CURRENT COMMENTS

The Vegetarian Alternative

~////////////////////////////////////////////////////kk Num~r 11, March 14, 1977 Despite the increasing prices, beef con- iron, For magnesium, meat is a Poorer sumption in the United States has con- source than cocoa, nuts, , whole tinued to rise. In 1940 the average beef in- , and leafy green .4 Ac- take per person was 55 pounds, in 1960 cording to Professor Fredrick Stare, head the average was 190 pounds, and in 1970 of the Department of Nutrition at Har- ir was 236 pounds. 1 For the next quarter vard University, even vitamin A, which is of a century, moreover, the meat industry a naturally-occurring substance in various expects this figure to increase, Their pre- animal products, could be obtained with- diction is based on the assumption that as out eating meat. He asserted that “about a person’s material well-being increases, 60% of our vitamin A intake comes from his or her ‘‘predilection to increase the in- carotene, which is a pigment, out of which take of animal ” increases. 2 we make vitamin A in our bodies. ”j And the meat industry may be correct. To most people food is a matter of habit The meat industry has successfully fos- and taste, and is not eaten strictly for its tered the notion that only “good red nutritional quality, Meat is eaten partly meat” can supply the essential minerals because it tasres good; and it is the fat that and vitamins to our bodies, and so a meat- gives meat its taste. Along with fat, meat centered diet became a sign of prosperity. supplies a large amount of cholesterol to It is not true, however, that only red the body. Dr. Gerald Combs, director of meat can supply the nutritional require- rhe Nutrition Program at NIH, indicates ments of the body. In fact, with the excep- that both of these substances may be dan- tion of vitamin B12, which can be ob- gerous. He says that, “From the work tained from all dairy products,3 non-meat that’s been done so far--highly suggestive sources provide a very substantial amount but not yet proven--there is certainly a cor- of the necessary vitamins and minerals, relation between the level of saturated fat Most of our calcium is supplied by non- and cholesterol in blood and heart meat foods: good sources are foods disease.”6 such as collards, turnip greens, and let- Professor Stare concurs, adding that, tuce. Although meat is an adequate source “Most Americans would probably be in for potassium, the baked potato and lima better health if they consumed less meat. are better. Iron can be obtained in Americans probably average between 10- nearly equal amounts from animal pro- 12 oz. of meat per day. If that meat intake ducts such as eggs, milk, and cheese; was cut in half, most Americans would various seeds and nuts contain abundant probably be in better health, primaril-y

61 because of less saturated fat. ” 5 tion. That is, if a person were m eat To a vegetarian, food is more than protein containing enough lysine to satisfy simply habit or taste: it is a way of life. 1000/. of the body’s requirement, and The aims of the vegetarian’s lifestyle are another 100VO of the valine level, but only threefold; to eliminate meat from the diet >OO/. of the tryptophan needed, then the but still obtain the nutritional require- body only urilizes >OO/. of the total protein ments of the body, the alleviation of the ingested. These 8 acids, when properly world food crisis, and the contribution to combined, form a single utilizable protein the furtherance of ‘bioethics’ --regarding unit. the conservation of wild life, agriculture, protein foods of animal origin (eggs, and natural resources. milk, and cheese) contain these 8 amino Vegetarian diets can be of various sorts, acids in abundant amounts. Thus, they some wholly nutritious, others requiring are called ‘‘high-quality protein s.” specific vitamin supplement. The two grains, however, are relatively low in main classes of vegetarian diets may be Iysine, though high in methionine. Thus, based only on plant food sources (total they provide ‘‘lower-quality proteins. ” In vegetarians, orrwgamr) or plant foods plus a single meal, though, if cereal grains were dairy products and eggs (/acto-ovo- combined