Faculty of Engineering Engineering Department

Thesis title: Transformation of Small-Scale Artisanal Gold Mining in Zimbabwe through Investment In Appropriate Technology And Promoting The Concept Of Sustainable Development: The Possibility Of Industrial Small-Scale Mining.

By Motive Mungoni (R0019675)

Supervisor: Mr L. Mlambo A final year thesis presented for the Masters degree in Mineral Production Engineering and Management (MPEM) submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Curriculum. April 2008 ABSRACT

Artisanal gold mining is slowly adopting technology formally used in medium to large size mines and developing it into innovative, specialized equipment tailored to conditions pertaining to remote locations in Zimbabwe. Artisanal miners use obsolete technology and are ill-informed of new transitions in terms of technical knowledge on sustainable development, mine planning and design techniques due to rudiment mining principles still in use. Low productivity due to low efficiency in the mining operations has undermined the economic potential of artisan gold miners. This economic potential has also been affected by rapid environmental degradation caused by artisan miners. The rationale of the thesis is to identify and measure formalization of the sector (artisan gold miners) and investment in appropriate technology which is home made, efficient and environmentally friendly, and to promote sustainability in the artisan gold mining sector. Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) method was used for collecting information for the identification and assessment of different methodologies in extraction and processing used by ASSMs; and assessment of the level of awareness of safety, health and environment issues as part of sustainability. Logic modeling was applied on information concerning technology development and the environmental awareness of artisan gold miners. A sample of twenty-five artisan miners were interviewed at length. The average age of the workers was 27.4 years old with the majority of them being youth who are school leavers. There is a bias towards use of unconventional technology as it is inexpensive and simple. 48% of the interviewed miners thought panning activities destroyed rivers and 76% were aware of mercury and cyanide poisoning effects. The amalgamation process (for gold extraction) poses great health risks to panners especially during the heating of the as this is done mostly indoors. This incipient equipment has less than 50% average recovery of free gold whilst a newly developed wind sifting, gravity separator (that does not require water) can achieve 90% recovery of free gold. Transformation in the artisan-mining sector can be initiated by organizing miners into syndicates so as to equip them in the large groups with appropriate tools and techniques to run their mines.

li ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

“Eternity is always in the past, present and future and thus is neither governed by time nor space but is creative perpetually to bring revelation to mankind and ultimately liberty to all. Eternity is now!” First I give thanks to the LORE) God Almighty for the gift of life enabling me to finish the project and I am grateful for what He Has prepared for me in the future. Secondly I give thanks to my mum, brothers and sisters for their support during my studies. May the Lord JESUS bless you indeed. Also thanks to Mr L. Mlambo for his wise advise and Mr K. Musiwa, Chairman of the Mining Engineering department, for his patience, support and encouragement. Lastly I dedicate this thesis to everyone who has been instrumental in completing it.

in TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv LIST OF FIGURES vi LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF APPENDICES viii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ix

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 Historical background 1 What is Small-scale Artisan Gold Min ng? 2 1.1 Benefits in Investing Appropriate technology 3 1.2 Problem definition 3 1.3 Aim (rationale) and Objective of the project 6 1.3.1 Thesis concept and justification 6

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 10 2.1 Background 10 2.1.1 The Geology in relation To Gold Mineral,zation In Zimbabwe 10 2.2 World Perspective on Small-scale Mining 11 2.3 Small-scale Mining In Africa 12 2.4 Small-scale Mining in Zimbabwe 14 2.4.1 Introduction and Background 14 2.4.2 Obstacles bedeviling Art sanal sir all-scale Gold Sub-sector 16 2.4.3 Types of Small-scale Miners in Zimbabwe 18 2.4.4 Informal Or Artisan Small-scale Mining 21 2.5 Environment, Health and Safety: mercury a id cyanide use in processing 26 2.6 Sustainability Development from MMSD 29 2.7.0 A former artisanal mining-service operation area in Zimbabwe 32 (Shamva Mining Centre) 2.7.1 Lessons from the SMC project about ASS Ms in Zimbabwe 32 2.8 The Philosophy Of Rapid Rural Appraisal 34 2.9.0 The principles of rapid rural appraisais 36 2.9.1 Field operation principles 39

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY 41

iv 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Study Approach 41 3.5.0 RRA methods used in this paper 42 3.6 Study Constraints 45

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION 46 4.1 Introduction 46 4.2.0 Interview analysis 46 4.2.1 Artisan Miner interview: Persona: and soc io-economic details 46 4.2.1.1 Age of mine labourers 47 4.2.1.2 Source of finances and machi nery 47 4.2.1.3 Number of miners formally trained 47 4.2.2 The level of awareness of safety, health and environment issues (as part of sustainability) 48 4.2.2.1 Health and safety (including use of mercury and cyanide) 48 4.2.3.1 Logic Modeling (log c models for government authorities and artisan miner) 52 4.2.3.2 Services available to the artisan gold miners in RDCs 55 4.3.0 The level of investment in technology by artisanal gold miners 55 4.3.1 Support from both local anc developed nations equipment suppliers 58 4.3.2.0 Financial support programmes for artisanal small-scale miners 59 4.3.3 Small-scale gold production contributing :o economic growth nationally 61 4.3.3.1 Foreign currency generation by ASSM versus gold Mining Industry 63 4.4.0 Methodologies in ore processing and concentration technologies used by ASSMs 64 4.4.1 Process technology 65

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMM ENDATION 70 5.1 Conclusions 70 5.2 Recommendations 72

REFERENCES 75

APPENDICES 81

v LIST OF FIGURES Page

Figure 1.0: areas in Zimbabwe. 2 Figure 1.1: Gold panning along Mfuridzi river (Global Mercury Project: 2006). 4 Figure 1.2: Land degradation with piis, tunnels and soil dumps (near Pangani milling center- Insiza: 2007). 5 Figure 1.3: Stakeholder cooperation needed to achieve transformation. 8 Figure 2.0: Sub-divisions of small-scale mining (Ajoy K. Ghose: 1997, Mining on A Medium And Small-scale: A Glofal Perspective). 20 Figure 2.1: Simple rudiment tools; used by artisan gold mining (Shamva-Bushu mining area). 21 Figure 2.2: Along the Mfurudzi river system and area (tools and mining method applied). 22 Figure 2.3: Equipment selection crite ria for possible implementation and formalism (Prabir Paul: 1996). 23 Figure 2.4: Small drilling machines ( ineumatic and jackhammer in the Ndola area: MMSD REPORT. 2001) 24 Figure 2.5: Generalized Ore Processi lg system (Masiya T: 2007). 25 Figure 2.6: Negative circle affecting artisanal miners (Barry: 1996). 29 Figure 2.7: Sustainable Development (based on the SADC vision for sustainable growth in the region: MMSD 'eport. 2001. 31 Figure 2.8: Commonly used RRA Techniques, taken from Chambers 1993, 1997, Messerschidmt 2003, Theis and Grady 1991, Carter 1996). 38 Figure 3.0: RRA data collection techniques (adapted from Chambers 1993, 1997, Messerschmidt 2003, Theis and Grady 199], Carter 1996. 43 Figure 4.0: Retorting methods used by artisan gold miners. 51 Figure 4.1: Logic model-Target (aim) problem for developing innovative equipment for ASSMs. 53 Figure 4.2: Target (aim) problem for logic model # 2- Awareness of the negative environmental impacts. 54 Figure 4.3: Gold production from small scale m iners since 1997 to date. 62 Figure 4.4: Foreign exchange generation with emphasis on the Mining sector. 64 Figure A9.0: Model of sustainable de velopmem (Bruntland Commission: 1987). 92 Figure A9.1: Triad system integration approach in community based development. 93 vi Figure A10.0: Quartz veins versus al: uvial gold deposit exploitation 96 LIST OF TABLES Page

2.0: Predicted growth in SSM in Zimbabwe (ITDG: 2001). 15 2.1: Mechanization differences in small -scale mining. 24 2.2: Three steps or principles of fieldwork data collection. 39 4.1 :Various sources of finances a id Machinery. 47 4.2: Number of miners who received formal training. 48 4.3: Miners awareness of mercury poisoning. 49 4.4: Miners awareness of cyanide poisoning. 50 4.5: Miners perceived effects of mercury and cyanide. 50 4.6: Retorting methods used by artisan miners. 51 4.7: Thoughts of artisan miners on negative environmental effects. 52 4.8: Level of investment in ASSMs let inc log>. 57 4.9: Annual gold output received by RBZ for the past 17 years. 61 4.10: Small scale gold production figures from 1997 to 2006. 62 4.11: Total foreign currency earnings versus mining industry in USS. 63 4.12: Advantages and disadvantages if cyanide methods in small- scale gold mining. 68 5.0: Alternatives to the amalgamation of gold bearing concentrates. 73 LIST OF APPENDICES Page

APPENDIX ONE: Gold panning along the country’s major river systems. 81 APPENDIX TWO: Observed number of gold panners along rivers in various RDCs. 83 APPENDIX THREE: Mining’s contribution to GDP. 85 APPENDIX FOUR: Sample pilot survey study questionnaire. 86 APPENDIX FIVE: Informal depth interview cuestionnaire for key organizational leaders. 87 APPENDIX SIX: Fonnal interview questionnaire for families involved in cooperatives. 88 APPENDIX SEVEN: Logic model "‘Slow progress in adopting/developing appropriate technology”. 89 APPENDIX EIGHT: Logic model P2 ‘Low level of Environmental Awareness Of Artisan Gold Miners”. 90 APPENDIX NINE: The concept of Sustainable Development in applying appropriate technology. 91 APPENDIX TEN: Classification of ore resources. 95 APPENDIX ELEVEN: Names of aitisan gold miners interviewed. 97

viii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ASSM: Artisanal Small-Scale Miners CIP: Carbon-in-Pulp CSO: Central Statistical Off ce GDP: Gross Domestic Prodi.ct GMP: Global Mercur) Project GTZ: Deutsche Gelleschaft Teohnische g/t: grams per tonne FPR: Fidelity Printers and Refineries ILO: International Labour Organization IMF: International Monetary Fund ITDG: Intennediate Technology Development Group ITZ: Intermediate Technolog) Zimbabwe LHD: Loading-Haulage- Dump ng MMCZ: Minerals Marketing Corporation of Zimbabwe MMSD: Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development in Southern Africa NGO: Non-Governmental Organization NMAZ: National Miners Association of .Zimbabwe Tph: tonnes per hour RDC: Rural District Council RRA: Rapid Rural Appraisa1 SSMAZ: Small-Scale Miners Association of Zimbabwe PAZ: Panniers Association of Zimbabwe UZ: University Of Zimbabwe US: United States Of America dollar ZAR/ZS: Zimbabwean dollar ZMDC: Zimbabwe Min ng Development Corporation ZWMA: Zimbabwe Women Miners Association

ix CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Historical background Appreciation of today’s artisanal gold miners and realization of the potential they possess has been undermined by government and the corporate world as a whole. Irrespective of the high international price of gold at US $ 816.26 per ounce (London Exchange Market: February 20, 2008), artisan gold miners are some of the most marginalized, impoverished and vulnerable group of people.

A research programme by Global Mercury Project (GMP) in 2006, shows that artisanal gold producers do not gain substantial higher profits despite the pivotal role they play as the ore bodies they mine are small and therefore not amenable to large-scale mining. This may involve panning of gravels in rubble or reef mining of quartz veins. The artisan miners in Zimbabwe have contributed significantly to the economy generating about 1% of the mining’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 8% of the total earnings for the mining industry in 2004 (Central Statistical Office: July 2004). Over 85% of them are semi-skilled or unskilled (Svotwa R: 2000) with 60% of them mining full time, the rest being seasonally employed (Mining and Business In Southern Africa: 1997, Mugadeza: 1995). Artisan gold mining has also contributed to Zimbabwe’s economy by creating rural employment, raising rural incomes and many people have also benefited directly or indirectly through the extended family system (Wolff: 1993,Traore: 1994, Labonne: 1994, SSMAZ: 2007). Due to the fact that it requires little technical knowledge, artisan small-scale mining has been seen to complement agricultural activities and is also an effective way of reducing rural-urban migration. There is need to consider the appropriateness of technology used in exploration, mine life evaluation, mine development, processing of ore and the mine closure system to promote sustainability in the artisan mining sector.

1 What is small-scale artisan gold mining?

Artisanal gold mining can be defined as (Mutsambiwa: 1994): individual work performed by low levels of mechanization, partners with rudiment forms of mining using manual or portable equipment, and applied to alluvial or eluvial; vein and shear zone deposits. The mine work is done by individuals or families using purely manual techniques. The mining is seasonally done during winter as they are involved in agricultural activities in summer. This group is institutionally under the guidance of Rural Districts Councils who offer them licenses and is now considered quasi-legal. Some are registered under the Gold Partners Association of Zimbabwe and Small-Scale Miners Association of Zimbabwe. Figure 1.0 below shows the major panning areas in Harare, Kadoma, Bulawayo, Gweru and Mavingo and is concentrated along major river systems.

Figure 1.0: Gold panning areas in Zimbabwe

2 The vast-majority of gold deposits in Zimbabwe are of vein and shear zone type within the volcanic rocks of the greenstones in which quartz is the dominant mineral. Gold is also obtained from finely disseminated form in volcaniclastic sediments in the banded iron formations. The latter type of deposit is normally oxidic in near the surface and sulphidic at depth and is the type worked by most small-scale artisan operations near the surface. The artisan miners exploit both the alluvial and vein-shear primary deposits.

1.1 Benefits of investing in appropriate technology

For the purpose of this paper, appropriate technology can be defined as the innovative application of knowledge about how different equipment can be produced (Roy J. Ruffin: 1990). Appropriate technology should be compatible with sustainable development (intra-generational and inter-generational) and is one means to an end (sustainability).

The benefit of appropriate technology is that there is firstly production of import substitution equipment conducive for the local environment, which reduces expenses of import and promoting local (indigenous) companies. Secondly, appropriate technology increases efficiency by making it possible to access gold greater than 20 meters deep for underground mining activities and this possibly increases production per 8 hour shift. Thirdly, miners are able to mine less lucrative ore deposits more profitably through an efficient sequence of operations. Lastly appropriate mechanization reduces the amount of labour, working hours and improves mine safety by removal of the workers from hazardous places in the mine (Forster: 1981,Paul Prabir: 1996).

1.2 Problem Definition There have been several attempts by equipment manufacturers to make gravity separation equipment that would be conducive to gold panning conditions.The major problem is the efficiency of equipment used during the cumulative beneficiation stage. Cumulative beneficiation is defined as improving the chemical or physical properties of an ore so that the metal (gold) can be recovered at a profit (Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: 2008). The efficiency is low with a percentage gold recovery of 30 % where the blanket or

3 rubber mat is used. The beneficiation techniques include washing, sizing of particulates and concentration (which involves the separation of valuable gold from the material received from a grinding ). The low efficiency means revenue is reduced by incomplete recovery, while expenditure is increased by other additional cost such as transportation of the ore (Global Mercury Project: 2006).

