8 Research and Systematic Observation
nvestments in climate science over the past several documented in the recently released U.S. Global decades have greatly increased understanding of Change Research Program report Global Climate Iglobal climate change, including its attribution Change Impacts in the United States (Karl et al. 2009). mainly to human influences. The air and oceans are warming, mountain glaciers are disappearing, sea ice is Research on Global Change shrinking, permafrost is thawing, the great land ice The latest and best scientific information forms the bed- sheets on Greenland and Antarctica are showing signs rock on which effective policy to combat and cope with of instability, and sea level is rising. The consequences climate change must be built. To assist the government for human well-being are already being felt: more heat and society as a whole with understanding, mitigating, waves, floods, droughts, and wildfires; tropical diseases and adapting to climate change, U.S. government agen- reaching into the temperate zones; vast areas of forest cies deploy a wide range of powerful science and tech- destroyed by pest outbreaks linked to warming; altera- nology resources. Each agency has different sets of key tions in patterns of rainfall on which agriculture de- specialists and capabilities, different networks and rela- pends; and coastal property increasingly at risk from tionships with the external research community, and the surging seas. All of these impacts are being experi- separate program and budget authorities. enced in the United States and globally, as extensively U.S. Global Change Research Program goals set forth in the program’s strategic plan. These The U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) activities can be grouped under the following areas: brings together into a single interagency program the increase society’s knowledge of Earth’s past and pres- essential capacities for research and observations that ent climate variability and change; improve under- are widely distributed across U.S. government agen- standing of natural and human forces of climate cies.1 An essential component of success in delivering change; accelerate the capability to model and predict the information necessary for decision making is coor- future conditions and impacts; assess the nation’s vul- dination of the programmatic and budgetary decisions nerability to current and anticipated impacts of cli- of the 13 agencies that make up the USGCRP. mate change; and improve the nation’s ability to re- spond to climate change by providing climate Growing out of interagency activities and planning information and decision-support tools that are useful beginning in about 1988, creation of the USGCRP to policymakers and the general public. energized cooperative interagency activities, with each agency bringing its strength to the collaborative effort. Although the USGCRP continues to support a vari- In 1990, USGCRP received congressional support ety of research activities to gain more detailed predic- under the Global Change Research Act (GCRA). The tive understanding of climate change, increased em- act called for the development of a research program phasis is being placed on bridging the significant gaps “…to understand, assess, predict, and respond to between estimating how much climate may change human-induced and natural processes of global and the effects these changes may have on ecosystem change,” and guided federally supported global change services, water resources, natural resource utilization, research for the next decade.2 In 2001, President Bush human health, and societal well-being. The USGCRP established the Climate Change Research Initiative is making a strong commitment to provide informa- (CCRI) to investigate uncertainties and set research tion that will reduce vulnerabilities and improve resil- priorities in climate change science, aiming to fill gaps ience to variability and change. in understanding within a few years.3 In the following A recent National Academy of Sciences National Re- year, it was announced that the USGCRP and CCRI search Council report recommended restructuring the together would become the Climate Change Science USGCRP around “…the end-to-end climate change Program (CCSP). The USGCRP label remained at- problem, from understanding causes and processes to tached to many of the program’s activities; now, con- supporting actions needed to cope with the impend- sistent with the statutory language of the GCRA, the ing societal problems of climate change” (NAS/NRC whole effort is going forward in the Obama adminis- 2009). The USGCRP is committed to supporting a tration as the USGCRP. balanced portfolio of fundamental and application- The USGCRP is managed by a director from one of oriented research activities, from expanded modeling the participating agencies (currently from the Nation- efforts to studies of coupled human-natural systems al Aeronautics and Space Administration [NASA]), and institutional resilience. Plans are being developed with the help of the USGCRP Integration and Coor- to boost adaptation research; to bolster the capacity to dination Office (ICO) and interagency working monitor change and its impacts (including not only groups that plan future research and cross-cutting ac- enhancing monitoring networks on land and at sea tivities, such as communications, decision support, but also strengthening our system of Earth observation and information and data concerns. The Office of Sci- satellites); to produce the integrated assessments of ence and Technology Policy (OSTP) and Office of the pace, patterns, and regional impacts of climate Management and Budget work closely with the ICO change that will be needed by decision makers as input and the working groups to establish research priorities into their deliberations on the metrics and goals to be and funding plans to ensure the program is aligned embraced for both mitigation and adaptation; and to with the administration’s priorities and reflects agency make climate data and information accessible to those planning. who need it. The fiscal year 2011 budget provides $2.1 billion for Adaptation Research USGCRP/CCSP programs—an increase of about 3 Knowledge is currently limited about the ability of percent, over the 2009 level (excluding American Re- communities, regions, and sectors to adapt to a chang- covery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 [ARRA] funds).4 ing climate. To address this shortfall, research on cli- 1See http://www.usgcrp.gov/. USGCRP programs also received $604 million in mate change impacts and adaptation must address ARRA funding based on preliminary agency alloca- complex human dimensions, such as economics, man- 2See http://www.gcrio.org/ tions, including $237 million for NASA climate activ- gcact1990.html. agement, governance, behavior, and equity. Interdisci- ities. ARRA funding also includes $170 million for plinary research on adaptation that takes into account 3See http://www.climatescience. the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- the interconnectedness of the Earth system and the gov/about/ccri.htm. tion’s (NOAA’s) climate modeling activities. The complex nature of the social, political, and economic 4See http://www.gpoaccess.gov/ 2011 budget supports research activities, including the environment in which adaptation decisions must be usbudget/.
122 U.S. Climate Action Report 2010 made is central to this effort. Given the relationships While much work has been done to evaluate the need between climate change and extreme events, the com- for climate services and a National Climate Service, munities of researchers, engineers, and other experts the Obama administration believes that additional who work on reducing risks from natural and human- assessment and analysis of existing climate-service ca- caused disasters have an important role to play in pabilities and user needs for climate services are neces- framing climate change adaptation strategies and in sary. A National Climate Service and, more broadly, providing information to support decision making our nation’s approach to delivering climate services during implementation. For example, assessments of will require that such analysis and assessment are on- emergency preparedness and response systems, insur- going, science-based, user-responsive, and relevant to ance systems, and disaster-relief capabilities are an im- all levels of interest—e.g., local, regional, national, and portant component of a society’s adaptive capacity. international. Such a framework must also be able to adapt to new developments in the scientific under- Integrated Assessment standing of climate change and resultant impacts to Preparing for and adapting and responding to the im- serve the needs of decision makers and the public. pacts of climate change at the national level must begin with an integrated assessment that cuts across regional To address the nation’s need for reliable and accurate and sectoral lines. Any national assessment activity climate information, OSTP is working to convene a must engage localities and sectors to aggregate informa- task force with representation from a diverse group of tion into a national picture of climate impacts, and key agencies whose charge will be to examine national should also use this engagement to gather information assets, existing data and information gaps, and costs on the “demand side” of adaptation, where people live related to the development of a cohesive framework and work, to re-orient research and observation invest- for delivering accurate climate-related information to ments. While national policy may be warranted for ad- the public. This process is intended to result in a more dressing certain climate change issues, individuals, pub- detailed functional and organizational approach for lic- and private-sector organizations, local communities, delivering climate services to the nation, in concert states, and regions will need to respond to many chal- with a broad authorizing framework. lenges as well. Future USGCRP activities will serve these different scales and stakeholders, providing the Systematic Observations information and capabilities they need to prepare for Long-term, high-quality observations of the global and adapt and respond to future conditions. environmental system are essential for defining the current state of the Earth’s system, discovering past Climate Services trends, and measuring its variability. This task requires Coordinated climate information and services are both space- and surface-based observation systems. needed to assist decision making across public and The termclimate observations can encompass a broad private sectors. Local planners need information on range of environmental observations, including (1) likely changes in precipitation amount and flooding routine weather observations, which, when collected rains; farmers and farm cooperatives need information consistently over a long period of time, can be used to on changes in season length and temperature, not just help describe a region’s climatology; (2) observations for their own farms, but for those of their local and collected as part of research investigations to elucidate distant competitors; coastal zone managers need infor- chemical, dynamic, biological, or radiative processes mation on likely changes in sea level, storms, and es- that contribute to maintaining climate patterns or to tuarine temperatures; water resource managers need their variability; (3) highly precise, continuous obser- information on likely changes in snowpack and run- vations of climate system variables collected for the off, and the chance of floods and drought; community express purpose of documenting long-term (decadal- health planners need information on changes in the to-centennial) change; and (4) observations of climate location of freezing conditions and the frequency of proxies, collected to extend the instrumental climate extreme heat waves; industry needs information on record to remote regions and back in time to provide changes in extremes that might affect their businesses information on climate change for millennial and lon- and shipping; and economic analysts need informa- ger time scales. A full documentation of all U.S. sys- tion across the region. tematic climate observational activities can be found Just as the nation’s climate research efforts require and in The United States National Report on Systematic benefit from interagency and academic partnerships, Observations for Climate for 2008: National Activities so too will the development and communication of with Respect to the Global Climate Observing System climate change information benefit citizens and re- (GCOS) Implementation Plan (U.S. CCSP 2008). The searchers. Providing this information requires sus- following input will summarize, and where appropri- tained federal agency partnerships and collaboration ate, update that information. with climate service providers and end users. Past reports have categorized observing systems as be- ing either satellite-based or in situ, to indicate a
