ALWAYS ROOM AT THE TOP: BLACK STUDENTS AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN ITHACA, NY A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Sean W. Eversley Bradwell January 2009 © 2009 Sean W. Eversley Bradwell ALWAYS ROOM AT THE TOP: BLACK STUDENTS AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN ITHACA, NY Sean W. Eversley Bradwell, Ph.D. Cornell University 2009 Frequently referred to as the achievement gap, racial disparities in educational outcomes are reported in school districts across the nation. Most educational research focuses on this crisis in urban communities, and overcrowded classrooms, underfunded schools, unqualified teachers as well as inadequate resources are some of the commonly identified causes. However, racial disparities are equally found in top- rated districts where these factors are least likely to exist. The growing body of research documenting racial disparities in top-rated districts has challenged the conventional wisdom about the origin, causes, and solutions of racial disparities in schools. Drawing on tenets from Afrocentricity and critical race theory, this dissertation explores educational inequity and related policy in a top-rated, suburban school district. The project examines the historic roots of racial disparities in this district and employs qualitative interviews with black students as a means to analyze and better understand how students experience these disparities. On the basis of this investigation and its findings, policy recommendations are made for the purpose of helping districts such as the one studied close their education gap. Ultimately, the study also concludes that educational reforms will be ineffective unless they address the fact that racial disparities are often linked to and rooted in institutionalized policies and practices that are deeply entrenched and protected at the community level. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Sean W. Eversley Bradwell is an alumnus of Amsterdam High School (NY). He completed his B.A. in political science from the University of Rochester and his M.S. from Rochester’s Warner Graduate School of Education and Human Development. Mr. Eversley Bradwell began teaching in Ithaca (NY) during the fall of 1996 and has held positions as a lecturer, assistant to the principal, and social studies teacher. iii DEDICATION To Mildred ‘Aunt Millie’ Mason and Ashfield Muhammad ‘Uncle Buster’ Devent iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS At the outset, there is never space enough to adequately thank or acknowledge the people who have assisted our journeys. Any omissions should be charged to the head and not the heart. I’ve been blessed by a host of doctors. Words cannot fully capture my gratitude for and appreciation of the mentorship provided by Dr. James Turner, Dr. Deborah Manning, Dr. Dave Lehman, Dr. Donald Barr, Dr. Jeff Claus, Dr. Tanya Saunders, Dr. Roger Richardson, and Dr. Asma Barlas. I am particularly thankful for the assistance—and incredible patience—of my dissertation committee: Dr. Josephine Allen, Dr. Ayele Bekerie, and Dr. Arthur Wilson. Thank you all. Your intellectual, professional, and personal guidance has been immeasurable. I would be remiss if I did not thank the many folks outside the academy who made this work and journey possible. First, my parents—Lawrence and Deborah Bradwell—who have always stressed the importance of education. Their love and encouragement is largely responsible for the man I am today—and, more importantly, the man I hope to be tomorrow. To my wife—Nicole—the embodiment of strength and support; to my daughter, Adriane, who has taught me more about life than I could hope to return; to my brother, Ryan, my extended family (aunts, uncles, cousins, play- cousins); my Gallucci-in-laws; colleagues; Diane Carruthers, Barry Derfel, and Mac Knight, students; friends; antagonists, and countless others—thank you for your support. v TABLE OF CONTENTS BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.........................................................................................iii DEDICATION ..............................................................................................................iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..............................................................................................v TABLE OF CONTENTS ..............................................................................................vi LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .........................................................................................x LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................xi PREFACE.....................................................................................................................xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...................................................................................1 Statement of the Problem........................................................................................1 Purpose and Significance of the Study ...................................................................8 Clarification of Language .....................................................................................10 Naming Black Americans .....................................................................................14 Outline of Remaining Chapters.............................................................................20 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................21 Early Origins (1619–1800) ...................................................................................22 Freedom Uprisings (1801–1865) ..........................................................................25 Reconstruction (1865–1895).................................................................................27 Separate but Unequal (1896–1954).......................................................................31 Brown v. Board of Education I (1954) and Brown v. Board of Education II (1955)..............................................................................................................34 Duality of Brown...................................................................................................36 Deficit Model Approaches....................................................................................39 Educating Black Students Today ..........................................................................41 Educating Black Students: Lessons Learned ........................................................43 Cultural Capital Theory and Social Reproduction................................................44 Critical Race Theory and Education .....................................................................49 Conclusion of Literature Review ..........................................................................50 CHAPTER 3: AFROCENTRIC ASSUMPTIONS ......................................................52 The Quest for a Research Methodology ...............................................................52 Afrocentricity and Assumptions ...........................................................................53 Afrocentric Assumptions Summary......................................................................72 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODS and DESIGN ...............................................73 Afrocentric Research Methods..............................................................................73 Groundedness of Research....................................................................................74 Knowledge Construction.......................................................................................74 Concept of Justice .................................................................................................75 Rejection of Researcher/Participant Separation....................................................75 Welfare of Participants..........................................................................................76 Qualitative Research .............................................................................................76 Critique of Objectivity ..........................................................................................77 vi Validity and Trustworthiness................................................................................78 Research Design....................................................................................................80 Sample Design ......................................................................................................80 Data Collection .....................................................................................................82 Participants............................................................................................................83 Additional Data Collection ...................................................................................84 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................85 Limitations ............................................................................................................86 Generalizability.....................................................................................................88 CHAPTER 5: RESULTS .............................................................................................90