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A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW OF SYNERGIES

ISRN: LIU-IEI-R--10/0092--SE

Version 2.0, Revised since 2009

Written by: Michael Martin and Jorge E. Fonseca A.

Linköping University Environmental Technology and Management, Linköping University, SE-581 83 Linköping,

A Systematic Literature Review of Biofuel Synergies

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 2 2 AIM ...... 2 3 IDENTIFICATION OF RELEVANT ARTICLES ...... 3 3.1 Searching for Keywords and Combinations of Keywords ...... 3 3.1.1 Step 1 – Gauging the number of relevant articles ...... 3 3.1.2 Step 2- Selecting Articles for further Analysis ...... 5 3.1.3 Step 3 – Categorization of articles ...... 6 3.1.4 Step 4 – Obtaining selected articles/synergies ...... 7 4 RESULTS ...... 7 5 UNIQUE SYNERGIES FROM LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 14 5.1 Ethanol Synergies ...... 15 5.2 Synergies ...... 15 5.3 Synergies from Literature Review ...... 16 5.4 General Synergies in the Biofuel Industry ...... 16 6 ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION ...... 16 7 REFERENCES ...... 17

TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 1: Report Methodology and Steps for finding Articles ...... 3

LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Combination Word Search Results ...... 5 Table 2: Articles saved in each folder in Refworks ...... 6 Table 3: Recurring themes of exchanges ...... 7 Table 4: Biofuel to Biofuel Industry Synergies ...... 8 Table 5: Biofuel to External Industry Synergies ...... 10 Table 6: External to Biofuel Industry Synergies ...... 13

1 1 INTRODUCTION

Often are criticized in the media for their low production energy efficiency, environmental impacts and by using for fuel production. An answer most critics rely on is stating how 2nd generation biofuels will solve all the problems the first generation biofuels possess(Moore 2008a). However, 1st generation biofuels must “pave the way” for 2nd generation biofuels. They can do this by providing the infrastructure, technology and knowledge provided by the fuels.

In order to increase the efficiency of 1st generation biofuels, the theories of industrial symbiosis can be applied. Industrial symbiosis theories are designed to integrate production systems and other industries to improve energy efficiency and environmental performance(Miao and Wu 2006,Moore 2008b). By integrating biofuel production systems, the by-products of biofuels can be used in subsequent processes. By making use of by- products, excess heat, etc. the energy efficiency can be improved and allow for more benefits including economic and environmental performance(Mueller 2007b).

Industrial symbiosis literature includes many examples of how industries can benefit from one another but does not include much literature on the integration of biofuels. Synergies do however exist as there are many by-products which are highly prized in other industries, e.g. glycerol and DDGS. The biofuels themselves can even be used in subsequent processes.

2 AIM The aim of producing this literature study is to find relevant biofuel synergies1 within various fields from scientific literature. By searching for keywords and combining these with keywords related to biofuel synergies we can review the extent and knowledge of synergies between external industries with biofuels, between biofuel industries and the use of their by- products throughout various research fields.

The main research questions to be answered are:

 What do other research fields use biofuel by-products for?  What are the current trends for the use of biofuels and their by-products?  What substrates/by-products/wastes from other industries can be used for biofuel production?  Which synergies exist in the literature beyond those presented in other phases of the research project?  What are some potential uses for biofuels, their by-products and industrial wastes and to integrate in symbiosis?

1 Synergy is defined in this report as the relationship and cooperation between industrial activities by the shared consumption, disposal and reuse of products and utilities.

2 3 IDENTIFICATION OF RELEVANT ARTICLES

This report is based on an extensive systematic literature review of relevant literature for biofuel synergies, i.e. the handling of by-products between biofuel industries and external industries. The systematic literature review process was used due to its applicability in this context to allow for possible exclusion and inclusion of relevant articles based upon a clinical question, in this case finding biofuel synergies(Green et al 2006). The literature review was carried out in a step-by-step manner in order to exclude non-relevant literature from the abundance literature on the subjects.

