A Saint in the City Sufi Arts of Urban Senegal Author(S): Allen F

Home , Mame Diarra Bousso, Mouride

A Saint in the City Sufi Arts of Urban Senegal Author(s): Allen F. Roberts and Mary Nooter Roberts Source: African Arts, Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter, 2002), pp. 52-73+93-96 Published by: UCLA James S. Coleman African Studies Center Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3337841 Accessed: 17/11/2010 20:55

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A Saint In the City

Sufi Arts of Urban Senegal

ALLENF. ROBERTS AND MARYNOOTER ROBERTS

52 atricanarts * winter2002 It's so hard to be a saint in the city. Bruce Springsteen

ALw A^ Saint in the City" presents the visual culture of a dynamic religious movement known as the Mouride Way that is inspired by a Senegalese Sufi pacifist, poet, and saint named Amadou Bamba (1853-1927).1 Mourides are galvanizing contemporary Senegal and its ever-expanding diaspora through their hard work and steadfast devotion.2 The exhibition presents a striking range of Mouride arts, from large popular murals, intricate glass paintings, and calligraphic healing devices to posters for social activism, colorful textiles, and paintings by inter- nationally known contemporary artists.3 A devotional sanctum filled with sacred and an urban market scene the bustle of Dakar are imagery capturing contemporary 1. Lumberyardsign, mid-20thcentury. Plywood, paint;height 118cm (46.5"). FMCH TR2002.1.5a,b. Scenes from the life of the Sufi saint Sheikh A the UCLAFowler Museum Cultural "A Saint in the projectof of History, City" brings togeth- AmadouBamba are a featureof dailylife in urban er 200 works the Fowler collectionand lenders. Nooter approximately of artfrom private Mary Senegal, where billboards,signs, and walls are Robertsand Allen F. Robertscurated the exhibition, which may be seen at the Fowler Museum paintedto portraykey events in the Saint'sbiog- from February9 throughJuly 27, 2003. Additional venues are under consideration.A host of raphy.This large painting used to hang overthe activities will be held over the course of the Los Angeles showing, including an interreligious, entranceto a lumberyardin downtown Dakar until interregionalsymposium called "GlobalSaints, LocalLives: Images and Icons in Urban Space" it was replaced witha new one. It depicts the (April 12). The exhibition is previewedat www.fmch.ucla.edu/passporttoparadise.htm. arrestof Bambaby Frenchcolonial authorities TheRobertses have written an accompanyingbook of the same name (284 pp., 300 colorpho- priorto his exile in 1895.The paintingprovided a tographs,$45 softcover);it is publishedby the FowlerMuseum and distributedby the University thresholdto the business, blessing its workers of WashingtonPress. and clients. winter2002 ? africanarts 53 Thispage: 2. Photographof AmadouBamba. Djourbel, Sen- egal, 1913. FromMarty 1917:222. Theonly known photograph of AmadouBamba has been the catalystfor an explosionof artistic ii' imageryin Senegal over the past twentyyears. It was taken in 1913 while the Saint was under _ J . house arrest by French colonial authorities. Featuresof the image, such as the shadows - playingacross his face and feet, the wooden slats of the mosque behindhim, and his ethereal white robe, reveal sacred signs and messages to followersof the MourideWay, the Sufi religiousmovement inspired by Bamba. Com- plex, hiddenmeanings have given this decep- tivelysimple photograph a lifeof its own, giving riseto innumerablevisual icons in an astounding rangeof styles, forms,and media.

Oppositepage: 3. ElimaneFall. Djewol, late 1990s. Paper,paint; 50cm x 65cm (19.7'x 25.6'). Privatecollection. ElimaneFall is a social activistwho has painted a series of posterson heavyweighttracing paper to use in his lectures to the troubledyouth of Pikine,a town adjacentto Dakar.Here he por- traysBamba's epic encounterwith French colonial authoritiesat Djewol, also portrayedin Figure1. A host of angels attendBamba as he prays,while a dynamicSheikh Ibra Fall, the Saint's first and most ardent follower,defies French authority.MF stands for "Messenger of the Faith," ElimaneFall's nom d'artiste. '-

re-created to suggest how Mourides live and work under the beneficent eye of the Saint (Fig. 1). Artist profiles and videos feature the voices and works of nine artists who have shaped our understanding of this deeply spiritual movement. Signal. works from Islamic cultures elsewhere in Africa reveal a similarity to Mouride arts while underscoring particularities of Mouride creativity. Mouride arts are derived from images and messages of Amadou Bamba, his descendants, and his most ardent followers. A single photograph of the Saint taken in 1913 (Fig. 2) has become the catalyst for an explosion of artistic imagery, especially since the 1980s.4 Of particular interest is "the centrality of usefulness in [the] popular visual culture" of everyday life (Morgan 1998:24, our emphasis)-that is, how images are instrumental to solving problems and meeting needs. Two terms, "icon" and "aura," are points of reference for the visual dynamism of Senegal, for they allude to how sacred images convey a blessing power called baraka(or barke).5Baraka helps peo-

54 african arts ? winter 2002 pie to address and overcome the misfortunes,contestations, and transitionsof everyday life. Investigatingsuch social processes and visual practiceshelps redress a defi- ciency that David Freedberghas perceivedin the literatureof representation,in which images may be described "but the relations between how they look and why they work are almost entirelypassed over" (1989:135).6 Like the icons of Byzantium (see Belting 1994),images of Amadou Bambaand his family are active sources of potency and power. It is common to see Mourides touch Bamba'simage to their foreheadsor kiss wall murals to receive his blessing. As David Morgan asserts, "the first thing to learn about the popular piety to which...images appeal is that, for most people, it is more important to cope with an oppressive or indifferentworld than to resist or subvert it [Fig.3]. Thus, the theology of the sublime and sovereign Deity is subordinated by many believers to an apparatus of interces- sion" (1998:23-24).Mouride visual cultureprovides just such an apparatus. It is not difficult to understandwhy some have debated whether barakashould be translated as "charisma,"as understood through Christian theology and Weberian sociology (Cruise O'Brien1988). In our opinion, the term "aura"comes closer to the Mourideconcept of barakathan "charisma"seems to do.7 "Aura,"from the Greek,lit- erallymeans a "breeze"or "breath"(OED 1982:565), and is extended to referto the in- herenceof power and presence within a work of art (Freedberg1989). "In the auratic experiencethe objectbecomes human, as it were" (Foster1988:197), and possesses the capacityto produce a response, bestow well-being, and protect its viewers. Through the theorizingof WalterBenjamin and the debates his work has engendered, "aura" has also come to be associatedwith the "authenticityof a thing... [and] the essence of all that is transmissiblefrom its beginning, ranging from its substantive duration to

winter2002 ? afrlcanarts 55 4. PapeSamb (a.k.a. Papisto Boy). Detail of facto- its testimony to the history which it has experienced" (1988:221). When Benjamin rymural. Photo: Mary Nooter Roberts (MNR) and wrote that "to perceive the aura of an object we look at means to invest it with the abil- AllenF. Roberts 1998. (AFR),Dakar, ity to look at us in return" (1988:188), he might have been speaking of a Mouride sense PapistoBoy was centralto the Set/Setalurban of how their icons possess baraka.That an image with aura has "weight, opacity and renewalmovement of the late 1980s. He contin- substance" and "never quite reveals its secret[s]" (Baudrillard 1983:22-23) also echoes ues to teach history and Mourideprecepts Mouride sentiments. Above all else, Mourides feel that barakadoes things: it works, his through mural,which extends for some 600 changes, and helps. feet the outerwalls of a in along factorycomplex Social scientists might assert that human agency underlies the experience of aura. From Dakar(see also 18). As states, the Fig. Papisto such a perspective, one may believethat saints, holy places, relationships, and sacred objects Europeanmanager may controlwhat occurs in- possess baraka,but these are predispositions, intentions, and imaginings rather than "real- side the walls, "butthe outside belongs to the ities."8Such perspectives can bear useful fruit, and we recognize that the visual culture we peopleof Dakar."This section featuresAmadou would understand is values, frameworks, and onto- Bambaand SheikhIbra Fall between shaped by religious epistemological standing but "A Saint in the the Slave Houseof GorbeIsland and the Kaaba logical premises; City" a different the call of Mecca. pursues path, following of Rowland Abiodun (1990) to put the "African" back into "African art." After one hears many Mourides explain how transformative barakacan be, especially through the powers of writing and as _ directed through mystical devices of heal- li ing and protection, it is difficult not to accept such an explanation as its own frame of reference. Regardless of whether i those espousing a Cartesian sense of sci- ence would accept such views, "A Saint in the City" presents Mouride visuality as closely as possible to how Mourides themselves might prefer to present it.9 Mouridism is one of the most distinctive aspects of contemporary Senegalese social life. Indeed, it would be impossible to understand how the republic's "brisk and vigorous democracy" (NPR 1998) makes it "a beacon of hope...in a troubled region" (Wallis & Caswell 2000) without fully appreciating this, the republic's most economically and politically influential Islamic movement. Mouridism links all secular and sacred activities. Senegal also has "a long tradition of amicable and tol- erant co-existence between the Muslim majority and the Christian... and other re-^ ligious minorities" (CIR 2000; see also Ndiaye 2002:606); and political scientist L Leonardo Villalon holds that the (1995) ' country's striking stability can be attrib- ( uted to the unusual balance of power between the Senegalese government and t .. the Mourides and other religious orders (also see Biaya 1998). In the year 2000, l Senegal peacefully elected the long-time opposition candidate Abdoulaye Wade their president. Mr. Wade is a devoted ,,j ' f Mouride, and since his election he has played a prominent role in negotiations for African peace and economic recovery lt S (Onishi 2002).

Walls That Speak Dakar is a boldly visual city. Images abound, despite Senegal's being a largely Muslim country. Of critical importance is the creative tension between universal-

56 ist Islam and its local adaptations, especially with regard to the use or avoidance of visual imagery. Many Muslims-including some Mourides-believe that images are forbidden in Islam, yet art representing human subjects has flourished throughout the Muslim world up to and including our times.10 The Quran makes no mention of imagery at all, and Mourides confirm David Freedberg's assertion that "the will to image figuratively-and even anthropomorphically-cannot be suppressed" by anyone, Muslims included (Freedberg 1989:54-55). To give visitors a first sense of Mouride visuality, one enters "A Saint in the City" through a corridor of murals by the street artist Pape Samb, better known by his graf- fitist tag "Papisto Boy" (Fig. 4). In the late 1980s Papisto was a primary actor in an urban movement called Set/Setal that was triggered by the syncopated beat of world- music superstar Youssou N'Dour singing about cleanliness, dignity, and rectitude. At

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v? ti: ~~~~-f'-a ; I " ~ ~ - .. 1 Thispage: 5. PapeSeydi. Le penseur (The Thinker) from the series La foiaux murs(Faith at the Walls),1998. TypeC print.18.4cm x 15.2 cm (7.2"x 6").Cour- tesy of the artist. Througha series of evocativephotographs entitled "Faithat the Walls,"exhibited in 2001 in Dakarand Oslo,photojournalist Pape Seydidoc- umentshow Mourides live in intimateassociation with images of theirreligious leaders. Here, a reflectiveman sits beneatha portraitof Sheikh IbraFall. Seydi explains that his photographs express "astate of mind,a comportmentin life and everydayaffairs; it is also this permanent dialoguewith God or mysticismwhich pushes followerstoward ecstasy." Pape Seydi is not a Mouride,yet he articulatesMouride visual cul- turewith great sensitivity:"For many devotees, these imagesalso representsocial therapy. They offerwell-being, peace, and a sweetness of the spirit.Religious images contributestrongly to appease and to calm social tensions."His photographs suggest how muralsof Bamba, Ibra Fall,and other saints are integralto the urban landscapeand the livesthat compose it.

Oppositepage: Top:6. Gadjigo.The sacrificeof Abraham,ca. 1997. Glass painting;32.5cm x 48cm (12.8"x 18.9").UCLA Fowler Museum of CulturalHistory, LosAngeles (FMCH)X99.56.15 Senegalese arts demonstratethe sharingof Old Testamentparables among Islam,Christianity, and Judaism.Abraham was so devoted to God that he offered to sacrifice his own son. His devotionto God is seen by Mouridesas a model of pietyand is celebratedin the annualfeast of Tabaski.