with such as dried vegetarians). Other classes of vegetarians and peas, which contain Iysine, then include the Iacto-vegetarian, who con- the ‘balance’ would be improved and suf- sumes plant foods plus milk, the fcuit- ficient amounts of methionine ma’ Iysine arian, the herbivore, and the granivore would be supplied,7 (seeds and grains). In comparing meat to plant protein, With the elimination of meat from the two crirerla need to be considered--the diet, other sources of protein must be quantity and quality of protein in the urilized. Only protein supplies rrirrogen, food, For instance, flour is over sulfur, and phosphorus to the body, sub. 400/0 protein. Certain cheeses, such as stances needed to build tissue fiber, and tc Parmesan, are 36% protein. Meat is 20- build tissues such as hair and nails which 300/. protein. Generally, plants rank are continually growing. Protein build: highest in quantity of protein.3 cartilage, tendons, muscles, and bone, However, when the quality (or usability and is the primary ingredient for basic or digestibility) of those same protein chemical reactions in the body. foods are considered, a different story The proteins our bodies use are made 01 emerges. Meats, in terms of protein 22 amino acids. However, of these 22 onl~ quality, range from 65-70%, whereas 8 cannot be synthesized directly by OUJ plant foods rank below meat. (Exceptions bodies, so they must be obtained from may be soybeans and whole , which outside sources. These 8 essential amine approach or top the meat quality value.) acids are Ieucine, tryptophan, Iysine, iso On the average, plant foods rank around leucine, valine, threnonine, methionine 50% “net protein utilization.”3 There- and phenylalaninc. fore, in order to obtain an equal amount The difficulty arises in obtaining these [ of the essential proteins (amino acids) essentials. Our bodies need each of thest from plant foods, as one would obtain 8 simuhaneoudy, and in the right propor from meats, a vegetarian should follow one of several alternatives: to receive an B vitamins.”6 Vitamin supplement to a adequate amount of the 8 essential single diet would be a necessity. amino acids, one should eat large amounts Orherwise, scurvy or beriberi may occur, of lower-quality protein; eat alternate For those reasons, the vegetarian is in a animal-protein sources, such m dairy pro- precarious position because he or she must ducts; or eat a wide variety of plant pro- know which foods contain suffkienr teins which have mutually complementary amounts and ‘‘quality” of protein and amino acid patterns, 3 The best solution vitamins, The vegetarian’s foods must would be to combine a variety of plant :omplement each other in terms of amino foods with dairy products in the same acids. An excellent guide, with recipes, is meal. Frances Moore Lappe’s Diet for u Small The most important nutritional safe- Planet. 3 guard for any vegetarian is variety in the Like the Iacto-vegetarian and the lacto- diet. The greatest risk for a vegetarian ovo-vegetarian, the vegan, or strict vege- comes from undue reliance on any one tarian, can obtain an adequate supply of plant food source. Restricting the variety protein. The vegan, however, faces a very of foods only restricts the variety and real danger in another regard, Unlike the amount of nutrients digested. If, as has Iacto- and Iacto-ovo-vegetarian, the vegan been outlined, certain essential amino does not eat eggs, milk, or cheese, There- acids are left out of the diet, then the fore, a vegan can not obtain vitamin B12, body’s protein requirements are not met. which is found primarily in animal pro- This has been the case with one of the ducts, especially in kidney, liver, and more recent diet-fads, the macrobiotic various seafoods, [t cannot be found in diet. This diet progresses in seven stages, nuts or grains. ~ Consequently, a vegan the elementary stages being fully nutri- must take vitamin B12 for vitamin supple- tious. With each stage, however, certain ment, or drink fortzfied .9 foods arc eliminated until only brown rice A vitamin B 12 deficiency can damage and tea remain. Predictably, there have the nervous system and cause spinal cord been reported cases of &zduor40r--a degeneration. This condition has been re- severe protein malnutrition disease native ferred to as “vegan back. ” 10 A vitamin to North Africa--occurring among macro- B12 deficiency can also lead to the de- biotic dieters and their children. In a study velopment of pernicious anemia because of the physical measurements of vegetar- B12 is necessary for normal blood for- ian infants, macrobiotic children were mation. 