3.1 Searching for Keywords and Combinations of Keywords

Step 1-A: Keyword

Step 1-B: Keyword + Combination words

Step 2: Exclusion of 2nd Generation Biofuels

Step 3: Categorized Themes

Step 4: Final Review

Figure 1: Report Methodology and Steps for finding Articles

3.1.1 Step 1 – Gauging the number of relevant articles The first step of the literature review was to review how many articles were available for the topics of biogas, bioethanol, biodiesel and thereafter biofuel and to provide a “pool” of articles for later analysis. The literature review was carried out using the Science Direct scientific database search engine (reference to science direct). No other search engines were used to find articles due to the time limits of the research project and extent of literature available from the Science Direct database. The searching criteria was limited to the following constraints:

3  Dates: From: 2000 To: present 2012  Include: Journals and all books  Source: All sources  Subject: All sciences  Term within: Abstract, title and keywords

A search was conduced for articles concerning biogas, ethanol(bioethanol), biodiesel and biofuel articles. This led to a total of 1150, 20050(471), 1553 and 1699 number of articles for each topic respectively. A total of 24,452 articles were therefore available in the field. Based on the methodology of a systematic literature review, exclusion categories were thereafter applied, which are described in the following sections.

It was apparent that combination words were necessary to narrow the focus of the literature. Combination words were then used, to find relevant articles under each topic for biofuel synergies, i.e. relevant articles for all topics; biogas, bioethanol, biodiesel and biofuel.

Combination words to include with each topic keyword included:  Allocate;  integration;  Allocation;  symbiosis;  by-product;  synergy;  byproduct;  synergies;  cooperation;  share;  co-product;  sharing;  coproduct;  substitute;  exchange;  substitution;  incorporate;  substrate;  incorporation;  residue;  integrate;  and .

These combination words were chosen as they represent interaction between biofuels and external industries and could provide necessary literature for this study. Table 1 below shows a review of the number of articles found for each combination of search words.

4 Table 1: Combination Word Search Results Compiled (2000-Present) Main Keywords Biofuel Biodiesel Ethanol (26,412) Biogas Combination Words 3,211 3,148 Bioethanol (1,007) 1,864 symbiosis 2 1 6 7 synergy 15 8 35 5 cooperation 14 7 21 5 by-product 651 684 3368 245 byproduct 127 112 415 78 co-product 156 119 684 57 exchange 63 94 599 17 Share 80 27 96 27 sharing 0 0 31 2 substitute 100 132 158 44 substitution 66 42 311 35 allocation 48 15 39 10 integrate 17 5 31 6 integration 111 45 187 33 incorporate 14 4 41 5 incorporation 25 24 302 6 substrate 202 158 1782 305 residue 258 120 647 158 utility 24 11 135 80 Total Number: 1973 1608 8888 1125

Upon finding the number of articles for each topic and combination word, further exclusion criteria were applied to produce relevant literature and narrow the number of articles for this study. As can be seen in Table 1, there are many articles provided for each topic; especially for ethanol. However, for some keyword+combination word searches, only a limited number of articles were returned. To finalize Step 1, some of the combination + keyword searches were disregarded from the previous listing of combination words. Those include the combination words, synergies, coproduct and allocate; which are not present in Table 1.

3.1.2 Step 2- Selecting Articles for further Analysis Step 2 of the literature search was conducted in order to limit the number of articles and provide relevant articles for further in depth analysis in Steps 3 and 4. Following a review of the articles in each of these combination topic + keyword searches, many themes emerged for each respective biofuel topic. Many articles contained information about chemical experiments, second generation biofuels and hydrogen production which are beyond the scope of this study. The following exclusion criteria were thus applied in order to confine the literature to first generation biofuel production and interaction between biofuels and external industries for each respective biofuel topic.

