MARITIME AFFAIRS in PAKISTAN's EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE in INDIAN OCEAN Commodore S M Shahzad SI(M) Prof. Dr. Umbreen Javaid

Home , Fishing in Pakistan, Korangi Fish Harbour

MARITIME AFFAIRS IN PAKISTAN’S EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE IN INDIAN OCEAN

Commodore S M Shahzad SI(M)

PhD in International Relations

Session 2014-2017

Roll No. 13

Supervisor

Prof. Dr. Umbreen Javaid

Chairperson

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB, LAHORE

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Degree

Ph.D in MARITIME AFFAIRS IN PAKISTAN’S EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE IN INDIAN OCEAN

Supervisor Submitted by

PROF. DR.UMBREEN JAVAID COMMODORE S M SHAHZAD SI(M)

H.E.C. Nominee Roll No. 13 Centre for South Asian Studies Ph.D University of the Punjab, Lahore. Session:- 2014-2017

Department of Political Science University of the Punjab Lahore.

DEDICATED To

My family for their endless love & cooperation

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DECLARATION

I, Commodore S M Shahzad SI(M), Ph. D Scholar at Department of Political Science,

University of the Punjab, Lahore hereby declare that the present thesis titled

“MARITIME AFFAIRS IN PAKISTAN’S EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE IN INDIAN OCEAN”

has been written by me and is my original and personal work.

______Dated Signature of Scholar

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that present thesis titled “MARITIME AFFAIRS IN PAKISTAN’S EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE IN INDIAN OCEAN ” has been written by Commodore S M Shahzad SI(M) as the requirement for Ph. D degree in International Relations Studies from the University of the Punjab, Lahore. The research described in this thesis is original work of the author and has been carried out under my direct supervision. The thesis has been prepared according to the prescribed format for the award of the degree under codal procedure of the University. To the best of my knowledge the thesis is based on original research.

Prof. Dr. Umbreen Javaid

Supervisor

CONTENTS

Sr. No. Page No. List Of Maps xx List Of Tables xxi List Of Figures xxiii List Of Interviews xxiv List Of Abbreviations xxvi Acknowledgements xxx Abstract xxxi

CHAPTER 1 Page No.

INTRODUCTION 01-33

1.1 Introduction 01

1.2 Pakistan Maritime Zones 03

1.2.1 Internal Waters and Its Area in Pakistan 03

1.2.2 Territorial Sea and Its Area in Pakistan 03

1.2.3 Contiguous Zone and Its Area in Pakistan 03

1.2.4 EEZ and Its Area in Pakistan 03

1.2.5 Continental Shelf 04

1.3 Maritime Assets 05

1.3.1 Major Ports 05

1.3.2 Merchant Marine 05

1.3.3 Fish Harbours 06

1.3.4 Fishing Fleet 06

1.3.5 Fishery Protection/Off Shore Patrolling By 06

Maritime Forces

1.4 Research Facilities 07

1.5 Living Resources of Pakistan EEZ 07

1.5.1 Mangrove Forests 08

1.5.2 Seaweed Resources 08

1.6 Non Living Resources of Pakistan EEZ 08

include Following

1.6.1 Mineral Potential 08

1.6.2 Seabed resources of Pakistan 09

1.6.2.1 Phosphorate 09

1.6.2.2 Placer Minerals 09

1.6.2.3 Building Material 09

1.6.2.4 Metallic Deposits 10

1.6.2.5 Hydrocarbons 10

1.6.2.6 Gas Hydrates 10

1.7 Challenges 10

1.7.1 Pakistan’s Maritime Interests and 10

Compulsion

1.7.2 Extra Regional Forces (ERF) 11

1.7.3 Indian Maritime Interests 11

1.7.4 Illegal Arms/Drug Trafficking 12

1.7.5 Human Smuggling 12

1.7.6 Piracy 13

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1.7.7 Maritime Terrorism 13

1.7.8 Pollution in Karachi Harbor 13

1.7.9 Sir Creek Issue 14

1.8 Karachi Shipyard 14

1.9 Ship Breaking Industry 15

1.10 Ports and Harbours 15

1.11 Development of Coastal Tourism 15

1.12 General Awareness about Maritime Affairs 16

1.13 Problem Statement 16

1.14 Research Questions 17

1.15 Significance of the Research 17

1.16 Research Methodology 19

1.17 Literature Review 20

1.18 Organization of the Study 29

CHAPTER 2

RESOURCES AND PAKISTAN’S 34-75

MARITIME POTENTIAL

2.1 Prologue 34

2.2 Various Maritime Zones at sea 36

2.2.1 Baseline 37

2.2.2 Pakistan’s Internal Waters 37

2.2.3 Pakistan’s Territorial Waters 39

2.2.4 Pakistan’s Contiguous Zone 41

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2.2.5 Pakistan’s Exclusive Economic Zone 43

