Education As a Social Determinant of First Nations, Inuit and Métis Health

SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL DETERMINANT OF FIRST NATIONS, INUIT AND MÉTIS HEALTH

Many Indigenous people 1 and communities face deeply rooted social and economic challenges, including poverty, high suicide and incarceration rates, family violence, substance abuse, food insecurity, and high rates of involvement in 671560310 the child welfare system, all of which negatively impact health and well-being (Mendelson, 2006; Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples [SSCAP], 2011). These challenges are intricately connected to historic and ongoing impacts of colonialism at individual, family, community and systemic © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, levels. Education is critical for Educational attainment is a strong with a greater sense of control over obtaining gainful employment determinant of an individual’s their life circumstances and thus and addressing some of these health and well-being across the life better mental health and well-being deeply rooted challenges (Global span. Education is associated with (Sisco, Caron-Vuotari, Stonebridge, Partnership for Education, 2017; health literacy, health awareness Sutherland, & Rhéaume, 2012; OECD, 2013). However, for many and self-care – all of which can Winkleby, Jatulis, Frank, & Indigenous people, experience contribute to improved health and Fortmann, 1992). Beyond individual with Canada’s formal education well-being (Baker, Leon, Smith benefits, education provides benefits systems has been a traumatic one Greenaway, Collins, & Movit, 2011; to the wider community which and despite improvements over Friis, Lasgaard, Rowlands, Osborne, contribute to health and well-being, the decades, Indigenous people & Maindal, 2016; World Health including economic development continue to have significantly Organization [WHO], 1998; van and growth, enhanced innovation lower levels of education than the der Heide et al., 2013). Educational and social cohesion, reduced reliance general population. Addressing attainment is also associated with on social assistance, and positive these educational gaps is especially other determinants of health, intergenerational effects (White & imperative given the youthfulness such as employment and income Peters, 2013). of the Indigenous population. In security, which provide individuals 2011, children (aged 14 and under)

1 The terms ‘Indigenous’ and ‘Indigenous peoples’ are used here to refer to the First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada, as defined in Section 35 of the Canadian Constitution of 1982. ‘Aboriginal’ and ‘Aboriginal peoples’ are used when reflected in the literature under discussion. Wherever possible, culturally specific names are used.

sharing knowledge · making a difference partager les connaissances · faire une différence ᖃᐅᔨᒃᑲᐃᖃᑎᒌᓃᖅ · ᐱᕚᓪᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᓂᖅ Prior to European settlers, Indigenous peoples had their own well-established education systems. These were rooted in the community and the natural environment, and were situated within a spiritual worldview

(Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples [SSCAP], 2011). © Credit iStockPhoto.com, ID 184910616 © Credit iStockPhoto.com, and youth (aged 15-24) comprised levels of educational attainment for Historic and contemporary 28% and 18.2% respectively of the this population. It will conclude impacts of colonialism on Indigenous population compared by highlighting some promising educational attainment to 16.5% and 12.9% for the non- practices in advancing education Indigenous population (Statistics among Indigenous peoples. Prior to European settlers, Canada, 2013a). This segment of the Indigenous peoples had their population is growing faster than Factors affecting educational own well-established education any other segment of the Canadian systems. These were rooted in population. Of the three primary attainment among Indigenous peoples the community and the natural Indigenous populations, Inuit are the environment, and were situated most youthful, with a median age within a spiritual worldview A wide range of factors can affect of 23 years compared to 26 for First (Standing Senate Committee on learning for Indigenous peoples Nations and 31 for Métis (Statistics Aboriginal Peoples [SSCAP], 2011). across all life stages, from early Canada, 2013a). This population Knowledge was passed through the childhood education, kindergarten profile indicates that a demographic generations through oral traditions to Grade 12 (K-12), and post- wave is coming with potentially and experientially, and aimed to secondary education. These factors tremendous socio-economic provide children with the skills operate from the individual to impacts, not only within Indigenous and knowledge they needed to broader societal and environmental communities but within Canada as a ensure they, their families and their levels, and are primarily associated whole. communities survived (SSCAP, with historic and contemporary 2011). After the arrival of European impacts of colonialism, including This fact sheet will examine some settlers, formal education systems, socio-economic marginalization, of the key factors contributing to based on Euro-Christian values, inappropriate education systems, and or hindering academic success for were imposed on Indigenous peoples Indigenous peoples, and current inequitable funding for education.