5 Biodiesel  Exclude 2nd Generation Biofuels i.e. Fischer-Tropsch and other synthetic diesel

Biogas  Exclude 2nd Generation Biofuels i.e. steam reforming and gasification of

Ethanol  Exclude 2nd Generation Biofuels i.e.  Exclude articles about ethanol used for hydrogen fuel cells

Biofuel  Exclude 2nd Generation Biofuels i.e. all second generation biofuel articles

In some of the cases as shown above, there were over 1,000 articles for each topic and combined keyword respectively. After excluding the topics as aforementioned, the first 150 articles from the total listing in those cases where there were over 150 were reviewed and saved if relevant.

Articles that were considered relevant after the exclusion categories were saved in a referencing database, Refworks. Refworks was used due the ease of exporting citations and providing links back to the articles for subsequent steps. All articles were saved in a respective folder under that theme, i.e. there were 4 folders created which were labeled biofuel, biogas, ethanol and biodiesel. The number of articles contained in each folder are shown below in Table 2.

Table 2: Articles saved in each folder in Refworks Biodiesel Biogas Bioethanol Biofuel Number of 91 196 66 138 Articles

3.1.3 Step 3 – Categorization of articles

The next step for limiting the number of articles and finding relevant articles was to categorize the articles in order to find if there were recurring themes. An in depth review of all abstracts was conduced from the articles reviewed in Step 2. These abstracts and articles were categorized based on their themes. During the process it was found that some of the articles were redundant or doubled in several folders and were therefore deleted before proceeding to the categorizing them. The categories for each folder can be seen in Table 3.

6 Table 3: Recurring themes of exchanges Categories Food/Feed Biogas Energy/Fuel Municipal Biodiesel Algae Chemical/Cosmetics Agriculture Ethanol Greenhouse Environmental Services Materials/Building Biofuel General Forestry/Paper

The list of all references and articles contained in Table 3 are listed in Appendix A-D

3.1.4 Step 4 – Obtaining selected articles/synergies

A final listing of relevant articles was produced for Step 4 of the literature review. Once the articles were divided into categories the abstracts were reviewed for further relevance. Articles which contained information about integration of biofuel processes, making use of by-products and using residues and by-products of other industries for biofuel production were included in the final list.

Many articles were found to contain similar contents, i.e. from the categorized themes from Step 3. For example, many articles describe the use of biomass for biofuel production. Consequently, only a selected few in the case where many similar articles are present were selected for the final list. Thereafter, articles found under the biofuel heading have been split into their relevant categories. They contain synergies for the bioethanol, biogas and biodiesel categories and have therefore been added to each respective folder and list. The results of the final listing can be seen in Table 4 in the subsequent text.

4 RESULTS

Shown below in Tables 4-6are the final listings for the synergy articles obtained from the said literature review. Table 4 consists of all synergies regarding biofuel synergies between biofuel industries, while Table 5 contains synergies originating with products/utilities from biofuel industry shared with external industries and finally Table 6 provides synergies originating from External Industries used for biofuel production.