Ore processing system in panning involves free gold recovery through either amalgamation or the James table. Quartz material containing gold locked up in pyrite is thrown away as waste .The "Bambazonke” machine used for gold-ore processing has not been very successful as its production is very low at about 500kg of throughput per day, which is what the miners are achieving instead of fairly high productivities of 4 tonnes per man-shift. This requires minimum ore grades of 0.25g/t to be commercially viable because of the high capital investment required in mining. With this technology of sluice boxes, it is possible to mine and rehabilitate even the river banks. However, leaving behind material less than 0.25g/t will bring back illegal partners in the near future (Priester: 1993, Global Mercury Project: 2006). Artisanal gold mining activities with the equipment and mining methods used could cause adverse effects on the environment such as: • Pollution of surface and underground water sources through unsafe use of toxic chemicals like mercury, cyanide. Figure 1.1 panning along an eroded river system

Figure 1.1: Gold panning along Mfuridzi river (Global Mercury Project: 2006)

4 • Siltation of rivers, dams and weirs with digging of pits or trenches on river banks and beds. This often happens due to river course diversion (Central Tanzania is an example) as miners interfere with the banks, beds or course of a river during the washing or processing of material to recover the gold (Mbendi: 2001, Limpitlaw D: 2001). Solid materials including soil particles, plastics, tins, papers and so on can be carelessly disposed of in the river. Overally, water left in all rivers affected by panning has often been muddy and downstream users are left with no clean water for domestic use. • Deforestation • Land degradation: underground tunnels; spoil dumps from excavations. Picture below showing land degradation (Figure 1.2)

Figure 1.2: Land degradation with pits, tunnels and soil dumps (near Pangani milling center- Insiza: 2007)

Land disturbance can be so extreme as to render an area ecologically unfit to support vegetation life because of the removal of the fertile topsoil.

The highlighted environmental concerns in artisan mining could be a result of the level of equipment used or low technical skills in ore processing and concentration technologies; geological exploration and sampling; drilling and rock breaking technologies. The

5 question then is whether conventional technology is appropriate for the artisanal miner? If the answer is yes, then the issue is how it can be accessible to the miner and how he can most optimally use it? If the answer is no, then the issue is how to develop an appropriate technology and make it adaptable by the artisanal miner?

1.3 Aim (rationale) and Objectives of the project

The thesis thus assesses the equipment and technical skills of the artisanal gold miner in Zimbabwe: past, present and future. The rationale is to identify and measure formalization of the sector (artisan gold miners) and investment in appropriate technology which is home made, efficient and environmentally friendly promoting sustainability. The objectives of the project are to assess or indicate:

• The level of investment in technology by artisanal gold miners with support from both local and developed nations equipment suppliers. • The different methodologies in ore processing and concentration technologies used by ASSMs. • The efficiency of the equipment in exploiting the mineral deposit and the subsequent processing. • The level of awareness of safety, health and environment issues as part of sustainability and encouraging formation of cooperatives. • Financial support programmes for artisan miners and their economic peformance nationally.

1.3.1 Thesis concept and justification

Currently the small-scale artisanal gold mining sector is not an attractive investment proposition in Zimbabwe. Government commitment would make it more attractive for private companies, Non Governmental Organizations and donors to invest both financially and by skills training. The small-scale mining sub-sector can currently offer little security such as security of tenure to access funding. ASSMs present a high risk to

6 investors as frequently no scientific geological assessment of the deposit is undertaken. Because of the unregulated nature of ASSMs activities, it is difficult to monitor them in any way. A lack of monitoring results in continued unsustainable practices and a failure to consider and use alternative technologies. Introduction of technology as a policy means machinery has to be purchased and serviced, materials will also be needed for the production system and roads have to be built or maintained. There is a need for raising awareness about the negative social and environmental impacts of their operations and training in the skills to avoid such negative impacts.

The extreme mobility of artisan miners, the improper-concealed nature of their operations and the remote areas they carry out the activities make a study of the sub-sector extremely difficult. The difficulty of organizing the artisan miners and tapping its economic potential is increased by an insufficient capacity to implement a legal or fiscal framework for small-scale miners. For example, panning is wasteful in that only free gold is recovered through either amalgamation or the James table and gold locked up in pyrite can be thrown away as waste. If these tailings are assayed for gold, levels of over 5g/t can be recovered (Maponga: 1995). The important thing is that panners should be introduced to better and more efficient ore recovery technology. Portable retorts can be made available to the panners through the government’s hire scheme. Alternatively, the government should actively support investment into clean technology through fiscal means such as tax concessions. It is important for new technology to be matched and supported by appropriate promotional policies, legislation and technical services.

ASSMs operate largely outside a legal framework and do not pay taxes and are not accountable for compliance with environmental legislation. On the other hand, they cannot benefit from any existing social security system (Hentschel: 2001). The government, given the above situation, should formalize and legalize ASSMs to collect revenue. This revenue can be used to fund the upgrading of the sub-sector. Also the administrative procedures required from ASSMs to enter the formal sector would be simplified.

7 Maponga (1995) defined development as a multifaceted process whose dimensions have moved from the narrow growth definition to include aspects like wealth redistribution, raising of living standards, optimal resource utilization, lowering the levels of unemployment, upgrading of human skills and poverty reduction.

The interaction of economic and social development and the natural environment and the reciprocal impacts between human inventiveness (innovation) and the bio-physical world, have been recognized by governments from local to international levels. This in-tum may imply the need of cooperation of all stakeholders (artisan miners, government, third party: for example non-governmental organizations) in the transformation of artisanal small-scale gold miners as well. When the roles of each stakeholder group are well defined, the overlap of their cumulative responsibilities fulfilled lead to transition (Sara Beth Lovitz: 2006) as applied by the Rapid Rural Appraisal used in this paper as a concept in carrying out the thesis (figure 1.3)

Figure 1.3: Stakeholder cooperation needed to achieve transformation

Therefore, the study is significant in that:

(1) It attempts to link appropriate technology to the concept of sustainable development in the ASSMs sector. If technology is found to be inappropriate that

8 implies a policy shift in the way we have been trying to promote sustainable development in the sector. (2) An assessment of the level of investment in the sector and various sources of support would provide clear pointers for investment promotion in this sector. Reasons as to why investment levels are low will be indicated, as well as alternative sources of support. (3) Conclusions on economic efficiency of equipment would further clarify needed policy on investment in the sector. Thus investment policy would not only seeks quantitative improvements but also qualitative ones, as investment in appropriate technology would seek to enhance productivity and incomes. (4) Environmental, health and safety awareness indicators would help in promoting awareness programmes as well as narrow their focus appropriately.

Thus, in general, results from this study would foster appropriate government as well as stakeholder commitments to the cause of appropriate technology and sustainable development in the ASSMs in Zimbabwe.

9 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Background

In today’s high-tech world, every mine (small or large) anywhere in the mining industry needs to adopt appropriate technology necessary to keep production levels high. However, in the beginning of time, most of them if not all mining operations were small scale using the most ancient, rudimentary tools and working on shallow deposits of gold, copper, iron, silver and many other precious or industrial minerals (Ministry of Mines: 2007). Sadly in Zimbabwe, the artisan small gold sector (specifically) is historically disadvantaged, as the citizens (in most cases) do not have investment capital or access to loans to smoothly start up and run these small mining ventures (C. Samimi: 2005). Consequently the artisan gold miners have been unable to invest in the acquisition, installation and running of an appropriate mining plant, equipment and tools to ensure appropriate technology application due to, among many other reasons, non affordability.

2.1.1 The Geology in relation to gold mineralisation in Zimbabwe

Most of the gold mined in Zimbabwe is from the Zimbabwean Craton forming the central plateau of the country. Minor quantities have also been obtained from the younger, Proterozoic rocks and from alluvial deposits while increasing quantities of alluvial gold are being recovered along the Mazowe and Umzingwane river basins. Zimbabwe is mainly underlain by pre-cambrian rocks comprising the predominantly undeformed Zimbabwe Craton of Archean age in the central, eastern and south-western extremity of the country, bordered on the south by strongly deformed rocks of the Limpopo mobile belt also of the Archean age on the north by relatively younger Magondi Supergroup rocks (Forster: 1981). The Craton consists of greenstone belts, tonalities, granites and granitic gneisses. The greenstone belts host the majority of gold deposits in the country. The belts consist of thick sequences of volcanic rocks, which pan upwards within the

10 succession into sedimentary rocks. The volcanic rocks are represented by the weakly metamorphosed komatites, basalts, andesites and rhyolites. The sedimentary rocks are mainly made up of cherts, greywakes, banded iron formations and some some minor limestones.

2.2 World perspective on small scale mining

There is not one definition on small scale mining as the mining methods and thus conditions differ internationally from one region to another and recent efforts to agree on one particular definition has failed. This is so because the small-scale mining sector had been for a long period sidelined especially in African countries. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO: 2000) and the MMSD (2005) 13 million people are directly employed in the small-scale mining sector whilst 80 to 100 million people (all in the developing countries) are employed indirectly. The sector is quite important in the production of gold, silver, gemstones, tantalite and notably small-scale mining is on the increase in countries like Bolivia, Venezuela and Zimbabwe. This is mainly due to economic hardships (MMSD: 2005). Irrespective of the failure to come up with a global definition of who a small scale miner is, there are common attributes and these are:

• Small-scale miners are known to exploit marginal or small deposits (in this study gold deposits). • There is little use in most cases of equipment to increase production or processing minerals. Equipment is mostly obsolete and redundant (NPC Mutsinya: 2005). • There is lack of capital and the miners do not possess the collateral security required to access loans to invest in their enterprises. • The work is labour intensive with low rates of recovery. • There is little or no technical knowledge and thus poor access to markets and support services. • The miners have low standards of safety and health. • There is a significant impact on the environment.

11 The trend varies little amongst most developing nations but interestingly manufacturers from the industrialized nations develop technology for these countries. The manufacturers know little about the environment and its needs technologically. There is no first hand experience. Small-scale mining is uncommon in developed nations hence appropriate technology should be developed in areas where it is commonly practiced to transform this sub-mining sector into a sustainable unit with long term objectives and strategies. It should be recognized as an important player in the economies of nations. Scholars have not been able to introduce the concept of sustainable development and to reveal its benefits in the mining sector, specifically for the artisanal gold miner. African nations rich in terms of gold and other mineral resources need to cooperate and initiate collaborative changes in accessing technology.

2.3 Small-scale mining in Africa

According to R.S Svotwa (2003) small-scale mining is now widely acknowledged by many African countries as a potential foreign exchange earner for the growth of the economy. This recognition by countries where it is practiced stems from its potential contribution towards poverty alleviation especially in the rural areas. This is an alternative way of employment and income generation besides agriculture which most African countries are still rooted in. Small-scale mining also encourages entrepreneurship initiatives amongst communities or villages. The potential to contribute towards poverty alleviation is due to its close linkage with economic and social development, both at the local and national level; its ability to reduce rural-urban migration especially of the unemployed youth; maintaining the link between people and the land (E. Shannon and R.S. Svotwa: 2003). It also has the ability to allow exploitation of the otherwise uneconomical reserves (marginal ore deposits) and to provide leads to most discoveries of large-scale deposits.

Within Africa, the artisan mining activities are estimated to provide employment to nearly 3.0 to 3.7 million people out of which 45-50% are women working directly or indirectly. The number of those who in one way or another depend on these activities is

12 much more. This is by taking into consideration the extended families in most African countries (C. Kinabo: 2003). At the local level, revenue from these activities increases the purchasing power and hence the on local products like working tools (although not effective) and many other products.

This brings in the concept of sustainable development which links the economic, social and environmental aspects of this mining sub-sector in line with application of appropriate technology. Revenue generated in this sector creates more employment in other sectors like agriculture, carpentry, fabrication, and foundry and others that target the market from artisan or small-scale miners. In sub-Saharan Africa, gold and gemstones that are widely produced by small-scale miners are estimated to be worth US $1 billion annually (R.S. Svotwa: 2003).

Despite the above positive aspects, small-scale mining is beset by serious problems that limit its contribution and hence the well being of its participants. As mentioned above, most miners are trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty. It should then be recognized by relevant authorities (government, NGOs, scholars, small-scale organizations) that artisanal small scale gold mining is poverty driven hence it is carried out in remote rural or urban fringe areas by a largely itinerant, poorly educated populace with little other employment alternatives. The technology employed as said earlier is rudimentary with severe consequences on the environment and miners. Thus health and safety standards are poor, productivity is low due to low efficiency and hence earnings as well are inadequate. There is poor security in camps and surrounding areas where illegal mining and marketing activities are common. Child labour is prevalent in such areas and without financial resources, technical and management skills, miners can neither conduct systematic exploration of the ore deposits nor acquire adequate techno-economic information to allow long term planning and adequate mining development (E. Shannon: 2003).

13 2.4.0 Small-scale mining in Zimbabwe

2.4.1 Introduction and background

Interestingly, gold panning in Zimbabwe has been practiced for centuries but increased dramatically after independence. Two major forces are thought to have encouraged a great exodus of people into the sector: unemployment by the early 1990s’ Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP) and the economic impacts of the 1991-92 drought. ESAP had a major impact on the domestic pricing system as basic commodities pricing subsidies were removed. From 1991 to 1993, local food prices increased by 150% (RBZ: 1993). There was a significant decline in formal employment thus increase in informal gold panning. The panning is concentrated along the major river systems of the country with Bulawayo and Harare having the highest partner density per square km due to the general high population densities in the major city centers.

From a general point of view, mining in Zimbabwe has been practiced time immemorial throughout the country. This was before the arrival of the white settlers in the nineteenth century. This paved way for modem mining in 1892 when gold was produced in Masvingo (Ministry of Mines: 2007). It is clear that the gold mining activities in many of the greenstone belt areas predated the arrival of Europeans by hundreds of years (C. Samimi: 2005). Archaeological evidence suggests mining to have started in about AD 800 with primitive but essential hand tools and continued primitively to the 18 century. Portuguese traders and explorers were active in the 16th and 17th centuries before being driven out by the Rozvi people. The next Europeans came from South Africa attracted by reports of the extension of the reef gold deposits from South Africa. Consequently a number of small-scale mines were started, nearly all being sited on ancient workings (N.S. Jennings: 2000).

In 1984 after independence, over forty different metals, industrial minerals and gemstones were being produced in the country. The most valuable have been gold, asbestos, nickel, copper, chrome and most recently diamond and platinum. In general, it

14 is most profitable for small-scale or artisan miners to exploit precious minerals as opposed to base and industrial minerals as economies of scale are a critical success factor for the latter. The Ministry of Mines has noted that except for gold and to a less extent chrome (because of the well structured organizations and its abundance on the Great Dyke), miners’ involvement and production capacity in the other mineral sub-sectors is of very limited macro-economic value to the national economy.

According to John Hollaway (2000), there are more than five thousand small-scale mines in Zimbabwe with hundreds of them typically small underground gold operations producing 240 tonnes of ore per annum (1995). However consistent output recordings since faded in 1998 and actual present levels are unknown (N.S. Jennings: 2000). At the time, the mechanization (technology) in the operations ensured little profit with poor funding but gradually it has been eroded due to harsh economic conditions facing the nation. Therefore most of the artisanal small-scale gold mines in Zimbabwe are not successful. Approximately 70% of the small-scale miners are involved in gold mining and produced above 40% of the country’s gold output (RBZ report and Zimbabwe Chamber of Mines: 2006 and 2000). However this contribution is cumulative of thousands upon thousands of artisan gold miners and the major contribution is from advanced small to medium-scale miners who have low operational constraints; high skills and high operational sophistication. They have a huge capital base and thus have high productivity. Below is a table on the projected growth of small-scale mining in Zimbabwe according to Svotwa and Sibanda (2000) who claim that small-scale mining activities in the country will more than triple from 2000 to 2010.