2 and dominated by churches and shown correlations between having histories, worldviews, languages and governments. In particular, the a family member who attended cultures from education inhibits the imposition of the Indian Residential residential school with poorer development of a strong identity School (IRS) system, which aimed educational outcomes (Bougie & and sense of self-worth, which are to assimilate Indigenous peoples Senécal, 2010; Feir, 2016; O’Gorman critical for empowering students to through segregating children from & Pandey, 2015). learn (Nguyen, 2011; Richmond & their families and communities, Smith, 2012). Additionally, measures played a definitive role in While assimilation is no longer of academic success too often focus contributing to the current state of overtly forced on Indigenous peoples on learning deficits rather than on education among Indigenous peoples through Residential Schools, the positive learning outcomes, and today (Truth and Reconciliation formal education system continues promote individual competitiveness Commission [TRC] of Canada, 2015). to be dominated by Eurocentric over personal growth, which may Instead of empowering Indigenous knowledge and hegemonic further disempower Indigenous students, residential schools structures, which perpetuate the students (CCL, 2007; Sisco, et al., impoverished them and successive values of colonialism and contribute 2012). generations (SSCAP, 2011). The to the marginalization of Indigenous TRC (2015) highlighted the physical, students (Battiste, 2004, 2013). Additionally, the learning emotional and sexual abuses many Too often knowledge is viewed as environment itself can contribute Indigenous students experienced in something that can be possessed or to poorer educational outcomes the Residential Schools, and the role controlled by some but not others, for Indigenous students. Overt these schools played in denigrating reinforcing relationships based on and subconscious racism and Indigenous cultures and severing the superiority of one culture over discrimination within schools children’s connections to their another (Battiste, 2002; Munroe, by classmates and by teachers families, communities and identities. Borden, Orr, Toney, & Meader, can contribute to feelings of not The Residential School system led, 2013). Too often pedagogical belonging or a diminished sense for many, to a diminished sense of approaches that utilize a one-way of identity and self-worth, thus self-worth and self-determination, as transfer of knowledge from teacher exacerbating the problem of low well as a legacy of intergenerational to student and value having the right academic achievement for Indigenous trauma 2 and socio-economic answers are given preference over students (Glass & Westmount, marginalization which continue approaches that foster creativity, 2014; Neeganagwedgin, 2011; Riley to have significant impacts on the innovation and collaboration, thus & Ungerleider, 2012; Whitley et health and well-being of Indigenous denying Indigenous students with al., 2014). Schools may also lack peoples and communities (Bombay, opportunities to build critical culturally appropriate supports Matheson, & Anisman, 2009, 2014; thinking skills and develop the tools that would enable Indigenous TRC, 2015). The association between they need to successfully face life’s students to succeed academically, self-esteem, self-concept and self- challenges (Munroe et al., 2013). as teachers and support staff may worth with academic achievement Too often Indigenous peoples are not understand the challenges has been well documented (see for portrayed in curriculum as problems Indigenous students face or be able example, Marsh & Martin, 2011), resistant to solution, as backwards, to foster trust-based relationships including within some Indigenous and in other ways which promote with Indigenous students (Cherubini, populations (see for example, colonial arrogance and perpetuate 2012; Desmoulin, 2009; Richmond & Bodkin-Andrews, O’Rourke, & the maintenance of stereotypes and Smith, 2012). As a result, Indigenous Craven, 2010; Whitesell et al., 2009; prejudice (Battiste, 2013; Godlewska, students may become alienated from Whitley, Rawana, & Brownlee, 2014). Moore, & Bednasek, 2010). The their learning and drop-out. Additionally, several studies have exclusion of Indigenous peoples’

2 See Aguiar & Halseth (2015) for information on how intergenerational trauma manifests in Indigenous communities.

Education as a social determinant of First Nations, Inuit and Métis health 3 Socio-economic marginalization of responsibilities to support marginalization is rooted in a household. When poverty is Indigenous peoples’ historic and Socio-economic marginalization prevalent within a community, contemporary experiences with is considered to be a leading factor recruiting and retaining high quality colonialism, including forced associated with poorer educational teachers and accessing high quality relocation onto reserves, destruction attainment (Sisco et al., 2012). educational resources may be more of traditional ways of living, the Poverty is associated with a number challenging, which affects the quality residential school system, funding of factors which can influence of learning. Finally, in communities and service inequities in health, children’s physical and mental well- where poverty is prevalent there may education and social services sectors, being and ability to learn, including be fewer employment opportunities as well as racism and discrimination detrimental impacts to cognitive and the economic benefits of within employment sectors and in development, lack of parental role education may not be apparent to, or daily life (Reading & Wien, 2009). modelling or support, unstable or valued by, individuals (van der Berg, unsafe home environment, poor 2008; Sisco et al., 2012). Inequitable funding for education quality or overcrowded housing, and food insecurity (Ferguson, A greater proportion of Indigenous One of the primary barriers to Bovaird, & Mueller, 2007; Lacour people, especially First Nations learning for Indigenous peoples & Tissington, 2011; Treanor, living on reserve and Inuit people, is the disparity in educational 2012). Poverty restricts access to are living in conditions of poverty, funding for Indigenous education education through the financial including living in poor quality systems, especially in rural and costs of schooling, such as school and overcrowded housing and remote areas where access to schools fees, transportation, and books, and experiencing food insecurity, and educational programs may be through limiting an individual’s compared to the general population extremely limited. Currently, the access to further education because (Reading & Wien, 2009). This federal government has responsibility

One of the primary barriers to learning for Indigenous peoples is the disparity in educational funding for Indigenous education systems, © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 154966533 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, especially in rural and remote areas where access to schools and educational programs may be extremely limited.

