International Journal of Research and Review www.ijrrjournal.com E-ISSN: 2349-9788; P-ISSN: 2454-2237

Review Article

A Review of Status of Mangrove Forest in Island,

Islam S.S. Mchenga1, Abdalla I. Ali1, 2

1Society for Environmental Research and Conservation, Zanzibar, Tanzania. 2The State University of Zanzibar (SUZA), Zanzibar, Tanzania.

Corresponding Author: Islam S.S. Mchenga

Received: 05/08/2015 Revised: 21/08/2015 Accepted: 19/08/2015

ABSTRACT

The existence of mangrove forests is jeopardized by the increase in population pressure, agricultural, industrial and urban development, climate change and weak forest management capacity that negatively affected the status of mangroves worldwide. The present review paper provides information on the status of mangrove forests in Zanzibar Island, to inform managers and decision makers on their management and sustainable use of its resources. The extent and distribution of mangrove ecosystem indicates that the mangrove growing stock of the main Islands of has declined drastically when compared to that of Pemba. Changes in mangrove composition were driven by a combination of rise in sea level, environmental changes and anthropogenic interaction. This review argues for the importance of regular climate change monitoring, mangrove eco-physiological studies and genetic materials which are crucial in providing a basis for the ecological restoration and management of mangrove ecosystem.

Key Words: biodiversity; conservation, degradation, mangroves, restoration, Zanzibar.

INTRODUCTION extreme weather events, absorption of The term Mangrove refers to a pollutants, thereby indirectly sustaining a diverse group of salt-tolerant plants that wide range of social and economic inhabit the intertidal margins of low-energy activities. Mangroves also serve as feeding, coastlines, mudflats and river banks in breeding and nursery grounds for many tropical and sub-tropical areas. Worldwide, invertebrates (shellfish, prawns and crabs) there are some seventy known mangrove and finfish. [2] Hence, losses of mangroves species within some 19 families. Mangroves not only affect coastal dwellers indirectly of Zanzibar Island comprise of all but also cause direct economic repercussions mangroves species found in Western Indian through loss of the fishing industry. Ocean countries with ten species of The coastal belt of Zanzibar mangroves that are reported along the bays comprises of a complex interconnection of and coastlines of Unguja na Pemba. [1] mangrove ecosystem, coral reef, sea grasses, Mangroves forests provide various algae, and sandy beaches. [3] About 49% of services such as protection of shoreline from the beaches in Zanzibar are delineated by coastal erosion and buffering of storm and rock and the rest consist of vegetation International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 518 Vol.2; Issue: 8; August 2015