Table 2.0: Predicted growth in ASSM in Zimbabwe (ITDG: 2001) Year 1980 1990 2000 2010 Number of Less than Over ASSM 100 000 100 000 -300 000 300 000-1 million 1.5 million

15 The increase in the number of artisan small-scale miners has been fueled by recent discoveries of diamonds in the Marange area and the prevailing high metal prices for gold and diamonds on the international stock exchange.

2.4.2 Obstacles bedeviling artisanal small-scale gold sub-sector

Case studies from the Ministry of Mines and Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (gold unit) have revealed that problems affecting this sector are as a result of the operating environment. These include: lack of adequate funding and technical skill; lack of sufficient economies of scale necessary to effect sufficient critical masses of production output. If these issues are to be addressed it would ensure reasonable profit margins and financial independence to invest in appropriate technology and at the end ensure that the small businesses grow organically (RBZ), that is, grow from own accumulating financial resources to counter the need for credit finance. In most cases, credit finance is not forth coming due to frequently doubted credit worthiness of artisan miners.

The following is a description of problems in ASSMs and has been highlighted in elementary terms with detail below:

• Lack of appropriate mining technology coupled with foreign currency shortages

Besides damaging the environment, the equipment used by artisanal gold miners is archaic and endangers their lives as well and there is need to involve local communities, government, NGOs, and mining industry to design equipment which is durable, user friendly and technically sound to promote sustainability.

The miners do not have investment capital hence the bulk of them resort to ancient, unsafe artisan mining technology, which neither ensures their viability nor consistence in supplying competitive markets. Lack of appropriate mining technology in the form of mining plant, equipment and tools is further worsened by persistent foreign exchange shortages necessary for importation of these essential inputs.

16 Unfortunately most of them are manufactured outside the country or are not readily available on the local market. Investment in promoting locally invented technology is a primary goal, which has been advocated for by entrepreneurs in the small-scale mining sub-sector. The machinery to be used has to be of low cost, simple, and durable with high efficiency. The equipment must be tailored to conditions pertaining to remote locations in the developing world (P.A.J. Hosford: 1993).

The lack of appropriate mining technology is negatively impacting on the reliability and production capacity of the small-scale miners and this in turn also affects their competitiveness in supplying consistent and competent markets. The foreign currency shortages are persistently leading to both electricity and fuel shortages, further negatively impacting on an already distressed mining sub-sector.

• Incomplete compliment of mining technology

Small-scale miners lack full compliment of mining technology to cater for all mining phases of their mining projects. A good example is that many artisanal gold miners do not have their own milling facilities and neither do other small-scale miners involved in extracting chrome. They do not have their own smelters. Instead, gold custom milling centers are doted around the country to cater for several miners own milling facilities and large conglomerates; ZIMASCO, Zimalloys and Maranatha smelt chrome ore produced by the small-scale miners who work on the conglomerates’ mining concessions on tribute agreements. Therefore the ordinary artisan or small-scale miner in Zimbabwe generally do not have capacity to produce competitive mineral products like gold as they lack economies of scale; skills; capital and technology necessary to produce locally beneficiated and value added mineral products, which are exportable under Zimbabwe’s export regulations. In gold and to a certain extent chrome mining, where small-scale miners contribute reasonably (ZIMASCO), they are not involved in the export marketing since all gold and silver produced in Zimbabwe is sold locally to Fidelity Printers and Refiners, a subsidiary of the Reserve Bank Of Zimbabwe and all chrome mined (except for a minor fraction) is bought locally by the above stated chrome ore smelters

17 • Cash flow constraints

It cannot be over-emphasized that mining is a high tech industry, which is highly skills- based and capital intensive but artisan small-scale gold miners in Zimbabwe are people with neither investment finance nor technical know-how in sufficient critical masses to carry out sustainable operations (Ministry Of Mines: 2007). The few who have access to loans and other governmental services, irregardless of highly favourable mineral prices on the international markets, at the end have limited profit margins due to huge import costs resulting from high inflation of over 100 000% (Independent: March 21, 2008). There is lack of both suitable mining equipment and also appropriate skills, which worsen the situation. The realization of narrow profit margins is therefore rendering most artisan or small-scale miners vulnerable to cash flow problems and consequently there are in continuous need of credit finance, which is again (as highlighted above) scarce due to perceived lack of security credibility.

• Lack of mining skills

In general the bulk of artisanal gold miners or small-scale miners in Zimbabwe do not possess the necessary or relevant mining skills to nurture their businesses for high productivity first, then profitability- expansion and sustainable growth. This is despite consistent geological, mining, metallurgical title acquisition and retention; secondly business and finance advice; thirdly free training offered for them by the Ministry of Mines and the Mining Development’s technical and advisory departments. University of Zimbabwe and the Zimbabwe school of mines offer theses services at concessionary rates.

2.4.3 Types of small-scale miners found in Zimbabwe

Presently operations in this mining sub-sector can be divided into ten groups (N.P.C. Mutsinya: 2005) and these are

18 • Mining companies, which are fully registered. • Individual professional entrepreneurs • Non-professional entrepreneurs • Tributors • Mining contractors • Co-operations • Gemstones, lapidary and jewelry • Appointed minerals marketing agents • Parastatals of the government: MMMD, MMCZ, ZMDC, IDC • Informal miners under various associations for example ZIGMMA, PAZ, NMAZ

The artisanal gold miner is under the category of informal miners and this project has considered this sector as its main area of study because, as highlighted above, most artisan miners are involved in gold extraction through panning (riverbed: colluvial, alluvial or elluvial) and reef mining. Unlike formal advanced small-scale miners or fully- fledged mining companies, artisan mining is a survival strategy adopted by individuals or whole families. In extreme cases this mining activity involves extracting typically high valued, high grade minerals and a good example is gold panning.

Formal advanced small-scale mining is more mechanized and has state of the art equipment. It encompasses small mining units who are highly technical founded on professional expertise and state of the art engineering design. This type of mining is common in developed nations where each piece of equipment has a specific task by letting an LHD be an LHD, a jumbo a jumbo and a production rig a production rig (P. Horkko: 1993). Thus to believe in savings on common carriers is self-deception. According to John Hollaway (1997) as a wide adoption, artisanal mining is understood to refer to illegal mining, that is: the winning of minerals by people who do not have the sanction of the authorities to do so and typically is practiced by people with very limited resources. As can be observed from above, in small-scale mining no one criterion can suffice its diversity as for example tonnages depending on grades and market prices (J.

19 Hollaway: 1997). The figure below is an attempt to categorize the types of small-scale operations from a global perspective:

Skills & Capital Requirements

Low Moderate High

Advanced small-scale Mining

Traditional Small-scale mining

Informal Small - scale

Low Moderate High

Operational sophistication

Figure 2.0: Sub-divisions of small-scale mining (Ajoy K. Ghose: 1997, Mining on A Medium And Small-scale. A Global Perspective) Four parameters have been used to measure the type of mining: skills and capital requirements; sophistication (technology); constraints and undesirable practices. The

20 figure depicts small-scale mining with the informal small-scale having low operational sophistication but high operational constraints. The traditional small-scale mining method on the other hand is moderate and thus fall in-between informal and advanced mining techniques. The formal small-scale division is equipped with skills and high capital with low potential of practicing undesirable activities. This classification is explained in detail below.

2.4.4 Informal small-scale or artisan mining

This sub-sector typically exploits high value minerals like gold through alluvial gold panning or from quartz veins. The mine work is done by an individual or families using purely manual techniques. The mining is seasonally done during winter as they are involved in agricultural activities in summer. This group is under the guidance of Rural Districts Councils who offer them licenses and is now considered quasi-legal. Some are registered under the Gold Panners Association of Zimbabwe. However not all gold panning is legal. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 picture the simple tools and mining method used in this sub-division.

Figure 2.1: Simple rudiment tools used by artisan gold mining in Ndola (also observed in Shamva-Bushu mining area)

21 Figure 2.2: Along the Mfurudzi river system and area (tools and mining method applied)

Above is a picture to illustrate this type of mining commonly practiced in Zimbabwe and Southem-Africa as a region. It is a reliable representation of the Zimbabwean situation. These mines lack financial resources as well as appropriate management and technical skills. The mining operations are done haphazardly such that overburden is dumped in direction of mining. In a bid to minimize costs, benching is usually inadequate resulting in high walls that are dangerous.

Current mining operations in Insiza rural district do not exceed a depth of 20m making surface mining methods more appropriate. Lack of reliable information on geology, hydro-geological conditions as well as physical and mechanical properties of surrounding country rocks make optimal mine design difficult. In the Shamva and Bushu areas, mining operations are much shallower and less extensive. Operations from other areas are of similar nature utilizing mainly simple tools and techniques.

According to Prabir Paul (1996), there is need to devise an equipment selection criteria depending on a number of major factors in selection of mining equipment. These are specifically noted in the figure below.

22 Figure 2.3: Equipment selection criteria for possible implementation and formalism (Prabir Paul: 1996)

In designing equipment, one can selectively choose the make-up of the machine by considering the best elements suited to its function. This criteria shows the infinite possibility of invention in different realms.

23 Figure 2.4: Small drilling machines (pneumatic and jackhammer in the Ndola area: MMSD REPORT. 2001)

The above shown machinery caters for the needs of advanced formal small-scale mining, which in the end becomes middle or even large-scale miners depending sometimes on the extent and grade of an ore body. Below is also a categorization of equipment in advanced versus informal small-scale mining.

Table 2.1: Mechanization differences in small-scale mining Stage of mining Artisanal gold mining Advanced formal mining Prospecting, shaft sinking, Picks and shovels Drilling rigs breaking Mine bars Explosives LHD (Loading, Haulage, Dumping) Tunneling feed Transportation of ore/labour Windlass (manual) Trucks, (Materials or ore handling) Hoes and buckets Small scale hoist system, Ropes, ladders, torches Ventilation system, Wheel burrows Electrical, pneumatic, mechanical, hydraulic- power and Mercury Concentrators concentration methodology amalgamation, Mills, pumping machines, Panning dishes, Roast processing, Sluice boxes, vanning Compressors James table

24 The artisanal gold mining equipment is not only dangerous to the environment but to their health as well. Whilst advanced formal mining has access to electrical power, artisan gold miners use torches as light to work in the night, sometimes under water­ logged conditions. They use buckets to carry out the water. It has been observed that underground small-scale mines experienced a vertical transportation system problem with depth of more than 20 meters prohibitive to the current use of a windlass manual system (L. Madziwa: 2006). In addition, this windlass has no breaking system and the issue of low productivity and low ergonomics further reduce its effectiveness. It has been noted that these miners have no way dictating the lifespan of the ropes used on the windlass and the probability of snapping during operations is therefore high. There are no preventive measures to ensure safety in their working environment. In the mineral processing stage, defined as all activities necessary to recover the mineral from ore and includes crushing, grinding, classification and gravity separation (C.Musingwini: 2000), many of the artisan gold mines use technology virtually unchanged since the 1890s with many cases of mercury amalgamation of the final concentrates. This beneficiation method has seen the vaporizing of the mercury into the atmosphere and sometimes miners poison themselves and discharge heavy-metal pollutants into adjacent water courses. Below is a generalized flow chart showing an ore processing chain.

Figure 2.5: Generalized Ore Processing system (Masiya T: 2007)

25 Almost invariably, extracted ore material has to be submitted to cleaning or dressing operations (as above) thus frequently material has to be treated metallurgically before the marketable product is obtained.

2.5 Environment, health and safety: Mercury and Cyanide use in processing

Air, water and soil pollution from mercury, arsenic and cyanide usage has increased with mercury entering the river systems and thus poison domestic and aquatic life (Maponga: 1995, Sibanda: 1996, Voss: 2003, Mutsambiwa: 1994). Use of mercury was largely unknown especially in panning 15 to 18 years ago due to the coarse nature of alluvial gold. However, as the rich areas have been continuously reworked, or finer or lower gravel grades are treated, so the gold recovered is in turn much finer and harder to concentrate, thus mercury is used for this purpose (Hollaway: 2000) with inhalation of mercury during unsafe processes.

Health and safety is compromised with dangerous pits and tunnels, as humans and animals can fall in (Maponga: 1995, Traore: 2003) whiach can result in loss of lives (Sibanda: 1996). Holes are a health hazard in the wetter months as mosquitoes find them a good breeding place (Mutsambiwa: 1994, ITZ: 2003). Tunnels and pits collapsing on miners, collapses are frequent with an average of five fatalities a month, although there may be more deaths that are not reported due to the illegal nature of the activities (Hollaway: 2000, Traore: 2003). The incidence of such accidents is higher at panning times, and interestingly, superstition interprets such accidents as a sacrifice made in the quest for the mineral (Traore: 2003). Unsafe ore removal from shafts, falling rocks, potential health hazards are such associated with artisan gold mining that the life expectancy of underground small-scale mining is between 30-35 years (Carman and Berger: 2000).

In mercury and cyanide use, the threat of mercury is real, not so much to do with it entering the waterways as panners tend to concentrate the gold away from the waterway, but mainly from the inhalation of the vapour during the evaporation stage (Hollaway:

26 2000, Thixton: 1997). Using the theory what is sold enters the environment, not including the amount sold to artisan gold miners from illegal sources of which plenty are documented, an estimated 4.5 tonnes per year of mercury is released into the ecosystem in Zimbabwe (Thixton: 1997, 2005).

Gold is obtained by heating the amalgam (of which 50-60% by weight is mercury and 40- 50% is gold), wrapped in paper in an open ceramic, or metal crucible at high temperatures of 350-600 degrees Celsius ( Priester: 2004, Maponga: 1995). The vapourised mercury escapes directly into the atmosphere, and this accounts for 50-60% of all total emissions (Priester: 2004). The burning of mercury is done indoors, endangering the whole family. Panners also hold the mercury with their bare hands, without realizing the risk involved and eat food without washing them, thus allowing the substance to enter the body (Mutsambiwa: 1994, Maponga: 1995). Mercury causes brain damage as the metal has a high vapour pressure, exposed metal surfaces are sources of this dangerous pollutant. Even at 20 degrees Celsius, the saturation air concentration will be 13.33 mg/m3, that is, 266 times its threshold limit value of 0.05 mg/m3 (Bergstrom: 2003). However a local hospital in Maponga 's study (1995) could not provide any details of illnesses related to mercury, although he estimates that it is more than likely to exists given the observation.

A study in 1997 conducted by SSMAZ in the Mazowe area, searched on the levels of mercury in panners blood and urine. 16.7% of the participants had mercury levels in their blood greater than the World Health Organization (WHO) standard of 0.05mg/l, with the lowest value being 0.001mg/l and the highest 0.740mg/l in the study. Similarly, in urine samples, 11 % of the respondents had high values, but not levels indicative of acute poisoning likely to cause fatalities (SSMAZ: 1997)

Cyanide decomposes rapidly in sunlight, due to the instability of the sodium and calcium cyanide used and unlike mercury it is not cumulative poison (Bergstrom: 1992, Hollaway: 2000). Fresh solutions are fairly innocuous, with a typical concentration of 0.05% sodium cyanide, one would have to drink 400ml of the solution for it to be fatal

27 (Bergstrom: 1992). Therefore accident rates are low and environmental effects are apparently negligible based on the visual evidence around the country (Hollaway: 2000). It is believed that cyanide might be able to replace mercury amalgamation as a means of recovering the gold through especially as cyanide is not considered as dangerous as mercury (Thixton: 1997, Labonne: 2003).