Chapter 8 | Research and Systematic Observation 123 ground-based system. However, the term in situ is some- back to Landsat 1, launched in 1972. As of February what misleading, as it appears to include all non-satellite 2009, any Landsat archive scene selected by a user will measurements (i.e., remote sensing from the ground, bal- be automatically processed, at no charge. In addition, loons, or aircraft), which it does not. For example, atmo- newly acquired scenes meeting a cloud cover threshold spheric observations necessary for climate studies include of 20 percent or below will be processed and placed on- both real in situ measurements (which directly sample line for at least three months, after which time they will the air mass surrounding the instrument) as well as non- remain available for selection from the archive. satellite remote-sensing measurements. Therefore, this The National Polar-orbiting Operational Environ- report distinguishes observing systems as being either mental Satellite System (NPOESS)6 program has un- non-satellite or satellite in nature. dergone a major restructuring in order to put this crit- Satellite observations provide a unique perspective of ical program on a more sustainable pathway toward the global integrated Earth system and are necessary success. The satellite system is a national priority that for good global climate coverage. Non-satellite obser- is essential to meeting both civil and military weather- vations are required for the measurement of param- forecasting, storm-tracking, and climate-monitoring eters that cannot be estimated from space platforms requirements. The restructured program, now known (e.g., biodiversity, groundwater, carbon sequestration as the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS), will consist at the root zone, and subsurface ocean parameters). of platforms based on the NPOESS Preparatory Proj- Non-satellite observations also provide long time se- ect (NPP) satellite scheduled for launch in September ries of observations required for the detection and 2011. The JPSS is designed to monitor global environ- diagnosis of global change, such as surface tempera- mental conditions, and collect and disseminate data ture, precipitation and water resources, weather and related to weather, atmosphere, oceans, land, and other natural hazards, the emission or discharge of near-space environment with a planned launch in pollutants, and the impacts of multiple stresses on the 2015. The first JPSS satellite will host some of the sen- environment due to human and natural causes. sors that were planned for the first NPOESS satellite, including the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer NOAA has provided leadership in the in situ long- Suite, the Cross-track Infrared Sounder, the Advanced term measurement of atmospheric greenhouse gases Technology Microwave Sounder, the Ozone Mapping (GHGs) for 40 years. Flask, tower. and aircraft mea- and Profiling Suite, and the Cloud and Earth Radiant surements are routinely made by NOAA’s Earth Sys- Energy System instrument. tem Resources Laboratory, and ocean carbon inven- tory and exchange observations are routinely made by Remotely sensed observations continue to be a corner- NOAA’s Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory. stone of the overall U.S. climate-observing program as NOAA maintains the global observational networks coordinated by the USGCRP. The Cloud-Aerosol and field programs on which society will increasingly Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation depend for reliable information. (CALIPSO) satellite mission and CloudSat radar in- struments are providing an unprecedented examina- One critical challenge to the Earth observation field is tion of the vertical structure of aerosols and clouds to maintain existing observation capabilities in a vari- over the entire Earth. These data—when combined ety of areas. For example, maintaining the observa- with data from the Aqua, Aura, and Parasol satellites tional record of stratospheric ozone is essential in dis- orbiting in formation (the “A-Train”)—will enable cerning the effects of climate change on the nature and systematic pursuit of key issues, including the effects timing of ozone recovery. Other key areas include ra- of aerosols on clouds and precipitation, the strength of diative energy fluxes of the Sun and Earth, atmospher- cloud feedbacks, and the characteristics of difficult-to- ic carbon dioxide (CO ), global surface temperature, 2 observe polar clouds. The increasing volume of data and global sea level. Efforts to create a long-term re- from remote-sensing and non-satellite observing sys- cord of global land cover, started by Landsat in the tems presents a continuing challenge for USGCRP 1970s, are currently being prepared for the transition agencies to ensure that data management systems are to a Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM) being able to handle the expected increases. planned by NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS).5 The LDCM is currently planned for launch To meet the long-term needs for the documentation in December 2012 and is expected to have a 5-year of global changes, the United States integrates obser- mission life with 10-year expendable provisions. vations from both research and operational systems. The United States supports the need to improve glob- The USGS Landsat 35-year record of the Earth’s surface al observing systems for climate, and to exchange in- 5 See http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/ is available to users at no charge. Under a transition formation on national plans and programs that con- and http://landsat.usgs.gov. toward the National Land Imaging Program, USGS is tribute to the global capacity in this area. 6 See http://www.ipo.noaa.gov/. pursuing an aggressive schedule to provide users with electronic access to any Landsat scene held in the Providing for wide access to information from the 7 See http://www. earthobservations.org/. USGS-managed national archive of global scenes dating Global Earth Observation System of Systems
124 U.S. Climate Action Report 2010 (GEOSS)7 for applications that benefit society has Documentation of U.S. Climate Observations been a focus of efforts coordinated by the intergovern- The United States supports a large number of remote- mental Group on Earth Observations (GEO)8 and the sensing satellite platforms, as well as a broad network U.S. Group on Earth Observations (USGEO).9 The of Earth-based global atmospheric, ocean, and terres- United States continues to be a very active participant trial observation systems that are essential to climate in the development of GEOSS. The purpose of monitoring. The United States contributes to the de- GEOSS is to achieve comprehensive, coordinated, and velopment and operation of several global observing sustained observations of the Earth system in order to systems, both research and operational, that collective- improve monitoring of the changing state of the plan- ly provide a comprehensive measure of climate system et, to increase understanding of complex Earth pro- variability and climate change processes. These systems cesses, and to enhance the prediction of the impacts of are a baseline Earth-observing system and include environmental change, including climate change. Fi- NASA, NOAA, and USGS Earth-observing satellites nally, GEOSS provides the overall conceptual and and extensive non-satellite observational capabilities. organizational framework to build toward integrated The USGCRP also supports several ground-based global Earth observations to meet user needs and to measurement activities that provide the data used in support decision making in an increasingly complex studies of the various climate processes necessary for and environmentally stressed world. It is a “system of better understanding of climate change. U.S. observa- systems” consisting of existing and future Earth obser- tional and monitoring activities contribute significant- vation systems, supplementing—not supplanting— ly to several international observing systems, including the mandates and governance arrangements of those the GCOS, principally sponsored by the World Me- systems, such as GCOS.10 The established Earth obser- teorological Organization (WMO); the Global Ocean vation systems, through which many countries coop- Observing System (GOOS),15 sponsored by the UN erate as members of the United Nations (UN) Spe- Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization’s cialized Agencies and as contributors to international Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission;16 scientific programs, provide essential building blocks and the Global Terrestrial Observing System for GEOSS.11 (GTOS), sponsored by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization.17 The latter two have climate-related Potential benefits of Earth observations were detailed elements being developed jointly with GCOS. For in the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System 10- example, NOAA has provided leadership in the year strategic plan that covered climate and eight oth- in situ long-term measurement of atmospheric GHGs for 40 er related areas—agriculture, disasters, ecology, energy, years. Flask, tower, and aircraft measurements are rou- health, integration, ocean resources, water resources, tinely made by NOAA’s Earth System Resources Lab- and weather (IWGEO and NSTC/CENR 2005). The oratory, and ocean carbon inventory and exchange importance of this global collaborative effort was evi- observations are routinely made by NOAA’s Pacific dent at the November 2009 GEO-VI Plenary Meet- Marine Environmental Laboratory. ing, and a regional implementation of GEOSS, known as GEOSS in the Americas, continues to be an effort U.S. priorities for advancement of the atmospheric, strongly supported by the United States.12 The first oceanic, and terrestrial observing components of significant GEOSS in the Americas project involved GCOS include (1) reducing the uncertainty in the the shifting of the Geostationary Operational Envi- global carbon inventory (in the atmospheric, oceanic, ronmental Satellites GOES-10 satellite in 2006 to a and terrestrial domains), sea-level change, and sea sur- new orbit, to greatly improve environmental satellite face temperature; (2) continuing support for existing 8 See http://www. coverage of the Western Hemisphere, especially over non-satellite atmospheric networks in developing na- earthobservations.org/. South America.13 By significantly enhancing satellite tions; and (3) planning for surface and upper-air 9 See http://www.usgeo.gov/.10 See detection of such natural hazards as severe storms, GCOS reference observations consistent with the http://www.gosic.org/ios/GCOS- floods, drought, landslides, and wildfires, the shift USGCRP Synthesis and Analysis Report 1.1 (Karl et main-page.htm. helps protect lives and property in both South Ameri- al. 2006). As such, the GOOS will make incremental 11 See http://earthobservations.org. ca and the United States, and allows for improved advances, building out to 60 percent completion in prediction, response, and follow-up and expanded 2010, in which 50 surface drifters will be equipped 12 See http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/ PS/SATS/GOES/TEN/. understanding of Earth system processes. Planning is with salinity sensors for satellite validation and salinity underway to continue this South America coverage budget calculations, particularly in the polar regions; a 13 See http://www.strategies.org/ EOPA.html. after GOES-10’s service is completed, by using GOES-12. new reference array will be added across the Atlantic Since 2006, other collaborative activities in the region basin, to measure changes in the ocean’s overturning 14 See http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ have been taken on, including the North American oa/climate/monitoring/drought/ circulation—an indicator of possible abrupt climate nadm/. 14 Drought Monitoring Program and a coastal zone change; a pilot U.S. coastal carbon-observing network management effort discussed at a special forum in con- will enter sustained service, to help quantify North 15 See http://www.ioc-goos.org/. cert with the 2009 GEO-VI Plenary Meeting. American carbon sources and sinks and to measure 16 See http://ioc-unesco.org/.
ocean acidification caused by CO2 sequestration in 17 See http://www.fao.org/gtos/.
