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ADULT PHILOSOPHIES PRACTICED BY IN PENNSYLVANIA, VIRGINIA, AND WEST VIRGINIA

Harry N. Boone, Assistant Professor Stacy A. Gartin, Professor Crystal B. Wright, Agricultural Education Instructor Layle D. Lawrence, Professor Kerry S. Odell, Associate Professor West Virginia University

Abstract Zinn’s (1990) Philosophy of Inventory (PAEI) was used to determine the adult education philosophies practiced by Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Virginia agricultural education teachers. The target population of this study included all agricultural education teachers from Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Virginia who taught during the 1998- 99 academic year. Proportional stratified sampling (n = 314) was employed to ensure equal representation from each state identified in the target population. One hundred and eighteen secondary agricultural education teachers responded to the survey (38%). Slightly more than two-thirds of the educators in the tri-state area identified with the progressive philosophy. Large effect sizes were found in the correlations between three pairs of the philosophies. Medium effect size correlations were also found in the correlations between another four pairs of the philosophies. In addition, small effect size correlations were discovered between the humanistic philosophy and state variable as well as progressive philosophy and adult education payments. Over three fourths of the respondents indicated they taught adults. Nearly two-thirds of the respondents reported having receiving formal training in teaching adults and slightly over three fourths of the respondents who indicated they taught adult classes were paid to teach the classes.

Introduction agriculture in the public schools, provided a Over the past 125 years, agricultural specific response to the need for adult educators have been pioneers in the education in agriculture (Bender, development of adult education. This effort McCormick, Woodin, Cunningham, & was enhanced with the passage of four Wolf, 1972). major pieces of Federal legislation. The Although agricultural educators were Morrill Act of 1862 established the Land- pioneers in the development of adult Grant Colleges. Land-Grant Colleges’ education programs, the emphasis on adult emphasis on education in agriculture and the education in agriculture has declined in mechanical arts was designed to improve recent years. The number of secondary social and economic conditions for the rural agricultural education programs offering population. In 1887, the Hatch Act education opportunities for their adult established the Agricultural Experiment constituents has declined. In 1989, Stations. By making it possible to apply Birkenholz and Maricle (1991) found that scientific findings to real world agricultural while there were 5,852 secondary problems, the Hatch Act increased the need agricultural education programs in the for adult education in agriculture. The United States, there were only 1,610 adult Smith-Lever Act of 1914, which established agricultural education programs. In 2000, the Cooperative Extension Service, and the Burdette (unpublished manuscript) found Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, which less than one fourth of the agricultural established in educators in West Virginia (22.7%) were