The working environment for the miners is dangerous, no protective equipment is used, with some panners working naked. Panners do not have first aid boxes, neither are they located near hospitals. Tunnels and pits are poorly ventilated, lit by candles and paraffin lamps subjecting panners to respiratory illnesses. On average panners have a six-day week and work 8 hours per day. Such long hours may cause fatigue related illnesses (Mponga: 1995).

Sanitation on panning sites is non-existent, shallow pit latrines (less than 5m deep are used in most cases, as is the bush. The most common source of drinking water is disused pits or mine shafts, followed by rivers and open wells. Dysentery and cholera outbreaks are common in the Shamva-Mazowe and Umzingwane areas where in 1994 a cholera outbreak killed more than 10 panners at squatter settlement in Tafiina (Maponga: 1995).

The constraints facing artisan gold miners traditionally are illegality and informality. The acceptance that legalization is essential was reiterated by Gold Panners Association of Zimbabwe (GPAZ), that it would be too risky to do large investments in illegal activities because the government could vacate the premises and remove the artisan miners. So to risk capital, legality is important. Hollaway (2000) argues on the basis of informality by stating that the cultural underpinnings of the gold panning phenomenon are equally to blame. African traditions of shifting cultivation, a wealth index measured on the number of cattle, wives and children is still prevalent, with people generally skeptical and unused to the idea of fixed private ownership. Hollaway argues that the transition from this cultural, communal outlook and the imposition of ‘alien’ ideas of private land ownership and mineral rights will probably present a major schism in the policy approach to African development in this decade. Following on form this, he concludes that the result of this

28 cultural outlook implies that artisan miners have extract themselves from the constraints listed above if they are to prosper and develop (Hollaway: 2000). The interplay of these constraints often gives rises of negative circles of cause and effect, can be seen in Figure below (Hadija Mohiddin: 1997)

INABILITY TO INVEST

i= : > u

Figure 2.6: Negative circle affecting artisanal miners (Barry: 1996)

2.6.0 Sustainable Development from MMSD (Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development in Southern Africa)

The definition of sustainability adapted from Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development in Southern Africa (2002) report has been adopted as the standard level of viewing this twenty-first century thought in this project. However there are several other definitions depending on the field of study that should be acknowledged. The Bruntland Commission on Environment and Development is the general or overall definition used globally. According to the MMSD in Southern Africa sustainability can be described as

29 complete sustained growth simultaneously satisfying economic prosperity; ensuring environmental quality and promoting social equity. The argument amongst authors is the dependence of the three facets embodied in three words: sustain, develop, equity. This should be the approach in dealing with the mining sector especially the artisanal gold miner. In line with investment in appropriate technology, the sustainable development triad concept can be summarized as follows:

• Economic system Accelerate economic growth with greater equity and self-reliance encouraging entrepreneurship • Social system Improve the health, income and living conditions of the poor majority in small-scale mining • Natural system Ensure equitable and sustainable use of the environment and natural resources by promoting community based projects and participation.

There are both positive and negative impacts in the study whether to apply conventional or unconventional technology because mining activities are continuously operating which means formulation of policies that promote sustainability is important. Below is shown the 2002 MMSD triad sustainable development system.

30 Governance

Social system Economic system Improve health, Accelerate growth income & living economically with conditions of poor equity & self help majority

Natural system Ensure equitable & sustainable use of environment & natural resources: present & future

Figure 2.7: Sustainable Development (based on the SADC vision for sustainable growth in the region: MMSD report, 2001

The above illustration of the concept of sustainable development is a fairly new, broad and normally ill-defined philosophy, which is totally misunderstood by the general public. It advocates for aggressive indigenous campaign (community involvement). At the center of the system, are the natural resources, which can be depleted and thus there is need to develop strategies (equipment) in harmony with the environment. Secondly, the social system which are the people themselves and how they are organized around these resources (gold, diamonds, chrome and so on). Encompassing these two is the economic system involving management of the resources and the people holistically. This is illustrated below showing inter-dependence and interactive of the triad model system, which evidently has been tried with great results in other sectors of the economy like Tourism. Success stories like the CAMPFIRE project are examples, which have implemented this philosophy elevating villagers to unprecedented levels of wealth generation especially in the wildlife area. The policy is recommended for adoption to see whether it will work the same way in the small-scale sub-mining sector. This was also central to the main objective of the project.

31 Countrywide, the number of ASSMs has exponentially increased due to economic hardships and would increase further with plans of indigenization of mineral resources by government (RBZ: 2007).

2.7.0 A former artisanal mining-service operation area in Zimbabwe (Shamva Mining Centre)

The fact that all artisan mining is considered “illegal” has meant obscurity on the day to day running of the mines. This has resulted in poor planning and undeveloped management skills (entrepreneurship) because of insecurity on the part of the miners. The Shamva Mining Centre (SMC), located about 80 km north-east of Harare was developed as a project strategy to test the acceptability of shared milling and mining services facilities by small-scale gold producers. The centre would thus facilitate smooth operations of small-scale miners and was commissioned in July 1989. The overall objective of the SMC project was to assist small-scale gold miners in the Shamva and Bushu mining areas to acquire and use appropriate technology and skills in the mining and processing of gold. Additionally, the purpose was to establish viable, safe and environmentally sound mining operations, which would enable them to make meaningful contribution to rural development through sustainable income and employment generation. Unfortunately the project has been stopped and is a good example of trying to apply the concept of sustainable development in Zimbabwe’s small-scale mining industry.

2.7.1 Lessons learnt from the SMC project about ASSMs in Zimbabwe

Firstly, an artisan gold miner acting alone or in a small group, has little bargaining power to access finance and is also disadvantaged in negotiations with gold buyers (Fidelity Printers and Refineries). The individual operator has difficulty in accessing training and knowledge or skills development opportunities and has little or no opportunity to participate in information exchange (A. Mugova: 2001). Most small-scale mining operations rely on manual labour (as noted earlier), rendering it dangerous and

32 uneconomic. Many of them frequently burrow into the hanging and this often results in collapse of tunnels causing injury or death. Miners often sink underground shafts without adequate ventilation or support. These are examples of poor technology (B. Drechsler: 2001).

Small-scale mining operations are carried out in mostly remote rural areas, beyond the reach of postal, telephonic and electronic communication. There is therefore no exposure as they are shielded to access latest information available, which would assist the miners to carry out their activities in a more sustainable manner and widen their technology choices. Before its closure, the SMC project demonstrated that mineral resources could be managed right down to grassroots level. The SMC project demonstrated how local communities could be involved in meaningful mineral resources development through international and local NGO collaboration and intervention. The SMC project had multifaceted impacts on the whole mining industry. It realized a general increase in economic activity with more employment opportunities created. The project stimulated the interest of other countries especially the pilot ones under GMP with international visitors coming to the centre. Through the project, SSMAZ and ITDG were able to improve their ability to influence decision makers in developing policy more inclined towards small-scale mining, including the development of a legal framework on gold panning in Zimbabwe. It has been noted that most artisan miners have the basic technical skills and to a less extent geological experience but need training in and regular updating on appropriate technology. For example, all custom millers had been given up to end of March 2007 to convert their production systems to lockable concentrators so as to improve on gold recovery (RBZ: January 2007). An analysis of the systems by the gold unit of the Reserve Bank had shown that where a concentrator was used, gold recoveries were 80%, compared to around 35% where a copper plate was used, or worse off 30% recovery where the blanket or rubber mat was used.

On the other hand, lack of geological data leads to unsystematic exploration. Information on the potential of a deposit and its suitability for small-scale mining are essential for

33 successful exploration (B. Mangwiro: 2000). Current exploitation of gold is wasteful. Inadequate and inappropriate technology inflicts severe environmental degradation.

2.8 THE PHILOSOPHY OF RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL

Space is given in this chapter to the concept of Rapid Rural Appraisal because this is one of the key methods used in this study. Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) methodology and approach owes much of its early development to Farming Systems Research and Extension as promoted by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR) in the 1970’s (Chambers: 1997, Messerschmidt: 2003). RRA was developed in response to the disadvantages of more traditional research methods, including: the time taken to produce results, the high cost of formal surveys and the low levels of data reliability due to non-sampling errors. RRA is a bridge between formal surveys and unstructured research methods such as depth interviews, focus groups and observation studies. In developing countries, it is sometimes difficult to apply the standard marketing research techniques employed elsewhere. There is often a paucity of baseline data, poor facilities for marketing research (example: no sampling frames, relatively low literacy among many populations of interest and few trained enumerators) as well as the lack of appreciation of the need for research. The nature of RRA is such that it holds the promise of overcoming these and other limitations of research (Messerschmidt: 2003).

First of all, RRA represents a paradigm to understand rural development and its implications: understanding development as the result of:

• The complex interaction of variables and context, having multiple and changing relationships, and • The necessary involvement and participation of artisan miners (and rural people in general), since the very research process, perceives research as a

34 mutual learning process, including also the research component in the formulation and monitoring of development projects.

The process implies not only the generation of projects for the improvement of rural folk life (the gold panners). RRA is a powerful tool to understand the final implications of every endeavor (transformation); after all, development necessarily depends upon the degree to which the prospective beneficiaries (artisan miners) recognize it as useful to them (Chambers: 1992,1997).

The interaction and sharing of insights by multidisciplinary researchers avoids the biased partial views, by analyzing the systems (level of technology) performance, and understanding that they are the result of the interaction of social and natural elements. RRA analyses the structure of systems and provides a means of predicting the effects of changes and suggesting improvement actions (Theis and Grady: 1991, Messerschmidt: 1995).

RRA also considers research as searching for and analyzing data in a fast and cost- effective way. Moreover, RRA does not only consider the requirement of the fair amount and the fair quality of the information to support the outcome, but also gives sufficient openness to accept and incorporate unexpected but relevant information in an ongoing process. RRA links flexible techniques in a coherent form to collect on-site, cross check, validate and analyze data according to those priorities. Equally important, RRA considers simplicity, relevance and meaning as basic points in presenting findings and suggesting action.

RRA takes into account the huge cultural diversity of groups of rural population in developing countries. Secondary data collection, direct observation and semi- structured interviewing are very useful techniques for the full on-site understanding and cultural adaptation required by research, if it is objective (Chambers: 1997). Moreover, the participation of miners in the research process, as well as the inclusion of local researchers and researchers with knowledge about the site and having multiple disciplines, all contribute towards overcoming the difficulties in adaptation of the

35 research to the local conditions, that is, the adaptation to cultural values and beliefs, language, perception patterns, productive activities, economies, traditions, religion, ethical features, politics, and so on.

RRA embodies the principle that different people perceive and understand reality in different ways, with each point of view equally important (see Appendix 7 and 8 respectively). RRA is characterized by an applied, holistic, systems thinking and flexible approach of progressive learning, conducted by multidisciplinary teams, emphasizing community participation (Theis and Grady 1991, Messerschmidt: 2003, Carter: 1996). RRA combines old and new research techniques, old and new knowledge in somewhat, astonishing creative and effective ways. RRA information, limited obviously by the scope of the investigation, generates a purposive sampling frame of key and casual informants and geographical unbiased transects, without strict statistical representativeness, but with high natural-objective representativeness. RRA proposes gaining accessibility to rural people by involving them in the research process, that is in learning, collecting, finding and analyzing information in open discussions and total interaction. As a result, this participatory research also increases accessibility to sites. In addition, the use of key indicators and the information provided by key informants allows access to information otherwise hard to gather. Other techniques, and especially the case of aerial photography, provide a means of gathering information otherwise not accessible, or difficult to appreciate in all its magnitude.

2.9 The principles of rapid rural appraisals

The following are the principles of RRA agreed by its practitioners, in spite of the fact that there are different opinions and criteria concerning them. These are general principles of theory (Chambers: 1990, 1992, 1997):

• Optimizing trade-offs: relating the costs of learning to the useful truth of information, having tradeoffs between quantity, relevance, accuracy and timeliness of the information acquired, as well as its actual use. Trade-offs in this sense are not merely

36 mathematical ratios, but they also entail, in the context of cost- effectiveness, alertness, observation, imagination and the ability to pursue serendipity. • Offsetting biases: through introspection, it is necessary to identify cognitive biases and deliberately offset those biases. The recommendations are: to be relaxed and not rushed; listening not lecturing; probing instead of passing onto the next topic; being unimposing instead of imposing; and seeking out the poorer people and what concerns them. • Triangulating: using more than one technique/source of information to cross-check answers, that is comparing and complementing information from different sources or gathered in different ways. It also involves having team - multidisciplinary - members with the ability to approach the same piece of information or the same question from different perspectives. • Learning from and with the rural people: this means learning directly, on-site, and face-to-face, gaining from indigenous physical, technical, and social knowledge. Fanners' perceptions and understanding of resource situations and problems are important to learn and comprehend because solutions must be viable and acceptable in the local context, and because local inhabitants possess extensive knowledge about their resource setting. • Learning rapidly and progressively: this means the process of learning with conscious exploration, flexible use of methods, opportunism, improvisation, iteration, and cross-checking, not following a blueprint programme but adapting through the learning process. However, this could sound again as a non- systematic way of carrying out research.

37 A fundamental principle is the making of contact with the rural population in a learning process. This aspect must be one of the focal points. However, despite the great potential of using RRA, it faces a number shortfalls especially concerning rapid adoption, mis-use through lack of training and understanding of its principles and through rushing the approaches or methods (Chambers: 1990,Theis and Grady: 1991, Messerschmidt: 1995). RRA can be seen as a culture and a set of attitudes, its methods requiring skill, with naturally some people being suited to it than others (Chambers: 1990, 1992, Theis and Grady: 1991). RRA is used for appraisal and assessment (analysis) in many subject areas, including bio-physical world, health and nutrition (Chambers: 1990, 1992, 1997, Theis and Grady: 1991). Commonly used RRA techniques are shown in the section below.

Figure 2.8: Commonly used RRA Techniques, (taken from Chambers 1993,1997, Messerschidmt 2003, Theis and Grady 1991, Carter 1996)

38 In conclusion, it has been observed that when used properly, RRA is very effective as an information gathering technique (Chambers: 1997, Messerschmidt: 1995) and necessary information based decision-making process.

2.9.1 Field operation principles

Armed with tentative questions and information objectives, field research can begin. At first everything may seem confusing in the field. However, before long the region will become understandable if researchers follow three simple principles of fieldwork in completing your fieldwork data collection as shown in table below.

Table 2.2: Three steps or principles of fieldwork data collection

Observe: Researchers should keenly watch for patterns of mining, environment, and safety behaviour.

Converse: Researchers should stop and talk to miners and listen to their concerns and views.

Record: Researchers should write everything down. Complete field-notes are crucial. This is especially essential in the early stages of the appraisal to help organize thinking.

If a large region is to be studied in the rural appraisal and a large research team is to be employed, it is advisable to carefully divide the region into smaller areas and appoint small teams (of 2 or 3 researchers) to cover each area. Specific delineation (transects) of the boundaries of each area must be made to ensure that no overlap occurs between teams. A secondary data review should be conducted before conducting the research in the field. This would involve searching for and studying existing reports and records, and not only published data. Relevant information can be found in government agencies, universities, research centres, marketing bodies and other institutions. Relevant

39 information can be project documents, research papers, annual reports, previous survey results, maps, as well as journals and books and even newspapers.

40 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The basis of this chapter is to describe the research methods used for data collection on artisan gold miners equipment available and this was achieved through qualitative and quantitative means using a fast information gathering technique called Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA). The significance of the study was to make an analysis on the level of equipment use by artisanal gold miners not only in processing but also prospecting; drilling, crushing and grinding as well to conform to a higher dimension of a transformed mine model. This was meant to evaluate the future positioning of artisan gold mines from individual to community-stretched success thus promoting sustainability and growth.