Chapter 8 | Research and Systematic Observation 125 the ocean; and dedicated ships will target deployments pseudo-normals. Each year these data help to inform of Argo and surface drifters in undersampled regions decisions related to Federal Disaster Declarations of the world oceans. The North American Carbon based on weather, insurance industry claims, water Program (NACP), under the auspices of the resource management, drought declarations, transpor- USGCRP, aims heavily at terrestrial uncertainties that tation issues, legal issues, computing model guidance are supported by a growing set of atmospheric mea- to daily weather forecasts, normals and extremes, and surements to place constraints on flux estimates.18 energy consumption. These observations are ongoing and involve participa- The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) tion from numerous agencies and institutions. Climate Research Facility (ACRF) is a scientific user Non-Satellite Atmospheric Observations facility for obtaining continuous, long-term measure- The United States supports 75 stations in the GCOS ments of radiative fluxes, cloud and aerosol properties, Surface Network, 21 stations in the GCOS Upper Air and related atmospheric characteristics in diverse cli- Network,19 and 4 stations in the Global Atmospheric mate regimes.22 The ACRF paradigm of long-term Watch (GAW).20 These stations are distributed geo- continuous measurements is essential to the evalua- graphically, as prescribed in the GCOS and GAW tion and enhancement of climate models that must network designs. The data (metadata and observa- simulate the evolution of atmospheric properties for tions) from these stations are shared according to long continuous periods, from decades to centuries. GCOS and GAW protocols. The ACRF expands its geographic coverage through deployments of a mobile facility and includes aerial Since publishing its last report to the UN Framework measurements that complement the ground measure- Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the ments. In 2008, the mobile facility was deployed to United States has continued to field and commission a China to examine aerosol indirect effects. In 2009, the system known as the U.S. Climate Reference Network mobile facility began a two-year deployment to the (USCRN).21 The USCRN is designed to answer the Azores to study processes controlling the radiative question: How has the U.S. climate changed over the properties and microphysics of marine boundary layer past 50 years at national, regional, and local levels? Since clouds, a high-priority science question. An Interna- beginning in 2002, and as of September 2008, 114 tional Polar Year (IPY)23 experiment was conducted USCRN stations have been commissioned in the conti- using combinations of ground and aerial measure- nental United States. In 2008, work was begun on ex- ments. Data from the IPY experiment will be used as a panding that network to include 29 additional commis- case study by the Global Energy and Water Cycle Ex- sioned USCRN stations in Alaska; as of September periment Cloud Systems Study.24 2009, 2 new USCRN stations had been installed in Alaska. The USCRN concept is also being applied to- The U.S. GCOS program’s primary mission is support ward expanding reference surface observing on an inter- of non-satellite reference observational efforts, includ- national basis as resources allow. After a few years of ing developing the GCOS Reference Upper-Air planning, an effort is underway to install a USCRN Network (GRUAN). The GRUAN is intended to aid station at the Russian Arctic observing station in Tiksi in enhancing the quality of upper-tropospheric and as part of a U.S.–Russia bilateral effort. lower-stratospheric water vapor measurements at a subset of 30-40 global stations. The GRUAN began In addition, the Cooperative Observer Program operation on January 1, 2009, and is led by the GRUAN (COOP) is the nation’s largest and oldest weather Lead Center in Lindenberg, Germany; seven U.S. sta- network, with nearly 10,250 observations taken daily, tions (including five ACRF sites, one NOAA/ mostly by volunteers, over the course of the past 121 National Center for Atmospheric Research site, and years. The COOP is the primary source for monitor- one site from Howard University) have been invited ing U.S. climate variability, including measuring week- to be part of the initial configuration of stations. The ly to interannual time frames on national, regional, GRUAN is a key contributing network to GCOS; 18 and local scales. These data are also the primary basis See http://www.nacarbon.org/. contributes to the GEOSS goal of “understanding, for assessments of century-scale climate change. The 19 assessing, predicting, mitigating, and adapting to cli- See http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ network is in stable locations of urban, suburban, and oa/hofn/guan/guan-intro.html. mate variability and change”; and is a key element sup- rural settings in flat, mountainous, and beach areas porting the Global Space-Based Inter-Calibration Sys- 20 See http://www.wmo.ch/web/ where people live, work and play. The COOP is de- arep/gaw/gaw_home.html. tem effort. Long-term surface-based reference climate signed to provide weather, water, and climate informa- sites are essential for creating a continuous and homo- 21 See http://www.ncdc.noaa. tion. Due to the density of this observation network, geneous climate data record, such as those used by the gov/crn/. the information collected by the COOP can clarify Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the 22 See http://www.arm.gov/acrf/. how the U.S. climate has changed in the past 120 years UNFCCC, in global climate assessments. A reference or more, on a national, regional, and local level. The 23 See http://www.ipy.org/. climate data record is also essential for use by least- USCRN installed the final station in 2008, and uses developed nations for local and regional planning 24 See http://www.gewex.org/ historic data from the COOP network to develop gewex_overview.html. related to protecting and monitoring water resources
126 U.S. Climate Action Report 2010 (e.g., drought forecasting), for understanding the ef- under development for measurements of atmospheric fects of climate change on human health, and for un- CO2. In the future, light detection and ranging derstanding, assessing, predicting, mitigating and (LIDAR) data will be used in studies of the influence adapting to climate variability and change. Addition- of polar stratospheric clouds on ozone formation over ally, this kind of data record is a key element in reduc- the South Pole, Arctic haze impacts on polar climate, ing uncertainties in global temperature and precipita- and generation of climatological aerosol and cloud tion variances, providing reference ground-truth data properties at several Micro Pulse Lidar (MPL)29 to aid in the evaluation of climate model simulations Network (MPLNET)30 sites. To enhance data value, and in the provision of quality data for the calibration MPL instrument designs and hardware will be contin- and validation of satellite data. ually improved. In addition, several new MPLNET data products will be made available to the research While it is difficult to list all observing campaigns and community. systems, several others should be noted for their global climate significance. The Southern Hemisphere Non-Satellite Ocean Observations ADditional OZonesondes (SHADOZ)25 provides a The climate requirements of GOOS are the same as consistent data set from balloon-borne ozonesondes those for GCOS. Also like GCOS, GOOS is based on for ground verification of satellite tropospheric ozone a number of non-satellite and space-based observing measurements at 12 sites across the tropical and sub- components. The United States supports the Integrat- tropical regions of the Southern Hemisphere. Another ed Ocean Observing System’s (IOOS’s) surface and key system along these lines is the AErosol RObotic marine observations through a variety of components, NETwork (AERONET),26 which is a federation of including fixed and surface-drifting buoys, subsurface ground-based remote-sensing aerosol networks estab- floats, and volunteer observing ships.31 It also supports lished in part by NASA and France’s Centre National the Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) de la Recherche Scientifique. through a network of sea level tidal gauges.32 AERONET provides a long-term, continuous, and The United States currently provides satellite coverage readily accessible public domain database of aerosol of the global oceans for sea-surface temperatures, sur- optical properties for research and characterization of face elevation, ocean-surface vector winds, sea ice, aerosols, validates satellite retrievals, and provides syn- ocean color, and other climate variables. The first ele- ergy with other databases. AERONET collaboration ment of the climate portion of GOOS, completed in provides a series of globally distributed observations of September 2005, is the global drifting buoy array, spectral aerosol optical depth, inversion products, and which is a network of 1,250 drifting buoys measuring precipitable water in diverse aerosol regimes. The col- sea-surface temperature and other variables as they laborative effort between NASA’s Advanced Global flow in the ocean currents. At present, the United Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE)27 and States is the world leader in implementing the non- NOAA’s Flask Monitoring Network has been instru- satellite elements of GOOS for climate, and sponsors mental in measuring the composition of the global the majority of the IOOS Global Component, which atmosphere continuously since 1978. The AGAGE is is the U.S. contribution to the international GOOS distinguished by its capability to measure globally and program and the ocean baseline of the GEOSS. The at high frequency most of the important gases in the United States sponsors nearly half of the platforms Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the presently deployed in the global ocean (3,860 of Ozone Layer and almost all of the significant non-CO2 7,723), with 72 other countries providing the remain- gases in the Kyoto Protocol to mitigate climate change. der. The United States has historically contributed 25 See http://croc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ shadoz/. Also, both NASA and NOAA demonstrate great col- about half of the international system, and has been a laborative research efforts in this key climate monitor- leader in fostering an international systems approach 26 See http://aeronet.gsfc.nasa.gov/ ing activity.28 data_frame.html. to the implementation of GOOS. 27 See http://agage.eas.gatech.edu/. AERONET retrievals of atmospheric particulate ab- Expanding in coverage, currently 60 percent of the sorption will continue to be utilized in climate-forcing initial GOOS design is complete. The demand for 28 See http://www.strategies.org/ studies and in the validation of current and future ocean data and the products and forecasts derived EOPA.html. satellite missions, such as the Glory satellite (late 2010 from these data require international cooperation 29 See http://www.arm.gov/ launch), which will measure aerosol light absorption with other nations to complete deployment as soon as instruments/instrument. php?id=mpl. from space. Network expansion will continue, with possible. focus on regions that are not adequately sampled and 30 See http://www.mplnet.com/. In 1998, an international consortium presented plans that are important for understanding of global climate for Argo, a global array of 3,000 autonomous instru- 31 See http://www.ocean.us/ change, such as Asia. An experimental effort is under- ments that would revolutionize the collection of criti- what_is_ioos. way to investigate the possibility of measuring sunlight cal, climate-relevant information from the upper 2 32 See http://www.gloss-sealevel. reflected off the moon to make aerosol measurements kilometers (km) (1.2 miles [mi]) of the world’s org/. at night. In addition, an experimental algorithm is 33 oceans. These instruments drift at depth, periodically 33 See http://www.argo.ucsd.edu/.