7 Table 4: Biofuel to Biofuel Industry Synergies Biofuel  Biofuel Synergy From Literature Review (Martin and Fonseca By‐Product/ Interaction 2012) Utility for (Saunders By‐Product Ethanol‐Biodiesel and Rosentrater 2009) Ethanol DDGS and syrup for biogas production By‐Product Ethanol‐Biogas (Saunders and Rosentrater 2009) Ethanol stillage as biogas source (Doušková et By‐Product Ethanol‐Biogas al 2010,Wilkie et al 2000) Ethanol production heat used for biogas process (Odhiambo et al 2009,Pfeffer et al By‐Product Ethanol‐Biogas 2007) Oil cake as biogas source (Ramachandran et al By‐Product Biodiesel‐Biogas 2007) Glycerol to biogas production (Siles López et al By‐Product Biodiesel‐Biogas 2009,Yazdani and Gonzalez 2007a) Glycerol used to produce ethanol (Liu et al By‐Product Ethanol‐Biodiesel 2012) Anaerobic digestion of microalgae residues By‐Product Biodiesel‐Biogas from biodiesel production (Ehimen et al 2011) Ethanol production from biodiesel by‐ By‐Product Biodiesel‐Ethanol products (Visser et al 2011) Biogas production of ethanol by‐products (De By‐Product Ethanol‐Biogas Paoli et al 2011) Integrated ethanol, cattle production and biogas to close material loops (DeVuyst et al By‐Product Ethanol‐Biogas 2011) Industrial CO2 used for methanol production by‐Product Biofuel General‐Biofuel General (Pontzen et al 2011) Ethanol used as alcohol for biodiesel By‐Product Ethanol‐Biodiesel production (Quintella et al 2012) Integrating biofuel production to produce ethanol, biogas and biodiesel (Martin and By‐Product Biofuel General‐Biofuel General Eklund 2011) CO2 from ethanol production used for algae By‐Product Ethanol‐Biodiesel for biodiesel production (Powell and Hill 2010) Ethanol Stillage used for Biogas Production By‐Product Ethanol‐Biogas and CO2 used for algae (Doušková et al 2010) From Brainstorming Workshop (Martin et al By‐Product/ Interaction 2009) Utility Exhaust emissions from Biogas Producer sent to Ethanol Producer for combustion/Odor Utility Biogas‐Ethanol Control Sulfur is a bad input for biogas production. Need a better way to control pH at Ethanol By‐Product Ethanol‐Biogas Producer. Biogas Producer prefers Nitrogen instead of Sulphur

8 Biogas used for electricity production for By‐Product Biogas‐Biodiesel biodiesel production Refine the digestate to extract fatty acids and By‐Product Biogas‐Biodiesel phosphor Gas produced at Ethanol Producer ‐ Sent to Utility Ethanol‐Biogas Biogas Producer for upgrading Gas produced at Ethanol Producer ‐ Used for Utility Ethanol‐Ethanol odor control/combustion process Exhaust emissions from Ethanol Producer Utility Ethanol‐Biogas used to dry biogas digestate Fusil/Other Alcohols from Ethanol Still used By‐Product Ethanol‐Biodiesel for biodiesel production Ethanol used for Biodiesel Production By‐Product Ethanol‐Biodiesel Oil from /Corn/Other for ethanol, pressed, oil expelled and used for By‐Product Ethanol‐Biodiesel biodiesel before crops sent for fermentation to ethanol Pelletizer at Ethanol Producer employed with Digestate from Biogas Producer to make Utility Ethanol‐Biogas biomass pellets for fuel or feed Biomass from ethanol production (other than By‐Product Ethanol‐Biogas stillage) used for biogas production Use stillage for biogas production only By‐Product Ethanol‐Biogas Glycerol produced from biodiesel production By‐Product Biodiesel‐Biogas for biogas production Glycerol (Biodiesel by‐product) + Fatty Acids (Biogas by‐product) used for creation of By‐Product Biogas‐Biodiesel monoglycerides for production of Biodiesel Feedstock cake and shells from biodiesel processing By‐Product Biodiesel‐Ethanol could contain starch and thus make ethanol C0 from biofuel production used for algae for 2 By‐Product Biofuel General‐Biofuel General Biofuel Production Waste heat from ethanol and biogas facilities Utility Ethanol‐Biodiesel used in biodiesel production Pinch Analysis for possible excess heat & cooling between biofuel industries Utility Biofuel General‐Biofuel General (/Cooperation) Waste heat from ethanol production used for Utility Ethanol‐Ethanol pre‐heating of materials