3.2 STUDY APPROACH

Within the study period, 6 panned river sites, 5 mines, 3 milling 25 artisan gold miners were visited and spoken to (see appendix in the project mostly involved desk research by reviewing literati involved with pilot or baseline studies on Zimbabwe (secondar) extent, the author carried out fieldwork research with direct c walks across the area of investigation.

The desk study phase approach had access to reliable and up equipment use by artisan gold miners and innovative designs of environment. The study included analysis of unpublished re Engineering Department (UZ); Ministry of Mines; Institute o published monetary policy reviews from the RBZ. Key concepts mining’, ‘sustainable operation’ and ‘appropriate technology’. 1

41 in the preceding chapters and also in the research findings. The author had also access to the internet in order to cover the full spectrum of small scale mining internationally but focusing mainly on the local level.

The second phase (fieldwork) involved a pilot or baseline survey through use of regional or district mapping with distribution of gold fields and possible administrative centers (see overall figure 1); formal and informal interviews and field observations. This was done selectively in some of the five Mining District areas and these are Shamva, Insiza, Mazowe and Goromonzi where artisan gold mining is prevalent. The above methods of data collection coupled with the literature review were used to identify and define key concepts and considered indicators which would be good recommendations to help transform artisan gold miners by design of relevant equipment which would consume locally available materials, that is durable and affordable (see chapter 4).

3.3.0 RRA methods used in this paper

RRA methods were used for collecting information for the identification, assessment and measurement of different methodologies in ore processing and concentration technologies used by ASSMs, efficiency of the equipment in exploiting the mineral deposit and the subsequent processing, the level of awareness of safety, health and environment issues as part of sustainability and encouraging formation of cooperatives. In addition logic modeling was applied on information concerning technology development and the environmental awareness of artisan gold miners. Logic modeling can be defined as typically depicting the inputs, processes, outputs and outcomes with a research and its program. It is a top-level depiction flow of materials (information) and processes to produce the results desired by the research and its program (rationale) (McNamara Carter: 2007). The study was done by interviewing mining representatives in Kadoma (Mupfure river system) and also government officials, respectively (as indicated below). The following steps were taken to develop each of the logic models using the Antecedent-Target-Measure (ATM) approach.

Interviewee X: (logic model # 1) and Interviewee Y: (logic model # 2).

42 Step 1 - identifying antecedent conditions (A) Step 2 - targeting antecedent conditions and program strategies (T) Step 3 - measurement (M)

Interviews with artisan gold miners used a questionnaire format as well as an open- ended discussion that covered points on a checklist using a variety of the (above mentioned) RRA techniques. The application of techniques used during the discussions depended heavily upon time available and the willingness of the interviewee An informal depth interview (unrestrained one-on-one research technique conducted in person in the field) with key individual leaders (at most 5) in various organizations as well as consulting internal documents and records was done. The mine visits and panning sites enabled the interviewer to collect data using transect walk especially in the Shamva and Mazowe areas. The RRA techniques used are covered fully in the figure below.

Figure 3.0: RRA data collection techniques (adapted from Chambers 1993,1997, Messerschmidt 2003, Theis and Grady 1991, Carter 1996

43 This helped the author to identify problems besetting this sector (which prevents growth towards sustainable development) and also most importantly, analyzing the level of investment by government, NGOs and private companies in equipment supply.

With the artisan miner as the focus group (group depth interview) where with the approval of the respondent the interviews were carried out with the interaction of different mining organizations some under ZIGMMA, PAZ, or NMAZ. This was meant to stimulate discussion among group members rather than individuals and allowing response to the views expressed by the other participants. The miners brought out challenges they were facing in their respective Mining Districts notably access to finance. The aim of the survey was to measure the level of technical knowledge from exploration to processing and the intent to support sustainably, a lucrative mine project with the following guidelines.

• Mine life • Exploration (prospecting and sampling) • Actual mine development • Processing

An informal depth interview (research technique conducted in person in the field, unconstrained by rigid standards- confabulatory conversation: Britanica Concise Encyclopedia, 2008), with key leaders in various organizations was done with the following interviewees (see appendix 5):

• Mr Musuka, Mrs Manyanhaire: Fidelity Printers and Refineries (FPR) • Martin Chirume: Mine promotion Unit (Ministry of Mines) • Dr L. Mandal: Former Assistant Mining Commissioner (Harare District) • Wellington Takavarasha - Zimbabwe Miners Federation (President)

Formal meetings were carried out involving families of artisan gold miners and their contributions, responses, needs and achievements were written down. This looked at their

44 mining methods and level of awareness of safety, health and environment. This was a form of participative research involving the target group (miner) and stakeholders (local community) to involve all parties in development of shared mineral resources (gold) within a village set-up. The questionnaire used is found as a sample in Appendix 6. This was in the Shamva community area. Field observations involved recording (using a field notebook, pencil, geological hammer, hand-lense, geographical map of the area)

3.6 Study Constraints

• Time: lack of time to collect data and to visit mining industry stakeholders and NGO (former participants). • Transport: artisan gold miners are located in remote areas, far from bus stops and commonly used transport routes. It is very difficult to find a claim if unfamiliar with the area of study, especially when there is a shortage of time and the fuel shortages have seen high transport costs. Consequently all the intended artisan mining areas could not be visited. • Interview bias: representatives were unwilling to give certain information and dealt with the interviewer suspiciously. Implicit in some of the enquiries made during the discussions is the underlying theme of technology used and sustainability bearing in mind health, safety and environment issues.

The project was done from December 2006 to December 2007 during the rainy season when the water table is high and seasonal miners would be involved in agricultural activities.

45 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction

Results obtained are consequent of a combination of both inductive and numerical (deductive) methods of collecting data by following a flexible natural setting through Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) techniques. The research results are presented in two sections, Section 4.2 represents the information collected from interviews and Section 4.3 represents the data gathered regarding different methodologies in ore processing and ore dressing (beneficiation); investment in technology; financial support programmes and the efficiency of technology. Additional information gathered from the interviews not directly related to the objectives of the study is displayed in Appendix 10.

4.2.0 Interview analysis

Twenty-five artisan miners were interviewed at length. The amount of information gathered from an individual or group varied mainly due to the availability of time and informant participation.

4.2.1 Artisan Miner interview: Personal and socio-economic details. Fourteen of the interviewed participants were male with eleven females. The male: female ratio in this study is not representative of the gender distribution in mining in Zimbabwe. Notably, all the women interviewed were not miner owners but either running the mine together with the husband or a general hand.

46 4.2.1.1 Age of mine labourers The average age of the workers was 27.4 years old with the majority of them being youth who are school leavers. Most of the women were older but with an average age of 42.3 compared to 46 for men.

4.2.1.2 Source of finances and machinery The table below indicates the various sources of finance and equipment supply for the participants and illustrates the diversity in acquiring these capital assets.

Table 4.1: Various sources of finances and machinery

Acquirement (source) Number of artisan miners 25 Machinery Artisan Total % 1. Hired 17 68 2. Contract or lease 6 24 3. Owned by cooperative 2 8 Finances Artisan Totals % 1. Government 10 40 2.Non-govemmental-org. 2 8 3.Corporate finances 2 8 4. Individual sponsor 11 44 TOTAL 25 100

4.2.1.3 Number of miners formally trained. Table 4.2 indicates the number of artisan miners that have received a level of training. Formal training by either: 1. Participation on mining courses such as run by the Global Mercury Project, University of Zimbabwe or Ministry of Mines. 2. Previous employment at a large mine with formal training in all aspects of mining.

47 3. Attendance at either, a training center such former Shamva Mining Centre or Bulawayo school of Mines. Informal training relates to learning whilst working, being taught by a friend, colleague or boss, or from reading associated literature. This training is hard to qualify or quantify in terms of training and knowledge held by the trainer.

Table 4.2: Number of miners who received formal training Number of artisan miners 25 Artisan Total % Received formal training 8 32 Received informal training 17 68

4.2.2 The level of awareness of safety, health and environment issues as part of sustainability Aspects relating to safety, health and environment are indicated in this section. The perception of the participants is not only measurable by responses given during discussions but other factors interplay such as observing (during transect walks) the practice of hygiene and safety in the panning and mining areas.

4.2.2.1 Health and safety (including use of mercury and cyanide)

Drilling and blasting is of the ore deposit is usually contracted out to service providers thus it was noted that the most important tasks took place after the ore has been blasted (mainly in reef mining). The material is usually hand sorted and hoisted to surface either in a bucket hauled by a manual windlass, or by a human chain arrangement (where the ore is passed on from one worker to the other). This material is then crushed by hand using 8 pounce hammers to reduce it to less than 1.5cm in diameter, which is fed to a or to a . If the mine does not have either of these, then workers are employed to grind the ore using pestle and mortar. This task is usually delegated to women, and as it is done dry, the women are exposed to high dust concentrations. In its simplest operation, the material is then usually panned for fine gold, after which mercury

48 is added to form an amalgam (to recover the microscopic gold particles), which is later retorted. The final stage is called retorting when mercury is separated from gold through open-air heating. The process is watched carefully by all miners because they all want to see how much gold has been made. The inhalation of mercury is therefore something shared by nearly all gold miners. Attempts to encourage the use of closed retorts have not been successful in these areas because of the following reasons (analysis of comments during discussions):

• The retorts are expensive and miners do not see the justification because most of them require more heat energy to melt the amalgam.

• Miners believe that the use of aluminium foil (which they normally get free from cigarette packets) in an open pot adds to the lustre and quality (hence value) of the gold. The opposite is said to be true when a closed retort is used.

• Many miners do not believe mercury is harmful and one or two have “boasted of having swallowed a 250ml bottle of mercury and successfully ejected it through the normal excretion system”.

• Mercury is a fairly cheap product (at least compared to the returns it gives) and is readily available from many illegal dealers who capitalize on its demand to buy gold. Many of the suppliers of mercury are businessman of Indian in origin who then buy the gold through a third party (parallel market buying).Tables 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 below indicate what the miners exactly thought of on the use of mercury and cyanide in ore processing. Table 4.3: Miners awareness of mercury poisoning Number of artisan miners 25 Perception on the use of mercury Artisan Total % Thought it is safe 9 36 Thought it is dangerous 16 64

49 Table 4.4: Miners awareness of cyanide poisoning Number of artisan miners 25 Perception on the use of cyanide Artisan Total % Thought it is safe 3 12 Thought it is dangerous 22 88

Table 4.5: Miners perceived effects of mercury and cyanide Perceived cause-effect and comments Number of artisan miners 25 Mercury Cyanide Total % Danger to animal and human life when it enters 4 7 44 drinking water Do not know why/ unsure but says it is dangerous 5 2 28 on the label Touching it gives you burning sensation, sores 3 1 16 and stiff joints Inhalation is poisonous 6 2 32 If you drink it, you will die (in 3-5 minutes) 2 3 20 If you drink it, destroys intestines and stomach 0 4 16 Causes heart problems 2 8 You go mad 1 4 Causes cancer 1 4 Causes long term illness 1 4 Continuance Mercury Cyanide Total % Must not eat of drink it 1 4 More dangerous if you swallow than inhale 1 4 Poisons the stomach if you inhale it 1 4

It is believed that more than 6 tonnes of mercury is finding its way to the small-scale miners every year (Ministry of Mines: 2006). Annually, this amount ultimately ends up in

50 the soil and water system. The unregulated nature of small-scale mining activities mean it is difficult to monitor them in, that is, measuring health and safety; environmental impact and contribution to national economy. Lack of continual monitoring has resulted in continued unsustainable practices and a failure to consider and use alternative technology (see table 4.7 below)

Table 4.6: Retorting methods used by artisan miners Number of artisan miners 25 Retorting method used Artisan Total % Using a piece of paper (aluminium foil) & burning 17 68 on a dish on fire Using a closed retort method recovering the 6 24 mercury Do not use mercury at all 2 8

Retorting method used

8%

□ Using a piece of paper (aluminium foil) & burning on a dish on fire ■ Using a closed retort method recovering the mercury □ Do not use mercury at all

Figure 4.0: Retorting methods used by artisan gold miners

51 Questions relating to the participant’s opinion of negative environmental effects were discussed at the end of the interview and the issue of rehabilitation (see table 4.7 below)

Table 4.7: Thoughts of artisan miners on negative environmental effects Number of artisan miners Perceived environmental impact with comments categorized Artisan Total % Open pit hazardous to cattle and also human beings 13 52 Deforestation 10 40 Land degradation, soil erosion, loss of vegetation 9 36 Loss of wildlife 3 12 Land collapsing due to tunnels and shafts 2 8 Panning activity destroys rivers, river siltation 12 48 Chemicals from milling centers can pollute rivers/water sources 2 8 Air pollution -blasting and use of candles & machinery in adits 9 36 Lack of sanitary conditions (toilets) 6 24 Lack of clean water 5 20 Shaft collapsing dangerous 2 8 Continuance Artisan Total % Others- will rehabilitate 8 32 Already rehabilitating 1 4

4.2.3.1 Logic Modeling (logic models for government authorities and artisan miner)

Two main problems were addressed in drawing up the models with the first model looking at technology development from a small-scale miner’s point of view and the second model focusing on the awareness of the environmental impact in formalizing the artisanal mining sub-sector. Therefore there were two rationales and as a result two logic models were produced as well. Appendix 7 and 8 shows results, which were obtained in which a system of symbols was used to represent quantities and relationships deductively

52 In drafting the first logic model, the identified main problem was the “slow progress in adopting or development of appropriate technology suitable for ASSM sub-sector".

Results show that to address the problem, the authorities should target the area of innovative equipment-design suited to the Zimbabwean scenario or environment. The targeted problem that was measured is shown below in figure 4.1. A good example where this formula was tried is the Shamva Mining Centre with notable success being experienced in the Shamva-Bushu mining area. Presently it is impossible to implement because of the economic-political challenges the country faces but in the long run by promoting good reputation and building a good name for Zimbabwe, it is possible for innovative equipment suited to artisan gold miners in Zimbabwe to be developed.

Figure 4.1: Logic model-Target (aim) problems in developing innovative equipment for ASSMs

In the above logic diagram, it was observ ed that projects often suffer from management

problems as personnel appointed may lack project management experience, particularly

financial management. This, coupled by other factors would decelerate the investment

and development of equipment suited to ASSMs

53 The second logic model was made after interviewing government authorities who were heavily involved in carrying out Operation Chikorokoza Chapera in 2006. This targeted the small-scale mining sub-sector and the rationale in the model was the “low level of environmental awareness among artisan gold miners”. The antecedent identified problem was smuggling and parallel market trading of precious minerals like gold and diamond.

This is because RBZ through FPR were receiving less and less gold bullions as ASSMs preferred the parallel market trading where the returns were quick and higher opposed to government offers. The RBZ had realized the economic potential of ASSMs in the year

2004 when they contributed 50% of the total gold output they received through their subsidiary FPR. The targeted problem is illustrated below (figure 4.2)

Figure 4.2: Target (aim) problem for logic model # 2- Awareness levels of the negative environmental impacts

Besides environmental concerns, the logic diagram shows the main objective of carrying out this operation. Most of the gold and diamond was being sold in neighboring SADC countries. This further deprived the government of resources to acquire enough foreign currency to import essential products not found in Zimbabwe.

54 4.2.3.2 Services available to the artisan gold miners in RDCs.