(EEZ)

2.2.6 Pakistan Continental Shelf 45

2.3 Achievements of Pakistan in Maritime 46 Domain 2.4 History of Pakistan Ratification of UN 46

Laws

2.5 Beginning of the Law of the Sea 47

2.6 UNCLOS-82 47

2.7 Pakistan’s Maritime Assets Regarding 48

Fishing Industry

2.7.1 Fishery Resources 48

2.7.2 Fish Harbors 52

2.7.3 Fishing Fleet 56

2.7.4 Way forward for fishery improvement in 57

Pakistan

2.7.5 Assessment of Quality and Standards 58

2.7.6 Assessment of Compliance Status 59

2.7.7 Assessment of Value Addition & Productivity 59

2.7.8 Policy Capacity and Support 59

2.8 Untapped Resources EEZ of Pakistan 60

2.9 Living Resources of Pakistan’s EEZ 62

2.9.1 Mangrove Forests 62

2.9.2 Sea Weed Resources 66

2.10 Non-Living Resources of Pakistan’s EEZ 67

2.10.1 Mineral Potential of EEZ in Indian Ocean 67

2.10.2 Capacity of Hydrocarbons in Pakistan 67

EEZ

2.10.3 Feasibility of Sea Windmills on Pakistani 68

Coast

2.10.4 Possibility of Tidal Energy from Ocean 69

Waves in Pakistan EEZ

2.10.5 Future Maritime of energy from coastal 70

and offshore areas

2.11 Deduction 70

CHAPTER 3

CHALLENGES TO PAKISTAN EEZ 76-122

3.1 Introduction 76

3.2 Administration of Fishery Resources 76

3.2.1 Surveillance of area under national 78

jurisdiction

3.2.2 Charting and Research 78

3.3 Challenges in the Indian Ocean and to 79

Pakistan’s EEZ

3.3.1 SLOC Protection 81

3.3.1.1 Strait of Hormuz 82

3.3.1.2 Malacca Strait 83

3.3.1.3 Bab-el-Mandeb 84

3.3.2 Interests of Regional and Extra Regional 85

Countries

3.3.3 Indian Interest in the Area 85

3.3.4 Pakistan Interest in the Area 89

3.3.5 Growing Indo – Iranian Collaboration 92

3.3.6 China Interest in the Area 93

3.3.7 Interest of USA in the Area 94

3.3.8 ERF Presence, A Balancing Force or Threat 94

3.3.9 Narcotics/Weapons Smuggling 95

3.3.9.1 Narcotics Trafficking Routes 95

3.3.9.2 Precursor Trafficking 96

3.3.9.3 Hash highway 96

3.3.10 Illegal Immigration/ Trafficking 98

3.4 Analysis 100

3.5 Piracy yet another Challenge at Sea 100

3.6 Maritime Terrorism 109

3.6.1 Recent acts of Maritime Terrorism 110

3.6.2 New initiatives to improve maritime 113

security against terrorists

3.6.3 Analysis 114

3.7 Pakistan Navy contribution 117

3.8 Deduction 118

CHAPTER 4

DEVELOPMENT OF MARITIME 123-162 CAPITAL 4.1 Prelude 123

4.2 Ports and Harbours 124

4.2.1 Karachi Port Trust (KPT) 125

4.2.2 Organizational Structure and Staffing 125

4.2.3 Port Facilities 126

4.2.4 Hutchison Port Holdings: South Asia 128

Pakistan Terminal (SAPT)

4.2.5 KICT 130

4.2.6 PICT 130

4.2.7 Port Qasim (PQA) 131

4.2.8 Gwadar Port 132

4.2.8.1 Significance of Gwadar Port 133

4.2.8.2 Strategic Importance of Pakistani Coast 133

4.2.8.3 Prevailing Environment in the Coastal 134

Area of Pakistan

4.2.9 Pasni Fish Harbour 135

4.3 Pakistan’s Maritime Potential 136

4.4 Pakistan Shipping Industry 136

4.4.1 Historical Perspective of Pakistan Shipping 136

Industry

4.4.2 Shipping Policy 2001 142

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4.4.3 Salient Features – Formulation of Merchant 142