11 found to be significantly smaller in size The vitamin B12 deficiency is especially than children of other dietary groups. dangerous in thar it is impossible to detect Measurements inch.rdcd recumbent until the damage has been done--and the length, width, head circumference, tri- damage is irreversible. A vitamin B12 ceps, and subscapular skinfolds. 8 deficiency may go undetected because it Another dangerous diet could be a can be masked in the diet by the intake of single grain diet. Dr. Combs asserts that, folic acid. Combs comments on this prob- ‘‘These are potentially very harmful. A lem: {‘VitaminB12 and folic acid are both cereal grain is seriously lacking in several effective in curing the initial stages of the things, such as vitamin C and some of the anemia problem in humans. If you have a

63 B 12 deficiency and consume higher levels Since vegetarians consume less saturated of fo]ic acid you can have an apparently ‘at and cholesterol rhey may have a les- normal hemoglobin level, and mask the iened chance of developing heart disease. deficiency. And of course a person who persons with beart problems should cer- eats a vegetarian dier consumes leafy green :aitdy cut their meat inrake. And the rrk4 vegetables and obtains folic acid. So you .>fheart attacks can be reduced by sharply can commonly have advanced B12 de- .iecreasing the consumption of foods high ficiencies that are masked by folic acid rhar 10saturated fats and cholesterol, These in- result in secondary neurological lesions .Iudc meats, whole milk, Lrearn, ice thar you don’t spor until they occur, and ream, , lard, heavily hydrogenated they ate irreversible. This can be a lack of ,hoctenings, and . 13 feeling in the fingers or toes. You could Vegetarians often have lower blood stick pins in a person’s back and he pressure simply because they weigh less. wouldn’t feel it. This is what you get in a ‘The decrease in blf ‘ messure is long-term B12 deficiency as a firsr symp- probably correlated more WIL.. being 10 or rom. This condition is known as vegan I> pounds lower in weighr than anything back in the vegan diet because ir’s so ~lse, “> ]11 a Ha~ard srudy, the blood common. You get a lot of folin but no pressure and individual dietary habits of B[J “(~ 210 men and women were observed. They Generally speaking, a vitamin B12 de. lived in communal households subsisting ficiency is the single danger of the vegar mainly cm sources. The mean dier, bur it need not be a problem if rhe blood pressure for this group (ages 16-29) proper nutritional know-how is applied, was less than that usually found in There are also special nutritional problem: Western populations, The report suggests for a vegan child and a pregnant woman, “a relation between blood pressure levels but these can be easily resolved. and consurnpricm of food from animal In the winrer, when rhe child’s access tc sources” 14 sunshine is restricted, it may be necessaq Dr. Combs pursues this relarion be- for the child ro take a vitamin supplement tween food from animal sources and [o obtain an adequate amount of vitamir higher blood pressure, He comments rhat D, lo The nutritional problem for tht the Lorrelatioo between a vegetarian dier pregnant woman concerns the acquisirior and lower blood pressure ‘‘might be true of enough protein. On a theoretical basis on the basis of something like sodium the pregnant woman can obrain the re. content, because sodium conrenr in planr quired level if the best plant sources art material is considerably lower (than in utilized: peanuts, soybeans, and nuts. ~ non-plant foods), And of course sodium is Nevertheless, many vegans have had to re. one of the key nutrients that influences sort to consuming milk and eggs to rester< blood pressure. A lot of the processed healrh, and it is likely that a vegan womar foods have sodium added, salts added, so who is pregnant would need to do tht a higher plant diet would probably have same. For a Iacro-ovo- vegetarian womar reduced salr intake and probably would who is pregnanr little dietary advice it tend to favor normal blood pressure.’ ‘G needed. She will probably have an ade Despite these benefits of the vegetarian quate supply of nurrienrs. 12 regimen, continues ro be viewed in the U.S. more as a fad than as a the idea that fish is brain food. In the 19th legitimate dietary alternative. Perhaps this century, Professor Louis Agassiz of Har- is due to the somewhat extreme claims vard University urged people to eat fish. 18 made in vegetarianism’s behalf. One Fish is abundant in phosphorus, he source contends that, “Intemperance argued, and phosphorus has been con- which is the chief cause of pauperism and nected with thinking because certain com- crime may be greatly discouraged by culti- pounds containing phosphorus are abund- vation of vegetarianism. ” 15 Gandhi, the ant in the brain. Mark Twain satirized great Indian leader who experimented Agassiz’s assertion when he replied to an with his diet in order to observe per- aspiring ‘‘Young Author’s” letters which sonality development, asserted that the sought confirmation on this point. 19 simplest foods (especially fresh and Wrote Twain: “Yes, Agassiz doeJ recom- nuts) were most beneficial for “calming of mend authors to eat fish, because the spirit and allaying animal passion, ” 16 phosphorus in it makes brains. So far you Adolf Hitler, a vegetarian, claimed are correct. But I cannot help you to a that vegetarianism increased his working decision about the amount you need to and intellectual capacities. 1 He constantly eat--at least, with certainty. If the speci- advocated the claims of the German com- men [writing] composition you send is poser, Richard Wagner, that a vegetarian about your fair, usual average, I should diet had been the primeval diet of the judge that perhaps a couple of whales human race. Hitler customarily enter- would be all you would want for the tained his associates--such as Bormann, present. ” Goring, and Himmler--at meals of vege- Fish, like the meat of land animals, tarian fare, After the meal, Hitler’s asso- consists chiefly of proteins and fat. How- ciates often retreated to the kitchen and ever, the protein content of fish is gen- asked the cook for a second meal of their erally higher than that of meat, but has a own choosing. This one case, however, lower caloric content because of less fat says little about any notion that meat- and a higher water content. Fish oils are eating and aggressiveness may be rich in vitamin D, and fish liver in vitamin associated. A21 Perhaps these claims for vegetarianism A recent report released by the Senate are extreme, but they are not unusual. Select Committee on Nutrition and Hu- Strange notions about the peculiar pro- man Needs recommends significant re- pert ies of various foods have always ex- ductions in the consumption of various isted. It was once popularly thought that foods rich in fat, sugar, and salt. Red seawater was helpful in cleaning out the meat, specifically, is included within the digestive system. The same was later con- fat category. The Congressional report sidered true of garlic. Sometimes these calls for a reduction in overall fat intake by notions may be correct, such as the 16th IO percent, replacing meat with fish or century idea that by some mysterious fowl. 20 The report recommends that more process lemons and limes, consumed on protein can be obtained from fish and long sea voyages, protected men from poultry, and that these should be eaten scurvy .17 instead of red meat. Poultry, like fish, One notion that persists until this day is contains less fat than red meat. A rich supply of minerals and vitamins ~ortecl that, by weight, 50% of the may also be found in shellfish. The hzshmen’s vegetable diet consisted of the protein content of shellfish is the same as nongongo nut. Meat is eaten only on in fish and land animals. Its main value pecial occasions. Besides the mongongo consists in its wealth of iron, copper, and mt, the Bushmen’s diet consisted of 84 iodine. When eaten raw, oysters offer a pecies of edible plants, including 20 substantial vitamin C content, and are a rarieties of fruits, berries, and melons, good substitute for fresh and vege- md 30 types of roots and bulbs. Lee did tables. 