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The Ashgate Research Companion to Islamic Law

Rudolph Peters, Peri Bearman

The Divine Sources

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 Herbert Berg Published online on: 18 Aug 2014

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 was brought from a heavenly archetype (Q 43:3) to Muḥammad via the angel Gabriel (Q 2:91), and 2:91), (Q Gabriel angel the via Muḥammad to 43:3) (Q archetype heavenly a from brought was Traditionally the Quranisbelieved to beofdivineorigin—a claimthattheQuranitselfadvances.It Synopsis ofDivineSources inIslamicScholarship a longhistoryofaskingsurprisinglysimilarquestionsabouttheQuran andtheSunna. occasionally viewed as motivated by confessionalism or orientalism. Muslim scholars, however, have therefore is it and sources, main two its of aspect “divine” the undercuts it for Sharia the of heart the at strikes scholarship modern This collections. these in hadith the of authenticity the and Quran the of canonization and redaction the of order and dates the question into called has scholarship Modern contested. and protracted more far were Māja, Ibn al-Tirmidhī,and Dāwūd, al-Nasāʾī, Abū Muslim, Sunna of the Prophet, particularly as hadith in the six Sunni collections (al-kutub al-sitta made his first converts and they began to emulate their Prophet. The redaction and canonization of the official version of the text. The process of the canonization of the Sunna began as soon as Muḥammad redaction was more or less complete some 15 years later when the third caliph, ʿUthmān, published an Quran wascomplete the personally,The Companions. him the known had who when Muslims of generation the by recognized death, and began his canonization with of process culminated the and that revelation first suggest Muḥammad’s would with Sharia and Islam of origin the of account traditional The 2). (2003: ordinances societal and legal Quranic the of endorsement the is, that text, redaction of the text culminating with an authoritative, so “obvious”and“natural,”however, turnsouttobefarmorecomplexandcontentious. preserved reports of his activities in what would eventually become known as hadith. What may have seem would Muḥammad’sfollowers that natural seems also It Quran. the in God by prescribed is it that in one divine a hisactivities and Sharia, for source obvious an also through is Sunna, example, teachings his Thus, words. its and exemplified perfectly most and best the Quran the understood God’sMessenger.messenger,Muḥammad obey God’s chosen to As Muslims commands repeatedly provided in the Quran. Itsstatusasa“divine source” for the Sharia seems obvious. The Quran also God revealed to Muḥammad, so to obey God, as the Quran itself commands, is to follow the precepts The primary sources forShariaarethe Quran andtheSunna. The Quranisbelieved to bethespeechof h Qrn coa neia ewrh a pitd u ta oe ut itnus bten the between distinguish must one that out pointed has Neuwirth Angelika scholar Quran The imntn i te uhr ot eety f w sprt mngah o Eia Muhammad: Elijah on monographs Islam (New York: New separate Yorkand UniversityPress,2009). 2013) two Oneworld, Oxford: Series, World of Muslim the of recently (Makers Muhammad most author the is Wilmington, † Herbert Berg, Professor in the Department of Philosophy and Religion at the University of North Carolina, North of University the at Religion and Philosophy of Department the in Berg,Professor Herbert The DivineSources Herbert Berg ne varietur Quran, and the canonization of the †

1 3 Elijah Muhammad and

) of al-Bukhārī, Elijah Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 , the body of the hadith) be provided with a list of people who had who people transmitted of it. Since these, too, could list be invented or adapted, biographical a literature (rijāl) developed with provided be hadith) the of body the the to (matn, report led the This that insistence Islam. of decades earliest the in widely circulating been altered—had tendentially some fabricated, Muḥammad—some to attributed reports empire, Arab-Islamic expanding the rapidly within peoples of multitude a of incorporation the and community Muslim the within rivalries called (isnād), transmitters of chain full a with T 1 specific hoc ad the as such collections written into out branched soon which reports, of death the with began literature This Muḥammad, as an attempt to maintain his guidance. Imams. The Companions were a natural source for these the includes which Sunna the of concept broader al-Bukhārī’s and Muslim’s collections. Shiʿi Islam has different collections of hadith and a somewhat both in found are they if particularly authentic, considered generally are collections six the in Sunna primary sourceoflaw. (sg. schools legal extant the and eternal, and universal be to held are Quran the within regulations social or penal, commercial, civil, the Quran, the the traditional recapitulates accounts of the Quran’s He compilation under suras. Abū Bakr the and then again under of ʿUthmān. Thus, arrangement the fixed even himself Muḥammad that opinion the of is Al-Azami 69). (2003: form” written in available was Quran entire the lifetime own his in that scribes, and the of Prophet’s custom of number summoning them to record all new total verses, we can safely assume the on “Based revelations. the of dictation Muḥammad’s recorded another or time any collectionsthatdeviatedfromtheofficialone. credited by some as having introduced diacritics into the Arabic script, is also recorded as destroying little longer. Al-Ḥajjāj b. Yūsuf al-Thaqafī (d. 95/714),thegovernorofIraqunderUmayyadsand today, authority.it and have form we definitive as its had less, or more a take would markings Vowel the ʿUthmān with Thus, versions. other burn to instructions with centers Muslim major other to Quran the of recension his of copies sent then ʿUthmān text. consonantal the was as fixed were suras the of order and number the to collect an official copy,official an collect to dialect Qurashī the for opting others and Thābit b. Zayd correct (r.commissioned ʿUthmān 644–56) caliph third the the Quran, the of over reading quarreled Iraq and Syria from Muslims when Later, Ḥafṣa. daughter his to death, leather, bones, and palm leaves. This collection passed to the second caliph, ʿUmar, and at the latter’s Bakr papyrus, on sources written and Abū Companions the of memories the included canonization. which sources, available and collation its of process the (r.Muḥammad’sof one commissioned 632–34) b. Zayd scribes, all from Quran the collect to Thābit, initiated ʿUthmān, later and Bakr Abū caliphs, succeeding the that claim accounts Varioustraditional complicated. more much the is inspection, process closer on Again, death. his after writing to it committed and it preserved followers that itwasnotuniversallyunderstoodevenbytheearliestMuslims. clear it makes (tafsīr) literature exegetical the of survey brief a even and revelations, earlier abrogate parts certain decades, two over serially revealed was Quran the for complicated, more course, of are, contents andauthorityinreligiouslegalmattersarebeyondquestion. The accountsbyMuslims review the Quran with him once a year, but in the last year of his life Gabriel did so twice. As such, its to came Gabriel that said have to reported is determined.Muḥammad divinely was suras the of order the Even God. of Speech eternal the as seen be to came it theology Islamic In it. understand might of all language that clear so the Arabic in 8:76–7) (Q willed God which that only recited Prophet the