Marine Policy

4.4.4 Analysis of Shipping Sector 143

4.4.4.1 Pakistani Shipping Owners 143

4.4.4.2 Pseudo Professionals are at the Helm of 143

Affairs

4.4.4.3 Unrealistic and Damaging Approach 143

4.4.4.4 Shipping Policy 144

4.4.4.5 Inadequate National Shipping Fleet 144

4.4.4.6 Development of Additional Ports 144

4.4.4.7 Equal Opportunity 145

4.4.4.8 Skilled Manpower 145

4.4.5 Seamen Employment 145

4.4.6 Causes of present statue 146

4.4.7 Role of private investor, education sector and 146

media

4.5 Ship Building Industry 147

4.5.1 Introduction of KS & EW 147

4.5.2 History of KS&EW 148

4.5.3 Shipbuilding Infrastructure at KS&EW 149

4.5.4 Warship construction KS&EW 149

4.5.5 Construction of fleet tanker for PN 150

4.5.6 Ship repairs at KS&EW 151

4.5.7 Sugar plants & machinery KS&EW 152

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4.5.8 Quality perspective of KS&EW 153

4.5.9 Up gradation of KS&EW 154

4.6 Ship Breaking Industry of Pakistan 156

4.7 Conclusion 159

CHAPTER 5

MARITIME ISSUES OF STRATEGIC 163-213

NATURE

5.1 Preamble 163

5.2 Sir Creek Issue 163

5.2.1 Overview 163

5.2.2 Stance of Pakistan on the Issue 168

5.2.3 Indo-Pak Joint Surveys 169

5.2.3.1 Joint Land Survey 169

5.2.3.2 Joint Hydrogrophic Survey 170

5.2.4 Outcome of Joint Surveys 170

5.2.5 Analysis 170

5.2.5.1 Problems Related to Commonality of 171 Data 5.3 Maritime Boundary Delimitation 171

5.4 Continental Shelf 172

5.4.1 Analysis of Extension of Continental 173 Shelf 5.4.2 Background and details of Pakistan 174 Continental Shelf (CS) 5.4.3 Submission of Pakistan Claim to UNO 176

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5.4.4 Formulation of the Sub commission 176

5.4.5 Evaluation of Pakistan Claim by the Sub 177 commission 5.5 Formulation of Draft Recommendations 177

5.6 Adoption of Recommendations 177

5.7 Marine Pollution 178

5.7.1 Types of Marine Pollution 178

5.7.1.1 Physical Pollution 179

5.7.1.2 Thermal Pollution 179

5.7.1.3 Chemical Pollution 179

5.7.1.4 Nuclear Dumping 180

5.7.2 Causes of Marine Pollution 181

5.7.2.1 Reclamation and Dredging 181

5.7.2.2 Sewage Discharges 181

5.7.2.3 Industrial Discharges 182

5.7.2.4 Desalination Plants 183

5.7.2.5 Oil Pollution 183

5.7.2.6 Radio Active Waste 183

5.7.2.7 Pollution from Ships 183

5.8 Impact of Marine Pollution on Pakistan 184 Navy Ships and Karachi Harbour Infrastructure 5.8.1 Marine Pollution in Karachi Harbour 185

5.8.2 Land Based Sources of Marine Pollution 186

5.8.2.1 Solid Waste 186

5.8.2.2 Treatment Facilities 186

5.8.3 Impact of Marine Pollution on Ships and 187 Harbour Infrastructure 5.8.4 Legal Framework on Protection of 189 Harbour Pollution 5.8.5 Pakistan Navy Efforts to Control Marine 190 Pollution 5.8.6 Legal Powers/Role of Sindh EPA and 190 PMSA for Pollution Control 5.8.6.1 Efforts by PN to control marine pollution 191

5.9 Enactment of Rules and Regulation to 193 Protect Coastal and Offshore Marine Environment of Pakistan 5.9.1 Pakistan Territorial Water & Maritime 194 Zones Act 1976 5.9.2 First Maritime Policy of Pakistan 194

5.10 Mandatory Requirements for 194 Maintenance of Environmental Standards for Pakistan 5.10.1 Environmental Impact Studies 194

5.10.2 International Conventions 194

5.10.3 The MARPOL 73/78 195

5.10.3.1 Shore Reception Facility 196

5.10.3.2 Garbage/Trash Wastes 196

5.10.3.3 OPRC 1990 and Ports of Pakistan 197

5.10.4 Efforts of PMSA to control Marine 197 Pollution 5.11 Pakistan Maritime Security Agency 198

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(PMSA) 5.11.1 Maritime Environment Overviews 198

