50 The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies Pedagogy vs. Andragogy: A False Dichotomy? Geraldine Holmes and Michele Abington-Cooper

This article is not pointedly aimed at technology educa- educational framework for our adult learners? What will tion, but it addresses an issue that is becoming increas- we use to guide us in our actions in our treatment of adult ingly germane to educators working with nontraditional learners? Whose concept of an adult learner will we use? students—a larger segment of the people we teach. CI According to Davenport and Davenport (1985), the identification of what is unique about adult learning (in What is an adult learner? Much of the literature on adult contrast to child or youth learning) has been a long-stand- learning indicates that teachers teach adults differently ing effort in adult education. They reasoned that if this than pre-adults and that most of the contrasts are associ- difference could be identified, then the research territory ated with teachers’ perceptions of learner characteristics. of adult education could be based on these theoretical An awareness and acceptance of our values and an un- distinctions. derstanding of our personal philosophies are very impor- Before 1950, many educators assumed the same theo- tant before forming a working definition of what and who ries of learning and instruction worked for both adults an adult learner is to us. and children. Since formal education in the United States Age is the characteristic mentioned often when describ- has focused largely on those between ages 6 and 21, most ing an adult learner. Most educators assume that it is easy research before the mid-1960s centered on people in these to distinguish an adult learner from a younger learner – age groups. Many teachers of adults begin to question just look at the difference in years. But the difference the validity of pedagogical assumptions in the early 1960s. goes beyond age and years. Think about the many pos- sible concepts of an adult such as a dictionary’s defini- Pedagogical and Andragogical Models tion or biological, physiological, legal, social, psycho- The histories of pedagogy and andragogy are both in- logical, spiritual, and moral definitions. These concepts teresting and complex. Pedagogy evolved in the monas- include defining an adult as fully developed and mature, tic schools of Europe between the 7th and 12th centuries. as someone who can reproduce him or herself, as some- The term is derived from the Greek words paid, meaning one who is responsible for his or her own actions, as some- “child” and agogus meaning “leader of.” Thus pedagogy one who can legally vote, and as someone who exhibits literally means the art and science of teaching children behavior that indicates a sense of right and wrong. (Knowles, 1973). The various concepts of an adult learner become even Pedagogical assumptions made about learning and more confusing when we try to integrate them with our learners were based on observations by the monks in personal beliefs of what an adult learner should be. It is teaching simple skills to children. These assumptions were usually risky to to make generalizations about behavior further adopted and reinforced with the spread of elemen- based solely on age. Also, in reflecting on the many con- tary schools throughout Europe and North America in cepts of an adult, there are important individual ques- the 18th and 19th centuries. When educational psycholo- tions we have to consider. What will we use to build the gists started scientifically studying learning around the The Journal of Technology Studies 51 model. pedagogical Although Knowles’ definition of andragogy focuses on Although Knowles’ (1982), these According to Darkenwald and Merriam In order to further distinguish between the pedagogi- The pedagogical model is a content model concerned andragogy is the teaching methodology used to achieve is the teaching methodology andragogy is a facilitator the teacher view, In Knowles’ this end. become self-directed learners who aids adults to 1982). (Darkenwald & Merriam, his andragogical theory is based on role, the teacher’s His four assumptions adult learner. characteristics of the mature (a) their self-concept moves are that as individuals personality toward one of in- from that of a dependent (b) they accumulate a grow- creasing self-directedness, that becomes a rich resource ing reservoir of experience they can relate for learning and a broad base upon which becomes increas- new leanings, (c) their readiness to learn tasks of their ingly more oriented to the developmental develop- social roles and not the product of biological time perspec- ment and academic pressure, and (d) their of knowl- tive changes from one of future application them a prob- edge to one of immediate application, giving orientation to lem-centered rather than subject-centered Davenport, learning (Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982; 1987; Knowles, 1973, 1980). about adult assumptions epitomize much that is important The first two assumptions (that learning and development. their iden- forged adults are independent beings and have are drawn from tities from unique personal experiences) The last two as- humanistic philosophy and psychology. readiness to learn) help sumptions (dealing