he Embodied in the form of hadith, the Sunna stands second only to the Quran. The hadith of the of hadith The Quran. the to only second stands Sunna the hadith, of form the in Embodied one at who scribes 65 approximately names al-Azami Muḥammad scholar, Muslim modern A Be that as it may, the Quran was, therefore, a canon in Muḥammad’s lifetime, and his Muslim his and lifetime, Muḥammad’s in canon a therefore, was, Quran the may, it as that Be As The dialectof theQuraysh,Prophet’s tribe. h muṣannaf, and the source-based g ate R , embodies the will of God—His instructions for His creatures. Ritual, creatures. His for instructions God—His of will the textus receptusembodies , e s ear c h

consonantal text is established. By no later than 656 the Quran the 656 than later no By established. is text consonantal ne varietur C o m p a n i o bt Sni n Sii sa ve te ua a the as Quran the view Islam Shiʿi and Sunni both of madhhab) on t o Isl musnad. Finally, the topically arranged collections of hadith ami sunan c 28 La w or 1 when differenceswhen found. were point, this At ṣaḥīḥ books, appeared. But with the early the with But appeared. books, , the more topic- more the ṣaḥīfa, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 2 Successor and Companion extending or gaps repairing by emendation, simply encouraged isnād led however, fabrication effort, widespread This The to efforts toevaluatetheauthenticity ofhadith—based solely ontheisnād. positions. particular their support to it hadith found fabricate schools to legal the expedient (raʾy), view personal as such Sharia, for sources other oppose to began that theisnād of contradictory hadith was equally impressive. Later, he opined, as the hadith scholars words, but the tendential interpolations and inventions also began early. It was no surprise, therefore, Prophet’s the preserve to sought had Muslims early that accepted He collections. earlier in absence but collections later in proliferation their and hadith of transmission oral apparent the on based was conclusion the maturestages His trust. optimistic over during caution skeptical urged He in the community 19). 2: (1971, development” its of appear which but tendencies Islam, the of of infancy reflection the of a history as the rather for document a as serve “not could hadith felt Goldziher although unflattering depictions of Muḥammad suggested that much was genuine (1894). In contrast, al- of the in information the half of value the doubted least and spurious that was at material felt the of half also including as much 1905) as it, (d. Muir of William Scot much the so 124–5); (1879: that authentic was but was he collection, materials, Bukhārī’s that false remarked the had of 1883) all (d. by Dozy not Reinhart surprised scholar Dutch The Sunna. the in hadith the (Schacht, Juynboll,andSezgin),datingusingboth the of basis the on reconstruction or dating Juynboll), primarily but (Schacht, collections of the basis the on dating conclusions: opposite reach they if even methodologies their on based scholars classifies 204–53) (2005: himself Motzki Motzki). (primarily Westernre-evaluation the and Cook), and Crone (Patricia revisionists the al-Azami), and (Abbott apologetic philo-Islamic the Juynboll), and (Goldziher,Schacht, orientalists the outlook: scholarly into on instead based are question that categories four the authenticity on scholarship Western classifies 197–236) (2009: Brown Jonathan Calder). Norman and Cook (Michael skepticism renewed and others), and Motzki, Schoeler,Harald Muhammad and Sezgin, Fuat Abbott, Mustafa al-Azami), those who search for a middle ground (G.H.A. Juynboll, Fazlur Rahman, Gregor (Nabia skepticism this against reaction sanguine Schacht), more Joseph the and Goldziher (Ignaz skepticism Western early hadith: of authenticity the about conclusions their on based scholars these classified I 6–64) 2000: (Berg work earlier an in dispute; in is participants the of classification the even and complex, is debate resulting authenticity.The its Most modernscholarshipontheSunnahasfocusedlesscontent of theSunnaandmoreon Modern ScholarshipontheSunna divine sourcefortheSharia,butcontentsofSunnahavealwaysbeencontested. second the be may Sunna The Shiʿis). is, (that Imams the of followers via Imams or Muḥammad to the legacy by Sunni Muslims (Brown 2007). The four major Shiʿi collections of hadith are unique in that Muḥammad’sof representation authentic and authoritative most the be to deemed were particular in canonized. Al-Bukhārī’swere is, that authoritative, as emerged literature much heated debate and several centuries before a handful of books from this vast collection of hadith take would authenticity.It their ensure to hadith selected and amassed painstakingly collections, six out corroborating reports. The collectors of the or Traditionists, report. the received had he claimed was it whom from person the met had transmitter a whether determine to and transmitters of reliability the evaluate to

isnād traces the origin of the reports to Muḥammad via the Imams, to Imams via later Imams, and Ignaz Goldziher was not the first modern scholar to express doubts about the authenticity of theauthenticity about doubts toexpress scholar modern first the not was Goldziher Ignaz The generation aftertheCompanions, known as al-tābiʿūn alone (Goldziher, Schacht, and R. Marston Speight), dating on the basis of occurrence in occurrence of basis (Goldziher,the alone on matn dating Speight), Marston R. and Schacht, sunan 29 isnād andmatn(Motzki). or . ṣaḥīḥ books, such as the compilers of the of compilers the as such books, Ṣaḥīḥ , also sought also al-ḥadīth, ahl T he and Muslim’s Ṣaḥīḥ D i v i n isnād alone e