5.11.2 Roles & Functions 198

5.11.3 Functions of PMSA on behalf of various 199 Ministries 5.11.4 PMSA’s Area of Responsibility 200

5.11.5 Major Challenges and Achievement of 200 PMSA 5.11.6 Counter Narcotics Operations 201

5.11.7 Anti-Poaching 201

5.11.8 Search and Rescue 201

5.11.9 PMSA as Secondary Maritime Force 201

5.11.10 International/Regional Cooperation and 202 Exercises 5.12 Pakistan Coast Guards 202

5.12.1 History of PCG 202

5.12.2 Organizational Structure of PCG 202

5.12.3 Role / Mandate 203

5.12.4 Functions 203

5.12.5 Legal Powers 204

5.12.5.1 Police Act - 1861 204

5.12.5.2 Control of Narcotics Substance (CNS) 204 Act – 1997 5.12.5.3 Customs Act – 1969 204

5.13 Maritime Tourism 204

5.14 Revision of National Maritime Policy 206

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5.14.1 Rationale for the Revision of NMP 2002 206

5.14.2 Salient Features of Revise Draft National 207 Maritime Policy 5.15 Maritime Awareness in Pakistan 207

5.16 Deduction 209

CHAPTER 6

MAJOR FINDINGS AND 214-231 RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Major Findings

6.1.1 Shipping Sector as well as Ship 214 Building/Breaking 6.1.2 Various Challenges in Pakistan EEZ 217

6.1.3 Lack of Training and Awareness 218

6.1.4 Role of Bureaucracy, Academia and 219 Media 6.2 Recommendations 219

6.2.1 Recommendations- Maritime Trade & 219 Economy 6.2.2 Exploration of Natural Resources 219

6.2.2.1 Survey of Living Resources 220

6.2.2.2 Effective Utilization of Marine 221 Environment of our coastal belt 6.2.2.3 Non-Living Resources in Pakistan EEZ 221

6.2.3 Governance of Resources in Pakistan 221 EEZ 6.2.4 New National Maritime Policy and 222 Strategy 6.2.5 Appropriate Legislation in Pakistan EEZ 222

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6.2.6 Communication Infrastructure 222

6.3 Pakistan continental shelf extension 222 program 6.3.1 Federally coordinated frame work 223

6.3.2 Recommendations regarding Challenges 223

6.3.3 Maritime Awareness 223

6.3.4 Coordination at Domestic and 223 International Level 6.3.5 To Resolve the Sir Creek issue following 224 is recommended 6.4 Shipping Sector Needs Focus Attention 224

6.4.1 Review of Shipping Policy 225

6.4.2 Involvement of Private Sector 225

6.4.3 Foreign Investors 225

6.4.4 Expansion of Merchant Fleet 226

6.4.5 Persuasion of Pakistani Shipping Owners 226

6.4.6 Strengthening maritime cooperation with 226 China 6.5 Recommendations on Pollution and 226 Environment 6.6 Federally coordinated frame work 227

6.7 Conclusion 227

BIBLIOGRAPHY 232-258

INTERVIEWS 259-303

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LIST OF MAPS

SR NO PAGE #

1 Pakistan’s Internal Waters 38

2 Pakistan’s Territorial Waters 40

3 Pakistan’s Contiguous Zone 42

4 Pakistan’s Exclusive Economic Zone 44

5 Hash Highway 97

6 Maritime Terrorism Incidents and Piracy Prone Areas across the Globe 116

7 Geographical Depiction of Sir Creek Issue 166

8 Resolution Map B-44 167

9 Boundary Line Effect on Sea Area 168

LIST OF TABLES

SR NO PAGE # 1. Lab tests of sea water collected from Karachi Harbor by PN Dockyard 14 Laboratory at Karachi