Bottom:7. Pape.The Battle of Badr,late 20th century.Glass painting;27.5cm x 57.2cm (10.8"x 22.5").FMCH TR2002.1.8. EarlySenegalese glass paintingsdepicted sig- nalmoments in foundational Islamic history, such as the Battleof Badr(624 C.E.).These episodes continueto be populartoday as shown in this a moment of dire tensions between urban youth and the Senegalese government over contemporaryexample. Soldiers and legions of a lack of jobs and the collapse of basic city services, young people took to the streets- angelsare seen defeatingenemies of the Prophet not to riot, as had been feared, but to refabulate their neighborhoods. That is, they Muhammed,while Bilal, the Ethiopianmuezzin, cleaned, reclaimed, repainted, and renamed alienated spaces by endowing them with ridesa camel and beats a drum. icons of their own imaginary. Instead of reminding people of colonial humiliations, new monuments and murals celebrated soccer stars, musicians, politicians, human- rights heroes, and above all, the saints of Senegalese Sufism (Fig. 5). Portraits of Amadou Bamba figured importantly in this vibrant collage, and the Saint emerged as an "alternative figure in nationalist memory" standing for and promoting both "a rup- ture in postcolonial memory" and a "new modernity" (Mamadou Diouf, personal communication, 1995).11 Papisto's murals portray what he calls "messengers," from Martin to Malcolm, the Pope to Gandhi, Marley to Mandela (see Roberts & Roberts 2000a). Overseeing them all is the enigmatic image of Amadou Bamba, whom the artist reveres. The world is brought to Papisto's informal community, tucked among factory walls of the port of Dakar as a visual tactic of his discrepant modernity. These varied messengers reflect Bamba's quest for peace and his sacralization of hard work to feed one's family, even

58 alrlcan arts ? winter 2002 if such toil should prevent one from ordinary Muslim devotions. The strains of YoussouN'Dour's "Do YouHear Me, FatherBamba?" (1994) that lead visitors into the exhibitionrefer to the Saint'simage as well as his spiritualpresence:

My strong faith in you makes me survive in this crazy world. Now I can go anywhere,'cause I know you'll be there. We know that your pain will always make us stronger, Mame [Grandfather]Bamba.

The Heritage of Islam "Islam in Africa is nearly as old as the faith itself" Rene Bravmann reminds us (2000:489),and a mere centuryafter the ProphetMuhammed's death in 632 C.E.,Islam was being practicedin trading towns of the Sahel. Islam reachedwhat is now Senegal by the tenth century (Hiskett 1994:107)and soon became important to local politics (Levtzion2000:78). In the eighteenth century,Sufism brought its internationalinflu- ences, spiritualtechnologies, and paths to divinity to Senegal. The growth of Islam in Africahas been phenomenalever since, and now, at the turn of the twenty-firstcentu- ry,one of every eight Muslims hails from sub-SaharanAfrica, while one of every three sub-SaharanAfricans is Muslim (Kane& Triaud1998:7, 12).

winter2002 * africanarts 59 60 africanarts * winter2002 Ocean trade has connected Senegal to other parts of the world for many centuries. Oppositepage: Lying at the westernmost point of the African continent, Senegal is the first sub- Top:8. MorGueye. AmadouBamba praying on Saharan country encountered as one sails southward "around the bend" from Europe. the waters,1998. Glass painting.32.6cm x 48cm It has long been a threshold between the Americas and Africa as well, and the fortifi- (12.8"x 18.9").FMCH X99.13.13. cations and infamous "Slave House" of Goree Island off the coast of Dakar lying just AmadouBamba's defining miracle of prayingon provide poignant reminders of the transatlantic slave trade. Senegalese Muslims were the watershas become an icon of courage,sur- among the first slaves brought to the Americas. "Literate, urban, and in some cases vival,and "SystemD" (debrouillage, or "resource- well traveled," they "realized incomparable feats in the countries of their enslave- fulness").Many Mourides explain that Bamba's ment" (S. Diouf 1998:1).12To underscore the point, Manning Marable writes that "faith miraculousact was the resultof a message from and spirituality have always been powerful forces in the histories of people of African God tellinghim to "be resourceful"and "dothe descent. Central to that history is Islam" (quoted in S. Diouf 1998, back cover). impossible"in the face of seeminglyinsurmount- At the beginning of "A Saint in the City," a gallery of quiet elegance introduces vis- able circumstances. itors to the history of Islam in Africa and to the shared roots of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Senegalese glass paintings depicting scenes from the Old Testament demonstrate common threads running through these major "religions of the Book" (Fig. 6). Bottom:9. MorGueye. Amadou Bamba's impris- onmentin 1996. Glass 32.5cmx Glass paintings from the 1940s introduce important episodes in Muslim history to sug- Dakar, painting; 48cm x FMCHTR99.37.22. gest ways that Senegalese learn about Islamic history through images to which artists (12.8" 18.9"). lend their own visual interpretations (Fig. 7). Outstanding works from west, north, and Presentingone of the most importantstations in east Africa demonstrate a fusion of Islamic ideas with particular African aesthetic sen- the life of the Saint,this paintingcaptures the artist's intothe of Amadou sibilities: an inscribed Swahili architectural panel from Tanzania, a Sudanese warrior's deep insight biography Bamba. Bamba was colonial shirt, a talisman from C6te d'Ivoire covered in colorful yar, Tuareg silver jewelry from imprisonedby authoritiesin a smallcell whose wallswere lined Niger, a Chadian talismanic belt, a Baga headdress from Guinea that depicts the with projectiles,making it impossible to pray, winged horse that bore the Prophet beyond the Seventh Heaven. sleep, or move about.While the Saintrecited the firstSuras from the Quran,the ArchangelGabriel The Life of a Saint opened the door, and the Prophet and the Saint'smother, Mame Diarra Bousso, an arched threshold the Great of Touba where Bamba is appeared. Crossing evoking Mosque Mouridesrevere Mame Diarra, who encouraged buried, the visitor next encounters a nearly life-size print of the photograph of the Saint the Saint in the most difficultof circumstances taken in 1913 (Fig. 2), from which all subsequent depictions are derived. Such an unpre- and remindedhim of his divinemission. tentious photograph was undoubtedly meant to have a practical, denotative purpose rather than any aesthetic appeal or elaborated significance (Barthes 1991:196-97). In the early colonial period, photographs were taken,not "made," and Senegalese were objects rather than subjects of French photography (Prochaska 1991:46).13The acquisition and Thispage: inherent in Faris calls appropriation photography-what James "photographic capture" 10. TafaaSeck. Portraitsof AmadouBamba and devices that little fuss or finesse. Yet if (1992:214)-were very handy hegemonic required Ibra Fall, 1999. Wood, paint, recycled metal; the 1913 was meant to be a it failed insofar as Bamba can photograph mug shot, hardly 29.7cmx 43.9cm(11.7" x 17.3").FMCH X99.51.12. be seen. What it depicts instead is an exotic subject, swathed in mystery. With whom Bamba'simage appears in almost every medium does the of the lie, then: the or the agency photograph photographer photographed? alwaysbased uponthe 1913 photo- Unlike most of the colonial Bamba's has not been lost imaginable, photographs period, photograph graph(Fig. 2). Whatdistinguishes Mouride aes- in the welter of administrative files. The can no be found, but the negative longer image thetics is that the image is an icon possessing vital presence. Sufi saints like Bamba convey baraka,a blessed energy.Mourides touch Bam- ba's image to gain baraka,and by placingthe portraitin one's home, workplace,or neighborhood, one is assuredthat the Saintis presentto guide and protect.

winter2002 ? africanarts 61 11. Devotionalspace of a marabout,or holyman. lives in the persistenceof its reproduction, Photo:MNR and AFR,Dakar, 1999. reinvention, and the simulacra that ap- Withinthe sublimesanctum of a holyman named pear to be more "real"than the original Serigne ModouFaye, every surface is covered (cf. Baudrillard1994). Lithographedre- withpaintings, lithographs, banners, and a strik- productions are hung in workshops and ing series of photorealistportraits of Amadou places of small business, photocopiesare Bambaand his familyby artistAssane Dione. displayed on the windshields of buses Eventhe ceilingis paintedas a trompeI'oeil path and trucks,and countless wall paintings leadingto Heaven.The room'sbaraka is so in- depicting the original photograph grace tense thatit structuresdevotion. It is here actively the walls of shops and homes across that receives his Faye people seeking inspired Senegal and anywhere else in the world guidanceand healingpowers. Followers congre- whereMourides are found. In all these cir- gate in the late afternoonto listento sermons, cumstances,the image of AmadouBamba pray,and sing odes writtenby Bamba. announcesfidelity to the Saintand partic- ipationin the MourideWay; it also attracts customersto Mouridebusinesses (Cruise O'Brien1988) and providesan apotropaic presence,for its active blessings promote and protect. The Saint's1913 photograph has truly taken on a life of its own, as understood through the distinct visuality of the Mourides.To understandthis, one must be willing to "move away from the insu- lar security"of a Euro-Americanconven- tional wisdom concerningphotography (see Pinney 1997:8). What may seem technical, "coincidental,"and therefore irrelevantdetails of the photographneed not be dismissed. Instead,Mouride visuality echoes Susan Sontag's suggestion that "surrealismlies at the heart of the photographic enterprise," for photographs (or, rather, aspects of them) are like "found objects-unpremeditated slices of the world." As such, photo- graphicdetails provide "inexhaustiblein- vitations to deduction, speculation, and fantasy"(Sontag 1990:52,69, 23). Just as the Surrealistsdelighted in recognizing chance encounters and ironic collage (A. Roberts 1992) as marvelous means to transcend stultifying expectations,so through scrutiny,erudite Mourides recognize God's signs (aya)in the details of the 1913 image. That only one of Bamba'sfeet is visible is such a "foundobject" within the image that provokesexegesis. If the Saint'sfoot is not there, where can it be? Through details such as this, the photograph demon- strates that Bambais a saint, able to traversethe veil between humanity and divinity. As he wrote in his celebratedode, "Jaawartou"(n.d.), "Thanks to the Quran,I have come into proximity with my Lord";and Mourides know from the 1913 photograph that Bambabrings them God's blessing. The Saint's face is so shadowed that it presents little if any trace of personalityor emotion, and a pronounced timelessness results. Yet, according to Bogumil Jewsie- wicki, "the act of looking reinsertsthe image in time,"bringing it to bear on the view- er's present concernsand reflections(1996:19; see also Kratz2002:119). Mourides use the term "mirror"to refer to how they see themselves in Bamba'sportrait, and in the words of the Mouride artist Mor Gueye, such reflection occurs as he paints the image.14Such visual hagiographyis an active process of identity formationconceptu- ally located between memory and history.That is, hagiographyretains origins as dif- fuse as memory, yet it can be as purposeful and politically driven as history.15 Hagiography causes or permits one to become swept up by a saint's biographical nar- rative in such a way that one's life becomes an extension of the saint's. As Edith

62 africanarts ? winter2002 Wyschograd (1990) asserts, saints' lives do not merely exist, they are constructed and reconstructed endlessly, ensuring that they are perpetuated in a present that is contin- uously grafted onto the pure potentiality of a remembered past. Who was and is Amadou Bamba? Born in Mbacke, Senegal, in 1853, Bamba "followed the traditional peripatetic pattern of scholarship and Sufi affiliation," and even as the student became a teacher (Robinson 2000:212), the Saint "regarded education as the main weapon in his struggle to save the souls of the masses" (Babou 2002:152). He soon became known as a man of profound faith who emphasized charity, humility, and above all, the hard labor necessary to feed one's family.16 Late-nineteenth-century Senegal was marked by political turmoil, as centuries-old slave trades ended and several small but influential kingdoms were brought under French colonial dominion. Bamba's piety and work ethic proved especially apposite in the transition then taking place from a feudal political economy to colonial capitalism (Robinson 1991:150). Sufism, with its stress upon strong bonds between taalibefollow- ers and maraboutholy men like Bamba, provided "an Islamic handbook to the produc- tion of charisma" and ideology, and a structure of adaptive practice in the early colonial years (Cruise O'Brien 1988:4). winter 2002 ? african arts 63 Left:12. Assane Dione. Portrait of SheikhAmadou While some Senegalese Muslims called for holy war against the French, the Saint Bamba.Canvas, paint,wood, metal;75cm x professed that the only jihad he would undertake would be against the venality (nafs) 55.4cm(29.5" x 21.8").FMCH TR2002.5.1. of his own soul (Dieye 1997:17-18).17Indeed, as one admirer had it, Bamba was a life- This portraitbelongs to a continuingseries of long pacifist who carried a pen, not a gun (Cruise O'Brien 1975:54). Yet the French seeminglyidentical images of the Saint.Each colonial administration found Bamba to be "surreptitiously revolutionary" (Dumont workembodies the esotericsecrets of Sufimys- 1975:34) and sent him into seven years of exile (1895-1902) in their distant Equatorial as ticism embodiedby Bambaand conveysthe colony of Gabon, followed by four years in Mauritania and long house arrest in of batin,or the hiddenside. Mourides depth say Senegal (see Robinson 2000:214-22). The administrators' intention was to diminish that for visible there is a hidden every reality Bamba's prestige and bring an end to the intolerable state-within-a-state created by his dimension,and a of Sufismis the goal progres- avid following (see Coulon 1985). Only later would they realize that such exile echoed sive "piercing"of the veils of batinas one ap- the Prophet Muhammed's flight from Mecca to Medina in 622 that marked the advent proaches but never ultimatelyattains divine of Islam; it confirmed Bamba's saintliness. Furthermore, just prior to and during his knowledge. first exile, Bamba performed his greatest miracles; and when he prayed on the waters, calmed a ravenous lion, and escaped the cruel plots of his French captors, he proved himself a saint to Sufi criteria (see Schimmel 1994:128, In all naivete, Right:13. SerigneGueye. Calligram of Amadou according 193). "the French, much more than Bamba and his followers, created the resistance and the Bamba.Glass, pigment, cardboard, tape; 32.5cm of resistance" which the Saint is still known In x 24cm (12.8"x 9.4").FMCH X99.56.30. image by (Robinson 1991:150).18 turn, Bamba's and miraculous to the to Theartist, the son of MorGueye, copied the face perseverance response oppression inspire courage overcome even the most of obstacles (see A. Roberts of Amadou Bamba from a calligramby an overwhelming 1996). artists the stations of Bamba's in anonymousartist that was inturn derived from a Many Senegalese depict persecution, exemplified "The Life of a Saint" of the exhibition the detailed well-knownportrait by Assane Dione(Fig. 12). gallery by colorfully glass paintings of Mor dean of artists in this Theface is mystically"lost" in the blessingwords Gueye-the working genre today (Figs. 8, 9). Mor Gueye of the Shahada:"There is no God butGod, and creates many copies of his glass paintings, selling some to Mourides but more to Muhammedis the Messenger of God." The tourists. According to the artist, he paints other images to make a living, but if he did names of Allahand Muhammedare inscribed not need to do this, he would only paint images of Amadou Bamba.19Do his works acrossBamba's eyes and cheek,suggesting his possess and convey baraka,even when sold to foreign tourists? Yes, even they receive effacementinto the Wordof Godand his proxim- the Saint's healing blessings. Painting the Saint's image is like prayer, Mr. Gueye said.20 ityto God and the Prophet. He intends for each person who sees his work to think of the sainted man. And as soon as he paints the image, Bamba's blessing comes forth. Senegalese glass painting has a fascinating history. Soon after the turn of the last century, William Ponty, Governor General of French West Africa, who was headquar- tered in Senegal, "denounced Islam as being a feudal and enslaving system," for he considered holy men like Bamba to be "the last obstacle to the complete triumph of our [French] civilizing work" (Triaud 2000:174). In 1908 he prohibited the importation of Islamic literature and chromolithographs because they "present a hostile character...promoting maraboutic action [and] ought to be destroyed....One cannot deny what a marvelous instrument of propaganda these thousands of rough engravings constitute here, [that are so] vivid in color and that present the defenders of the only true religion in the most favorable light" (in Renaudeau & Strobel 1984:50). Ponty was soon outfoxed, however, for lithos that escaped the authorities' notice could be reproduced through glass painting. A pane placed over an image could be traced and painted, "permitting the diffusion...of votive images that affirmed a faith [that was] in active expansion" (Renaudeau & Strobel 1984:50). Rounding out "The Life of a Saint" gallery, examples of Bamba's published writings are displayed as they might be in a Dakar shop, but what will astound Mouride visitors to the exhibition is that three texts in Bamba's own hand are also present, loaned by a fervent Mouride. Their barakawill be especially potent. Photographs document the holy pilgrimage site of Touba, which more than two million Mourides visit annu- ally to obtain barakablessings at the Saint's tomb.