around the top and presence of trees along and 13,919ha in Pemba. [9] The updated the beach. Mangroves in Unguja Island are comprehensive wood biomass inventory of best developed in estuaries and confined to 2012 using Rapid Eye images reported that the protected bays such as in the Makoba, the mangrove area in Zanzibar is 16,488 ha Chwaka and Menai bays. They are however where 5,274 ha was estimated in Unguja and more luxuriant in Pemba where they are 11,214 ha in Pemba (Table 3). [10] The found along the coast of the entire island validity of mangrove cover estimation in (Table 1). Zanzibar is still debatable and difficult to The present paper reviews available compare due to the difference in information on the status of mangroves, methodologies used between surveys. gaps in the information and research needed It was reported that the mangrove for better policy, planning and decisions growing stock of Unguja Island has declined making which will affect the management of drastically with 18.9 m3/ha which is more mangroves and sustainable exploitation of than double the decline of 41.0 m3/ha its resources in the Zanzibar Island. recorded in the previous inventory of Mangrove area coverage: 1992/1993. In however, the The mangroves ecosystem is the second mangrove growing stock decline per hectare largest forest in Zanzibar after the coral rag was negligible from 39.8 m3/ha to 38.3 forest; however information on the m3/ha. [10] Changes in mangrove ecosystem mangroves area coverage in Zanzibar is still composition were driven by a combination ambiguous. The earlier study [5] enumerated of factors; sea level and environmental the mangrove species only in some creeks changes, anthropogenic interaction and found in both Unguja and Pemba islands geomorphological activities. [11-15] (Table 2). It involved a visual estimation of Mangrove biodiversity and ecology: the percentage abundance of the various There are ten different species of mangroves species in addition to estimating the areas growing in Zanzibar (Table 4). Eight species under mangrove cover using a planimeter. are commonly found in many creeks and The volume and distribution of mangroves patches of Unguja and Pemba Islands. [9] were later measured using aerial These are A. marina, R. mucronata, B. photographs of 1989, [6] that calculated a gymnorrhiza, C. tagal, X. granatum, H. total mangrove volume of 641,100 m3, of littoralis, L. racemosa, and S. Alba. [7, 16] which 205,000 m3 were in Unguja and The species belong to six families namely 436,100 m3 in Pemba Island. Further studies Avicenniaceae, Rhizophoraceae, [7] enumerated mangrove forest of about Lythraceae, Combretaceae, Meliaceae and 20000ha along the coastal line of Zanzibar Lauraceae. Other two mangrove species are which is equivalent to 8.6 % of total land rare, the P. acidula which has been reported cover (232,800 ha), out of it 14,000ha are for the first time at [16] and then found in Pemba and 6,000ha are found in at Uzi Island, [17] and X. moluccensis which Unguja. was previously recognised to grow at The first comprehensive wood Micheweni [7] has also been discovered in biomass inventory was conducted in 1997; Chwaka bay area. [16] Several mangroves this study reported loss of natural forests associated plants were reported in Zanzibar. including mangroves of about 1,000ha [17, 18] Seventy plants species belonging to annually. This is depicted by a significant ten (10) main vegetation types were decline in mangrove forest of Zanzibar by a observed in - Chwaka bay total of 19,748 ha, with 5,829ha in Unguja mangroves. The plant species including International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 519 Vol.2; Issue: 8; August 2015

algae, sea grass, lichen, ferns, climbers and ferns, climbers and epiphytes were mainly mangroves epiphytes that were found in observed in areas under the shade of water, sand and rocky areas. The lichens, mangroves. [17]

Table 1: Location of the main mangrove creeks and protected bays Creek Area Status Unguja island Jozani-Chwaka bay Chwaka , Mapopwe, Kinani, Michamvi National Park Kisakasaka, Kiwani, Kibondeni, Unguja ukuu, Muungoni, Bweleo, Conservation Area Fumba, Nyamanzi, Kiembe samaki Makoba bay Nyanjale, Muanda, Kigunda Local management Mpigaduri Kinazini, Maruhubi Local management Other patches Bububu, Mto-mchanga, Mkokotoni Local management Pemba island Micheweni Micheweni, Wingwi, Shengejuu Local management Ngezi-Vumawimbi Tumbe, Msuka, Gando Nature Reserve PECCA Wete, Pembeni, Pujini, Muwambe-Fufuni, Mkoani, Chake chake, Wesha Conservation Area Source: SONARECO [4]

Table 2: Percentage species coverage in some mangrove creeks of Zanzibar islands UNGUJA PEMBA Makoba Kisaka Saka Unguja Ukuu Pete Chwaka Bay Chake chake Wete Micheweni Species1 Avicennia marina 25 15 15 10 10 5 20 10 Ceriops tagal 20 15 10 15 15 3 3 10 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 4 20 30 25 30 0 2 30 Rhizophora mucronata 7 30 20 35 25 70 60 25 Soneratia alba 35 8 20 5 15 2 2 6 Lumnitzea racemosa 5 5 5 5 0 15 8 15 Heritiera litoralis 3 2 0 0 2 3 2 1 Xylocarpus granatum 1 5 0 5 3 2 2 2 Xylocarpus moluccensis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 *Total area (ha)2 520 460 344 320 3240 1324 1128 1288 Sources: *Griffith; [5] Ngoile & Shunula [8]