4 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 860450334 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, for education on reserve. It funds support to pursue training and post- mandated programs, despite the fact early childhood programs, such secondary educational opportunities that provincial school boards receive as Aboriginal Head Start (on and (Service Canada, 2013). targeted funding to implement off reserve) and the First Nations such programs within their schools and Inuit Child Care Initiatives, it Federally supported Indigenous (SSCAP, 2011). This funding operates seven federal schools on educational systems have been disparity is considered to be one of reserve,3 and it funds approximately chronically underfunded for many the most critical factors preventing 518 band-operated elementary and years. Despite population and the delivery of high quality secondary schools serving 60% of inflationary pressures, increases education services on First Nations First Nations students on reserve in funding for Indigenous and reserves and in Inuit communities, (Assembly of First Nations [AFN], Northern Affairs (INAC) programs especially in northern and remote 2011). Each of the band-operated for First Nations and Inuit have regions where the cost of delivering schools is required to develop remained capped at 2% annually education may be exceptionally high and deliver educational services since the mid-1990s (Chiefs Assembly due to a sparse population and long comparable to those in provincial/ on Education [CAE], 2012). In travel distances (Sisco et al., 2012). territorial jurisdictions, but without addition, the current funding formula The chronic underfunding of the same supports as mainstream does not take into account all the education has limited Indigenous schools (SSCAP, 2011). Responsibility components required to operate a students’ access to educational for educating Indigenous students modern school system including services and programs across all off reserve lies with the provincial/ libraries, student assessments, athletic levels. A 2011 survey revealed territorial governments, and thus the programs and facilities, technology, that while 67% of First Nations degree to which their unique needs curriculum development and communities had early learning are being met may vary widely across language programs (SSCAP, 2011). and child care (ELCC) programs, jurisdictions. The federal government There is also no additional funding only 22% of First Nations children also offers several programs which to accommodate special needs had access to these programs due provide Indigenous students with students or to implement provincially to long wait lists (CAE, 2012). It

3 These are schools that are both funded and operated by the federal government for First Nations on reserve (at their request) rather than being funded by the federal government but operated by the First Nations bands themselves. There are currently seven of these schools (six in Ontario and one in Alberta).

Education as a social determinant of First Nations, Inuit and Métis health 5 Having to attend secondary school some distance away from home communities is a significant barrier to high school completion for First Nations students living on reserve. © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 140454940 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, also showed that approximately on the quality of educational Personal factors 31% of First Nations students infrastructure in Indigenous attended off-reserve provincial communities. In 2011, a reported Personal factors may also affect schools, primarily secondary schools 74% of First Nations schools on- educational attainment for which are generally lacking in First reserve required major repairs, 32% Indigenous students. For example, Nations on-reserve communities. lacked access to clean drinking Bougie, Kelly-Scott and Arriagada Having to attend secondary school water, and 72% had health and safety (2013), drawing on 2012 Aboriginal some distance away from home concerns (CAE, 2012). Additionally, Peoples Survey data, found that First communities is a significant barrier a significant proportion of First Nations (living off reserve), Inuit and to high school completion for Nations schools on reserve lacked Métis males 4 aged 18-44 commonly First Nations students living on access to additional amenities dropped out of high school reserve. Further, the number of considered essential for supporting due to a desire to work, money Indigenous students who have student learning, including fully problems, school problems and a been able to pursue post-secondary equipped playing or outdoor fields, lack of interest, while their female education has been limited by the kitchens, science labs, libraries, and counterparts cited pregnancy or lack of access to post-secondary access to technology (CAE, 2012). childcare responsibilities as the main educational opportunities in rural It remains to be seen whether the reasons for leaving. Arriagada (2015), and remote communities, as well as federal government’s promised using this same data source, found by the 2% funding cap on federal funding in the 2016 Budget of that engagement with extracurricular post-secondary education support $2.6 billion to address on-reserve activities, having friends and family programs. A recent CBC News primary and secondary education valuing and engaging with education, article, for example, highlighted and infrastructure needs, and $129.4 and having safe and supportive an 18.3% decline since 1997 in the million for Aboriginal Head Start home and school environments were number of students funded through and First Nation and Inuit Child factors associated with high school the Post-Secondary Student Support Care Initiatives (Government of completion for Indigenous adults. Program (Tasker, 2016). Canada, 2016), will have any positive While Indigenous students dropped impacts on Indigenous peoples’ out of school at fairly high rates, this Chronic underfunding of education educational attainment levels. study showed that many went back has also had a significant impact and completed their high school

4 This study used 2012 Aboriginal Peoples Survey data which includes only First Nations people living off-reserve, Inuit and Métis people.