2 I However, shellfish is relatively lot observe one case of nutritional de- high in cholesterol. iciency, 1 suggesting that early human In order to ascertain what the food- ocieties could have been vegetuian. eating patterns of early man consisted of-- Robert Ardrey, author of The Hunting and what the “natural” diet of man ~ypot~e.ri~, 22 refutes the vegetarian hy- should be today--anthropologists have pothesis of early man. He dismisses Lee’s studied the eating habits of our closest ~ata, claiming that the particular tribe animal relatives, chimpanzees and :xamined was unrepresentative of Bush- gorillas. Their conclusions are neither a men in general, Ardrey contends that justification nor an explanation for the primitive man was carnivorous. 4’su- eating patterns of man. But the physical preme, above all other reasons for reject- similarities between the two suggest in. ing the hunting hypothesis, is anthro- tercsting parallels. Until the 1°60s, chim- pology’s will to believe in primal man panzees were consiciercd to bc complete happily, healthily chewing his mcmgongo vegetarians. But then the first-hand oh. nuts, Such an anthropological wonder can scrvations by Jane van Lawick-Goodal ir bear comparison .. .to the Rosseauesque Tangmzyika rtwcalcd [hat chimpanzees OL image of primal innocence, primal good- Lwionally cat mmt. On the other hand, ir ness, that grips our minds. ” Uganda in lo~2 Vernon afld FranLe: Ardrey asserts that tbe Icc Age winters Reynolds also observed chimpanzees bul offer confirmation of his hunting hypo- fal]td to fiflL] 2Ln~ CV]dC[lLC Of m~~t t!a(lllg rhcsis. Those authorities who insist that in dirtxt obwrwctions of gorillu in th( taly man was depcndc-nr on plant foods, wild, both DLan Foswy in Rwanda anc sAys Ardrey, forget that during the lce Age (;cwrgr S( hallcr in Easr and Ccntm rn Europe and Asia tbcre wcrm ‘t ~ny. To AfriLa, found gorillas to be compkxelj guarantee survival during thtw (old peri- vcgctxrian in rbeir natLl~Al babitar. 1 How ods, man had to have been preadaprcd to ever, they WII1 cxt mca( while (onfrned ir a (iiet consisting exclusively of meat. 100s,” Those modern hunting peoples such as the Thmc observations fail to define whal Eskimo, Ardrey coorends, who live under the natural diet of man should be mologicidly comparable conditions as Ice Among anthropologists, there is a contro. Age tnan, consume a fully-nutritious diet versy as to whether primitive man was car. of no more than 10°/0 planr food. nivorous or vegetarian, There is evidcnct Arctic rcgicms provide few plants, roots, for both views. Richard B. Lee lived fol or fruits. An Eskimo diet ~onsists of the rwo years among the Kung Bushmen ir meat of the seal, whale, narwbale, walrus, the Kalahari Desert of Botswana. He re aquatic birds and their eggs, and such

66 land animals as the bear, fox, seal, and behet that the excluslon oi tlesh toods deer. Shellfish is eaten when found in the from the diet contributes to the principle stomach of other “animals. Eskimos con- of u&mru--or non-violence, Thus, as sume most of their meat raw. The vitamin Gandhi made known to the world, vege- content of meat rises when the glands, tarianism becomes a moral principle. brains, entrails, and organs are con- Some orthodox Jews abstain from meat sumed. 2 I If properly cooked, organs and eating entirely, but are commonly deemed tissues can supply every vitamin and kosher rather than vegetarian eaters, This mineral needed with the exception of is not to say that all Jews who eat kosher calcium. Raw liver contains vitamin C and are vegetarians, The kosher laws are in- A. Other organs supply elements of the tended mainly to guide the observant Jew vitamin B complex and vitamin D. It has in. the kosher preparation of meat. The been suggested by oneauthor21 that “the prohibition against the consumption of consumption of brain, heart, kidney, blood (Leviticus 7:26-27; 17: 10-14) is the