S ou isnād, r c e s 2

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 links being used to date hadith, al-Azami concludes that while there may have been mistakes, there is claims of theisnād being late, arbitrary, and gradually improved over time and of “so-called” common 1–211).(1992: sources written had have must who scholars Schacht’scritiquing systematically After in the (1967: 83). Al-Azami also argues for a continuous early written tradition, using the evidence supplied first introduced in the second and third thecenturies that A.H. and that presupposition the transmitters’ old names the were invented” discard all of first must one literature, Islamic of sources the of basis the on books of existence the posit to willing is and materials written with supplemented was transmission oral that Abbott than adamant more even is Sezgin Fuat hadith. of number the in increase huge sudden a of impression the giving isnād—thus manuscripts (with a single transmission. The apparent explosion in the number of hadith a century later resulted from early oral reflects that terminology example, of (for use transmission The Islam. of centers major the in promulgated were hadith these 644, in caliph second the of death the with but Quran, the with compete could that literature of body a of development a of fear a been had there 29), (1967: claimed Initially,she form. written in significant counter-reactions. Nabia Abbott argued for an early and continuous transmission of hadith and methods,Schachtconcludedthattherewasnoregularuseoftheisnādpriorto fabricated. were link, common the below those names, earlier the history,but transmission actual the reflect might the appearanceofhadith. The morerecent names intheisnād the determine to one allow should therefore, links, common circulation; into matn the name—put his using someone transmitter—or common-link the the that of him to middle indicated This the isnād. in link”) (“common transmitter common a had often the sameorasimilarmatn with hadith many that observed also Schacht of beingisolated.Inadditiontothis“spreadisnāds,” hadith had no better claim to authenticity, for the “The more perfect the gleaned fromtheisnād because of its backward growth from Successors to Companions to Muḥammad: T 3 , one on the on one methods fordatingofhadith—onefocusedonthematn, the that suggested he al-Shāfiʿī. Although the second century extended to Muḥammad, the authority of whose hadith becoming supreme only with of middle the toward and Companions and Successors to attributed was tradition” “living the that was of understanding referred exclusively the to the example of narrow the Prophet in to the form of struggled hadith; the result, who according school” to Schacht, al-Shāfiʿī the was of It doctrine 80). accepted 1959: (Schacht the in expressed community, the of practice ideal the as tradition’ of concept old the shared law of schools ancient “The Rather, assumed. traditionally as law Islamic for source a originally not argues were Schacht hadith development. that its in al-Shāfiʿī (Caetani 1905;Margoliouth 1912,1914;Lammens1943). doubts similar Lammens—expressed Henri and Margoliouth, D.S. Caetani, contemporaries—Leone al-Bukhārī and Muslim could be confidently assumed toof be early.collections the Goldziher’s earlyof twentieth-century contents the any,of if part, small very a Only 126). 2: (1971, hadith a the of form in expression found innovation and practice, opinion, every Thus, Muḥammad. to back hadith than a more elaborate one, particularly if it was anonymous. earlier was maxims legal short of consisting to bealaterinvention.Schachtalsoargued thatamatn likely to have emerged. For example, if a hadith seems to react or respond to another, the former is likely was hadith the when determine could one issue, legal particular a of debate the within position relative

he Reaction to Goldziher’s general skepticism and to Schacht’s more specific claims provoked claims specific more Schacht’s to and skepticism general Goldziher’s to Reaction Joseph Schacht refined Goldziher’s conclusions by focusing primarily on Sharia and the role of of role the and Sharia on primarily focusing by conclusions Goldziher’s refined Schacht Joseph As A similar assumption is made by R. Marston Speight as part of his form analysis, though he argues that argues he though analysis, reported speechis earlier thandirectspeech(1973). form his of part as Speight Marston R. by made is assumption similar A isnād and h g ate R e s rijāl ear c isnād, the later the tradition” (Schacht 1949: 147). A widely attested (mutawātir) literature, and he lists hundreds of Companions, Successors, and other early other and Successors, Companions, of hundreds lists he and literature, h

C isnād) being broken up into their constituent parts and each given the same o t rlt, and relate,” “to ḥaddatha m p a n i on t o Isl was irrelevant for historical analysis, Schacht had two two had Schacht analysis, historical for irrelevant was isnād ami isnād was fabricated specifically to counter the charge c 30 La w t tl” ble te s o written of use the belied tell”) “to akhbara 3 Some information, however, could still be : “In order to establish the first the establish to order “In isnād: . By placing the placing By isnād. Based on this argument this on Based ah for terminus aquofor 100. or ‘living sunna or‘living so that it sunna sothatit in its matn inits isnād was Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 with Schacht, but he dated its emergence significantly earlier. Within this framework, it was likely was it framework, this earlier. Within significantly emergence its dated he but Schacht, with agreed he century. this first In the of end the toward only Muḥammad and Companions the of sunna half a century later, while the narrowly focused Sunna of the Prophet emerged out of the more general with is, (that hadith of use a shortcoming to be overcome and suppressed at all costs” (1983: 6–7). He argued that the systematic dour skeptics might describe as naïveté, is an asset in the historian of early Islamic society rather than which open-mindedness, the of Wansbroughianlacing generous a that think “I camp. Schachtian the nor neither Muḥammad’sin himself that put Juynboll accept But lifetime. did his during he teaching his though preserved likely 4), followers (1983: Abbott and al-Azami, Sezgin, opposing of scale thus vast the both about views Schacht’s of many refined greatly represented the continuation of Schacht’s claim that the isnādhasatleastsomehistorical value. He Schacht’s general principle to extended all hadith: legal, historical, and exegetical. Juynboll, on the merely other hand, Wansbrough 179). (1977: 200/815” before much dated be cannot and formal exclusively innovation an as understood be can successors, their or companions, his to prophet, the to traced of Schacht’swhether claim that theisnādisofnohistorical value. “Thesupplyingofisnāds, continuation Wansbroughthe Juynboll. Wansbroughrepresented G.H.A. John and by up taken were is rootedinthewordsanddeedsofMuḥammad. but it remains largely normative for Muslims since it authentically reflects the silent living Sunna that authentic, literally be not may hadith in incorporated as Sunna Sunna. The Prophetic of structure the growth of the newly formalized proper a with who embodied this silent Sunna. Companions Reacting the to to Schacht, Rahman back believed referred al-Shāfiʿī’snaturally demandthey for hadith arose, hadith via beliefs or practices certain justify to need the when Later, Muḥammad. of Sunna” living “silent the called he This hadith. to recourse importantly, early Muslims organized their lives according to Muḥammad’s words and deeds without more but, Muḥammad, of time the from form some in existed have may hadith Some development. the of use the without Muḥammad—but of deeds and irrelevant for the normativity of the Sunna. Rahman argued for the early attempt to preserve the words was it that (1979) claimed but critiques, few a only proffering Schacht, and Goldziher of skepticism (1993: 162–3). as but books, as “author” the of needs the on based preserved and selected, acquired, but verbatim, not and segments, transmitted not were therein materials to the But authenticity; changeable. imply not were did transmission this and Calder copying of process the in contents whose students, by recensions can be considered authentic. Norman Calder also emphasized the use of private notebooks and oral transmission, but also between variation and authenticity. Although different, he avers, all the written between distinction the blur Schoeler does only Not 1–43). 1992: 201–30; (1985: differently as materials written surprising—a on not is rely teacher mayhavepresentedmaterials differently preserved overtheyearsandstudentsmayhaverecorded them as did hadith in students variation The century. first their the in and even aids they mnemonic privately lectures, public their materials written during employed have not may hadith of scholars early though contrary, the to protests despite that, argues Schoeler Gregor detail. greater in assumption that into delved scholars Several Debate The Authenticity ec, o bot Szi, n a-zm, hr i a ipii o epii asmto ta written that assumption explicit or implicit sources suggestauthenticity. an is there al-Azami, and Sezgin, Abbott, for Hence, no reasontoquestiontheisnād Rahman’s compromise, however, did not put the authenticity issue to rest. Schacht’s two approaches the accepted who Rahman, Fazlur from came debate authenticity the to contribution creative A led not to fabrication but to a reformulation of this Sunna and to the backward the to and Sunna this of reformulation a to but fabrication to not led isnād ) began in the 70s or 80s of the first century, but only fully emerged fully century, only first but the of 80s or 70s the in began isnād) system or the authenticity of hadith literature (1992: 247; 1985: 182). isnād. The net result, however, was to transform the living Sunna into 31 , which was for him a late first-century late a him for was which isnād, fabrication, isnād andmatn T he D i v i n e