with an adult’s devel- us understand adult learning from a psychosocial These assumptions, when combined opment perspective. with principles related to the learning process, can offer the adult educator an understanding of the interrelation- ship between adulthood and learning. cal and andragogical approaches to design and operate adult educational programs, Knowles (1973) compared his andragogical model of human resource development with that used by most traditional educators, which he called a with the transmitting of information and skills. For ex- ample, the teacher decides in advance what knowledge or skill needs to be transmitted, arranges this body of means content into logical units, selects the most efficient for transmitting this content (lectures, readings, lab exer- aner andragogy was coined in 1833 by the Ger- meaning “man, not boy” or adult, andra century, they limited their research mostly they limited century, th andragogy meaning “leader of.” Knowles defined the agogus According to Knowles (1980), the goal of adult educa- Knowles (1980) was exposed to the term In the early 1920s when adult education began to be In the early 1920s when The term term as “the art and science of helping adults learn” in an between the educa- to emphasize the differences effort tion of adults and children (Davenport, 1987). tion should be self-actualization; thus, the learning pro- cess should involve the whole emotional, psychological, The mission of adult educators is and intellectual being. to assist adults to develop their full potential, and man teacher Alexander Kapp, who used it to describe the man teacher Andragogy educational theory of Plato (Nottingham Frederick Herbert, fellow German, John A Group, 1983). dis- disapproved of the term, and the term subsequently By 1921, the appeared from use for almost a century. the 1960s it term had reappeared in Europe, and during Yugosla- and was used extensively in France, Holland, Andragogy was first introduced via (Davenport, 1987). Anderson and to the United States in 1927 by Martha to develop Eduard Linderman, but they did not attempt Lindeman the concept (Davenport & Davenport, 1985). a commitment to a self-directed, emphasize did, however, experiential, problem-solving approach to adult educa- tion (Davenport, 1987). educator in the mid-1960s. His adult Yugoslavian from a definition of andragogy was developed as a parallel to Andragogy is based on the Greek word pedagogy. with the stem and to the reactions of children and animals to systematic in- animals to systematic of children and to the reactions reinforced the pedagogical model This struction. (Knowles, 1980). found the teachers of adults systematically, organized the pedagogical model. One was that some problems with on the premise that the purpose of pedagogy was based of knowledge and skills. education was the transmittal and to feel this was insufficient Adult learners seemed strategies that pedagogy pre- frequently resisted teaching drills, quiz- scribed, such as lectures, assigned readings, Dropout rates zes, note memorizing, and examinations. the assump- also noted that many of Teachers were high. in the pedagogic tions about the characteristics of learners 1980). model did not fit their adult students (Knowles, turn of the 20 turn of the 52

cises, films, tapes, for example), and then develops a plan with a realistic assumption in a given situation fall- for presenting these units in some sequence. ing in between the two ends. (p. 43) By contrast, the andragogical model is a process con- cerned with providing procedures and resources for help- He also indicated that there were occasions when ing learners acquire information and skills. In this model, andragogy might be used with children and pedagogy the teacher (facilitator, change-agent, consultant) prepares with adults. a set of procedures for involving the learners in a process McKenzie (1979) defended andragogy on philosophi- The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies that includes (a) establishing a climate conducive to learn- cal grounds declaring that “the existential differences ing, (b) creating a mechanism for mutual planning, (c) between children and adults require a strategic differen- diagnosing the needs of learning, (d) formulating pro- tiation of education practice” (p. 257). gram objectives (content) that will satisfy these needs, After a review of the experimental literature compar- (e) designing a pattern of learning experiences, (f) con- ing andragogical and pedagogical methods, Rachal (1994) ducting these learning experiences with suitable tech- concluded: “In general, the bulk of the experimental and niques and materials, and (g) evaluating the learning out- quasi-experimental work done to date suggests an ap- comes and re-diagnosing learning needs. proximate equivalence between andragogical approaches and pedagogical ones on both achievement and learner Pedagogy versus Andragogy: The Debate satisfaction. Ultimately, practitioners will continue to Although andragogy has become popular both within employ methods that work for them” (p. 1). and outside adult education circles and andragogical ap- Cross (1981) described Knowles’ claim that andragogy proaches are commonly employed in adult education, could be viewed as a unified theory of adult education as