The Aura of the Image A wall in the next gallery displays images of the Saint in many media-paintings on wood (Fig. 10), lithographs, posters, silkscreened banners, plaster plaques, photocopies, sand paintings, and even an inked image on cuttlefish bone. Bamba's portrait lives in such multiplicity, for his aura is maintained even when his images are painted in a series or mechanically produced as tourist art, photocopies, or even Web pages. An important nuance should be stressed: images of the Saint are producedrather than reproduced, and they presentrather than represent, for each time an artist creates an image (and many state that Bamba guides their hands as they do), an "inherence" of the saint as experienced through his barakaresults, to borrow a term from David Freedberg (1989). Such active blessing is available because in some sense, every portrait is the Saint.21 The visual stimulation of this wall of images finds a serene counterpart in a small room opening to the right, re-creating the devotional sanctum of a Mouride holy man

64 atrican arts ? winter 2002 s. :i '"^S 1? :: i 'Y ?'"r: .?. ;r F"%r

:" c;? 1 ;.-Jpi--? I f -r? t 4:s;

named Serigne Modou Faye. Exhibition visitors are invited to remove their shoes and enter the room, where they are greeted by the singing of zikrs and a visual feast. Throughout the day but especially in the afternoon, a steady stream of people visit Serigne Faye, who lives in a working-class neighborhood of Dakar. What distinguishes his home is its concentrated imagery: acrylic paintings on canvas; paintings and draw- ings executed directly on the walls; framed calligraphic holy names and Quranic Scripture; lithographs, banners, calendars, postcards, photocopies, and stickers; clocks shaped like mosques that sound the azan call to prayer five times a day; display boxes holding replica Qurans; boomboxes and stacks of cassettes; and revolving disco lights projecting the ninety-nine names of God painted upon their facets. These and ever more visual arts cover the walls and fill the corers of Serigne Faye's reception room and adjacent bedroom (Fig. 11). Most images portray the Saint, notable people in his extended family, and his first and most devout follower, Sheikh Ibra Fall. Swallows soar across the low ceiling in a trompe l'oeil painting of a paradisiacal sky. So intense is the visual impact of this marvelous place that it may be considered an "imagorium."22 Serigne Faye's sanctum is a place of great "visual piety," a useful phrase coined by David Morgan to refer to "the set of practices, attitudes, and ideas invested in images that structure the experience of the sacred" (1998:2-3). Images of Amadou Bamba inform and condition every act and moment within the imagorium. Under their gaze Serigne Faye counsels and heals those who come to him. In their presence his followers winter 2002 ? afrlcan arts 65 Thispage: listen to his parables and achieve ecstasy by singing zikr "songs of remembrance" and 8

Bamba Roberts & Roberts r. 14. SerigneBatch (Massamba Djigal). Shirt cov- khassaid"odes" written by or about Amadou (see 2003b). ered withcalligraphy and mysticalsquares, late Serigne Faye is a calligrapher, but it is his encouragement and guidance of Assane c 20th century.Cotton cloth, ink;length 76.3cm Dione that led to the creation of the imagorium. Dione trained in formal and industri- m (30'). FMCHX99.56.48. al arts and had a budding career as an illustrator and contemporary artist; but some n0 he left these to follow a in Mouridism. At first m the most are years ago pursuits spiritual path glance, c Among powerfulhealing objects 0 shirtsinscribed with verses that Serigne Batch Dione appears to be a photorealist, for his large portraits are based upon well-known and rendered in detail. Yet from Dione's of their preparesas he chants zikrsin remembranceof pictures strikingly precise point view, r, realism and are features. Nasr's of the God, creating a mystical link between image design superficial Recalling Seyyed paraphrase c m0 and sound. The circle at the center of the shirt Persian Rumi that "no is exhausted its c thirteenth-century poet reality by appearance" r. alludesto the dahiras,or worship groups, that tie (1987:128-29), the artist explains that he has "a habit of concentrating on the image, for n0 Mourides in blessed there is else, more to find." One must the c together solidarity. always something something "pierce" image c (percer in Dione's French) in order to discover its "hidden side," or batin. Each time r, Dione completes a painting, he is eager to begin another and learn something new with his teacher's guidance. Oppositepage: The impact of Dione's paintings is tangible. Serigne Faye's imagorium wells with the 15. ElimaneFall, Ocean de generosite,ca. 2000. barakaof Amadou Bamba. Dione says he feels "secure" and "content" whenever and wher- Paper,paint; 204cm x 155.5cm(80.3' x 61.2'). ever he sees the Saint's image: "for me, he is there. I don't see the image, I see the sainted FMCHTR2002.1.3. man." As taalibessqueeze together in the tiny space to face Serigne Faye, an intensity of sen- Artistand socialactivist Elimane Fall has created sation (heat, sound, perfume, touch) complements the visual piety of Dione's paintings. extraordinaryworks on vast pieces of recycled Yet as small as the imagorium is, scale is defied, for the paintings are so oversized that, as paper.Merging images of Bambawith the khas- our then three-year-old son once exclaimed, one can almost "jump into" them. The imago- saids, orodes, thatthe Saintwrote during his life- rium's trompe l'oeil ceiling further challenges place and time, directing one toward time, they possess an active abilityto assist Paradise; yet just as release seems at hand, attention is redirected inward through the hid- those in need. Mr.Fall uses his paintingsto teach den messages and powers of the sacred images. The dialectic of display and secrecy essen- and offerguidance to waywardyouth of urban tial to Mouride visuality is what gives Serigne Faye's imagorium such tangible impact. Senegal.He explainsthat in this work "the ocean is a referenceto Bambaand to purifyingone's soul. Fromthe image of the Saint,the wateris spilledonto humanityfrom a gourd.If everyone readthis verse in the morningand the evening, there would be no more problems,and there wouldbe enoughfood and drinkfor all. God is for allof humanityand does notdiscriminate."

66 airlcanarts * winter2002 E.'*~A i Thispage: 16. Artistunknown. Baye Fallman's patchwork clothing,late 20th century. Damask, rayon; length (oftunic): 130cm (51.2'). FMCH TR2002.1.161a.b. Baye Fallsare devotees of SheikhIbra Fall who demonstratetheir dedicationto his teachings through intensely hard work. The patchwork clothingof Baye Falls is archival,created from memoriesof gifts, sympathy,and support.The squares recallthe protectivetalismans used in healing,and theirirregular positioning and dy- namicoverlapping express the solidarityof the movementas well as the syncopated rhythms of the drums Baye Falls beat as they beg for sustenance.

Oppositepage: Assane Dione has painted a portrait of Amadou Bamba that has been reproduced and Top:17. MorGueye/studio of MorGueye. Two sold as a snapshot-sized print all over Senegal for several years now (Fig. 12). The portrait Baye Falls, ca. 1996. Glass painting;48cm x frames the bust of Bamba, eliminating all and the so 32.5cm(18.9" x 12.8").FMCH X99.56.7. background executing image crisply in saturated black and white that it is "posterized" (Kunzle 1997:20) and has greater Oneof the BayeFalls depicted wears a talisman- than the 1913 Dione's also the ic of AmadouBamba and graphic impact grainy photograph. painting emphasizes portrait plays a drum. of Bamba's the communicative force" and the Theother dances witha club knownas a hirwith frontality image, "heightening "enhancing intimacy of reception" (Brilliant 1990:20).And it presents a heightened interplay of voids which he may thumphimself in penance and and solids that visual directness, for its black and white serve as demonstratehis immensephysical endurance. provides strong shapes "chromatic poles" that produce powerful kinesthetic and tactile effects (Saint-Martin 1990:33-35). When crisp black and white shapes are juxtaposed, "each becomes more intense and saturated" what is known as "simultaneous contrast." The white sets Bottom:18. Pape Samb(a.k.a. Papisto Boy). De- through off the black and vice tailof factorymural. Photo: MNR and AFR,Dakar, versa, emblazoning the image on one's perception, and many 1999. Mourides attest that after long contemplation of the Saint's image, they can see it when shut their and in their as the the Saint's The most renownedfemale singer in Senegal they eyes sleep. Just important, shapes composing face to take on the look and visual of Arabic and an today is Fatou BinetouDiouf, known as Fatou begin rhythm script, indeed, anonymous artist has transformed Dione's a Guewel.Here she is portrayedby Papistowith image into calligram (Fig. 13). herpersonal holy man, a popularreligious leader named Serigne ModouKara. Fatou Guewel is Healing Words the divaof the Mouride"anthem" composed by Karathat is sung all over Senegal today in Sufis have long made poetic reference to the face of the Prophet as "a marvelously women'ssinging groups. She is also a devotee written manuscript of the Quran" (Schimmel 1975:413). Arabic calligrams of people of MameDiarra Bousso, Bamba'ssainted moth- and birds are common popular arts of north Africa that are available and sometimes er,and has producedan entirecassette of songs reproduced in Senegal. Bamba's calligrams are undoubtedly created after such prece- abouther. dents, but they also suggest his effacement (fana) into the Word of God through a kind

68 africanarts ? winter2002 of textual transubstantiation that is the ultimate goal of Sufism. As Rumi wrote, "I have prayed so much that I myself have turned into prayer" (cited in Schimmel 1994:135). Such transcendence implies written as well as oral prayer. When the image of Amadou Bamba is "received into writing," as Jean-Michel Hirt might assert, it will be reflected "in all its breadth," for writing "alone is able to make seen, by being read, the veiled dimension of sensed reality." The visible becomes leg- ible, not only to the eyes of the body but to those of the soul. In this way, the image can be recognized as a mere veil "between the reality that it shows and the reality to which it alludes" (Hirt 1993:14, 15, 32, 223). "A Saint in the City" celebrates the importance of writing in a gallery called "Healing Words." "Everyone agrees," Fernand Dumont affirms, that "Sheikh Bamba spent his whole life writing" (1975:1). It is said that the Saint wrote seven metric tons of verse, most of which he consigned to the ocean, for only such a limitless body could contain his profound wisdom. Bamba's known writings are recited, sung, commented upon, and discussed to create a Mouride sonoral universe. The active, talismanic impact of the Saint's written works upon these performances is based on the esoteric functions and powers of Arabic letters, words, phrases, verses, and the act of writing itself (see Schimmel 1975:411-25). Sufis hold that letters possess numerical values, so that any text can be read in many different ways. One may recite a chapter of the Holy Quran and appreciate its overt content in addition to its rhyming and other word play, for example, but one may also investigate meanings hidden in the shapes of letters with respect to how one letter suggests another. Once the numerical values of each as well as their combination are known, further deductions can be made. Sufis have sometimes held that letters "con- verse" with each other through such mystical relationships (Nasr 1987:32). Three fine glass paintings in the "Healing Words" gallery show Bamba writing and children carrying or studying Quranic tablets. A section entitled "Activating the Word" presents the artistry of a calligraphic healer named Serigne "Batch" Massamba Djigal, and the various instruments of his profession. This area features Quranic boards used for teaching and healing, shirts endowed with mystical squares and verses (Fig. 14), ten- foot-long prayer papers that are rolled up and tucked inside a leather belt, and a con- tainer for "drinking the word," together with video footage showing the objects in use.

winter2002 ? africanarts 69 Serigne Batch's techniques of healing are contrasted with the work of Elimane Fall, the charismatic founder of an urban ministry for troubled youth. Fall's work is among the most memorable in the exhibition, for he creates dramatic "imagetexts" (Mitchell 1994; see also Roberts & Roberts 2000c) whose stunning iconographic programs in deeply saturated colors are matched by didactic purpose (Fig. 15). Fall has also invent- ed a calligraphic script which he says gives "body" to the "hard-working" letters used by sub-Saharan Africans. A course of twenty-eight black, red, and white letters in pre- cision-cut, plasticized paper creates a powerful aesthetic moment.