liver, spleen, and other organs becomes an basis for the process of koshering meat. 24 important dietary goal of our times. By The purpose of the process is to draw out discarding these organs we throw away and drain the meat of non-veinal blood, practically all of the animal’s vita- before it is cooked. The blood can be re- mins and minerals just as we lose the moved either by salting the meat, or by most valuable substances of vegetables by romting it over an open fire. The term discarding the water in which they have Arzdwr, or kosher, was originally used in been cooked for long periods. ” the Bible in the sense of “fit” or Throughout history, dietary goals have “proper.” From the point of view of the played a large role in different civiliza- Jewish dietary laws all fruit and vegetables tions. Vegetarianism, especially, has never are 4‘fit” for consumption, and do not been without its advocates during any require, as in the preparation of meat, a period of time. 23 Most familiar in this Rabbi’s certification that a certain food category are Pythagoras, Buddha, has been koshered. This is based upon the Leonardo da Vinci, Montaigne, Percy first dietary directive in the Bible: ‘4Be- Bysshe Shelley, and Benjamin Franklin, hold 1 have given you every herb yielding among others. Two contemporary Chris- seed which is upon the face of the earth tian Protestant sects--the Bible Christians and every tree.. .“ (Genesis 1:29). and the Seventh Day Adventists--require An antient sect of Jews, the Essenes, that their followers maintain a vegetarian lived rigid, ascetic lives in the proximity of food habit. the Dead Sea area. The Essenes cultivated The largest group of vegetarians in the and ate simple vegetarian food, Ancient world today are the Hindus in India. A1- historians such as Josephus and Pliny the most synonymous with vegetarianism and Elder wrote about these communities. 25 Hinduism in India is the sacred cow, The Essenes withdrew from the cities and which is forbidden to be killed or eaten, organized society of their time (the 1st though younger and more liberal Indians century) and formed a society of their now eat meat without regard for the es- own. There is speculation that John the tablished “reactionary” ways. The vege- Baptist was a member of the Essene com- tarian basis of Hinduism is founded on the munity, and possibly Jesus Christ, though

67 Jesus was not an ascetic like John the and land to support a meat eating popula- Baptist, and Jesus ate meat. tion. It is all the more ironical that the In 1947 the American Vegetarian Party U.S. should be thought of as the world’s was born. In the presidential elections of breadbasket since we, like the Argen- 1948 a Vegetarian Party slate was nomi- tineans, arc so meat oriented. Were wc to nated; its campaign motto was a diet feed less grain to animals for meat con- without the flesh of meat, fish, or fowl. sumption we would have much more to was the real force behind export . the Party, though itwasn’t until 1960 that This is a very narrow view of the world’s Gould himself actually ran for President. food and agricultural problems. The In 1962 hc campaigned for state senator meat-eating habits of Americans, even if from Ncw York against Jacob Javits, keep- changed, will not serve the basic problems ing vegetarianism and pacifkm in the of agriculture in India, the USSR, or any forefront of the campaign. When Gould other country, Certainly a drastic reduc- died in 1963, the American Vegetarian tion in per capita meat consumption Party died with him. 1 would be healthy. It would bc impossible to accurately You can support considerable intake of count the number of vegetarians in meat-fat and cholesterol if you match it America today. A conservative estimate with a strong regimen of exercise. I’ve may be four million persons. Most of these never known a person who performed would be lacto- or Iacto-ovo-vegetarians; heavy labor who could survive without there arc fcw vegans in the U.S. In rcccnt meat. Weight lifters, football players, and years, however, there appears to have been other athletes consume large quantities of a resurgence of vegetarianism in America, meat without apparent damage to the especially