Angelika Schneider

Beautiful as , Wise as , Strong as Hercules and Swifter than Mercury: Feminist Discourses and Female Empowerment during Period of

MASTER THESIS submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts

Programme: Master's programme English and American Studies Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt

Evaluator Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr. Alexander Onysko Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik

Klagenfurt, June 2020

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Affidavit I hereby declare in lieu of an oath that - the submitted academic paper is entirely my own work and that no auxiliary materials have been used other than those indicated, - I have fully disclosed all assistance received from third parties during the process of writing the thesis, including any significant advice from supervisors, - any contents taken from the works of third parties or my own works that have been included either literally or in spirit have been appropriately marked and the respective of the information has been clearly identified with precise bibliographical references (e.g. in footnotes), - to date, I have not submitted this paper to an examining authority either in Austria or abroad and that - when passing on copies of the academic thesis (e.g. in bound, printed or digital form), I will ensure that each copy is fully consistent with the submitted digital version. I understand that the digital version of the academic thesis submitted will be used for the purpose of conducting a plagiarism assessment. I am aware that a declaration contrary to the facts will have legal consequences.

Klagenfurt, June 19th, 2020 (Signature) (Place, Date)

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For my Grandfather (1922 – 2001)

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Abstract

This thesis investigates feminist discourses expressed through language and narration during the Golden Age period of Wonder Woman. The purpose of this study is to analyze and extent existing material on the representation of gender in comics and to highlight feminist discourses expressed through language and narration within ’s Wonder Woman comics. Additionally, this thesis provides evidence for the claim that Marston’s version of the Amazon princess was progressive in terms of overcoming stereotypical notions of gender. Although a significant amount of researchers have contributed to a better understanding of the correlation between language and gender in popular culture, this study investigates the workings of gendered discourses in comics and provides insight into the depiction of stereotypical femininity in sequential art. Additionally, a thorough analysis of Marston’s version of Wonder Woman will prove that his comics were intended to overcome stereotypical portrayals of femininity in comics. For this study, data is drawn from reprinted issues of Marston’s Golden Age Wonder Woman stories. In order to analyze the comics, a holistic approach is utilized which integrates methods of feminist critical discourse analysis and content analysis. Additionally, a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches was used to examine gender disparities during the Golden Age period of DC Comics. While this thesis provides evidence for the claim that Wonder Woman as a female challenges traditional gender roles, it also proves that discourses of female empowerment as well as domination and submission within the comics are intrinsic to Marston’s feminist .

Keywords: Gender, Feminism, Femininity, Language, Critical Discourse Analysis, Popular Culture, Comic Studies, Wonder Woman, Female Characters in Comics, Golden Age of Comic Books, Superheroes

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Acknowledgements

Working on this master’s thesis has been both demanding and rewarding for me, and at this point I would like to express my gratitude for the people who have supported me on this journey. First and foremost, I wish to thank my supervisor Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr. Alexander Onysko from the Department of English and American Studies at the Alpen- Adria University of Klagenfurt for his insightful comments and feedback on my thesis. His patience with me and his trust in my ideas, especially during times of unexpected personal challenges, helped me to renew my faith in my research. I have never felt pressured during this process, as Dr. Onysko allowed this thesis to evolve gradually at my own pace. I would also like to thank Mag. Dr.phil. Bakk.phil Stefan Rabitsch from the University of Graz, who has provided me a lot of times with useful and rare resources on comic studies as well as academic publications on Wonder Woman. I am also thankful for the opportunity to present my research at two events organized by the Austria’s Young Americanists network. In 2017, the conference “The Future(s) of American Studies” provided me with the opportunity to talk about the representation of femininity in Wonder Woman during the Golden Age of comics. In the following year I had the chance to present my work at the workshop “Shifting Dynamics of American Studies” on the representation and subversion of gender in DC Comics’ publications. Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents and my partner for their endless support and unconditional love throughout these years. Without them I would have given up many times, but they have always seen the best in me.

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Table of Contents

Affidavit ...... i

Abstract ...... iii

Acknowledgements ...... iv

Table of Contents ...... v

Tables ...... vii

Figures ...... vii

1 Introduction ...... 1

2 On the Rise: Developments in Comics and Sequential Art Studies ...... 4 2.1 Narration in Comics and Visual Language Comprehension ...... 6 2.1.1 Narratology and Narrative Drawing in Comics ...... 6 2.1.2 Composition of Individual Panels in Wonder Woman ...... 9 2.1.3 Visual Narrative Comprehension ...... 11 2.2 A Very Short Introduction to the History of the American and DC Comics ...... 14 2.2.1 Birth of Heroes: The Golden Age of American Comic Books ...... 15 2.2.2 Troubled Times: DC Comics and Comic Book Censorship ...... 16 2.2.3 The Rebirth of Capes and Tights: From Silver to Modern Age ...... 18 2.2.4 Wonder Woman through the Ages of Comic Books ...... 19 2.3 Mythology, Identit(ies) and Archenemies: Genre Specific Conventions of Superhero Comics ...... 20 2.3.1 Myth in Superhero Comics ...... 22 2.3.2 Secret Identity(ies) ...... 23 2.3.3 ...... 24

3 Gender in Comics: Representation and Subversion of Gender in DC Comic’s Publications ...... 27 3.1 Female Stereotypes: Representation of Femininity in DC Comics ...... 28 3.2 (Secret) Sexual Identity(ies): Male Sexuality in DC’s Superhero Comics ...... 31 3.2.1 Gender Hierarchy and Normative Masculinity in Comics ...... 32 3.2.2 Sexual Relations in Comics and Censorship ...... 33 3.3 Marginalized Heroines: An Analysis of Gender Disparities during the Golden Age of DC Comics ...... 34 vi

3.4 Possible Developments in Gender Studies and Comics ...... 38

4 Language and Gender Studies: An Interdisciplinary Field Emerges ...... 41 4.1 Changing Attitudes: Feminist Foundations of Gender and Language Studies ...... 42 4.2 New Perspectives: Gender and Discourse ...... 44 4.2.1 Critical Discourse Analysis ...... 45 4.2.2 Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis ...... 47 4.2.3 Feminist Post-Structuralist Discourse Analysis ...... 48

5 “Super-strength, altruism and feminine love allure”: An Analysis of Feminist Discourses and Female Empowerment during the Golden Age Period of Wonder Woman ...... 50 5.1 “Great !”: An Analysis of Pro-Feminist Discourses in Wonder Woman ...... 50 5.2 “Merciful Minerva!”: Subversion of Gender Norms and Heroic Maternity in Wonder Woman’s Origin Story ...... 54

5.3 “Suffering Sappho!”: The Heroine’s Journey in Wonder Woman ...... 59

5.4 “For the Love of Aphrodite!”: Dominance and Submission in Marston’s Wonder Woman Comics ...... 67 5.4.1 Dominance: Wonder Woman’s ...... 70 5.4.2 Submission: The Amazon’s Bracelets ...... 75

6 Conclusion ...... 79

7 Bibliography ...... 81

8 Appendix ...... 88

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Tables

Table 1: Principle Characteristics of Narrative Drawing ...... 8 Table 2: Composition in Wonder Woman during the Golden Age Period of Comics ...... 9 Table 3: Ages of DC Comics ...... 15 Table 4: Central Villains of Wonder Woman during the Golden Age Period of Comics ...... 24 Table 5: "How to De-Objectify Women in Comics" ...... 31 Table 6: Gender Hierarchy and Reception of Male Sexual Identities in Comics ...... 32 Table 7: Fairclough's Three-Dimensional Framework ...... 46 Table 8: Marston's Introductions to Wonder Woman ...... 51 Table 9: Ironic Expressions of Wonder Woman ...... 53 Table 10: Gender Binaries in Wonder Woman's Narrative ...... 55 Table 11: Correlation between the Heroine's Journey and Wonder Woman's Narrative during the Golden Period of Comics ...... 60 Table 12: Binary Relationships According to Marston's DISC Theory ...... 69 Table 13: Utilization of the Magic Lasso in Marston's Wonder Woman Comics ...... 72

Figures

Figure 1: Female and Male Golden Age Superheroes in DC Comics (1938-1947) ...... 35 Figure 2: Female and Male Golden Age Heroes in DC Comics (1935-1948) ...... 36 Figure 3: Female and Male Golden Age Villains in DC Comics (1935-1951) ...... 37 Figure 4: Amount of Female and Male Villains in Comic Cavalcade, Sensation Comics and Wonder Woman (1942-1950) ...... 38

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Never before has such a superb being entered the world of men! She comes from Paradise Island, that secret Amazon isle, where life is eternal and there is no sorrow nor injustice. ~ William Moulton Marston (1942)

1 Introduction

In October 1941, William Moulton Marston’s creation of the very first female superhero entered the realm of the predominantly male-centered American superhero genre. During the Golden Age period of Comics in the 30s and 40s, comic books have emerged as powerful platforms of both entertainment and war-time propaganda for adolescents and adults alike. At this time, Wonder Woman came in with a bang and was certainly meant to stay. 79 years after Wonder Woman’s creation, the Amazon warrior serves as a feminist and fights for “the cause of democracy, and all womankind1”. The Golden Age Wonder Woman comics can play an important role in addressing issues of overcoming stereotypical representation and female empowerment. Therefore, Wonder Woman demands for an investigation of feminist discourses expressed through language and narration within the comics. Modern developments in comic studies have heightened the need for critical approaches to the study of sequential art (e.g. Heer and Worcester, 2009; Smith and Duncan, 2012; Kukkonen, 2013). The last decade has seen a growing trend towards a proliferation of studies based on superhero comics (e.g. Ndalianis, 2009; Smith, 2009; Hatfield, Heer and Worcester, 2013; Gavaler, 2018). Out of this, there stems a growing body of contemporary literature that recognizes the importance of Wonder Woman as a feminist icon (e.g. Finn, 2014; Knaff, 2014; Bergstrom, 2017; Wright, 2017), and also addresses the character’s infamous historical origin (e.g. Bunn, 1997; Lepore, 2015). Recent studies acknowledge that stories based on kinship and loyalty, but also bondage are playing a role in Marston’s version of Wonder Woman (e.g. Hanley, 2014; Berlatsky, 2015; Johnson-Moxley, 2017; Mahon, 2017). Evidence suggests that within the history of the American comic book genre, the Amazon princess is thought of as a key representative for female superheroes in comics (e.g. Robinson, 2004; Levitz, 2015). The concepts of gender equality and female empowerment are central to Wonder Woman’s feminist message, and the application of research on gender to the study of comics has recently received considerable attention (e.g. Palmer-Mehta and Hay, 2005; Shyminsky,

1 Epigraph to “Wonder Woman Versus the Saboteurs” in Sensation Comics #5, May 1942.

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2011; Zullo, 2014). Nevertheless, the greatest amount of literature on gender in comics has been published on stereotypical representations of characters within the American superhero genre (e.g. Taylor, 2007; Knight, 2010; Ingalls, 2012). What is known about gender in comics is largely based on small case studies concerning a handful of comics as primary sources for investigation. Although a significant amount of research in the field of sociolinguistics has contributed to a better understanding of the correlation between language and gender in popular culture, an investigation into the workings of gendered discourses in comics would greatly contribute to provide insight into the depiction of stereotypical femininity within this medium. One of the current disadvantages in language and gender studies is the fact that comics as a medium are still not taken seriously enough to be further acknowledged as a multifaceted source for critical approaches such as discourse analysis. This thesis seeks to remedy these issues by analyzing and extending existent material on the representation of gender in comics and by highlighting feminist discourses expressed through language and narration within Marston’s Wonder Woman comics. For this study, previously published theories of gender and discourse have been carefully selected and combined to evaluate themes of feminism and female empowerment during the Golden Age period of Wonder Woman. The primary aim of this thesis is to provide evidence for the claim that Marston’s version of Wonder Woman was indeed progressive in terms of overcoming stereotypical notions of gender. As such, the analysis aims to find answers for the following research questions: (1) To what extend is female empowerment and agency visible/implied within the texts? (2) How does the representation of Wonder Woman challenge traditional gender roles and expectations for women? (3) In which way does Wonder Woman’s story reflect the intended feminist agenda in the comics? (4) How are instances of dominance and submission portrayed in the comics and in which way does the depiction of bondage support Wonder Woman’s feminist propaganda? The research data in this thesis is drawn from reprinted issues of Marston’s Golden Age Wonder Woman stories, which were recently published in the form of volumes by DC Comics. The qualitative analysis is exploratory and interpretative in nature. Moreover, a holistic approach is utilized which integrates methods of feminist critical discourse analysis and content analysis to provide answers for proposed research questions. Additionally, a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches was used for analyzing the amount of female characters in DC Comics publications during the Golden Age of comic books. The overall structure of this thesis takes the form of six chapters, including this introduction. The second chapter of this paper introduces the study of sequential art by 3 discussing narration in comics and visual language comprehension. The chapter gives a brief overview on the history of the American comic book and DC Comics with a distinct focus on superhero comics. Additionally, genre specific conventions of superhero comics will be discussed. Chapter three begins by presenting research on the representation of femininity in comics, as well as the depiction of male sexuality in DC’s superhero comics. The main focus covered in this chapter lies on the analysis of gender disparities during the Golden Age of DC Comics. Moreover, the chapter draws on various findings on possible developments in gender and comic studies. Chapter four gives an overview on the feminist foundations of gender and language studies and offers a brief summary on feminist approaches to discourse analysis. Chapter five ties together the various theoretical strands in order to provide a thorough analysis of feminist discourses and female empowerment during the Golden Age period of Wonder Woman. The final chapter gives a brief summary of the analysis and includes a discussion of the implication of these findings for future research on feminist discourses in Marston’s Wonder Woman comics.

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Comics, they say, are not literature – adventure strips lack artistic form, mental substance, and emotional appeal to any but the most moronic of minds. Can it be that 100,000,000 Americans are morons? ~ William Moulton Marston (1943)

The reading of the comic book is an act of both aesthetic perception and intellectual pursuit. ~ Will Eisner (1985)

2 On the Rise: Developments in Comics and Sequential Art Studies

The academic field of comic studies not only establishes a framework for a theory of sequential art, but also traces the origins of the medium. For many years, the comic book phenomenon has been largely neglected by academic scholars. As media scholar Angela Ndalianis argues, although comics as tools for communication have existed before the invention of film and television, a “resistance from within the academy to the serious study and analysis [of sequential art]” has been prevalent (2011, 113). Moreover, due to the fact that the medium was associated with an adolescent readership, comic books were perceived as one of the lowest forms of popular culture. According to Ndalianis, the establishment of the Comics Code in 1954 additionally reinforced the pejorative reputation of comic books (ibid.). Nevertheless, the rise of the graphic novel in the 1980s has sparked academic interest in comics as well as “a growing sense of comic book legitimacy” within various theoretical disciplines (2011, 114). Only during the last decades, literature on comics theory has offered various definitions for technical aspects of sequential art (e.g. Eisner, 1985; McCloud, 1993; Duncan and Smith, 2009). Scott McCloud’s critically acclaimed and frequently cited work Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (1993) pays particular attention to modes of communication as well as formal properties of sequential art. Additionally, The System of Comics (1999) by French theorist Thierry Groensteen provides a well-grounded semiotic perspective to the study of comics. Groensteen was one of the first researchers to apply a linguistic approach to comics theory. Moreover, recent studies have attempted to explain narratology in comics as well as cognitive comprehension of sequential art (e.g. Cohn, 2013; Kukkonen, 2013). Besides comics theory, much of the current literature pays particular attention to the history of comic books. Publications that aim to describe the evolution of the American comic book frequently adopt a chronological approach (e.g. Lopes, 2009, Gabilliet, 2010) 5 and tend to focus on the progression of the superhero genre (e.g. Coogan, 2006; Ndalianis, 2009; Hatfield et al., 2013). Additionally, recent examples of critical approaches to the study of comics stems from various academic backgrounds (e.g. Heer et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2012). Moreover, one of the most significant current studies on the portrayal of black people (e.g. Brown, 2001; Nama, 2011) as well as the representation of women (e.g. Chute, 2010; Knight, 2010; Gray, 2011; Ingalls, 2012) have recognized the often-times problematic depiction of race and gender in comics. Current research in the field of comic studies operates under the premise to discuss various forms of discrimination at the intersection of race, sexual orientation and gender (e.g. Palmer-Mehta and Hay, 2005; Shyminsky, 2011; Avery-Natale, 2013). As such, understanding the complexity and importance of diversity is crucial for challenging stereotypical notions of femininity and masculinity in comics. Therefore, a more thorough discussion on the representation of gender in sequential art will be provided in chapter 3 (Gender in Comics). According to Ndalianis, the passionate work of researchers in the field has not only contributed to a new appreciation of sequential art, but also established the analysis of comics as an interdisciplinary approach: “The past few years have seen a rise in scholarship in the form of publications, university courses, and conferences that have an interdisciplinary focus that, in turn, reflects the range of disciplines that have embraced the study of comics” (2011, 114).

Furthermore, comic studies are “nurturing an active critical discourse about what constitutes the form of the medium, its language, the ways it engages its readers, and its cultural, social, and historical impact” (2011, 116). As the request for a definition of research on comics opens up debates about medium specificity and adequate research methods, Henry Jenkins argues for multidisciplinary perspectives and inclusive approaches to the study of comics (2012, 6). According to Jenkins, the study of sequential art should be “expansive in its borders to allow the broadest possible range of objects of study, inclusive in who it allows to participate and in the sites where critical conversations occur” (ibid.). Nowadays, inclusive approaches for interdisciplinary research are central to the entire discipline of comic studies. The current chapter reviews research on sequential art in order to describe some of the recent developments in the expanding field of comic studies. First of all, section 2.1 introduces basic concepts of cognitive theory for an analysis of narratology and visual narrative comprehension. Secondly, chapter 2.2 provides a brief discussion on the troublesome evolution of comics in the United States. Finally, section 2.3 will discuss specific characteristics inherent to the superhero genre. 6

2.1 Narration in Comics and Visual Language Comprehension

Over the last few decades, the academic field of comic studies has acknowledged the significance of sequential storytelling as a valid form of art, which merits further investigation in terms of narration and visual narrative comprehension. The term sequential art, coined by American comic artist William Eisner, defines comics as an art form which “employ a series of repetitive images and recognizable symbols” in order to convey stories to their readers (1985, 8). An obvious starting point for an investigation on narration and comprehension of sequential art would be the fundamental whether comics should be regarded as language. According to Eisner, the repetition of symbols becomes “a language” in its own right (ibid.). Moreover, the language of comics “relies on a visual experience common to both creator and audience” (1985, 7). As Eisner explains, the comic author expects readers to decipher combinations of words and images for meaning-making purposes. In this sense, reading comics is “an act of both aesthetic perception and intellectual pursuit” (1985, 8). The notion of sequential art as language within comic studies is not a new one; however, recent observations suggest that “comics are not a language, but they are written in a visual language of sequential images [emphasis by author]” (Cohn 2013, 2). As Cohn observes, a growing body of research discusses characteristics of comics by means of linguistic theories; however, the notion of comparing comic books to language is still questionable (2013, 1). Cohn emphasizes the fact that, unlike comics, language as a system of communication represents human behavior; therefore, it is impossible to examine comics within the framework of current linguistics (ibid.). The author suggests an alternative way of approaching the problem by analyzing sequential art through cognitive theory, as humans possess the ability to process visual language in comics in order to contextualize individual panels to the larger narrative (2013, 2). Therefore, the following sections will provide a more detailed examination of narration in comics as well as visual narrative comprehension.

2.1.1 Narratology and Narrative Drawing in Comics

Comics as tools for communication combine textual and visual elements to convey stories to their audience. Moreover, graphic conventions such as speech/thought balloons, onomatopoeic expressions or inscriptions contain information on dialogue and sound, as well as additional clues for comprehending the narratives within comic books. In this sense, the concept of narratology in comics can be discussed on the basis of two essential techniques for creating the art of sequential storytelling: narrative structures 7 and methods of encapsulation, which imply specific narrative drawing as well as the composition of individual panels. First of all, narrative structures within comics have been carried out in detail by Duncan and Smith (2009). As the authors illustrate, the basic model of narration within comics is characterized by a series of events accompanied by increasing action, which finally leads to a final climax of the story until the conflict is solved. Frequently, the course of the story is concluded by portraying the aftermath of said conflict or by showing future outcomes of its resolution (2009, 129). The authors mention three narrative structures which are typically found in comic books: simple narrative, complex narrative and antinarrative (ibid.) Simple narratives usually deal with problems and their resolutions, often within the genre of romance or humor comics. Complex narratives represent the most common form of narrative structure in contemporary comics storytelling, as the main plot is usually backed up by a theme/background story and frequently highlights the development of the protagonists as well as parallel side stories (ibid.). On the contrary, the aim of antinarrative comics is to elicit an emotional response in the reader and can be classified as an independent art form (ibid.). Additionally, in terms of mainstream and superhero comics, Duncan and Smith are providing a useful distinction between braided and proliferating narrativity. According to the authors, the concept of braided narrativity might be the most suitable concept to apply to contemporary mainstream publications except for superhero comics, as these stories are often inconsistent among their entire variety of published titles in terms of character development and story plots (2009, 129- 30). Within superhero comics, stable concepts of protagonists as well as places of action are literally non-existent. According to Duncan and Smith, what makes superhero narratives entertaining for the reader is “the character’s state of grace” which is “a set of powers, appearance, supporting characters, and behaviors” as well as the “never-ending, intricately interlinking, periodically reconstructed stories” which comprise this particular thriving form of storytelling (2009, 131). That is why the narrative structure of superhero comics corresponds with proliferating narrativity, which resonates with the idealization of female and male superheroes as modern . The myth of the superhero often thrives beyond its print publications, expanding into billion dollar motion pictures and highly profitable merchandising industries. Secondly, encapsulation within comics describes the process of selecting particular scenes of action to express meaning within individual panels (ibid.). In fact, not every single moment of action is portrayed within the narrative of a comic book. Moreover, for the sake of reducing details, comic book authors often rely on stereotypes, which represent overgeneralized images and assumption of people (2009, 135). As the authors explain, 8 stereotypes can be “based on physique, hair, posture, clothing and other artifacts, and especially on facial features” (ibid.). One important feature of encapsulation in comics is the correlation between speech balloons and sequences of action. As Duncan and Smith note, the relation between words and images in comics “can never be absolutely synchronous” and words might be distributed over several panels in order to fit to the events shown in the narrative (2009, 138-39). Thus, language in comics can be either synchronous or asynchronous with the images. Techniques of encapsulation are achieved through narrative drawing as well as the composition of individual panels within comics. In his influential work The System of Comics (2007), comic researcher Thierry Groensteen names five principle characteristics of narrative drawing: Table 1: Principle Characteristics of Narrative Drawing

drawing of narrative privileges character, 1. Anthropocentrism panel appears to be adjusted to the body of the character in the frame 2. Synecdochic privileges “the elements that have an immediately informative simplification character, eliminating or backing up the rest” simplification applied to characters; “abbreviation of a character to 3. Typification several pertinent lines”; “characterization and their immediate identification” “The body (the gestural) and the (the physiognomic expressions) 4. Expressivity of characters should be as expressive as possible.” 5. Rhetorical parameters of image such as framing and color placements emphasize convergence unique effect of narrative drawing Adapted from: The System of Comics (Groensteen 2007, 161-62).