Chapter 8 | Research and Systematic Observation 127 rising to the sea surface, collecting data along the way, Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction and report their observations in real time via satellite (RAMA) network. RAMA is a multinationally sup- communications. The initial deployment objective of ported element of the Indian Ocean Observing Sys- 3,000 instruments distributed homogenously tem, a combination of complementary satellite and throughout the world’s oceans has been attained, and non-satellite measurement platforms for climate re- Argo now provides over 100,000 high-quality temper- search and forecasting purposes. NASA is currently ature and salinity profiles annually, along with global- investing in the development of new prototype geo- scale velocity data, all without a seasonal bias. The detic instruments for deployment later this decade to Argo array has been deployed through the collabora- support the creation of a next-generation geodetic tion of more than 40 countries plus the European network for the improvement of the terrestrial refer- Union. ence frame. A guiding principle of Argo is that the program should IOOS is the U.S. coastal observing component of the benefit everyone. Thus, the data are openly and imme- GOOS. It is envisioned as a coordinated national and diately available to anyone wishing to use them. Argo international network of observations, data manage- data coupled with global-scale satellite measurements ment, and analyses that systematically acquires and from radar altimeters have made possible huge advanc- disseminates data and information on past, present, es in the representation of the oceans in coupled and future states of the oceans. A coordinated IOOS ocean-atmosphere models for climate forecasts and effort is being established by NOAA via a national the routine analysis and forecasting of the state of the IOOS Program Office. The IOOS observing subsys- subsurface ocean. Argo data are being used in an ever- tem employs both remote and non-satellite sensing. widening range of research applications that have led Remote sensing includes satellite-, aircraft- and land- to new insights into how the ocean and atmosphere based sensors, power sources, and transmitters. Non- interact in extreme as well as normal conditions. Two satellite sensing includes platforms (ships, buoys, glid- examples are the processes in polar winters when the ers, etc.), non-satellite sensors, power sources, sampling deep waters that fill most of the ocean basins are devices, laboratory-based measurements, and trans- formed, and the transfer of heat and water to the at- mitters. mosphere beneath tropical cyclones. Both conditions Non-Satellite Terrestrial Observations are crucial to global weather and climate, and could For terrestrial observations, GCOS and GTOS have not be observed by ships. identified permafrost thermal state and permafrost The present generation of instruments has a design life active layer as key variables for monitoring the state of of four years when profiling to 2-km (1.2-mi) depth the cryosphere. The United States operates a long-term every 10 days. Maintaining the array will require an- “benchmark” glacier program to intensively monitor nual deployments of around 800 floats. Having de- climate, glacier motion, glacier mass balance, glacier ployed the array and built the data delivery system, the geometry, and stream runoff at a few select sites. The challenge is to maintain the full array for a decade in a data collected are used to understand glacier-related pre-operational “sustained maintenance” phase, includ- hydrologic processes and improve the quantitative ing ensuring the availability of the platform resources to prediction of water resources and glacier-related haz- maintain the array. This will allow Argo’s design to be ards, and the consequences of climate change. Long- optimized and its value fully demonstrated. The United term, mass balance monitoring programs have been States has committed to maintaining half of the array, established at three widely spaced U.S. glacier basins and other contributing nations are striving to continue that clearly sample different climate-glacier-runoff the array’s strong international nature. regimes. Continued upgrading of the GLOSS tidal gauge net- SNOTEL and SCAN Networks work from 43 to 170 stations is planned for the period The SNOTEL (SNOpack TELemetry) and SCAN 2006–2010. Ocean carbon inventory surveys in a 10- (Soil Climate Analysis Network) monitoring net- year repeat survey cycle help determine the anthropo- works provide automated comprehensive snowpack, genic intake of carbon into the oceans. Plans for ad- soil moisture, and related climate information de- vancement of the global Tropical-Atmosphere-Ocean signed to support natural resource assessments. (TAO) network of ocean buoys include an expansion SNOTEL operates more than 660 remote sites in of the network into the Indian Ocean (the Pacific mountain snowpack zones of the western United 34 See http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/ Ocean has a current array of 70 TAO buoys).34 From States.35 SCAN, which began as a pilot program, now tao/proj_over/pubs/overview. 2005 to 2007, 8 new TAO buoys were installed in the 36 html. consists of more than 120 sites. These networks col- Indian Ocean in collaboration with partners from lect and disseminate continuous, standardized soil 35 See http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda. India, Indonesia, and France. Plans call for a total of moisture and other climate data in publicly available gov/snow/. 38 TAO buoys in the Indian Ocean by 2013, which databases and climate reports. Uses for these data in- 36 See http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda. will form the Research Moored Array for African- clude inputs to global circulation models, verifying gov/scan/.
128 U.S. Climate Action Report 2010 and ground truthing satellite data, monitoring Land Cover Characterization Program drought development, forecasting water supply, and This program was begun in 1995 to develop land cover predicting sustainability for cropping systems. and other land characterization databases to address AmeriFLUX Network national and international requirements that were becoming increasingly sophisticated and diverse. To The AmeriFLUX network endeavors to establish an meet these requirements, USGS develops multi-scale infrastructure for guiding, collecting, synthesizing, and land cover characteristics databases used by scientists, disseminating long-term measurements of CO , water, 2 resource managers, planners, and educators (Global and energy exchange from a variety of ecosystems.37 Its and National Land Cover Characterization), and con- objectives are to collect critical new information to tributes to the understanding of the patterns, charac- help define the current global CO budget, to enable 2 teristics, and dynamics of land cover across the United improved projections of future concentrations of at- States and the globe (Urban Dynamics and Land Cov- mospheric CO , and to enhance the understanding of 2 er Trends). The program also conducts research to carbon fluxes, net ecosystem production, and carbon improve the utility and efficiency of large-area land sequestration in the terrestrial biosphere. cover characterization and land cover characteristics North American Carbon Program databases. NACP, a major focus of the USGCRP, is a multidisci- The initial goal to develop a global 1-km (0.6-mi) land plinary research program established to obtain the cover characteristics database was achieved in 1997. scientific understanding of North America’s carbon Current efforts focus on revising the database utilizing sources, sinks, and changes in carbon stocks needed to input from users around the world. USGS, the Uni- meet societal concerns and provide tools for decision versity of Nebraska-Lincoln, and the European Com- makers. NACP is supported by a number of federal mission’s Joint Research Centre generated the initial agencies through a variety of intramural and extramu- 1-km (0.6-mi) resolution Global Land Cover Charac- ral funding mechanisms and award instruments. teristics database using NOAA Advanced Very-High- NACP relies upon a rich and diverse array of existing Resolution Radiometer data from April 1992 through observational networks, monitoring sites, and experi- March 1993. The database was built on a continent- mental field studies in North America and its adjacent by-continent basis using standard map projections and oceans. The program’s goals are to develop quantita- 1-km (0.6-mi) nominal spatial resolution; each conti- tive scientific knowledge, robust observations, and nental database contains unique elements based on the models to determine: the emissions and uptake of geographic aspects of the specific continent. The con- CO , methane (CH ), and carbon monoxide (CO); 2 4 tinental databases are combined to make seven global the changes in carbon stocks; and the factors regulat- data sets, each representing a different landscape based ing these processes for North America and adjacent on a particular classification legend.39 ocean basins. NACP also aims to develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional National Ecological Observatory Network and continental scales. This is the knowledge base NEON is a planned continental-scale research plat- needed to design monitoring programs for natural and form for discovering and understanding the impacts managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4; to support of climate change, land-use change, and invasive spe- long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes, sourc- cies on ecology.40 NEON would be a national observa- es, and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4; and to tory, not a collection of regional observatories. It is develop forecasts for future trends. currently in the planning and development stages. Glacier Monitoring NEON would consist of distributed sensor networks The United States operates a long-term “benchmark” and experiments, linked by advanced cyber infrastruc- glacier program to intensively monitor climate, glacier ture to record and archive ecological data for at least motion, glacier mass balance, glacier geometry, and 30 years. Using standardized protocols and an open stream runoff at a few select sites. The data collected are data policy, NEON would gather long-term data on used to understand glacier-related hydrologic processes ecological responses of the biosphere to changes in and improve the quantitative prediction of water re- land use and climate, and on feedbacks from the geo- sources, glacier-related hazards, and the consequences of sphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. NEON would climate change. The approach has been to establish long- be designed to serve as a U.S. terrestrial contribution term mass balance monitoring programs at three widely to GEOSS. 37 See http://public.ornl.gov/ spaced U.S. glacier basins to clearly sample different cli- ameriflux/. Space-Based Observations mate-glacier-runoff regimes—South Cascade Glacier in Space-based, remote-sensing observations of the atmo- 38 See http://ak.water.usgs.gov/ Washington State, and Gulkana and Wolverine Glaciers sphere–ocean–land system have evolved substantially glaciology/. in Alaska. Mass balance data are available beginning in since the early 1970s, when the first operational 39 See http://edcdaac.usgs.gov/ 1959 for the South Cascade Glacier, and beginning in weather satellite systems were launched. Over the last glcc/glcc.html. 1966 for the Gulkana and Wolverine Glaciers.38 decade, satellites have proven their observational capa- 40 See http://www.neoninc.org/.