Table 3: Existing literature on mangroves coverage of Zanzibar Island Survey Unguja Pemba Total (ha) Reference 1992/93 5,003 10,943 15946 Leskinen & Silima [6] 1996 6,000 14,000 20,000 Shunula [7] 1997 5 829 13919 19,748 Leskinen et al.[9] 2012 5,274 11,214 16488 MANR [10]

Table 4: Mangrove species of Zanzibar Island Mangrove species Family English Name Local name 1. A. marina Verbenaceae White or grey mangrove Mchu 2. B. gymnorrhiza Rhizophoraceae Large-Leafed Orange/ Oriental Mangrove Msisi/Msinzi/Mfinzi or muia 3. C. tagal Rhizophoraceae Yellow mangrove Mkandaa/Mkoko mwekundu 4. H. littoralis Sterculiaceae Looking-glass mangrove Msikundazi or mkungu 5. L. racemosa Combretaceae Black mangrove Kikandaa or mkandaa dume/ Kilalamba 6. R. mucronata Rhizophoraceae Orange mangrove Mkoko magondi 7. S. alba Sonneratiaceae Mangrove apple Mlilana or Mpira 8. X. granatum Meliaceae Cannonball mangrove Mkomafi/Mkaumwa/Mkuo/ Mtonga 9. X. molucensis1 Meliaceae Cedar mangrove Mkomafi dume/Mkauma wa kijani 10. P. acidula1 Lythraceae Iron wood mangrove Kilalamba dume Sources: Shunula [11], Leskinen et al.[9], Jumah et al.[14] 1: rare species

A number of studies have been Chwaka Bay and Makoba Bay, [8, 19] Jozani- conducted on the mangroves fauna of Pete, [17, 20] Nyeke mangroves at Uzi Island Zanzibar. These involve mangrove creeks of [21] for Unguja, and Ngezi- Vumawimbi

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Nature Forest Researve, [20, 22, 23] Micheweni C. decollata is ubiquitous in the upper zone and Wesha [22, 23] for Pemba. Various groups of mangroves occupied by A. marina, of fauna were reported in these areas whereas other species occur at higher including mammals (red colobus and Sykes density in the middle and lower mangrove monkey, Ader’s duiker, and suni antelope zones mainly affected by particular substrate and blue duiker), molluscs (bivalves, preference of gastropod species. [25] Study oysters), gastropods crustaceans, fish, on the spatial and seasonal variations of fish insects; and terrestrial fauna including assemblages under mangrove creeks of mammals, reptiles and birds. A total of 19 Zanzibar suggested that the densities of families of fauna comprising 76 species juvenile fishes vary among sites and creeks were identified at Jozani-Pete mangroves of in relation to water depth, turbidity, and the which the most common included fishes, availability and accessibility of food mainly crustaceans and molluscs. [18] Diversity of the benthic microalgae. [19, 21] mangrove macro-fauna have shown that Only few studies have been there are 159 species from the Nyeke conducted on the role of mangroves in the mangrove forest, with total of 34 species of nutrient cycling and productivity of adjacent fish belonging to 15 families, 16 species of coastal water in Zanzibar. It is well known crabs belonging to five families (Grapsidae, that litterfall production and decomposition Ocypodidae, Pilumnidae, Eriphiidae and are important in nutrient cycling and detritus Portunide), six species of gastropods mainly based food chain. In Zanzibar, litter composed of three families (Potamididae, production occurred throughout the year and Littorinidae and Neritidae) and mangrove with few seasonal trends in particular for A. associated insects with 103 species marina and R. mucronata. [26] There is a belonging to 49 families. [21] In Wesha and strong spatial variability in the nutrients Ngezi mangrove forests a total of 33 species (phosphate, ammonia, nitrate and nitrite) in were registered most of them from three the mangrove creeks of Mapopwe and classes of bivalves, gastropods and Chwaka Bay with concentrations decreasing crustaceans. [22, 23] In Ngezi there are at least as the water traverses the waterway towards 57 fish families and not less than 100 fish the open bay. [27] species. [20] There is no detailed study of Limited studies have been focused mangrove birds of Zanzibar, however, they on crab engineering processes in mangrove are frequently observed in mangrove forest of Zanzibar. [29, 30] Mangrove crabs are systems and their abundance and engineers in the sense that they are able to distribution is independent of the tidal modify surrounding environment by changes. [24] changing the physical state in biotic or A conceptualized model for organic- abiotic materials through physical structure, carbon flux in the ecosystem was proposed mechanical and other actions. Study by based on distribution of mangrove flora, Skov and Hartnoll at Maruhubi mangrove fauna as well as mangrove litter and crabs. forest showed that N. meinerti crabs allow [25] It was suggested that the grapsid crabs A. marina leaves age in burrows before occupy the terrestrial edge with relatively consumption, thereby reducing tannin well-consolidated substrate, while fiddler content and C/N ratio. [28] It was reported crabs (ocypodid) occur in mixed area on that Sesarmid crabs preference on mature sandy or muddy shore, mainly free of dense green R. mucronata leaves could be an cover of mangrove trees and also in swampy invaluable component for reforestation of open areas. [25] The distribution of gastropod International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 521 Vol.2; Issue: 8; August 2015