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conducting organized educational activities meet the basic assumptions and not all youth for adults outside of the normal school day. are the antithesis of the adult learner. In 1991, Chizari and Taylor wrote that Knowles (as cited in Merriam, 2001) spoke adult agricultural education programs were of as not andragogy verses important because of rapid advances in but as a continuum ranging from technology, innovative marketing, new farm directed to student directed learning. management techniques, new agricultural As the current role of agricultural laws, and regulations. Harbstreit (as cited in educators in delivering adult education is Birkenholz & Maricle, 1991) stated that examined, the personal adult educational adult agricultural education programs used philosophies of the agricultural educators to focus on improving the efficiency in should also be examined. Hiemstra (1991) production agriculture and managerial skills, suggested that change is achieved through but now the focus has shifted to problems of knowledge of how a personal philosophy agricultural consumers, homeowners, affects the way an educator works with gardeners, and concerned citizens. Nur, people. He went on to explain that Birkenholz, and Stewart (1989) agreed that a understanding one’s philosophy promotes shift in the target audience and the understanding of human relationships, knowledge base for adult education sensitizes one to various needs associated programs has occurred. As we move into with positive human interactions, provides a the 21st century, the agriculture industry is framework for distinguishing, separating, still concerned with technological advances, and understanding personal values, and new agricultural laws, innovative marketing promotes flexibility and consistency in strategies, and new groups of potential working with adult learners. clientele. Each of these topics represents an By studying the philosophies of adult area of need that could be served by adult agricultural educators, recommendations can agricultural education programs. be offered to encourage more involvement The education of adults (andragogy) is by agricultural educators in the delivery of different from the education of youth educational opportunities to adults. Zinn (pedagogy) (Knowles, 1962; 1970; Beder, (1990) wrote, “When the adult educator 1989). The differences can be summarized engages in the practice of education, certain in five basic assumptions (Merriam, 2001). beliefs about life in general are applied to One, the adult learner has an independent the practice. These beliefs constitute the self-concept and can direct his or her basis for a ” (p. 40). learning. Knowles (1975) noted that self- The entire educational process: the selection directed learners learn more things and learn of content, selection of teaching methods, better than passive learners. Bergevin development of instructional objectives, and (1967) stated that problem-centered learning interaction with the learners is influenced by was basic to adult education. Two, the adult the educators’ beliefs. learner brings a variety of life experiences The actions of agricultural educators as that provide a rich resource for learning they relate to adult education can be (Apps, 1981; Brookfield, 1989). Knowles changed by changing their beliefs. Beliefs (1975) suggested, “We must learn from change to accommodate new needs and everything we do; we must exploit every experiences (Zinn, 1990). By understanding experience as a ‘learning experience’ (p. the philosophies of agricultural educators, it 16).” Three, learning needs are closely is possible to change agricultural educators related to social needs. Four, the adult response to the needs of the adult learner is problem-centered and interested in populations by demonstrating the needs of immediate application of knowledge the adult population and providing concrete (Knowles, 1984). Five, the adult learner is experiences on which teachers can build a motivated by internal rather than external new philosophy of adult education. factors (Knowles, 1984). Hiemstra (1991) states that having a While the five assumptions are presented philosophy separates professional educators as either/or statements, in life this is not from paraprofessionals in that professionals always the situation. Not all adult learners

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are aware of what they are doing and why Progressive they are doing it. The progressive philosophy of adult education stresses an experiential, problem- Review of Literature solving approach to learning. Learners of The review of literature started with a this philosophy need problem solving skills description of Zinn’s (1983) Philosophy of and practical knowledge. Teaching methods Adult Education Inventory (PAEI). The used in this philosophy include problem PAEI was designed to determine the solving, the scientific method, and philosophy of adult educators. The cooperative learning. The educator is an inventory consisted of 75 statements rated organizer who guides learning instead of on a seven-point Likert-type scale with 1 = directing learning and evaluates the learning strongly disagree, 4 = neutral, and 7 = process. Progressive proponents include strongly agree. Total scores can range from Spencer, Dewey, and Lindeman. 15 to 105 for each of the five philosophical orientations. These scores signify the Humanistic individuals’ views toward the philosophies The humanistic adult education of adult education. The following provides philosophy seeks to facilitate personal an in-depth description of these growth and development. Humanists are philosophical ideologies. highly motivated and self-directed learners; responsibility to learn is assumed by the Liberal learner. The humanist educator facilitates The liberal adult education philosophy learning but does not direct learning. The stresses the development of intellectual educator and learner are “partners.” powers. Liberals always seek knowledge. Concepts that define the humanistic They work to transmit knowledge and philosophy include experiential learning, clearly direct learning. The educator is the individuality, self-directed, and self- “expert.” He/she directs the learning actualization. Humanistic teaching methods process with complete authority. Learning contain group discussion, team teaching, methods used include lecture, study groups, individualized learning, and the discovery and discussion. Socrates, Plato, and Piaget method. Rogers, Maslow, Knowles, and were practitioners of the liberal philosophy. McKenzie are facilitators of the humanistic (Note: Liberal adult education does not refer philosophy. to liberal political views; it is related to Liberal Arts.). Radical The radical adult education philosophy Behaviorist or reconstructionist philosophy promotes The behaviorist adult education social, political, and economic change philosophy emphasizes the importance of through education. The educator and learner the environment in shaping change. The are equal partners in the learning process. traits of the behaviorist teacher are close to The educator is the coordinator of the class those of the liberal. The behaviorist and makes suggestions but does not direct “manages” the learning process and directs the learning process. This philosophy learning. Behaviorist concepts include embraces concepts such as noncompulsory mastery learning and standards-based learning and deschooling. Exposure to the education. Some methods of teaching that media and people in real life situations are behaviorist educators use include considered effective teaching methods. programmed instruction, contract learning, Holt, Freire, and Illich are proponents of the and computer guided instruction. radical adult education philosophy. Vocational training and teacher Several research studies were found that certifications are both behaviorist practices. used Zinn’s Inventory (1990) to establish the Skinner, Thorndike, and Steinberg were philosophy of adult educators. Rachal, believers in the behaviorist philosophical DeCoux, Leonard, and Pierce (1993) tenet. administered the Principals of Adult Learning Scale (PALS) and the Philosophy