Chapter 8 | Research and Systematic Observation 129 bility to accurately monitor nearly all aspects of the ue of approximately 3.1 millimeters (0.12 inches) per total Earth system on a global basis. Currently, satel- year from altimeters over the past 15 years is almost lite systems monitor the evolution and impacts of El twice the estimate of approximately 1.7 mm (0.07 in) Niño and La Niña, weather phenomena, natural haz- per year from tide gauges over the past century. ards, and vegetation cycles; the ozone hole; solar fluc- The Jason series is being transitioned as a research en- tuations; changes in snow cover, sea ice and ice sheets, deavor from NASA and the Centre National d’Etudes ocean surface temperatures, and biological activity; Spatiales (the French Space Agency) to NOAA and coastal zones and algal blooms; deforestation and for- the European Organisation for the Exploitation of est fires; urban development; volcanic activity; tecton- Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT, NOAA’s ic plate motions; aerosol and three-dimensional cloud operational satellite counterpart in Europe) for joint distributions; water distribution; and other climate- implementation as a sustained operational capability. related information. NOAA and EUMETSAT have already assumed re- A number of U.S. satellite operational and research sponsibility for the ground system and operation of missions form the basis of a robust national remote- the Jason-2 satellite launched in June 2008. Addition- sensing program that fully supports the requirements ally, with funding requested in the President’s fiscal of GCOS (U.S. DOC/NOAA 2001). These include year (FY) 2010 budget (OMB 2009), NOAA plans to instruments on the GOES and Polar-orbiting Opera- begin developing Jason-3, a joint mission with tional Environmental Satellites (POES),41 the series of EUMETSAT. Assuming resources are made available Earth Observing System (EOS) satellites,42 the Land- on schedule, a joint Jason-3 could be launched in late sats 5 and 7,43 and the Jason satellite44 measuring sea- 2013, in time to overlap at least the last 6 months of surface height, wind speed, and waves. Additional sat- the design life of Jason-2, thus helping ensure the con- ellite missions in support of GCOS include (1) the tinuity of the climate record of global sea level. Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor for Ocean Surface Vector Wind Measurements measuring solar irradiance;45 (2) the EOS Terra, NASA’s QuikSCAT (or Quick Scatterometer) scans Aqua, and Aura series; (3) the Sea-viewing Wide the ocean surface to measure wind speed and direc- Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) for studying ocean tion, providing observations over the open ocean and productivity, as well as aerosols;46 (4) the Shuttle where other tools, such as buoys, ships, and reconnais- Radar Topography Mission;47 and (5) the Tropical sance flights, are sparse or unavailable. Over time, Rainfall Measuring Mission for measuring rainfall, these data have proved useful to NOAA for marine clouds, sea-surface temperature, radiation, and light- and tropical cyclone forecasts. In November 2009, ning.48 A major upgrade to the GOES system, known NASA announced performance degradation of the as GOES-R, is under development, with a first launch QuikSCAT satellite. scheduled for 2015.49 NOAA and NASA continue to pursue short-term POES and long-term strategies to replace these space-based Since 1979, the NOAA POES system has provided scatterometry measurements. NOAA is using data the nation with the longest time series of essential cli- from the Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) onboard mate variables, including atmospheric temperature, the Meteorological Operational (MetOp) satellite 41 See http://www.oso.noaa.gov/ water vapor, clouds, ozone, vegetation, and sea and operated by EUMETSAT. NOAA and NASA have poes/. land surface temperature. signed a letter of intent to collaborate on science and 42 See http://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/. GOES obtain Oceansat-2 data from the Indian Space Re-
43 See http://landsat.usgs.gov/. Since the 1980s GOES has provided essential infor- search Organisation. NOAA and NASA have also had mation on the diurnal cycle of clouds, and has been discussions with the Japanese Aerospace Exploration 44 See http://topex-www.jpl.nasa. gov/mission/jason-1.html. used as a key data set for the International Satellite Agency (JAXA) about flying a U.S.-developed scatter- Cloud Climatology Project. GOES has also been used ometer instrument on a future JAXA satellite.50 45 See http://acrim.jpl.nasa.gov/. to study the diurnal cycle of sea surface temperature. The Afternoon Train (“A-Train”) 46See http://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa. Jason Altimeter Series gov/SeaWiFS/. A collaboration between NASA and the space agen- Global sea level rise is the most obvious manifestation cies of Canada and France, the A-Train (Afternoon 47 See http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/ of climate change in the ocean. It directly threatens Train) is a key Sun-synchronous, Earth-orbiting satel- srtm/. 51 coastal infrastructure through increased erosion, more lite formation that studies the atmosphere. The A- 48 See http://trmm.gsfc.nasa.gov/. frequent storm-surge flooding, and loss of habitat Train constellation consists of five satellites flying in
49 See http://www.goes-r.gov/. through drowned wetlands. The only feasible way to close proximity to each other. A sixth satellite, the accurately determine global sea level rise is through Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO), was to have 50 See http://www.jaxa.jp/projects/ satellite altimetry, the systematic collection of sea level been added to the A-Train constellation in early 2009, sat/gcom/index_e.html. observations, gathered today by the ongoing Jason but experienced a launch failure in February 2009. 51 See http://nasascience.nasa. series of satellite missions. These observations suggest gov/earth-science/a-train-satellite- constellation. that sea level rise is accelerating; in particular, the val-
130 U.S. Climate Action Report 2010 The first satellite in the A-Train constellation, Aqua, port models? (2) How do aerosols contribute to the was launched in 2002; the second satellite, Aura, was Earth radiation budget, and to what extent are they a launched in July 2004; and the CloudSat, CALIPSO, climate forcing? (3) How does cloud layering affect and PARASOL satellites were launched in April 2006. the Earth radiation budge? (4) What is the vertical The A-Train satellites cross the equator within a few distribution of cloud water/ice in cloud systems? and minutes of one another at around 1:30 p.m. local solar (5) What is the role of polar stratospheric clouds in time. By combining the different sets of observations ozone loss and denitrification of the Arctic vortex? from the A-Train, a better understanding of atmo- AIRS—Additional advances have been achieved by spheric composition, clouds, and aerosols has led and exploiting new thermal sounder measurements from is leading to major advances in atmospheric knowl- the Atmospheric InfraRed Sounder (AIRS). Global edge. More details on the five A-Train components follow. retrievals from AIRS have proven valuable to under- NASA Aura—The NASA Aura satellite was launched stand the distribution as well as the transport mecha- with four instruments to extensively monitor the com- nisms of CO, CH4, and CO2 in the middle tropo- position of the atmosphere.52 Two of these instru- sphere with respective precisions of 10, 1.5, and 0.5 ments, the Microwave Limb Sounder and High- percent. NOAA has incorporated the lessons learned Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder, obtain highly from AIRS into operational carbon products from the resolved altitude profiles of the stratosphere and upper EUMETSAT Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Inter- troposphere for understanding photochemical and dy- ferometer (IASI), which launched aboard the MetOp-A namical processes in these altitude ranges. The Tropo- satellite in 2006. NOAA is planning to continue these spheric Emission Spectrometer obtains column and products with the NPOESS Cross-track Infrared partial altitude profiles for ozone and tropospheric trace Sounder (CrIS). The currently scheduled IASI and gases, while the Ozone Monitoring Instrument obtains CrIS missions will allow the creation of a 20-year re- nearly daily global ozone column maps, as well as col- cord of satellite thermal sounder-derived carbon trace umns for other important air quality parameters. Aura gases, along with self-consistent ozone, temperature, observes the atmosphere to answer the following three moisture, and cloud information. high-priority environmental questions: (1) Is the Other Recent NASA Missions Earth’s ozone layer recovering? (2) Is air quality getting Other recent NASA missions include the following: worse? and (3) How is the Earth’s climate changing? ICESat—The Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite, PARASOL—A French Centre National d’Etudes Spa- launched in 2003, has been measuring surface eleva- tiales microsatellite project,53 PARASOL has im- tions of ice and land, vertical distributions of clouds proved the characterization of cloud and aerosol mi- and aerosols, vegetation-canopy heights, and other crophysical and radiative properties. This advance has features with unprecedented accuracy and sensitivi- substantially increased our understanding of the radia- ty.57 The primary purpose of ICESat has been to ac- tive impact of clouds and aerosols, which in turn has quire time series of ice-sheet elevation changes for de- led to improving numerical modeling of these process- termining the present-day mass balance of the ice es in general circulation models. sheets, to study associations between observed ice CALIPSO and CloudSat—NASA’s highly complemen- changes and polar climate, and to improve estimates of tary CALIPSO54 and CloudSat55 satellites provide the present and future contributions of ice melt to new, three-dimensional perspectives of how clouds global sea level rise. and aerosols form, evolve, and affect weather and cli- SORCE—The Solar Radiation and Climate Experi- mate. Both satellites fly in formation as part of the ment satellite, also launched in 2003, is equipped with NASA A-Train constellation, providing the benefits four instruments that measure variations in solar ra- of near simultaneity and thus the opportunity for syn- 52 diation much more accurately than previous measure- See http://aura.gsfc.nasa.gov/. ergistic measurements made with complementary ments and observe some of the spectral properties of 53 techniques. See http://smsc.cnes.fr/ solar radiation for the first time.58 PARASOL/.
NASA Aqua—The NASA Aqua satellite is designed to 54 GRACE—The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experi- See http://www.nasa.gov/ acquire precise atmospheric and oceanic measure- mission_pages/calipso/main/. ment (GRACE) twin satellites celebrated their sev- ments that provide a greater understanding of these 55 See http://cloudsat.atmos. 56 enth anniversary in orbit in March 2009, completing a components in the Earth’s climate. Other instru- colostate.edu/. successful primary mission that has provided im- ments on Aqua, such as the Moderate Resolution Im- 59 proved ongoing estimates of the Earth’s gravity field. 56 See http://aqua.nasa.gov/. aging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) instrument, pro- In conjunction with other data and models, GRACE vide regional-to-global land cover, sea surface 57 See http://icesat.gsfc.nasa.gov/. has provided observations of terrestrial water storage temperature, and ocean color. Data from the A-Train changes, ice-mass variations, ocean-bottom pressure 58 See http://lasp.colorado.edu/ instruments will help answer these important ques- changes, and sea level variations. sorce/index.htm. tions: (1) What are the aerosol types, and how do sat- 59 See http://www.csr.utexas.edu/ ellite observations match global emission and trans- grace/.