According to Groensteen, the human-focused view of anthropocentrism privileges the drawing of characters, and adjusts the format of the panel to the protagonist represented within the frame. Moreover, the concept of synecdochic simplification removes any unnecessary information for the sake of effortless comprehension of the visual narrative. Typification implies a reduction of the characters’ features for instant identification within individual panels. However, oversimplification or reduction of the depiction of characters might lead to unintended stereotyping. Furthermore, Groensteen explains that the narrative drawing of body language and facial expressions of the characters should be as revealing as possible, in order to portray conventional signs of emotions and movement. Finally, the concept of rhetorical convergence implies that the narrative drawing uses various parameters such as framing or color placement to create a unique effect (2007, 162). To take a concrete example of narrative drawing, the following section gives an overview on the composition of panels in Wonder Woman.

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2.1.2 Composition of Individual Panels in Wonder Woman

According to Duncan and Smith, the composition of individual panels consists of various elements such as background details, color, lighting, distance, angle, movement, visualized sound, as well as pictorial-linguistic blend choices and art style (2009, 141-47). The table below demonstrates the composition choices by illustrator H. G. Peter for individual panels in issues of Wonder Woman, published during the Golden Age Period of comics: Table 2: Composition in Wonder Woman during the Golden Age Period of Comics

background colors vary from panel to panel, some panels more Background detailed than others, oftentimes full color backgrounds without objects or individuals focus on primary colors (, yellow, blue) in various nuances from pastel to luminous colors, pencil strokes exclusively in black, Color captions in light pink/salmon, speech and thought balloons in white/eggshell (depending on printing) depends on mood of the scene, most panels with high key lighting without shadows, low key lighting and focus on dark shadows for Lighting creating suspense or portrayal of danger, villains/enemies often depicted as dark silhouettes long view distance often used at the beginning of each individual story, predominantly medium view with multiple characters Distance interacting in one single panel, close-up view when depicting thoughts/mood/emotions of Wonder Woman most of the panels depict eye-level views to identify with the Angle characters, reader is directly involved in scenes focus on primary movement (characters and objects), otherwise Movement rather depiction of action within panels almost non-existent in early issues of Wonder Woman, music is implied through musical scores, occasional sound effects for Visualized Sound explosions (“Boom!”), clicking sounds (“Click!”), gunshots (“Bang!”), finger snapping (“Snap! Snap!”), blow on the head (“Bong!”) or alarm signals (“Wheeeooooo!”) Pictorial-Linguistic panels arranged in square grids, dialogue often takes up more Blend space than images within individual panels simplistic, represents Wonder Woman as feminist hero, reflects Art Style values of feminist movement, suffragette art Adapted from: The Power of Comics (2009) & The Wonder Woman Chronicles Volume One (2010), DC Comics Publications.

Interestingly, background colors within Wonder Woman often immediately change from one panel to the next, even if scenes occur simultaneously or shortly afterwards. In “A Spy in the Office” (Sensation Comic #3, March 1942), Wonder Woman disguised as learns that has recovered from his wounds and is able to leave the hospital. During this scene, which spans over five panels, the color of the wall in the 10 background color changes just as much (2/1-4). In fact, colorist H.G. Peter uses this technique on each page, which contributes to the colorful art style in Wonder Woman during the Golden Age. According to Duncan and Smith, traditional color schemes are representative for most mainstream comics (2009, 142). As Scott McCloud explains, color schemes in superhero comics “were picked for strength and contrasted strongly with one another, but on most pages no one color dominated” (1993, 188/2). Additionally, lighting has the ability to “amplify the emotion in a story” (ibid.). As seen in “Wonder Woman Versus the Prison Spy Ring” (Wonder Woman #1, Summer 1942), while imprisoned, Wonder Woman presses her ear to the floor of the almost entirely dark cell, where the only source of light comes from the door, depicting her as a dark blue silhouette. This scene, with its low key , holds the reader in suspense and determines the mood of the next panels (11/6-7). Moreover, H.G. Peter predominantly uses the distancing technique of medium view in his panels, which “creates a balance between character and setting” (Duncan and Smith 2009, 143). Most of the times, the characters in Wonder Woman are depicted interacting within the same panel, which enables the reader to view their reaction simultaneously (ibid.). Peter uses close-ups for emphasizing protagonist over setting in order to display the emotions of an individual character. Furthermore, most of the panels in Wonder Woman present eye-level, which enables the reader to accomplish “a sense of involvement in the action”, as well as to identify with the characters (ibid.). Unfortunately, H.G Peter’s rather inflexible drawing style also required the audience to make extensive use of their own imagination in terms of movement implied within Wonder Woman during the Golden Age period of comic books. Peter solely relied on primary movement of characters and objects to convey a sense of motion within the stories. Nowadays, secondary movement of the frame is used to control reader’s attention and to evoke the notion of flexible panels and views while experiencing comics (2009, 144). Moreover, sound effects and visualized sound were rarely used by Peter in the earliest issues of Wonder Woman; later, some occasional effects for explosions, gunshots or other onomatopoeic sounds were introduced, but never quite as often applied as in other superhero comics at that time. In terms of the correlation between illustrations and text, words often take up most of the space within individual panels of Wonder Woman, which place an emphasis on dialogue and narration. According to the authors, “a comic book that tackles weighty moral or philosophical issues is likely to rely on words to carry most of the meaning” (2009, 146). As Lepore explains, Peter “was an early and ardent advocate for women’s education and for female suffrage”, who contributed his “experience [in] drawing suffrage cartoons” to Marston’s vision of a strong, independent woman (2015, 192). Undoubtedly, Peter’s unique art style resonates well with the feminist 11 message of Wonder Woman, as Marston envisioned a female superhero to fight for equality and freedom for all womankind. Therefore, the medium-specific composition of individual panels in comics such as Wonder Woman is intended not only to engage the audience with the storyworld, but also to evoke cognitive as well as emotional responses in the reader.

2.1.3 Visual Narrative Comprehension

Contemporary comic book scholars aim to establish a general theory on the correlation between reading comics and cognition. Cohn’s theory on visual narrative comprehension provides useful insight on the correlation between comics as a sociocultural practice and visual language as a cognitive system (2013, 3). Cohn’s main argument suggests that while comics can be analyzed through a sociocultural perspective, visual language requires the application of linguistic and cognitive theory (ibid.). It is interesting that Cohn supports a theoretical split between social practice (comics) and cognition (visual language), and at the same time admits that as comics are written in a visual language, “the behavioral domains of writing (written/verbal language) and drawing (visual language) should be the object of cognitive inquiry [emphasis by author]” (2013, 1-2). Nevertheless, Cohn’s visual language theory was taken up by other scholars, as his work makes a number of important contributions to the study of visual narratives. According to Duncan and Smith, Cohn’s application of cognitive science and linguistics offers groundbreaking theory on how images in comics take on functions of a language (2009, 128). Although the authors do not explicitly follow his approach in their own work, both researchers highlight that visual language theory should be applied additionally to other concepts concerning the relation between images and linguistic features in comics (ibid.). In their own study, Duncan and Smith describe two types of cognitive reactions while reading comics: first, the cognitive response implicates perception and interpretation of images to make sense of their meaning; secondly, the concept of affective response describes the subconscious process of experiencing emotions while reading (2009, 154). First, the reader’s cognitive ability to envision instances of action refers to the authors argument that “comics are reductive in creation and additive in reading” (2009, 133). According to the authors, readers are able to “expand the isolated moments into a story” by closure (ibid.). The term indicates the reader’s demand for an answer to an unsolved conflict or story ending in order to eliminate ambiguity. Interestingly, the authors note that “images not selected might well be imagined by the reader as he or she mentally 12 constructs a narrative flow from the discrete moments of encapsulation” (2009, 132). The construction of a comic page may as well influence how the reader connects the events within individual panels “in order to link up with the larger narrative structures of scenes, sequences, and story” (2009, 139-40). The process of eye movement while reading comics is accompanied by “ongoing construction of meaning by considering each panel in direct relationship to the one immediately before” as well as drawing inferences from the larger context of the story (2009, 141). Moreover, as Duncan and Smith note, “static images in panels become narrative flow” due to the reader’s cognitive ability to interconnect various panels (ibid). In this sense, the concept of closure implies that the reader understands the relation between isolated images and applies background knowledge in order to blend individual sequences into the story (2009, 166). Therefore, reading comics involves a combination of two different processes to perceive information: understanding the binary relation between images and words, and recognizing that the combination of both creates another level of meaning apart from their connotation when considered individually (2009, 154). Throughout this process, readers not only observe individual images, but also comprehend the panels themselves in order to produce a coherent narrative in the mind (2009, 168). According to the authors, “the readers’ understanding of and reactions to the work are the result of a series of inferences about functions of the images in panels and the relationship between and among panels” (2009, 154). In this sense, the reader begins to construct meaning from the smallest to the largest unit within the pages of comic books, starting with the deconstruction of images from single panels to groups of panels, prior to an interpretation of the story in relation to the current narrative (ibid.). Duncan and Smith point out that although images and words imply “different characteristics and functions”, the term image additionally includes words within balloons or narration in captions (2009, 155). The authors describe three types of images which represent the environment of the narrative: first, sensory diegetic images (activation of senses in real life situations) include depictions of motions and sounds in comics. Motion lines and lettering techniques influences the ways in which readers respond to the implication of movement and sound within the pages of comic books (ibid.). Secondly, non-sensory diegetic images (non-sensory components of perception) imply emotions, memories and mental conditions (2009, 157). Thirdly, hermeneutic images include commentary on the narrative (as seen in captions) and might as well influence the reader’s interpretation of the text (2009, 159). According to the authors, “comic book readers have to make inferences not only about the function of images, but also about the contexts and relationships in which those images appear” (2009, 163). Moreover, 13 individual panels are interconnected with larger entities of the narration such as scene, page and story. Thus, the comprehension of images is influenced by other images within the same panel, images in different panels or in different texts (ibid.). Reoccurring themes and characters as well as continuous progression of the story from panel to panel allows readers to transform individual frames into a flowing narrative within their imagination (ibid.). Secondly, emotional responses as reactions to reading comics arise subconsciously in the audience. As the scope of this paper allows only a limited introduction to the study of affective responses, thorough elaborations on emotional responses through reading can be found within the field of cognitive neuroscience. Although Duncan and Smith briefly introduce the basic definition of affective responses experienced during reading, the authors fail to take account of the complex effects of emotional engagement in sequential art. Instead, Kukkonen offers at least some clarifications for this issue. As the author explains, comics tell stories and use metaphors in the same spirit as traditional literature (2013, 149). According to Kukkonen, the comic book page not only generates meaning making processes in the mind of the reader, but also elicits emotional reactions while reading (2013, 153). Panel arrangement and dialogue, as well as interaction between characters “creates readerly experience and establishes connections to a larger conceptual issue” (ibid.). Therefore, as Kukkonen illustrates, “the situation and the events which [the comics page] represents, gives rise to a specific and well-controlled emotional experience” (ibid.). Additionally, Wonder Woman’s creator, William Moulton Marston believed that the power of comics can be measured through emotional responses in readers. In his famous article “Why 100,000,000 Americans Read Comics” (1943), Marston states that reading comics speaks “to the innermost ears of the wishful self” (1943, 36). The American psychologist and creator of the world’s most popular heroine even went so far as to declare comic books as “America’s most popular mental vitamin” (1943, 44). Marston points out that the “visual form” of comics should “be simplified to essentials”, and readers emotional response to sequential art “must be instant and universal” (1943, 38). During the process of reading, the reader subconsciously matches fictional events to situations experienced in real life, as narrations elicit memories of everyday perception. Moreover, perceiving an internal shift in perspective and to feel empathy for the characters of a narrative can serve as a cathartic experience. Therefore, given the findings on the relation between reading comics and cognition, it is possible to state that one of the fundamental powers of comic books might indeed lie within the holistic experience of conscious and subconscious reactions to sequential art.

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2.2 A Very Short Introduction to the History of the American Comic Book and DC Comics

The history of the American comic book is in fact as multifaceted as the medium itself. Evolving from inexpensive pulp magazines and newspaper comic strips at the beginning of the 20th century, comic books have gained massive popularity among their predominantly adolescent readership. American comic book sales began to rise exponentially after the of in #1 (1938). According to Daniels Superman “virtually defined the new medium and, through his popularity and influence, guaranteed its survival” (2003, 20). Superheroes, admired for their ability to reform social injustices, became the essential part of the comic industry’s myth making. Admiration for the superhero genre within popular culture climaxed during the Golden Age of comic books (1938-1955) and progressively declined after rising criticism in terms of the medium’s psychological effects on children. After the publication of Seduction of the Innocent (1954) by American psychiatrist and the formation of the Comics Code Authority (CCA) in the same year, publishing houses were forced to self-regulate the content of their comic books. The anti-comic book crusade finally lead to banned titles and even burning of selected works. By the end of 1954, Wonder Woman, Superman and were the only superheroes left to appear within their own titles. Nevertheless, Lopes explains that after the establishment of institutionalized restrictions for publishers, comic books became even more appreciated (2009, xvi). In his work, Lopes argues that “the future of the comic book as a respected art form has never seemed brighter, but […] it was a long, difficult way to respectability” (ibid.). Moreover, American comic books are widely regarded as reflections of contemporary social issues, as “mass media and popular art are crucial terrains for the articulation of larger social and political struggles” (2009, xxi). Likewise, prominent events in history have influenced the distribution and access to comics as a medium of popular culture. The following chapters will not only discuss the evolution of the American comic book through modern research on the four major periods of comics as well as censorship of the medium, but also provide an overview on the publication history of Wonder Woman through the ages of DC Comics.

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2.2.1 Birth of Heroes: The Golden Age of American Comic Books

Comic books have contributed in great part to the iconic history of popular culture in the United States. However, the evolution of the American comic book may be best described as a tumultuous rollercoaster ride for publishers, artists and fans alike. As one of the two major American publishing houses for comic books, DC Comics2 produced some of the most remarkable superhero comics in history. The table below provides an overview on the history of DC Comics before and after the implementation of the Comics Code in 1954: Table 3: Ages of DC Comics

Period Time Span Golden Age 1938-1955

Comics Code of 1954

Silver Age 1956-1969 Bronze Age 1970-1979 Modern Age 1980-present Adapted from: Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American Comic Book (Lopes, 2009) and DC Comics Year by Year: A Visual Chronicle (Cowsill et.al., 2015).

Commercial interest in American comic books and sequential art officially started in the 1930s. During the first wave of sequential art, comic books evolved from short stories published in magazines, newspaper comic strips and animation. As Lopes describes, during the Golden Age, industries in the entertainment sector replicated previously established forms of popular culture in order to satisfy the need for entertainment of millions of consumers (2009, 1-2). Comic books were produced literally on assembly lines for the mass market, and the industry defined the dominant forces of production and consumption of this new form of art (ibid). According to Lopes, comic book writers and artists “enthusiastically embraced this new medium of expression and developed a true craft and tradition of comic art” (ibid.). However, the industry’s evolution was determined among outside circumstances by unquestioned production conditions as well as low wages for writers and comic book artists (2009, 2). During the Golden Age of comic books, the only writers which received well deserved attention were and , creators of Superman (2009, 17). Due to the commercial success of DC Comics in the superhero genre, the comic book industry started to reintroduce and replicate tried and tested formulas to create new titles (2009, 19). By their second wave during the 1940s,

2 Abbreviation for ; comic book series which introduced Batman in 1939. 16 comic books were already established as one of the major forms of entertainment in the United States. Lopes points to market research conducted in 1944 which indicated that “95 percent of boys and 91 percent of girls between the ages of six and eleven read comic books” (2009, 22). On the contrary, only “41 percent of male and 28 percent of female adults aged eighteen to thirty” were identified as regular readers of comic books (ibid.). After the third wave of comic books during the postwar period till 1954, sales for superhero titles steadily began to decline. In order to stop the regression in sales, DC Comics created new hybrid genres in order to appeal to a broader audience. As Lopes explains, “while comic books were enjoyed by readers from every age, gender, and walk of life, the third wave was important in creating a large female and adult readership for comics” (2009, 26). However, comic books as a new form of entertainment were bombarded with severe criticism on behalf of parents, psychiatrists and authorities. The establishment of the Comics Code in 1954 finally lead to significant consequences for DC Comics and the general publishing industry of the American comic book.

2.2.2 Troubled Times: DC Comics and Comic Book Censorship

Seduction of the Innocent by American psychiatrist Fredric Wertham marks the beginning of the establishment of the Comics Code Authority in 1954. As Tilley argues, Wertham “manipulated, overstated, compromised, and fabricated evidence […] for rhetorical gain” (2012, 384). As Tilley explains, by the end of World War II, after a period of time in which superheroes majorly contributed to the war efforts, publishing houses of comic books wanted to introduce new genres to a more mature readership (ibid.). Publishers might have intended horror, crime and romance stories to serve as alternatives for superhero comics for their adult audience; unfortunately, young readers still had access to these titles (ibid.). As public concerns in terms of the effects of comics on adolescent readers began to rise, Wertham’s book “spurred an already galvanized public to agitate successfully for changes in the editorial and advertising content of comic book” (2012, 385). According to Lopes, the association of reading comics with an infantile readership particularly made this new medium “vulnerable to anxieties over their effect on the developing minds and values of American youth” (2009, 29). Lopes argues that the success of the anti-comic book crusade was based on a “general movement of censorship around obscenity and anti-Americanism” during the postwar period (2009, 30). In view of this, it is also important to note that beginning with the Golden Age period of comic books, sexuality in superhero comics has started to become a highly controversial topic in America society. Simultaneously, the opposition to homosexual relationships in superhero 17 comics provided a trigger for an explosion of research on potentially harmful effects of comics books on the development of children. As Tilley explains, Fredric Wertham “found the gratuitous linking of violence and sexuality to be one of the most disturbing features” within comic books (2012, 393). In “The Superman Conceit”3, Wertham claims that “[t]he world of the comic book is the world of the strong, the ruthless, the bluffer, the shrewd deceiver, the torturer, and the thief. All the emphasis is on exploits where somebody takes advantage of somebody else, violently, sexually, or threateningly. It is no more the world of braves and squaws, but one of punks and molls” (2013, 46).

Reading Wertham’s sweeping generalizations on alleged themes in American comics, one might speculate whether the psychiatrist truly immersed himself into the multifaceted and complex storyworlds of famous comic books. Needless to say, Wertham’s conclusions should be treated with caution, as his tendency to oversimplify also applies to his research on children’s daydreams and fantasies. Wertham’s explanation for aggressive behavior triggered by reading comics is again not well-founded. In his theory, the author claims that all children “[…] wish for overwhelming physical strength, domination, power, ruthlessness, emancipation from the morals of the community. It may show in various half-repressed ways or openly as admiration for these traits. Spontaneously children connect this with crime comic books of the Superman, Batman, , Wonder Woman type. In the individual case this superman ideology is psychologically most unhygienic” (ibid.).

Wertham’s The Curse of the Comic Books, again published in 1954, additionally supports his theory on the correlation between reading disorders and juvenile delinquency (1954, 394). Wertham states, rightly so, that the comic book industry was supported by psychiatrists such as William Moulton Marston (1954, 396). Marston’s work departs radically from Wertham’s theory on the effects of comic books on children, as he acknowledges that superhero stories “satisfy the universal human longing to be stronger than all opposing obstacles and the equally universal desire to see good overcome evil” (1943, 39). Contrary to Wertham’s believe that comic books are threatening to children’s mental development, Marston clearly demonstrates that the wish to be strong and powerful, acted out through reading comics, represents an essential part of human nature: “The more Superman-Wonder Woman picture stories build up this inner compulsion by stimulating the child’s natural longing to battle and overcome obstacles, particularly evil ones, the better chance your child has for self-advancement in the world” (1943, 40).

Despite Marston’s efforts to defend the publication of Wonder Woman as well as the comic book industry in general, Wertham not only “criticized the scholarship defending comic books”, he also condemned “the entire comic book field and those who produced,

3 Reprinted version of Seduction of the Innocent in The Superhero Reader (Hatfield et.al., 2013). 18 published, and defended comics” (Lopes 2009, 52). Ultimately, Wertham’s negative review of the American comic book industry led to the establishment of the Comics Code in 1954, which “effectively marked the end of comics’ reign as the most popular print medium among children in history” (Tilley 2012, 385).

2.2.3 The Rebirth of Capes and Tights: From Silver to Modern Age

The comic book of the 1950s transformed the comic industry in its entirety, as comic book publishers experienced forces against distribution as well as licensing of their products (Lopes 2009, 61). As Lopes explains, despite troubled times within the comic field, artists redefined the classical superhero narrative by introducing socially relevant content to this genre (2009, 61). Moreover, television adaptations of famous superheroes were an instant success during the Silver Age of comic books in the 1960s. After the debut of the live action series Batman (1966) on American television, the actual comic achieved “the highest circulation it ever had in its entire history” and surpassed “any superhero comic books since the 1950s” (2009, 66). Ten years later, the American television adaptation of Wonder Woman made its debut in 1975, starring actress as the world’s most famous superheroine. At least, these primetime television shows helped to revitalize the mass market for comics to a certain extent and promoted merchandise sales of superhero franchises. At the beginning of the Bronze Age in the early 1970s, the underground comix movement was intended to “articulat[e] the rebelliousness, politics and free spirit of the time”, as “underground artists radically reshaped the American comic book” (2009, 75). These independent publications were intended for an adult readership, since the content of underground comix radically departed from mainstream comic books. As Lopes argues, artists of independent comics reclaimed their autonomy by rejecting already established and often times debilitating conventions within the comic book field (ibid). Moreover, writers of underground comix “were the first to suggest that comic books could be the vehicle for an unmediated authentic expression of their artists” (ibid.). With the beginning of the Modern Age, this rebellion against the comic industry sparked the appreciation for comic books as an art form and transformed the status of comic book writers into respectable artists (2009, 88). Starting in the 80s, graphic novels such as Alan Moore’s The Killing Joke (1988) have gained recognition within popular culture. As Lopes describes, “graphic novels were being celebrated as the new literary sensation”, although these publications “still remain at the margins of an already small niche market” (2009, 177-78). Nowadays, the comic book 19 industry still faces problems in terms of visibility on the market. Despite growing interest in comic book culture as well as the production of million dollar movie adaptations, artists still struggle to gain respect for their art. Nevertheless, Lopes shares his optimistic view on this issue: as the rise of the comic book fan-culture “has opened up a new social space” in order to “make the comic book a legitimate art form serving a new mass market of diverse readers” (2009, xxi). Hopefully, comic book readers will continue to support artists and their creations in order to guarantee the persistence of this otherwise endangered art form.