6 at some later point in time. An raising the collective voice of ∙∙ co-constructing curriculum estimated 14% of off-reserve First Indigenous peoples, exposing for language and culture Nations (off-reserve), 15% of Inuit injustices in colonial history, revitalization, drawing from and 9% of Métis had dropped out at deconstructing the past by community contexts (Munroe et critically examining the many least once before completing their reasons for silencing of al., 2013), and utilizing Elders as high school diploma, highlighting the Aboriginal voices in Canadian educational treasures (Battiste, need for multiple pathways to pursue history, legitimating the voices 2002); post-secondary education (Bougie et and experiences of Aboriginal ∙∙ making Indigenous education al., 2013). people in the curriculum, a mission or priority for recognizing it as a dynamic universities across Canada context of knowledge and (Battiste, 2002); The need for systemic knowing, and communicating the change and the emotional journey that such ∙∙ reforming education by explorations will generate. (p. 20) redefining literacy in ways which decolonization of education affirm Indigenous languages This process entails that policy- and consciousness as essential to For many Indigenous people, makers, curriculum developers, Indigenous learning and identity learning is holistic, lifelong, land- administrators and educators at (Battiste, 2002); and based, experiential, rooted in all levels consider the inequities ∙∙ effectively and fully integrating Indigenous languages and cultures, that come from their choices, and Indigenous knowledges, spiritually oriented, and a communal “unlearn racism and superiority in perspectives and pedagogies activity, involving family, community all its manifestations, … [examine into educational curricula, which and Elders (Canadian Council the] … social constructions in [their] entails validating Indigenous on Learning [CCL], 2007). These judgements and learn new ways of knowledge as a full and equal values, beliefs and goals are not knowing, valuing others, accepting partner rather than being treated adequately reflected within formal diversity, and making equity and as an ‘add on’ or ‘other’ way education systems, especially within inclusion foundations for all learners” of knowing (Battiste, 2002; mainstream systems. There is a (Battiste, 2013, p. 166). Munroe et al., 2013; CCL, 2007). strong consensus among Indigenous education researchers that the Some elements of decolonizing Decolonizing education is critical “…exclusive use of Eurocentric education identified in the literature not only for restoring a strong sense knowledge in education has failed include: of identity and pride in Indigenous Indigenous children” (Battiste, 2002, peoples, which is associated with p. 9), and that the education system ∙∙ utilizing processes which are academic success (Schissel & must be completely transformed active rather than passive, and Wotherspoon, 2003), but since and decolonized so that the effects which would allow Indigenous education plays such a transformative of colonization can be “healed and students to build critical role in Canadian society, it is also transcended” (Cajete, 2000, p. 181). thinking skills and relate what critical for advancing reconciliation As noted by Wildcat, McDonald, they’ve learned to the contexts and improving relationships between Irlbacher-Fox, and Coulthard (2014), of their everyday lives (Battiste, Indigenous and non-Indigenous “if colonization is fundamentally 2002; Munroe et al., 2013); peoples in Canada. about dispossessing Indigenous peoples from land, decolonization must involve forms of education that For many Indigenous people, learning is holistic, lifelong, reconnect Indigenous peoples to land land-based, experiential, rooted in Indigenous languages and and the social relations, knowledges and languages that arise from the cultures, spiritually oriented, and a communal activity, involving land” (p. 1). As Battiste (2002) notes, family,community and Elders decolonization is about: (Canadian Council on Learning [CCL], 2007).

Education as a social determinant of First Nations, Inuit and Métis health 7 Current levels of educational TABLE 1: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT LEVELS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES COMPARED TO attainment THE GENERAL POPULATION (AGED 25-64)

Rates of educational attainment Aboriginal First Inuit Métis Non- among Indigenous peoples have Nations Aboriginal improved considerably over recent decades; however, a number of Post-secondary 48.4% 52.1% 35.6% 54.8% 64.7% educational gaps remain across qualification gender, age, Indigenous groups and geography. Rates of educational Trades 14.4% 13.2% 13.2% 16.3% 12.0% attainment are consistently higher certificate for Métis and First Nations living off reserve, and consistently lower College 20.6% 21.2% 15.6% 23.2% 21.3% for First Nations living on reserve, diploma registered/status First Nations, and Inuit (Arrigata & Hango, University 2016; Bougie et al., 2013; Gordon certificate or 3.5% 3.6% 1.7% 3.5% 4.9% & White, 2014; Statistics Canada, diploma below 2013b). Younger generations (25-44 bachelor’s level years) have higher post-secondary certification levels compared to older University 9.8% 10.9% 5.1% 11.7% 26.5% generations (Richards, 2014). With degree the exception of a trades certificate, High school No 72% First Nations, Inuit and Métis women diploma comparable (off- 42% 77% 89% are more likely to have obtained (age 18-44)* data reserve) higher levels of education compared to men (Statistics Canada, 2013b). Source: Statistics Canada, 2013b; *Bougie et al., 2013 Educational attainment levels are do, and incomes increase significantly initiatives highlight the many ways also not uniform across all provinces the greater one’s level of education in which Indigenous control over and territories, with the Maritime (Richards, 2014). These education education (including incorporation provinces, Ontario, Quebec, and gaps are a real roadblock for of Indigenous culture and language British Columbia (BC) having higher improving the social determinants in curriculum and use of Indigenous levels than Nunavut, the Northwest which underlie Indigenous people’s modes of learning), high quality Territories, and the Prairie Provinces health and well-being (Gordon & infrastructure, and socio-economic (Richards, 2014). As shown in Table White, 2014). It is expected that this improvements are critical to fostering 1, there continues to be significant gap will continue over the next 5-10 environments which are more gaps in attaining a university degree years and, in fact, worsen for First conducive to student learning, giving and secondary school completion (a Nations living on reserve, Status students hope for the future, and critical requirement for improving Indians and Inuit (White & Peters, enabling students and community post-secondary rates) across all 2013; Gordon & White, 2014). members alike to take pride in Indigenous groups. their schools. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to provide The link between education and Advances in education for a comprehensive list of all of these improving life circumstances is well Indigenous peoples initiatives, several are profiled here established. The unemployment rate in order to highlight the breadth of for Indigenous individuals who do Numerous initiatives have been programs across Indigenous groups, not complete high school is more implemented across multiple levels to educational levels, and program and than 25% greater than for those who advance Indigenous education. These policy realms.