S ou r c e s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 salse, hs sucs a, n un b aaye uig h sm mtoooy psig our pushing methodology, century same the second the of using beginning the to jurisprudence, analyzed Meccan particular, in and, be sources, the of knowledge turn, in can, sources these established, is existence there Their teachers. his Moreover,were informants these sources. that supports that his material biographical external fabricated he that implausible seems it materials, their of sources in the reconstructing the earlier collections that he employed. Since the ʿAbd al-Razzāq’s immediate of informants value the about sanguine too (Berg as 2000). Motzki Motzki characterized examines the have I past the in that former the and analysis source historical traditions: date precarious “the acknowledge traditionalists epistemological statusoftheliterature”(1999:90). and jurists both since “pointless” is authenticity over (ijmāʿ) consensus of is, handful were—that a only they Withcertainty. the that generated agreed had Muslims because trustworthy were Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī’s both in hadith the that maintained 643/1245) (d. al-Ṣalāḥ Ibn (d. 676/1278) even argued that typology.al-Nawawī (ḍaʿīf) scholar weak hadith and Moreover,and (ḥasan), jurist good the (ṣaḥīḥ), sound a preferred They jurists. the of concerns epistemological the in than practice religious pious in interested more were (muḥaddithūn) scholars hadith The 81). (1999: terms” probabilistic in only collaboration on a forgery” (1999: 78)—are authentic. of possibility For any all preclude to other as numerous hadith, sufficiently are “authenticity which transmission can of channels be identical asserted does not consider the vast hadith literature to be a true representation of the words and deeds of deeds and words the of representation true only purposes legal For Muḥammad. a be to literature hadith vast the consider not does authenticity debate as outlined above isirrelevant. He argues that “mainstream Muslim scholarship” provenance ofmosthadith. and chronology the determine to impossible well-nigh therefore was It 215). (1993: hundred” few a T hs atr mtes eas “n h etr cnncl rdto ltrtr, pdr ocr n their in occur spiders literature, tradition canonical entire true the whereas thousands, the “in because matters pattern historical—person. or This early—fictitious suitably a and themselves between gap the bridge to isnād entire the inventing transmitters later represented these believed Juynboll locations. various from out fan that strands single and links common partial of multitude a display hadith most is, that pattern, Unfortunately, transmission. most the legal hadith represent have what Juynboll authentically termed the often “spider pattern,” links not the fanning-out common-link the whereas fictitious, usually are authorities older The 351–2). (1989: pupils” their of more or two to turn their in on it pass whom of most pupils, of number a to on it passes and authority one than) who more (seldom from something hears “transmitter oldest the as link common the described He link. common the displayed it its when on based tradition a dating about optimistic more far however, was, Juynboll view reminiscentofthatRahman,Juynbollneverthelessconcluded, the first to circulate hadith, with later Muslims responsible for the backward growth of the were Muslims), of generation third the is, (that Successors the to Successors the or Successors, that he Motzki, on the other hand, is not willing to forgo the debate. He employs two approaches to approaches two employs He debate. the forgo to willing not is hand, other the on Motzki, Wael Hallaq and Harald Motzki have sought to overcome this apparent impasse. For Hallaq, the Hallaq, For impasse. apparent this overcome to sought have Motzki WaelHarald and Hallaq As ae ifrn nmes f eot ad r uiu wt rset o h tps and types the to respect with unique are and reports of numbers differing have Muṣannaf h prophet butinafewisolatedinstances(1983:71). the to such of ascription the of historicity the certainty incontrovertible with proving but surely it is unlikely that we will ever find even a moderately successful method of said, or done have might or said, or did Islam of prophet the what of representation fair more a as or considered one be in to listed deserves non-canonical—collections tradition even prophetic canonical—or the of part least at that likely seems [I]t ah g ate (2012:5–6;2002). R e s ear c h