2.2.4 Wonder Woman through the Ages of Comic Books

Wonder Woman stands for one of the world’s most famous superheroines, and her comics have been published continuously for over seventy years. It is certainly true that Wonder Woman’s publishing history4 is as multifaceted and complex as the Amazon warrior herself. Needless to say, her character has lived through every single period in the history of the American comic book. As Bergstrom explains, due to the fact that Wonder Woman “has changed so much over the years, [the ages of comics] help to contextualize her evolution within [a] larger framework” (2017, 16). After her very first appearance in #8 in December 1941, the female superhero made her official debut as a standalone hero in Wonder Woman (1942) during the Golden Age period of comics. Marston’s Golden Age version of the Amazon princess has been recreated and reimagined by several writers after his death5 in 1947. In the following years after Marston’s death, H.G. Peter6 remained as the artist of Wonder Woman alongside , one of the most controversial comic writers at that time. As a response to dubious storyplots which portrayed Wonder Woman as a domesticated and romance seeking woman, Kanigher started to adapt Marston’s vision for his own work. As Valcour explains, “editors have historically struggled to identify and create what readers desire from a female superhero” (2014, 67). In fact, Wonder Woman’s transition during the Silver Age of comics “reflects the transformation concerning women’s perceived role occurring in the larger American society in the 1960s” (2014, 76). Unfortunately, Kanigher retired temporarily from his work on Wonder Woman and Denny O’Neil took over as a writer. Despite changes regarding the role of women in

4 Due to the limited scope of this paper, only a handful of creators can be mentioned. For further reference on the publication history of Wonder Woman see Darowski, 2014; Hanley, 2014; Levitz, 2015; and Bergstrom, 2017. 5 William Moulton Marston died from terminal illness on May 2, 1947. A more thorough elaboration on his life and death can be found in Jill Lepore’s The Secret History of Wonder Woman (2014). 6 Wonder Woman’s illustrator Harry George Peter (1880-1958) was usually cited as H.G. Peter in the comics. 20 society, the writer drastically altered the feminist core of the comic book series, by removing her power and relocating her as an ‘ordinary woman’ in Man’s World7. As Kohl in illustrates, Denny O’Neil’s version “could be read as the denigration of a powerful super- heroine”, as her “status as a subject” is removed and “she immediately becomes an object” for the male gaze (2014, 99). Although Wonder Woman’s status as a feminist icon seemed to be endangered, Gloria Steinem brought the female warrior back to life on the cover of the very first issue of Ms. magazine8 in 1972. During the Bronze Age of comics, Wonder Woman returned as a member of the Justice League9 of America. With the start of the Modern Age of comics during the 1980s, Wonder Woman received a makeover by acclaimed writer George Pérez, which “focused on her mythological background and stressed the importance of her ambassador-like qualities” (Bergstrom 2017, 26). In 2001, took over as a writer, followed by Greg Rucka and (2017, 29). Each of the three creators were critically acclaimed for their authentic portrayal of the female superhero. Alongside cartoonist Trina Robbins and novelist Jodi Picoult, Gail Simone represents one of the few female writers in the publication history of Wonder Woman (ibid). In 2011, DC Comics decided to relaunch its superhero titles under comic series line (2017, 31). During this period, creator introduced Wonder Woman’s readership to a much darker and more violent version of the Amazon (ibid.). Finally, in 2016, Greg Rucka took again control over the series and brought the female superhero back to her origin story in DC Rebirth. Despite the oftentimes radical changes to the superhero’s identity by more than a dozen of writers, Wonder Woman continues to represent one of the most influential and beloved characters in the multifaceted history of the American comic book.

2.3 Mythology, Identit(ies) and Archenemies: Genre Specific Conventions of Superhero Comics

As one of the most prominent heroic figures in popular culture, the superhero10 is easily recognizable through repeated use of particular genre specific conventions. As Coogan suggests, “familiar and repeated moments, iconic images and actions” as well as “figures of speech” and “patterns of characterization” embody the essence of the

7 During the “Diana Prince Era”, Wonder Woman opens up a fashion boutique and is taken under the wing of a blind Fu master in order to learn martial arts (Bergstrom 2017, 20). 8 American feminist magazine, co-founded by social activist Gloria Steinem. 9 Collective of individual superheroes. Most famous members are , Batman, , The , Superman and Wonder Woman. 10 In this paper, the term superhero refers to both female and male superheroes and is intended to be gender neutral. 21 superhero’s identity (2006, 6-7). Moreover, metaphors of freedom are core to the superhero genre, as characters “act without consequences” and experience “freedom from the restrictions of gravity, the law, families, and romantic relationships11.” (2006, 14). Nevertheless, despite the superhero’s current attention in movie adaptions and graphic novels, this particular genre within the realm of American comic books needs further investigation. As Coogan explains, the superhero genre continuously struggles against a general “misperception of the genre’s distinctiveness and definition”. According to the author, superheroes can be distinguished from other fictional characters due to generally accepted conventions in terms of “plot, setting, character, icon, and theme” (2006, 24). Therefore, the current chapter will investigate traits of the superhero character in order to identify the main principles of the genre in large. First, genre specific characteristics of superheroes will be discussed; secondly, these traits will be analyzed in correlation to three particular qualities within DC’s superhero comics. Traits of the superhero can be identified and discussed in terms of genre specific characteristics of superhero comics. The most useful definition of the superhero character is offered by Coogan: “[The superhero is] a heroic character with a selfless, pro-social mission; with superpowers – extraordinary abilities, advanced technology, or highly developed physical, mental, or mystical skills; who has a superhero identity embodied in a codename and iconic costume, which typically express his biography, character, powers, or origin […]” (2006, 30).

As Coogan’s definition implies, superheroes can be described as public-spirited, physically and mentally skilled or gods, with public identities expressed through embodiment, and secret identities which must be kept a secret at all costs. Additionally, Coogan explains three primary conventions of the superhero genre: mission, powers, and identity (2006, 30-9). First, as the superhero’s social mission is at the forefront of the character’s core values, “his fight against evil must fit in with the existing, professed mores of society and must not be intended to benefit or further his own agenda” (Coogan 2006, 31). Secondly, astonishing physical and mental powers are one of the most recognizable elements of this genre. Wonder Woman, for example, possesses extraordinary power and the ability to . Moreover, her indestructible bracelets are able to fight off attacks, and the Lasso of Truth compels her opponents to obey her commands. According to Coogan, such abilities “emphasize the exaggeration inherent in the superhero genre” (ibid.). Thirdly, the superhero’s identity “comprises the codename and the costume, with the

11 More accurately, although not every individual character might be involved in private affairs, a number of well-known comic book titles indeed revolve around committed relationships between superheroes and ordinary mortals. Besides Wonder Woman and Steve Trevor, the relationship between Superman and represents one of the most prominent examples of comic book romances. 22 secret identity being a customary counterpart to the codename” (2006, 32). Thus, the superhero’s costume serves as a disguise for the otherwise human appearance and refers visually to the hero’s codename. Moreover, the costume “as an element of identity” functions to distinguish superheroes from other heroic characters in fiction (2006, 35). Finally, general traits of superheroes might not be applicable to each individual character, as “specific superheroes can exist who do not fully demonstrate” the primary conventions of mission, powers and identity (2006, 39). Nevertheless, as explained in the next sections, the majority of comics published under DC displays three central themes essential to the superhero genre: myth, secret identities and supervillains.

2.3.1 Myth in Superhero Comics

Comic book creators have drawn on mythology for a source of inspiration since the very beginning, and a number of remarkable comic book series are based on folktales and myths. Ndalianis provides a useful definition on heroic narratives, which can be directly applied to the superhero genre. As the author states, “[h]ero myths contain universal elements and have a continued presence in cultural memory, yet they’re dynamic beings who shift and metamorphose to accommodate themselves to specific eras and historic- cultural contexts” (Ndalianis 2009, 3-4). As mentioned in the previous chapter, superhero comics consist of genre specific elements and stereotypical conventions which are embedded in popular culture. Moreover, throughout the various ages of comic books, titles such as Wonder Woman and Batman have undergone several changes in terms of character development and the representation of socially relevant themes. As such, superhero comics build on society’s collective memory of myths and tales. According to Coogan, heroes in classical mythology “serve as intermediaries between gods and humans” (2006, 116). Coogan refers to Superman and the Golden Age version of as typical examples for “surface similarities between superheroes and mythological heroes” (2006, 116-17). Additionally, members of superhero confederacies such as the “can be seen as paralleling a culture’s pantheon of gods and heroes, with similar parallels between their extraordinary powers and tales of adventures” (ibid.). Moreover, “the continuity of comic book universes with crossovers, guest stars, and team-ups” presents a surface similarity to intertwining stories in mythology (ibid.). Also, the retelling of the hero’s story by several comic book authors throughout the various periods of the American comic book provides another parallel to folktales. Additionally, Joseph Campbell’s classic theory of the monomyth, “serves as a model for the origin stories of superheroes” (Coogan 2006, 122). One of Campbell’s most 23 cited quotes from The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949) explains the basic stages of the Hero’s Journey12: “A hero ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man” (2004, 28).

During the journey, the superhero has to face unforeseen obstacles and often faces dangerous situations outside of usual surroundings. Moreover, comic book creators frequently use elements of the monomyth in order to illustrate the development of their characters. As such, mythology as well as Campbell’s model of the Hero’s Journey are vital elements used for storytelling and continue to influence the process of creating comics within the American superhero genre.

2.3.2 Secret Identity(ies)

One of the most well-known qualities of superhero comics published by DC is the dual identity. As Duncan and Smith explain, the secret identity often stands in stark contrast to the hero’s public persona. According to the authors, as superheroes are widely admired for their godlike abilities, the dual identity might enable “the ordinary person to identify with extraordinary characters” (2009, 228). Moreover, the dual identity concept played a vital role “in the early decades of the genre” as “superheroes were presented as exceptional beings in a world of ordinary people” (ibid.). According to Smith, “the secret identity acknowledges the schizophrenic splitting of identity into divided subjectivities in modern societies” (2009, 126). As Smith explains, the superheroes’ “secret identity typically allocates the self into a more stereotypically ‘feminized’ (passive, weak, inept) version” and positions the public identity into “a more ‘masculinized’ (active, powerful, capable) side” (2009, 126). An additional attribute of the secret identity persona is the selection of a professional career, which allows the hero to be informed about the current state of affairs and to intervene in times of crisis (2009, 129). Moreover, superheroes explicitly prefer a professional career which allows time for interruptions. As Smith notes, “since Superheroes respond to unscheduled crises, the secret identity must be put on hold while the is put out” (2009, 131). However, the binary notion of public and secret identity places the hero in a difficult position. As Bainbridge illustrates, the binary positions of good and evil have been

12 A more detailed application of Campbell’s theory in correlation to Wonder Woman’s heroic journey will be provided in a later chapter.

24 deconstructed over time within the superhero genre so that the hero nowadays acts on the basis of “competing distinctive worldviews” and “different conceptions of the revenge/control fantasy”” (2009, 72). Nevertheless, this contrasts with Smith’s theory which suggests that both identities as a reflection of “different modes of heroism” require “similar kinds of efforts” in distinctive areas of responsibility (2009, 134). Therefore, the combination of both personas is intentional, since “the classic secret identity acknowledges the interconnection between two necessary modes of heroism” (Smith 2009, 135).

2.3.3 Supervillains

Villainous characters with superhuman powers are persistent figures within American comic books. Supervillains stand in stark contrast to superheroes and usually present a major challenge within the hero’s journey. As Coogan explains, rogue characters invert “virtues and values of a society or culture” and “bring the normal activities of a society to a halt” in order to “force a hero to arise to defend those virtues” (2006, 61). The following table illustrates in alphabetical order some of the most iconic villains during the Marston era of Wonder Woman: Table 4: Central Villains13 of Wonder Woman during the Golden Age Period of Comics

Name Type Characteristics First Appearance enemy during Golden Age Period Wonder Woman #1 (m) commander/evil referred to as Mars (god of (Summer 1942) god war), son of Zeus mad female Nazi spy, receives Baroness Paula von Sensation Comics #4 scientist/femme superhuman strength after Gunther (f) (April 1942) fatale joining the Amazons inverted one of Wonder Woman’s superhero- Wonder Woman #6 (f) archenemies, split / (October 1943) personality disorder femme fatale Princess Maru (secret Sensation Comics #2 Doctor Poison (f) mad scientist identity), leader of a Nazi (February 1942) spy ring occult abilities, equipped with supernatural energy, Wonder Woman #5 (m) mad scientist suffering from mental (June 1943) disorder, hatred of women servant of Mars, persistent Wonder Woman #2 Duke of Deception (m) super-henchman enemy of Wonder Woman (Fall 1942)

13 Indicated as female or male for clarity. 25

, superhuman Wonder Woman #9 (f) monster strength, ability to increase (Summer 1944) size controls water, in enemy Wonder Woman #8 Queen Clea (f) possession of ’s commander (Spring 1944) Adapted from: The Wonder Woman Chronicles Vol. 1 (2010) & The Wonder Woman Chronicles Vol. 3 (2012) & The Encyclopedia of Comic Book Heroes: Volume 2 - Wonder Woman (Fleisher, 1976).

Wonder Woman’s archenemies can be discussed on the basis of Coogan’s elaboration on the five main types of evil characters in superhero comics. First, the monster as a figure of inversed humanity represents one of the oldest types of supervillains. Just as Giganta in Wonder Woman, the monster acts spontaneously and “has no moral sense of right or wrong […] which is symbolically expressed by the monster’s lack of soul” (Coogan 2006, 62). Secondly, enemy commanders such as Ares, the god of war, or Queen Clea, ruler of an Atlantic city, come in form of tyrants, dictators or superior rulers and find themselves “in a position of legal authority” within their territory (2006, 63). According to Coogan, “enemy commanders are ideologically motivated to conquer or subvert the nations and societies they are at war with” (2006, 77). Thirdly, the mad scientist, such as Doctor Poison or Doctor Psycho, typically experiments with dangerous chemicals and is driven by bizarre revenge fantasies, as well as a “desire to pursue knowledge past the point of safety” (ibid.). Other types of villainous characters are the inverted-superhero supervillains, which are easily recognizable due to their “superpowers, codenames, and costumes” (2006, 72). The key difference between these inverted villains and other evil characters is their potential to become heroes (ibid.). Such as the Cheetah, the transformation from bad to good is then “built on an ambivalence” inherent to the character’s nature (2006, 74). Additionally, Coogan mentions four sub-types of supervillains: “the alien, the evil god, femme fatale, and the super-henchman” (2006, 74). In this sense, Ares not only represents characteristics of an enemy commander, but also serves as a typical example of an evil god. Moreover, the Duke of Deception has established his reputation as a loyal henchman for the god of war. Although these types of rogue characters can be found in various genres, they typically serve as supervillains within American comic books. As Coogan mentions, supervillains are “unable to see the inhumanity” of their actions, as they are driven by an uncontrollable mania to dominate und oppress (2006, 82). Nevertheless, the superhero as well as the villain have more in common than expected. Both had a moment of transformation as they receive the call for a mission. Moreover, the line between good and bad is not always clearly defined; each villain has the potential to become a hero in the same way as every hero has the ability to turn to the 26 dark side. Still, the superhero needs these types of antagonistic characters in order to face the ultimate ordeal within the hero’s journey. Supervillains present immense challenges for the hero, as they never shy away from sabotaging the pro-social mission of the main protagonist. Therefore, antagonists of superheroes represent one of the most common genre specific conventions within American comics books.

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The only hope for civilization is the greater freedom, development and equality of women in all fields of human activity. ~ William Moulton Marston (1942)

Not even girls want to be girls so long as our feminine archetype lacks force, strength, and power. ~ William Moulton Marston (1943)

3 Gender in Comics: Representation and Subversion of Gender in DC Comic’s Publications

78 years after Wonder Woman’s debut in All Star Comics #8 (October 1941) little has changed: comic superheroes are still predominantly white males, and females embody only a fraction in the list of DC Comics’ characters. The comic book industry still consists of male authors, creating hyper-feminine and over-sexualized portrayals of women dedicated to please the imagination and fantasies of an almost exclusively male audience. This prevailing under- and misrepresentation by gender poses a number of issues: the depiction of women in comics reflects questionable attitudes on traditional gender roles and perpetuates female subordination legitimized by a persisting patriarchal system. Although a significant amount of researchers in the fields of gender and cultural studies have acknowledged the at times problematic depiction of gender in various media, an investigation into the representation of gender in comic books would greatly contribute to a better understanding of how gender stereotypes are perpetuated in popular culture. Despite comic books’ commercial success, little research has been done on the depiction of femininity/masculinity in comics. As previous studies have pointed out, there still remains a research gap on “masculinity in general, and gay masculinity in particular” (Palmer- Mehta and Hay 2005, 391). However, studies within the broad spectrum of popular culture have provided a substantial development in terms of research on gender representations. (ibid.). Both Masculinity and femininity in American comic books are still underexamined concepts in the studies of pop culture (2005, 392). The authors argue that former research on male characters in comics fails to contribute to a better understanding of the connotation of gender popular culture. Previous research has simply neglected sexualities outside of heteronormative beliefs (ibid.). Homosexual characters are oftentimes depicted as minor/subordinated to the dominant and heterosexual 28 superhero (2005, 390). Furthermore, comic books tend to neglect women and people of color, consequently positioning them in of ultra powerful male superheroes. Therefore, the depiction of gender in comics is still under-theorized and in need of scholarly investigation. As such, previously published sources from selected scholars have been selected to support findings on the representation of gender in DC Comics. This chapter attempts to find explanations for two key questions: first, in which way are gender roles depicted and consistently reinforced in DC Comics from the Golden Age period to the Modern Age of comic books and to what extend do these representations perpetuate assumptions about women based on stereotypes. To approach these two questions, the current chapter is divided into four sections: firstly, section 3.1 puts forward over- sexualized portrayals of femininity and masculinity in correlation to the notion of female power/dominance/resistance as a threat to heteronormativity. Secondly, section 3.2 addresses a number of issues such as a general misrepresentation of (homo)sexual identities of comic characters alongside heteronormative constructions of male superheroes. This section will attempt to identify hegemonic masculinity as an oppressor for femininity or other forms of masculinity outside of the heteronormative order. Thirdly, chapter 3.3 evaluates the first appearance of superheroes and villains created during the Golden Age. The aim of this brief analysis is to examine the definite amount of female and male characters in DC comic books. Thus, the quantitative examination will contribute to a better understanding to what extend one of the two biggest American comic book publishers has shaped and preserved stereotypes and assumptions based on gender depictions in their publications. Finally, section 3.4 discusses future developments in the field of gender studies in order to aim for a better understanding of the depiction of femininity/masculinity in comics as well as general perceptions of gender.

3.1 Female Stereotypes: Representation of Femininity in DC Comics

Many scholars agree that the representation of gender in comics reflects social attitudes by nurturing stereotypical portrayals of femininity and masculinity. The prevailing view of gender in superhero comics is that the body is both sexualized and exploited through its hyper-embodiment (Gray, 2011; Avery-Natale, 2013; Zullo, 2014, Austin, 2015). As put forward in the writing of Avery-Natale, the physical form of the superhero perpetuates hegemonic depictions of gender, as the superheroes’ body has failed to surpass any heteronormative representations of femininity/masculinity (2013, 95). The author is clearly aware of the difficulties involved in modern-day depictions of comic characters as the industry’s obsession with gendered bodies has transformed 29 contemporary superheroes into physically impossible embodiments of hyper- femininity/masculinity (2013, 73). To take one of the most prominent and striking examples in DC Comics, Superman represents the ultimate icon of masculinity and power. Avery-Natale’s observations suggest that this hero was created to please male fantasies about the ideal masculinity (2013, 72). Additional support for this interpretation comes from Zullo, as his results generally agree with those obtained in previous studies on embodiment among superheroes. Superman, as Zullo points out, can be defined by his hyper-masculinity. In contrast, female heroes are defined by their hyper-femininity and sexualized representation (2014, 139). However, the most interesting finding in Zullo’s work relates to the superhero’s costume, as it serves as a device for accentuating “the performance of heroism and gender, which then divorces the body from all meaning beside what is seen on the surface” (2014, 146). Within said costumes, women’s bodies are commonly displayed as overly sexualized and reduced to idealized forms of femininity. Austin provides additional support for this observation, as female comic characters are forced to use their femininity in order to survive in a male-centered world, which forces them to use “typical female displays of sexuality and seduction to fight back” (2015, 287). One interpretation of this would be that the hyper-feminine and sexualized depiction of women in comic books reflects collective attitudes on traditional gender roles and perpetuates female subordination within a heteronormative and male-centered society (Taylor, 2007; Gray, 2011; Avery-Natale, 2013). In other words, women in comics (exceptionally unlikely to overcome minor or supporting roles in contrast to male lead figures) are typically based on stereotypes. The fact that comics are still perpetuating gender differences by portraying the domination of male characters over female ones (Taylor, 2007; Avery-Natale, 2013) sheds a light on popular culture’s view of gender roles. As an assumption, it is implicit in Austin’s argument that male dominance in comic books is used to combat female power and resistance (2015, 287). Austin found that female power and dominance in comics is seen as a threat to masculinity, thus diminished by both male characters and authors, as “women in power are feared by men, which precipitates men’s disempowerment of them; because traditional stereotypes depict women as passive, any deviation from this norm is viewed as a threat” (2015, 286). It is undoubtedly the case that the majority of American comic book authors are male (Hickey, 2014), enabling the male gaze to linger on women’s bodies from creation to consumption. This is particularly relevant as previous studies have suggested that male authors are forming/transforming their female creations according to the male psyche (Ingalls 2012, 219). Avery-Natale rightly points out that male characters are typically portrayed as hyper-masculine, whereas female characters are 30 depicted as hyper-sexualized (2013, 72). This view is also reflected in Ingalls study on the application of evolutionary theory linked to the creation of female/male superheroes. Ingalls suggests that males tend to create extra-powerful characters, whereas female authors have a disposition to produce less physical heroes (2012, 209). The author’s theory is backed up by the belief that men are generally more concerned achieving high- positions in their professional life and that men’s “excess power should be expressed in any hero they create, irrespective of the sex of the hero” (ibid.). Ingalls acknowledges that female heroes created by male authors posses more physical power than heroines created by women (2012, 208). This is an interesting finding as it proves to be true in case of the original Wonder Woman stories during the Golden Age of DC Comics. However, an important point to bear in mind is the fact that Wonder Woman’s narrative has often fallen prey to the indetermination of all other male writers following the death of William Moulton Marston in 1947. Ingalls suggest to take on an evolutionary approach to reveal the process of the after-treatment of Wonder Woman: Marston was convinced that “comics were overly masculine, devaluing important feminine traits such as love, tenderness, and a desire for peace” (2012, 210). The author argues that Wonder Woman’s revealing outfits have their origin in evolution, as men are said to be more attracted to healthy looking, fertile females (2012, 211). Female bodies are still objectified in comics as the superheroine “is still scantily dressed and offers an impossible body image” (2012, 218). This finding is consistent with Avery-Natale’s argument that female characters in comics serve the male gaze, as their objectification becomes an integral part of the medium’s narrative (2013, 80). The author is careful to point out that females might be objectified by nature; nevertheless, female superheroes are “powerful, inhumanly strong, and able to overcome biologically inscribed human limitations” (ibid.). As female characters are still portrayed as hyper-sexualized, the issue of objectified depictions of women in comics deserves further consideration. In an online article published in 2016, author Renae De Liz challenges stereotypical drawings of female superheroes by suggesting alternative versions to de-objectify women in comics. De-objectified portrayals of women in comics might be puzzling at first, but definitely contribute to a more positive depiction of female characters. The table below serves to illustrate a variety of body-positive portrayals for women in comics. In view of this, de-objectified versions are provided for any respective body part.