8 Early learning and care initiatives Much of this policy shift has There is a strong body of evidence emerged through Land Claims that including Indigenous culture Much progress has been made in Agreements, including the James Bay and language in education is instilling language and culture into and Northern Quebec Land Claims associated with developmental and community-based early learning and Agreement in 1975, which saw the academic outcomes for Indigenous care programs like Aboriginal Head establishment of a Cree School students (Findlay & Kohen, Start, which are considered to be key Board and Cree control over all 2013). Language and cultural sites for healthy child development aspects of their children’s education, programming are increasingly and for improving school readiness as well as the establishment of being offered in the K-12 education and interest in lifelong learning. The the Kativik School Board, which system. Approximately 88% of First federal government provides funding has exclusive jurisdiction over Nations schools offer some type of for Aboriginal Head Start programs preschool, elementary, secondary Indigenous language programming, in reserve communities through and adult education within 14 Inuit 17% offer full Indigenous language the First Nations Health Branch, communities in Nunavik (SSCAP, immersion programming, 91% offer Health Canada, and for urban and 2011). The Mi’kmaq Education Act, periodic cultural activities, and 57% northern Indigenous communities enacted by Parliament in 1998, gave offer regular and ongoing cultural through the Public Health Agency of 11 Mi’kmaq communities control programming (CAE, 2012). There Canada. These programs are holistic, over K-12 and post-secondary are also a number of On the Land incorporating not only language education (Association of Canadian programs,5 which provide students and culture, but also education, Deans of Education [ACDE], with opportunities to explore many health promotion, nutrition, social 2010). In BC, the First Nations traditional activities as part of their support and parental involvement. Jurisdiction over Education Act daily school curriculum. Many They have shown positive impacts (Bill C34), introduced in 2006, include a language component and on Indigenous children and their gave participating First Nations encourage parents to participate with families, including fostering self- jurisdiction over on-reserve K-12 their children (Sisco et al., 2012). confidence, self-worth and pride in education, and established a First identity, as well as greater cognitive Nations Education Authority to When Indigenous principles skills, a desire for lifelong learning, support them in exercising this and perspectives of learning are and improved family relationships jurisdiction in the areas of teacher incorporated into Indigenous and parenting skills (Nguyen, 2011). certification, school certification, education (ie. learning is holistic, and the establishment of curriculum experiential, rooted in Indigenous Kindergarten to Grade 12 and examination standards (SSCAP, languages and cultures, spiritually 2011). oriented, and relational), the benefits Indigenous control over education can be wide reaching. For example, systems was identified in the literature as being important for student success (Gordon & White, When Indigenous principles and perspectives of learning 2014; Nguyen, 2011). Since the dissolution of the residential school are incorporated into Indigenous education (ie. learning is system, there has been a slow policy shift towards transferring holistic, experiential, rooted in Indigenous languages and jurisdiction over elementary and cultures, spiritually oriented, and relational), the benefits secondary education to on-reserve First Nations and Inuit peoples. can be wide reaching.

5 See for example Beaufort Delta Educational Council’s program offered in Moose Kerr School in Aklavik, NWT (Sisco et al., 2012).

Education as a social determinant of First Nations, Inuit and Métis health 9 the Outma Sqilx’w Cultural School First Nations Education Resource common services and resources to in Penticton is a stunning, fully Centre, established by the Assembly member schools (Lewington, 2012). resourced school that offers a full- of Manitoba Chiefs in 1998, range of educational programs to provides coordinated education, Universities have been working to address the spiritual, emotional, administration, technology, language, improve the quality of teachers so psychological and physical needs of and culture services to 58 schools they may better meet the needs of students. The school also serves as in 49 First Nations communities in Indigenous students. Many have a hub for school and community Manitoba (Manitoba First Nations established Indigenous teacher activity, and is viewed with pride Education Resource Centre Inc., education programs to increase the by both students and community n.d.). In December of 2016, INAC number of Indigenous teachers, members alike. Not only have announced a new funding formula while others (e.g. Lakehead, Trent) students been meeting provincial and the creation of a unique and are incorporating curriculum on learning objectives (Penticton Indian historic First Nations designed and Indigenous histories, cultures Band, n.d.), but there is also some operated school board in Manitoba and perspectives as a mandatory evidence of increased social cohesion, which will determine curriculum requirement for all student teachers parental involvement, volunteerism, and professional development, hiring so that they know more about First Nation teacher attraction and of faculty and staffing, and the Indigenous issues. retention, as well as reduced student allocation of student resources in truancy (Trotter, 2014). that province (Pauls, 2016). There is At the policy level, provincial also the Mi’kmaw Kina’matnewey, ministries of education and There have been several initiatives the central coordinating body Indigenous organizations have been which aim to address the lack of representing the educational interests developing policy frameworks and supportive educational services in of Mi’kmaq communities in Nova strategies for First Nations, Inuit and First Nations schools. The Manitoba Scotia, which provides oversight, Métis education. These have included © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 589097066 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com,