9

Table 5: Biofuel to External Industry Synergies Biofuel  External Synergies From Literature Review (Martin and Fonseca By‐Product/ Interaction 2012) Utility Ethanol DDGS for human food applications By‐Product Ethanol‐Food/Feed (Champagne 2007,Robinson et al 2008) DDGS for animal feed (Robinson et al By‐Product Ethanol‐Food/Feed 2008,Klopfenstein et al 2007) Integration with Extrusion technology for food/ production (Klopfenstein et al Utility Ethanol‐Food/Feed 2007) DDGS used as filler for bioplastics (Saunders and Rosentrater 2009,Klopfenstein By‐Product Ethanol‐Materials/Building et al 2007) Ethanol By‐Products for Fertilizer Production By‐Product Ethanol‐Agriculture (Saunders and Rosentrater 2009) Ethanol By‐Products for Construction materials By‐Product Ethanol‐Materials/Building (Saunders and Rosentrater 2009) Biogas digestate used as solid fuel (Kratzeisen By‐Product Biogas‐Energy/Fuel et al 2010) Digestate used as particle board fibers (Zheng By‐Product Biogas‐Materials/Building et al 2009,Zheng et al 2009) Digestate used as fertilizer (Sager 2007) By‐Product Biogas‐Agriculture Biogas digestate used as feed (Sehgal and By‐Product Biogas‐Food/Feed Sehgal 2002) Biodiesel by‐products used as carbon By‐Product Biodiesel‐Env. Services filters(Nunes et al 2009,Foo and Hameed 2009) Biodiesel used as remediation agent for treatment of oil spills (Fernández‐Álvarez et al By‐Product Biodiesel‐Env. Services 2007) Glycerol used as animal feed (Donkin et al By‐Product Biodiesel‐Food/Feed 2009a) Glycerol used to produce hydrogen (Slinn et al By‐Product Biodiesel‐Energy/Fuel 2008,Sánchez et al) Glycerol used as gasoline additive (Kiatkittipong By‐Product Biodiesel‐Energy/Fuel et al 2010) Glycerine used as a fuel (McNeil et al) By‐Product Biodiesel‐Energy/Fuel Glycerol used for combustion (Bohon et al By‐Product Biodiesel‐Energy/Fuel 2011) Biofuel by‐products (DDGS; cake and digestate) for combustion (Piotrowska et al By‐Product Biofuel General‐Energy/Fuel 2011) Conversion of glycerol to glycolipids (Liu et al By‐Product Biodiesel‐Chemical/Cosmetics 2011) Chitin‐glucan complex production from By‐Product Biodiesel‐Chemical/Cosmetics biodiesel by‐products (Chagas et al 2010) Biofuel production residues used as soil By‐Product Biofuel General‐Env. Services amendments (Gell et al 2011) Glycerol used as dust suppressant (Medeiros et By‐Product Biodiesel‐Env. Services al 2012)

10 Glycerol used as carbon source to produce By‐Product Biodiesel‐Chemical/Cosmetics biosurfactant (de Sousa et al 2011) Glycerol and spent earth from biodiesel production used to produce clay bricks (Eliche‐ By‐Product Biodiesel‐Materials/Building Quesada et al) Biogas digestate used as solid fuel (Kratzeisen By‐Product Biogas‐Energy/Fuel et al 2010) ethanol by‐products used as cattle By‐Product Ethanol‐Food/Feed feed (Egeskog et al 2011) Distillers dried grain with solubles (DDGS) used By‐Product Ethanol‐Food/Feed in production (Liu et al 2011) Ethanol used as dyeing agent for textiles By‐Product Ethanol‐Chemical/Cosmetics (Ferrero et al 2011) Sweet corn tassels from ethanol production used as replacement to peat moss in By‐Product Ethanol‐Agriculture greenhouses (Vaughn et al 2011) Wheat , in aqueous ethanol, used for production of particle‐bonding composites By‐Product Ethanol‐Materials/Building (Sanghoon 2011) By‐products from ethanol and biodiesel Biofuel General‐ production used for biocomposites (Diebel et al By‐Product Materials/Building 2012) Combustion of DDGS as a fuel source (Saunders By‐Product and Rosentrater 2009,Doušková et al 2010) from biogas upgrading for By‐Product Biogas‐Greenhouse greenhouses/ source (Jaffrin et al 2003) Biogas digestate used for vermitechnology By‐Product Biogas‐Agriculture (Surindra 2010) From Brainstorming Workshop (Martin et al By‐Product/ Interaction 2009) Utility Digestate and CO used as fertilizer/ in 2 By‐Product Biogas‐Greenhouse greenhouses Dry digestate and use it as fodder By‐Product Biogas‐Food/Feed Digestate used as bio‐fertilizer By‐Product Biogas‐Agriculture Separate nutrients in digestate for chemical By‐Product Biogas‐Chemical/Cosmetics processing Gases other than methane and CO captured Biofuel General‐ 2 By‐Product and stored (e.g. H2) Chemical/Cosmetics C02/Water from Ethanol production for Algae Utility Ethanol‐Algae Production Wet Stillage used for Animal Feed Direct (no Utility Ethanol‐Food/Feed drying) Dry stillage for By‐Product Biogas‐Agriculture Waste water used for algae cultivation Utility Biofuel General‐Algae Glycerol used as binding agent for wood pellets By‐Product Biodiesel‐Energy/Fuel Use stillage for pellet production (energy) By‐Product Ethanol‐Energy/Fuel Glycerol for healthcare and cosmetics industry By‐Product Biodiesel‐Chemical/Cosmetics Glycerol combusted at other industries for By‐Product Biodiesel‐Energy/Fuel energy Glycerol from Swedish biodiesel used for By‐Product Biodiesel‐Chemical/Cosmetics