Chapter 8 | Research and Systematic Observation 131 Planned Missions multiple stations around the world. Plans for 2007 NASA plans to launch the following four missions and 2008 included the IPY participation through a over the next several years: focus on polar climate observations via NCDC’s World Data Center for Meteorology.60 Finally, efforts Glory—2010 launch: Glory will measure black carbon are being explored to improve climate data integration soot and other aerosols, as well as total solar irradiance. in the Pacific Islands region and produce more useful, Aquarius—2010 launch: Aquarius will measure global end-user-driven climate products. sea surface salinity. PRICIP AND PaCIS NPOESS Preparatory Project—2011 launch: This The Pacific Region Integrated Climatology Informa- project will demonstrate advanced technology for at- tion Products (PRICIP) project61 is an example of a mospheric sounding, providing continuity of weather region-wide collaborative activity under the auspices and climate observations following EOS-PM (Terra) of the Pacific Climate Information System (PaCIS).62 and EOS-AM (Aqua). It will supply data on atmo- PRICIP is a regional path-finding activity with the spheric and sea surface temperatures, humidity sound- goal of developing a national comprehensive coastal ings, land and ocean biological productivity, and cloud climatology program. It aims to improve our under- and aerosol properties. standing of patterns and trends of storm frequency Global Precipitation Measurement—2013 launch: and intensity—“storminess”—within the Pacific re- The Global Precipitation Measurement mission will gion and develop a suite of integrated information study global precipitation (rain, snow, and ice). products that can be used by emergency managers, mitigation planners, government agencies, and deci- Data Management sion makers in key sectors, including water and natural Data management is an important aspect of any sys- resource management, agriculture and fisheries, trans- tematic observing effort. U.S. agencies have unique portation and communication, and recreation and mandates for climate-focused and -related systematic tourism. observations, and for the attendant data processing, PRICIP is exploring how the climate-related processes archiving, and use of the important information from that govern extreme storm events are expressed within these observing systems. and between three thematic areas: heavy rains, strong Integrated Earth Observations winds, and high seas. It involves analyses of historical Cooperative efforts by USGCRP and USGEO agencies records collected throughout the Pacific region, and the are moving toward providing integrated and more easily integration of these climatological analyses with near- accessible Earth observations. Currently operating real-time observations to put the current weather into a USGCRP systems for data management and distribu- longer-term perspective. PaCIS provides a programmat- tion highlighted in the 2007 Our Changing Planet re- ic framework to integrate ongoing and future climate port include NASA’s Global Change Master Directory observations, operational forecasting services, and cli- and Earth Observing System Data and Information mate projections, research, assessment, data manage- System, and the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) ment, outreach, and education to address the needs of Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (USGCRP American Flag and U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands. and SGCR 2006). DOE’s Carbon Dioxide Information Integrated Data and Environmental Applications Analysis Center (CDIAC) provides comprehensive, long-term data management support, analysis, and in- Center formation services to the global climate research com- NOAA’s Integrated Data and Environmental Appli- munity and the general public. The CDIAC data collec- cations (IDEA) Center helps meet critical regional tion is designed to answer questions pertinent to both needs for ocean, climate, and ecosystem information the present-day carbon budget and temporal changes in to protect lives and property, support economic devel- carbon sources and sinks. The data sets provide quanti- opment, and enhance the resilience of Pacific Island tative estimates of anthropogenic CO emission rates, communities in the face of changing environmental 2 63 atmospheric concentration levels, land-atmosphere conditions. This region-wide data integration activ- fluxes, ocean-atmosphere fluxes, and oceanic concentra- ity (1) integrates regional observations, research, as- tions and inventories. The data holdings also support sessment, and services, and provides a prototype for a the NACP. NOAA’s Climate Services Portal aggregates next-generation NOAA data center; (2) strengthens NOAA climate data, products, and services and serves the delivery of ocean, climate, and ecosystem data 60 See http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ products and information services to the diverse Pa- oa/wdc/. as a touchstone for inquiries, interactive public dia- logue, education, climate assessment information, and cific Island user community; (3) supports NOAA re- 61 See http://www.pricip.org/. search and service programs in the Pacific; (4) sup- user requests. 62 See http://www.ideademo.org/ ports the emergence of regional ocean- and pacis. NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center’s (NCDC’s) climate-observing systems and information services Climate Data Online site provides climate data from that are responsive to the needs of Pacific Island com- 63 See http://www.ideademo.org/.
132 U.S. Climate Action Report 2010 munities, governments, and businesses via the evolving More than 150 scientists from over 30 countries are PaCIS program; (5) supports integrated ecosystem now part of an annual process of turning raw observa- science and services needed for Pacific Island ocean tions collected from the global array of observing sys- and coastal resource management programs; and (6) tems into information that enhances the ability of continues NOAA/U.S. leadership in the emergence of decision makers to understand the state of the Earth’s a global environmental observing system (e.g., GCOS, climate and its variation and change during the past GOOS, IOOS, and GEOSS). year, with context provided by decades to centuries of climate information. Many observational and analyti- National Integrated Drought Information System cal systems are unique to countries or regions of the Droughts have far-reaching impacts on many aspects world. Nevertheless, through this effort, the informa- of our daily lives, from water management to health to tion from each system is openly shared, which is essen- energy consumption and conservation. To mitigate tial to transitioning data to operational use and filling these impacts, NOAA, other federal and state agen- critical gaps in current knowledge about the state of cies, partners, and countries developed the plan for the the global climate system. A State of the Climate Re- National Integrated Drought Information System port is distributed through publication in the Bulletin (NIDIS). NIDIS is a dynamic and accessible drought- of the American Meteorological Society each year,66 and risk information system that was created in response is translated into other languages and distributed to all to extended drought conditions, especially in the west- 187 WMO member nations. The report seeks to pro- ern United States, over the past decade. vide details on as many of the essential climate vari- In 2007, the United States unveiled a new, interactive ables (ECVs) as possible, as identified in the GCOS Web site called the U.S. Drought Portal (USDP) that Second Adequacy Report.67 Since this report began allows the public and civic managers to monitor U.S. monitoring ECVs in 2001, and in line with the re- drought conditions, get forecasts, assess the impacts of cently published 2008 edition, the number of reported drought on their communities, and learn about pos- ECVs has more than doubled to nearly 25. sible mitigation measures.64 This Web site is useful Earth Observing System Data and Information internationally as nations work to coordinate drought System preparedness, response, mitigation, and recovery activ- ities, and it fits in well with drought-related bilateral NASA’s Earth Observing System Data and Informa- activities the United States is engaged in with partners tion System (EOSDIS) provides convenient mecha- in Canada and Mexico. nisms for locating and accessing products of interest either electronically or via orders for data on media. In 2008, NOAA, along with its partners, including EOSDIS facilitates collaborative science by providing the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), began sets of tools and capabilities, such that investigators to institute geographic information system (GIS) may provide access to special products (or research mapping capabilities into the USDP. In 2009, the pro- products) from their own computing facilities. gram will work to integrate enhanced GIS capabilities EOSDIS has an operational EOS Data Gateway into the USDP. Additionally, communities will be (EDG) that provides access to the data holdings at all unveiled in the portal, serving as a location for subject the Distributed Active Archive Centers (DAACs) matter experts to share improvements in drought and participating data centers from other U.S. and monitoring, forecasting, and mitigation. These com- international agencies. Currently, there are 14 EDGs munities will also serve as a coordinating and commu- around the world that permit users to access Earth nications mechanism for NIDIS regional pilot proj- science data archives, browse data holdings, select data ects. NIDIS was featured at the 2007 GEO-IV Plenary products, and place data orders. Session as a major contribution to GEOSS. Eight NASA DAACs, representing a wide range of State of the Climate Report Earth science disciplines, comprise the data archival Produced in partnership with WMO and numerous and distribution functions of EOSDIS. The DAACs national and international partners, the annual State carry out the responsibilities for processing certain of the Climate Report–Using Earth Observations to data products from instrument data, archiving and Monitor the Global Climate,65 consists of operational distributing NASA’s Earth science data, and providing 64 See http://drought.gov. monitoring, analysis, and reporting on atmosphere, a full range of user support. More than 2,100 distinct ocean, and land surface conditions from the global to data products are archived at and distributed from the 65 See http://www.noaa. local scale. By combining historical data with current gov/features/climate/ DAACs. These institutions are custodians of Earth climatemonitoring2.html. observations, this report places today’s climate in his- science mission data until the data are moved to long- torical context and provides perspectives on the extent term archives. They ensure that data will be easily ac- 66 See http://www.ametsoc.org/ PUBS/bams/. to which the climate continues to vary and change, as cessible to users. well as the effect that climate is having on societies and 67 An archive of these reports NASA and NOAA have initiated a pilot project to the environment. from 2000 to 2007 can be found develop a prototype system for testing candidate ap- at http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/ climate/research/state-of-climate.