mangrove ecosystem in Pete-Jozani forest. in Pemba the health of mangrove stands has [29] remained good and therefore the status of Mangrove Degradation: Zanzibar fauna is better even though minor illegal mangroves have been subjected to enormous cutting of mangroves was reported. [10] pressures and threats within the last past However, there is no baseline study on decades. There is a long history of mangrove fauna in Zanzibar, since this was exploitation of the mangroves and its not recorded in the 1997 wood biomass products since back in the eighteenth inventory. Therefore the detection of century where mangrove wood was a changes in species diversity is not possible. precious resource that Sultan of Zanzibar Mangrove Restoration: Restoration of an harvested and used for building and ecosystem is the act of bringing an exported to the Middle East, Europe and ecosystem back into its original condition as America. [6, 30-32] During this period the nearly as possible. According to Field, [37] exploitation was done without any restoration is a special case of rehabilitation management plan and therefore influenced of mangrove ecosystem. Rehabilitation is severe destruction of mangroves resources the act of partially or, more rarely, fully in particular of Unguja Island. [33] replacing structural or functional Overexploitation of mangrove characteristics of an ecosystem that have resources has been reported in many areas of been degraded or lost, or the substitution of Zanzibar Island through many factors alternative qualities or characteristics than especially salt production, fuel wood supply, those originally present with condition that construction and buildings and urban they have more social, economic or eco- development. [7, 12, 13, 24, 34] The most logical value than existed in the disturbed or exploited species are those dominant in the degraded state. upper and middle shore notably C. tagal, R. In Zanzibar, mangroves are usually mucronata and B. gymnorrhiza. [8, 35] restored through natural regeneration, where The demand for mangrove wood most of the local species occupy the products in Zanzibar has been estimated to shoreline and natural succession can take be 66702m3 in 1996 and has been predicted place. Many studies suggested that B. to rise to about 940630 m3 by the year 2006. gymnorrhiza and R. mucronata were Earlier estimates had put the total mangrove successful regeneration species in more volume for the whole of Zanzibar to be areas. [4, 14, 16, 38] It was reported that there is about 640,000m3. [1] Some mangrove a clear relation in natural regeneration and swamps have been exploited to such an the status of exploitation, while regeneration extent that without human intervention no capacity was proportional with species natural regeneration would occur and they density. [38] The regeneration of R. would not recover their ecological functions. mucronata in Unguja mangrove areas was [1] recorded to be 1,592 seedlings/ha which is The destruction of mangrove areas unsatisfactory compared to Pemba Island reduces the diversity of fauna communities with 9,549 seedlings/ha. However, general in many creeks of Zanzibar. [23, 36] Despite regeneration of forests trees is good in the growing efforts of management in some Zanzibar, but the cutting and removal of mangrove areas, this has not been enough mangrove root systems may be one factor and the biodiversity losses continue. [17, 36] for poor regeneration of R. mucronata in The fauna has disappeared from the Unguja while regeneration of other mangroves surrounding Unguja Island while mangrove species increase substantially. [10] International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 522 Vol.2; Issue: 8; August 2015