nursing, social work, business, religion, agriculture, and “optimistic.” Hartree (1984) found that Knowles’ work even law. It has had its opponents as well as its propo- presented three basic difficulties for adult educators: (a) nents. Much of the controversy stems from a difference confusion between whether his theory is one of teaching in philosophy, classification, and the underlying values or one of learning, (b) confusion over the relationship he attached to the term adult education (Davenport & Dav- sees between adult and child learning, and (c) ambiguity enport, 1985). as to whether he is dealing with theory or practice. She Houle (1972) preferred to view education as a single also questioned the soundness of the basic assumptions fundamental human process and felt that even though underlying the theory or practice of andragogy. there were differences between children and adults, the Mohring (1989) took issue with both andragogy and learning activities of men and women were essentially pedagogy. She contended that the terms andragogy (im- the same as those of boys and girls. He rejected andragogy plying the education of adults) and pedagogy (meaning as an organizing principle in adult education and per- the education of children) are etymologically inaccurate. ceived it as a technique. He was joined by London (1973) Although pedagogy is derived from paid, meaning and Elias (1979) in questioning andragogy’s theoretical “child,” from antiquity it has also stood for education in status, general utility, and how it was different from pro- general—without reference to learners’ ages. Andragogy gressive education applied to adults. They preferred to is derived from aner, meaning adult male and not adult stress the oneness or unity in education. In 1980, Knowles of either sex, therefore excluding women. In view of ef- retreated somewhat by stating: forts to purge English of sexist words, she proposed the I am at the point now of seeing that andragogy is use of a new term, teliagogy. Based on the Greek teleios, simply another model of assumptions about learn- meaning “adult,” it would include both sexes. ers to be used alongside the pedagogical model of assumptions, thereby providing two alternative Resolutions or Alternatives? models for testing out the assumption as to their As an alternative approach to the pedagogy-andragogy ‘fit’ with particular situations. Furthermore, the issue, Knudson (1980) proposed replacing both with the models are probably most useful when seen not as term humanagogy because it is pedagogy and andragogy dichotomous but rather as two ends of a spectrum, combined. Unlike the separate terms of pedagogy and The Journal of Technology Studies 53 and return- andragogy Kerka (1994) also addressed the notion of self-directed also addressed the Kerka (1994) could Davenport (1987) believed that adult education pedagogy and The literal and original definition of Expanding these literal and original definitions of peda- (1987) third step, after acknowledging the Davenport’s bility for evaluation. three myths associated with self- learning. She dispeled self- The first is that adults are naturally directed learning. their capability for self-directed directed, when, in reality, The second myth is that self- learning may vary widely. of Again, instead concept. direction is an all-or-nothing learner versus other direction, it is the extremes of the Adults have varying degrees exists. apparent a continuum to assume personal responsibil- of willingness or ability of choice These may include the degree ity for learning. content, over goals, objectives, type of participation, The third myth is that self-di- method, and assessment. In truth, the rected learning means learning in isolation. may be psy- essential dimension of self-directed learning in any setting— chological control that a learner can exert informal, or traditional. solitary, but that there is survive quite nicely without andragogy, it conceptu- some merit in redefining the term, clarifying Because andragogy is such and testing it empirically. ally, value for adult a “catchy” word having public relations “simply begs for education, Davenport (1987) believed it andragogy a second look.” In his opinion, redefining its origi- could be as simple as returning to and broadening in distin- nal definition. Knowles’ (1980) inconsistency perceived as part guishing pedagogy from andragogy is of the problem. and andragogy also can allow for both teacher-centered child leader and the activities. Both the learner-centered times directive and non- adult leader may be at different directive, authoritative and facilitative, etc. (Davenport, 1987). gogy and andragogy to the “art and science of teaching in the case of and facilitating the learning of children” or, These adults would also have an advantage. andragogy, definitions are consistent with the beliefs and research results of many authors who claim that selection of learn- ing approaches has little to do with age and a lot to do with other variables such as learning style, content, goals of instruction-learning, and even gender (Davenport, 1987). public relations value of the word knowl- ing to its original definition, would be to organize , Rachal (1983) proposed andragogy and pedagogy In view of the inherent problem associated with the In view of