10 Ontario’s 2007 First Nation, Métis, within universities to counter which evolved from a former church and Inuit Education Policy Framework, prevailing prejudices and stereotypes operated residential school to a Manitoba’s 2016-19 First Nation, Métis and to provide greater emphasis on university that provides academic and and Inuit Education Policy Framework, teaching Indigenous history and training courses in partnership with the Assembly of First Nations’ (2005) perspectives, a recent Truth and other academic institutions (Blue First Nations Education Action Plan, Reconciliation Commission (TRC) Quills University, n.d.). and the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami First ‘Call to Action’ (TRC, 2015). In Canadians, Canadians first: National 2016, the University of Winnipeg Other initiatives have aimed to Strateg y on Inuit Education 2011. The and Lakehead University became the provide alternative pathways to Métis Nation continues to work first Canadian universities to make at post-secondary education or foster towards developing its own Métis least one Indigenous course required a more welcoming environment Nation education strategy (Métis learning for all students (MacIntosh, for Indigenous students. For Nation, 2014). All of these strategies 2016). example, the Nunavut Sivuniksavut aim to increase learning outcomes Program allows Inuit youth who are through enhancing cultural heritage Innovative education delivery models beneficiaries of the Nunavut Land and history, establishing collaborative have also been implemented to Claims Agreement to participate shared strategies, and enhancing engage Indigenous post-secondary in an eight-month transitional broader understanding of Indigenous learners and help them overcome program that teaches them about education issues and challenges. geographic barriers to education. For Inuit culture, history, organizations, example, the University of Northern land claims and issues, as well as Post-secondary education British Columbia has offered a the life skills needed to be healthy number of experiential learning functioning adults. Upon completion Within post-secondary education opportunities related to Indigenous of the program, students receive settings, steps have been taken cultural heritage, including: FNST a certificate from Algonquin to foster Indigenous student 444: First Nations Cultural Heritage College, with transferable credits success by addressing some of the through Moose-Hide Tanning; for Arctic College programs such as unique barriers to post-secondary FNST 161 - Making a Pit House; and management (Sisco et al., 2012). The attainment. Provincial government FNST 208/284/303: Dakélh Studies program has a long track record of frameworks, strategies, and action – The Dugout Cottonwood Canoe success and has produced important plans, such as BC’s (n.d.) Aboriginal courses (UNBC, 2016). Partnerships leaders in Inuit organizations and Post-Secondary Education and Training have been established between government (Sisco et al., 2012). Policy Framework and Action Plan, northern colleges and southern Indigenous student centres have also have been implemented to address universities, and among different been established in many universities, systemic barriers and initiate systemic sectors, to provide select degree as well as some mainstream institutional change to support programs in underserved areas. primary and secondary schools,6 Indigenous learners. The ACDE’s Locally controlled higher Indigenous to provide Indigenous students (2010) Accord on Indigenous Education education centres have also emerged with an inclusive, welcoming and calls on universities and colleges which utilize Indigenous pedagogy respectful environment where they across Canada to work together with and perspectives to promote pride in can feel they belong. These centres the aim of enabling “Indigenous Indigenous heritage, while offering encourage “student empowerment, identities, cultures, languages, courses and programs, often in identity, community connection, values, ways of knowing, and partnership with other educational and Indigenous ways of learning,” knowledge systems… [to] flourish institutions, to advance Indigenous (University of Regina, 2016), and in all Canadian settings” (p.4). A post-secondary education. An support the academic and personal movement has also been emerging to example of this is Blue Quills success of Indigenous students. make Indigenous studies mandatory University in St. Paul, Alberta,

6 See for example the Aboriginal Student Program at Soaring Heights Secondary School in southern Ontario (Cherubini, 2014)

Education as a social determinant of First Nations, Inuit and Métis health 11 Conclusion However, since the factors which students can access a wide range of impede educational attainment educational opportunities and receive Improving education is critical for for Indigenous peoples are deeply high quality education at all levels. improving quality of life and the rooted and complex, and operate at Within other sectors, initiatives health and well-being of Indigenous individual as well as systemic levels, must address the deeply rooted peoples and communities. Since intergovernmental and intersectoral social and economic challenges education has historically been approaches will also be required to faced by many Indigenous people a key site for the colonization of address existing gaps in educational and communities that act as barriers Indigenous peoples, in order to attainment. Within the education to student learning and educational improve educational outcomes, sector, initiatives should aim to foster attainment. This includes programs these colonizing processes must a positive, welcoming, respectful and that foster economic development be reversed and education systems supportive learning environment opportunities; support and must be re-indigenized (Battiste, within and outside all educational strengthen families; address poverty, 2013). Key features in this process settings; consider the various food insecurity and housing needs; are Indigenous-led education and pathways by which Indigenous and reduce crime and violence within the incorporation of Indigenous people seek out higher educational Indigenous communities. knowledges, languages and cultures opportunities; and address funding in educational programs across all inequities for Indigenous education levels. systems so that Indigenous

... the factors which impede educational attainment for Indigenous peoples are deeply rooted and complex,

and operate at individual ID 171308229 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, as well as systemic levels, intergovernmental and intersectoral approaches will also be required to address existing gaps in educational attainment.