11 "Swedish Eco‐Soap" Glycerol used as a carbon source in biological By‐Product Biodiesel‐Env. Services cleaning steps C0 trapped from Ethanol, Biogas production 2 By‐Product Biofuel General‐Greenhouse for Greenhouses C0 trapped from Ethanol, Biogas production 2 By‐Product Biofuel General‐Energy/Fuel used for synthetic fuel production Biofuel General‐ C0 capture at Ethanol and Biogas By‐Product 2 Chemical/Cosmetics Waste water from biodiesel or ethanol By‐Product Biofuel General‐Agriculture production used for Salix production Waste heat from ethanol, biodiesel and biogas Utility Biofuel General‐Municipal production used in swimming pools/swim halls Waste heat from ethanol, biodiesel and biogas Utility Biofuel General‐Greenhouse used in nearby greenhouses

12

Table 6: External to Biofuel Industry Synergies External ‐‐> Biofuel Synergies From Literature Review (Martin and Fonseca By‐Product/ Interaction 2012) Utility Bioethanol from food residues (bread, kitchen wastes, etc.) (Marques et al 2008,Ebrahimi et By‐Product Food/Feed‐Ethanol al 2008,Tang et al 2008) Paper sludge for ethanol production (Martin By‐Product Forestry/Paper‐Ethanol et al 2009) Cheese whey lactose for ethanol production (Guimarães et al 2010,Zafar and Owais By‐Product Food/Feed‐Ethanol 2006,Kargi and Ozmıhcı 2006) Biomass Wastes as biogas source By‐Product Forestry/Paper‐Biogas (Kryvoruchko et al 2009) Food industry wastes as biogas source (Rani By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biogas and Nand 2004,Nieves et al 2011) industry wastes as biogas source By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biogas (Llaneza Coalla et al 2009) Animal by‐products as biogas source (Hejnfelt By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biogas and Angelidaki 2009,Mueller 2007a) Dairy wastes as biogas source (Göblös et al By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biogas 2008) Processing waste water for biogas production By‐Product Municipal‐Biogas (Stoica et al 2009) Algae for biodiesel production (Bastianoni et al By‐Product Algae‐Biodiesel 2008,Brennan and Owende 2010) Biodiesel from waste oils (Chung et al By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biodiesel 2009,Haas 2005a,Lin and Li 2009) Biodiesel from sewage sludge (Angerbauer et By‐Product Municipal‐Biodiesel al 2008,Pokoo‐Aikins et al 2010) Biodiesel production from tall oil fatty acids By‐Product Forestry/Paper‐Biodiesel (White et al 2011) Meat industry residues for biodiesel production (Toscano et al 2011,Jørgensen et al By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biodiesel 2012,Andersen and Weinbach 2010) Municipal Sewage Sludge for Biogas By‐Product Muncipal‐Biogas Production (Tezel et al 2011) Ley crops used for biogas production (Blokhina By‐Product Agriculture‐Biogas et al 2011) Anaerobic digestion of household food waste (Bernstad and la Cour Jansen 2011,Krzystek et By‐Product Municipal‐Biogas al 2001) Integration of ethanol production into a combined heat and power plant (Starfelt et al Utility Energy/Fuel‐Ethanol 2010) Wastewater algae used to produce acetone, By‐Product Algae‐Ethanol butanol and ethanol (Ellis et al) From Brainstorming Workshop (Martin et al By‐Product/ Interaction 2009) Utility Other fatty acids for biodiesel production, By‐Product Chemical/Cosmetics‐Biodiesel

