estate. Fungi conservation priorities are largely shaped permanently employed taxonomists and frequently provide shelter as well as food by what is listed as threatened, the near two fungal ecologists, and a handful of for adults or juveniles of millipedes, absence of fungi on such lists is one others on short-term contracts or retired, nematodes, slugs, flies, mites, beetles major reason for their neglect. honorary or non-salaried. Probably and springtails. Regular photographers Assessment criteria for listing species a dozen or so mycologists work on of fungi have probably been glared at by rarely allow for the many ways in which microfungi but they mostly focus on the territorial male fungus fly (Tapeigaster fungi differ from animals and plants. crop pathogens. species) as it staunchly defends its fungal Baseline data on fungal distributions, It is often assumed that fungi are patch and ovipositing female. abundance and relationships that allow protected under the umbrella of us to track changes over time and assess conservation programs for better known Conserving fungi their vulnerability are mostly lacking. species (plants and animals) or for In contrast to their ecological prominence, Even for fungi that send up fruitbodies their habitats, but the effectiveness fungi are inconspicuous in Australia’s that can be monitored, determining their of this surrogacy approach is largely environmental strategies, policies abundance can be difficult as one fungus untested. The diversity of fungi and and laws. The national biodiversity can produce multiple fruitbodies. the specificity and complexity of their conservation strategy fails to even Australian mycologist and initiator of ecological interactions make it unlikely mention them. And just two species are Fungimap (see page 19) Tom May has that surrogacy approaches will be listed under our national environmental proposed a more comprehensive approach comprehensively effective. law (the Environment Protection and to monitoring that is inclusive of fungi. It Take wood-decaying fungi, for example, Biodiversity Conservation Act) but not is more than justified, he argues, by their which are highly diverse in Australia’s for their protection: the exotic frog megadiversity, their important functional forests and woodlands and provide pathogen chytrid fungus and the plant roles (many of which are not duplicated essential ecosystem functions through pathogen Phytopthora cinnamoni (or ‘root in other kingdoms) and the high rate decomposition and nutrient cycling.

In contrast to their ecological prominence, fungi are inconspicuous

The rainbow fungus (Trametes versicolor) in Australia’s is a cosmopolitan white-rot fungus that can environmental strategies, simultaneously decompose cellulose and lignin. Photo: Alison Pouliot policies and laws.

wildlife-australia.org | Wildlife Australia | 17 Many are very choosy about their habitat, Hygrophoraceae, Entolomaceae and and a typecasting of them as dangerous inhabiting the wood only of specific tree Clavariaceae), which are also unlikely to or horrible. species and tree parts at a particular stage be adequately conserved under surrogacy Many people may even welcome of decomposition. During its lifetime a approaches. Grasslands have traditionally the idea of a world with fewer fungi. large tree may host hundreds of different been a low conservation priority and those One has only to look at synonyms for fungus species. The habitat specificity of in agriculturally productive areas have fungi in any thesaurus – blight, slime, many fungi means that species (and their been largely decimated. There is too little disease, affliction, scourge – to recognise functions) can be lost even if all plant known about fungi in other habitats such that perceptions of fungi are laden with species in the as wetlands, dunes negative connotations, at least in English- same ecosystem and alpine areas speaking cultures. Some cultures are more are conserved. Without positive to determine how predisposed to mycophobia (fear of fungi) Because the human connections well they would fare than others, and Australians of British habitats of under the umbrella heritage seem especially prone. Many of conservation wood-decay to fungi, it is extremely fears are deeply entrenched in cultural focused on other fungi are histories, and once species are framed transient and difficult to inspire species. negatively, it can take a lot of undoing to local extinction a conservation ethic. The present them in a positive light. is inevitable as inconspicuousness Throughout the centuries and across their substrate of fungi, making the globe, fungi have acquired many is lost to decay, their survival depends them seem irrelevant, and their complex different cultural meanings, including on being able to colonise new sites. life histories, making them difficult to This and their low population densities comprehend, are not the only barriers to in witchcraft, mythologies and religious make them especially vulnerable to their conservation. It may also have much rituals. Fairy rings (known as hexen habitat fragmentation and the loss of to do with popular misperceptions and rings in German and ronds de sorcières age variation in forests. Their habitats cultural biases. in French) were associated with the have been much diminished due to high revelry of witches, dancing elves, clearing and fragmentation of woodlands Fungi in culture winged dragons, bulging-eyed toads, an and forests and, more recently, through Without positive human connections to assortment of devils, demons and deities, firewood collection and forestry burning fungi, it is extremely difficult to inspire a and as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle remarked, or chipping of fallen wood considered conservation ethic. As British mycologist ‘the gambols of the little people’. to be a fire hazard or economically David Moore notes (for microbial species), Puffballs, with fruitbodies that often valueless. Cattle grazing in woodlands their demise ‘is not an emotional issue succumb to a well-aimed kick, are thought also diminishes habitat by altering for humans’. Although there are special to have been everything from fallen stars the composition and structure of challenges in inspiring care for organisms to warts shed from witches’ noses. Take plant communities. that live most of their lives out of heed that kicking a mushroom was alleged Native grasslands are often rich human sight, the neglect of fungi may be (in eastern Europe) to bring seven years of in specific fungal families (such as exacerbated by deeply embedded fears bad luck!