Journal of Agricultural Education 39 Volume 43, Number 3, 2002 Boone, Gartin, Wright, Lawrence, & Odell Adult Education… of Adult Education Inventory (PAEI) differences, then the teaching methods, instruments to 111 graduate adult education procedures, activities, learning students. The overall group was environments, and evaluations must also predominately progressive on the PAEI. An differ for adult audiences. By understanding analysis of variance was used to compare the philosophy of adult educators, one can demographic variables across all scores on determine the degree to which educators the two instruments. On the progressive employ different methods, procedures, and scale, females scored significantly higher activities to educate their adult constituents. than males. Females also scored higher on the humanistic scale than males. A Purpose and Objectives significant difference was also found between the under 30 and over 40 age The purpose of this study was to groups on the humanistic scale. determine the adult education philosophies Rachal et al., (1993) also found positive as practiced by Pennsylvania, West Virginia, correlations between instrument scores and and Virginia secondary school agricultural the demographic variables of age and education teachers. The objectives were to: gender. A high magnitude correlation was found between the liberal and behaviorist 1. Determine the demographics of orientations. Other significant relationships Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and were discovered between progressive- Virginia agricultural education humanist and radical-humanist orientations. teachers who may have taught an In a study of students enrolled in the adult technology class in agriculture researcher’s classes, Wingenbach (1996) during 1998-99. found significant differences between gender and the behaviorist and radical 2. Assess Pennsylvania, West Virginia, orientations. All females were found to and Virginia agricultural education have higher mean scores than did males in teachers’ philosophies of adult the radical philosophical orientation. In the education using the Philosophy of behaviorist orientation, female graduates Adult Education Inventory. had higher mean scores than did male graduates. In the undergraduate group, 3. Determine if significant relationships males had higher mean scores. The students exist between agricultural education did not differ statistically in their mean teachers’ philosophies and selected scores for the behaviorist, humanistic, or demographic variables. radical orientations. Limitations of the Study These findings differ from the findings of McKenzie (1985). In his study, McKenzie (1985) found significant The study was limited to secondary differences in all five philosophical school agricultural education teachers orientations while comparing business (N=657) in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, trainers, religious educators, and adult and Virginia who may have taught adults in education graduate students. their local communities during the 1998-99 Significant differences between the academic year. groups in the liberal orientation may represent the findings of Berger and Methods and Procedures Luckmann (1966). That is, when individuals enter an institution, they begin to A descriptive research survey express the views reflected in that methodology and a correlational design institution; they begin to speak a common were used in this study. The primary language. advantage in using this research Youth and adults differ greatly in their methodology was the accumulation of large preferred learning styles and educational amounts of data in a limited timeframe. The environments. If agricultural education correlational design allows for discovery, teachers acknowledge these basic clarification, and/or explanation of