the inherent problem associated Rachel (1983) noted that these two approaches are not andragogy, humanagogy represents the differences as well the differences represents humanagogy andragogy, chil- both adults and that exist between as the similarities beings. It approaches human dren as learning human of degree, not kind. Humanagogy learning as a matter a “holistic” approach to adult educa- might be likened to not throw away what adult educators tion because it does the way children learn and what they already know about this it takes adults learn; rather, know about the way it in perspective. Knudson (1980) knowledge and puts the principles of pedagogy from believed that ignoring our childhood experiences. He adult education excludes takes into also believed that the concept of humanagogy being from account the development of the whole human approach, birth to death. In presenting the humanagogy the pedagogical Knudson reminded educators that both to offer. and andragogical approaches have something yang, they are at “Like the Chinese symbol of yin and and equally the same time opposites and complements necessary” (p. 8). terms learning. He believed self-directed and teacher-directed these that, in addition to being more self-explanatory, clientele because terms are not restricted to one particular na- The voluntary they eliminate the child-adult issue. the cornerstone ture of adult learning activities is one of is however, Voluntarism, assumptions of andragogy. in-service measurable by degree. Employees attending hollow sense training may be a volunteer only in the most The motivation may be there, but it may be of the word. more extrinsic than intrinsic. In relating voluntarism to approaches, the self- the self-directed and teacher-directed directed approach is clearly more appropriate to the highly motivated, preferably intrinsically motivated, learners. Lesser motivated learners may profit from a more teacher- directed approach. The teacher- neatly dichotomous and mutually exclusive. directed approach would still require the instructor to follow a free exchange of ideas and to allow students to pursue personal interests (through papers, projects, or presentations) as long as they went along with the course objectives. In the self-directed approach, instructors would still set the general requirements for the course They and serve as more than merely resource persons. must also provide leadership and take primary responsi- 54

edge and theory in a systematic fashion. Assumptions, Zinn (1983) developed the Philosophy of Adult Educa- including those of Knowles (1980), have to be placed in tion Inventory (PAEI) in order to assist adult educators the form of a hypothesis and then tested. Only those that in identifying their personal philosophy and to give them survive their trial would become part of the theory of information about their beliefs. The inventory is self-ad- andragogy. Then, andragogy theory would have genuine ministered, self-scored, and self-interpreted.1 explanatory and predictive powers. This inventory provides a premier—a place for educa- According to Davenport (1987), this approach would tors to explore their perceptions of learner characteristics. The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies The Journal of Technology Studies include many similarities between child and adult edu- For example, if you find you are inspired by a humanistic cation and still provide a place for the discovery of dif- philosophy, but your students need someone to clearly di- ferences. In addition to possessing significant public re- rect their learning process, then this may cause problems. lations value, Davenport believed that “andragogy also Many theorists believe the andragogy-pedagogy clas- has the potential of serving as a unifying framework for sification is not perfect, but they cannot agree on a viable adult education if definitional problems can be worked alternative either. Polson (1993) asked the question: “Is out, and if old and new assumptions are rigorously tested the ‘adult learner’ a recognizable, single entity for whom before possible incorporation into a larger theory” (p. 159). there is one best way to teach, or for whom there is one If the andragogy versus pedagogy debate is truly based best way to learn? No. There is no agreement in the lit- on different philosophical perspectives of the world, it erature as to what constitutes an adult learner.” Perhaps, may never be resolved. Adult educators who adhere to given the very nature of those engaged in educational an integrated worldview will reject andragogy and stress research, the solution is not to find an answer, but to con- unity in education. Those who adhere to a differential tinue to ask acute questions! worldview will accept andragogy and reject the all-in- clusive orientation to education (Davenport & Daven- Dr. Geraldine (Gerri) Holmes is an Associate Professor port, 1985). Most important is that the visibility of in the School of Human Resource Development and andragogy has sharpened our awareness and understand- Workforce Education at Lousiana State University. ing of adult learning. A major key for educators is to be aware of their Michele Abington-Cooper is an extension educator at personal philosophies for working with adult learners. Louisiana State University.