13 MeOH, Prop‐OH, etc. Chip/Snack Food waste oil By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biodiesel (WVO) used for biodiesel production /Snack Food by‐products (organic) By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biogas used for biogas production Potato Chip/Snack Food by‐products (Potato By‐Product Food/Feed‐Ethanol Skins) used for ethanol production Animal from slaughtering at nearby farm By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biodiesel used for biodiesel Animal Wastes from farm used for biogas By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biogas production Algae used for oil press, oil extracted for By‐Product Algae‐Biodiesel biodiesel production Algae used for oil press, oil extracted for biodiesel production, algae then used for later By‐Product Algae‐Biogas and subsequent biogas processes Synthetic diesel Production produces alcohol as a by‐product, this can be used for biodiesel By‐Product Energy/Fuel‐Biodiesel production or biogas production Collaboration with municipal collector for By‐Product Municipal‐Biodiesel biodiesel production Use fat separators from car washes, restaurants, etc. for biodiesel production (if By‐Product Municipal‐Biodiesel quality is low, for biogas production) production must separate all oil in flour By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biodiesel to increase shelf‐life. Used for biodiesel. Algae from Baltic Sea used for biogas By‐Product Algae‐Biogas production (Basically a free raw material) Household wastes for biogas production By‐Product Municipal‐Biogas (organic material ‐‐> Biogas) Household wastes for ethanol production By‐Product Municipal‐Ethanol (, shells, etc. ‐‐‐> ethanol production) Other industries with WVO used for Biodiesel By‐Product Food/Feed‐Biodiesel production

5 UNIQUE SYNERGIES FROM LITERATURE REVIEW

From the aforementioned synergies/articles the following lists have been produced to provide a summary of all unique synergies. When several synergies are of a similar theme, they have been summed into one type of unique synergy, although the feedstocks may be very different. For example, food industry synergies can be of many different types including fruits, , fats, dairy, etc.

14 5.1 Ethanol Synergies

 Ethanol DDGS for human food applications (Champagne 2007,Robinson et al 2008)  DDGS for animal feed(Llaneza Coalla et al 2009,Mueller 2007a)  Integration with Extrusion technology for food/fodder production(Llaneza Coalla et al 2009)  DDGS used as filler for bioplastics(Saunders and Rosentrater 2009,Llaneza Coalla et al 2009, et al 2007,Karinen and Krause 2006)  Combustion of DDGS as a fuel source (Saunders and Rosentrater 2009,Doušková et al 2010)  Corn Oil for biodiesel production(Saunders and Rosentrater 2009)  Fertilizer Production (Saunders and Rosentrater 2009)  Construction materials(Saunders and Rosentrater 2009,Kale et al 2007,Karinen and Krause 2006)  Bioethanol from food residues (bread, kitchen wastes, etc.(Marques et al 2008,Ebrahimi et al 2008,Palmarola-Adrados et al 2005))  Paper sludge for ethanol production(Tang et al 2008)  Cheese whey lactose for ethanol production(Guimarães et al 2010,Zafar and Owais 2006,Kargi and Ozmıhcı 2006)  Ethanol DDGS and syrup for biogas production(Saunders and Rosentrater 2009)