Many efforts have been made by Many of the previous researches both government and non-government actors have been focused on social economic to save existing mangrove forest from aspects of mangroves and few on social further destruction. Community awareness ecological resilience, abundance and to restoration has made significant increase distribution of mangrove flora and fauna. in mangrove forest cover in Kisakasaka, Research should shift from current Pete, Muungoni and Muwanda in Unguja descriptive nature to providing more and Gawani, Mkoani, Kisiwa Panzaa, quantitative data on the status of the Makoongwe and Micheweni in Pemba. [39] resources, population dynamics and Since mid-1990 Departments of Forest in resilience to human or natural induced collaboration with local groups started factors that will set sustainable use on the rehabilitation in different mangrove creek of limited mangrove resources. There are a Zanzibar. It was reported that about 525 ha number of ecological studies to be done of mangroves was planted in 2007/2008 such as eco-physiological studies on the especially in most degraded areas. [16] production structure, functional amount and Climate Change Threats: Mangroves are matter cycling in mangrove forests. Detailed also threatened by natural factors mainly the studies on bio - tabulation and nutrient global climate change, which has processes, reproductive morphology and concomitant effects on rising of temperature, mangroves genetic materials are needed for increasing level of carbon dioxide, change in successful restoration of mangrove forest. precipitation pattern, storminess and sea- Studies on maintenance mechanisms of level rise. However, gradual sea level rise in biodiversity in mangrove ecosystems, their recent years poses significant threat to the application to the conservation of nature and mangroves of Zanzibar, if the rising trend the impacts of climate change on mangrove will exceed the limit of which mangroves ecosystem functions also need to be can cope. [14] Several aspects of current and conducted. potential future climate change may affect Most of the mangrove biodiversity the diversity of flora and fauna as well as the studies have been focused on larger animals growth and distribution of mangroves in and plants, but not on micro-organisms and Zanzibar. [40] Increased concentrations of insects. It is well known that many species carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and use the mangrove forest ecosystem only part increased average temperatures may lead to of the time (e.g. fish, birds, crustaceans, and increased rates of photosynthesis and growth shellfish). Thus, the mangrove habitat of many plants, including mangroves. The supports many more species as visitors, or effects of climate change likely to affect indirectly, and these support functions must mangroves most strongly, however, are sea- be taken into account, and is a crucial aspect level rise and changes in rainfall, through of biodiversity for mangrove management their impact on sediment budgets. [41] To and conservation. Many works have been date there is no thoroughly study on the carried out at species level, biological impact of climate change on mangrove diversity at genetic and ecosystem levels are forest in Zanzibar. Current rates of almost unknown. Further investigations are mangrove degradation therefore seriously needed to explain engineering aspects threaten this fragile ecosystem and reduce its related to crab burrows in the mangrove of resilience to mitigate climate change effects. Zanzibar. Many issues remain unclear, such as the effects of burrowing crabs on the CONCLUSION nutrient cycle, microbial community International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 523 Vol.2; Issue: 8; August 2015

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How to cite this article: Mchenga ISS, Ali AI. A review of status of mangrove forest in Zanzibar Island, Tanzania. Int J Res Rev. 2015; 2(8):518-526.

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