Mining service centers are composed mostly of custom millers where a record of small scale miners who bring their ore for milling is maintained by the miller who verifies and records the miner’s registration certificates, ore removal permits and identification particulars before milling. All custom millers are designated Gold Buying Centers for

Fidelity Printers and Refineries and all gold brought to the centre is sold to fidelity through the miller. However it was noted that the spatial distribution of the custom millers was not even as in certain areas like Karoi there is one custom miller in an area of

50 square km. It therefore might take days before a miner to have his ore milled.

In year the 2003 the Custom Milling Act was enforced (Statutory Instrument 329) which enabled millers to access loans with no interest charged by providing in 10 days a certain stipulated amount of gold to FPR. This has seen an average but steady increase of 5% per month of the number of custom milling centers nationally since January 2004 to date.

Starting January 2007, the RBZ has embarked on a programme to increase accountability for gold produced mostly targeting custom millers and small-scale miners. The monetary authorities have also encouraged all milling centers to have tight security, with perimeter fences erected around them.

4.3.0 The level of investment in technology by artisanal gold miners

Due to the extreme nomadic nature of artisanal gold miners and also the chaotic make-up of their operations, it was noted that they do not built any permanent infrastructure. Areas visited showed no security, sanitary, communication (access) or permanent

accommodation-mining structures. Therefore there is no planning of infrastructural

development within the mine claims. Four areas of identifying equipment use were

established and these are:

4- Prospecting and exploration technology

4- Drilling and blasting technology

55 4 Gold processing and concentration technology, and 4- Availability of water

Gold prospecting methods are very basic especially in the Mazowe river valley using unscientific methods: word of mouth and oral tradition using rudimentary using wooden and metal equipment. In some cases prospecting involves holding a two-branched stick in a perpendicular position while moving in a straight line. If the stick jerks, then there is a possibility of a rich vein (high grade veins can be detected in this manner). Sampling is a matter of trial and error with sampling aloe confined to the surface deposits; river banks, beds and previously worked sites.

Ore processing-concentration technology and water were in most cases found to be inseparable, as the beneficiation methods require water in almost all the processes. Thus the source and constant supply of water is a major problem for the miners. Investment to promote safe and much cleaner technologies in this area has been initiated by UNIDO under which the Global Mercury Project (GMP) is run. They also are training the miners to increase the production levels and most importantly equipment efficiency in recovering free gold in the Kadoma area.

The study showed that there is a bias in developing new technologies in gold processing and concentration equipment as compared to geological exploration and sampling together with drilling and rock breaking technologies. Exploration mostly involves gophering as mentioned above. Dev elopment of new technologies is illustrated below with low levels of investment from government due to economic constraints.

56 Table 4.8: Level of investment in ASSMs technology Government Level of Innovations of Projects Investment Service ASSM technology undertaken Opportunity Centers technique for develop. (NGOs,Govt)

Exploration/ Geological Basic None RBZ gold Low sampling survey dept. unit

Processing\ Custom mills High Bamba-zonke, GMP, SMC, High

Concentration (RDCs) mvuto, kantaka MMSD

Drilling or Custom mills Very low None ASSM-large Low

Rock blasting (RDCs) mine partner

contracts

Mining None Very low (UZ) Low cost Mining eng- Low

Infrastructure hoisting-equip. GTZ

• RDCs - Rural District Councils ASSM- Artisanal Small Scale Miner

• RBZ- Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GMP- Global Mercury Programme

• SMC- Shamva Mining Centre

It was noted that most of the artisanal miners still operate largely outside a legal

framework, for example not paying taxes and not accountable for compliance with

environmental legislation. Thus the existing facilities for ASSMs to access loans, grants

and credit all have serious drawbacks. The miners are in a weak bargaining position with

regard to loan from buyers of their products and the requirements for loan from

institutions are frequently too complex and strict for the ordinary miner. Often the

administrative and management costs associated with disbursement of the loans or grants

are much higher than the capital provided. This in-tum inhibits the involvement of

artisanal miners in formalizing the sub-sector as they are left out in policy

implementation.

57 4.3.1 Support from both local and developed nations equipment suppliers.

The study was able to note one key player on the local scene and this is Small Scale

Mining Supplies (Pvt. Ltd) located in the Southerton industrial area. The company has faithfully supplied the artisan miners with innovative equipment since the

1990s’especially in the area of mineral processing (this has been dealt with). Sadly the author found that it is the only company of repute to have effectively contributed to the needs of the miners and the well being of the environment in their equipment design.

Other companies have since closed or are at grassroots level and examples are Ezeeflow pumps in Bulawayo and Seltrust Knight Piesold (Harare). Another interesting development is the design of a vertical transportation system by L. Madziwa in his Mphil thesis at the University of Zimbabwe (2006). The prototype designed was operated to test its:

4* Functionality

A- Operational capability

A- Safety

A- Ergonomics

A Efficiency

From the above, it was noted to be 60% functional and the general operation above 90%.

The machine had higher safety and ergonomics than the windlass. Also the rope had a safety factor of 5. The total cost of producing the machine was about Z$ 20 million in

January 2005 against a selling price of about ZAR 70 000.00. Furthermore the machine is

simple, robust and durable requiring minimum maintenance. This reduces operational

costs drastically.

58 4.3.2.0 Financial support programmes for artisanal small-scale miners.

Non-Governmental-Organisations(NGOs) and the Private sector

The major NGO, which has been working with the small-scale and artisanal miners is the

Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG), which has provided a wide range of financial and technical support to the sector. Its major accomplishment was the establishment of the Shamva Mining Centre, which offers a range of services to small- scale miners in the Shamva area. ITDG was the only NGO working with this sector until mid-1990s, mainly because other NCOs did not want to identify themselves with the bad publicity associated with artisanal mining, especially with regards to environmental disregard. Since the UN-sponsored Harare Conference on Small/Medium scale mining in

1993, several key NGOs had come to the forefront to assist the sector. They include: -

• EU (European union) Micro Projects; which has provided funding to several

small-scale mining projects, including funds for the establishment of Shamva

Mining Centre.

• COMIC RELIEF; which provided capacity building funds for National Miners

Association of Zimbabwe (NMAZ).

• TDH (FRG); which funded the establishment of the Shamva Mining School. The

school was training women miners to certificate of competency level.

• GTZ; which had been funding the alluvial Riverbed Mining project initially in

Insiza and wanted to go national. This project was being executed by the UZ-

Mining Engineering Department. •

• SNV; a Netherlands Non Gov ernmental Organisation, which had committed itself

to developing a vibrant small scale and artisanal mining sector in the Insiza and

Umzingwane rural districts of Matebeleland South. A project document to that

59 effect had been developed and was to be used to source resources for the

activities.

• AFSM (Austria); which has been providing loan funds mainly to chrome mining

co-operatives on the Great Dyke. The loan facility was extended to gold miners.

(The programme is currently suspended)

Unfortunately, most of the NGOs nave since withdrawn their financial and services

support due to the negative publicity and economic chaos currently taking place in

Zimbabwe.

In addition, organizations such as Hivos Foundation and World Vision had expressed open willingness to fund small-scale mining activities as long as there is a properly organized assistance programme. Other NGOs like the American Jewish World

Volunteer Service, the Austrian HCRIZON3000 and the British VSO were willing to provide human resources if there was a proper small-scale mining development programme.

In the private sector, large mining companies have continued to offer training to small-

scale miners in areas such as occupational health and safety through the Chamber of

Mines. This opportunity however, has not been properly utilized because of the rift, which divides the two sub-sectors of the industry. Many large mines have also facilitated the sale of explosives to small-scale miners, and in emergencies, often respond with

rescue teams.

Manufacturers of mining equipment have also been endeavoring to produce appropriate

gold processing plants for small-scale miners. Some companies have begun to realize the

commercial opportunities that exist in the sector. For example, IMF (Bulawayo), ABJ

Engineering and Precision Grinders have all developed and manufactured mobile gold

processing plants that are specifically designed for small-scale miners. However the

capital cost is too high because of the need for a massive chassis and wheels. Secondly

60 the plants are not flexible should the materials being treated vary in their beneficiation characteristics (a particular problem when treating small deposits). Also the lack of a massive, firm foundation coupled with the need to keep the operating components light in weight leads to rapid wear and high maintenance costs. It was observed to be cheaper and better to buy the right equipment for the deposit and mount it on proper concrete foundations using industrial tractor-trailer combinations to bring the ore to the mill. An individual entrepreneur has also developed a wind-sifting, gravity separator that does not require water and its promising to be exciting for gold panning. It is capable of treating up to 20 tonnes in 8-hour shifts and can achieve 90% recovery of free gold far above the

35% from copper plate and 30% for the blanket mat.

4.3.3 Small-scale gold production contributing to economic growth nationally

The production levels are a key to measuring self-reliance (encouraging entrepreneurship), hence assess the potential they have to build the economy nationally. It is a bid to encourage formalization. With the present equipment and technical skills of small-scale miners, provisional output figures from the mining industry body indicate that monthly gold production increased slightly from 1053 kg (September 2006) to 1070 kg

(October 2006) pushing for the first ten months of 2006 to 9405 kg of gold. Cumulative gold deliveries at the end of 2006 were 10.96 tonnes painting a disappointing picture in this critical sector when compared to 21 tonnes achieved back in 2004. Year 2005 was similarly lower than 2004, with total gold deliveries to RBZ amounting to 13.45 tonnes.

Accurate figures of the amount of gold produced were not readily available with the table below depicting changes since 1990 to 2006.

Table 4.9: Annual gold output received by RBZ for the past 17 years

Year 1990-1993 1994-1997 1998-2001 2002-2006

Tonnage 71.2 92.1 92.5 72.91

61 Production levels show that contribution by artisan gold miners was reduced drastically

from 1997 to 2002 and then increased to 50% contribution in 2004 but reduced to 25% in

2006. This is illustrated in the table below.

Table 4.10: Small scale gold production figures from 1997 to 2006

Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Tonnage 1.18 1.37 2.42 0.79 0.25 0.20 0.88 10.98 5.8 2.38

It therefore still remains to be established whether the sudden increase in 2004 gold

production was due to a high level of efficiency (equipment, government incentives) or

other parameters came to play to realize such phenomenal growth in the sector. The

graph below shows the variation in gold produced for the past ten years.

Small-scale gold production

12 10 8 6 □ tonnes 4

Figure 4.3: Gold production from small-scale miners since 1997 to date

The above variations can be attributed to a combination of factors, including, lack of

equipment, reduced exploration and mine development, as well as illegal trading and

smuggling of gold.

62 Lately, the RBZ has been able to increase foreign currency retention and price adjustments in support of the Gold industry in an effort to shore up performance in this sector. In the future, the RBZ is planning to also expedite payments for deliveries made, so as to free up gold producers’ working capital positions. This recognizes strongly the small-scale miners as well.

4.3.3.1 Foreign currency generation by ASSM versus gold Mining Industry

The declared gold contribution by artisan miners was worth US$ 10.67 million of the total US$ 152 million foreign currency earnings generated in 2003. Year 2004 was higher with an increase to US$ 141 million contribution by this sub-sector of the total US$ 274 million revenue obtained solely from gold. The table below shows the forex changes with the total foreign currency earnings

Table 4.11: Total foreign currency earnings versus mining industry in US$. Total Forex Mining industry ASSM Forex Year (Zimbabwe) (excluding ASSM) earnings

2003 301 million 152 million 10.67 million

2004 1.7 billion 274.0 million 141 million

Unfortunately, total foreign currency earnings for 2005 and 2006 could not be obtained but indicators are that foreign exchange earnings from gold continue to increase and out strip agricultural produce which in the past contributed much of the Gross Domestic

Product (GDP). Figure 4.2 below shows a graphical representation of the foreign currency earned between 2003 and 2004. Additional information concerning foreign currency earnings for Zimbabwe (GDP) can be seen on Appendix 7 with emphasis on the mining industry.

63 Foreign exchange generation

2000

1500 □ 2003 Q 1000 ® 2004 500

0 1 I total forex mining ASSM

Figure 4.4: Foreign exchange generation with emphasis on the Mining sector

The statistics in figure 4.2 above shows the potential of artisanal miners. The foreign exchange contribution from this sub-sector has the potential of surpassing favoured agricultural products like tobacco which earned US$ 62 million compared to US$141 million from ASSMs in 2004. This is despite the low level of efficiency at some panning sites.

4.4.0 Methodologies in ore processing and concentration technologies used by ASSMs.

Artisanal miners in Zimbabwe do not follow any conventional mining methods. In quartz reef mining, they follow a band of the ore until the operation becomes uneconomical because of hoisting, water pumping and ventilation requirement problems. A new shaft is usually started along the strike with deep trenches, pits, gulleys, and shafts of 20m to 50m varying depth.

Most of the technology recently developed in the small-scale mining sub-sector has targeted gold recovery. This has beer done by improving on locally developed equipment over an extended period of time (as from 1987 to present) and others taken from existing

64 technology and adapted to local conditions. There was therefore an analysis of the processing technology, which has been made in Zimbabwe over the past 10 years with the aim of improving production.

4.4.1 Process technology

Mineral processing is a stage in the mining cycle where high human health impacts occur

and environmental damage is most likely. This is the area where technology skills are

most needed in small-scale mining to avoid being wasteful. In this section of the paper,

the analysis involved comparing and contrasting the results obtained from the artisan

miners with the empirical data already known in the field.

(a) Portable sluices

Bambazonke (word meaning plenty, riches) sluices have been developed to treat both

alluvial and freshly milled material but are mostly found on alluvial operations. The unit

is supposedly composed of a feed hopper and extendable plastic mesh, available in a

number of sizes and configurations to facilitate optimization for a particular ore and gold

particle size. The units can process up to 0.75 cubic meters of material per hour,

depending on the material and gold content and is supplied complete with a small petrol

driven water pump to provide sluicing water. However this varies from one area to

another

(b) Gravity concentrates

There are typically employed in series to maximize recoveries and a good example is a

“plane table”, simple in design with no moving parts. A James Plane Table is generally

used as a continuous primary concentrator, typically on mill discharge material. The basic

unit then consists of two inclined tables covered with rubber mats called strakes. The

strakes are ribbed rubber sheets, with the ribs airanged in the line of pulp flow. The tables

65 arranged with the first slightly elevated over and overlapping the second and between the tables is located a concentrate launder. The pulp flows over the top table and gold is collected in the strakes. Wash water is added to the pulp to wash the gold particles down the table into the concentrate launder, from whence it reports either to a collection box for late batch treatment or to a secondary concentrator. The pitch of the tables (typically 10 to 20%) and amount of wash water are varied to optimize the gold recovery. Plant recoveries of between 30 to 70% can be achieved at throughputs of between 2.6-

10.5tph/m width and these figures depend on the type of ore and the deportment of gold.

The recovery of fine gold is always a problem for gravity concentrators and probably the reliable recovery units for fine gold are centrifugal concentrators. The most successful and commonly used units are Knelson concentrators and Knudson bowl centrifugal concentrators. The latter are increasingly favoured in Zimbabwe because of their greater simplicity and lesser reliance on water quantity and pressure. The Knudson bowl consists of a rotating steel, open-topped bowl, which is fitted with a ribbed rubber insert. Material is fed from the top and overflows the sides, with gold collected between the ribs. The unit is operated in batch mode and the rubber insert is periodically removed for cleaning.