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relationships between and among the liberal and behaviorist, progressive and research variables. humanistic, progressive and radical, and humanistic and radical (Zinn, 1983). Population and Sample In previously published studies by Zinn (1990), the PAEI had been determined to be The target population of this study a reliable and valid instrument for measuring included all agricultural education teachers adult education philosophies with reported from Pennsylvania (N=259), West Virginia Cronbach’s alpha levels at .75. The PAEI (N=95), and Virginia (N=303) who taught was designed to be administered, scored, classes during the 1998-99 academic year and interpreted by the respondent (Zinn, and who were listed in their respective 1983). The instructions sent with Zinn’s state’s Agricultural Educators Directory for inventory were the original instructions Zinn the 1998-99 academic year. The researcher developed to accompany the PAEI. An obtained original copies (paper and additional instrument, developed by the electronic) of these directories from the researcher, was sent to assess respondents’ State Supervisors for Agricultural educational degree attained, years of Education. The State Supervisors divided teaching experience, geographic location, the groups into adult educators and non- age, and gender. adult educators. The population of agricultural education teachers was Data Collection Procedure determined to be 657. Proportional stratified sampling was employed to ensure Data collection procedures were equal representation from each state in the developed based upon practices target population. A sample size of 314 was recommended by Dillman (1978). The data needed to represent this population (Krejcie collection efforts began in the spring of & Morgan, 1970). 1999. For the study, PAEI instruments, demographic questionnaires, cover letters, Instrumentation and self-addressed, stamped return envelopes were mailed to the samples in The Philosophy of Adult Education Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Virginia. Inventory (PAEI) (Zinn, 1994) was used to Two weeks after the initial mailing, follow- obtain information for this study. The PAEI up postcards were sent out to all non- was developed by Zinn (1983) to help the respondents. Four weeks after the first adult educator determine his or her mailing, a second postcard reminder was philosophy of education and compare it to sent to all non-respondents. other educators’ philosophies. Five weeks after the initial mailing, the The educator’s highest score is the one researcher selected 10% of the non- that most closely describes his/her respondents and sent them a new PAEI, philosophy. The lowest score is the cover letter, and demographic sheet. The philosophy least like the educator’s mean responses of these subjects were philosophy. A score of 95 to 105 indicates statistically compared to the respondents to that the educator strongly agrees with a determine if significant differences existed philosophy. A score of 15-25 indicates that (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1996). No the educator strongly disagrees with a significant differences were found. philosophy. It is not uncommon, however, for an educator to have two philosophies Analysis of Data that have high scores. This occurs because of some overlap in the philosophies. Data collected were analyzed using Educators who have other combinations of SPSS. Descriptive statistics (frequencies, high scores or have three or more close means, and standard deviations) as well as scores should review their beliefs and look correlational and multivariate analyses were for contradictions (Zinn, 1983). Some used to describe and analyze the research common philosophy combinations are data.

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Results/Findings the two groups on the rating of the five philosophical tenets. Adult Educators The sample size for the study was 314 Demographics of Respondents teachers comprised of 93 teachers from the Each respondent provided basic adult educator group and 221 teachers from demographic information in addition to the non-adult educator group. A total of 118 completing the PAEI instrument. participants returned surveys with usable Respondents were asked questions including data for the study resulting in a response rate state, age, gender, degree, years of teaching of 38%. When the response rate was secondary school, number of years teaching examined by dividing the respondents into adults, whether the educator received formal adult educators and non-adult educators, education for teaching adults, and whether there was a significant difference in the the educator received monetary response rates. For example, 75 of the 93 compensation. adult educators returned their survey for a The average age of the respondents was response rate of 81%. Of the non-adult 44 years ranging from a low of 22 years to a educators, only 43 of the 221 educators high of 63 years. The minimum number of returned their surveys resulting in a response years taught by the respondents was less rate of 19%. than one year and the maximum was 35 years. The mean number of years taught by Non-Response Error the respondents was 19 years. The An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was minimum number of years for teaching used to determine if differences existed adults was one year while the maximum between respondents and non-respondents. number of years teaching adults was 34 Non-respondents were surveyed using the years. The mean number of years that double-dipped sampling method. No educators had taught adults was 14 years. significant differences were found between

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Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Demographic Data