Dress of Devotion

The visitor is now drawn to an array of colorful patchwork ensembles presented on mannequins. These vestments are worn by Baye Falls devoted to Sheikh Ibra Fall, Bamba's first and most fervent follower (Fig. 16). Behind this display float larger-than- life, ethereal sculptures of recycled iron sheeting and rebar by Moussa Tine that portray dancing Baye Falls. The gallery is dominated by Assane Dione's ten-foot-tall painting portrait of Ibra Fall as the incarnation of the Saint's teachings about labor as love. The close relationship between the Prophet and his African muezzin Bilal may find its paral- lel in the devotion that Bamba received from Ibra Fall (Strobel-Baginski1982:97, 102). It is common for young Baye Falls to spend a number of years contributing to construction or other sacred projects at Touba such as building or maintaining the Great Mosque (Mbacke 1995:75), or toiling on the farms of Mouride holy men and women. These are joyous times of intense solidarity, when young men visit villages singing khas- saids, playing drums, and dancing to beg for sustenance (see Gadio 2001). They often bear images of Amadou Bamba to bless those who give them alms (Fig. 17). Vibrantglass paintings by Mor Gueye-who is himself an ardent Baye Fall-illustrate such activities. Over the years, Baye Falls have developed an "anti-fashion"that distances them from the mundane preoccupations and crass consumerism of contemporary society (Heath 1990:27).23Women or tailors give Baye Falls scraps of fabric to sew together into colorful patchwork clothing. The play of colors and shapes in African textiles of this sort "can be profitably compared with off-beat phrasing in music [and] dance," as Robert Farris Thompson (1974:11)has taught us. There may well be an aesthetic shared between music and the "staggered and suspended pattern" (1974:13) of Baye Fall design. Patchwork tubeey bu s6n ("pants of fortune") may also possess a quality called aduna, suggesting "the whole world brought together" (Strobel-Baginski 1982:102) in their quilt-like assemblage of memories and intentions. The "Dress of Devotion" gallery is also devoted to Mouride women, who enjoy a degree of independence not commonly associated with Islamic societies (Callaway & Creevey 1994). Mouride and Senegalese women more generally are justly acclaimed for their sense of dressing well, called sanse in Wolof (Heath 1990:19), and their "auda- cious creativity" in dance (Heath 1994:99). They are also famous for their chic hair- styling and their culinary arts, and some are celebrated for their poetry, novels, and documentary writing (Boyd-Buggs 1991; Cham 1991). Senegalese women are less prominent in the visual arts than men, although a few such as Ndeye Darro are gaining attention (Anonymous 1999:5). The art form in which Mouride women truly excel is vocal music, both in neighborhood circles and on national and international scenes. Fatou Binetou Diouf has been among the most popular Mouride recording artists since the early 1990s. She has taken the stage name Fatou Guewel, for she is of a lin- eage of griots (gewel in Wolof), the praise-singing troubadours so famous throughout westernmost Africa. Fatou Guewel's most celebrated songs honor Bamba's mother, 8z 0 Mame Diarra Bousso (see Fig. 9), and Papisto has depicted Fatou Guewel several times r- in his Bel-Air mural (Roberts & Roberts 2000a), explaining that when he dreamed m -4 about Mame Diarra Bousso dressed like Fatou Guewel, it was the latter whom he m

c painted as a manifestation of Bamba's mother (Fig. 18). Glass paintings and other C) works in the "Dress of Devotion" gallery portray Mame Diarra as the mirror for all 0t Mouride women. A robe that Fatou Guewel wore in concert in 19. MoussaTine. La famillefrom the series Les 6le- spectacular appliqued m

c vations, ca. 1998. Canvas, paint, wood, metal; Italy and offered for exhibition in "A Saint in the City" is seen in the gallery near a c 130cm x 100.5cm x Privatecollection. video Mouride women's ecstatic -M (51.1" 39.6"). showing singing. 0

c Made of recycled plywood scraps affixedto can- 1

c vas and painstakinglypainted with layered and Global Networks m r- scraped acrylics, this work portraysa Baye Fall M cn family. A shaft of baraka blesses the children A last offers the work of several of Senegal's world-famous contemporary -.4 gallery 0 and can be followed upward as an elevation of artists who are Mourides or are influenced by Mouride principles. Dakar has been an r, the spirit. epicenter of contemporary art for more than four decades. By "contemporary" we

70 afrlcanarts . winter2002 ~~~:~~~~~: mean works created for sale in galleries in Senegal and elsewhere in the world, as opposed to the sorts of coeval but often in situ devotional, popular, and personalized arts seen elsewhere in "A Saint in the City." The Ecole des Arts du Senegal, founded in 1960 by Leopold Sedar Senghor, fostered an early turn toward Modernist work by some artists (Harey 1996) and opposition by others to anything so formally sanc- tioned (Huchard 1994:30-32). Many contemporary artists in Senegal refuse "to accept any identity based on an unmediated African past," and instead employ "a taunting sense of free play, reflexively deploying various meanings, sometimes exaggerated or conflicting, across many lines of interest" (Ebong 1991:208-9). The contemporary art scene in Dakar is gaining exponential prominence and now counts a "third generation" of contemporary artists (Grabski forthcoming). In a review of just how vibrant Dakar has become, Saliou Demanguy Diouf (1999) profiles more than 150 artists whose works in many media, from painting to sculpture, tapestry weaving to futuristic furniture design, are exhibited, sold, and held in important public and private collections in Senegal and around the world. In 1989 artists founded Dak'Art, the biennial of contemporary African art, which was still going strong in its 2002 iteration, showcasing artists working in Senegal while momentarily shifting the axis of the international art world to Dakar. Moussa Tine is the first of four artists featured in the "Global Networks" gallery. He began as a sign painter and is now a prizewinning painter and sculptor whose assem- blages of automobile parts evoke Mouride solidarity, with emphasis on the uplifting joys of ecstatic faith (Fig. 19). Tine exclaims that "Mouride art exists! It is an attitude for Mourides. It is not an art form that can be presented as such, though; rather, it is a way of reasoning." Chalys Leye, the gallery's second artist, shares this "way of reasoning" as he crafts deep-brown canvases by mixing tar and other earthy substances into acrylic paints. His works are inscribed with secret codes and mystical squares inspired by the healing techniques of Mouride holy men (see Cover), and he feels that his work is mystically informed by the soul of Serigne Falilou Mbacke (1886-1968), one of the Saint's sons.

Thispage: 20. ViyeDiba. Composition,1999. Cottonstrip cloth,paint, wood; 65.6cm x 61cm (25.8'x 24'). Privatecollection. Theartist says thathe "aggresses"his mediato "interrogate"their capacities and expressivelim- its.This process also lendsa conscioussense of "dignity"to materialschosen fromthe urbanen- vironmentin whichthe artistlives and on which he conductsongoing research. Composition shows howDiba gouges thefound wood to whichhe has attached his "canvas"(strips of locallywoven cloth)and how he stretchesfabric to bringout its tensilevitality.