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Table 5: "How to De-Objectify Women in Comics"

Part of the Body Objectified De-Objectified facial features that promote personality, half-closed eyes and puckered lips 1. Face emphasis on the eyes, strong and to enhance sex-appeal determined look unrealistically large, drawn in realistically painted breasts that do not 2. Breasts circles, sticking out of costume interfere while moving 3. Arms too thin firm-looking, defined muscles petite; to promote femininity and hands drawn in a way to support 4. Hands softness strength emphasis on the bottom while no intention for displaying/enhancing 5. Bottom posing, standing out, often showing the bottom both cheeks standing secure and heroically, no need 6. Knee knee bend for posing for extra posing 7. Feet high heels low or no heels Adapted from: “How to De-Objectify Women in Comics: A Guide” (Renae De Liz, 2016) Source: http://www.heroicgirls.com/de-objectify-women-comics-guide/. Accessed: August 1, 2017.

The table displays options to promote authentic as well as body positive representations of female bodies. The results lend strong support to the argument that comic book creators undoubtedly have a choice to produce less objectified versions of their characters. The findings presented here provide a starting point to reconsider already established guidelines for drawing female superheroes. The question why women in comics are still portrayed as hyper-sexualized and objectified appears to have no simple answer. As long as hyper-femininity seems to be a persistent part of the superheroes’ narrative, female characters, although certainly powerful, continue to serve as reflections of an almost entirely male-dominated comic book culture. If strong and powerful women are still seen as a threat to heteronormative masculinity, hyper-feminine and objectified depictions of femininity will continue to serve as a form of degradation produced by the men that fear them.

3.2 (Secret) Sexual Identity(ies): Male Sexuality in DC’s Superhero Comics

Sexuality in comics is still a highly controversial issue within the American superhero genre. An increasing amount of literature is devoted to the long-standing concern of the depiction of sexual identities in comic books (Palmer-Mehta and Hay, 2005; Schott, 2010; Shyminsky, 2011). This is reflected in current research on ambiguous sexual identities in Batman (Detective Comics #27, May 1939) and Green Lantern (All-American Comics #16, July 1940). In particular, the possibility of a homosexual relationship between Batman and his adolescent has been debated widely in the media over the 32 last decades. DC Comics has attempted to diminish any homophobic outcries among the almost entirely male readership of Batman by introducing (Detective Comics #233, July 1956). According to Zullo, Batwoman “had no other purpose than to prove that Batman was in fact not in a paedophilic relationship with Robin” (2014, 140). However, in a 1988 telephone pole, readers expressed their dislike of Batman’s ambiguous sidekick by voting for his fictional death (Shyminsky 2011, 305). As Shyminsky argues, readers might have actively erased any “possibility of non-heteronormative sexuality by eliminating its most obvious signifier” within the Batman comics (ibid.). Shyminsky claims that the sexual ambiguous sidekick provides an alternative form of masculinity by straightening the superhero’s narrative (2011, 288). According to the author, the superhero represents a conflict between normal and abnormal as “the superhero occupies both spaces at once and feels like an in each” (2011, 289). As Shyminsky argues, superheroes fight for equality and preserve normativity, although their Otherness represents a contradiction to the “dominant discourses of nation, sexuality, gender, race, and ability” they defend (2011, 289).

3.2.1 Gender Hierarchy and Normative Masculinity in Comics

Although the male superhero typically preserves the normative order, his secret identity exceeds the limitations of heteronormative standards. As Shyminsky points out, the ambiguity of the sidekick reinforces the heteronormativity of the male hero by “guarantee[ing] that the hero is understood as a unified and heteronormatively masculine whole” (2011, 299). Therefore, the ambiguous relationship between the superhero and the sidekick is reflected in the following ideology: the male hero stands for normative masculinity, whereas the sidekick portrays an alternative (subordinate) version of masculinity (2011, 289-90). The following table illustrates the difference between male superhero and sidekick in terms of gender hierarchy and reception of sexual identities of males in comics: Table 6: Gender Hierarchy and Reception of Male Sexual Identities in Comics

superhero sidekick central to straightening the public identity core to superhero narrative superhero’s narrative secret identity double life, alter-ego queer subtext, Otherness physical ideal of masculinity, feminine traits, not as powerful embodiment hyper-embodied, superhuman as superhero heteronormative construction of ambiguous sexuality, either sexuality sexuality asexual or homosexual ideological function normative masculinity alternative masculinity 33 power dominance submission week, innocent, in need of role mentor, guidance binary relation heterosexual/normative queer/perverse Adapted from: “From Fan Appropriation to Industry Re-Appropriation: The Sexual Identity of Comic Superheroes” (Schott, 2010) & “’Gay’ Sidekicks: Queer Anxiety and the Narrative Straightening of the Superhero” (Shyminsky, 2011).

It is not uncommon for American comic books to preserve the heteronormativity of the hero at all costs. The sexually ambiguous sidekick is therefore deliberately located to have a straightening effect on the superhero’s narrative (2011, 292). The hero’s public identity is central to the story, while his true (sexual) identity should be kept a secret. As Avery- Natale describes, the superhero’s secret identity is attributed to feminine and weak traits, whereas the public identity represents power and heteronormative masculinity: “[…] the splits between femininity and masculinity, strength and weakness, and power and subservience are constructed in parallel ways through the use of the alter-ego, secret identity to take on the role of the depowered and pitiful Other, while the superhero takes on the ego-ideal form” (2013, 94).

Additional support for this comes from Shyminsky, as he argues that gendered/sexual differences between superhero and sidekick “must be recognized as potential alternatives to the established order” (2011, 306). Therefore, the sexually ambiguous sidekick is constructed through the hero’s secret identity, aiding to the straightening of the narrative by representing an alternative version of heteronormative masculinity.

3.2.2 Sexual Relations in Comics and American Comic Book Censorship

Sexuality in American superhero comics has started to become a highly controversial topic during the Golden Age of comic books. The opposition to homosexual relationships in superhero comics provided a trigger for an explosion of research on potentially harmful effects of comic books on children’s development. As Fredric Wertham argues in one of his most influential works, “the intellectual and moral level” of comic books is “unbelievably low” (1954, 394). For Wertham, comic books were merely a source for reading disorders and juvenile delinquency (1954, 398). The author claims that the imagery in comics serves as a reflection of sexual violence and domination (ibid.). The American psychologist even claims that Wonder Woman would be “unhealthy, violent and Lesbian” (1954, 401). Throughout his career, Wertham never missed a chance to over- emphasizes his aversion of other sexualities then those found in the traditional heteronormative order. Ultimately, the psychologist’s negative review of the American comic book industry lead to the establishment of The Comics Code in 1954, consequently 34 banning sexual relationships between characters in comics outside of the heterosexual spheres. Nevertheless, Wertham’s interpretation of sexual relationships in comics laid the groundwork for queer readings within the genre of superheroes. Indeed, the ambiguous relationship between Batman and Robin poses a contradiction to classic heteronormative superhero comics. According to Schott, queer readings of these texts have encouraged fan fictions among readers “that effectively complete a ‘coming out’ narrative first implied by the text” (2010, 21). Schott argues that queer theory strengthens the superhero’s identity by unmasking his real sexual identity (ibid.). The visual representation of sexualities in comics has the ability to challenge stereotypes of heteronormative femininity and masculinity. An inclusive approach in terms of gender representation is needed in order to achieve more tolerance for sexualities outside of any socially defined norm. In this respect, comic creators are called upon to exceed the limitations of culturally and socially accepted sexualities and to explore alternative models of femininity and masculinity.

3.3 Marginalized Heroines: An Analysis of Gender Disparities during the Golden Age of DC Comics

For the purpose of the following quantitative analysis, the amount of female and male (super)heroes and villains during the Golden Age of DC Comics was examined. In terms of possible findings it was expected that female characters, regardless of their function within the narratives, would be outnumbered by their male counterparts. The data for this analysis included several publications of DC Comics from 1935 – 1951. A detailed list of examined comic book series published under DC Comics during the Golden Age can be found in the appendix. The amount of characters from the Golden Age period of DC will provide the basis for a discussion about the quantity and representation of female and male characters at that time. While it would be interesting to examine the development of mentioned heroes and villains, it is beyond the scope of this short evaluation to measure the longevity of each character. One problem inherent in an analysis like this is to verify that every single character of DC’s Golden Age is listed. Access to a comprehensive and complete encyclopedia of (super)heroes and villains of a particular period of time proves to be very difficult, as DC’s official archive is not publicly available, and researchers have to rely on encyclopedias of third authors. Moreover, it is likely that some treasures of the Golden Age are simply lost, due to an immeasurable amount of publications circulating during the prime era of comics. 35

For this study, a fan made database of DC characters was drawn on to measure the amount of female and male comic book (super)heroes and villains ranging from the 30s till the beginning of the 50s. To measure any gender disparities in DC Comics Golden Age, the amount of female characters was directly confronted with the number of male characters. To illustrate the results, pie charts are used to present the proportion of each gender. Particular attention was paid to the quantity of females in comics, as it is widely known that women are generally under-represented in popular culture. To categorize and measure the amount of female and male characters in DC Comics Golden Age, the numbers obtained were divided into three groups: heroes (including cowboys, detectives and other heroic characters), superheroes (characters possessing super human powers or equipment) and villains (including supervillains, i.e. archenemies of superheroes). Figure 1 shows the percentage of the total amount of female and male superheroes during DC Comic’s Golden Age. As expected, the results generally agree with those obtained in previous studies (e.g. Baker and Raney, 2007). Out of a total of 28 characters labeled as superheroes, 24 (86%) were male, and only 4 (14%) were female.

Figure 1: Female and Male Golden Age Superheroes in DC Comics (1938-1947)

Female Superheroes 14%

Male Superheroes 86%

Data adapted from: “DC Golden-Age Heroes” (unknown authorship). Source: http://www.herogoggles.com/DC-goldenAgeHeroes.html. Accessed: August 1, 2017. *For details see APPENDIX 1.

One interpretation of this would be the fact that superheroes at that time were often involved in wartime scenes. During the Golden Age of comics it was not uncommon for male characters to fight German fascists (e.g. Superman was highly involved in the war effort in both Action Comics and Superman). Women were usually obliged to perform domestic services or worked in manufacturing businesses. It is possible that comic book 36 publishers have consciously ascribed roles of women and men before and during World War II to their own character creations. Thus, the majority of heroes were male, performing masculine tasks during wartime within the genre of superhero comics. The consequence of this is that the majority of heroes within DC Comics’ Golden Age outnumbers female characters by far. As seen in Figure 2, a remarkable amount of 90 % of all heroes were male (incl. superheroes, spies, detectives and cowboys) compared to only 10% females.

Figure 2: Female and Male Golden Age Heroes in DC Comics (1935-1948)

Female Heroes 10%

Male Heroes 90%

Data adapted from: “DC Golden-Age Heroes” (unknown authorship). Source: http://www.herogoggles.com/DC-goldenAgeHeroes.html. Accessed: August 1, 2017. *For details see APPENDIX 2.

It is important not to overlook the fact that female superheroes up to this day are a minority in American comic books (Hickey, 2014). The American comic book culture is still predominantly centered on male superheroes such as Batman or Superman. One surprising result of the study was the correlation between female and male villains in DC Comics. As illustrated in Figure 3, 62 evil characters were identified as male; however, a considerable proportion of 33 instances of villains was reported as female.

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Figure 3: Female and Male Golden Age Villains in DC Comics (1935-1951)

Female Villains 33% Male Villains 67%

Data adapted from: “Golden-Age DC Villains” (unknown authorship). Source: http://www.herogoggles.com/DC-GoldenAgeVillains.html. Accessed: August 1, 2017. *For details see APPENDIX 3.

Thus, women portrayed as villains (33%) outnumber the total amount of female heroes (10%) during the Golden Age. In addition, the results of the comparison between female and male villains within publications featuring the character of Wonder Woman are even more surprising. Female villains 62%) outnumber males (38%) in Comic Cavalcade, Sensation Comics and Wonder Woman. 38

Figure 4: Amount of Female and Male Villains in Comic Cavalcade, Sensation Comics and Wonder Woman (1942-1950)

Male Villains 38% Female Villains 62%

Data adapted from: “Golden-Age DC Villains” (unknown authorship). Source: http://www.herogoggles.com/DC-GoldenAgeVillains.html. Accessed: August 1, 2017. *For details see APPENDIX 4.

This result calls for some explanation and comment. One can only speculate about the reasons behind Marston’s intention to let Wonder Woman fight predominantly against female villains. However, as previous studies suggest, female villains in comics are acting contrary to societal expectations as they “exemplify what it means to be women forced to cope with the gender biases prevalent in a male-dominated society” (Austin 2015, 294). As Austin explains, female villains in comics are oftentimes portrayed as even more dangerous and inhuman than their male counterparts (2015, 287). This in part reflects Marston’s belief that women are superior to men (Berlatsky, 2015; Lepore, 2015;) which might be a reasonable explanation why the majority of antagonists within Wonder Woman publications are female.

3.4 Possible Developments in Gender Studies and Comics

Comic books as one of the most successful mediums tend to reflect socio-cultural norms and attitudes. Gender studies have generated considerable research interest in the field of humanities. It is generally accepted that the concept of feminism is still relevant and significant for today’s society. Yet, few researchers have addressed the representation of feminism and femininity in comic art. There remains a need for highlighting the influence of comics as a means of perpetuating female stereotypes. The academic field of comics studies is still under-theorized and partially unexamined. Comics still have the 39 unfavorable side effect of being labeled derogatorily as popular culture, but some researchers in the fields of linguistics or culture studies have acknowledged their significance. Still, comic as an art form as well as an aesthetic representation of the relationship between text and image needs further linguistic investigation. Moreover, media as well as popular culture studies are intertwined with the interdisciplinary field of gender studies. Needless to say, the Media as one of many factors influences society’s gender perceptions as well as stereotypes based on one’s biological sex. Therefore, the continuous investigation and critical reflection on the representation of gender in comics will be of high importance for future studies. In fact, more female writers and editors on the creative end of the comic book industry are needed in order to compensate for the overabundance of male editors in this male dominated field. Moreover, less stereotypical portrayals of gender in comics are necessary to combat hyper-sexual and oftentimes degrading images of women in comics. Thus, in order to understand the reasons behind media’s unrealistic portrayal of femininity/masculinity, one needs to consider the correlation between male producers and audiences. It is not a coincidence that the comic books industry, which consists almost entirely of male readers, preserves sexist, stereotypical representation of women in comics. Previous research has argued that powerful superheroines in comics might be seen as a threat to male characters. Indeed, female characters operate under a different type of heroism in contrast to their male counterparts; women are tested and have to endure a variety of obstacles before they can prove themselves to be worthy and capable of their jobs. Men are usually trusted from the very beginning. On of that, female superheroes and villains are forced to use their femininity as a weapon to survive in a male-dominated society. What is most alarming about hyper-sexualized images of women in comics is the fact that people’s understanding and perception of others can be shaped and developed through media. Therefore, the representation of females and males in comic books reflects social (mis)perceptions of gender. Portrayals of superheroes in American comic books continue to take on exuberant levels of unrealistic depictions of the ideal female/male body (Avery-Natale, 2013;). In fact, stereotypes based on gender have existed since the Golden Age of DC Comics and idealistic representations of superheroes remain frequent to the present day. Comic books embody social values/believes/attitudes as a means of cultural perception and reflection. As Palmer-Mehta and Hay point out in their research on the representation of gay masculinity in US pop culture, comic books have “provided a rich tapestry of American cultural attitudes and philosophies that reflect varying approaches to issues that continue to haunt, confound, and rile the American public” (2005, 390). The 40 correlation between cultural values and comic art can be interpreted as a catalyst for social trends which are constantly reinterpreted and repeated through the relation of visual images and narration. In the best case, superhero comics accomplish a change of thinking in the reader, as they call for moral justice and equality for all humankind. As Palmer-Mehta and Hay point out, “we are called to reflect on what these representations mean, and what they mean to our common humanity” (2005, 401). But what does all this mean for female comic book readers in a male dominated fan culture? As the authors argue, “comic book readers are actively involved in the production and consumption of comics texts” (2005, 395). Thankfully, DC Comics has finally started to engage in political and social issues, even at the of lower profits or negative reviews, and it is likely that the “comic book culture will continue to address social issues and social policy, making the tension productive between comic art and public sites of struggle” (2005, 401). Studies on the oftentimes unfair representation of women in comics might not have a significant impact on the comic book industry, but at least this issue will continue to be discussed and people will engage in conversation about this.

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Who knows what women can be when they are finally free to become themselves? ~ Betty Friedan (1963)

Language uses us as much as we use language. ~ Robin Lakoff (1975)

Feminism is about the social transformation of gender relations. ~ Judith Butler (2004)

4 Language and Gender Studies: An Interdisciplinary Field Emerges

Language and gender as an interdisciplinary field of research started to develop in the 70s and has been continually evolving ever since. Research within the field of language and gender is divided into two main areas: sociolinguistics and discourse studies. According to Coates four main approaches to the study of language and gender have developed over the last decades: the deficit, dominance, difference and dynamic/social constructionist approach (2013, 5). Each approach has contributed gradually to a better understanding for the significance of gender and language research. As a result, ideas around gender have transformed immensely over the last decades. One of the most familiar works within the deficit approach is certainly Language and Woman’s Place by Lakoff (1975). As Kendall and Tannen note, Lakoff’s controversial work highlighted differences between male and female speech particularly in mixed-sex conversations and thus accentuated language’s influence in perpetuating women’s unequal status in society (2001, 548-49). Although highly controversial, Lakoff’s work laid the groundwork for further research within the interdisciplinary field of gender and language studies (ibid.). According to Coates, early work within the dominance approach focused on men’s domination over women expressed and achieved through linguistic conventions (2013, 6). This perspective to gender and language studies therefore positions women as inferior/subordinate to men. However, as Coates explains, “all participants in discourse, women as well as men, collude in sustaining and perpetuating male dominance and female oppression“(ibid.). In contrast, one of the benefits of the difference approach is that it celebrates women’s strengths and linguistic actions in talk, rather than observing them from a perspective of weakness and subordination (ibid.). Based on research of gender-related patterns in talk, Tannen found that women’s and men’s speech is encouraged by an awareness of conversational rituals to maintain social 42 status among speakers (2001, 553). Finally, the dynamic or social constructionist approach represents contemporary research within the field of language and gender. According to Coates, at a time in which scientific attention transferred from isolated sentences to the overall discourse of a text, the distinction between biological sex and gender became prominent within social sciences (2012, 90). This perspective views gender not as biologically predetermined, but rather socially constructed and constantly reproduced. As such, feminism has played an important role for scientific contributions to language and gender studies. Feminist scholars have achieved to deconstruct the binary notion of one single femininity/masculinity and established the current concept of gender plurality. Gender has become more diverse, and femininities and masculinities are intersecting with various forms of social factors such as ethnicity, class, age and sexual orientation. To discuss feminist contributions to the study of language and gender, the current chapter is divided into two main sections: firstly, section 4.1 provides a brief overview on linguistic activism in relation to the various stages of the feminist movement. Secondly, section 4.2 introduces three approaches to discourse analysis which aim to contribute towards a better understanding of sociocultural practices.

4.1 Changing Attitudes: Feminist Foundations of Gender and Language Studies

Over the last decades, language and gender research has been greatly influenced by feminism, and its achievements have provided a basis for the field’s political goals. Feminist linguistic activism aims to transform the ways in which language contributes destructively to gendered and sexualized identities. As Talbot explains, feminist attention to the study of language and gender seems plausible: “Feminism is a form of politics dedicated to bringing about social changes, and ultimately to arresting the reproduction of systematic inequalities between men and women. Feminist interest in language and gender resides in the complex part language plays, alongside other social practices and institutions, in reflecting, creating and sustaining gender divisions in society” (2010, 16).

Second wave feminism, which started in the 1960s and lasted till the 1980s, was built upon the political activism of the first wave Women’s Movement. According to Bucholtz, second wave feminism is based on three theories: liberal feminism, cultural feminism and radical feminism (2014, 25). Bucholtz explains that liberal feminism aims “to establish equality between women and men in all aspects of society by eradicating barriers to women’s full participation” (2014, 25). As Coates explains, the Women’s Movement during the 1970s has led to 43

“changes in practice and also changes in attitude” (2013, 5). For Coates, Lakoff’s publication of Language and Woman’s Place, although nowadays highly contested, represents a milestone in the feminist study of language and gender (ibid.). According to Bucholtz, Lakoff’s research falls under the category of liberal feminism (2014, 26). As Bucholtz notes, although widely criticized for its essentialist notion of gender, liberal feminist concerns “have continued relevance in research on language, gender and sexuality”, as current research tries to incorporate various perspectives within feminist linguistics (2014, 27). However, this interpretation has been challenged by other scholars. In contrast, Talbot not only challenges the framework of liberal feminism, but also confronts Lakoff’s research by stressing that her “early, introspective work” presented women as “uncertain, weak and empty-headed” language users (2003, 474). Lakoff’s work was introspective in the sense that she had no statistical evidence for her claims (ibid.). Talbot also points out that “early feminist scholarship tended to reproduce some of the androcentrism of pre-feminist work, and hence some of the stereotypes” (ibid.). The author observes that the representation of women and men as two separate or even opposite sexes is influenced by binary thinking. Early research was based on the principle of naturalized norms inflicted upon individuals and “tended to reproduce stereotypes” (2003, 468). Talbot believes that stereotypes based on gender are correlated with ideologies, and individuals are required to respond/enact/reproduce them according to societal expectations (2003, 472). There is no doubt that stereotypes based on gender reproduce sexism and gender inequality. This is further complicated by the fact that these stereotypes are perpetuating heteronormative attitudes such as male domination over women. According to Bucholtz, one of the most prominent figures of cultural feminism is Deborah Tannen (2014, 27). Tannen’s research is grounded on the hypothesis that both women and men belong to different (sub)cultures, and different styles in communication are correlated with various factors, such as social environment, culture and childhood (2014, 27-28). Nevertheless, the theory to position women and men into distinct cultures has been challenged by other feminist researchers. This is reflected in Talbot’s concern for the difference/cultural feminist approach: “The idea that women and men have distinct styles has proved popular, but it is problematic” as women and men cannot be classified as homogenous (2003, 475). However, Tannen’s originally suggested difference theory was subsequently developed further in her own research. Newer understandings of gender identities are reflected in current findings on varieties of femininity and masculinity. As Kendall and Tannen point out, gender dualism as a recent issue in the field of language and gender studies has motivated a number of scholars to question the binary position of male 44 and female as two distinctly opposed categories (2001, 559). Instead, recognizing gendered discourses enables researchers identify diversity in conversational styles, as “individuals create multiple – and sometimes contradictory versions of femininity and masculinity” which “may transgress, subvert, and challenge, as well as reproduce, societal norms” (2001, 559-60). Radical feminism represents a third perspective within the second wave. According to Bucholtz, radical feminism stems from gender based inequality and “men’s systematic and structural subordination of women” (2014, 30). What is interesting here is that radical feminism recognizes dominance not on an individual level, but as a systematic/institutional form of oppression “from which every man benefits in countless ways” (ibid.). As Bartky explains, women’s subordinate status in society reflects that the “politics of domination is as much in evidence in the private spheres”, as well “as in the traditionally public spheres of government and economy” (1990, 45). Moreover, radical feminist investigation includes research on language in correlation to sexual violence, harassment in the workplace as well as cyberstalking (Bucholtz 2014, 30). Early work suggested that radical feminism emphasizes women’s battle against patriarchal ideology without taking into account other issues. However, subsequent studies have shown that researchers adopting this position are opposing verbal and physical violence, as this radical notion of feminism provides “insights into the mechanisms of gendered power” (Bucholtz 2014, 30-1). Recently, there have been important advances in terms of LGBTQ linguistics, intersectionality, and studies on the relationship between language, gender and sexuality (Bucholtz 2014, 35-6). Thus, the last few years have witnessed a shift in the field of language and gender as it has progressively started to evolve into research on the relationship between gender and discourse (Kendall and Tannen 2001, 561). Current research reflects “the agency of individuals in creating gendered identities, including the options of resisting and transgressing sociocultural norms of linguistic behavior” (ibid.). To conclude, research on discourse and its implications on gendered identities have become an increasingly important field within gender and language studies. Feminist linguistic activism has contributed to a movement towards studying language as a social resource which transgresses, resists and challenges sociocultural norms and expectations.