Chapter 8 | Research and Systematic Observation 133 proaches for moving MODIS data into long-term CCTP’s strategic vision has six complementary goals: NOAA archives. This pilot project is part of the evolu- (1) reducing emissions from energy end use and infra- tion of NOAA’s Comprehensive Large Array-data structure, (2) reducing emissions from energy supply, Stewardship System (CLASS). Acting in concert with (3) capturing and sequestering CO2, (4) reducing their users, DAACs provide reliable, robust services to emissions of other GHGs, (5) measuring and moni- those whose needs may cross traditional discipline toring emissions, and (6) bolstering the contributions boundaries, while continuing to support the particular of basic science. DOE serves as the lead agency for the needs of their respective discipline communities. The CCTP effort. Twelve agencies participate in the inter- DAACs are currently serving a broad and growing agency coordination efforts of CCTP. Eight of these user community at an increasing rate. CLASS is fund activities are included in the CCTP portfolio. NOAA’s online facility for the distribution of NOAA In FY 2009, approximately $5.2 billion was appropri- and U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) POES data, ated for CCTP activities. ARRA provided over $25 NASA mission data, NOAA GOES data, and derived billion in additional funding for CCTP research and data. CLASS is an electronic library of NOAA envi- development (R&D) activities across a broad portfolio ronmental data that provides capabilities for finding of GHG mitigation options, including high-perfor- and obtaining such satellite data.68 mance buildings; efficient manufacturing; advanced Global Observing System Information Center vehicles; clean biofuels; wind, solar, geothermal, and The transition of the Global Observing System Infor- nuclear power; carbon capture and sequestration; ad- mation Center (GOSIC) from a developmental activ- vanced energy storage; a more intelligent electric grid; ity at the University of Delaware to an operational and techniques for reducing emissions and/or increas- global data facility at NOAA’s NCDC was completed ing uptake of CO2 in agriculture and forestry. ARRA on behalf of and with the concurrence of the global also provided $400 million for establishing the Ad- observing community in October 2006. GOSIC pro- vanced Research and Projects Agency–Energy (AR- vides information; facilitates easier access to data and PA-E) within DOE to overcome the long-term and information produced by GCOS, GOOS, and GTOS high-risk technological barriers to the development of and their partner programs; provides explanations of clean energy technologies.71 the various global data systems, as well as an integrated Energy End Use and Infrastructure overview of the myriad global observing programs, Major sources of GHGs are closely tied to the use of which includes online access to their data, informa- energy in transportation, residential and commercial tion, and services; and offers a search capability across buildings, and industrial processes. Improving energy international data centers, to enhance access to a efficiency and reducing the intensity of GHG emis- worldwide set of observations and derived products.69 sions in these sectors can significantly reduce overall Technology for Global Change GHG emissions. In addition, improving the infra- structure of the electricity transmission and distribu- The United States has committed not only to improv- tion grid can reduce GHG emissions by making power ing the science to better understand global climate generation more efficient and by providing expanded change, but also to promoting the development and use and grid access of low-emission electricity from deployment of technologies to reduce GHG emis- renewable energy technologies, including wind, solar, sions. These efforts are targeted at increasing energy and geothermal power. end-use efficiency and supplying energy with greatly reduced GHG emissions to meet the nation’s goals of Key research activities include DOE’s nationwide plan reducing GHG emissions and stabilizing GHG atmo- to modernize the electric grid, enhance the security of spheric concentrations at a level that avoids dangerous the U.S. energy infrastructure, and ensure reliable elec- human interference with the climate system. To ad- tricity delivery to meet growing demand. The R&D dress these challenges, the Obama administration and program is focused on technologies that reduce GHG Congress are working together to spur a revolution in emissions and contribute to energy independence and clean energy technologies. economic growth by improving the reliability, efficien- cy, flexibility, functionality, and security of the nation’s U.S. Climate Change Technology Program electricity delivery system. The emphasis is on develop- The U.S. Climate Change Technology Program ment of advanced transmission technologies, including (CCTP) was established administratively in 2002, and more efficient cables and conductors to reduce energy 70 68 See http://www.nsof.class.noaa. authorized by the Energy Policy Act of 2005. CCTP loss; strengthening the reliability of the electric grid by gov/saa/products/welcome. developed its August 2005 Vision and Framework for enhancing real-time visualization tools; and developing 69 See http://gosic.org. Strategy and Planning (CCTP 2005) and September a “smart grid” system with enhanced intelligence and 2006 Strategic Plan (CCTP 2006) to guide and priori- connectivity. 70 See http://www. tize the federal government’s climate technology efforts. climatetechnology.gov/. Several U.S. agencies (DOE, Department of Transpor-
71 See http://arpa-e.energy.gov/. tation [DOT], DOD, Environmental Protection Agen-
134 U.S. Climate Action Report 2010 cy [EPA], and NASA) are working on cost-effective tional low-carbon, climate-friendly technologies. A automotive technologies that increase fuel efficiency commitment was made to dramatically increase and and produce ultra-low pollution and GHG emissions. coordinate public-sector investments in research, de- Under the Clean Automotive Technology Program, velopment, and demonstration (RD&D) of these EPA facilitates collaboration with the automotive in- technologies, with a view to doubling such invest- dustry through innovative research to achieve ultra- ments by 2015, while recognizing the importance of low-pollution emissions, increase fuel efficiency, and private investment, public-private partnerships and reduce GHGs. By developing cost-effective technolo- international cooperation, including regional innova- gies, the program encourages manufacturers to pro- tion centers. The United States will lead on “efficien- duce cleaner and more fuel-efficient vehicles. The cy,” which includes both buildings and industrial sec- DOT Federal Transit Administration’s National tor efficiency. Technology Action Plans and Fuel Cell Bus Program develops and demonstrates roadmaps will be developed along with recommenda- fuel cell transit bus technology.72 In addition, DOE’s tions for further progress. Drawing on global best Vehicle Technologies Program supports R&D to practice policies, the Global Partnership will under- make vehicles more efficient and capable of operating take to remove barriers, establish incentives, enhance on non-petroleum fuels.73 capacity building, and implement appropriate mea- sures to aggressively accelerate deployment and trans- Other DOT programs include efforts to improve trav- fer of key existing and new low-carbon technologies, el activity, reduce vehicle miles traveled, and enhance in accordance with national circumstances. vehicle and system operations. Aviation yields GHG emissions that have the potential to influence global Energy Supply climate. To identify opportunities for GHG emission Global and domestic energy supplies are dominated reductions in the aviation sector, DOT’s Federal Avia- by fossil fuels that emit CO2 when burned. The tran- tion Administration (FAA) recently launched the sition to a low-carbon energy future will require the Aviation Climate Change Research Initiative. Cur- availability of cost-competitive low- or zero-carbon rently, measuring and tracking fuel efficiency from energy supply technologies. aircraft operations provide the data for assessing the Renewable energy includes a range of different tech- improvements in aircraft and engine technology, op- nologies that can play an important role in reducing erational procedures, and the airspace transportation GHG emissions. The United States currently invests system that reduce aviation’s contribution to CO 2 considerable resources in wind, wave, tidal, hydro- emissions. The FAA’s Commercial Aviation Alterna- power, solar photovoltaics, and biomass technologies. tive Fuels Initiative is a government–private-sector In FY 2009, CCTP-related investments in renewable coalition that focuses the efforts of commercial avia- energy technologies included a combined $800 mil- tion to engage the emerging alternative fuels indus- lion. For example, DOE is helping meet America’s try.74 With support from NASA, the FAA recently increasing energy needs by working with wind indus- launched the Continuous Lower Energy Emissions try partners to develop clean, domestic, innovative and Noise Program to advance maturing engine and wind energy technologies that can compete with con- aircraft technologies for quick fusion into the fleet in ventional fuel sources. DOE’s Wind and Hydropow- order to achieve increases in fuel efficiency (which is er Technologies Program efforts have culminated in directly related to CO emissions) and reduction in 2 some of industry’s leading products today and have nitrogen oxide emissions (which affects distributions contributed to record-breaking industry growth.75 of ozone and methane—both of which are GHGs). DOE’s Biomass Program also conducts R&D in four These strategies to improve the transportation system key areas of technology required to produce biomass can reduce GHG emissions, lead to environmental feedstocks and convert them to useful biofuels and benefits, reduce oil use, improve America’s energy se- value-added products: feedstocks, processing and con- curity, and benefit the economy. version, integrated biorefineries, and infrastructure.76 Reducing energy consumption and transforming the USDA’s Biomass Research and Development Initia- 72 See http://www.nrel.gov/ carbon footprint of the built environment through tive addresses feedstock development, biofuels and hydrogen/proj_fc_bus_eval.html. the development of technologies that will enable cost- bio-based product development, and biofuel develop- 73 competitive, zero-energy buildings, and supporting See http://www1.eere.energy. ment analysis.77 All projects are implemented in ac- gov/vehiclesandfuels/. the advancement of clean and efficient industrial cordance with a life-cycle perspective that considers 74 technologies and processes are other areas of research See http://www.caafi.org/. both direct and indirect environmental and economic that could yield significant emission reductions both 75 impacts. USDA’s Rural Development program pro- See http://www1.eere.energy. domestically and globally. At the July 9, 2009, Group gov/windandhydro/. vides (1) loan guarantees for the development, con- of Eight (G8) meetings in L’Aquila, Italy, the Major struction, and retrofitting of commercial-scale biore- 76 See http://www1.eere.energy. Economies Forum countries (G8 + China, India, gov/biomass/. fineries; (2) grants to help pay for the development South Africa, Brazil, Mexico, and Indonesia) an- and construction costs of demonstration-scale biore- 77 See http://www.brdisolutions. nounced a Global Partnership to drive transforma- com/default.aspx.