C o m isnād p ṣaḥīḥ doesnot imply certainty unless it is mutawātir, while his teacher a n Muṣannaf of the Yemeni hadith scholar ʿAbd al-Razzāq (d. 211/827), i bundles, with a historically tenable cl [common link], are at most at are link], [common cl tenable historically a with bundles, on mutawātir t o Isl ami hadith—hadith that arepreserved“throughtextually c 32 hadith, Hallaq suggests that the debate the that suggests Hallaq hadith, mutawātir La method. It is with respect to the to respect with is It method. isnād-cum-matn w Ṣaḥīḥ andinMuslim’s , especially isnād, isnād. Ina isnād Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 that the text took its extant form quite late. quite form extant its took text the that of literary criticism, a superfluity”). The only historical value of the of presence (“The innovation late fairly the that 183) (1977: Wansbrough’scontention dismisses the between correlation a is there words, other In isnād. the observation that similarities and variations in the contained exists—by not restricting himself to analysis of only the information historical limited) (albeit the an within about claims Schacht’s of continuation the Goldziher and Schacht and the wholesale acceptance of Abbott and al-Azami. Motzki also represents 4 are who agnostics or skeptics deeply suspicious of Muslim of traditions about the Quran but group who find little convincinglarger evidence in the much a is there affair; drawn-out more a as process canonization the see to tend ways different in each who Luxenberg), Christoph add, would I (and, stand Wansbrough,camp revisionist the Powers Crone, David Patricia and Prémare, de Alfred-Louis in “traditionalists”; are Quran the of canonization and collection the of account the Muslim accept traditional less or more who scholars and classification: four-part useful canonization, a made 3–4) collection, (2012: Goudarzi revelation, the about information interpretation of the Quran that comes to us via the hadith format. Recently Behnam Sadeghi and Mohsen given surprising which Quran, hardly the to perspective is same the bring are naturally who hadith of Those historicity Quran. the the about on skeptical scholarship Western into bleeds Sunna the on scholarship Modern Modern ScholarshipontheQuran then Motzki’s methodologycanbeemployed. person listed in the every and each that position hyper-skeptical the take to have would one method, Motzki’s dismiss to supporttheauthenticity of manyhadithbutnotall.Somearefabrications. To completely individual reports, not of the Sunna or individual works as a whole. Second, this methodology seems the using when First, Motzki’s intermediate position is not just with respect to his methodology, but also to his conclusions. Goldziher,by and Schacht, Wansbroughpositions. revisionist and skeptical the undercut thereby and In the examples published by Motzki, most hadith are argued to be considerably earlier than suggested and Prophetic biographical (sīra) or exegetical ( tafsīr) literatures—they must be, in a sense, sufficiently large number of closely related, interconnected hadith in the various sources of the Sunna exist there which for traditions on used be only can it asserts, Motzki identified, be to tradition the of until transmission during adapted fabricator or disseminator was original the allows often method it sources. the extant Although in recorded how and who and determined, be can origins hadith’s a Even hadith. the of versions earlier reconstruct to one allows often hadith related of versions extant the both of history.analysis transmission Careful that of product a be part, (2) and attached; is it which to transmission historyofthematn the (1) facts: key two suggests textual variant and isnād

Motzki’s Andrew Rippinmakesthispointmost forcefully: dates areporttothe secondcenturyorlater, atleastinitsfinalrecension” (1994:61). to reportssupposedlystemmingfrom earlierauthorities. The presence ofisnādsautomatically required atacertainpointinIslamic historyastheelementthatprovidedauthenticityandvalidity “The single most important element here is to recognize that the , although he challenges Juynboll’s assertion—that no method for analyzing hadith analyzing for method no assertion—that Juynboll’s challenges he although isnād, ehdlg i ral a ide oiin ewe te kpiim of skepticism the between position middle a really is methodology isnād-cum-matn isnād method as opposed to source criticism, Motzki speaks only of only speaks Motzki criticism, source to opposed as method isnād-cum-matn has been fabricated. But if even the first person listed is historically accurate, s as halakhic embellishment is, from the point of view of point the from is, embellishment halakhic as isnāds 4 For Motzki, by contrast, this close correlation between correlation close this contrast, by Motzki, For 33 of related hadith are often reflected in the in reflected often are hadith related of matn may, at least in part, reflect the actual the reflect part, in may,least isnād at as Juynboll had. Motzki starts with starts Motzki had. Juynboll as isnād was merely a literary device and a and device literary a merely was isnād . In so doing, Motzki doing, so In matn andtheisnād. isnād, as a mechanism, came to be isnād, therefore, is as an indicator aitos a, t es in least at may, variations matn isnād andmatnofall the T he D i v i n e mutawātir.

S ou r c e s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 T far more skeptical stance, pointing out that most of what we know about early Islam is the product the is Islam early about know we what of most that out pointing stance, skeptical a more took far WansbroughJohn 1977 In Islam. early of account Muslim traditional the accept largely all not adivineone. Muḥammad—and production—by human a is Quran the that was Burton Geiger,and Bell, Nöldeke, we “What Quran: have todayinourhandsisthemuṣḥaf the of editing hands-on Muḥammad’s obscure to meant were caliphs the three under first Quran the of collection the about hadith contradictory that suggested Burton Quran, the from verse” “stoning the of absence the of basis the on Then, 40–47). (1970: suras short additional and there is mention of rival codices with textual variants, different orders of the suras, and even two authority; little had inexplicably collection Bakr’s Abū Quran; the of much memorized have would who Muslims many involve not did Bakr,under Abū collection the motivated have to said is Yamāna,which of battle the at Muslims many so of death the problematic: is compilation Quran’s the of account Schwally,W.co-author the Friedrich that following out, Watt,Montgomery points also Bell Wattalso With16–19). see 1970: his vi; Bell 1: and (1937–39, dictation” his at others by or believe, personally I as himself, Muḥammad by written actually whether work, their started al.] et Thābit b. events of Muḥammad. Moreover, he argued, “the Quran was in written form when the and redactors mind, culture, [Zayd the to Quran the tied intimately more that one chronology,but complex more far a produce this did only Not appeared. they which in passages the date roughly to used be could and period certain a to belonged vocabulary and style, ideas, certain Nöldeke: as techniques same the of some using passages independent these for chronology a provide to discontinuity attempted of He sura. evidence that within as sura a of matter subject and assonance, construction, grammatical in came tobeandwassubsequentlycollected. Quran the how of history Islamic basic the accept do they Quran, the of status divine the undercut clearly suggestions Nöldeke’s and Geiger’s Although chronologies. Muslim from respects minor in only differs surprisingly but acceptance wide evolving won has work the this of result and The style. and events vocabulary public known to references using is, of that scrutiny criticism, the literary to and it historical subjecting Quran, the of evidence internal the examined Blachère) Régis and al (asbāb revelation of occasions the revelations of the suras (1909–26: 58–234). The traditional Muslim dating relied primarily on the events as they arose. This is particularly evident in Nöldeke’s extensive analysis of the chronology of intimately tied to the life of as Muḥammad with the Quran revelations of the Quran the often responding to current saw Nöldeke Nevertheless, 5). (1992: poet” a of mind the of workings the be analyze would to it as discuss to idle almost is it which question a is mind Muhammad’s in arose actually revelations these “How circumspect: more was Nöldeke Theodor 1892 In 156). (1970: Qurán” the and more especially matters of history and of traditions, have actually passed over from Judaism into borrow from Judaism, and that conceptions, matters of creed, views of morality, and of life in general, using the Quran as his primary source since it was “Muḥammad’s Quran,” that “Muḥammad really did many consider a continuation of this older polemic—began in 1833 with Quran—which Abraham the on Geiger,scholarship Modern Quran. the who to Christendom’saccess as argued, old as is criticism, accurately, more or, time critique long Christian Westernvery 40–56). a 1970: Bell for and Wattsurvived 119–26; have 2000: the sources may (Cook codices in rival that and accounts Quran, conflicting the are of collection there the that about recognize Quran the of scholars modern Most the modern scholarship that most directly touches on the Quran asa“divine source” for Sharia. the latterbeingaformerrevisionist. main features of the traditional account. the These include Motzki, Muḥammad Muḥaysin, and Michael Cook, support doing, so in and sources literary the evaluate critically but value, face at account revisionist positions; and a more recent group of “neo-traditionalists,” who do not take the traditional he Although these efforts have been criticized as “orientalist,” they are not revisionist, because they because revisionist, not are they “orientalist,” as effortscriticized these been Although have changes the saw Bell Burton. John and Bell Richard by more challenged was acceptance This on is here focus the Quran, the on scholarship exciting and valuable much is there Although As h g ate R e s ear c h