Oppositepage: 21.Viye Diba. Materialit6 musicale, ca. 1998.Wood, cloth,paint, cordage; 156.6cm x x168cm(61.7' x 66.1").FMCH TR2002.1.65a-x. Materialit6musicale is a raredeparture from the artist'stwo-dimensional work into freestanding sculpture.The pendant pieces of distressedwood wrappedin cloth make severalallusions: to the keys and notes of marimba-likebalaphones, hence the materializationof theirmusic; to the space of Senegalese dance and theatricality; and to the clubs and patchworkclothing of Baye Falls,who live AmadouBamba's phenomenolo- gy of workand the sense of "unityin diversity" fromthe Saint's one gains teachings. african ....winter...... 2002...... 72 arts~~~~~~~~~,, 72 african arts ? winter 2002 Viye Diba holds a doctoral degree in Urban Geography and teaches at the Ecole National des Beaux Arts in Dakar. He brings an acute sense of environmentalism to the acrylic canvases he creates in the earth tones of arid Africa. He is also a conceptualist, for as he says, he "engages, interrogates, and aggresses" his materials to recognize their validity and valor as things (Fig. 20). His sculptural assemblage called Materialitemusicale (Fig. 21) connotes the transporting beauty, "weight" of worship, and grounding of Mouride faith while referring to the notes of marimbas and the clubs sometimes carried by Baye Falls (Fig. 17). The gallery is not restricted to Mouride artists; Samba Laye follows a different Senegalese Sufi movement, yet he portrays Bamba's teachings. His ethereal collage harbors esoteric messages in its painted strips of locally woven cloth and recu- perated window shutter that recalls the building behind the Saint in the 1913 photograph. As one exits "A Saint in the City," a captivating moment awaits in a high-contrast scape of twenty-eight paintings of Amadou Bamba by Assane Dione. While such a display might simulate "the vertiginous emergence of semblances" (Gilles Deleuze cited in Stoichita 1997:217) of Andy Warhol's montages, the differences among the paintings would be far more significant to the artist than their superficial similarities. As the visitor will know by now, the image of Amadou Bamba holds secrets that are only available through deep study and devotion to work, peace, and perfection of the soul. Senegal is undergoing constant refabulation: new cultural topographies are created through the inscription of ever-evolving imaginaries. Portraits of Amadou Bamba figure importantly in these transformative processes that are defining a modernity that is both specific to Senegal and carried throughout the Mouride global diaspora. In the life and lessons of the Saint, Mourides find ways of coping and thriving; indeed, they see themselves in his "mirror."When the image of Amadou Bamba graces the wall of a home, business, or inner-city junkyard, a simple site of activity becomes a place endowed with the "distinct potencies" of connotative significance (Casey 1987: 186). Such lieux de memoireprovide the basis for social identities constantly negotiated with the world. While the contemporary political economy may be the context for such transaction, it is the active impact of the image of the Saint-its blessing aura-that articulates the dynamic nature of Mouride visual culture. D Notes,page 93 winter 2002 ? african arts 73 14. Heinrich Heine (1797-1856) was a German poet and author. offenenGrenzen der Ethnologie.Schlaglichter aufein sich wandel- Studies Center, and the Faculty Senate Council on Research at Among his best-known works is the epic "Deutschland, ein ndes Fach. Klaus E. Miiler zum 65. Geburtstag,eds. Sylvia M. UCLA. The scores of Mouride friends and academic col- Wintermarchen" (1844), which exposes German weaknesses Schomburg Scherff and Beatrix Heintze, pp. 39-51. Frankfurt: leagues who have assisted in our nine-year research project with an unsparing, biting humor. Heine's democratic attitudes Verlag Otto Lembeck. are acknowledged in Roberts & Roberts 2003a, with special and his criticism of German society and politics led him to be Hochschild, Adam. 1999. King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of thanks to Gassia Armenian, Ousmane Gueye, and Doran H. rejected by those in conservative, bourgeois circles. Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa. New York: Ross, without whose assistance "A Saint in the City" could 15. Wilhelm Busch (1832-1908), a well-known German poet, Mariner Books. not have been realized. Despite the generosity of these agen- esteemed for his humorous writings and sketches; Joseph H6pfner, Gerd. 1992. "Die Ruckfuhrung der Leningrad-Samm- cies and individuals, all responsibility for this exhibition Victor von Scheffel (1826-1886), a German author of historical lung des Museums fiir Volkerkunde, Berlin," Jahrbuch remains our own. For Avery, Seth, and Sid, and in memory of novels and a lyrical poet. PreussischerKulturbesitz 29:157-71. our late friends T. K. Biaya, Moustapha Dim6, and Ali 16. Heinrich Heine! Jenkins, Ray. 1987. "Confrontations withA.B. Elis, a Participant Meroueh, who contributed to our project. Hier hat in einer dunklen Nacht in the Scramble for Gold Coast Africana, 1874-1894," 1. Like all religious terms, "Sufism" is difficult to define, in Ein Deutscher Sanger Dein gedacht. Paideuma.Studien zur Kulturkunde33:313-35. large part because it is so "self-consciously esoteric" (Ernst Den Wohlklang Deiner schonen Lieder Koloss, Hans Joachim. 1990. Art of Central Africa:Masterpieces 1997:139). An immense literature introduces and explains the Gab hier des Urwalds Echo wider. from the Berlin Museum fiir Volkerkunde. New York: The history, beliefs, and practices of worldwide Sufism, as out- Metropolitan Museum of Art. lined in Shah 1990 and Erst 1997. It is instructive to note Hier! Hat der Stadtrat keine Macht, Koloss, Hans-Joachim. 1999. "Kongo," in Afrika-Kunst und how infrequently African Sufis are mentioned in such texts, Und da die Welt genug gelacht Kultur.Meisterwerke afrikanischer Kunst, ed. H.-J. Koloss, pp. and an avowed purpose of "A Saint in the City" is to help rec- Ob dieses kannibal'schen Treiben, 124-28. Munich, London, and New York: Prestel. tify such neglect. "Saint" is the most common English trans- Soil Heine hier ein Denkmal bleiben. Luschan, Felix von. 1897. Beitrage zur Volkerkunde der lation of Wali Allah-an "Intimate" or "Friend of God" in Deutschen Schutzgebiete. Erweiterte Sonderausgabe aus Arabic (Corell 1998:xviii). There are four principal Sufi Ways Hier, wo die g6ttliche Natur dem "Amtlichen Bericht iiber die Erste Deutsche Kolonial- in Senegal: the Qadiriyya (of which Amadou Bamba was Noch nicht nach Christ und Jude frug, Ausstellung in Treptow 1896," p. 15. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer. originally a member), the Tijaniyya, the Layens, and the Da sei des Menschen nur gedacht, MacGaffey, Wyatt (ed.). 1993. Astonishment and Power: Kongo Mourides. It is estimated that there are some four million des Sangers, seiner Liederpracht. Minkisi and the Art of ReneeStout. Washington, DC: National Mourides, most of whom self-identify as Wolof and speak the Museum of African Art. Wolof language. As a Muslim movement, Mouridism cuts 17. For the various facets of "living together" in Africa in the Maxwell, Anne. 1999. Colonial Photography and Exhibitions. across ethnicity, and because Islam has been practiced in early period of colonialism, see recent publications by Heintze Leicester: Leicester University Press. Senegal for many generations, ethnicity is not as pronounced (1999a) and Fabian (2000). In regard to our contribution, Nederveen Pieterse, Jan. 1992. Whiteon Black:Images of Africaand as it may be in some parts of Africa. Jenkins 1987:313-35 is especially noteworthy. Blacks in WesternPopular Culture. New Haven and London: 2. "Mouride" ("disciple") is the French spelling of the Arabic 18. According to the family (personal communication, May 10, Yale University Press. term murid that Mourides usually use when writing about 2000), Visser had many scars from wounds suffered in Cayo Nippa, Annegret. 1996. Lesenin alten Photographienaus Baalbek. themselves. As a Sufi movement steeped in the mystical during violent conflicts with local African rulers. Therefore, his Zurich: Volkerkundemuseum der Stadt Zirich. teachings of Amadou Bamba, it shares a great deal with commitment to the alleged chief's daughter could have been an Schindlbeck, Markus (ed.). 1989. Die ethnographische Linse. orthodox Islam but also differs from it in significant ways. attempt to improve strained relations. Photographienaus dem Museum fir VolkerkundeBerlin. Berlin: The term "orthodox" is problematic because it is so perspec- 19. Written communication from the city archives of Diissel- Museum fir Volkerkunde, Staatliche Museen Preussischer tival, yet there is no central authority determining dogma or dorf, July 15, 1998. Kulturbesitz. what is "correct" for all Muslims; see El Fadl 2001a. For 20. Further information about Robert junior will not be includ- Steins, Martin. 1972. Das Bild des Schwarzenin der europdischen African examples of how Sufism differs from more "ortho- ed here; he is the subject of separate study. Suffice it to say that Kolonialliteratur1870-1918. Frankfurt: Thesen. dox" and reformist movements, see the essays of Westerlund he in World participated War I, married, and had a son (B. Stelzig, Christine. 1998a. "Altar of Maloango: Being, Nonbeing & Rosander (1997) and Kane & Triaud (1998). Our purpose is Jansen, grandson of the elder Robert: personal communica- and Existence of an Object of West Africa," Baessler-Archiv to present the proudly distinctive heritage of Mourides as tion, May 10, 2000). n.f. 46, 2:369-428. reflected in their visual culture; we pass no judgment upon, 21. In Visser's contrast, Congolese companion always appears Stelzig, Christine. 1998b. "Vitaund Bibliographie Robert Visser." nor do we ourselves in any way intend to participate in, be it in clothed, African or European dress. Concerning the Unpublished manuscript. Berlin. debates about reform within Islam as it might be applied to manipulation of the European public through photographs of Sydow, Eckart von. 1930. Handbuchder WestafrikanischenPlastik. Mourides or anyone else. clothed and naked Africans, see Heintze 1996:4f. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer/Ernst Vohsen. 3. The present preview of the exhibition abridges issues dis- Theye, Thomas. 1989. "Einfiihrung," in Der Schatten. cussed at far in the book cited geraubte greater length accompanying References Photographie als ethnographisches Dokument, ed. Thomas (Roberts & Roberts 2003a). The book also includes discussion African Arts. 1991. "Historical Photographs of Africa" (special Theye, pp. 8-59. Munich: C. J. Bucher. and application of visual theories, long exegeses by Mouride issue), guest ed. Christraud Geary, 24, 4 (Oct.). Torgovnick, Marianna. 1990. Gone Primitive: Savage Intellects, artists, and two entire chapters-"An Architecture of the Anonymous [Robert Visser]. 1907-8. "Der Kaufmann unter ModernLives. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Word," concerning an astounding example of Mouride ver- Wilden (Entwicklung des Handels am unteren Kongo)," Press. nacular dwellings, and "Pilgrimage and Exile: The Idea of JahresberichtNaturoissenschaftlicher Verein zu Krefeld,pp. 59-60. Vansina, Jan. 1987. "The Ethnographic Account as a Genre in Touba," about the Mouride diaspora-that are not presented Anonymous [Robert Visser]. 1908-9. "Des Negers Lebenslauf," Central Africa," Paideuma. Mitteilungen zur Kulturkunde in the exhibition. JahresberichtNaturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Krefeld, pp. 33:433-44. 4. Oumar Ba, now retired from the Senegalese National 91-92 Visser,Robert. 1894. Reminiscenzen.Afrikanische Reise. Dfsseldorf Archives, has not been able to find the original negative, Anonymous [RobertVisser]. 1909-10. "BunteBilder aus Afrika- Selbstverlag. despite years of trying (personal communication, 1997). auf Karawanenpfaden ins Innere," JahresberichtNaturwissen- Visser, Robert. 1901. Katalog zur Siid-West-Afrikanischen According to Mr. Ba, all copies of the photograph now avail- schaftlicherVerein zu Krefeld,pp. 69-70. Ausstellung im ZoologischenGarten zu Diisseldorf Diisseldorf. able, including those in his own book (Ba 1979), are derived Anonymous [Robert Visser]. 1910-11. "Neger und Europaer Visser, Robert. 1907. "Ober Fetischdienst, Aberglaube und from the 1913 photograph published by Paul Marty als Pflanzer," JahresberichtNaturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu damit zusammenhangende Gebrauche der Kongo-Neger," (1917:222). Krefeld,p. 61. Jahresbericht Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Krefeld, 5. Barakais an Arabic loan word referring to "benedictions" Visser]. 1912-13. "Poesie Anonymous [Robert und Prosa der 1906-07:52-67. (barakatAllah). In west Africa, baraka"bestows physical super- Vereinzu KongoNeger," JahresberichtNaturwissenschaftlicher Visser, Robert. 1926. "Das Denkmal Heinrich Heines in den abundance and prosperity, and psychological happiness" 73-74. Krefeld,pp. Urwaldem des Kongo," Jan Wellem 1, 8:196. (Triaud 1988:53), and it "has come to designate the aura sur- Berzock, Kathleen Bickford. 1999. "African Art at the Art Insti- Wirz, Albert. 1982. "Beobachtete Beobachter: Zur Lektiire rounding a saint, his power, his sanctuary, his miracles, his tute of 4:18-35. Chicago," AfricanArts, 32, volkerkundlicher Fotografien," in FremdenBilder,ed. Martin blessing, or his tomb" (Chebel 1995:67). Barakais inherited by Edwards, Elizabeth. 1992. "Introduction," in Anthropologyand Brauen, Ethnologische Schriften Zirich, pp. 44-60. Zfirich: the direct descendants of a holy person like Bamba. Photography 1860-1920, ed. Elizabeth Edwards, pp. 3-17. Volkerkundemuseum der Stadt Zurich. 