4.2 New Perspectives: Gender and Discourse

This chapter presents research on gender and discourse as a critical perspective for evaluating the construction of gendered identities in texts. As Kendall and Tannen point 45 out, the correlation between gender and discourse reveals “how language functions as a symbolic resource” in social interaction (2001, 548). According to Talbot, discourses “are historically constituted social constructions in the organization and distribution of knowledge” (2010, 119). Broadly speaking, discourse refers to both spoken and written conversation. As Hodge and Kress explain, “discourse is a site where meaning plays between participants in a semiotic exchange, whether this is speech or dialogue, comic or film, ritual or game” (1995, 182). It is important to note that discourse within comics, respectively written texts, represents a fixed product unlike conversations. However, as discourses and their meaning(s) are in constant flux, written discourse can still be classified as a process, as the author/producer attempts to convey message(s) to the reader/audience of a given text (Brown and Yule 1983, 24). One of the attempts of critical research on the relationship between gender and discourse is to denaturalize the way in which language is used. In this sense, this chapter introduces discourse analysis as a tool for feminist researchers to critically engage in discussions on gender as a social construct as well as other explorations into issues relating to language and discourse (Talbot 2010, 118). The current chapter is divided into three main sections: the first part, section 4.3.1 (“Critical Discourse Analysis”), will give a brief outline of Norman Fairclough’s model of critical discourse analysis; secondly, section 4.3.2 (“Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis”) introduces a feminist perspective to the study of language and gender; thirdly, in section 4.3.3, feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis will be discussed as a supplementary form of discourse analysis.

4.2.1 Critical Discourse Analysis

Fairclough describes the interdisciplinary field of critical discourse analysis as an investigation “of how texts work within sociocultural practice” (1995, 7). In this sense, Fairclough defines discourse as “use of language seen as a form of social practice” (ibid.). Fairclough’s definition of language as a social practice implies that language is socially shaped as well as “socially shaping” (1995, 131). Therefore, critical discourse analysis aims to investigate the relationship between “discourse practices, events and texts” and “wider social and cultural structures, relations and processes” (1995, 132). Moreover, discourse analysis explores how practices are “ideologically shaped by relations of power and struggles over power” (ibid.). Social processes and changes are reflected in both spoken and written communication. Fairclough believes that texts represent “sensitive barometers of social processes, movement and diversity, and textual analysis can provide particularly good 46 indicators of social change” (1995, 209). Text types are produced and interpreted under the premise of textual practices which can be seen as ideal models or genres (1995, 13). Fairclough explains the difference between text types and genres as such as text types are “situationally and historically quite particular”, whereas genres can be viewed as more complex and abstract (1995, 14). However, there is a debate whether genres should be produced according to fixed schemas or unpredictable and flexible methods (ibid.). To establish an approach to critical discourse analysis, Fairclough has adopted a three-dimensional framework: Table 7: Fairclough's Three-Dimensional Framework

dimension method concerned with (i) text (spoken or written) description formal properties (ii) interaction (discourse practice; interpretation process of production and interpretation production and consumption) social conditions of production and (iii) context (sociocultural practice) explanation interpretation Adapted from: Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language (Fairclough, 1995) and Language and Power (Fairclough, 2015).

According to this framework, the relationship between context/sociocultural practice and text is mediated through interaction/discourse practice. Fairclough explains that this method of discourse analysis involves “linguistic description of the language text, interpretation of the relationship between […] discursive processes” and “explanation of the relationship between the discursive” and “social processes” (1995, 97; emphasis by author). As the author points out, it is up to the researcher to decide which parts are worth to discuss in detail and what issues will be emphasized within a critical analysis, depending on the individual interpretation of a text (2015, 59). Additionally, the relationship between language and social context are reflected through intertextuality (1995, 189). Fairclough explains that the intertextual part of discourse analysis highlights text shaping functions of discourse available to both producers and consumers of texts (ibid.) Therefore, intertextual analysis “draws attention to how texts may transform […] social and historical resources” (1995, 189). Moreover, texts have multi-semiotic properties, as they may combine text as well as visual and/or auditory components (1995, 4). Comic books, for example, are multi-semiotic, as these texts combine both language and imagery. As Fairclough argues, “texts whose primary semiotic form is language increasingly combine language with other semiotic forms” (ibid.) An analysis of social relations and processes interpreted through comics must therefore include commentary on both content and visual aspects of the artwork.

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4.2.2 Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis

Based on CDA’s concern with social issues and unequal power relations, feminist critical discourse analysis aims to establish “a political perspective on gender, concerned with demystifying the interrelationships of gender, power and ideology in discourse” (Lazar 2005, 5). Moreover, feminist CDA as part of an emancipatory program to address social injustices stands for an investigative resistance against unequal power relations, which privilege men and disadvantage women (ibid.) According to Lazar, the traditional approach to CDA was implemented within a male dominated field in the humanities and social sciences (2005, 2). Although CDA itself adopts a political stance in terms of social inequalities, a feminist perspective on CDA aims to challenge uneven relations of power which perpetuate male dominance and foster female subordination (2005, 2). Lazar mentions two major reasons for attaching a feminist label to CDA. First of all, former studies on the relation of gender and language focus on changing existing notions of unequal gender relations. These works are interested in feminist concerns, although researchers might not have them as being distinctly feminist (2005, 2-3). Secondly, a particular feminist perspective is necessary to analyze the “insidious and oppressive nature of gender as an omni-relevant category in most social practices (2005, 3). Additionally, Lazar advocates the multimodal dimension of CDA, as language in combination with semiotics adds “a great value for a holistic feminist critique of discursive constructions of gender” (2005, 5). As discussed in the work by Lazar, a feminist critique on gendered social conventions aims to question and transform practices based on ideologies (2005, 6). Gender ideologies represent practices which maintain “unequal power relations and dominance” (2005, 6-7). From a feminist point of view, notions of gender are based on hierarchical power relations. The author is clearly aware of the difficulties involved in counteracting hegemonic notions of gender, as ideologies based on one’s biological sex have gained acceptance within society (ibid.). The basic understanding for researchers in order to conduct a study on gender and power consists of two parts: first, diversity among women and men needs to be acknowledged. Secondly, workings of power relations in modern societies are based on gendered norms and realized in everyday interactions (2005, 9-10). Clearly, oppression is not universally experienced to the same extend for all women, as gender structures overlap with diverse social factors. Gender itself correlates with diverse categories of identities such as race, ethnicity, religion and sexuality. Therefore, within a feminist framework of discourse analysis, the concept of intersectionality receives significant attention (2005, 10). To conclude, feminist CDA is 48 crucial for an understanding of “how power and dominance are discursively produced and/or resisted in a variety of ways through textual representations of gendered social practices” (2005, 10).

4.2.3 Feminist Post-Structuralist Discourse Analysis

The feminist branch of post-structuralism challenges essentialist notions of gender and provides a basis for developing newer understandings within the field of gender and language studies. Feminist post-structuralism as a source of empowerment counteracts the long-standing issues of inequality and sexism experienced by women. As discussed by Baxter, feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis (FPDA) came into existence as researchers began to establish a feminist approach supplementary to discourse analysis (2003, 3). As Baxter notes, FPDA encourages “diversity and textual play” and responds to “unresolved tensions, competing perspectives, shifts of power, ambiguities and contradictions inherent within all texts” (2003, 1-2). Feminist post-structuralism advocates the same principles as third wave feminism’s social constructionist approach. FPDA not only enables researchers to work with concepts of diversity and performativity; it also demystifies stereotypical notions of gender (2003, 4-5). Furthermore, post- structuralism consists of a multitude of theoretical positions and embraces language analysis with a focus on “plurality, multivocality and non-fixity” of meaning within texts (2003, 6). Discourses can be classified, according to Baxter’s terminology, as “forms of knowledge or powerful sets of assumptions, expectations and explanations, governing mainstream social and cultural practices” (2003, 7). Following Baxter’s argument, dominant discourses on gender differences and stereotypical representations of women and men are supplemented with oppositional discourses, which encourage gender diversity and inclusion (2003, 8). Concerning the notion of power, individuals are “often located simultaneously as both powerful and powerless”, depending on context and discourse (2003, 9). It seems best, following Baxter, to recognize that the character of Wonder Woman is portrayed as both powerful and powerless in every individual story. The Amazon positions herself as dominant within certain contexts as well as submissive in others. Baxter’s work on feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis coincides with one of the messages behind the original Wonder Woman comics – namely, to create opportunities for “female voices which have been systematically marginalized or silenced” (2003, 10). As Baxter, explains, FPDA offers not only new insights on language’s influence in regard to the construction of identities, but also finds explanations for “the relative 49 powerlessness” of women (2003, 54). Thus, Baxter’s work illustrates that both CDA and FPDA acknowledge the concept of power not exclusively as a form of oppression, but also as a positive force for stimulating social relations within a plurality of discourses (2003, 46). Furthermore, to trace the construction of gender in popular culture, it is necessary to not only acknowledge the hidden workings of power and oppression within texts, but also to challenge hegemonic notions of stereotypical representations. FPDA therefore establishes a framework for analyzing female agency and representation of women in texts on the principles of its distinct feminist agenda.

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5 “Super-strength, altruism and feminine love allure”14: An Analysis of Feminist Discourses and Female Empowerment during the Golden Age Period of Wonder Woman

The following qualitative analysis will reflect on pro-feminist discourses and female empowerment expressed through language and sequential art in the Golden Age period of Wonder Woman (1941 – 1958). For the purpose of this study, the inductive analysis consists of a mixed methodology approach based on feminist CDA as well as feminist post- structuralist interests. Therefore, the following qualitative analysis highlights discourses of feminism within the original Wonder Woman comics. In this sense, feminist CDA as well as FPDA are useful approaches for an examination of female agency and empowerment within Wonder Woman. The qualitative analysis consists of four sections: Section 5.1 focuses on the author’s introduction to the character’s individual stories as well as some of her iconic expressions which are intrinsic to the comic’s feminist agenda. Section 5.2 offers insights on heroic maternity in Wonder Woman’s origin story and examines subversion of gender norms within the comics. Then, chapter 5.3 provides a correlation between the heroine’s journey and Wonder Woman’s narrative during the Golden Age period of comics. Finally, section 5.4 analyzes the depiction of dominance and submission in Marston’s Wonder Woman comics.

5.1 “Great Hera!”: An Analysis of Pro-Feminist Discourses in Wonder Woman

In October 1941, Wonder Woman made her debut in All-Star Comics #8 (December 1941) and appeared in the following year as the first female lead character on the cover of Sensation Comics #1 (January 1942). Since then, the Amazon princess remains to be one of the most recognizable and prominent female superheroes of all time. Marston strongly believed in equality and freedom for both sexes and envisioned a female hero “to save the world from the hatreds and wars of men in a man-made world” (epigraph to “Wonder Woman Comes to America” in Sensation Comics #1). Wonder Woman supported “women’s political power, economic independence, and social authority” during a period in the United States “when popular culture supposedly appropriated and defused feminist ideas” (Finn 2014, 7). As illustrated in the epigraph of Sensation Comics #3 (March 1942), Wonder Woman “flashed upon the American horizon like a gorgeous tropical sunrise” (1/1). One aspect of Wonder Woman’s popularity during the Golden Age Period of comic books might be her glorifying introduction to each story. Marston strongly believed that

14 Marston 1943, 44. 51

the Amazon princess has the strength to lead “the invincible youth of America against the threating forces of treachery, death, and destruction” (ibid.). The following table presents excerpts of introductions to Wonder Woman’s adventures in relation to the sociopolitical issues at that time:

Table 8: Marston's Introductions to Wonder Woman

“Never before in this world of men has there been such a wondrous Sensation Comics #4 maiden – never before has the need for such a friend of mankind been so (April 1942) great.” Sensation Comics #6 “[…] Wonder Woman leads the youth of America in a glorious crusade (June 1942) against viciousness and ruthless aggression.” “Righting wrongs, defending America from the enemies of democracy Sensation Comics #7 and fighting fearlessly for downtrodden women and children, in a man- (July 1942) made world, Wonder Woman wins all hearts and leads the youth of America to victory over evil!” “[…] the Amazon princess comes from the secret island home of Amazon Sensation Comics #8 women to save America from disaster and further the cause of justice, (August 1942) democracy and peace in this upset world of men!” Source: The Wonder Woman Chronicles Volume One (2010), DC Comics Publications.

As underlined in the table above, the verbs in Marston’s introductions are usually concerned with highlighting the Amazon’s power and action. At the beginning of each individual story, the author narrates the introduction to Wonder Woman’s adventures as an external voice. From the beginning, the author is recognizably male, since Marston refers to himself as “Charles Moulton15” in each opening panel. The superhero genre itself is predominately considered to be masculine. As Robins explains, Marston “was determined to create an alternative to the violence that characterized the male-dominated and naively masculinist adventure comic books that were then popular” (2004, 27). As Finn explains, William Moulton Marston, irrespective of his own gender, wished to “overturn the traditional gender hierarchy” inside and outside of the comics industry by introducing Wonder Woman to this “man-made world” (2014, 9). However, Wonder Woman is not only strong and capable to “battle for freedom, democracy, and womankind”, she also combines “the eternal beauty of Aphrodite and the wisdom of Athena” (Sensation Comics #1). As Finn explains, Marston deliberately chose to combine god-like powers with “dominant standards of acceptable femininity” (2014, 16). Wonder Woman’s beauty not only enchants her audience; when waking up next to her in the Amazons’ , Steve Trevor16 immediately praises “there’s an smiling

15 Pen name of William Moulton Marston. 16 In All-Star Comics #8, General Steve Trevor crashes his plane on the Amazonian Island and is rescued by Wonder Woman. In Sensation Comics #1, Wonder Woman brings him back to the United States. 52 at me, a beautiful angel” (2/2). As Finn recognizes, Wonder Woman indeed challenges traditional gender roles of women; however, her portrayal is still constricted to “standards of womanhood established by the dominant white, middle-class culture” (ibid.). Besides, Wonder Woman herself feels flattered as she receives Trevor’s compliment: “He called me an angel – a beautiful angel. That’s the first time a man ever called me – beautiful! (2/3). It is interesting to see the character’s immediate transition from stereotypical feminine behavior to subverted gender expectations and vice versa. With apparent ease, Wonder Woman picks up the wounded soldier and carries him in her arms to a near hospital, commands a medical check-up of his concussion, rushes out the door and decides to go window shopping (2/7–3/2). On the streets, Wonder Woman witnesses a bank-robbery and intervenes (3/6). With the help of her magic bracelets, “the Amazon maiden catches the hurtling bullets” with “speed faster than the eye can follow” (3/8). She obviously enjoys the scene as she starts to play catch with the bullets, and finally announces to play catch with the bandits themselves (4/1). Next, Wonder Woman grabs one of the men at the wrist and throws him effortlessly up in the and down towards his companions (4/3-4). As soon as the police arrives, Wonder Woman leaves the place as fast as a human meteor (5/3). After that, Wonder Woman gets hired as a theatre act where she shares her “bullets and bracelets” trick with a cheering audience (6/3). When she hears from Steve Trevor’s recovery in the hospital, she announces to quit her job (6/6). Right after that, the business agent rushes out with all her earnings. Wonder Woman jumps out of the building and “lands on the balls of her feet lightly as cat” to stop his car with her bare hands (7/1- 3). Finally, the Amazon takes the money back and continues her way to the hospital to finally meet Steve Trevor again (7/7-8). As Wright illustrates, the Amazon princess is both a “super-powerful warrior, free from traditional gender norms” as well as a “super- feminine woman, bound by traditional gender norms” and “enacts an attractive, heteronormative identity” (2017, 11). In this sense, as depicted in Sensation Comics #2 (February 1942), Wonder Woman may be overtly feminine; however, the Amazon “with the speed of Mercury and the strength of Hercules” also subverts gendered expectations and challenges traditional gender norms. Pro-feminist discourses within the Wonder Woman comics are reflected in each individual story. In a story called “Dr. Poison” in Sensation Comics #2, Wonder Woman assembles a team of athletic girls for America’s first Women’s Expeditionary Force (9/8). Disguised as a marching band, the girls invade the headquarters of Nazi-spies (10/8); not surprisingly, Wonder Woman is once again able to rescue Steve Trevor (11/6). Another example for female empowerment and economic independence can be found in Sensation Comics #8 (August 1942). Wonder Woman finds out that the female sales assistants 53 employed by the Bullfinch Department Store are mistreated. At the manager’s office, she finds the girls demanding for “a living wage and healthy working conditions” (4/3). To solve the problem, Wonder Woman hypnotizes the owner of the store, Gloria Bullfinch, with the help of her Magic Lasso (6/7):

Wonder Woman: You are bound with the Magic Lasso – You must obey me! Yield your will to mine! You are hypnotized – submit! Gloria Bullfinch: I – I must obey! I will submit! Wonder Woman: You will forget that you are Gloria Bullfinch! When you awake you will be Ruth Smith, a poor girl looking for work

Afterwards, Wonder Woman obeys Gloria to work at her own department store under the same conditions as her employees (7/3). At the end of the story, Gloria “finds her memory restored at Wonder Woman’s gesture” and declares that she will double the salaries of the girls and aims to improve working conditions as well as hours for her female staff (13/6). As Finn explains, William Moulton Marston “believed that women’s economic independence was a necessary step towards their empowerment” (2014, 17). Thus, the character of Wonder Woman supports pro-feminist discourses by challenging assumptions of gender and promoting equality for women and girls alike. Female empowerment within Wonder Woman is not only expressed through action and storytelling. As illustrated in the table below, the Amazon became known for her remarkably ironic expressions which were rather unusual for a female character at that time: Table 9: Ironic Expressions of Wonder Woman

Don’t be a crybaby – take it easy! [Diana Prince to Steve Trevor after he complains to be carried around in a wheelchair] They should have used chains – it would be more fun breaking them! [after being tied to a bed with ropes] Too bad to smash the door, but they forgot to leave me the key. [while breaking a locked door into pieces] What’s an angel? I think I’d rather be a woman. [as Steve calls her his “beautiful angel”] I saw your Wonder Woman. I dont [sic] think she’s very pretty. [disguised as Diana Prince, Wonder Woman once again visits Steve at the hospital] Don’t shoot them, Steve! It’s more fun to capture them alive! [while defeating Nazi-spies on a yacht] Let’s pile ‘em up, Steve! It’ll be easier to count our prisoners. [knocking out one villain after another] I wonder if I am getting jealous of my other self. [Diana Prince on Steve’s admiration for Wonder Woman] Source: The Wonder Woman Chronicles Volume One (2010), DC Comics Publications.

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During World War II, when millions of men were serving in the United States Armed Forces, women’s equality was limited by the necessity of performing domestic and industrial labor. As Knaff observes, Wonder Woman “combined femininity and masculinity in a way she only could have during the war” (2014, 24). In this sense, Wonder Woman’s masculine qualities were correlated with humorous, tongue-in-cheek expressions which went beyond the limits of conventional feminine behavior at that time. In the context of language within the comics, Wonder Woman’s expressions were used to disrupt assumptions about stereotypical feminine speech. As shown in the table above, the character’s multifaceted vocabulary was intended to reflect her ability to rise above the systematic oppression of women and counteracts any notions of appropriate feminine speech. As one of the first female superheroes, Wonder Woman survived as a feminist icon within popular culture. In fact, the Amazon gained cult status as a female lead character within the realm of popular culture. Within the male dominated superhero genre, Wonder Woman overcomes stereotypical notions of gender and challenges sociocultural norms and expectations of women.

5.2 “Merciful Minerva!”: Subversion of Gender Norms and Heroic Maternity in Wonder Woman’s Origin Story

Wonder Woman not only defends “freedom, democracy and womankind” (Sensation Comics #1, January 1942, 1/1), she also embodies one of the most influential female comic characters of all time. Indeed, back in the Golden Age, Wonder Woman triggered a new wave of female patriotism and sisterhood in the realm of comic books. The iconic superheroine serves as the foundation of a new build appreciation for heroic femininity in popular culture and beyond. Wonder Woman stands for women’s continuous fight for gender equality and justice. The Amazon’s origin story begins on Paradise Island. One day, Intelligence Officer Steve Trevor, accidently crashes his plane on the secret island (1/3). Diana, Princess of the Amazons, immediately rushes to his aid (1/4). Bewildered that there is “a man on Paradise Island!” (ibid.), she instantly sends him to the hospital. This is clear-cut case of Wonder Woman’s heroic courage she constantly displays within her narratives. Although she has never seen a male being in her entire life, she does not hesitate to help him in his misery. The other Amazons are sharing Diana’s astonishment of seeing a man on the otherwise exclusively female island, and decide to inform the queen about this incident (2/4). In the following days, Diana never leaves Trevor’s bedside, constantly observing his condition 55

(2/5). Wonder Woman relentlessly proves that heroicness and femininity are not mutually exclusive. As Tigges agrees, “[…] the idea of toughness is indeed fully compatible with femininity, in that although the female superhero differs in many respects from what characterizes the stereotypical woman, the former also distinguishes herself in subtle ways from the qualities generally found in the conventional male superhero” (2017, 128-129).

Therefore, Wonder Woman not only differs from stereotypical notions of femaleness, she also separates herself from heteronormative representations of male superheroes. Thus, the superheroine embodies both feminine and masculine traits. Stereotypical feminine qualities such as empathy, understanding and maternal care incorporate the heroine into conventional portrayals of femininity, whereas masculine attributes such as competence, responsiveness and the ability to fight challenge traditional roles of women. As the author describes, “fighting and toughness are part of the hero’s expertise, whether male or female” (2017, 142). The table below describes Wonder Woman’s identity in regard to gender binaries within the genre of superheroines: Table 10: Gender Binaries in Wonder Woman's Narrative

“Feminine” “Masculine” expresses emotions physical power displays feminine attractiveness dominance enchanting super-powerful vulnerable competence power/influence over self, others and self-sacrificing environment strength independence fighting toughness self-determining Adapted from: “It’s a Man’s World: Wonder Woman and Attitudes Toward Gender Roles” (Currie, 2017) & “A Woman Like You? Emma Peel, : Warrior Princess, and the Empowerment of Female Heroes of the Silver Screen” (Tigges, 2017) & “Becoming a (Wonder) Woman: Feminism, Nationalism, and the Ambiguity of Female Identity” (Wright, 2017).

According to Tigges, the typical female superhero never “completely give[s] up stereotypical feminine traits, such as the ability to express emotions” (2017, ibid.). This is reflected in the following dialogue between Diana and her mother. Hippolyte17, Queen of the Amazons, expresses concerns about her daughter’s affection towards the male :

Diana: But Mother – I don’t understand – I must see him! I must know who he is, how he got here! And why he must leave? I-I love him!