C o m p a n ‑ i ), whereas Nöldeke (and others, such as Hartwig Hirschfeld Hartwig as such others, (and Nöldeke whereas nuzūl), on of Muḥammad” (1977: 239–40). The underlying assumption of t o Isl ami c 34 La w Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 Powers 2009:155–96,227–33). 119–22; 2000: Cook also (see canonization late this imply sources few a and standardization, such canonize a text (2005: 102). ʿAbd al-Malik, on the other hand, had the to motivation authority the and have could means polity rudimentary to the how impose and vellum” or papyrus on text authoritative and fixed single, complete, to rocks moved and blades word shoulder God’scamel on generation, scribbled lines single individual “from a in how questions and did), Prémare de and Wansbrough during his reign. He cites the absence of manuscripts that would support the traditional view (as both Quran the of state the examines Robinson Chase al-Malik ʿAbd of study his In codices. rival the of readings variant and Rock the of Dome the on inscriptions the are fluidity this of examples striking 1911:Casanova argumentBergmannan and for Sadeghi 103–42; 343–435). against, 2010: most The put first 146–58; 2012: Shoemaker 189–221; 2010: also 278–306; 2002: Prémare (de hypothesis Casanova Paul by forth Marwānid Quran—the the canonized and standardized who al-Ḥajjāj, Iraq, in governor his with together 86/705) (d. al-Malik ʿAbd caliph Umayyad the was it that and ʿUthmān De Prémare and Stephen Shoemaker argue most forcefully that the Quran was relatively fluid well after traditional account that has the collection and canonization process end with the ʿUthmānic recension. to thepre-Quraniclectionary(Gilliot2010:164). and lead yet may Jewish, others and Luxenberg, Lüling, by set the Aramaic, trail suggests Aramaic and cultures, nearby Christian the with interacted closely Arabia that out points Gilliot Claude but him, upon scorn heap Luxenberg, ignore not do they if Islam, of scholars Most 2000). (Luxenberg misreadings and misinterpretations numerous were there Consequently,century. eighth the of half second the in only standardized Quran’swas written which the script, and defective language hybrid Later spoken. was hybrid Arabic the with unfamiliar were philologists and exegetes Arabic-speaking to found—contested—examples Having Urtext. support his claim, proto-scriptural Luxenberg maintains that Mecca was an Aramean settlement and/or in which an Aramaic- canonical Syriac a from excerpted were the Quran into Arabic went that materials the that demonstrate to intends Luxenberg diacritical points and vocalizations (since neither was present in the first written versions of thethe altering discover Quran). by to roots seeks Aramaic he unsuccessful, again If passages. the explain better problematic terms. If he finds none, Luxenberg then searches forfor Syro-Aramaic homonymsreading that might Aramaic an of hint any glean to order in works lexicographical and exegetical examine to is methodology His problematic. remain that passages Quranic examined also Luxenberg script. later editing and misinterpretation took place, aided greatly by that the early him unvoweled, unpointed to Arabic suggested passages Quranic some of incoherence very The pre-Islamic, hymns. Christian of originally revisions were Quran) the of one-third to (up suras obscure sometimes and poetic, argued shorter, Lüling the 1974 that In conclusions. specific or methodologies shared on based not is indication that the term is applied only to those scholars who deviate from the traditional account and the Quran’s originsandcanonizationseemsveryunlikely(Crone1994). example of a discontinuity between Quranic legislation and Islamic law that the traditional account of on thebasisofanexample of exegetes unanimously misunderstanding a Quranicpassageandofan argued has Crone Patricia addition, In 44). (1977: century” second the of end the “towards occurred the but activity”) literary intensive of period that to prior exist form, not, some did in canon the of material the that maintain to necessary, nor possible, neither course of is (“it Quran the of canonization the for dating late his was disconcerting as Just 47). (1977: transmission” of period long a during traditions independent originally from development organic “an but editor, prophet” andthescripture. His examination of Quranicstylesuggestedtohimnotasingleauthoror “Arabian the between connection the severed seemingly Wansbrough Quran, the and Muḥammad of outside been have may stronger,a between suggested connection had authorial scholarship Arabia. even orientalist Whereas milieu the that suggested he although milieu, Judeo-Christian a within later.century a Bell, Wansbrough’sover and from Geiger activity with literary As of born was Islam lhuh o dvaig s a a asruh n Lxneg ohr sil ae su wt the with issue take still others Luxenberg, and Wansbrough as far as deviating not Although That Günter Lüling and the pseudonymous Christoph Luxenberg are also labeled revisionists is an 35 T ne varietur he D i v i n e