6. As Jeremy Coote and Anthony Shelton have concurred, London and New Haven: Yale University Press. Wochenpost.1995. Mar. 30. 42. Jg.:38-40. "why art objects should function as they are supposed to do, Essner, Comela. 1985. "Deutsche Afrikareisende im neunzehn- how in fact they do so, and why and how they are vehicles of ten Zur Archives: Jahrhundert. Sozialgeschichte des Reisens," in Beitrdge meaning are questions more often ignored than asked, and zur Kolonial und Uberseegeschichte,ed. Rudolf von Albertini, 32. EthnologischesMuseum Berlin (EM) more asked than answered," in part because of the distinct Steiner. Stuttgart: EM, Akte "Erwerbungen ethnologischer Gegenstande aus marginalization of art as a subject of interest within the greater Corelia. 1987. Essner, "Some Aspects of German Travellers- Afrika," I/MV 708:63 discipline of Anthropology (1994:3), in part because of similar Accounts from the Second Half of the 19th Century," EM, Akte "Die Erwerbung ethnologischer Gegenstande durch deficiencies within "good eye" Art History (see Shohat & Paideuma.Studien zur Kulturkunde33:197-205. den Plantagen-DirectorVisser," I/MV 775:66-69 Stam 1998:27). Fabian, Johannes. 2000. Out of Our Minds. Reason and Madness Museum fir VilkerkundeLeipzig (MfVL) 7. We make this choice with trepidation because of the extensive in the Central Los Explorationsof Africa. Berkeley, Angeles, MfVL 1901 /37, 1903/21, 1904/28 use of the term "aura" in New Age and related practices; still, and London: of Press. University California Linden-MuseumStuttgart (LMS) there may be cross-cultural similarities worthy of investigation. Falgayrettes, Christiane. 1989. "De l'indicible a l'oeuvre," in LMS Korrespondenz Visser no. 998, 1025 8. It may also be that what the late Alfred Gell called "method- 32-65. Musee Objets interdits, pp. Dapper. Paris: Editions ological atheism" (borrowing the phrase from Peter Berger) is Dapper. sometimes at play, as a "principle that, whatever the analyst's Ferreira da Candido. 1970. Cem Anos dos Missionariesdo Costa, ROBERTS & ROBERTS: Notes, from page 73 own religious convictions, or lack of them, theistic and mysti- Santo em Nova Espirito Angola (1866-1966). Lisboa, Angola. cal beliefs are subjected to sociological scrutiny on the Christraud. 1991. Geary, "Missionary Photography: Private "A Saint in the City: Sufi Arts of Urban Senegal" is partially assumption that they are not [and cannot be] literally true. and Public Readings," African Arts 32, 4:48-59. funded by a major exhibition implementation grant from the Only once this assumption is made do the intellectual maneu- Christraud and Webb 1998. Geary, Virginia-Lee (eds.). Delivering National Endowment for the Humanities. "Any views, find- vers characteristic of anthropological analyses of religious Views: Distant Cultures in Early Postcards. Washington, DC: ings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this exhi- systems become possible" (Gell 1994:41). On the biases Smithsonian Institution. bition do not necessarily represent those of the National introduced by considering other logics than one's own to be Heimat-Zeitung.1935. Budericher Zeitung. Unabhingige Zeitung Endowment for the Humanities." Since 1994, research upon "beliefs," see Needham 1972. fir den Bezirk der Gemeinde Biiderich, no. 94. Nov. 30. which the exhibition is based has been made possible by 9. Hal Foster (1988) presents the contrast between vision (the Beatrix. 1994. Heintze, "Ethnohistorische Bildinterpretation im small grants from (in chronological order) the Museum of biological event of seeing) and visuality (how what one sees is Tribus43:95-111. Kontext," International Folk Art in Santa Fe, New Mexico; the Project interpreted according to one's cultural particularities). Beatrix. 1999a. Heintze, EthnographischeAneignungen. Deutsche for the Advanced Study of Art and Life in Africa, the Office of Visuality is a "cultural system,"to borrow the famous phrase of in Frankfurt: Otto Lembeck. the Forschungsreisende Angola. Verlag Vice President for Research, and the African Studies Clifford Geertz, for "symbols...synthesize a people's ethos- Beatrix. 1999b. "Die Heintze, Konstruktion des angolanischen Program at the University of Iowa; the Midwestern Uni- the tone, character and quality of their life, its moral and aes- durch die 'Eingeborenen' Fotografie," Fotogeschichte.Beitrige versities Consortium for International Affairs; the J. Paul thetic style and mood-and their worldview-the picture they zur und Asthetikder Geschichte FotografieJg. 19, 71:3-13. Getty Trust; the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropo- have of the way things in sheer actuality are" (1979:79, our Beatrix. 2000. im 19. Dak'Art Heintze, "Feldforschungsstress Jahr- logical Research; (Dakar, Senegal); and the Fowler emphasis). Robert Nelson (2000) has assembled essays apply- hundert: Die deutsche in Die Loango Expedition 1873-1876," Museum of Cultural History, the James S. Coleman African ing such perspectives to a wide range of world artistry through winter 2002 .african arts 93 an equally wide range of periods-including Mouride arts, in examples of African visual expression, such as the displays of in Senegal.Cambridge: Harvard University 'res. Roberts & Roberts 2000b. icons and wall paintings in ancient Coptic churches of Cruise O'Brien, Donal. 1971. TiheMourides of Setnegal.London: 10. Obvious examples include illuminated manuscripts and Ethiopia (see Chojnacki 1973:34-65) or the astounding dis- Oxford University Press. miniature paintings produced by Mogul, Persian, Ottoman, plays of Vodun shrines in coastal Benin (Rush 1999:68-69). Cruise O'Brien, Donal. 1975. Saints (andPoliticians: Essays in thlt and related cultures (Grabar2002); north African popular arts 23. Some Baye Falls also wear dreadlocks, and are sometimes Organizationof a SenegalesePeasant Society. London: Cam- featuring sacred subjects in wide use today (Starrett 1995); mistaken for Rastafarians by tourists; see Savishinsky 1994. bridge University Press. and contemporary popular paintings from Egypt that joyful- While there may be Rastas in Senegal, as there are in other Cruise O'Brien, Donal. 1988. "Introduction," in Charismaatid ly celebrate fulfillment of pilgrimage to Mecca (Parker & Neal African countries, in the Baye Fall case it is more often an Brotherhoodin African Islam,eds. Donal Cruise O'Brien and 1995). Political photographs are in constant public display, identification with what they perceive Rastas (and especially Christian Coulon, pp. 1-31. New York: Oxford University even in the strictest of contemporary Muslim states such as Bob Marley) to be about than any actual participation in Press. Iran. Oleg Grabar (1987:93-94) asserts that the "puritanical" Rastafarian religion and praxis. Some may even use the mis- Dieye, Cheikh Abdoulaye. 1997. Healing of America. Vacoas: reaction to imagery that many have mistakenly assumed taken identity to their economic advantage. The late T. K. Mauritius Printing Specialists. characterizes all of Islamic history was the product of a com- Biaya (2002:346) described these "Baye Faux" with acerbity, Diouf, Mamadou. 1990. Le Kajoorau XIXe siecle: Pouvoirceddo plex history of interaction between early Muslims and the suggesting that "these epicureans of poverty deck themselves et contquetecoloniale. Paris: Eds. Karthala. Christians and Jews in whose midst Islam arose. For a useful out in the attributes of real Baye Falls who beg for alms but Diouf, Saliou Demanguy. 1999 Lesarts plastiquescontemporains bibliography see Freedberg 1989:451, fn. 4; Hirt 1993: 220-23; hide their mendicity by joining Baye Fallism with Rasta- du Senegal.Paris: Presence Africaine. and Schimmel 1994:34. farianism." Indeed, Papisto has created images of Bob Marley Diouf, Sylviane. 1998. Servantsof Allah:African Muslimts Enslaved 11. It is by no means a coincidence that this same moment wearing the image of Sheikh Ibra Fall, to assert the opposite in the Americas.New York:New YorkUniversity Press. gave birth to vibrant rap and hip-hop in Wolof, inspired by relationship-that Rastas may become Baye Falls so as to Dumont, Ferand. 1975. La pensee religieused'Anadou Bamra. music from the United States (Benga 2002; Mbodji 2002), or benefit from the blessings of Bamba. Dakar: Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines. that other subversive forms of expression emerged then and Ebong, Ima. 1991. "Negritude: Between Mask and Flag. Sene- cited continue to develop at an accelerating pace, ranging from References galese Cultural Ideology and the 'lcole de Dakar,'" in Africa popular dance to new forms of dress and modes of adorn- Abiodun, Rowland. 1990. "The Future of African Art Studies: Explores: 20th Century AfricantArt, ed. Susan Vogel, pp. ment (Biaya 2002). See Repetti (1999) and Mustafa (2001) on An African Perspective," in African Art Studies:The State of 198-209. Munich: Prestel for the Center for African Art, the creation of new topographies for the urban imaginaries of the Discipline (no stated editor), pp. 63-89. Washington, DC: New York. Dakar; and the essays and photomontages of the issue of National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution. El Fadl, Khaled Abou. 2001a. Speakingin God'sNamen: Islamic Iil(, RevueNoire called "Africa Urbis" (Mulin 1999) for other cases Anonymous. 1999. Expositiond'oeuvres d'art du 24 au 25 juin Authorityand Women.Oxford (UK):Oneworld Publications. on the continent. 1999, Sofitel Teranga.Dakar: Lions Club Dakar Flamboyant. El Fadl, Khaled Abou. 2001b. Atid God Knou,sthe Soldiers:Tire 12. Muslim contributions to early colonial life in the Americas Ba, Oumar. 1979. Ahmadou Bambaface aux autorites colonials Authoritative anld Authoritariant in Islamic Discorurses. are a subject of current study; see Gomez 1998 and 1994, and (1889-1927). Dakar: Imprimerie de la SIPS. Washington, DC: University Press of America. Turer 1997, for discussion and relevant bibliography. Babou, Cheikh Anta. 2002. "BrotherhoodSolidarity, Education Ernst, Carl. 1997. Sufism: An Essential Initroductionto tIre 13. The history of Senegalese photography has received little and Migration: The Role of the Dahiras among the Murid Philosophyand Practiceof theMystical Tradition of Islam.Boston: attention within Senegal itself (although see Thiobane & Muslim Community of New York,"African Affairs 101,151-70. Shambala. Wade 1999) or from expatriate scholars (but see Buckley Bamba, Amadou. n.d. Jaawartou.Translated from Arabic to Fabian, Johannes. 1996. Rememberingthe Present:Painting atnd 2001). The recent annotated bibliography of Massimo French by Papa K. Seck. Dakar: Lamp Fall Dabo. the PopularHistory of Zaire.Berkeley: University of California Zaccaria (2001) suggests the paucity of materials specifically Barry,Boubakar. 1998. Senegambiaand the Atlantic Slave Trade. Press. about Senegal and the richness of literature concerning other New York:Cambridge University Press. Faris, James. 1992. "Photography, Power and the Southern parts of Africa and the continent more generally. Attention to Barthes,Roland. 1991. 'The PhotographicMessage," in A Barthes Nuba," in Anthropologyanid Photography, 1860-1920, ed. E. early Senegalese postcards for a French audience is an excep- Reader,ed. Susan Sontag, pp. 194-210. New York:Hill & Wang. Edwards, pp. 211-17. New Haven: Yale University Press. tion; for a review and bibliography, see Prochaska 1991, and Baudrillard, Jean. 1983. Simulations.New York:Semiotext(e). Foster, Hal. 1988. "Preface," in Vision and Visuality, ed. Hal on studio photography in west Africa, see Werner 1996. Baudrillard, Jean. 1994. Simulacraand Simulation,Ann Arbor: Foster, pp. ix-xiv. DIA Art Foundation "Discussions in Con- 14. Similar metaphors abound in Sufism outside of Senegal, for University of Michigan Press. temporary Culture" 2. Seattle: Bay Press. "the mirror (mazhar)of signs reflects the visible and announces Belting, Hans. 1994. Likenessand Presence.Chicago: University Freedberg,David. 1989. ThePoiter of Images:Studies in theHistory the invisible," while the speculation that Sufism encourages of Chicago Press. and Tlheoryof Response.Chicago: University of Chicago Press. "consists of polishing the mirror of the soul" (Hirt 1993:39, 64). Benga, Ndiouga. 2002. "Dakar et ses tempos: Significations et Gadio, Cheikh Ahmadou. 2001. "Sons et rythmes en milieu 15. Memory and the making of history in central African soci- enjeux de la musique urbaine modeme (c. 1960-annees Baay Faal," Touba:Bimestriel islamique d'informations gerinrales, eties have been explicit topics of our previous research, writ- 1990),"in Le Senegalcontemporain, ed. Momar-Coumba Diop, d'analyseset de reflexions9:30. ing, and exhibitions; see Roberts & Roberts 1996. pp. 289-308. Paris: Eds. Karthala. Geertz, Clifford. 1979. "Religionas a CulturalSystem," in Rcader 16. The history and bibliography of Amadou Bamba's life are Benjamin, Walter.1988. Illuminations,ed. Hannah Arendt. New accessibly presented in Babou 2002, Barry 1998, M. Diouf York:Random House. 1990, Hamoneau 1998, Klein 1998, Robinson 2000, Searing Biaya, T. K. 1998. "Le pouvoir ethnique-concept, lieux de 2002, Sy 1969, and Villal6n 1995. Broad but somewhat dated pouvoir et pratiques contre l'Etat dans la modernite STATEMENTOFOWNERSHIP views are also available in such works as Cruise O'Brien 1971, africaine:Analyse comparee des Mourides (Senegal) et Luba Statementof ownership,management and circulation(Required by Copans 1988, and Creevey 1970. Important hagiographies of (Congo-Zaire),"Anthropologie et Societes22, 1:105-35. 39 U.S.C.3685) Amadou Bamba include Mbacke 1995 and Wade 1991. Biaya, T. K. 2002. "Culture du loisir et culture politique," in Le 1. Publicationtitle: African Arts 17.Jihad is "struggle"and by no means necessarilyrefers to "holy Senegalcontemporain, ed. Momar-Coumba Diop, pp. 341-52. 2. Publicationno. 