(c)

It involves milling of ore and in Zimbabwe a number of manufacturers produce ball mills in the diameter size range of between 0.76-2.5m. These units are capable of treating between 0.5 to 3 tonnes per hour, depending on the nature of material fed. The smaller units are typically mounted in a steel frame and simply located on a concrete floor, whilst the larger units are normally mounted on concrete foundations. Depending on their operation and material, these mills are capable of producing relatively fine grinds, suitable for cyanidation of the resultant pulp. The advantage of these units is their comparatively low capital cost, low cost of installation, abundance of spare parts and ease of handling.

Steel liners and grinding media are cast locally and in some cases sections of railway track are used as cheap and effective liners. Another milling innovation has been the

66 development of a small stamp mill, suitable for the small operator. The ‘axiflow’ three- stamp mill is designed to produce a finer ground product than conventional stamp mills, by operating effectively as a 3-in-series mill. Consequently each stamp caters for particles of a similar size and finer particles are not ‘cushioned’ by larger particles, allowing a finer overall product. The standard three- stamp unit can treat approximately 3 to 5 tonnes per 24 hours, depending as indicated above on feed size and type of material.

The unit is powered by a diesel engine and an electric motor. The downstream recovery equipment consists of a dressed copper plate followed by a sluice, solids settling to recover process water and possibly cyanidation of the tailings in VATS. Overall recoveries of the order of 30 to 60% by copper plate and 30 to 50% by cyanidation are achieved.

These stamp mills are comparatively cheap, easy to erect, easily relocatable and very simple to maintain and operate at relatively low levels of mechanical proficiency.

(d) Cyanidation and Adsorption

Recent innovations in the field of gold leaching and adsorption include the use of carousel CIP plants (carbon-in pulp) and the more general use of heap leaching of oxide .

In conventional CIP plants, the activated carbon flows counter-current to the pulp. The carbon is transported between tanks, attaining progressively higher gold loadings as it proceeds from the tails to the feed tanks. How ever the procedure of carbon movement, typically by airlifting in small plants is often difficult to control accurately. This results in different carbon concentrations in each adsoiption tank, which results in gold losses and significant operator time attempting to balance the carbon concentrations.

In the carousel-CIP system, the carbon is not physically moved between tanks. Rather the point at which fresh leached pulp enters the CIP plant is moved, so that the carbon grades progressively higher gold tenors over an adsorption cycle. Thus the carbon concentrations are maintained the same throughout the plant and the head tank is periodically drained

67 completely of all its carbon for stripping. As a result significant savings in operating time are effected and theoretically at least gold losses are further minimized.

Heap leaching on the other hand, is not a Zimbabwe development, although many are operating countrywide. Heap leaching is particularly suitable for relatively low grade, oxide and permeable ores and also for areas of low water availability. Table 4.12 below shows the small-scale mining industry's view on cyanide leaching methods for cleaner production.

Table 4.12: Advantages and disadvantages of cyanide leaching methods in small- scale gold mining Advantages Disadvantages

There is good recovery of the metal gold Mercury and heavy metals in the material

are partially dissolved and emitted in water

and tailings

It is usable for gravity concentration There is emission of cyanide and its

components

It is a relatively simple process There are safety problems

Rarely correct (standard) residue water

treatment and tailings deposition are found

(e) Elution or Carbon stripping

Simple and effective stripping unit called an ‘elution boiler’ has been in use for the past

15 years. It operates under pressure utilizing convection. The units are manufactured in units of standard mass capacity and loaded manually. The internal heaters set up a convection current whereby hot caustic cyanide solution rises upwards stripping the gold from the bed of loaded carbon. At the top of the unit is a steelwool loaded cell onto which the gold from the solution is loaded. The solution is recycled so that over

24 hours the carbon is stripped down to approximately 50g/t from loadings of between

68 2000 to 6000g/t. This is not common amongst ASSMs but scattered individual professional entrepreneurs in small-scale mining use it.

(f) Flotation

A number of innovative adaptations in flotation technology are operating in Zimbabwe.

These include column flotation cells and variations of the Jameson type cell unit. A local

50tpd gold mine treating a sulphidic ore containing approximately 4g/t of gold and 1% copper (chalcopyrite and arsenopyrite) has developed an effective Jameson-type cell to produce a 10% Cu and 20g/t Au- copper concentrate suitable as feedstock, whereby the additional gold recovery increases the overall plant gold recovery to approximately 90% and the plant copper recovery to about 80%. The basic design unit consist of a feed pipe

located in a cylinder, manufactured from used cyanide drums. Pulp from the CIP tailings

is conditioned to reduce the pH and for the addition of collectors and frother and pumped through a nozzle located in the feed pipe into the cell. This has the effect of jet

impingement of the pulp into the froth column in the feed pipe. The overall effect is to create a tall froth column allowing an effective particle cleaning and separation. The concentrate overflows the launder and is allowed to dewater in settling ponds prior to transportation to smelter. The pulp level within the cell, achieved in large units by level detection instrumentation and control values, is achieved here with a single siphon pipe.

The unit once commissioned operates with very little supervision and only basic

maintenance of the feed nozzles is needed.

69 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

There is a bias towards use of unconventional technology as it is inexpensive, simple and can be developed to improve its efficiency with time. Examples include ‘Katanka’ one- stamp mill developed by a company called Small Mining Supplies; kitchen-bowl retort on bonfire using “mvuto” blower; use of mortar and pestle for pounding and

“Goldkacha” new centrifuge equipment also developed by Small Mining Supply company. Small Mining Supply is presently the only company heavily involved in the design and manufacturing of equipment suited to the working environment of artisanal gold miners and with time has increased its efficiency. The amalgamation process poses great health risks to panners especially during the heating of the amalgam as this is done mostly indoors.

The existing facilities for ASSMs to access loans, grants and credit all have serious drawbacks. There are no tangible incentives for development of technology due to low investor confidence and government initiative. The miners are in a weak bargaining position with regard to loans from buyers of their products and the requirements for loans from institutions are frequently too complex and strict for the ordinary miner. Often the administrative and management costs associated with disbursement of the loans or grants are much higher than the capital provided. Besides creation of employment, the sub­ sector has a multiplier effect by kick starting development in other linked areas like permanent infrastructural development with service provision in communication, transport and so on.

The small-scale mining sub-sector can currently offer little security such as security of tenure to access funding. Small-scale mining presents a high risk to investors as

70 frequently no geological assessment of deposits has been undertaken. Zimbabwe has a huge mineral resource base with potential for sustainable growth through the transformation of artisanal miners to medium-scale and large scale.

The technology available in formal small-scale mines is well established but the real needs are in the informal sector, that is, artisanal gold miners. However, tremendous effort from UNIDO under which the project “removal of barriers to introduction of cleaner artisanal gold mining and extraction technologies” was run for training these miners in the Global Mercury Project (GMP: 2006). The programme is still running. The gold output from ASSMs in the five mining districts was noted to be high.

71 5.2 Recommendations

Formalization of the artisanal gold miner into a major player in the country’s economy should be started by formation of larger groupings. This promotes strength, which is found in groups where the parties normally hoid joint, and several liabilities or assets. It also creates joint productive capacity for the miners and lends the group to the concept of group lending which then becomes attractive. Administrative matters are easily handled when for example an association acts as an initial screening agent and later on an enforcer on recovery of loans and outstanding debts from its members. Once the group concept has been achieved, the technology aspects of innovation, mining management and entrepreneurship can be addressed.

• Government should heavily support the transition of small- scale miners to formal

sector through implementation of policies specifically geared to this sub-sector.

• Learning institutions in partnership with companies should develop and offer

appropriate training programme for comprehensive business skills acquisition by

small-scale miners. Financial institutions (banks, development agencies);

government, companies and NGOs should facilitate access to credit adapted to the

specific requirements of small- scale miners to buy equipment.

• Also development and offer of information gathering and straining mechanisms

and appropriate capacity building programmes for comprehensive technical skills

acquisition by small scale miners.

• Portable retorts, which are much cheaper should be made available to the panners

through the government’s hire scheme.

• Alternatively, the government should actively support investment into clean

technology through fiscal means such as tax concessions effectively.

• New technology should be matched and supported by appropriate promotional

policies, legislation and technical services (more custom mills in Mining District

areas per square kilometer).

72 • It is recommended that the legal restrictions in these regulations should be

removed, and a combination of technologies such as sluicing and wind-sifting be

researched into to achieve optimum gold recoveries.

• Joint venture opportunities can be pursued as a financing option to enhance

viability of the small-scale mines and their transformation to medium-scale and

large-scale mining operations

• As a long-term policy, it is suggested cyanide extraction is a better choice for

many small-scale gold miners. Cyanide has the advantage of decomposing very

rapidly in solution, particularly when exposed to radiation. It is also not a

cumulative poison in the body like mercury. Table 5.0 below illustrates

alternatives to the banned use of mercury in ore processing methodologies.

Table 5.0: Alternatives to the amalgamation of gold bearing concentrates Simple alternative processes Limitation of the process

Panning gold nuggets Only usable for coarse gold

Magnetic separation and panning Only applicable for magnetic materials

Blowing Lsed for small quantities

Friction separation on inclined rough Used for small quantities of flaky gold surface More advanced alternative processes

Direct Need highly enriched concentrates

Cyanide leaching It is a slow process plus has health, safety,

and environmental problems

Leaching water or other reagents (Cl, Br) Technical complexity, high cost, slow

process and has health, safety and

environmental problems

Gold or oil agglomeration Needs highly enriched concentrates,

technical complexity, high costs; health,

safety and environmental problems

73 The rehabilitation as mining proceeds needs to be addressed more positively. The panners must be educated in the benefits of proper rehabilitation, such as availability of water (in the future) for their livestock and market gardening. But above all, there should be financial incentives for proper rehabilitation. The scheme, which is being used by

ZimAlloys on its chrome supplies should be extended to the gold panners. In the

ZimAlloys scheme, the company deducts a certain amount per tonne of chrome received from the supplier as “environmental rehabilitation charge”. When the miner successfully rehabilitates the operation, he/she is then given back multiplied by 1.75 per tonne of the amount of chrome bought from him/her. A quick evaluation of this arrangement has shown that it costs the miner less per tonne mined out to rehabilitate the mine as compared to double the same amount the job would cost ZimAlloys. And by doing rehabilitation work, the miner is gaining and ZimAlloys saving by reducing expenditure thus benefiting both parties.

74 REFERENCES

UOY, K. GHOSE. 1993 and 1997 Mining on a medium and small-scale: A Global perspective

lAKER, M.J 2007 Business and Management Research. Completing your project.

AXTER, R. 2001. Personal Communications, rbaxter (/bullion.org.za

ARBIER, 1987.

ARRY, M. 1996. “Transformation artisanal mining: findings of a world bank roundtable”

Centre For Resources Studies Perspectives, No. 52, January

iRUNTLAND COMMISSION 1987 (World Commission of Environment and Development)

ARTER, J. 1996. Recent Approaches To Participatory Forest Resource Assessment. Rural

Development Forestry Study Guide 2. Rural Development Forestry Network, Overeas

Development Institute, London

ARTER, McNAMARA 2003 Guide lines and framework for designing basic logic model,

Authenticity Consulting, MBA, LLCD

ENTRAL STATISTICAL OFFICE July 2004

HAMBER OF MINES. 2000 AND 2006. Journal on Economic Performance Of the Mining

Industry from the Central Statistical Office.

IAMBERS, R. 1980 Rural Development: putting the last first Harlow, England.

MBERS, R. 1990 “Rapid and Participatory Rural Appraisal” Appropriate technology

Vol.16 No. 4 March

75 CHAMBERS, R. 1990 “ Rural Appraisal: Rapid, relaxed and participatory” IDS Discussion

paper 311 October

CHENJERAI, K.G 2004 Small-scale Gold Production in Zimbabwe: Mining Districts.

CHIOTA, LEVY M AY 2005. An Analysis Of The Growth Of Small-scale mining With A View

Of Improving It.

DRECHSLER, D. 2001 Small-scale mining

DAVIDSON, J. 1993 The transformation and successful development of small-scale mining

enterprises in developing countries, Natural Resources Forum V

FORSTER 1981. Materials handling in mechanized small-scale mining in developed nations

FRED, WESTON J, THOMAS E. COPELAND 1989 Managerial Finance, 8th edition Dryden

Press Orlando, Florida

GLOBAL MERCURY PROJECT. 2006 Small-scale mining training programme

Independent weekly newspaper

HALLOWAY, J 1991. African Mining Conference Role of small-scale mining in Africa:

Building on the informal sector.

HOLLAWAY, J.1993. “A Review of technology for the successful development of small scale

mining” 15-19 February Seminar

HALLOWAY, T. 1995.“Strategies for transforming Artisanal Mining In Africa” (confidential

report).

76 HALLOWAY, J 1997 and 2000 International Labour Organization (1LO). Small-scale activities

in Zimbabwe, Bolivia and the Philippines.

HENTSCHEL 2001.MMSD Report of Southern Africa

HOSFORD, P.A.G 1993. Innovations In Mineral Processing Technology for Small And

Medium Scale Mining Operations. UN. Interregional Seminar 15-191'1 February 1993.

HORKKO. P. 1993. Mechanisation in small-scale mining industry: Developing Nations versus

Industrialized Nations.

INDEPENDENT NEWSPAPER. May 1,8 2007

I.T ZIMBABWE. 1996. Going for Gold, The Story Of The Shamva Mining Centre.

JENNINGS, N.C. 2000. Small-scale Mining. International Labour Organisation (ILO)

JOSEPH, LEVINE. S. 2007 Writing and Presenting your thesis or Dissertation, phi) Michigan

University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.

K.INABO. C. 2003. Small-scale Mining from an African Perspective in the 21s1 century

LABONNE, B. 1994. Small And Medium Seale Mining. The Harae Seminar Guidelines, Natural

Resources Forum Volume 18, No.l, pages 13-16.

LONDON EXCHANGE MARKET. February 20 2008

MADZIWA, L. 2006 Design of an underground small-seale mine vertical transportation

system

77 MANGWIRO, B (2000). Insi/.a Reel Mining Study. Support Programme lor the Emall-sacle

Reef Mining Sector In lnsi/a I hslrict. Geological Report

MAPONGA. 0.1005 “Gold Panning Along '1 lie Ma/rwc PUer And Us Ti ilmtaries". (Available

from the Institute of Mining Reseaich Library, University of Zimbabwe).

MAPONGA, O. 1005 “ Socio-Economic And I environmental Impacts Ot Gold Panning In

Zimbabwe: A progress report” MapongiU personal notes, Available from the Institute ()f

Mining Research Library. University of Zimbabwe.

MESSERSCI1IMDT, I). 2003. Rapid Appraisal For Community Forestry, The RRA Process

And Rapid Diagnostic'fools. IIED Participatory Methodology Series.

Ministry of Mines. 2007. Environmental Impact Assessment (E.I. A)

MEBRATU. 1998. An Introduction To Environmental impact Assessment (E.I.A). IK'I, Press

Limited, London.

MUGOVA, A. 2000. Environmental Awareness Amongst Small-scale Gold Mining

MUTSAMB1WA, T. 1994. Socio-Econom c Baseline Survey Of Small-scale Minors In The

Insi/.a District, Malebelelantl South, Zimbabwe. Intermediate Technology Development

Group , Zimbabwe.

VIUTSINYA, NPC 2005 (Lecturer in Mineral Economics and Small to Medium scale mining

enterprises). Department of Mining, 1 ngineeiing. University Of Zimbabwe.

PRABIR .PAUL.1996. Transition towards meehani/ation-industiial mining in Small-scale

Mining Africa.