Chapter 8 | Research and Systematic Observation 135 fineries; (3) payments to biorefineries to replace fossil Advanced techniques to capture gaseous CO2 from fuels used to produce heat or power with renewable energy and industrial facilities and store it permanent- biomass; and (4) loan guarantees to rural residents, ly in geologic formations are under development. In agricultural producers, and rural businesses for energy 2008, the G8 nations called for advancing CCS inter- efficiency and renewable energy systems, energy au- nationally, resulting in 20 major demonstrations by dits, and technical assistance for projects ranging 2020; the United States agreed to sponsor at least 10 from biofuels to wind, solar, geothermal, methane gas of these. Central to these U.S. demonstrations is recovery, advanced hydro, and biomass.78 DOE’s core Carbon Sequestration Program, which emphasizes technologies that capture CO from large Advanced fossil -based power and fuels are areas of 2 point sources and store the emissions in geologic for- particular interest for the United States. With coal mations capable of holding vast amounts of CO . The likely to remain one of the nation’s most widely used 2 Carbon Sequestration Program is complemented by energy resources for the foreseeable future, the United other DOE programs that seek to significantly reduce States is actively funding applied R&D of advanced the overall cost of integrated plants that will produce coal technologies that improve efficiency and reduce the electricity and other co-products while capturing and intensity of CO emissions. These activities are con- 2 sequestering CO .81 The focus is on CO capture from ducted through such programs as the Clean Coal Power 2 2 both new and existing coal plants. Initiative, a cost-shared partnership between the gov- ernment and industry to develop and demonstrate ad- In 2003, DOE launched a nationwide network of sev- vanced coal-based power generation technologies.79 en Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships that include 43 U.S. states, four Canadian provinces, three Concerns about resource availability, energy security, Native American nations, and over 350 organiza- air quality, and climate change suggest a larger role for tions.82 The partnerships’ main focus is on determin- nuclear power as an energy supply choice. A key mis- ing the best approaches for sequestration in their re- sion of DOE’s nuclear energy R&D program is to plan gions and taking the initial steps to develop the and conduct applied research in advanced reactor and infrastructure that will be needed for eventual large- fuel and waste management technologies. The aim of scale deployment. This includes examination of regula- these efforts is to enable nuclear energy to be used as a tory needs. Small-scale validation testing of 35 sites safe, advanced, cost-effective source of reliable energy involving terrestrial and geologic sequestration tech- that will help address climate change by reducing nologies began in 2005. During 2009–2012, CO in- GHG emissions. The Generation IV Nuclear Energy 2 jection will begin for nine large-scale geologic storage Systems program is investigating the next-generation tests that will be carried out by the seven regional part- reactor and fuel-cycle systems, which represent a sig- nerships. These tests will be of sufficient scale to allow nificant leap in economic performance, safety, and the partnerships to address the kinds of challenges proliferation resistance.80 Fusion energy is a potential that will be encountered for commercial projects. major new source of energy that, if successfully devel- oped, could be used to produce electricity and possibly Terrestrial sequestration—removing CO2 from the hydrogen. Fusion has features that make it an attrac- atmosphere and sequestering it in trees, soils, or other tive option from both environmental and safety per- organic materials—has proven to be a low-cost means spectives. However, the technical hurdles of fusion for long-term carbon storage. The DOE-supported energy are very high, and with a commercialization Carbon Sequestration in Terrestrial Ecosystems con- objective of 2050, its impact will not be felt until the sortium provides research on mechanisms that can second half of the century. enhance terrestrial sequestration. In addition, USDA’s Carbon Capture and Sequestration Agricultural Research Service operates the Green- house Gas Reduction through Agricultural Carbon Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) is a central Enhancement Network (GRACEnet) at 31 locations 78 See http://www.rurdev.usda. element of CCTP’s strategy, because for the foresee- around the country to measure and predict carbon gov/. able future, fossil fuels will continue to be the world’s sequestration and GHG emissions across a range of 79 See http://www.netl.doec.gov most widely used forms of energy. Global energy mod- agricultural systems, land and animal management els suggest that with current global coal use patterns, it 80 See http://www.ne.doe.gov/ practices, soils, and climate zones.83 Elements of will not be possible to stabilize atmospheric GHG GenIV/neGenIV1.html. GRACEnet include the development and use of stan- concentrations at acceptable levels. Thus, a realistic 81 See http://www.netl.doe.gov/ dardized measurement methods, process model devel- approach is to find ways to “sequester” the CO pro- technologies/carbon_seq/. 2 opment, data base development, and the development duced when fossil fuels—especially coal—are used. 82 See http://fossil.energy.gov/ of guidelines for producers. sequestration/partnerships/index. The termcarbon sequestration describes a number of html. technologies and methods to capture, transport, and Other Greenhouse Gases store CO or remove it from the atmosphere. These A main component of the U.S. strategy is to reduce 83 See http://www.ars.usda. 2 gov/research/programs/ include capturing carbon (or CO2), geologic storage of other GHGs, such as CH4, nitrous oxide (N2O), sul- programs.htm?np_ CO2, and terrestrial sequestration in natural environs. fur hexafluoride (SF6), and fluorocarbons. code=204&docid=17271.
136 U.S. Climate Action Report 2010 Improvements in methods and technologies to detect DOE will continue to support the 46 Energy Frontier and either collect or prevent CH4 emissions from vari- Research Centers (EFRCs) that are addressing current ous sources—such as landfills, coal mines, natural gas fundamental scientific roadblocks to clean energy and pipelines, and oil and gas exploration operations—can energy security.84 These centers will address the full prevent this GHG from escaping to the atmosphere. range of energy research challenges in renewable and Reducing CH4 emissions may also have a positive ben- low-carbon energy, energy efficiency, energy storage, efit in reducing local ozone problems, as CH4 is a and cross-cutting science. The EFRCs will take advan- long-lived ozone precursor. In agriculture, improved tage of new capabilities in nanotechnology, light management practices for fertilizer applications and sources that are a million times brighter than the sun, livestock waste can reduce CH4 and N2O emissions supercomputers, and other advanced instrumentation. appreciably. DOE’s multidisciplinary Energy Innovation Hubs will also Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons address basic science, technology, and economic and policy (PFCs), and SF6 are all high global warming potential issues. The hubs will support cross-disciplinary R&D fo- (GWP) gases. HFCs and PFCs are used as substitutes cused on the barriers to transforming energy technologies for ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons and are used into commercially deployable materials, devices, and sys- in or emitted during complex manufacturing process- tems. They will advance promising areas of energy science es. Advanced methods to reuse, recycle, and reduce the and technology from their early stages of research to the leakage of these chemicals and to use lower GWP al- point where the risk level will be low enough for industry ternatives are being explored. to deploy them into the marketplace. Programs aimed at reducing particulate matter have led Established by DOE in 2009, ARPA-E is modeled to significant advances in fuel combustion and emission after the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, control technologies to reduce U.S. black carbon aero- which was created during the Eisenhower administra- sol emissions. Reducing emissions of black carbon, soot, tion in response to the Russian Sputnik program, and other chemical aerosols can have multiple benefits, which launched the world’s first artificial satellite. The including better air quality and public health and, in purpose of ARPA-E is to advance high-risk energy some cases, can reduce radiative forcing. research projects that can yield revolutionary changes 85 Measuring and Monitoring in how energy is produced, distributed, and used. ARRA has provided $400 million for ARPA-E. To meet future GHG emission measurement require- ments, a wide array of sensors, measuring platforms, Multilateral Research and Collaboration monitoring and inventorying systems, and inference The United States believes that well-designed multilat- methods are being developed. Many of the baseline mea- eral collaborations focused on achieving practical re- surement, observation, and sensing systems used to ad- sults can accelerate development and commercializa- vance climate change science are being developed as part tion of new technologies. Thus, the United States has of CCSP. CCTP’s efforts focus primarily on validating initiated or joined a number of multilateral technol- the performance of various climate change technologies, ogy collaborations in hydrogen, carbon sequestration, such as in terrestrial and geologic sequestration. nuclear energy, and fusion that address many energy- related concerns (e.g., energy security, climate change, The U.S. Department of Commerce’s National Insti- and environmental protection). The following initia- tute of Standards and Technology is testing, develop- tives are examples of U.S. multinational collaboration. ing, and making available to researchers a wide variety of measurement and monitoring tools and techniques Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum to aid in the development of technologies to mitigate The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF) climate change. is a multilateral U.S. initiative that provides a frame- Basic Science work for international collaboration on sequestration technologies.86 Established at a June 2003 ministerial Basic scientific research is a fundamental element of meeting held in Washington, D.C., CSLF consists of CCTP. Tackling the dual challenges of addressing 23 members, including 22 national governments rep- climate change and meeting growing world energy resenting both developed and developing countries, as demand is likely to require discoveries and innova- well as the European Commission. The CSLF’s main tions that can shape the future in often unexpected focus is assisting the development of technologies to ways. The CCTP framework aims to strengthen the separate, capture, transport, and store CO safely over basic research enterprise through strategic research 2 the long term; making carbon sequestration technolo- that supports ongoing or projected research activities gies broadly available internationally; and addressing and exploratory research involving innovative con- 84 See http://www.science.doe.gov/ broader issues relating to carbon capture and storage, cepts. President Obama has committed to doubling bes/EFRC.html. such as regulation and policy. To date, CSLF has en- federal investment in the basic sciences. 85 See http://arpa-e.energy.gov/. dorsed 20 international research projects, five of which involve the United States. 86 See http://www.cslforum.org/.
Chapter 8 | Research and Systematic Observation 137 Generation IV International Forum by the end of the century. Toward this goal, the seven The Generation IV International Forum (GIF) is a ITER partners signed an agreement in November multilateral partnership of 10 countries and the Euro- 2006 to construct the project; site preparation began pean Commission that is fostering international coop- in Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, France, in January 2007; eration in R&D for the next generation of safer, more and construction began in 2009. affordable, and more proliferation-resistant nuclear Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development energy systems.87 This new generation of nuclear pow- and Climate er plants could produce electricity and hydrogen with substantially less waste and without emitting any air The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development pollutants or GHG emissions. Since its creation in and Climate (APP) is an innovative effort to acceler- July 2001, GIF has established a legal basis for collabo- ate the development and deployment of clean energy ration through a treaty-level Framework Agreement technologies.89 The seven APP partner countries (Aus- (2005) and implementing arrangements (2007 on- tralia, Canada, China, India, Japan, Korea, and the ward). The United States supports collaboration in United States) collectively account for more than half two of the systems: the Very-High-Temperature Reac- of the world’s economy, population, and energy use. tor (VHTR) and the Sodium Fast Reactor (SFR). The They produce about 65 percent of the world’s coal, 62 primary mission of the VHTR is to provide carbon- percent of the world’s cement, 52 percent of world’s free process heat for cogeneration and many potential aluminum, and more than 60 percent of the world’s industrial applications, including hydrogen produc- steel. They have committed to collaborate and work tion, while the SFR’s primary mission is the closing of with the private-sector partners to meet goals for en- the nuclear fuel cycle. ergy security, national air pollution reduction, and ITER climate change in ways that promote sustainable eco- nomic growth and poverty reduction. The APP focus- In January 2003, President Bush announced that the es on expanding investment and trade in cleaner en- United States was joining the negotiations for the ergy technologies, goods, and services in key market construction and operation of the international fusion sectors. The partners have approved eight public– experiment ITER.88 The goal of this collaborative private-sector task forces covering aluminum, build- project is to demonstrate the scientific and technologi- ings and appliances, cement, coal mining, power gen- cal feasibility of fusion as an energy source. If success- eration and transmission, renewable energy and ful, ITER will advance progress toward producing distributed generation, steel, and cleaner fossil energy clean, abundant, commercially available fusion energy technologies.
87 See http://www.gen-4.org/.
88 See http://www.iter.org/.
89 See http://www. asiapacificpartnership.org/.
138 U.S. Climate Action Report 2010