0001-9933 for a of reductionistEurocentric of Paris: Eds. Karthala. war"; critique understanding 3. Filingdate: 12/16/02 this term, see El Fadl 2001b. Debra. 1991. "Mouridism in Fiction," signal Boyd-Buggs, Senegalese 4. Issuefrequency: Quarterly (spring, summer, autumn, winter), 18. In later Bamba collaborated with the French in Faces of Islam in African Literature,ed. Kenneth Harrow, years actively 5. No. of issues publishedannually: 4. colonial agenda, but David Robinson cautions that Bamba or pp. 201-14. Portsmouth (NH): Heinemann. 6. Annualsubscription price: $48. others who acted similarly should not be dismissed "as 'sell Bravmann, Rene. 2000. "Islamic Art and Material Culture in 7. address of knownoffice of The outs,' to a into 'resistors' and 'collabo- Africa,"in The of Islamin eds. Nehemia Levtzion Completemailing publication: according polarization History Africa, James S. ColemanAfrican Studies Center,10363 Bunche Hall, rators,' but rather [they] should be seen as persons who sized and Randall Pouwels, pp. 489-517. Athens (OH): Ohio Uni- Universityof CaliforniaLos Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1310. up their historical contexts and chose their options in rational versity Press. 8. Completemailing address of the headquartersor generalbusiness (Robinson 1997:156). Brilliant,Richard. 1990. "Portraits:A RecurrentGenre in World ways" officesof the publisher:James S. ColemanAfrican Studies Center, 19. Fruitful can be drawn with the genre Art," in Likeness and Portraits Africa and the comparison paintings Beyond: from 10363Bunche Hall, University of CaliforniaLos Angeles, Los Angeles, of Tshibumba Kanda Matulu and other Zairian (now Con- World,by Jean Borgatti and RichardBrilliant, pp. 10-27. New CA90095-1310. artists of the 1970s. Tshibumba York:The Center for African Art. golese) early painted many 9. Fullnames and complete mailing address of publisher,editor, and of as "reminders"of heroic moments in a certain Liam. 2001. "Self and in Gambian Studio copies images Buckley, Accessory managingeditor: Publisher: Allen F Roberts,The James S. Coleman These are known as ukum- Visual Review 2:71-91. history of southeastern Zaire. works Photography," Anthropology 16, AfricanStudies Center, 10363 Bunche Hall, University of California busho,a Swahili term that Johannes Fabian translates as "a qual- Callaway,Barbara, and Lucy Creevey. 1994. TheHeritage of Islam: LosAngeles, Los Angeles CA 90095-1310. Managing editor: None. of memories" that "circumscribes not and Politics in West Boulder ity capable triggering Women,Religion, Africa. (CO): 10. Owner:Regents of the Universityof California,405 Hilgard,Los only the function (purpose, intent) of genre painting but also Lynne Reiner Pubs. Angeles, CA 90095. for such works were Edward. 1987. "Place in A Phe- what could be called its semantic domain," Casey, Memory," Remembering: 11. Knownbondholders, mortgagees, and other securityholders created "to support rhetoric and oral performance" (1996:195, nomenologicalStudy by Edward Casey, pp. 181-215. Bloom- owningor holding1 percentor moreof totalamount of bonds,mort- 198). Of particular importance is the way that memories trig- ington: Indiana University Press. gages or othersecurities: None. gered by Tshibumba's paintings "are significant to the extent Cham, Mbye. 1991. "Islamin Senegalese Literatureand Film,"in 12. Thepurpose, function, and nonprofitstatus of thisorganization that they comment on the present" (Fabian 1996:217;see also Faces of Islam in AfricanLiterature, ed. Kenneth Harrow, pp. and the exemptstatus for federalincome tax purposeshave not Jewsiewicki 1999). 163-86. Portsmouth (NH): Heinemann. changedduring preceding 12 months. 20. Direct and indirect quotes are from the artists and other Chebel, Malek. 1995. Dictionnairedes symbolsmusulmans: Rites, 13. Publicationtitle: African Arts. Mourides who participated in our research from 1994 to 2002. mystiqueet civilization.Paris: Albin Michel. 14.Issue date for circulation data below: Spring 2002 (Vol.XXXV No. 1). have been translated from Wolof to French Stanislaw. 1973. in Some interviews Chojnacki, "Ethiopian Paintings," Religious 15. Extentand natureof circulation:Average number of copies each by Ousmane Gueye, and from French to English by the Art of Ethiopia,ed. W. Raunig, pp. 34-65. Stuttgart: Institut issue duringpreceding 12 months,actual number of copies of sin- authors or by Gassia Armenian. We wish to stress that the fur Auslandsbeziehungen. gle issue publishednearest to filingdate: A. Totalnumber of copies Saint in the City book and exhibition are focused upon the CIR (Committee on International Relations), U.S. House of printed:7000; 7000. B. Paid and/or requested circulation:(1) voices and practices of the few Mouride artists and other per- Representatives. 2000. "Annual Report, International Re- Paid/requestedoutside-county mail subscriptions stated on Form sons with whom we have had the privilege to work, and ligious Freedom 1999 in Accordance with Section 102 of the 3541: 2095;2054. (2) Paid in-countysubscriptions: 104; 97. (3) readers should not assume that we have spoken with or are InternationalReligious Freedom Act of 1998,"Feb., pp. 69-70. Sales throughdealers and carriers,street vendors, counter sales, andother non-USPS Otherclasses speaking for all Mourides. Coote, Jeremy, and Anthony Shelton. 1994. "Introduction," in paiddistribution: 2208; 2229. (4) mailed the USPS:641; 581. C. Total and/or 21. The wall of images reveals another aspect of Mouride Anthropology,Art and Aesthetics, eds. JeremyCoote and Anthony through paid requested circulation:5048; 4961. D. Freedistribution by mail,samples, com- revealed to us over the course of the nine years of Shelton,pp. 1-11. New York:Oxford University Press. artistry, and otherfree (1) Outside-countyas statedon research to the "Saint in the exhibition. Jean.1988. Lesmarabouts de l'Arachide: La confrerie mouride plimentary, copies: leading City" Every Copans, Form3541: 0; 0. (2) as statedon Form3541: 0, 0. (3) Other time we visited we found in new and et les du Paris:L'Harmattan. In-county Dakar, images media, paysans Senegal. classes mailedthrough the USPS:0, 0. E. Freedistribution outside at the same time, we would not see images of the sorts that we Cornell, Vincent. 1998.. Realmof the Saint: Power and Authority the mail:320; 303. F Totalfree distribution: 320, 303. G. Totaldistri- had encountered on previous visits. Many Mourides partici- in MoroccanSufism. Austin: University of Texas Press. bution:5368; 5264. H. Copies not distributed:1632; 1736. I. Total: pate in the informal economy of the "invisible city," and must Coulon, Christian.1985. "Prophetsof God or of History?Muslim 7000;7000. Percentpaid and/or requested circulation: 94%, 94% use their ingenuity to survive (A. Roberts 1996). New ideas Messianic Movements and Anti-Colonialism in Senegal" in 16. Statementof Ownershipwill be printedin the Winter2002, Vol. are gifts from the Saint, as are the sales that may result. TheoreticalExplorations in African Religion,eds. W. van Bins- XXXVNo.4, issue of thispublication. & Resilience and self-reliance are qualities of Bamba's life that bergen and M. Schoffeleers,pp. 346-66. London: Routledge 17. I certifythat the statementsmade by me aboveare correctand Mourides especially cherish. Kegan Paul. complete.(Signed) Allen F Roberts,editor. 22. Our neologism "imagorium" might be applied to other Creevey (Behrman),Lucy. 1970. Muslim Brotherhoodsatnd Politics 94 africanarts ? winter2002 in ComnparativeReligion, eds. W. Lessa and E. Vogt, 4th ed., pp. 78-89. New York:Harper & Row. Gell, Alfred. 1994. "The Technology of Enchantment and the En- chantment of Technology," in Anlthropolotgy,Alt and Aesthetics, eds. Jeremy Coote and Anthony Shelton, pp. 40-63. New York:Oxford University Press. contributors Gomez, Michael. 1994. "Muslims in Early America," Journalof Sotthern History 60, 671-710. Gomez, Michael. 1998. ExchangingOur CountryMatks: The Trans- formlation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum Southt.Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. articles Grabar,Oleg. 1987. TheFo rnationiof IslamicArt. Revised and en- larged edition. New Haven: Yale Press. University KATRINADLER studied cultural and in Grabar,Oleg. 2002. Mostly Miniattrles:Anl Introduction to Persian anthropology Hispanic literature Munich and Paris. She Painting. Princeton: Princeton University Press. was an assistant in the Europe and Africa departments in the Ethnologisches Museum Berlin Grabski, Joanna. Forthcoming. "Dakar's Urban Landscapes: before becoming an editor in the Bertelsmann media group in Munich. Locating Modern Art and Artists in the City," AfiicaniArts. Hamoneau, Didier. 1998. Vie et du CheikhAhmnadou eniseignement SIDNEY LITTLEFIELDKASFIR divides her time between where she teaches and Bambna,fondateurde la voiesoufie niouride. Beirut: Les Editions Al- Atlanta, Bouraq. curates African art at Emory University, and northern Kenya, where since 1992 she has studied Harney, Elizabeth. 1996. "A Legacy of Negritude: A History of and participated in Samburu pastoralist arts and encounters with modernity. She is also Dialogue Visual Arts in Ph.D. disserta- Post-Independence Senegal." editor and a consulting editor of African Arts. tion, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Heath, Deborah. 1990. "Fashion,Anti-Fashion, and Heteroglossia KWAMEA. LABI is a research fellow in art history at the University of Ghana, Legon. He is also in Urban Senegal," American Ethinologist19, 1:19-33. curator of the ethnographic museum at the Institute of African Studies, University of Legon, and Heath, Deborah. 1994. "The Politics of Appropriateness and teaches African museum in a course in collection at the Women's Dance in Urban professionals postgraduate management Appropriation: Recontextualizing for Museum in Senegal," AmericanEthnologist 21, 1:88-103. Programme Development Africa (PMDA), Mombasa, Kenya. Hirt, Jean-Michel.1993. Lemiroir du Prophete:Psychanalyse et Islam. Palis: Bernard Grasset. ALLEN F. ROBERTS is a professor in the Department of World Arts and Cultures and director of Hiskett, Mervyn. 1994. TheCourse of Islamini Africa.Edinburgh: the James S. Coleman African Studies Center at UCLA. He is also an editor of African Arts. His Press. Edinburgh University current research includes consideration of visual arts in AIDS-awareness activities in southern Huchard, Ousmane Sow. 1994. Viye Diba: Plasticien de I'eiivi- ronnement. Saint-Amand-Montrond (France): SEPIA Eds.- Africa and Suriname. NEAS. Jewsiewicki, Bogumil. 1996. "Presentation," Caiiers d'Etudes MARY NOOTER ROBERTS is deputy director and chief curator of the UCLA Fowler Museum africaines36, 1-2:7-24. of Cultural History. Her current research includes of the visual of Jewsiewicki, Bogumil. 1999. "Congolese Memories of comparative study pieties peo- Lumumba: Between Culture Hero and Humanity's Re- ple living in Mauritiusand Reunion who are devoted to the Senegalese Sufi saint Sheikh Amadou deemer," in A Congo Clhronicle:Patiice Lumumnbain UrbanArt, Bamba or to the Indian saint Shirdi Sai Baba. She is also an editor of African Arts. ed. B. Jewsiewicki, pp. 72-92. New York: The Museum for African Art. CHRISTOPHERSLOGAR is a Ph.D. candidate in the of Art and Kane, Ousmane, and Jean-Louis Triaud. 1998. "Introduction," Department History Archaeology in Islanmet islamismes au sud dl Sahara,eds. Ousmane Kane at the University of Maryland, specializing in the arts of southern Nigeria. His dissertation, based and Jean-Louis Triaud, pp. 5-30. Paris: Khartala. on fieldwork conducted in the Calabar region, focuses on a group of terracotta vessels and fig- Klein, Martin. 1998. anid Colonial Rule in French West Slavery urines recovered during archaeological investigations conducted jointly by the Nigerian National Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press. Kratz, Corinne. 2002. The Onies That Are Wanted: Communli- Commission for Museums and Monuments and the University of Maryland. cation and the Politics of Representationiin a Photographic Exhibition.Berkeley: University of California Press. CHRISTINESTELZIG studied culturalanthropology, modern history,and African history in Munich Kunzle, David. 1997. Che Guevara:Icon, Myth, and Message. Los and Paris as well as Leipzig, where she received her Ph.D. She has been an assistant at the ethno- UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural Angeles: History. museums in Munich Paris Levtzion, Nehemia. 2000. "Islam in the Bilad al-Sudan to graphic (1985-89), (1991-92), and Berlin (1994-2002) and is now work- 1800," in TheHistory of Islam in Africa,eds. Nehemia Levtzion ing in the Generaldirektion of the State Museums of Berlin. Dr. Stelzig is also an independent and Randall Pouwels, pp. 62-91. Athens (OH): Ohio Univer- curator of African art exhibitions. Her current project is a publication about the African art collec- Press. sity tion of the German artist Georg Baselitz. Marty, Paul. 1917. Etudes sur'Islam au Seiegal. 2 vols. Paris: Ernest Leroux. Mbacke, Bachir (Bassirou). 1995. Les bieiifaits de I'Eternel, ou la biographie de Clheikh Ahmadou Bam17baMbiacke. Dakar: Imprimerie Saint-Paul. departments Mbodji, Mamadou. 2002. "Le Senegal entre ruptures et muta- tions: Citoyennetes en construction," in Le Senegal conten- SARAH ADAMS is an assistant in the School of Art and Obermann porain, ed. Momar-Coumba Diop, pp. 575-600. Paris: Eds. professor History Center Karthala. Scholar at the Universityof Iowa. Her research has focused on uli painting in Southeastern Nigeria. Mitchell, W. J. T. 1994. Picture Theory. Chicago: University of Press. Chicago BARRY HALLEN is a professor of and chair of the of and David. 