12 Since education has historically been a key site for the colonization of Indigenous peoples, in order to improve educational outcomes, these colonizing processes must be reversed and education systems must be re-indigenized

(Battiste, 2013).

Resources

The Martin Family Initiative – Service Canada – Education and Rupertsland Institute – provides a not for profit enterprise which Training for Aboriginal Peoples scholarships for Métis students seeks to improve elementary and program – a website that provides interested in post-secondary secondary school outcomes for access to information about education in Alberta. Indigenous Canadians through programs that assist Indigenous rupertsland.org/post-secondary- the implementation of training peoples in accessing training funding programs for educators, support for and post-secondary education the development of school strategies, opportunities. AboriginalStudents.ca – a programs for Indigenous students, canada.ca/en/services/benefits/ website which provides access and other initiatives grounded in audience/indigenous.html to opportunities for Indigenous Indigenous cultures which aim to students. produce optimal education outcomes Raham, M. (2009). Best practices aboriginalstudents.ca for all Indigenous students. in Aboriginal education: A literature themfi.ca/about-mfi review and analysis for policy directions Indigenous and Northern Affairs – provides a summary of best Canada, Post-Secondary Student Indspire – a national charitable practices in the delivery of language Support Program. organization which works in and literacy instruction, culturally- aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/ partnership with a range of based programming, student eng/1100100033682/1100100033683 stakeholders to support the engagement and retention, home educational goals of First Nations, and community partnerships, Inuit and Métis students through instruction, teacher preparation the provision of scholarships and and support, school leadership bursaries, the delivery of programs and programming, assessment and and the sharing of resources with the monitoring, and governance related goal of closing the gap in education. to Indigenous education in Canada indspire.ca and internationally. firstpeoplesgroup.com/mnsiurban/ Indigenous Education Network PDF/education/Best_Practices_in_ – Ontario Institute for Studies in Aboriginal_Education-2009.pdf Education – a group of students, faculty and community members undertaking initiatives to include Indigenous content and knowledge in graduate and teacher education courses to better prepare them to engage with learners from Indigenous communities. oise.utoronto.ca/ien Education as a social determinant of First Nations, Inuit and Métis health 13 References

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16 Statistics Canada. (2013b). NHS in Brief: The University of Northern British Columbia Whitesell, N.R., Mitchell, C.M., Spicer, P., & educational attainment of Aboriginal peoples in [UNBC]. (2016). Experiential learning The Voices of Indian Teens Project Team. Canada – National Household Survey (NHS), courses. First Nations Studies. Prince George, (2009). A longitudinal study of self-esteem, 2011. Ottawa, ON: Author, Catalogue no. BC: Author. Retrieved December 1, 2016 cultural identity, and academic success 99-012-X2011003. from http://www.unbc.ca/first-nations- among American Indian adolescents. studies/experiential-learning-courses Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, Tasker, J.P. (2016). Cap leads to steep drop 15(1), 38-50. in First Nations students receiving post- University of Regina. (2016). Aboriginal secondary support. CBC News, September Student Centre, http://www.uregina.ca/ Whitley, J., Rawana, E., & Brownlee, K. 12. Retrieved September 15, 2016 from student/asc/ (2014). A comparison of Aboriginal and http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/first- non-Aboriginal students on the inter-related nations-cap-higher-education-1.3753021 Van der Berg, S. (2008). Poverty and education. dimensions of self-concept, strengths and Paris, France: International Academy of achievement. Brock Education: A Journal of Treanor, M.C. (2012). Impacts of poverty on Education and the International Institute Educational Research & Practice, 23(2): 24-46. children and young people. Stirling, UK: Scottish for Educational Planning (UNESCO). Child Care and Protection Network. Retrieved September 15, 2016 from http:// Wildcat, M., McDonald, M., Irlbacher-Fox, citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?do S., & Coulthard, G. (2014). Learning from Trotter, M. (2014). To develop new architectural i=10.1.1.464.9607&rep=rep1&type=pdf the land: Indigenous land based pedagogy initiatives to enhance education facilities for and decolonization. Decolonization: Indigeneity, disadvantaged and disengaged youth. Canberra, Van der Heide, I., Wang, J., Droomers, M., Education & Society, 3(3), pp. i-xv. AU: The Winston Churchill Memorial Spreeuwenberg, P., Rademakers, J., & Uiters, Trust of Australia. Retrieved August 25, E. (2013). The relationship between health, Winkleby, M., Jatulis, D., Frank, E., & 2016 from https://www.churchilltrust. education, and health literacy: Results from Fortmann, S. (1992). Socioeconomic status com.au/media/fellows/To_develop_new_ the Dutch Adult Literacy and Life Skills and health: How education, income, and architectural_initiatives_to_enhance___M_ Survey. Journal of Health Communication, occupation contribute to risk factors for Trotter_2013.pdf 18(Suppl 1), 172-184. cardiovascular disease. American Journal of Public Health, 82(6), 816-820. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of White, J.P., & Peters, J. (2013). Editors’ Canada. (2015). Volume 1. Honouring the commentary: The challenges in improving World Health Organization [WHO]. (1998). truth, reconciling for the future: Summary of the Indigenous educational attainment. The Social determinants of health: The solid facts. Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation International Indigenous Policy Journal, 4(4), Geneva: WHO. Commission of Canada. Winnipeg, MB: Article 6. Author.