17 In later versions spelled as “Hippolyta“. 56

Queen Hippolyte: I was afraid, daughter, that the time would some day arrive that I would have to satisfy your curiosity. Come – I will tell you everything! [emphasis by author] (3/1)

At first, it might seem odd that Diana has fallen in love with the first man she has ever seen, not to mention the fact that they have not even talked to each other. However, except her exceptional physical strength, Diana also represents the female archetype as caretaker and nurturer. As D’Amore describes, Wonder Woman has influenced America’s cultural identity “by association with the symbol of the supermom” (2012, 1227). D’Amore stresses the importance of maternal performativity within the genre of superhero comics, as “the superheroine’s performance of maternity empowers the maternal, accepting motherhood – and the feminized qualities associated with it – as an asset, rather than a liability” (2012, 1226). According to the author, maternal performativity is “key to understanding how hegemonic, status quo gender roles function in superhero comics” (2012, 1228). However, in terms of Paradise Island, home of the Amazons, traditional gender roles are completely absent. By falling in love with a man, Diana threatens not only the established order of the Amazons; she also endangers her own heroic identity by letting her guard down emotionally. Wright describes the conflict within Wonder Woman’s narratives as twofold; Diana is both “morally virtuous” as “self-sacrificing” for the man she loves (2017, 6). On the contrary, Queen Hippolyte represents “powerful maternity, re-imagining traditionally female roles as strong and authoritative” (D’Amore 2012, 1244). When Diana insists to fly Captain Steve Trevor back to America, Queen Hippolyte consults the spirits of Aphrodite and Athena:

Aphrodite: Hippolyte, we have come to give you warning. Danger again threatens the entire world. The gods have decreed that this American Army Officer crash on Paradise Island [sic]. You must deliver him back to America – to help fight the forces of hate and oppression.

Athena: Yes, Hippolyte, American liberty and freedom must be preserved! You must send with him your strongest and wisest Amazon – the finest of your Wonder Women! – For America, the last citadel of democracy, and of equal rights for women, needs your help! (8/1)

As Madrid and Langley describe, the maternal figure is a key element within the mythology of Wonder Woman’s narrative (2017, 127). Aphrodite, mother of the Amazons, has build a race of indestructible female warriors. As D’Amore explains, “since the superheroine was founded on characteristics of strength and independence, her ideological connection to mothers is empowering” (2012, 1226). For the Amazons, Aphrodite represents the divine mother. However, the author understands that during the 57

Golden Age period of comic books, it was often times complicated to present such strong female figures within a time of political and social fluctuations for women, as “the very nature of women’s roles in society were being contested and revised” (2012, 1229). As demonstrated in the work by D’Amore, the female superheroine stands for diverse female personalities, as she is “both feminist and domestic, equal and dependent, worker and mother” (2012, 1231). After consultation with Aphrodite and Athena, Queen Hippolyte decides that the contestant of a tournament will be send to America “to fight for liberty and freedom and all womankind” (All-Star Comics #8, December 1942, 8/2). However, the queen forbids Diana to enter the tournament, as she could not bare losing her only child (8/3). At the day of the tournament, one contestant demands wearing a to conceal her identity (8/4). Finally, Diana, disguised in , conquers every single Amazon in the tournament and wins the right to bring Steve Trevor back to America (9/6). Queen Hippolyte accepts her daughter’s glorious victory and hands Diana the iconic Wonder Woman costume: “I knew it – I felt it! I thought perhaps – well, it’s too late now! You’ve won and I’m proud of you! In America you’ll indeed be a ‘Wonder Woman”, for I have taught you well! And let yourself be known as Diana, after your godmother, the goddess of the moon! And here is a costume I have designed to be used by the winner, to wear in America”(9/6).

Currie argues that only Wonder Woman has the ability to overcome men’s domination as she combines god given strength with Amazonian military training (2017, 214). As discussed in Currie’s work, Wonder Woman challenges traditional notions of gender, and combats stereotypical portrayals of women (ibid.) Wonder Woman’s introduction in All- Star Comics #8 finally ends with following words: “And so Diana, the Wonder Woman, giving up her heritage, and her right to eternal life, leaves Paradise Island to take the man she loves back to America – the land she learns to love and protect, and adopts as her own!” (9/10).

In fact, William Moulton Marston was a man with a vision: he wanted to create the ideal female hero to fight for “the land she learns to love and protect” (ibid.). Marston was convinced that girls do not want to be heroes, as long as female characters do not possess the same powers as their male counterparts (Ingalls 2012, 218). The character of Wonder Woman is characterized by combining female and male attributes; thus, the iconic superheroine retains equivalent abilities as her male counterparts. Diana, Princess of the Amazons and secret identity of Wonder Woman, was raised within a matriarchal system on an island entirely ruled by women. In her world, traditional gender roles are non- existent, enabling her to explore the environment around her without the restrictions of a patriarchal society. Moreover, Queen Hippolyte has raised her daughter with loving authority and guidance. As Madrid and Langley explain, “Diana uses her mother’s lessons 58 on equality and female empowerment to change the lives of the oppressed women of Man’s World” (2017, 132). Indeed, Wonder Woman’s strength is not only god given; she has also benefited from a remarkably strong mother-daughter bond.

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5.3 “Suffering Sappho!”: The Heroine’s Journey in Wonder Woman

Within Marston’s Wonder Woman comics, myth plays a crucial role to convey his feminist vision for female empowerment. As such, studying the heroine’s journey in Wonder Woman’s narrative contributes to a better understanding of the importance of the Amazon’s quest throughout her stories. In narratives, the hero’s journey or monomyth provides a model for the tale of the hero, beginning with the call to adventure, up to the point of the ultimate climax/victory, and finally ends with the hero’s return home. As such, the monomyth is frequently used as a template for the transformation of fictional characters. Additionally, the hero’s journey is not a fixed guideline; there are indeed countless possibilities in regard to the model’s stages. During the hero’s journey, the protagonist has to face unforeseen obstacles, and often finds himself situated outside of his usual surroundings. Moreover, the journey is not only physically exhausting; the hero must also withstand times of grief, depression and emotional distress. In his most prominent work, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949), Joseph Campbell describes the hero’s journey on the basis of three passages: separation, initiation and return (2004, 28). According to Campbell, the hero “ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow men” (ibid.).

Nevertheless, a serious drawback of Campbell’s approach is the fact that he does not take into account that women are likewise permitted to take the hero’s journey. The notion that women are excluded from the original monomyth has been the subject of numerous studies, and there is now a substantial body of research on feminine versions of the hero’s journey (Estés, 1995; Murdock, 1990;). According to Murdock, the heroine’s journey differs from Campbell’s original model, as the focus of the feminine monomyth lies on “heal[ing] the internal split between woman and her feminine nature” (1990, 2). In an interview conducted by Murdock in 1981, Campbell rejected this different approach by insisting that “women don’t need to make the journey” in the first place (ibid.). Murdock then transformed Campbell’s “deeply unsatisfying” answer into a new type of heroic model for women, which serves as a fundamental theory on the female quest in our culture (ibid.). According to Murdock, the stages of the heroine’s journey might not “necessarily fit the experience of all women of all ages”, but it is also not limited to women only (1990, 4). Murdock describes the essence of the heroine’s journey as such: “Women do have a quest at this time in our culture. It is the quest to fully embrace their feminine nature, learning how to value themselves as women and to heal the deep wound of the feminine. It is a very important inner journey toward being a fully integrated, balanced, 60

and whole human being. Like most journeys, the path of the heroine is not easy […]. It follows no straight lines. It is a journey that seldom receives validation from the outside world, in fact the outer world often sabotages and interferes with it” (1990, 3).

Murdock’s heroine’s journey is indeed derived from Campbell’s original model; however, the language she uses for the various stages of the passage is aimed to do justice to the unique experiences of women (1990, 3). Such as Campbell’s three passages of the monomyth, the heroine’s journey comprises a threefold cycle of “development, growth, and learning” (1990, 4). Murdock’s examination of the heroine’s journey is particularly interesting as her study contributes to a better understanding of the heroine’s quest in narratives. The table below provides a useful comparison between the ten stages of the heroine’s journey and reoccurring patterns in Marston’s Golden Age version of Wonder Woman: Table 11: Correlation between the Heroine's Journey and Wonder Woman's Narrative during the Golden Period of Comics

The Heroine’s Journey Wonder Woman Diana, Princess of the Amazons, receives the call to adventure and delivers Steve Trevor back to America in 1. Separation of the Feminine order to “help fight the forces of hate and oppression” (All- Star Comics #8, December 1941). 2. Identification with the In America, Wonder Woman joins the U.S. Army to fight the Masculine and Gathering of Axis powers and gathers allies at the “Holliday College for Allies Women” (Sensation Comics #2, February 1942). As her secret identity Diana Prince, Wonder Woman is constantly faced with discrimination due to the fact that she is a female secretary working for the U.S. Army. 3. Road of Trials: Meeting Ogres Additionally, during her battles against evil spies or other and Dragons criminals, she is regularly tried and tested and has to endure numerous occasion where she is bound in chains or tied up. During her journey, Wonder Woman rushes from one 4. Finding the Illusory Boon of adventure to the next and continuously challenges herself Success to overcome any obstacles along her way. At some point in the story, Wonder Woman’s identity as 5. Awakening to Feelings of Diana Prince is at stake. Steve almost discovers that Diana Spiritual Aridity: Death is Wonder Woman. 6. Initiation and Descent to the Throughout her adventures, Wonder Woman finds herself Goddess in dangerous situations and seeks aid from her mother. In the comics, Wonder Woman embodies the reconnection 7. Urgent Yearning to Reconnect with the positive feminine as a of peace and with the Feminine justice. 8. Healing the Mother/Daughter Wonder Woman returns to Paradise Island and is Split rewarded with the Magic Lasso. In Marston’s comics, Wonder Woman has no biological 9. Healing the Wounded father. The wounded masculine parts within herself are Masculine healed through the heroine’s feminine nature. 10. Integration of Masculine and Throughout her journey, Wonder Woman combines both 61

Feminine feminine and masculine attributes. Adapted from: The Heroine’s Journey (Murdock, 1990) & The Wonder Woman Chronicles Volume One (2010), DC Comics Publications & The Wonder Woman Chronicles Volume Three (2012), DC Comics Publications.

As originally proposed by Campbell, the call to adventure “signifies that destiny has summoned the hero and transferred his spiritual center of gravity from within the pale of his society to a zone unknown” (2004, 53). Campbell notes that as soon as the hero receives the call to adventure, “[t]he familiar life horizon has been outgrown; the old concepts, ideals, and emotional patterns no longer fit; the time for the passing of a threshold is at hand” (2004, 47). According to Murdock, the initiation stage of the heroine’s journey “often includes a rejection of the feminine as defined as passive, manipulative, or nonproductive” (1990, 6). Additionally, the author argues that within the heroine’s journey, “the old order is embodied by the mother, and the heroine’s first task toward individuation is to separate from her” (1990, 14). Therefore, to separate herself from her mother, the heroine undergoes a stage of “rejection of all feminine qualities distorted by the cultural lens as inferior, passive, dependent, seductive, manipulative, and powerless” (ibid.). However, according to the author, the heroine initially struggles with the separation from the mother: “The separation from the personal mother is a particularly intense process for a daughter because she has to separate from the one who is the same as herself. She experiences a fear of loss characterized by anxiety about being alone, separate, and different from the same-sex parent who in most cases has been her primary relationship” (1990, 17).

For Wonder Woman, the separation of the feminine starts on Paradise Island, a utopian place ruled by the Amazons, far away from civilization (All-Star Comics #8, December 1941). In the epigraph to Sensation Comics #2 (February 1942), Marston declares Wonder Woman’s call to adventure: “Into this tortured, upside-down world of men, torn by hatreds, war and destruction, comes Wonder Woman, a powerful being of light and happiness! She comes from paradise island, the home of the Amazons, where life is eternal, where sorrow and suffering are unknown, and where love and justice make women strong beyond the dreams of men!” (Sensation Comics #2, February 1942)

Diana, Princess of the Amazons, is already equipped with superhuman strength and remarkable intelligence. As illustrated in the previous section, Queen Hippolyte forbids her daughter Diana to participate in an Amazon tournament. Nevertheless, Diana, disguised with a mask, wins the contest and accompanies Steve Trevor on his way back to America (9/6-8). Thus, Wonder Woman rejected her mother’s command in order to answer the call to adventure. As Murdock explains, one of the most difficult parental figures to leave is the loving and supporting mother, as “this type of mother is akin to 62 leaving the Garden of Eden, to leaving a state of innocence, bonding, and comfort and stepping into an uncertain world” (1990, 22). However, “even the good mother who is a positive role model can unknowingly entrap her daughter” (ibid.). As portrayed in Wonder Woman’s debut in All-Star Comics #8, the Amazon Princess has to leave her mother Hippolyte and Paradise Island behind in order to answer her call to adventure. As Murdock explains, a woman who envisions her mother “as a larger-than-life-deity against whom she must measure herself” needs to “repudiate her to find her own identity” (ibid.). For the purpose of healing the internal and external split with her mother, Wonder Woman continuously seeks guidance from female goddesses throughout her adventures. As the author explains, the heroine ultimately finds spiritual healing in “goddesses, heroines, and contemporary creative women with whom she can identify and who will teach her about female power and beauty and enrich her experience of her own developing authority” (1990, 27). Following Murdock, the second stage of the heroine’s journey begins with the woman’s wish to “identify with the masculine or to be rescued by the masculine” (1990, 36). As defined by the author, the heroine’s journey starts at the point where the female character breaks with heteronormative femininity (ibid.). In case of Wonder Woman, identification with the masculine begins as soon as she meets Steve Trevor as her first ally and longs to accompany him on his journey back to America to fight the injustices of mankind. As Murdock explains, an important point during the heroine’s journey “is to find her work in the world, which enables her to find her identity” (1990, 44). Thus, without her mother, the heroine learns “that she can survive without dependence on parents or others so that she can express her heart, mind, and soul” (ibid.). Nevertheless, Wonder Woman is surrounded by the ever-present spirits of female goddesses, which provide supernatural aid in times of despair. As Campbell describes, such protective figures represent “[…] the benign, protecting power of destiny. The fantasy is a reassurance – a promise that the peace of Paradise, which was known first within the mother womb, is not to be lost; that it supports the present and stands in the future as well as in the past” (2004, 66).

Additionally, Wonder Woman finds support at the “Holliday College for Women”, were she picks one hundred of “the prettiest and strongest” girls to join “America’s first Women’s Expeditionary Force”: Wonder Woman: Girls, I warn you! There will be great danger! These men are killers! We have to march into the very muzzles of their rifles and machine guns! If any girl wants to quit, this is your last chance! Holliday Girls: We’ll never quit! – Let’s go! – Who’s afraid of a man? – If they’re men, we can catch them! (Sensation Comics #2, 10/5) 63

Thus, after the separation of the feminine, Wonder Woman starts to identify with the masculine as she begins to fight alongside the Armed Forces of America during the Second World War, and gathers allies to assist her in “defying the vicious intrigues of evil enemies” (Sensation Comics #3, March 1932). According to Murdock, the next step for the heroine along her journey is to meet “obstructions along the way both in her outer rational world as well as the inner world of the psyche” (1990, 47). Therefore, one of the main themes on the road of trials is the myth of dependency. As the author declares, “this myth says that if one partner diminishes herself the other partner can be successful; his power comes at the expense of her weakness” (1990, 49). In the comics, Wonder Woman needs to weaken herself through her secret identity Diana Prince to pretend that Steve Trevor’s is in a position of male superiority. As such, Wonder Woman is willing to give up her powerful identity as an Amazon warrior and endures constant discrimination as a woman working in the U.S. Army in order to maintain Steve’s authority. Moreover, along the road of trials, Wonder Woman learns that her bracelets are able to deflect bullets, but simultaneously weaken her strength if her hands are bound together: Wonder Woman: These bracelets – they’re an Amazon’s greatest strength and weakness! What a fool I was to let a man weld chains upon them! It just makes a girl realize how she has to watch herself in this man’s world! (Sensation Comics #4, 13/8).

Wonder Woman realizes that if she wants to survive in America, she needs to be responsible for her own safety. As Murdock explains, the road of trials encourages women to shatter the myth of inferiority. Thus, “the heroine must have the courage to demythologize her partner and take back responsibility for her own life” (1990, 60). Along the road of trials, the heroine “has achieved the power, recognition, and success in the outer world that her mother only dreamed of” (1990, 62). However, as soon as the illusionary boon of success declines, the heroine rushes to overcome the next obstacle (1990, 65-6). As the author explains, when the “unconscious masculine takes over”, a woman “never feels satisfied with completing a task because he always urges her to pursue another” (1990, 69). This is also true for Wonder Woman, as she continuously rushes from one obstacle to the next. As Murdock explains, “going out into the world, acquiring skills, and achieving excellence” become part of the heroine’s identity (ibid.). Nevertheless, the heroine needs to learn that she is limited, so that she can detach herself from patriarchal standards in order to become “real, open, vulnerable, and receptive to a true spiritual awakening” (ibid.). 64

Next, the heroine comes to a point on her journey where she feels trapped, even betrayed, as “the world is not what she thought it would be” and “rages against the loss of her cherished world-view” (1990, 75). The following quote from Marston in Wonder Woman’s first individual comic book issue illustrates the character’s feelings of spiritual aridity: “Added to her immediate problems of conflict with our enemies she is also faced constantly with the problem of keeping her assumed identity (of Diana Prince, secretary) a secret from Major Steve Trevor!” (Wonder Woman #1, Summer 1942).

As Marston explains, Wonder Woman struggles more and more to conceal her secret identity. As in Sensation Comics #15 (March 1943), Diana Prince finds a bomb in the drawer of her desk (2/2). Steve Trevor enters the room seconds before the weapon goes off, and “as Diana leaps backwards, the explosion tears off her outer garments, revealing the costume which she wears underneath” (2/3-5). Then, Marston narrates that Wonder Woman “does some acrobatic thinking” to convince Steve that Diana has jumped out of the window (2/7). Next, she commands Steve to take the elevator as she will jump right after Diana in order to rescue her (ibid.). As soon as Steve leaves the room, Wonder Woman takes the carpet of the floor, rolls it up and wraps Diana’s coat around it (2/8-3/1). Outside of the building, Steve sees Wonder Woman rushing off with Diana in her arms (3/4). Steve, unsure of what he has witnessed moments before, takes a moment to reflect the strange incident: Steve Trevor: There’s something queer about this – I’d swear Diana changed to Wonder Woman before my very eyes! But afterward Wonder Woman and Diana were both here – or was that Diana in Wonder Woman’s arms? I wonder? [emphasis by author] (3/5)

At this point along her journey, Wonder Woman’s secret identity as Diana Prince is at stake. Now it is time for the heroine to stop searching for continuous victory and to be her truest and most authentic self. As Murdock suggests, “being takes courage and demands sacrifice” as “anything less than that aborts growth, denies change, and reverses transformation” (1990, 83). As soon as the heroine learns to listen to her inner authentic voice, she is able to mute the uproar of patriarchy and develops a relationship with the masculine which ultimately leads her to the Great Mother (1990, 85). After a phase of spiritual aridity and death, the heroine begins the descent to the Goddess or Great Mother. As Murdock explains, the initiation is “not a glamorous journey, but it invariably strengthens a woman and clarifies her sense of self” (1990, 91). According to Murdock, the descent can come in various forms and is usually characterized by a period of “confusion and grief, alienation and disillusion” as well as “rage and despair” 65

(1990, 88). Thus, the heroine needs to change her focus “from the exterior world with its outer projections to the inward journey” (1990, 90). The initiation process that leads to the Great Mother is often characterized as a period of isolation and suffering (1990, 107). Nevertheless, it is also a powerful time of transformation, as the heroine “gains the wisdom of the cycles of change” and accepts the dark in order to “find meaning in suffering and death” (1990, 109). In the comics, Wonder Woman experiences the descent to the Great Mother not as a once in a lifetime journey, but finds herself frequently in desperate situations. As depicted in Sensation Comics #4 (April 1942), Wonder Woman “tries to break her chains [but] makes a terrible discovery” (10/7). In her despair, she remembers her mother’s warning: Queen Hippolyte: Daughter, if any man welds chains on your bracelets, you will become weak as we Amazons were when we surrendered to Hercules and his Greeks. (10/8)

As always, Wonder Woman is able to free herself by “catching bullets on her bracelets” which finally cut off her chains (13/3). As such, Wonder Woman gains more wisdom on how to overcome any obstacle and trusts her inner wisdom throughout her adventures in America. After the initiation and descent to the Great Mother, the heroine yearns to reconnect with the feminine. As Murdock illustrates, “the positive feminine is concerned with networking and affiliation, with bringing communities to work for the common good” (1990, 125). Such as Wonder Woman, the feminine embodies “compassion and mercy”, and “demands protection for the young and less fortunate” (ibid.). Moreover, a heroine who has made the descent has come to know the destructive forces of the feminine (1990, 126). In this sense, the heroine has the power to destroy and renew, to take life and to give birth. As such, the heroine needs to handle these polarities carefully. The next step on the heroine’s journey is characterized by the desire to heal the wounded mother/daughter relationship. According to Murdock, a woman has to reconnect to her inner Great Mother by herself if she has not been introduced to feminine mythology in former times (1990, 143). As the author explains, many women nowadays “seek ancient images of powerful feminine deities and heroines to heal the wound within” (ibid.). In order to reclaim their own female history, “women are reaching back to prehistory to find elements of the woman’s mythology” which is based on “the life-giving principles of the Goddess” (ibid.). In the comics, Wonder Woman heals the mother/daughter split and reclaims her female roots by returning to Paradise Island, where she is rewarded with the Magic Lasso (Sensation Comics #6, June 1942):

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Queen Hippolyte: Daughter! How glad I am to see you! Diana: Mother! I thought I’d never be permitted to come back to Paradise Island! Queen Hippolyte: Alas! You cannot stay, darling! The goddesses have summoned you to reward you for your splendid work in the world of men! Aphrodite and Athena: Having proved thyself bound by love and wisdom, we give thee power to control others! Whomsoever thy magic lasso binds must obey thee! (6/4-8)

As the Murdock explains, as soon as the heroine demands the help of the Great Mother, she takes back her own power (1990, 153). In this sense, Wonder Woman is able to heal the split between herself and her mother and additionally receives one of her iconic weapons for her adventures in America. After her reconnection with the Great Mother, the heroine strives for healing the wounded masculine within herself (1990, 156). As Murdock describes, the masculine is not a gender but “an archetypal force” which may become “combative, critical, and destructive” when it is unbalanced (ibid.). Additionally, this archetype seeks perfection and tries to dominate and control (ibid.). As Murdock explains, the caring feminine is needed in order to heal the wounded, out-of-balance masculine (ibid.). Murdock illustrates this point by explaining that a woman can only heal this “imbalance within herself” if she “bring[s] the light of consciousness into the darkness” which controls her ego and psyche (ibid.). In order to bring compassion to her own darkness, the heroine needs to accept her own limitations. According to Murdock, the heroine has two choices along her journey: “If [the heroine] has wittingly or unwittingly chosen the path of the masculine warrior, she can either continue stoically along this path alone, fine-tuning her identity and learning the breadth and width of power and acclaim in the world, or she can internalize the skills learned on the hero’s journey and integrate these with the wisdom of her feminine nature” (1990, 159).