S text only ou r c e s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 the first quarter of the second century second the of quarter first the the therefore, is, Al-Zuhrī correlation. same the display and al-Zuhrī with converge again ʿUthmān by collection the describing hadith the in hadith. bolster or hinder their descendants’ political aspirations, and the plethora of anachronisms that abound debates about religious and political authority, the mention of Muḥammad’s contemporaries in order to to circulate, he posits, it would contain the intense sectarianisms of the first two centuries of Islam—the that of beliefs and later,compiled been Quran the Had 61). (1998: community” values began hadith as time same the roughly at the understand to confidence some with used be can so and Believers, of community the of phase historical earliest the of artifact an be must it, have now we “as text Quranic largely dismisstheskepticalones. that was morally grounded and supremely Quranic from the very start (2009b: 279; also 2005: 19–25). moral one intricate Sharia, full-fledged the the became which elaborations, other that and “legal” further there given was blueprint and then was It Mecca. in suras first the of revelation the with began, the Quranic terms are pervasively and cosmologically moral, “law” took off where and when morality and morality have influenced our thinking on the role of the Quran in Islamic law (2009b: 256–7). Since T 6 5 are canonization and redaction of questions if even out, pointed has Neuwirth Angelika As debate. authenticity the behind leave to simply be would sources two these of study the in departure Anew New Departures confirms this because the latter the and 124/741-2), (d. al-Zuhrī Shihāb Ibn by with collection intersect initial all the Bakr Abū and his over such a large geographical region that such an empire-wide conspiracy or amnesia is not plausible. proto-Shiʿis) all traced the standard Quran back. The empire was divided by sects and tribes and spread the (including communities clashing from different and in cities century second early and first late the of Muslims whom to ʿUthmān, about memory false empire-wide an imposed requires have to thesis al-Malik ʿAbd Marwānid the that is 416) 365–6, 2010: Bergmann and (Sadeghi Quran early an for even intheMeccanperiod. Mālik’sin present has argued thattheQuranand hadith—thoughtheisnād is not “sufficiently elaborated” (1999: 3)—are challenge. Yasinthis up Dutton taken have scholars several law,although Islamic of texts earliest the in Quran the of absence apparent the is processes those of completion the of lateness the for Evidence seriously has he undermined theclaimsof Wansbroughcorrect, andotherrevisionists. is he if but eyewitnesses, Companion of time the to back traditions these is no reason to doubt the

he Arguing primarily against the Wansbroughian thesis, Fred Donner suggests, however, that the the that however, suggests, Donner Fred thesis, Wansbroughian the against primarily Arguing o e ovne b Hla, f ore oe ut opeey eet h rvsoit lis and claims revisionist the reject completely must one course, of Hallaq, by convinced be To Motzki also defends the traditional account of the collection of the Quran using Quran the of collection the of account traditional the defends also Motzki These issues of redaction and canonization are closely tied to the status of the Quran in Sharia. Sharia. in Quran the of status the to tied closely are canonization and redaction of issues These As enough role to the Quran (2002: 295–6), and Coulson—who emphasizes the early use of the Quran, but but Quran, the of use early the emphasizes Coulson—who minimizes its and legal content to 295–6), 500 verses (2002: or even 80 Quran (1964: 12). Hallaq the finds both their to significant conclusions problematic. or role early an enough give not does he it—though had Schacht Islamic than of earlier years origin 70 Motzki—the some are is jurisprudence claim Schacht’s challenged have who Others Quran. the of expense at the Sharia for source primary the as hadith on focus single-minded almost Schacht’s to responding is Hallaq ancestor ofthe Abbasid caliphs(Berg 2010). For example, see the treatment of Muḥammad’s uncle al-ʿAbbās, purportedly a late convert and eponymous h isnād-cum-matn g 5 Their absence in the Quran suggests that it was complete before they arose. Another argument ate R e s ear . Hallaq goes further, arguing that the Quran was a source of Islamic law law Islamic of source a was Quran the further,that arguinggoes Hallaq Muwaṭṭaʾ. c h analysis. The former shows that 29 transmission lines of the hadith detailing

C matn variations are closely correlated with their sources that al-Zuhrī cites (2001: 15–31). Motzki has not pushed not has Motzki 15–31). (2001: cites al-Zuhrī that sources isnād o 6 Hallaq suggests that our modern dichotomous distinctions between law law between distinctions dichotomous modern our that suggests Hallaq m p a n i on t ah o Isl ad o oh cons a b dtd to dated be can accounts both so and terminus postquem, , or to the last decades of the first century even, since there since even, century first the of decades last the to or , ami c 36 La w isnād. A similar analysis of isnād analysis Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 ʿUthmān’s standardization of the text (Sadeghi and Bergmann 2010; Sadeghi and Gourdarzi 2012). Gourdarzi and Sadeghi 2010; Bergmann and (Sadeghi text the of standardization ʿUthmān’s predates suras into revelations the of formation the arguesthat century.also seventh he basis this On mid- the in sometime former the from diverged have therefore must It Kaʿb. b. Ubayy or Masʿūd b. ʿAbd Allāh of codices Companion “rival” the of one nor text ʿUthmānic an neither is it that arguing reconstructed ones as is the case for the Sunna. Sadeghi examines the lower text of the Ṣanʿāʾ 1 codex, particularly vulnerable. b Bk’ ad Uhā’ rls n olcig h Qrn hrfr b eiec i spot f the of support in evidence be Motzki’sthat claims historical these on therefore is It hypothesis? Marwānid Quran the collecting in roles ʿUthmān’s and Bakr’s Abū about conclusions Motzki’s not Might al-Malik. ʿAbd of administration the in worked al-Zuhrī But that maintains Motzki because chronological proximityincreasesthelikelihoodofhistoricalaccuracy: significant is which al-Zuhrī, to back trace Quran the of redaction ʿUthmānic the about hadith that concluded Motzki example, For version. original reconstructed the related hadith with sufficient variation in order to find correlations, it is not applicable on a wide scale. cum-matn method can be employed. Unfortunately, as his method can only be used if there are enough admit that at least some part of the produced randomness, not correlations. Until revisionists proffer an explanation, even the skeptic must the of fabrication widespread a the that is likely to help it overcome skepticism. Moreover, the observed correlations between the text and Sunna the just of outside approach historical-critical the of applicability wider this is It hadith. several cities represented within the the within represented of cities content the compares which Sadeghi test,” by tradition “traveling employed his it is calls who method (2008), this of variation interesting Another 1993). (Versteegh grammar Muslim early for taken were approaches Similar negative. more far were conclusions the but Damascus of conquest the of accounts historical the of made was 2010) (Scheiner and Mecca “historical”). means authors the for (which early be to AMedina especially in study exhaustive similarly life Muḥammad’s of events major the of all, not but most, found 2008) Schoeler and when results convincing) always not (if applied to hadith outside the Sunna. An examination of the hadith from the intriguing provided has approach historical-critical This be to apply Motzki’sapply to be important questionsinthedevelopmentofSunna. of al-Bukhārī and of Muslim (2007) looks to depart from the authenticity debate and move on to other Similarly,form. oral and written both Brown’sJonathan the of canonization the of exploration 13). (2003: text fixed in Quran the of development a historical the document to seeks Neuwirth’sproject Coranicum for Corpus desire the driven have may ones, legal besides needs, Other point. the the to canonization or canonization a link to attempt the result, orality.a own As its suggest techniques stylistic own Quran’sthe that out points She investigation. to open remain Quran the of aspects other solved, not require an alternative explanation if the method is to be rejected—either organic growth or or growth organic rejected—either be to is method the if explanation alternative an require isnād Research into the origins of the Quran is benefiting from access to new manuscripts—not just manuscripts—not new to access from benefiting is Quran the of origins the into Research Still, questions remain about how far this method can be extended and what can be concluded about Ignoring the debate is not the same as resolving it. Perhaps the most promising approach would would approach promising most the Perhaps it. resolving as same the not is debate the Ignoring time (2010:288). his for it of sense make to tries event, the about traditions on himself basing perhaps although who, someone by later centuries two given event same the of description a an eventtransmitted some decades later is lessaffected by later developments than of report eyewitness an example, extreme an give to that, greater is chance Yetthe sources the that depict really happened. The reason istheclosenessof source tothereported events. events the of parts whether ask to sensible and possible be may It isnād-cum-matn . Like Motzki, Sadeghi finds evidence for an early provenance for for provenance early an for evidence finds Sadeghi Motzki, Like isnād. , as Juynboll suggests and Wansbrough assumes, should have have should assumes, Wansbrough and suggests Juynboll as isnād, reflects actual transmission history, transmission actual reflects isnād Motzki’s thus and text by revisionists and (neo-)traditionalists misses (neo-)traditionalists and revisionists by text ne varietur method totheentirecorpusofSunnainsofaraspossible. 37 isnād-cum-matn (Muranyi 2003) and and 2003) (Muranyi tafsīr literature (Görke (Görke literature sīra T he ne varieturtextto D method remains i v with the the with matn i n e