The beech orange (Cyttaria gunni), which grows on Nothofagus species, was eaten raw by Australian Aborigines. Photo: Alison Pouliot

The golden curtain crust (Stereum ostrea), native to wet forests of eastern Australia and often massed on fallen logs, decomposes lignin. Photo: Alison Pouliot

18 | Wildlife Australia | SPRING 2014 THE OTHER 99% – NEGLECTED NATURE

In many cultures, one ancient and highly it seems that foraging has mainly meaningful interaction with fungi is foraging utilitarian value, often it ‘is seen not FUNGIMAP – for subsistence, culinary delicacies or so much as an extractive activity as medicine. Hallucinogenic species have also one that demands being in close touch Fungimap is a national citizen- long been sought by many people for their with the environment’. Fine analyses science organisation dedicated mind-altering potential. the ‘emotional, cognitive and cultural to raising the profile of Australian The edibility and toxicity of Australian meanings’ that forayers and foragers give macrofungal diversity. Fungimap fungi are little known. Fungi used by to fungi, ‘exploring how one corner of the maintains the National Australian Australian Aborigines (as documented world is filled with a richness of which Fungimap Database, which has by Arpad Kalotas) include native bread most people are unaware’. over 100,000 fungal distribution (Laccocephalum mylittae), the beech orange records received from over 700 (Cyttaria gunni) and various truffle species. Fungal futures contributors. In addition to Because traditional knowledge of fungi Understanding how to foster positive delivering training in fungal has been mostly lost, fungus foraging is ‘emotional, cognitive and cultural identification and surveying, little practiced nowadays in Australia, meanings’ is essential for achieving a Fungimap is active in fungal despite many edible European species more prominent place for fungi in science, conservation initiatives. Further having been introduced here. Foraging is conservation and culture. We can learn information: fungimap.org.au far more common in Europe. from research into attitudes towards other marginalised organisms such as Foraging obviously brings tangible to open up new ways to convey the rewards but has cultural and social invertebrates that have gradually gained more recognition. The classification significance and meaning of fungi. significance beyond what can be popped To include fungi more profoundly within into the mouth. This is implied in part of the different ways in which humans value invertebrates, developed by social human lives, we need the perspectives of by the relatively poor nutritional value many different disciplines. Positively, it of mushrooms. The cultural importance ecologist Stephen Kellert, is a useful framework for investigating where we can seems that fungi may be infiltrating new of fungi is also evident, notes Anglo- audiences and capturing the attention American mycologist Nicholas Money, in focus our promotional efforts on behalf of fungi: ecological (respect for the role of of artists, ethnographers, aesthetes, the fact that ‘people in the most heavily conservationists, philosophers, poets [radiation]-contaminated districts of fungi in ecological processes), aesthetic (appreciation of fungal beauty and and others. Stories and representations Ukraine and Belarus continue to collect of fungi are appearing in academic and and consume wild mushrooms’. In Morel bizarreness), naturalistic (interactions with wild fungi), utilitarian (human uses for popular literature, exhibitions and other Tales, an insightful ethnographic account forums where they’ve not been previously, of fungus foraging in the United States fungi), humanistic (cultural and emotional ties to fungi), moralistic (concerns for offering opportunities for new and richer where as many as 30 million people go interpretations of the significance of fungi. mushrooming, sociologist Gary Fine fungus conservation) and negative values (fear or dislike of fungi). Like the first rays of light infiltrating the explores the ways in which people draw forest canopy, it seems we may be on the meaning from collecting, identifying and As with much else in nature, direct verge of a fungal awakening. consuming fungi. Although superficially sensory engagement with fungi in the wild is a powerful way to transform perceptions and erode fears. The SOME INTERESTING BOOKS ON FUNGI: Fine G. aesthetics of fungi revealed on close 1998. Morel Tales: The Culture of Mushrooming. Harvard University Press Hudler G. 1998. Magical Mushrooms inspection can inspire wonder. and Mischievous Moulds. Princeton University Press Words and concepts are also powerful, Kendrick B. 1992. The Fifth Kingdom. Mycologue particularly when so much about fungi Publications Marley G. 2010. Chantarelle Dreams, is imperceptible to the senses. While Amanita Nightmares. Chelsea Green Publishing Company it’s usually scientists who write about Money N. 2011. Mushroom. Oxford University Press fungi, nature writers could play a more Moore D. 2013. Fungal Biology in the Origin and influential and imaginative role in Emergence of Life. Cambridge University Press Moore cultivating positive sentiments toward D, Nauta M, Evans S, Rothereoe M. 2001. Fungal fungi. There are narrative riches in exploring Conservation, Issues and Solutions. Cambridge the interactions of fungi with other species University Press. including humans. One challenge is, as literary theorist Urusla Heise puts it, SOME FUNGUS FIELD GUIDES: Grey P, Grey E. 2005. Fungi Down Under. Fungimap McCann I. 2003. to analyse the ‘narrative templates and Australian Fungi Illustrated. Macdown Productions metaphors’ used to think about nature, Young A. 2005. A Field Guide to the Fungi of Australia. UNSW Press Fuhrer B. 2005. A Field Guide to Australian Fungi. Bloomings Books Gates G, Throughout the centuries Ratkowsky D. 2014. A Field Guide to Tasmanian Fungi. Tasmanian Field Naturalists Club McMullan-Fisher S, and across the globe, Leonard P, Guard F. 2014. Australian Subtropical Fungi. fungi have acquired Suncoast Fungi. many different cultural ALISON POULIOT is an ecologist, environmental photographer and PhD scholar at the Australian meanings, including in National University. Her research addresses witchcraft, mythologies perceptions of fungi in environmental history and biodiversity conservation. She spends much and religious rituals. of her time getting to know the fungi of Victoria’s forests.

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