Although Wonder Woman has chosen a rather masculine path on her journey, she is still able to reconnect with her feminine identity. Moreover, in Marston’s vision, Wonder Woman was raised by women only and has no biological father, as she was formed out of clay by the hands of Queen Hippolyte. Therefore, the masculine parts within herself represent archetypal aspects of her identity and can be healed through her feminine nature. As Murdock explains, the last step on the heroine’s journey is healing the split between the feminine and the masculine (1990, 171). According to Murdock, the duality between women and men “has been widened and reinforced by most religious and political systems” as these institutions have “encouraged mankind […] to exclude women from having an equal voice in spiritual, political, and economic matters” (ibid.). The author 67 strongly supports the believe that women can change this duality and raise consciousness by healing their own feminine and masculine parts (1990, 183). As Murdock concludes, the heroine “must develop a positive relationship with her inner Man with Heart and find the voice of her Woman of Wisdom to heal her estrangement from the sacred feminine. As she honors her body and soul as well as her mind, she heals the split within herself and the culture. Women today are acquiring the courage to express their vision, the strength to set limits, and the willingness to take responsibility for themselves and others in a new way. They are reminding the people of their origins, the necessity to live mindfully, and their obligation to preserve life on earth” (1990, 184-5).

Therefore, the heroic journey “is not about power over, about conquest and domination”; instead, balance needs to be achieved “through the marriage of both feminine and masculine aspects” (1990, 129). In her adventures, Wonder Woman displays the duality of feminine and masculine attributes. On the one hand, she embraces her feminine nature “with the beauty of Aphrodite” and “the wisdom of Athena” (Sensation Comics #7, July 1942). On the other hand, Wonder Woman embodies masculine qualities, as she is equipped with “the speed of Mercury, and the strength of Hercules” (ibid.). In combination, both aspects enable Wonder Woman to fight against social injustices and to “weave her spell of love and beauty and peace over throbbing human hearts” (Sensation Comics #4, April 1942).

5.4 “For the Love of Aphrodite!”: Dominance and Submission in Marston’s Wonder Woman Comics

Since Wonder Woman’s debut in 1941, Marston’s comics have been widely criticized for their controversial depiction of feminist propaganda through the metaphoric imagery of bondage. In terms of symbolism and representation of power in the comics, many authors agree that the portrayal of both feminism and bondage is inextricably linked within Marston’s creation (e.g. Berlatsky, 2015; Lepore, 2015; Bunn, 1997; Johnson- Moxley, 2017; Mahon, 2017). A widely held belief among comic book scholars is that the bondage imagery in Wonder Woman was intended to serve as a metaphor for feminism and female empowerment. As put forward in the writing of Berlatsky, a theoretical approach such as feminism is “not something imposed on Wonder Woman from outside”; instead, feminist theory is “intrinsic to the work’s goals and commitments” (2015, 5). Berlatsky suggests that the bondage imagery in the comics might have reflected the role of women in society during the war years (2015, 13). The author argues that themes of disempowerment and oppression mattered during the Golden Age of comics, as this state of being oftentimes resonated with the female readership of Wonder Woman (2015, 23). 68

Therefore, Marston “used themes of rape, slavery, and bondage because they were creating a comic about the exploitation and trauma of women and their children” (2015, 55). Additional support for an explanation of bondage imagery in Wonder Woman comes from Bunn, who points out that Marston was aware that the bondage theme in his comics resonated with his female readership: “[…] for Marston, the themes of dominance and submission were not simply crude devices to increase the circulation of the comic. He did not consider Wonder Woman’s lugubrious motifs to be sadistic or oppressive at all in fact. Quite the reverse; they were essential components of an ingenuous and passionately held vision for female emancipation” ( 1997, 95).

By means of the character of Wonder Woman, Marston intended to put a new wave of feminism in motion. Bunn offers persuasive evidence for the correlation between Marston’s work on human emotions and the creation of the first female superhero, which is based on studies of dominance and submission: “[…] while Wonder Woman provided [Marston] with far more powerful opportunities to promote his ideas about feminine equality than psychology ever had […]. The superheroine embodied many of the psychological themes Marston had developed throughout his career. But above all, Wonder Woman was informed by the meta-principle that had fascinated him for 20 years: dominance-submission” (1997, 107).

As Bunn explains, Marston did not approve of the concept of gender essentialism; for him, both women and men are able to adopt either dominant or submissive behaviors depending on context (1997, 104). As discussed earlier, the superhero genre is still predominantly represented by forceful male characters. Thus, as Wonder Woman’s gender is female, genre specific expectations in terms of violence and demonstration of power are different (2015, 81). As the author points out, Wonder Woman comes to America to fight the axis powers, which embody masculinity and war; as such, the Amazon fights for peace “on behalf of an America that Marston sees as feminine” (2015, 84). Nevertheless, Marston “did not use gender to undermine the connection between the good and the powerful”; instead, gender is extracted from the narrative structure of Wonder Woman “so that a woman could occupy the position normally taken by a man” (2015, 87). In Marston’s vision, Wonder Woman is not just a warrior fighting for justice and peace but a “love leader – a superpowerful reeducator, strong and independent enough to lead the world in the ways of love” (2015, 88). Reeducation in the narrative occurs with the magic lasso, which compels her enemies to obey her demands. As such, Wonder Woman “does not punish her enemies but reforms them” (2015, 95). Marston strongly believed that women are superior to men in terms of “both love and submission” and that the bondage imagery in his comics is intended “to teach men (and women too) the joys of restraint” (2015, 116- 7). In Marston’s view, the correlation between bondage imagery and feminism in Wonder 69

Woman is linked with “the political, matriarchal of women-as-a-class over men- as-a-class” (2015, 117). Berlatsky further acknowledges that “Marston’s feminism can never be just about empowerment”, as “there is always at least some tension between the good and the powerful and some critique of the idea that the powerful is necessary for the good” (2015, 118). In his influential study on the history of Wonder Woman, Hanley found that the superheroine’s origin is rooted in Marston’s deep-set belief about the superiority of women as well as his progressive vision for a feminist utopia (2014, 13). The character’s unique mission, unlike other superheroes at that time, “was not to resolve tragic personal issues but to help facilitate a coming matriarchy” (ibid.). Against this backdrop, it becomes only plausible that Marston’s versatile research within a variety of psychological disciplines was “connected through the common theme of his focus on the untapped potential of women” (2014, 20). Indeed, Marston’s invention of the blood pressure test, as well as his work on human emotions has earned him lasting influence within the field of psychology (ibid.). Especially his DISC theory, which is based on human behavior in relationships, is used until this day as a model for assessment tests on personality types (ibid.). According to Hanley, the DISC theory explains human behavior on the basis of four essential actions: dominance, inducement, submission, and compliance (2014, 24). As illustrated in the table below, the four actions can be broken down into two types of relationships: Table 12: Binary Relationships According to Marston's DISC Theory

antagonistic relationship favorable relationship active participant = dominant active participant = induces passive participant = unpleasantly compliant passive participant = pleasantly submissive Adapted from: Wonder Woman Unbound (Hanley, 2014).

As Hanley explains, “in an antagonistic relationship, the active participant was dominant, forcing the passive participant into an unpleasant compliant role” (2014, 24). Marston believed that the majority of psychological issues stems from these types of relationships (ibid.). However, in a favorable relationship, pleasant submission is achieved as the active participant induces the passive participant into enjoyable compliance (ibid.). According to Hanley, Marston insisted that “kind inducement led to willing submission” in favorable relationships (ibid.). In this sense, Marston was convinced that “men were more likely to be dominant, while women were more likely to excel at inducement and submission” (ibid.). Additionally, he strongly believed that women were nevertheless better suited for the role of the active participant, as women were able to inspire “loving and selfless […] behavior in others” (ibid.). Needles to say, Marston’s theories on human behavior have 70 strongly influenced character development as well as the depiction of feminist themes within Wonder Woman. Marston was convinced that women have the ability to overthrow the patriarchy through loving authority and female leadership. As Hanley points out, the character of Wonder Woman was “[Marston’s] way to prepare young readers for this inevitable revolution” (2014, 25). Nevertheless, Hanley’s work challenges the mainstream assumption that comics based on the Amazon princess are primarily a cornucopia of stories centered around a lasso-wielding, bullet deflecting female superhero. Despite Marston’s forward-thinking feminist vision, his Wonder Woman comics were “rife with bondage imagery, adding a sexual component to the books that reflected his own fetishism and the troubling places it could lead” (2014, 52). As Hanley notes, fetishism in Wonder Woman may initially confuse the feminist message of the comics, but ultimately supports Marston’s vision even more so (ibid.). According to the author, “feminism and fetishism were inextricably linked [in the comics], both of them deriving from Marston’s psychological work” (ibid.). Marston’s theories on dominance and submission as illustrated within Wonder Woman were certainly progressive for a series published during the Golden Age era of comic books. As such, feminism and bondage are closely intertwined in Wonder Woman, and the portrayal of dominance and submission is intended to serve as a metaphor for women’s fight for freedom and equality.

5.4.1 Dominance: Wonder Woman’s Lasso of Truth

Before discussing discourses of domination and submission through Wonder Woman’s weaponry, it is insightful to briefly touch upon Marston’s psychological work as well as his scientific contributions to contemporary lie detector tests. Marston’s most cited work, Emotions of Normal People, was published in 1928, 13 years before Wonder Woman’s debut in All-Star Comics #8. As put forward in his book, Marston strongly advocates the idea that women are superior to men and declares that “the only possible candidates for love leader training […] are women” (1928, 394). However, Marston insists that women as active participants in a relationship should wield their authority for love leadership carefully, and that they “must be taught to use [their] love power exclusively for the benefit of humanity” (1928, 396). Marston argues that the ability to lead with loving authority is a crucial step for empowering women and refers to women’s “power and willingness to support themselves” as “the most hopeful symptom of emotional evolution” (1928, 394). Nevertheless, Marston states his awareness that although men might initially “dislike intensely the idea of submitting to women”, they still “exert themselves to the utmost to establish just such passionately submissive relationships with 71 women who have captivated them” (1928, 396). Next to Marston’s scientific contributions, it is interesting to note that the psychologist was believed to practice domination and submission within a polyamorous relationship with his wife Elizabeth Holloway Marston and partner Olive Byrne18. Besides his theories on human behavior in antagonistic and favorable relationships and years before the creation of Wonder Woman, Marston worked on the systolic blood pressure test, a precursor to the contemporary lie detector (see Lepore, 2015; Mahon, 2017;). His experiments were designed to reveal the correlation between blood pressure and emotions, which automatically brought people into a state of submission in order to tell the truth (ibid.). A widely held assumption is that the creation of Wonder Woman’s Magic Lasso has been influenced by Marston’s lie detector experiments as well as his work on human emotions. However, against popular belief, Wonder Woman’s lasso is not a metaphor for Marston’s lie detector test. As Mahon argues, “the lasso does not detect if anyone is lying”; instead, “[if] someone is bound by the lasso, and he or she is asked a question, then he or she must tell the truth” (2017, 174). Additionally, Wonder Woman already uses a lie detector based on the reading of a person’s blood pressure. Mahon offers another explanation by arguing that “if the magic lasso were merely a magic lie detector, it would not be a metaphor for women’s power” (2017, 175). As such, taking a closer look at the history of the Magic Lasso should offer a more plausible explanation for its connection with female empowerment. In Wonder Woman’s debut in All-Star Comics #8 (December 1941), Queen Hippolyte starts retelling the story of the Amazons (3). Hercules, strongest man in the world, was furious as he was not able to conquer the Amazons. Queen Hippolyte challenged him to fight against her, as she knew that her strength was given by Aphrodite, Goddess of Love. However, Hercules lost again a battle against a woman, and ultimately enslaved all of the Amazons. Nevertheless, with the god given strength of Aphrodite and her Magic Girdle, a waist belt given by the Goddess of Love herself, the women managed to overcome their male masters and set sail to Paradise Island. As Queen Hippolyte promised, with the help of Aphrodite’s Magic Girdle, the Amazons would have “the power of Eternal Life”, as long as they “do not permit [themselves] to be again beguiled by men” (3-4). Wonder Woman’s lasso itself was formed out of this Magic Girdle and posses the same magical powers. As illustrated in Sensation Comics #6 (June 1942), Wonder Woman receives the Magic Lasso as a gift from her mother. The goddesses Aphrodite and Athena have commanded the Amazon to wear the divine lasso as a reward for her “splendid work in the world of men”

18 A more detailed elaboration on Marston’s personal life can be found in Jill Lepore’s extensive work The Secret History of Wonder Woman (2015). 72

(6/5). As Hippolyte declares, the Magic Lasso is “flexible as rope, but strong enough to hold Hercules” (6/2). From then on, the lasso becomes Wonder Woman’s most powerful weapon in her fight for freedom and equality. As illustrated in the table below, the Amazon is able to perform several tasks with the help of the Magic Lasso: Table 13: Utilization of the Magic Lasso in Marston's Wonder Woman Comics

first appearance of the Magic Lasso; Wonder Woman tests her newest weapon; stops one of the Amazons from following her to the world of men; after being bound by the Lasso, the Amazon obeys Wonder Sensation Comics #6 (June 1942) Woman’s order (7/1); Wonder Woman stops an enemy from launching a torpedo and forces him to command his men to surrender (13/4); Wonder Woman makes fun of Doctor Althea by commanding her to stand on her head (12A/4); Wonder Woman stops a bull from running havoc Wonder Woman #1 (May 1942) during a contest and forces him to obey her commands in order to save the life of the female bull- fighter (12D/1); Wonder Woman forces criminal Baroness Paula von Sensation Comics #7 (July 1942) Gunther to sign a confession for her crimes (13/6) The Amazon princess teaches Gloria Bullfinch a lesson Sensation Comics #8 (August 1942) with her lasso, binds and hypnotizes her, and finally makes her forget her real identity (6/5); Wonder Woman forces a Nazi doctor to reveal the Sensation Comics #9 (September 1942) location of a kidnapped woman (11/5); Wonder Woman intervenes in a seance of Dr. Psycho Wonder Woman #5 (June 1943) to command the of president George Washington to tell the truth (9A/3); Wonder Woman captures Clea, Queen of an Atlantic Wonder Woman #8 (Spring 1944) City with her Magic Lasso (11C/4) Wonder Woman conceals her Magic Lasso to protect herself from being bound again with her own lasso (6/5); uses a replicate of it which she can break Comic Cavalcade #6 (Spring 1944) anytime; Wonder Woman intends to bind an evil countess with her Magic Lasso (7/3) and commands her to tell the truth with the original lasso (13/1); Wonder Woman is bound again by her own lasso and Sensation Comics #28 (April 1944) is forced to obey the demands of a criminal (8/6); Adapted from: The Wonder Woman Chronicles Volume One (2010), DC Comics Publications & The Wonder Woman Chronicles Volume Three (2012), DC Comics Publications & Wonder Woman: The Golden Age Volume Three (2019), DC Comics Publications.

At the end of Sensation Comics #6, Wonder Woman happily declares that with the help of the Magic Lasso, she is able to “change human character” (13/8). In Wonder Woman’s own words, the lasso “can make bad men good, and weak women strong” (ibid.). As Marston declares in his epigraph to Wonder Woman #8 (Spring 1944), Wonder Woman “brings 73 justice, joy and love to the million’s of friends whose hearts she has captured in the compelling bonds of her Magic Lasso” (1A/1). Not only is she able to bind and detain her enemies with the help of her lasso, she can also perform reforming rituals and force criminals to tell the truth. As Johnson-Moxley argues, “the lasso is not only a weapon but also a tool for healing”, as it can “restore those who are fragmented, who are lost because they do not remember who they are, who are trapped or paralyzed […], or whose reason is impaired” (2017, 98). As depicted in Wonder Woman #4/3 (April 1943), Diana Prince discovers a secretary reading a confidential report of a secret investigation (1C/2) and commands her to take a lie detector test: Diana Prince: Come, Elva, you’ll have to take a lie detector test – come along, now! Elva Dove: I won’t go with you – aghh – oh, all right – heavens – you’re almost as strong as a man! Diana Prince: I’ll ask you questions, answer truthfully or your blood pressure curve will go up. [emphasis by author] (2C/3-4)

Finally, Diana Prince uncovers that the secretary is guilty of lying and reports the incident to Colonel Darnell. As Diana learns, Elva works for a criminal rubber producer named Ivar Torgson, which refuses to deliver his manufacturing plans to the government (3C/2). Shortly afterwards Wonder Woman discovers that Elva is treated badly by her lover Torgson, and frees the secretary from being tied to a chair (7C/2). Torgson tries to shoot the Amazon, but her bracelets are deflecting the bullets (7C/3). Then, Wonder Woman binds the criminal with the help of her Magic Lasso: Ivar Torgson: Laughing fool – all women are idiots! I’ll show you – Wonder Woman: You’ll show me, eh? Very well! Get down on your knees before that girl who was fool enough to love you. And loosen her bonds with your teeth, like the cur you are! Ivar Torgson: I – I – sput – blub! S-something compels me to obey you! [emphasis by author] (7C/3-4)

Next, Wonder Woman “shows Elva an x- photograph of Torgson’s subconscious” (9C/1). In this picture, Torgson is depicted as a king, and Elva as his slave kneels in front of him with her hands being chained (8C/7). Wonder Woman attempts to cure Ivar and performs an experiment with Elva: Wonder Woman: Here, let me put this costume on you. You must make him think of you as his queen in his subconscious mind instead of his slave! Then you must learn to control him! Elva Dove: But how can I do that? Wonder Woman: First, you dress like a queen. Then act the part – and with my Magic Lasso make Ivar submit to your wishes. He’ll love it! When he’s learned to enjoy being your captive you can control him without any lasso! [emphasis by author] (9C/2-3)

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Elva, now dressed in a two-piece costume with a tiara on her head, begins her task under Wonder Woman’s guidance: Wonder Woman: Queen Elva, I give you this slave! Subdue him! These secret, subterranean rooms are completely furnished for your use, including a cell for your captive. In 3 days I will return – adieu! Ivar Torgson: This is absurd – ridiculous. What a fool you’re making of me! Elva Dove: I’m making a man of you! Learning to submit is the final test of manhood! [emphasis by author] (9C/4-5)

Shortly afterwards, Torgson realizes that he enjoys being Elva’s captive (9C/6). A few days later, Elva overcomes “a flood of prehistoric feminine feelings”, and she takes Torgson’s chains off (10C/4). Being freed, Torgson suddenly rages and forces Elva to submit again to his domination (10C/5). In the end, Wonder Woman rushes to save Elva and reforms Torgson herself (13C/1). Wonder Woman acknowledges her mistake that she “should have known that only true initiates of Aphrodite can hold a man” (11C/3), which implies that only Amazons are able to successfully perform reforming rituals on men. As the Johnson-Moxley explains, “Diana views it as her personal duty to safeguard the truth through her stewardship of the lasso, as well as to serve as a moral exemplar in Patriarch’s World” (2017, 96). As Johnson-Moxley states, Diana’s ability to control others with the magic lasso “reflected Marston’s view that submission to the dominance of a loving authority figure was a beneficial thing” (2017, 94). In Mahon’s view, Wonder Woman’s lasso is used as a feminine tool for inducement, as “it is for her to become the captivating party in an asymmetric relationship in which the other person submits to her” [emphasis by author] (2017, 183). According to Mahon, “the magic lasso is the reverse of the bracelets of submission” (2017, 183), which implies that this weapon is mainly intended to compel obedience, whereas the bracelets are symbols of subjugation. Despite the lasso’s astonishing functions, it is also able to undermine Wonder Woman’s missions and is therefore needs to be handled with care. Nevertheless, it seems that the Amazon oftentimes handles the Magic Lasso carelessly and ends up being bound with her own weapon. If bound by her own lasso, Wonder Woman becomes virtually a slave to the villain and his compelled to obey until she is freed by an ally. As depicted in Sensation Comics #26 (February 1944), Wonder Woman “finds herself in the gravest danger of her entire career” (1/1). Once “the magic sphere, which records all past events and also foretells the future, predicts for the beautiful Amazon princess a dire fate”, her mother Queen Hippolyte comes to man’s land in order to save Wonder Woman (ibid.). Disguised in the form of Wonder Woman, Hippolyte binds her daughter with the Magic Lasso (7/1). The queen commands Diana not to investigate after her and exchanges the divine lasso (7/3). Wonder Woman is freed again but eventually gets caught by a criminal 75 who binds her again with her own lasso (8/1). Next, the Amazon loses her consciousness and is not able to remember who she is after she awakes again (8/2). After getting a report from Colonel Darnell, and therefore fulfilling the criminal plan, Wonder Woman gets bound once again with the lasso (10/1). Finally, Queen Hippolyte sends a mental message to Wonder Woman: Queen Hippolyte: Don’t give up! You’re not bound by the Magic Lasso – break your bonds! Wonder Woman: Yes, yes! I understand – I will break this lasso! [emphasis by author] (12/1-2)

In the end, Wonder Woman is able to free herself from the bonds of the false lasso and finds a letter from Queen Hippolyte on her desk (13/6). Wonder Woman realizes that she is “not as strong as [she] thought”, and that she “must find some really hard stunts to toughen [her] muscles” (13/7). As this example illustrates, the Magic Lasso is to be handled with care; although it represents Wonder Woman’s most powerful weapon, it can be dangerous for herself if the lasso falls into wrong hands.

5.4.2 Submission: The Amazon’s Bracelets

First mentioned in All-Star Comics #8, the Bracelets of Submission symbolize the Amazon’s obedience to Aphrodite and serve as a warning to never again let themselves submit to male domination (3). In Wonder Woman’s first standalone comic issue, Wonder Woman #1 (Summer 1942), an ancient document retells “the history of the unconquerable Amazons” (2A/6) as well as their enslavement to Hercules. The text explains that the earth “is ruled by rival gods – Ares, god of war, and Aphrodite, goddess of love and beauty” (2A/7). According to the text, Ares declared that “men shall rule with the sword”, but Aphrodite insisted that “women shall conquer men with love” (2A/8). During this time, “women were sold as slaves”, “but Aphrodite shaped with her own hands a race of super women, stronger than men” (3A/1-2). Aphrodite bestowed the Magic Girdle on Queen Hippolyte and declared that “as long as [their] leader wears this Magic Girdle [the] Amazons shall be unconquerable” (3A/3). Then, the Amazons “built a magnificent city, Amazonia, and easily defeated all armies which attacked them” (3A/4). As the text explains, Mars was enraged that Aphrodite dared to create women stronger than men, and finally “inspired Hercules, strongest man in the world, to make war on the Amazons” (3A/5-6). In a personal fight with Queen Hippolyte, Hercules “snapped the Queen’s puny sword like a dry stick, leaving her unarmed” (3A/8), but with the power of the Magic Girdle, Hippolyte was able to defeat him (4A/1). Then, “Hercules planned to capture the Amazons by treachery” (4A/3). He seduced Hippolyte to let him hold the Magic Girdle and 76 finally defeats the Amazons (4A/5-7). According to the ancient document, the Greeks put the Amazons in chains as they were “fearing the strength of their captives” (4A/8). Desperately, Queen Hippolyte “prayed to Aphrodite for help” (5A/2): Queen Hippolyte: O divine goddess, forgive my ! Give us strength to break our chains and recover the Magic Girdle! Aphrodite: You may break your chains, but you must wear these wrist bands always to teach you the folly of submitting to men’s domination! Hippolyte: We will obey, goddess! (5A/2-3)

With their divine strength, “the Amazons conquered their captors” and “Queen Hippolyte recovered the Magic Girdle” (5A/4-5). With the help of Aphrodite, “the Amazons sailed far seas to their promised haven of peace and protection” (5A/7). Finally, “on Paradise Island they built a splendid city which no man may enter – a paradise for women only” (5A/8). From that moment on, the Amazons were obliged to wear their bracelets as a reminder of their submission to Aphrodite. According to Hanley, wearing bracelets from then on was obligatory for the Amazons, and “bondage was practiced in its purest form” on Paradise Island (2014, 59). Submitting to Aphrodite’s will was “pleasant and instructive, and the result was a utopian society where even the most evil villain learned to love peace” (2014, 59). By removing the Bracelets of Submission, the Amazons would ultimately allow dominance to overthrow them. According to Bunn, Marston’s “idea of freedom through submission” was expressed besides other themes in the comics through Paradise Island, the female-only home of the Amazons (1997, 107). As Bunn explains, liberation for the Amazons “was ultimately dependent on the absence of men”, and therefore “a freedom defined by submission” (1997, 107). Additionally, as soon as an Amazon is bound by her Bracelets of Submission, she is inevitably forced into servitude. As Hanley explains, on Paradise Island, submission to the goddess of love is seen as a ritual for the Amazon’s empowerment; in men’s world, being bound means the opposite effect: “Because men were cruel and dominant, being bound took what made women most powerful – the benefits of submission – and twisted it, leaving women literally, physically powerless […] All of Wonder Woman’s superpowers that came from her Amazon upbringing disappeared once a man had power over her” (2014, 61).