2. Countries Around Indian Ocean 24 3. List of Fish Processing Plants 49 4. Fish Exports from Pakistan 52 5. Distribution of Marine Fish Catch 54 6. Channel Of Disposition of Fish ( Marine & Inland) 54 7. Marine Fisheries Resources of Pakistan 55 8. Registered / Unregistered Boats Operating Out at Sea 56 9. Comparison of Pakistan Navy and Indian Navy Fleet 88 10. Comparison of Pakistan Navy and Indian Navy Aviation 88 11. Details of PN Commands of CTF-150 92 12. Details of PN Commands of CTF-151 92 13. Illegal Border Crossing into EU by Nationals of Pakistan and 99 Afghanistan 2008-2012 as % change on 2011 14. Details of Piracy Attacks and Armed Robbery in the IOR 101 15. Details of Number of pirate attacks against ships worldwide from 2009 105 to 2015 16. Statistics and Facts about Pirate Attacks 106 17. Details of number of actual and attempted piracy attacks worldwide in 107 2015 18. Details of locations actual and attempted attacks Jan-Dec 2011-2015 108 19. KPT Organizational Structure 126 20. KPT throughput 2006-2015 129 21. KICT & PICT main dimensions 130 22. Comparison KPT and PQA 131

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23. Available 9 Ships with PNSC 137 24. Transportation Economics 137 25. History of Shipping in Pakistan 138 26. Important to shipping in Pakistan 138 27. PNSC- Commercial Performance 139 28. PNSC Operating Profit/ (Loss) – FY 1979- FY 2014 139 29. PNSC Historical Fleet and Carrying Capacity 141 30. Volume of Pakistan Trade and Oil 147 31. Availability of Dry Docks at KS & EW 151 32. Availability of Quay Walls at KS & EW 151 33. Up gradation Packages along with Sponsoring Authorities 155 34. Expected Potential Resources in Pakistan Continental Shelf 174 35. Details of Effluent Treatment Plants in Karachi 186 36. Lab Analysis of Karachi Harbour Water 188 37. Disposal of Waste by Vessels 196

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LIST OF FIGURES

SR NO PAGE #

1 Degradation of Mangroves Around the Karachi Harbour 63

2 Hub of Piracy around Somalian Coast 104

3 USS COLE After Attack 110

4 MV Limburg on Fire 111

5 Attack on MV M STAR 112

6 The Layout and Terminal Zoning of the Existing Karachi Port 127

7 Development Plan of KPT 128

8 Industrial Discharge into Karachi Harbour 182

9 Pollution along Karachi Harbour 184

10 Stream of Polluted Water Entering into Karachi Harbour 185

11 Marine Pollution Effecting the PN Ships at Karachi Harbour 189

12 Collection of Garbage along the Jetties at Karachi Harbour 193

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LIST OF INTERVIEWS

SR NO PAGE # 1 Interview with Commodore Imran Ahmad SI(M), Managing Director PN 259 Dockyard, Karachi, on 22 September 2015

2 Interview with Captain Usman Tariq Pakistan Navy, Director Maritime 262 Affairs & Environmental Control, Naval Headquarters Islamabad on 8 April 2016

3 Interview with Muhammad Faisal Abbasi, Captain Pakistan Navy, 265 Director Naval Operations, Naval Headquarters Islamabad on 18 April 2016 4 Interview with Dr Shahid Amjad, Head of Industrial Engineering and 269 Management, Institute of Business Management (IoBM) korangi Creek Karachi on 20 April 2016

5 Interview with Commodore Muhammad Arshad, Hydrographer 275 Pakistan Navy on 20 April 2016

6 Interview with Mr Aqib Rifat Shaikh, Project Director Upgradation 276 Project of Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works Ltd on 19 August 2016

7 Interview with Mr Shakil Tahir, General Manager (Engineering) Karachi 278 Shipyard & Engineering Works Ltd on 19 August 2016

8 Interview with Commodore Salman Ilyas SI(M), Project Officer (PN Fleet 281 Tankers), Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works Ltd on 19 August 2016

9 Interview with Mr S M Suleman, General Manager (Corporate Affairs), 284 Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works Ltd on 19 August 2016

10 Interview with Commodore Saleem Iqbal SI(M), General Manager (Ship 287

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Building) Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works Ltd on 19 August 2016

11 Interview with Mr Ahmed Raza, General Manager (Ship Repair) Karachi 291 Shipyard & Engineering Works Ltd on 19 August 2016