S ou isnād- Ṣaḥīḥ r c e s

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:19 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613093, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315613093.ch3 eg Hret 2000. Herbert. Berg, 1937–39. Richard. Bell, 1985. Mustafa. Mohammad Azami, T rw, oahn .. 2007. A.C. Jonathan Brown, — — — — 1967. Nabia. Abbott, References very profanehistoricalanalysis. to subject ordinary,texts very human as but be, to understood traditionally are they as divine, as not Sunna, these methodologies the are also a and double-edged sword. Quran They ultimately the treat both of sources of origins Islamic law the about beliefs their of some confirming methodologies be to neo-traditionalist far thus these seem of some that position traditional the embrace who those to Hypothesis or allowed for the reconstruction of the Q document. Documentary And although the it might us be given comforting have that methodologies the deny to be would texts extant our than past the conclusions they have produced. To deny that they might allow us to peer further into the Islamic and methodologies their with contend least at must revisionists and skeptics Sadeghi, and Motzki as A faithfulrepresentationisnotquitethesame,ofcourse,asanexactcopyaheavenlyarchetype. 413–4). 346, 2010: Bergmann and (Sadeghi Prophet” the by recited as Quran the of codices, known the among representation, “faithful most the is today Quran the of version standard the since camp, neo-traditionalist the in clearly is He fixed. fully not was other each to relative suras the of order the though time, his in suras into fixed already were revelations of verses the which in Muḥammad, to Quran the of prototype a of existence the posits Sadeghi 22). 2012: Gourdarzi and (Sadeghi reading” majority the to given usually was preference which in the … codices on Companion of formed number a hybrid of basis “a likely was text ʿUthmānic either—the unscathed through view come traditional not the does and agnosticism, skeptical widespread aforementioned the of damning as are (Sadeghi manuscripts” the revisionists’they the before contradict but Sadeghi’scertainly views, 16). conclusions 2012: Gourdarzi and period a to extend can knowledge Our time. in back way one’s and WansbroughBurton which had doubted. Like l-Ashʿarī, Motzki, Sadeghi believes Mūsā that “the earliest Abū manuscripts and can be used Kaʿb, to work Ibn Masʿūd, Ibn by those as such codices Companion reported but non-extant of existence the supports also conclusion Sadeghi’sMoreover, he Literature from theFormativePeriod Function oftheSunnīḤadīthCanon UK 2 vols.Edinburgh: T. & T. Leicester: Clark. Testaments. New and Old the with Study Islamic Academy. Comparative A Compilation. to King SaudUniversity. Chicago: The UniversityofChicagoPress. pp. 13–38.Leuven:Peeters. II: Occasional Papers of the School of Abbasid Studies, Leuven, 28 June–1 July 2004, ed. J. Nawas, Leiden: Brill. Valueed., idem, In ofIsnāds. ed. Indianapolis: American Trust Publications. While the scholarly debate continues about the conclusions reached by neo-traditionalists such neo-traditionalists by reached conclusions the about continues debate scholarly the While As h . 2010. Abbasid Historians’ Portrayals of al-ʿAbbās b. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib. In al-Muṭṭalib. ʿAbd b. al-ʿAbbās of Historians’Portrayals Abbasid 2010. . the and 15:89–91 Qur’ān Origins: Islamic of Study the in Paradigms Competing 2003. . (Al-Aʿẓamī, Muḥammad Muṣṭafā). 2003. 1992. . g ate R Studies in Early Hadith Literature: With a Critical Edition of Some Early TextsEarly . 3rd Some of Edition Critical a WithLiterature: Hadith Early in Studies e s ear c h Dvlpet f xgss n al Ilm Te uhniiy f Muslim of Authenticity The Islam: Early in Exegesis of Development The tde i rbc ieay ayi I Qrai Cmetr ad Tradition and Commentary Qurʾanic II: Papyri Literary Arabic in Studies h

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