/ O PRIESTER, M. 2004. EnvironenUal Protection Measures Per The Reduction Of Mercury

Emissions From Gold Mining Activities, A Case Study From Columbia. U.N

Interregional seminar.

RESERVE BANK OF ZIMBABWE (R.B.Z). 2000 and 2006 report and Zimbabwe Chamber of

Mines.

SIBANDA, P.AND SVOTWA, R 2000. R verbod Gold Mining In Zimbabwe. Depailmcnt of

Mining Engineering, University Of Zimbabwe.

SOUTHERN AFRICA DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC). 2006 Sectored reports on

Mining (online) accessed on 4 November 2006. Available (m \v\\ w.sndcrcx iew/.vm/

5VOTWA, R.S. 2003. Insi/a Reef Mining Study. Support programme for the Small-:.calc Gold

Reef Mining Sector in Insi/.a. Mining Repot l

TT1E1S, J AND GRADY H.M. 1991. Participatory Rapid Appraisal For Communilv

Development. A training manual based on experiences of the Middle East and North

Africa. IIED And Save The Children Publication.

[RAORE, P.A. 1994. Constraints On Small-scale Mining In Africa. National Resources Forum

Volume 18, No. 3 pages 207-212

TRUSCOTT, S.J. 1997 Mine Economics

/OSS. 1996. Riverbed Mining. The Manyuclii And Insi/a River Test Cases. Depailmcnt Of

Mining Engineering, University Of Zimbabwe.

I/0LFF, P. 1993 Riverbed and Alluvial Gold Mining in Zimbabwe, Department ol Mining

Engineering, UZ,

79 WORLD BANK 2001 World Development Indicators, World Bank.

WORLD COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT 1987 Our common

Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

80 Appendix # 1: Gold panning along the country’s major river system

Panning Activities along Zini oabivr's Rivers Sab continental Main River Ti Unitary Rivers nrnler 1 .ength Indian Ocean System System Panning (km) Hiver System LIMPOPO Sliashc (ugwi/,c Ingvvi/.e 20 Sansukwe Sansukwe 45 Puli Malcma so Chavc/.i 75 duli 140 Sliashc 215 Bubi Bubi Jcjel 20 Mut/.cngwc 25 Bubi 155 M/mgwane M/ingwane Insi/.a 50 Nya/.ani 15 M/.ingvvane MO

SAVL R U I K i C ■VI utii ik'.vi Mutirikwi 105 Tok wc Tok. we 75 Mukosi 20 Ngesi 1 Jmchaii 35 Ngesi _____ Ruiulc '230 Saw Devuro Nyanvad/i 75 Muge/i 40 Devure 95 Nyataiula 5 Umvumvumvu |o5 OiRi 120 Save 1335

ZAMBb'/l Rwcnya \\ aepa.i/i Nyanyad/.i s o i Inyangcmbc Mwara/i i5 i i Nyamkomnni 120 j Inyangombe 75 ; Inyamsi/.i Nyaniamme |IS i inyamsi/.i [25 i Ruenya 65 M ud/.i VI ud/'i Nyamasan/.Ui a 40 1 Mud/.i 00 Huy .1 iRuya Mupfuri 25 | Ruya 1 15 Ma/oe \f. Avetera Nyakad/.i 20 Gwercia ____ i Chiora A ...... iNyadirc Nyadiie 85 : Nvagui Nyagui 30 'Pole Potc 20 jTsamvi 'I’sanivi 5 Ma/oe 220 Kadzi 'Kad/.i Kadzi 05 Angvva An gw a Angwa 135 Manyame Manyame Daiule 60 Manyame 00 Sanyati VI u pin re Washange 10 Beri 30 i Muplure 90 iPiiiviri Sungwi 50 1 Biri viri 30 Piriviri 30 Munyati Starkstroom 15 Sebakwe 55 Umswcswc 50 > Munyati 195 Bvunn udzi Bvumvudzi 70 Kamyali Kauyati 30 Gwayi tnsu/a insirza 80 Lupanc Lupanc 30 Buhi Buhi 50 ;Shaiigani Gweru 5 Lukampa 15 Shangani 140 Gwayi 90 Total Panning Length | i |461 5 Source: Wolff. 2006 Appendix # 2: Observed number of gold panners along rivers in (he Mining Districts

NUMBER OK PANNE RS OBSERVED Total a %: r \t .i ■V.'MUKR o r RIVERS ->m! PA N A ! US 3u1 km 4"' km 5lh km p i;r k m km km

MARARI-

Mazo we 80 77 165 107

Ruenva 150 08 248 12 1

Oilzi 156 1 08 88 412 137

Nyamsizi 400 300 300 1.000 330

Mupfiiruilzi 1.500 1.000 2500 1 250

— — — KADOMA

A ngw a 1 15 80 06 100 140 540 108

Mu pi lire 40 00 75 60 265 66

LHJI.AWAYO

Insiza 100 80 180 00

M zingw ane 150 00 128 348 1 16

83 — — — — — MASVINGO

R unde 70 40 1 10

GWHRU

T ebckw a 1,000 500 1,500 750

Source: Svotwa (1999)

.'V Appendix #3: Mining's Contribution to GDP

Year Total GDP at Mining’s Mining's market prices Contribution to Contribution to (nominal Z$ GPP (Nominal Z$ GDP (%) million) million) 1972 1419 76 5.4 1973 1553 104 6.7 1974 1861 136 7.3 1975 1998 131 6.0 1976 2166 152 7.0 1977 2198 149 6.8 1978 2359 156 6.6 1979 2822 226 8.0 1980 3441 285 8.3 1981 4433 252 5.7 1982 5197 217 4.2 1983 6306 393 6.2 1984 6404 320 5.0 1985 9097 336 3.7 1986 10361 446 4.3 1987 11200 336 3.0 1988 14109 680 4.8 1989 17509 602 3.4 1990 21494 845 3.9 1991 29623 1184 4.0 1992 34392 1552 4.5 1993 42481 1625 3.8 1994 56159 2531 4.5 1995 61763 1142 1.8 1996 84707 1317 1.6 1997 99737______|1384 1.4 ! Sources: Cen raTStatistical Office , \lafional Income and Cxpcn titute Repoit 1000 Central St at i s t i ca I O ffi c e . National Accounts 1905-1997^1 ily 2004

5 Appendix # 4 : A sample of a pilot survey study questionnaire designed for the Shamva-Busliu miners near the closed Shaniva Mining ('outre. Objective > measuring level of expertise in mining.

1. Name of Rural District Council......

2. Name of mine (formal-informal; ii dividual- cooperative)......

3. Knowledge of geology of area: a) low...... b) basic......

c) high......

4. Method of sampling......

5. Instruments used in sampling......

6. Type of ore deposit mined......

7. Method of processing ore......

8. Distance to the nearest custom mil ......

0. Amount of ore mined per day/moulh year......

10. Hcjuipment requirement (if any)......

1 1. Affiliation to any SSM organization......

12. General comment...... Appendix # 5 : Informal depth interview questionnaire for key lea.Set .s in various parastals, NGOs and Private sector. Objective > level of interaction with ASS Ms.

1. Name of respondent......

2. Organization represented......

3. Position held......

4. Support programmes for ASSMs......

5. Scrviees available to ASSMs through gov t initiative

6. Any interaction with local equipment suppliers for ASSMs

7. Number of seminars held in 2006 and 07 promoting ASSMs

8. Future of ASSMs: Comment Appendix # 6 : Formal interview questionnaire designed for families involved in ASSM in the form specifically of cooperatives. Objective > possibility of formalizing operations (sustainability).

1. Name of Mine/Cooperative...... 2. Ownership arrangement...... 3. Souree of machinery a) hired......

b) contrast/le use......

c) owned by cooperative'......

4. Source of finances a) Govt e.g Zimalloys, Zimasco......

b) NGOs......

e)Corporatc resources......

d) Individual sponsor......

5. Method of ore processing......

6. Age of mine labourers a) 1 5-1 S yrs b) 10- 23 yrs c) 24-20 yrs d) 30-35 yrs e ) 36\is i 7. Number of women involved in running the mine 8. Method of rehabilitation...... 0. Ore mined per day/week. month'year...... Appendix # 7: Logic model for “Slow progress in developing/ adopting

89 Appendix # 8: logic model 2 for “Aim: Level of Environmental Awareness Of Artisan Gold Miners”

Less revenue Reduced Low percentage generation for Smuggling & RBZ Gold recovery of gold ASSMs Less parallel market involvement & accumulation with reduced daily, trading of & low monthly/yr output Low level of interaction strategic Environmental between govt, monetary minerals- gold value awareness ASSMs and among artisan other parties Acquire less gold miners forex Reduced RBZ To increase decrease in gold accumulation Training prog. GDP & reduce monetary 'No Like GMP Substantial value in the RBZ coffers Quasi- Economic I clandestine Growth rudiment No import of mining Scarce productj operations

No Encourages recommending Difficult to Can't enhance accounting —► informal mining — Policy for assess the the role they -* Of all the Of minerals ASSMs Nature and Play in socio- ore produced Econo. devpt / Sub-sector is development Hiffir'iilt n f A^sivfc Increases Difficulty in All illegal monitoring Of minimj acti ASSMs under RDCs Increases environmental Degradation/accident j

90 Appendix number 9

A9.0 The concept of Sustainable Development in applying appropriate technology

A9.I Definition

Sustainable development seems incompatible with the mining industry and probably worse off with the infonnal artisan gold miner as these mining activities are thought to be synonymous with environmental degradation. Sustainable growth is thought to be based solely on environmental protection underpinning the exploitation of natural resources (minerals) by man. I disagree with the above thought as I envision sustainable development as recognizing the interdependence between man, nature and the make-up of his tools. The above are complimentary and therefore essential in transforming a system that is unsustainable, a situation prevalent in artisan gold mining. In this scenario, there is need for marketing indigenous, locally developed technology, which promotes proficiency and adaptively the requirements of this unique sub-mining sector. This will reduce use of middle-age equipment or technology, This in-tum meets the requirements of today’s competitive mining environment.

Bruntland Commission (World Commission Of Environment and Development: 1987) defines sustainable development as “Dev elopment that meets the needs of the present without compromising that of future generations to meet their own needs”. This can be interpreted as saying development that delivers basic environmental, economic and social services to all without threatening the viability upon which these services depend. The concept of sustainable economic development (transformation) as applied to developing nations or the third world therefore is concerned with increasing material standard of the living poor (rural folks or remote area people). This is initiated at the grassroots level (artisan gold miner). The transformation can be quantitatively measured in terms of increased use of sophisticated technology, real income, health and safety care, technical and financial services to access equipment. Within the same line of thought, the concept is an indirect concern with economic growth at the aggregate level. This is to reduce absolute poverty in artisan gold raining through provision of lasting and relevant

91 technology that minimizes resources depletion, environmental degradation, cultural disruption and social instability (Barbier: 1987). There has been recognition of the interaction and interdependence of the environment, social and economic aspects of sustainable development. The diagram below shows the holistic approach envisaged through this new thought.

---- - _ s X x X / x \ / \ \ ( \ So, I.il 11 | Evonnnuv •»'. 'tem \ ) \ / \ / / X \ \ l/ / ^ / \ / i i ^ N.ihu .il s\ acm j \ \ / \ / \ /

Figure A9.0: Model of sustainable development (Bruntland Commission: 1987)

The model encompasses three worldly dimensions of operation key to progress in formalization of artisanal gold miners. Figure A9.1: Triad system integration approach in community based development

The interactive model (figure A9.0) has been reinterpreted as an inter-dependence model as shown in Figure A9.1. The inter-dependence model recognizes that the social and economic systems have never been and can never be independent of the natural system. The model further supports the belief that interactions between and within component systems will result in feedback throughout the cosmos (Mebratu, 1998).

Sustainability concepts focus on the need to maintain capital resources for both present and future generations. Three types of capital have been identified and are described briefly, below: •

• Economie capital - the machines, buildings, finances and infrastructure which support the production of goods and services; • Natural capital - those natural resources and ecological processes which provide raw materials and comprise a life support system (for both humans and ecosystems); and

93 • Social capital - the human skills, capabilities and belief systems, as well as community and institutional systems that allows a society to function.

The concept of sustainability is value-based and differs according to individual perceptions of the relative value of these types of capital. Depending on how the relationship between the different forms of capital is interpreted, three levels of sustainability can be identified which are not relevant in this study.

94 Appendix number 10: Classification of ore resources

It was established that there are twc types of ore deposits exploited by all artisan gold miners in Zimbabwe:

4- Alluvial or elluvial deposits i Reef deposits

A* Alluvial ore resources are common deposits involving panning of gravels in eluvial rubble-filled river systems and nationally 1 million of the gold panners are scattered along 4,600 kilometers of the main strategic rivers in Zimbabwe. Examples include Mazowe-Pote, Insiza, Pfura, and Chiambuka rivers. This can be noted in the appendix number 1 showing the exploitation of alluvial deposits in rivers. The highest average number of gold panners were at Mupfurudzi and Tebekwa river systems in the Harare and Gweru Mining Districts. This is also illustrated in Appendix 2 showing the observed number of gold panners. The most affected areas in terms of alluvial mining were found to be:

• Mashonaland Central - Mazowe, Mudzi, Nyadire, Rwenya and Inyangombe rivers

• Mashonaland West - Angwa, Sanyati, Mupfure and Munyati Rivers

• Matebeleland North & South - Insiza, Mzingwane, Gwayi and Bubi Rivers

• Midlands - Shangani and Gweru rivers.

• Masvingo/Manicaland - Runde, Nyanyadzi, Odzi and Save Rivers

95 Rubble resources are formed through breakdown and disintegration of gold bearing reefs that have been exposed to denudational processes. These are washed into nearby rivers by erosion.

Reef deposits on the other hand, are quartz veins and stringers hosted gold deposits with the vein shape in most cases conforming to the general structural features of the host rock such as cleavage of the schists and fault patterns. Examples were these deposits are mined include Shamva-Bushu area 85 km NE of Harare and in Filabusi 105 km SE of Bulawayo. Over 65% of the artisan miners are typically gold panners and work on alluvial deposits. The remainder (35%) work on old underground workings; in adits or in outcrops (reef mining) and the pie chart below is an illustration pictorially.

Type of ore deposit exploited by artisanal miners

| □ quartz reins !■ alluvial

Figure A10.0: Quartz veins versus alluvial gold deposit exploitation

In Zimbabwe, the gold deposits are metabasalt hosted, that is, shear zone hosted gold deposits to major shear zones are abundant. The metabasalts are usually metamorphosed mafic volcanics and the period of occurrence is between Archaean Eon to Proterozoic Eon according to the geological time scale.

96 Appendix 11

Names of artisan gold miners interviewed

Interviewed male artisan miners Interviewed female artisan miners

1 .Ndaba Moyo 1. Grace Moyo 2. Jealous Banda 2. Nokhutula Sivango 3. Lawson Dube 3. Mrs Mafudzi 4. Nyahuni brothers 4. Otilla 5. JJ Mathuthu 5. Civilian Dube 6. Talkmore Gunai 6. Rudo Were 7. Ticahona Mupera 7. Mrs Rusawa 8. Andrew mpofu 8. Itai Svota 9. Moses 9. Nomsa Makerere 10. Tawanda 10. Tinotenda Nyamakura 11. Kelvin Watyaona 11. Lindiwe MhLope 12. David Guzha 13.Senzeso 14.Arthur Matanhire

97