Non-Adult Adult Educator Total Educator Variable f % f % f % Respondents 43 39.4% 75 63.6% 118 100.0% Teach Adults (n = 114) Yes 39 90.7% 49 69.0% 88 77.2% No 4 9.3% 22 31.0% 26 22.8% State (n = 118) Pennsylvania 13 30.2% 36 48.0% 49 41.5% Virginia 21 48.8% 24 32.0% 45 38.1% West Virginia 9 20.9% 15 20.0% 24 20.3% Gender (n = 107) Male 37 86.0% 62 82.7% 99 83.9% Female 6 14.0% 13 17.3% 19 16.1% Degree (n = 118) Bachelor’s 18 41.9% 34 48.6% 52 46.0% Master’s 25 58.1% 35 50.0% 60 53.1% Ph.D. 0 0.0% 1 1.4% 1 0.9% Adult Education Preparation (n = 110) Yes 25 61.0% 37 53.6% 62 56.4% No 16 39.0% 32 46.4% 48 43.6% Adult Education Payments (n = 107) Yes 34 87.2% 33 68.8% 67 77.0% No 5 12.8% 15 31.3% 20 23.0%

Respondents included 49 educators from philosophy. None of the respondents Pennsylvania (41.5%), 45 educators from identified with the liberal philosophy. Other Virginia (38.1%), and 24 educators from philosophies represented by the respondents West Virginia (20.3%). Ninety-nine included 25 behaviorists (21.2%), nine respondents were male (83.9%). Sixty-one humanists (7.6%), and four radicals (3.4%). respondents (54.0%) had an advanced The progressive philosophy was the most college degree (master’s degree or Ph.D.) frequently occurring philosophy in each while 52 respondents (46.0%) had a state with Pennsylvania educators having the bachelor’s degree. Eighty-eight respondents highest percentage (71.4%), followed by indicated they taught adults (77.2%). Sixty- West Virginia (68.9%), and Virginia two respondents (56.4%) reported having (58.3%). The second most frequently receiving formal training in teaching adults occurring philosophy in each of the three and 67 respondents who indicated they states was the behaviorist with Virginia taught adult classes (77.0%) were paid to having the highest percentage (29.2%), teach the classes. followed by Pennsylvania (20.4%) and West Virginia (17.8%). Combined, the Philosophy of Adult Education progressive and behaviorist philosophies Eighty educators in the tri-state area accounted for 89.0% of the respondents (see (67.8%) identified with the progressive Table 2).

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Table 2 Adult Philosophy of Agricultural Educators by State

Pennsylvania West Virginia Virginia Total f % f % f % f % Liberal 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% Behaviorist 10 20.4% 8 17.8% 7 29.2% 25 21.2% Progressive 35 71.4% 31 68.9% 14 58.3% 80 67.8% Humanist 2 4.1% 4 8.9% 3 12.5% 9 7.6% Radical 2 4.1% 2 4.4% 0 0.0% 4 3.4% Total 49 100.0% 45 100.0% 24 100.0% 118 100.0%

Pearson’s correlation coefficients were philosophies (r = .48), the humanistic and calculated between the five philosophical behaviorist philosophies (r = .42), the tenets. Using Cohen’s convention (1988) liberal and humanistic philosophies (r = for describing the magnitude of a .38) and the behaviorist and the radical relationship, researchers found a large effect philosophies (r = .30) (see Table 3). size between the liberal and behaviorist Correlations between the philosophies philosophies (r = .81), the behaviorist and and the demographic variables were also progressive philosophies (r = .72), the examined. Small effect sizes (Cohen, 1988) liberal and progressive philosophies (r = were discovered between the state variable .59) as well as the humanistic and and the humanistic philosophy (rpb = -.27), progressive philosophies (r = .55) (see Table as well as, the adult education payment 3). A medium effect size was discovered variable and the progressive philosophy (rpb between the humanistic and radical = .19).

Table 3 Correlation Between Philosophical Categories and Demographic Variables

Liberal Behaviorist Progressive Humanist Radical Liberal .81** .59** .38** .29** Behaviorist .72** .42** .30** Progressive .55** .26** Humanist .48** Radical Age .11 .05 .01 .00 .11 Years .17 .17 .06 -.03 .04 Adult Years .15 .09 -.04 -.01 .13 State .00 -.02 .09 -.27** -.08 Gender .06 -.05 .13 -.02 .10 Degree .07 .10 .10 .01 .07 AE Preparation .07 .14 .05 .17 .13 AE Payment .10 .09 .19* .07 -.04 * p < .05. ** p < .01.