1998. Visual A and philosophy Department Philosophy Morgan, Piety: History Theory of at Morehouse He is also a fellow of the W.E.B. Du Bois Harvard Popular Religious Images. Berkeley: University of California Religion College. Institute, University. Press. Mulin, Amede (ed.). 1999. "African Urbis," a themed issue of CHIKA OKEKE, an artist and independent curator, is a doctoral candidate in art history at Retvie Noire 31. Emory University. Mustafa, Hudita Nura. 2001. "Ruins and Spectacles: Fashion and Life in Nka: City Contemporary Senegal," Journal of PHILIP M. PEEK is a of at Drew and a fel- ContemporaryAfrica11 Airt 15 (winter): 47-53. professor anthropology University currently visiting Nasr, Seyyid Hossein. 1987. Islamic Art and Spirituality. low at the Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, University of East Anglia. Most recently, with Martha Albany: State University of New York Press. Anderson, he co-curated "The Ways of the Rivers: Arts and Environment of the Niger Delta" at 2002. "Une minorite Ndiaye, Augustin. confessionnelle dans the UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural and co-edited the associated book. 1'Etat laic: Point de vue d'un chretien," in Le Snlegal con- History temporain, ed. Momar-Coumba Diop, pp. 601-16. Paris: Eds. Karthala. CONSTANTINE PETRIDIS is an assistant curator of African art at the Cleveland Museum of Art N'Dour, Youssou. 1994. "Mame Bamba," The Guide (Wommat), and an assistant professor of art history at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland. He is disc, track4. New York:Chaos Columbia compact Recordings, the overseas exhibition review editor and a consulting editor of African Arts. Records, Sony Music Entertainment. Needham, Rodney. 1972. Belief, and Language, Experienice. VICTORIA is Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ROVINE curatorof Africanart at the Universityof Iowa Museum of Art. Her work on tex- Nelson, Robert (ed.). 2000. Visuality before and beyond the tiles includes research in Malion the contemporary use of bogolan, or mudcloth, and more recently a Renaissance.New York: Press. Cambridge University focus on fashion design. She is also the authorof Bogolon: Shaping Culturethrough Cloth in Contem- NPR (National Public 1998. on President Bill Radio). Report Mali Institution and a editorof AfricanArts. Clinton's visit to Senegal in April. porary (Smithsonian Press, 2001) consulting OED (Oxford English Dictionary). 1982. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. 2 vols. New York: Oxford REAGAN M. STREET is currently completing her thesis to receive her M.A. in African area stud- University Press. ies at UCLA. Onishi, Norimitsu. 2002. "Senegalese Loner Works to Build Africa, His New YorkTimes, 10, A3. Way," April p. HARRY G. WEST is an assistant of in the Graduate at the New Parker, Ann, and Avon Neal. 1995. Hajj Paintings: Folk Art of professor anthropology Faculty the Great Pilgrimtage.Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institu- School University. He has conducted research in Mozambique since 1991. tion P'ress. Pinney, Christopher. 1997. CamteraIidica: The SocialLife of Indian Photographs.Chicago: University of Chicago Press. winter 2002 african arts 95 Triaud, Jean-Louis. 1988. "Khalwa and the Career of Sainthood: Arts 33, 2:81-82. An Interpretive Essay," in Charismaand Brotherhoodin African Falgayrettes, Christiane (ed.). 1988. Art et mythologie:Figures $1.20 per word, minimum $30. African Arts box number $15. Islam, eds. Donal Cruise O'Brien and Christian Coulon, pp. tshokwe.Paris: Editions Dapper. 53-66. New York:Oxford Press. Classified ads must be prepaid. University Jordan, Manuel. 1998. "Mukandaand Makishi: Male Initiation Triaud, Jean-Louis. 2000. "Islam in Africa under French Rule," and the Context for Masks in Zambia," in Makishi Iya in The History of Islam in Africa, eds. Nehemia Levtzion and Zambia:Mask Characters of the Upper Zambezi Peoples," BOOKS Randall Pouwels, pp. 169-87. Athens (OH): Ohio University by Marc Leo Felix and Manuel Jordan, pp. 85-125. Munich: Press. Fred African,ethnographic, and ancient art. Important, Verlag Jahn. Turner, Richard. 1997. Islam in the African American Experience. Lima, Mesquitela. 1967. Os akixi (mascarados) do Nordeste de rare, and out-of-print titles bought and sold. Indiana Press. Lisbon: Museu do Dundo available Bloomington: University Angola. (PublicaSoes Culturais Catalogues upon request. Furtherde- Villalon, Leonardo. 1995. Islamic Society and State Power in da Companhia de Diamantes de Angola, 70). tails from: Michael Graves-Johnston, 54, Stock- Senegal:Disciples and Citizens in Fatick.New York:Cambridge Petridis, Constantine. 2001. "Chokwe Masks and Franciscan well Park Road, P.O. Box 532, London SW9 ODR. University Press. Missionaries in Sandoa, Belgian Congo, ca. 1948," Anthro- Tel. 0171-274-2069, fax 0171-738-3747. Wade, Madike. 1991. Destinee du Mouridisme.Dakar: C6te West pos 96:3-28. Informatique. Wallis, William, and Nim Casswell. 2000. "Beacon of Hope AFRICANARTS BACK ISSUES Shrines Bright in a Troubled Region," FinancialTimes supple- List of article titles and back-issue order form: ment on Senegal, Nov. 13. Werner, Jean-Francois. 1996. "Produire des images en Afrique: AfricanArts, UCLA,PO Box 951310, Los Angeles, des L'exemple photographes de studio," Cahiers d'etudes ADVERTISER INDEX CA 90095-1310. africaines36, 1-2:81-112. Westerlund, David, and Eva Rosander (eds.). 1997. AfricanIslam and Islam in Africa: Encounters Between Sufis and Islamists. Athens [OH]: Ohio University Press. Wyschogrod, Edith. 1990. Saints and Postmodernism.Chicago: Aboriginals,Art of the FirstPerson, University of Chicago Press. Sanibel Island, FL 80 Prochaska,David. 1991. "Fantasiaof the Phototheque:French Post- Zaccaria, Massimo. 2001. Photography and African Studies: A card Views of Colonial Senegal," AfricanArts 24, 4:40-47, 98. Bibliography. Pavia (Italy): Dept. of Political and Social Renaudeau, Michel, and Michele Strobel. 1984. Peinture sous Studies, University of Pavia. Joan Barist PrimitiveArt, Short Hills, NJ 9 verre du Senegal. Paris: Eds. Fernand Nathan. Repetti, Massimo. 1999. "Segnare la citta," Africae Mediterraneo African New NY 8 1, 19-21. KASFIR: Notes, from page 77 Contemporary Art, York, Roberts, Allen F. 1992. "Chance Encounters, Ironic Collage," Arts 25, 2:54-63, 97-98. 1. For details about the venues for "The Short African Century," I Douglas Dawson, Chicago, IL 3 Roberts, Allen F. 1996. "The Ironies of System D," in Recycled, have drawn upon comments by Chika Okeke, one of its co- Re-Seen: Folk Art from the Global Scrap Heap, eds. C. Cerny curators, and the discussion he led at a graduate student sem- and S. Seriff, pp. 82-101. New York: Harry Abrams for The inar in the Department of Art History at Emory University in Die Galerie, Munich,Germany 6 Museum of International Folk Art, Santa Fe. April 2002. Roberts, Mary Nooter, and Allen F. Roberts. 1996. Memory: 2. It took my colleague and Artforumcritic James Meyer three Luba Art and the Making of History. Munich: Prestel for The days to view the entire show meticulously. The process includ- Ethnix,New York,NY 4 Museum for African Art, New York. ed a significant amount of time watching videos. Roberts, Allen F., and Nooter Roberts. 2000a. 3. I am this review in but it is Mary "Papisto writing August 2002, likely to Galerie Switzerland outside back Boy" (Portfolio), African Arts 33, 2:72-79, 92. be after it has shown in Nairobi and its Walu, Zurich, published during cover Roberts, Mary Nooter, and Allen F. Roberts. 2000b. "Dis- Kampala run. playing Secrets: Visual Piety in Senegal," in Visuality Before 4. Once again one must make an exception of South Africa and the Renaissance, ed. Robert 224-51. with its white-dominated and Beyond Nelson, pp. Western-style institutional Gallery DeRoche, San Francisco, CA 80 New York: Cambridge University Press. base. Roberts, Allen F, and Mary Nooter Roberts. 2003a. A Saint in 5. Johanna Agthe has since informed me that the second the City: Sufi Arts of Urban Senegal. Seattle: University of painting will be pulled from the show before it travels. Charles S. Greco 81 Washington Press for the UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural 6. The show's premise is that the nationalist and indepen- History. dence movements in Africa were the main vehicle for the Roberts, Allen, and Mary Nooter Roberts. 2003b. "Music and emergence of modernism in the arts (a powerful idea but one HamillGallery of AfricanArt, Boston, MA 11 'Ontological Memory' among Senegalese Sufis," in Music, which might not always stand up to close scrutiny). Religion, and Ritual in Africa, ed. D. London: 7. Arts to review exhibitions and Avorgbedor. African prefers catalogues Judith Harris,Hermosa Beach, CA 5 Edwin Mellen Press. separately. But perhaps because I've also seen the show in Robinson, David. 1991. "Beyond Resistance and Collaboration: Frankfurt, talked with Johanna Agthe about it while there, Amadu Bamba and the Murids of Senegal," Journalof African and have curated a Katarikawe show myself at the begin- Hemingway AfricanGallery, New York,NY 11 Religion 21, 2:149-71. ning of his and my career, I have found it especially difficult Robinson, David. 1997. "An Emerging Pattern of Cooperation to compartmentalize the catalogue as an isolated piece of Between Colonial Authorities and Muslim Societies in Senegal sclolarship. I see "Dreaming in Pictures" as a project in- Indigo, Minneapolis, MN 4 and Mauritania,"in Le tempsdes marabouts:Itineraires et strate- stead, which was realized jointly through the exhibition and gies islamiquesen Afriqueoccidentalefranpaise v. 1880-1960, eds. the catalogue. InternationalWarri New NY 81 David Robinson and Jean-LouisTriaud, pp. 155-80. Paris:Eds. 8. "We have restricted our editing work to correcting errors Society, York, Khartala. and omitting repetitions" (p. 10). Robinson, David. 2000. Paths Accommodation:Muslim Societies 9. There are three dates for Bibi Arusi: ca. of actually given 1965, Charles Jones AfricanArt, Wilmington, NC 11 and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, ca. 1966 (both p. 105), and in the caption, ca. 1970 (p. 106). 1880-1920. Athens (OH): Ohio University Press. 10. Ndabagoye's very promising career as a printmaker came Rush, Dana. 1999. "Eternal Potential: Chromolithographs in to an abrupt end when he became involved in a crime of pas- Susan Lerer,Images of Culture,Los Angeles, CA 5 Vodunland," African Arts 32, 4:60-75, 94-96. sion and was imprisoned. Savishinsky, Neil. 1994. "The Baye Faal of Senegambia: Muslim Rastas in the Promised Land?" Africa64, 2:211-17. Charles D. MillerIII, St. James, NY 7 Searing, James. 2002. "GodAlone Is King":Islam and Emancipation PETRIDIS: Notes, from page 84 in Senegal.The and Bawol, 1859-1914. WolofKingdoms of Kajoor Carl G. Moller 81 Portsmouth (NH): Heinemann. 1. Jordan was recently appointed Curator of the Arts of Shah, Idries. 1990. The Sufis. New York: Anchor Books. Africa, Oceania, and the Americas at the Iris and B. Gerald Annemarie. 1975. Dimensions Islam. Schimmel, Mystical of Cantor Center for Visual Arts at Stanford University. Museum for AfricanArt, Long Island City, Hill: of North Carolina Press. 2. Chapel University Considering the catalogue's central theme of initiation, it is Queens, NY 7 Schimmel, Annemarie. 1994. Deciphering the Signs of God: A striking that the succinct bibliography in Chokwe!does not list PhenomenologicalApproach to Islam. Albany: State University the articles by Marie-Louise Bastin (1990) and Hermann of New York Press. Baumann (1932), which are undoubtedly two of the most Ornament,San Marcos, CA inside back cover Shohat, Ella, and Robert Stam. 1998. "Narrativizing Visual extensive and nuanced writings on that subject. Another Culture: Towards a Polycentric Aesthetics," in The Visual invaluable publication on Chokwe art to which surprisingly Culture Reader,ed. Nicholas Mirzoeff, pp. 27-49. New York: no reference is made is Mesquitela Lima's Os akixi (mascara- Pace Primitive,New York,NY inside frontcover Routledge. dos) do Nordeste de Angola (1967). Of course, one suspects that Sontag, Susan. 1990. On Photography. New York: Doubleday these sources are referred to in the contributors' unpublished Anchor Books. dissertations. MertonD. Simpson Gallery,New York,NY 1 Starrett, Gregory. 1995. "The Political Economy of Religious 3. This photograph was published with a detailed caption in Commodities in Cairo," AmericanAnthropologist 97,1:51-68. Jordan's contribution to a book he co-authored with Marc Leo Tawa, New York,NY 8 Stoichita, Victor. 1997. A Short History of the Shadow.London: Felix (Jordan 1998:120, fig. IV/28). Reaktion Books. cited Strobel-Baginski, Michele. 1982. "L'Imagerie religieuse au References Totem Meneghelli Galleries, Johannesburg, Senegal." Third-cycle doctoral thesis in Social Sciences, Bastin, Marie-Louise. 1990. "Die Initiationsriten mukandaund South Africa 5 Universite des Sciences Humaines de Strasbourg, France. mungonge der Tshokwe (Angola)," in Mdinnerbande,Manner- Sy, Cheikh Tidiane. 1969. La confreriesenegalaise des Mourides. biinde: Zur Rolle des Mannes im Kulturvergleich, eds. Gisela Paris: Presence Africaine. Volger and Karin von Welck, vol. 1, pp. 315-26. Cologne: TribalReality, New York,NY 4 Thiobane, M. and B. D. Wade. 1999. "Une longue histoire: La Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum. photographie est presente au Senegal depuis bientot un Baumann, Hermann. 1932. "Die Mannbarkeitsfeiern bei den KathyVanderpas * Steven Vanderaadt, siecle et demi," Nouvel Horizon, L'Hebdo du Vendredi 193, TSokwe (N.O. Angola; Westafrika) und ihren Nachbarn." Oct. 29. Baessler-Archiv15:1-54. Rotterdam,Holland 7 Thompson, Robert Farris. 1974. African Art in Motion. Bourgeois, Arthur P. 2000. Review of "Chokwe! Art and Berkeley: University of California Press. Initiation Among Chokwe and Related Peoples," African 96 africanarts * winter2002