on college campuses. Onc cardiovascular system. It is when they stop reason for this may be the financial savings exercising but maintain established meat- in excluding meat from the diet, or it eating habits that they get into trouble. could be due to ethical beliefs of’ ‘return- Until some better evidence comes along ing to nature, ” Whatever the reason, an the moderate, well-balanced diet is the individual contemplating a vegetarian safest course of action. Knowing how regimen should become familiar with the often and how easily wc succumb to cele- potential dangers, With proper knowl- brations and feasts, we need to balance edge and education, a vegetarian will en- such abuse of our bodies with cxercisc and counter no difficulty in obtaining the full occasional . The ideal weekly regi- nutritional requirements. Vegetarianism is men for me would be a vegetarian meal on not a recent fad, but it can be an enjoyable Monday, a T-Bone steak on Tuesday, a alternate to meat, providing a sound pro- dairy-vegetarian meal on Wednesday, a tein diet from the abundant sources that seafood dinner on Thursday, a chicken the earth provides. dinner for Friday, and on Saturday a Apart from all the reasons cited above it 12-course Chinese dinner to be shared is also argued by vegetarians that meat with as many friends. On the last day I consumption is an unfair usc of land re- might fast, as a convenient way of watch- sources to serve the rich. It rcqu ires a much ing my weight. Iargcr pcr capita expenditure of energy

60 REFERENCES 1. Barkas J. The vegetariarr passion. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1975. 2. Meeker B K. Rising world meat consumption--and national policies. Foreign Agriculture 14:2-5, 15, 8 November 1976. 3. Lappe F M. . New York: Ballantine Books, 1975. 4. Guthrie H A. Introduction to nutrition. St. Louis: C.V, Mosby Co., 1967, 5. Stare F. Personal communication, 31 October 1976. 6. Combs G. Personal communication, 18 November 1976. 7. Crosby W H. Can a vegetarian be well nourished? Journal of the American Medical Association 233:898, 1975. 8. Dwyer J T. Physical measurements of vegetarian infants and preschool children, Paper presented at meeting of the American Society for Clinical Nutrition, Atlantic City, New Jersey, 1 May 1976. (Paper abstract in: A rnerrianJourrua[ of Clinical Nutrition 29:477, 1976. ) 9. Committee on Nutrition Misinformation, Food and Nutrition Board, National Research Council, National Academy of Science. Vegetarian diets. Journal OJ the A merikan Dietary Association 65:121-22, 1974. 10. Jenkins R R. Health im-placations of the vegetarian diet. Journal ojthe A men”can Collegrhte Health Association 24:68-71, 1975. 11. Introduction to anemia. Harrxud Medical School Health Letter 1(12):2, October, 1976. 12. Dietary advice for a pregnant, vegetarian patient. British Medical Journal 3:689, 29 September 1973. 13. Keys A. The diet and plasma lipids in the etiology of coronary heart disease. In: Coronary Heart Disease. Edited by Russek HI & Zohman BL, Phila- delphia: Lippincott Co., 1971, p. 59-75. 14. Sacks F M. Blood pressure in vegetarians, Paper presented at meeting of the Society for Epidemiologic Research, Berkeley, California, June 19-22, 1974. (Paper abstract in: American Journal of Epidemiology 100:525, 1974). 15, Groom-Napier Co. F’egetarianrim, a cure Jor intemperance. London: William Tweedie, 1875. 16. Gandhi M K, Diet and diet reform. Ahmedabad, India: Navajivan Publishing House, 1949. 17. Mendelssohn K. The secret of western domination. New York: Praeger, 1976. 18. Atwater W O. How food nourishes the body. Century Magazine 34:50, 1887. 19, Twain M. Memoranda. Gahzxy 11:159, 1871. 20. Burros M. Hill report asks diet changes. Washington Post 15 January 1977, p. A3. 21. Graubard M. Man’s food: its rhyme or reason. New York: Macmillan, 1943. 22. Ardrey R. The hunting hypothesis. New York: Atheneum, 1976 23. Bryce A. World theories of diet. London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912. 24. Rabinowicz H. Dietary laws. Encyclojsaedia Judaica (Jerusalem: Keter Pub- lishing House Ltd., 1971) Vol. 6, p. 26-46. 25. Flavius Josephus. The]ewtih war. London: William Heinemann Ltd., 1969.