5.2 Biogas Synergies

 Biomass Wastes as biogas source(Kryvoruchko et al 2009)  Biogas digestate used as solid fuel(Kratzeisen et al 2010)  Digestate used as particle board fibers (Zheng et al 2009)  Household wastes as biogas source(Krzystek et al 2001)  Food industry wastes as biogas source(Hou and Zheng 2009) o Fruit industry wastes as biogas source(Llaneza Coalla et al 2009) o Animal by-products as biogas source(Hejnfelt and Angelidaki 2009,Mueller 2007a) o Dairy wastes as biogas source (Donkin et al 2009b)  Carbon dioxide from biogas upgrading for greenhouses/plant source(Jaffrin et al 2003)  Ethanol stillage as biogas source(Doušková et al 2010,Wilkie et al 2000)  Digestate used as fertilizer (Sager 2007)  Ethanol production heat used for biogas process(Odhiambo et al 2009,Pfeffer et al 2007)  Municipal solid wastes as biogas residue(Haas 2005b)  Processing waste water for biogas production(Stoica et al 2009)  Oil cake as biogas source(Ramachandran et al 2007)  Biogas digestate used as feed (Sehgal and Sehgal 2002)  Ley Crops for biogas production (Blokhina et al 2011)  Biogas digestate used to worm farming (Surindra 2010)

15 5.3 Biodiesel Synergies from Literature Review

 Biodiesel by-products used as carbon filters(Fernández-Álvarez et al 2007,Encinar et al 2007,Fernando et al 2007)  Glycerol to biogas production(Siles López et al 2009,Yazdani and Gonzalez 2007b,Shams Yazdani and Gonzalez 2008)  Biodiesel used as remediation agent for treatment of oil spills(Burström and Korhonen 2001)  Algae for biodiesel production(Chertow 1999,Wan Ngah and Hanafiah 2008)  Glycerol added to gasoline as fuel extender (Kiatkittipong et al 2011)  Biodiesel from waste oils (WVO, fish oil, animal tallow, etc.)(Chung et al 2009,Haas 2005a)  Glycerol used to produce hydrogen (Slinn et al 2008,Fountoulakis and Manios 2009)  Glycerol used to produce ethanol, formate and hydrogen(Swedish Biogas International 2009)  Biodiesel from sewage sludge(Demirbas 2000,Börjesson 2006)  Glycerol as automotive fuel (Fernando et al 2007,Kiatkittipong et al 2011)  Glycerol used as animal feed(Donkin et al 2009a)  Meat industry by-products for biodiesel production (Toscano et al 2011,Jørgensen et al 2012,Andersen and Weinbach 2010) 

5.4 General Synergies in the Biofuel Industry  Integration with CHP Plant (Starfelt et al 2010) 

6 ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION

The literature review produced a large number of possible synergies to handle external and biofuel by-products. Among the 123 final synergy articles produced, biogas synergies seem to be a very popular option for the handling of industrial wastes and biomass. Algal biofuels were not as apparent as originally thought though some applications have been provided for the production of oil for biodiesel. Biodiesel synergies consisted primarily of the handling of waste oils for biodiesel production and the use of glycerol for a wide array of applications from vehicle fuel to filters. In the production of ethanol, the use of DDGS for various applications is very common and many possible synergies were produced. However, not many further applications for ethanol by-products have been uncovered though several articles deal with the use of different raw materials (which are industrial by-products) for the production of ethanol.

Furthermore, there seems to be a large number of articles concerned with the production of hydrogen from the biofuels themselves, especially for the production of ethanol in various forms and thereafter utilizing the ethanol to produce hydrogen. Only one of these articles was highlighted for this literature review. Beyond hydrogen production, 2nd generation ethanol production was plentiful in the literature.

16 7 REFERENCES

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