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Discriminant Analysis Between Philosophies Conclusions and Implications In their research, Rachal et. al., (1993) found significant differences between the Based upon the review of literature and philosophical groups and the demographic the research findings, the following variables gender and age. To determine if conclusions were reached. The conclusions differences existed between educators in the were limited to the respondents from five philosophical groups of this study and Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia the demographic variables, a stepwise who participated in the study. discriminant analysis was conducted. The following null hypothesis was tested: There 1. A majority of adult agricultural is no difference between the five group educators guide the learning process of centroids on the discriminant score. their adult students. Their goal is to give Three interval variables (age, years the learner practical knowledge and taught, and years teaching adults), as well as problem solving skills. nine dummy coded nominal variables (adult education payments, male, female, Slightly more than two-thirds of the bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, doctoral educators in the tri-state identified with the degree, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West progressive philosophy. Keep in mind that Virginia) were included in the analysis. At teaching methods used in this philosophy each step of the analysis, the variable that include problem solving, the scientific maximizes the overall Wilks’ lambda was method, and cooperative learning. entered. None of the variables qualified for Agricultural educators have long been the stepwise discriminant analysis statistical advocates of the problem solving approach procedure. There was no difference to teaching. Over the past 100 years, between the five group centroids of the five Dewey’s Steps in Reflective Thinking, also philosophical orientations. known as The Chain of Reasoning, The Method of Science, and The Scientific Summary Method, have been recommended by agricultural educators as the problem One hundred and eighteen secondary solving approach to teaching (Crunkilton & agricultural education teachers in Krebs, 1982; Hammonds, 1950; Lancelot, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Virginia 1944; Newcomb, McCracken, & Warmbrod, responded to the survey with useable data 1993; Stewart, 1950). from a 38% response rate. The average Has the emphasis on the use of problem respondent was 44 years of age, had 18 solving in teaching high school and adult years teaching experience, and had taught agricultural education students influenced adult education classes for 14 years. the philosophical development of Approximately two-thirds of the respondents agricultural educators? While the data from taught adults. The group was predominately the study did not lend itself to answering this male with more than half having an question, it presents an interesting topic for advanced degree. Eighty educators in the additional research. tri-state area (67.8%) identified with the progressive philosophy. Large effect sizes 2. Many agricultural educators were not were found in the correlations between three prepared to teach an adult component to pairs of the philosophies. Medium effect their agricultural education program. size correlations were also found in the correlations between another four pairs of Nearly half of the participants in the the philosophies. In addition, small effect study indicated that they had not received size correlations were discovered between formal education courses in teaching adult the humanistic philosophy and state classes. Without adequate preparation in the variable, as well as progressive philosophy andragogy, the opportunities for success and adult education payments.

Journal of Agricultural Education 45 Volume 43, Number 3, 2002 Boone, Gartin, Wright, Lawrence, & Odell Adult Education… with an adult education program will be Recommendations sacrificed. 1. Additional research should be conducted 3. Many agricultural educators were on identifying philosophies of adult committed to conducting an adult agricultural educators. component to their agricultural education program, even when they are The positive relationships between the not compensated for providing the philosophical orientations raise concerns as service. to the accuracy of the PAEI in determining philosophies of the target population. Zinn Nearly one-fourth of the study (1990) suggests that one should work on participants who conducted adult education clarifying your beliefs and look for classes did so without being paid for the contradictions among them if you score services. This demonstrates a commitment fairly equal on three or more of the on the part of the educators to their program philosophies. An alternative approach to and the agriculture industry in their determining and/or clarifying one’s community. philosophy was suggested by Mulcrone’s (1993). A qualitative research study could 4. Agricultural educators who participated be undertaken to answer the following in the study did not have a clearly questions: defined philosophy of adult education. • What are the purposes (goals and Positive correlations with large effect objectives) of adult education? sizes (Cohen, 1988) were found between • What should be the content or liberal and behaviorist, liberal and subject matter of adult education? progressive, behaviorists and progressive, • Should the content include values? and progressive and humanists philosophical • Who should learn and who should categories. Positive correlations with teach? medium effect sizes were found between • Where (in what setting) should adult liberal and humanistic, liberal and education be taught? behaviorist, radical and behaviorist, and • How should adult education be radical and humanistic philosophical funded? categories. One might expect to find some • Should there be limits on services? negative correlations among the five scales of the PAEI, on the assumption that some of 2. All pre-service agricultural education the scales might be mutually exclusive programs should include an adult (Rachal et al., 1993). Since negative education component. correlations were not found, one could question if the educators had clearly defined It is commonly accepted that adult philosophies of adult education. students require different educational techniques than for teaching youth. If state 5. The adult education philosophy of the supervisors and local administrators expect study participants could not be predicted agricultural education programs to include using demographic characteristics. an adult education component, preservice teachers must be adequately prepared in the Philosophies change to accommodate principles of andragogy. If preservice new needs and experiences (Zinn, 1990). teachers are not adequately prepared, two While demographic characteristics give situations could occur. The teacher may some insight into an individual’s elect to ignore the adult education experiences, they are not the best indicators component of the agricultural education of that experience. Therefore, it is not program or the teacher will struggle and unreasonable to assume that demographic possibly fail at delivering adult education. characteristics could not be used to predict an individual’s educational philosophy.