1 Permission to reproduce and use the PAEI© may be obtained by contacting the author at Regis College, West 50th and Lowell Blvd., Denver, CO 80221-1099. Phone (303) 458-4088.

References Cross, K. P. (1981). Adults as learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Darkenwald, G. G., & Merriam, S. B. (1982). Adult education: Foundations of practice. New York: Harper & Row. Davenport, J., III. (1987, March). A way out of the andragogy morass. Paper presented at the conference of the Georgia Adult Education Association, Savannah, GA. Davenport, J., & Davenport, J. A. (1985). A chronology and analysis of the andragogy debate. Adult Educational Quarterly, 35(3), 152–159. Elias, J. L. (1979). Critique: Andragogy revisited. Adult Education, 29(4), 252–256. Hartree, A. (1984). Malcolm Knowles’ theory of andragogy: A critique. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 3, 203–210. Kerka, S. (1994). Self-directed learning: Myths and realities (Report). Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 365 818) Knowles, M. (1973). The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston: Gulf. The Journal of Technology Studies 55 (Training and (Training , 1667A-1668A. (1), 60–70. . Nottingham, Malaysia: Lifelong Learning: The Adult The Lifelong Learning: Lifelong Learning: The Adult Lifelong Learning: The . New York: Cambridge, The Adult The Cambridge, York: . New Adult Education, 24 (4), 256–260. (Idea Paper No. 29). Manhattan, KS: Center for Faculty (Idea Paper No. 29). Manhattan, KS: Dissertation Abstracts International, 44 Dissertation St. Paul, MN: Department of Vocational and Technical Education, Technical and Vocational of St. Paul, MN: Department ). Adult Education, 29 Towards a developmental theory of andragogy theory a developmental Towards Teaching adult students Teaching The modern practice of adult education practice of adult The modern Andragogy and pedagogy: A comment on their erroneous usage on their erroneous comment A Andragogy and pedagogy: Andragogical and pedagogical methods compared: A review of the experimental literature review A compared: Andragogical and pedagogical methods (9), 14–15. (8), 8–10. (Report). Hattisburg: University of Southern Mississippi. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED University of Southern Mississippi. (Report). Hattisburg: 380 566) Development Research Center Project No. 21 Development Research 6 Years, Minnesota University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 305 509) (ERIC Document Reproduction Minnesota University. University Park, Notthingham. University of Nottingham, Department of Adult Education. Department of University of Nottingham, University Park, Notthingham. Education Company. Education 3 Years, Zinn, L. (1983). Philosophy of adult education inventory. inventory. Zinn, L. (1983). Philosophy of adult education Rachal, J. R. (1994). McKenzie, L. (1979). A response to Elias. A McKenzie, L. (1979). Andragogy Group. (1983). Nottingham Mohring, P. M. (1989). M. Mohring, P. Polson, C. J. (1993, September). Continuing Education, Kansas State University. Evaluation & Development, Division of Another voice in the fray. The andragogy-pedagogy debate: Rachal, J. R. (1983). London, J. (1973). Adult education for the 1970’s: Promise or illusion? Adult education for the 1970’s: London, J. (1973). Knudson, R. S. (1980). An alternative approach to the andragogy/pedagogy issue. approach to the andragogy/pedagogy An alternative Knudson, R. S. (1980). Knowles, M. S. (1980). Knowles,