In the comics, there are numerous situations in which Wonder Woman’s own bracelets are chained together. For example, in Wonder Woman #2 (Fall 1942), the Amazon is taken captive in “Mars’s chaining room in the inner world under ” (8D/3). As soon as Wonder Woman realizes her bracelets are chained together, she weeps bitterly: Wonder Woman: My strength is gone – it is Aphrodite’s Law! When an Amazon girl permits a man to chain her Bracelets of Submission together she becomes weak as other women in a man-ruled world! [emphasis by author] (8D/5-6) 77

Alone in a chamber, Wonder Woman “concentrates with all her power to send a message to ” (9D/6). Etta, bewildered that Wonder Woman could not free herself, releases the Amazon from her chains: Etta Candy: Why can’t you break those chains yourself, Wonder Woman! Wonder Woman: Why – er – be – cause I’m being punished for letting a handsome man deceive me. [emphasis by author] (10D/5-6)

Finally, being freed again and with all her strength being restored, Wonder Woman “tears off the prison doors and [sweeps] all guards from her path” (10D/7). As depicted in Sensation Comics #4 (April 1942), Wonder Woman saves the life a kidnapped woman by allowing herself to be enslaved by the evil Baroness Paula von Gunther (9/5). As soon as Wonder Woman’s bracelets are chained together, “a weird, terrifying feeling sweeps over [her]” (9/7). Wonder Woman suddenly feels weak and calls Aphrodite for help (ibid.). As soon as the Amazon “tries to break her chains, she makes a terrible discovery” and “remembers too late the queen’s warning”: Wonder Woman: Great Aphrodite! My strength is gone – I cannot break this little chain! Queen Hippolyte: Daughter, if any man welds chains on your bracelets, you will become weak as we Amazons were when we surrendered to Hercules and his Greeks (10/7-8).

As Hanley explains, the bondage imagery in Wonder Woman “was meant to critique patriarchal society and illustrate the political and social oppression of women” (2014, 62). According to the author, the majority of bound characters in the comics were women, with a total amount of about 84 percent of instances of bondage (2014, 68). Wonder Woman herself is tied up approximately 40 percent of the comic book’s total bondage imagery (2014, 69). As Hanley highlights, the majority of characters forced into submission were female characters and not Wonder Woman herself (ibid.). Nevertheless, the Amazon was often being bound with her own lasso, which accounted for a total of 48 percent in the comics (ibid.). The other 52 percent involved situations in which Wonder Woman used her lasso for tying up someone else (ibid.). In Wonder Woman’s bondage panels, or at least when the Amazon is the one being tied up, Marston’s proposed pleasant aspects of submission are overshadowed by cruel domination (2014, 70). As Hanley notes, “readers were presented with a lot of unhappy, very tied-up women” in the comics (ibid.). Nevertheless, Wonder Woman is able to free herself every time, or at least happily accepts to be freed by a friend or an ally. As Hanley declares, “Wonder Woman escaping these bondage scenarios was undoubtedly feminist, empowering, and redemptive” (2014, 81). 78

Additional support for this argument comes from Berlatsky, who also states that the bondage imagery in Wonder Woman serves as a metaphor for women’s self-liberation: “Before you are free, you are not free. Or, to put it another way, there is no way to imagine liberating yourself from bondage without imagining bondage, with all its connotations. Wonder Woman can’t break her chains if she isn’t tied up in chains in the first place” (2015, 21).

Hanley concludes that it is important to take the bondage scenarios of Wonder Woman seriously, as the comics are both feminist as well as fetishist (2014, 82). As the author suggests, despite the fact that Wonder Woman was abundantly filled with images of domination and submission, Marston’s comics were still “undeniably unique and progressive” (ibid.). As such, bondage imagery in the comics is inherent to the work’s feminist propaganda, and serves as a metaphor for female liberation. In the end, despite being bound, tied up, chained, gagged or kidnapped a billion times, Wonder Woman is always able to break free.

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Beautiful as Aphrodite, wise as Athena, strong as Hercules and swifter than Mercury, Wonder Woman brings the invincible power of perfect womanhood to the supreme task of defending democracy and transforming evil to justice and happiness!19 ~ William Moulton Marston (1942)

6 Conclusion

The purpose of the current thesis was to analyze feminist discourses and female empowerment expressed through language and narration during the Golden Age period of Wonder Woman. As such, this paper has attempted to provide answers for the following research questions: In which sense does the representation of Wonder Woman as a female superhero during the Golden Age Period of comic books challenge traditional gender roles and to what extend are female empowerment and feminist discourses visible and/or implied within the texts? In which way does the Amazon’s story reflect Marston’s feminist agenda and in which way does the representation of bondage in the comics support Wonder Woman’s feminist message? Additionally, this thesis has examined gendered discourses in sequential art and has implemented a mixed methods approach for an analysis of female characters in DC Comics during the Golden Age of comic books. The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that feminist discourses and female empowerment are intrinsic to Marston’s vision to “change American’s understanding of ideal womanhood by instilling in children an appreciation of strong and independent women” (Finn 2014, 19). The second major finding was that ideas about women’s empowerment are expressed through language and narration within every single issue of Marston’s Wonder Woman comics. This study has found that the character of Wonder Woman overcomes stereotypical notions of gender and successfully challenges gender expectations of women. As such, the Amazon princess serves as a feminist icon in popular culture and builds the foundation for a new-found appreciation of heroic femininity. Additionally, Wonder Woman’s heroic journey displays the character’s feminine and masculine traits which both enable the heroine to fight for peace and justice for all humankind. Finally, the relevance of both feminism and bondage within Marston’s Wonder Woman comics is support by the findings of this thesis. The depiction of domination and submission is inherent to the work’s feminist propaganda, and serves as a metaphor for female liberation.

19 Epigraph to „The Return of Diana Prince“ in Sensation Comics #9, September 1942. 80

An extensive implementation of discursive methods for the study of language and gender representation within the timespan of Marston’s entire career as the writer and creator of Wonder Woman is beyond the scope of this thesis. Thus, this study does not claim to be able to investigate feminism in Wonder Woman throughout the entire term of the Golden Age period of comic books. However, as will all such studies, limitations offer opportunities for further research. The findings of this paper complement those of earlier studies on feminism in Wonder Woman’s Golden Age stories. The present study contributes to existing knowledge on feminism in Marston’s Wonder Woman comics by implementing a combination of feminist critical discourse analysis and content analysis. To conclude, Wonder Woman serves as an excellent source for further investigation of female empowerment and pro-feminist discourses within comic books. The Amazon indeed deserves her status as a feminist icon and is will hopefully continue to “weave her spell of love and beauty and peace over throbbing human hearts20”.

20 Epigraph to “School for Spies” in Sensation Comics #4, April 1942. 81

7 Bibliography

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8 Appendix

For the quantitative analysis of female and male (super)heroes and villains, the following American comic book series were included: Appendix 1: Golden Age Publications of DC Comics

Start of Title Main Character(s) Publication Action Comics 1938 Superman All-American Comics 1939 Green Lantern All-Star Comics 1940 Justice Society of America Batman 1940 Batman 1942 Boy Commandos Comic Cavalcade 1942 Wonder Woman Detective Comics 1937 Batman Flash 1940 Flash Gang Busters 1947 different crime stories /New Fun 1935 Green , Aquaman Comics /New Comics 1938 Superman New York World’s Fair Comics 1939 - Sensation Comics 1942 Wonder Woman Star-Spangled Comics 1941 Robin 1948 Nighthawk Wonder Woman 1942 Wonder Woman World’s Best Comics/World’s 1941 Superman, Batman, Robin Finest Comics Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_current_DC_Comics_publications. Accessed: August 1, 2017.

As seen in the table above, the most prominent examples of superheroes are highlighted. It is important to note that some of the characters within DC Comics had more than one incarnation. The character of Flash, for example, has four incarnations. Robin, Batman’s sidekick, consists of a total of four incarnations, three of them were male, the last one is female. To simplify matters, the analysis ascribes each superhero one single identity, without paying attention to incarnations that appeared after the Golden Age of DC Comics.

89 Appendix 2: Female and Male Superheroes in DC Comics (1938-1947) Sorted by Year

Female Superheroes Male Superheroes Name Year First Appearance Name Year First Appearance 1940 Flash #1 Superman 1938 Action Comics #1 All-American Comics 1940 Batman 1939 Detective Comics #27 #20 Wonder Woman 1941 All-Star Comics #8 Sandman 1939 Adventure Comics #40 All-American Comics 1947 Flash #86 Ultra-Man 1939 #8 All-American Comics 1940 #19 Flash 1940 Flash #1 Green All-American Comics 1940 Lantern #16 1940 Flash #1 1940 Adventure Comics #48 Robin 1940 Detective Comics #38 Spectre 1940 More Fun Comics #52 Johnny 1940 Flash #1 Thunder More Fun Comics Aquaman 1941 #73 All-American Comics Dr. Mid-Nite 1941 #25 More Fun Comics 1941 #73 Sargon the All-American Comics 1941 Sorcerer #26 1941 Adventure Comics #66 Starman 1941 Adventure Comics #61 Star-Spangled Star-Spangled Comics 1941 Kid #1 1942 Detective Comics #60 Gay Ghost 1942 Sensation Comics #1 Mister Terrific 1942 Sensation Comics #1 Star-Spangled Comics 1942 #7 Wildcat 1942 Sensation Comics #1 Total 4 (14%) 24 (86%) Data adapted from: “DC Golden-Age Heroes” (unknown authorship). Source: http://www.herogoggles.com/DC-goldenAgeHeroes.html. Accessed: August 1, 2017.

90 Appendix 3: Female and Male Heroes in DC Comics (1935-1948) Sorted by Year

Female Heroes Male Heroes Name Year First Appearance Name Year First Appearance Binks 1935 New Fun Comics #1 Jack Andrews 1935 New Fun Comics #1 Sandra of the 1935 New Fun Comics #1 Bobby 1935 New Fun Comics #1 Secret Service Dale Daring 1936 New Comics #4 Wing Brady 1935 New Fun Comics #1 Hope Hazard 1937 Detective Comics #3 Buckskin Jim 1935 New Fun Comics #1 New Adventure Justine Justis 1937 Cap'n Erik 1935 New Fun Comics #1 Comics #22 More Fun Comics Hope Hazard II 1938 Captain Grim 1935 New Fun Comics #3 #30 Hawkgirl 1940 Flash #1 Captain Quick 1935 New Comics #1 All-American Comics Allan de Red Tornado 1940 1935 New Comics #1 #20 Beaufort Midshipman Wonder Woman 1941 All-Star Comics #8 1935 New Fun Comics #2 Jack Dewey 1942 Boy Commandos #1 Dr. Occult 1935 New Fun Comics #6 Black Canary 1947 Flash #86 Henri Duval 1935 New Fun Comics #6 Merry, the Girl of Star-Spangled Comics 1948 Brad Hardy 1935 New Comics #3 1000 Gimmicks #81 Ivar, son of 1935 New Comics #1 Harald Bob Merritt 1935 More Fun Comics #5 Barry O'Neill 1935 New Fun Comics #1 Jack Woods 1935 New Fun Comics #1 Bradley Boys 1936 More Fun Comics #13 Captain Jim of the Texas 1936 New Comics #2 Rangers Steve Carson 1936 New Comics #2 Steve Conrad 1936 New Comics #5 Jim Gale 1936 New Comics #1 Jungle Boy 1936 New Comics #4 Sandy Kean 1936 More Fun Comics #11 Mark Marson 1936 More Fun Comics #15 Pep Morgan 1936 More Fun Comics #12 Sandor 1936 New Comics #5 Wing Walker 1936 New Comics #1 1937 Detective Comics #1 Detective New Adventure Comics Sergeant 1937 #14 Carey Mr. Chang 1937 Detective Comics #2 Cosmo 1937 Detective Comics #1 Johnnie Law 1937 More Fun Comics #21 Marty McCann 1937 More Fun Comics #23 New Adventure Comics Nadir 1937 #17 Bruce Nelson 1937 Detective Comics #1 91

Bart Regan 1937 Detective Comics #1 Red Riley and New Adventure Comics 1937 Curley Moran #14 Speed 1937 Detective Comics #1 Saunders Captain New Adventure Comics Douglas 1937 #14 Stewart New Adventure Comics Tom Brent 1938 #28 Biff Brody and 1938 More Fun Comics #31 Pop Beaner Buzz Brown 1938 More Fun Comics #30 The Buccaneer 1938 More Fun Comics #32 Captain New Adventure Comics 1938 Desmo #26 & 1938 Detective Comics #20 Wing Chuck Dawson 1938 Action Comics #1 Flying 1938 More Fun Comics #37 Tod Hunter 1938 New Comics #27 Red Logan 1938 More Fun Comics #31 Steve Malone 1938 Detective Comics #18 Superman 1938 Action Comics #1 Scoop Scanlon 1938 Action Comics #1 Batman 1939 Detective Comics #27 Biff Bronson 1939 More Fun Comics #43 Clip Carson 1939 Action Comics #14 King Carter 1939 More Fun Comics #49 Cotton Carver 1939 Adventure Comics #35 All-American Comics 1939 #1 Red, White All-American Comics 1939 and Blue #1 Sandman 1939 Adventure Comics #40 Socko Strong 1939 Adventure Comics #40 All-American Comics Ultra-Man 1939 #8 New York World's Fair Chuck Warren 1939 Comics #1 1939 Action Comics #1 All-American Comics Atom 1940 #19 1940 Action Comics #23 1940 More Fun Comics #56 Cliff Cornwall 1940 Flash #1 Dr. Fate 1940 More Fun Comics #55 Flash 1940 Flash #1 All-American Comics Green Lantern 1940 #16 92

Hawkman 1940 Flash #1 Hourman 1940 Adventure Comics #48 King Standish 1940 Flash #3 Robin 1940 Detective Comics #38 Spectre 1940 More Fun Comics #52 Johnny 1940 Flash #1 Thunder Les Watts 1940 Flash #12 The 1940 #1 Aquaman 1941 More Fun Comics #73 Young Doc World's Best Comics 1941 Davis #1 All-American Comics Dr. Mid-Nite 1941 #25 Green Arrow 1941 More Fun Comics #73 1941 More Fun Comics #71 Paul Kirk, 1941 Adventure Comics #58 (I) World's Best Comics Punch Parker 1941 #1 Sargon the All-American Comics 1941 Sorcerer #26 Shining Knight 1941 Adventure Comics #66 Starman 1941 Adventure Comics #61 Star-Spangled Star-Spangled Comics 1941 Kid #1 1941 Action Comics #42 Air Wave 1942 Detective Comics #60 Armstrong of Star-Spangled Comics 1942 the Army #1 Boy 1942 Detective Comics #64 Commandos Gay Ghost 1942 Sensation Comics #1 Ghost Patrol 1942 Flash #29 Guardian and Star-Spangled Comics the Newsboy 1942 #7 Legion Manhunter (II) 1942 Adventure Comics #73 Mister Terrific 1942 Sensation Comics #1 Star-Spangled Comics Robotman 1942 #7 Wildcat 1942 Sensation Comics #1 Guerilla 1943 Adventure Comics #84 Johnny World's Finest Comics 1944 Everyman #15 More Fun Comics Cabbie Casey 1946 #108 Steve Carter 1947 Gang Busters #1 Johnny Peril 1947 Comic Cavalcade #19 All-American Western Tony Barret 1948 #103 93

Captain Star-Spangled Comics 1948 Compass #83 Nighthawk 1948 Western Comics #5 Total 12 (10%) 110 (90%) Data adapted from: “DC Golden-Age Heroes” (unknown authorship). Source: http://www.herogoggles.com/DC-goldenAgeHeroes.html. Accessed: August 1, 2017.

94 Appendix 4: Female and Male Villains in DC Comics (1935-1951) Sorted by Year

Female Villains Male Villains Name Year First Appearance Name Year First Appearance More Fun Comics Werewolf 1936 Fang Gow 1935 New Fun Comics #1 #12 New Adventure Vampire Nira-Q 1937 1935 New Fun Comics #6 Comics #12 Master More Fun Comics Queen Claudia 1937 Black Magician 1936 More Fun Comics #8 #23 Rosa Rinaldo 1938 Detective Comics #19 Koth 1936 More Fun Comics #14 Tigress 1938 Action Comics #1 Methuselah 1936 More Fun Comics #10 Goldie 1940 Flash #10 Purple Tiger 1936 More Fun Comics #12 1940 Action Comics #26 1937 More Fun Comics #21 Nyola 1940 All-Star Comics #2 Henri Duval 1937 More Fun Comics #24 The Witch 1940 Flash #6 Lord of Life 1937 More Fun Comics #22 Scarlet Mermaid 1941 Flash #19 Sen Yoi 1937 Detective Comics #1 Baroness von 1942 Sensation Comics #4 Taro 1937 Detective Comics #1 Gunther Sensation Comics Blue Lama 1942 Gorrah 1938 Action Comics #2 #68 Master of Dr. Poison 1942 Sensation Comics #2 1938 More Fun Comics #31 Corpses The Bat's New York World's Fair 1942 Action Comics #46 1939 Wing Comics #1 Cheetah 1943 Wonder Woman #6 Cheops 1939 Action Comics #14 Mavis 1943 Wonder Woman #4 Faultless Four 1940 Flash Comics #1 1943 Comic Cavalcade #5 Dr. Hastor 1940 Flash Comics #1 Eviless 1944 Wonder Woman #10 The 1940 Batman #1 Giganta 1944 Wonder Woman #9 Kulak 1940 All-Star Comics #2 Hypnota 1944 Wonder Woman #11 Remembro 1940 All-Star Comics #1 Queen Clea 1944 Sensation Comics #8 Uncle Trygg 1940 All-Star Comics #1 Countess Draska Sensation Comics 1945 The Vandal 1940 Flash #5 Nishki #42 Sensation Comics Baron Von Blue 1946 1940 All-Star Comics #2 #59 Zorn Gundra the Dr. Hugo New York World's Fair 1946 Comic Cavalcade #17 1940 Valkyrie Vreekill Comics #2 Sensation Comics 1947 Black Jack 1941 More Fun Comics #74 #68 Queen Atomia 1947 Wonder Woman #21 Dr. Clever 1941 More Fun Comics #74 The Mask 1947 Wonder Woman #24 Karvac 1941 Flash #14 All-American Comics The Golden Pirate 1948 Ares 1942 Wonder Woman #1 #93 Sensation Comics The Lightning Bug 1948 Dr. Ito 1942 Action Comics #55 #76 Duke of Lya 1948 Comic Cavalcade #26 1942 Wonder Woman #2 Deception Star-Spangled Comics 1949 Wonder Woman #37 The Fly 1942 #13 Earl of Greed 1942 Wonder Woman #2 Lord Conquest 1942 Wonder Woman #2 Master 1942 More Fun Comics #78 Sargasso 95

World's Finest Comics Metalo 1942 #6 Mr. Mystery 1942 Detective Comics #62 Professor Girn 1942 Detective Comics #61 Rainbow Man 1942 Action Comics #46 The Seal 1942 Detective Comics #61 Shooting 1942 Detective Comics #66 Spooks Sphinx 1942 Detective Comics #66 Two-Face 1942 Detective Comics #66 Blakfu 1943 Wonder Woman #4 Dr. Psycho 1943 Wonder Woman #5 II 1943 Action Comics #59 1943 Green Lantern #10 Duke Mephisto 1944 Wonder Woman #10 Saturno The Monocle 1945 Flash #64 Crazy-Quilt 1946 Boy Commandos #18 Moon 1946 Detective Comics #118 Rocketeers Scorpio 1946 Detective Comics #107 Changeling 1947 Flash #84 Star-Spangled Comics The 1947 #70 All-American Comics Dr. Light 1947 #82 All-American Comics 1947 #90 Injustice Society of the 1947 All-Star Comics #37 World (several members) King Ironsides 1947 Comic Cavalcade #23 All-American Comics 1947 #85 All-American Western Highwayman 1948 #104 Minister 1948 Wonder Woman #29 Blizzard Nuclear 1950 Wonder Woman #43 Killer 1951 Batman #63 Total 31 (33%) 62 (67%) Data adapted from: “Golden-Age DC Villains” (unknown authorship). Source: http://www.herogoggles.com/DC-GoldenAgeVillains.html. Accessed: August 1, 2017.

96 Appendix 5: Female and Male Villains in Comic Cavalcade, Sensation Comics and Wonder Woman (1942-1950) Sorted by Year

Female Villains Male Villains Name Year First Appearance Name Year First Appearance Baroness von 1942 Sensation Comics #4 Ares 1942 Wonder Woman #1 Gunther Sensation Comics Duke of Dr. Poison 1942 1942 Wonder Woman #2 #2 Deception Cheetah 1943 Wonder Woman #6 Earl of Greed 1942 Wonder Woman #2 Mavis 1943 Wonder Woman #4 Lord Conquest 1942 Wonder Woman #2 Zara 1943 Comic Cavalcade #5 Blakfu 1943 Wonder Woman #4 Eviless 1944 Wonder Woman #10 Dr. Psycho 1943 Wonder Woman #5 Duke Wonder Woman Giganta 1944 Wonder Woman #9 Mephisto 1944 #10 Saturno Comic Cavalcade Hypnota 1944 Wonder Woman #11 King Ironsides 1947 #23 Minister Wonder Woman Queen Clea 1944 Sensation Comics #8 1948 Blizzard #29 Countess Draska Sensation Comics Wonder Woman 1945 Nuclear 1950 Nishki #42 #43 Sensation Comics 1946 #59 Gundra the 1946 Comic Cavalcade #17 Valkyrie Queen Atomia 1947 Wonder Woman #21 The Mask 1947 Wonder Woman #24 Lya 1948 Comic Cavalcade #26 Circe 1949 Wonder Woman #37 Total 16 (62%) 10 (38%) Data adapted from: “Golden-Age DC Villains” (unknown authorship). Source: http://www.herogoggles.com/DC-GoldenAgeVillains.html. Accessed: August 1, 2017.