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Either way the program and the community Bergevin, P. E. (1967). A philosophy for lose. adult education. New York, NY: Seabury Press. 3. Agricultural educators should be compensated for their work with the Birkenholz, R. J. & Maricle, G. L., adult populations in their communities. (1991). Adult education in agriculture: A national survey. Journal of Agricultural Scarbrough, Boone, Lawrence, Gartin, Education, 32 (4), 19-24. Odell and Woloshuk (2001) found over 60% of a group of secondary agricultural Brookfield, S. D. (1989). Facilitating educators in Ohio, Kentucky, and West adult learning. In S. B. Merriam and P. M. Virginia were engaged in part-time Cunningham (Eds.), Handbook of Adult and employment activities. While the study did (pp. 201-210). San not address the reasons agricultural Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. educators were involved in part-time employment, one could assume that at least Burdette, K. (2000). Agricultural a portion of the educators were interested in education opportunities for adults. the additional income. By ensuring that all (unpublished manuscript). Charleston, WV: agricultural educators were adequately West Virginia Department of Education. compensated for their adult work, the need for additional income could be reduced and Chizari, M. & Taylor, W. (1991). the entire agriculture program strengthened Agriculture teachers’ perceptions of adult education programs: An examination of References critical educational needs, obstacles faced, and support needed. Journal of Agricultural Apps, J. W. (1981). The adult learner Education. 32(2), 23-28. on campus: A guide for instructors and Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power administrators. Chicago, IL: Follett nd Publishing Company. analysis for the behavioral sciences (2 ed.) Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Ary, D., Jacobs, L., & Razavieh, A. Associates. (1996). Introduction to Research in Education. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Crunkilton, J. R. & Krebs, A. H. (1982). Brace. Teaching agriculture through problem solving. Danville, IL: The Interstate Printers Beder, H. (1989). Purposes and and Publishers, Inc. philosophies of adult education. In S. B. Merriam and P.M. Cunningham (Eds.), Dillman, D. A. (1978). Mail and Handbook of adult and continuing telephone surveys. New York, NY: John education. (pp. 37-48). San Francisco, CA: Wiley and Sons. Jossey-Bass Publishers. Hammonds, C. (1950). Teaching Bender, R. E., McCormick, R. W., agriculture. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Woodin, R. J., Cunningham, C. J., & Wolf, Book Company, Inc. W. H. (1972). Adult education in agriculture. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Hiemstra, R. (1991, Summer). Aspects Merrill. of effective learning environments. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Berger, P. & Luckmann, T. (1966). Education, 50, 5-12. The social construction of reality. New York, NY: Doubleday. Knowles, M. S. (1962). The adult education movement in the United States. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Journal of Agricultural Education 47 Volume 43, Number 3, 2002 Boone, Gartin, Wright, Lawrence, & Odell Adult Education…

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Journal of Agricultural Education 48 Volume 43, Number 3, 2002