Education as a social determinant of First Nations, Inuit and Métis health 17 INFOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW NCCAH RECOMMENDED READINGS

Employment as a social determinant of Housing as a social determinant for First First Nations, Inuit and Métis health Nations, Inuit, and Métis health This fact sheet examines Indigenous peoples’ This fact sheet provides a review of participation in the labour market, including the living and housing conditions of context, demographics and barriers to Indigenous households in Canada. The fact sheet employment. It describes how un/employment begins by presenting demographic data, housing can impact health and well-being and highlights statistics and the rates of homelessness, followed some current initiatives to address employment by samples of innovative community-based inequities for Indigenous peoples. housing initiatives, developments and options that are underway in Canada to improve the living conditions of Indigenous peoples.

Culture and language as social determinants of First Nations, Inuit, and Métis health Culture is the foundation of individual and Pathways to improving well-being collective identity, and is expressed and for Indigenous Peoples: How living maintained through language. The erosion of conditions decide health SOCIAL DETERMINANTS HEALTH OF culture and language can adversely affect mental health and well-being. This fact sheet reviews This report provides a broad overview of socio- disruptions to, and current trends, in language economic determinants of Indigenous health, use and cultural practices for First Nations, including income, education, unemployment, Inuit and Métis peoples, provides an overview of housing, social support, health care access, how language and culture influence Indigenous education, healthy living, and social exclusion. perceptions of health and illness, and highlight some promising initiatives in revitalizing their languages and cultures.

Tackling Poverty in Indigenous Health inequalities and the social Communities in Canada determinants of Aboriginal peoples’ For First Nation, Inuit and Métis peoples in health Canada, who experience a disproportionate Available data is used in this report to describe burden of illness, poverty is both deep and health inequalities experienced by diverse widespread. This paper briefly examines the Aboriginal peoples in Canada, linking social breadth and depth of poverty in Indigenous determinants to health inequalities rooted in communities using standard economic contexts specific to Indigenous peoples. This is indicators. an update from the original 2009 report.

The health of Aboriginal people residing Strengthening Urban Aboriginal in urban areas Families: Exploring promising practices Aboriginal people in Canada are increasingly This report identifies promising practices that becoming urbanized, with more than half living agencies, practitioners, and policy makers can in urban centres. Despite this growing trend, the use to strengthen urban Aboriginal families. health of Aboriginal peoples residing in urban It includes six detailed case studies of service areas in not well known. The NCCAH report agencies that have all been successful in building examines the health and well-being of Canada’s service and matching community needs. demographically and culturally diverse urban Aboriginal population. EMERGING PRIORITIES

Education as a social determinant of First Nations, Inuit and Métis health 19 How to use this fact sheet REFLECT ENGAGE SHARE

Talk to others in your community, Find local friendship centers, Request a hard copy of this fact reflect on the content of this fact community organizations or sheet for yourself, your clients, your sheet, and contemplate how you groups where you can volunteer students or your organization’s could make a difference in the health or participate in healthy positive event or office. Share the link and well-being for yourself, your actions. You too can share to this publication through your family or your community. knowledge and make a difference social media networks. Like, pin or in the health and well-being of First favourite this fact sheet on one of the Nations, Inuit, and Métis Peoples’ NCCAH social media channels. of Canada. sharing knowledge · making a difference partager les connaissances · faire une différence ᖃᐅᔨᒃᑲᐃᖃᑎᒌᓃᖅ · ᐱᕚᓪᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᓂᖅ

The NCCAH uses an external blind Une version française est également This fact sheet is available for review process for documents that publiée sur le site ccnsa.ca, sous le download at nccah.ca. All NCCAH are research based, involve literature titre : L’éducation : un déterminant social materials are available free and can reviews or knowledge synthesis, de la santé des Premières Nations, des be reproduced in whole or in part or undertake an assessment of Inuits et des Métis. with appropriate attribution and knowledge gaps. We would like to citation. All NCCAH materials are acknowledge our reviewers for their Citation: National Collaborating to be used solely for non-commercial generous contributions of time and Centre for Aboriginal Health (2017). purposes. To measure the impact of expertise to this fact sheet. Education as a social determinant of First these materials, please inform us of Nations, Inuit and Métis Health. Prince their use. George, BC: National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health.

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