12 Interview with Mr Farooq Ali, DGM (QHSE), Karachi Shipyard & 292 Engineering Works Ltd on 20 August 2016

13 Interview with Dr Israr Ahmed, Director General Maritime Fisheries 294 Department Karachi on 24 August 2016

14 Interview with David N Griffiths, Residential Research Fellow, 300 DALHOUSIE University Canada on 02 September2016

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviation Stand For AEDB Alternative Energy Development Board AOR Area of Responsibility BLF Baloch Liberation Front BMR Balancing Modernization and Rehabilition BoB Government of Bombay CGPCS Contact Group on Piracy off the Coast of Somalia CMCP Coalition Maritime Campaign Plan CNS Control of Narcotics Substance COPHC China Overseas Port Holding Company CPEC China Pakistan Economic Corridor CS Continental Shelf CSI Container Security Initiative C-TPAT Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism DDs/FFs Destroyers / Frigates DHA Docosahexanoic Acid DRC Disaster Response Centre EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EIA Environment Impact Assessment EPA Eicosapentanoic Acid EPA Environmental Protection Act ERF Extra Regional Forces EU European Union FIA Federal Investigation Agency FoC Flag of Convenience FRAP Fisheries Recourses Appraisal in Pakistan FRBs Fast Response Boats GE General Engineering GDP Gross Domestic Product GoB Government of Bombay

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GPA Gwadar Port Authority HACGAM Head of Asian Coast Guards Agencies HEC Higher Education Commission HPH Hutchison Port Holdings HPN Hydrographer of Pakistan Navy HRA High Risk Area IEE Initial Environmental Examination IMB International Maritime Bureau IMO International Maritime Organizations IMS Integrated Management System IN Indian Navy IO Indian Ocean IONS Indian Ocean Naval Symposium IOPP International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate IOR Indian Ocean Region IPP International Pollution Prevention Certificate IPWBCT Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary Case Tribunal’s Award ISBA International Seabed Authority ISPS International Shipping and Port Facility Safety JMICC Joint Maritime Coordination Center KICT Karachi International Container Terminal KPK Khyber Pakhtunkhw KPT Karachi Port Trust KS & EW Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works LoI Letter of Intent MB Multipurpose Barge MDG Million Gallon per Day MFD Marine Fisheries Department MFF Mangroves for the Future MGD Million Gallon per Day MIO Maritime Interception Operation MOA Maritime Operating Area

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MoD Ministry of Defence MoST Ministry of Science and Technology MPCB Marine Pollution Control Board MPV Maritime Patrol Vessels MRCC Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre MSR Marine Scientific Research NAS North Arabian Sea NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NCB National Coordinating Body NIO National Institute of Oceanography UNCLOS United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea NMDCP National Marine Disaster Contingency Plan NMACC National Maritime Affairs Coordination Committee NMP National Maritime Policy NSC National Shipping Corporation NTC National Tanker Company OBOR One Belt One Road OEF Operation Enduring Freedom OSR Oil Spill Response PCG Pakistan Coast Guard PCRET Pakistan Council for Renewable Energy Technologies PFHA Pasni Fisheries Harbour Authority PHD Pakistan Hydrography Department PICT Pakistan International Container Terminal PMD Pakistan Metrological Department PMSA Pakistan Maritime Security Agency PNFT Pakistan Navy Fleet Tanker PNHD Pakistan Navy Hydrography Department PNSC Pakistan National Shipping Corporation POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants PPL Pakistan Petroleum Limited PQA Port Bin Qasim

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PSC Pakistan Shipping Corporation PSC Port State Control PSI Proliferation Security Initiative PUFAs The Presence of Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acid RMSI Regional Maritime Security Initiative RoK Rann of Kutch SACEP South Asia Co-operative Enviornment Progarame SAPT South Asia Pakistan Terminal SAR Search and Rescue SCDDP Standing Committee on Defence and Defence Production SEQs Sindh Environmental Quality Standards SEZs Special Economic Zones SEPA Sindh Environmental Protection Agency SHO Station House Officer SLOCs Sea Lines of Communication SOLAS Signatory of Safety of Life at Sea TBq Terabecquerels TEC Technical Evaluation Committee TEU Twenty Foot Equivalents TTPs Tactics Techniques and Procedures UNCLOS The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNO United Nation Organization WMD Weapon of Mass Destruction WWF World Wide Foundation

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks to Almighty Allah, Who bestowed me with patience, courage and perseverance to complete this laborious and difficult assignment. I believe that with the help of Almighty Allah I have completed my research work. It is also a fact that without active support of people around us, it would be difficult to do such kind of research.

First of all I am highly indebted to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Umbreen Javaid, Chairman Department of Political Science, University of the Punjab. I am grateful for her guidance, support and encouragement. I can’t forget her special attention, keen observation and very professional approach regarding this research. She checked the chapters thoroughly and proposed valuable suggestions which proved helpful for achieving this goal. I am also thankful to my honorable teachers of the Political Science Department, Punjab University who not only helped me in finding out different sources but also appreciated and encouraged me. I also pay thanks to the supportive clerical staff of this department.

I am grateful to those imminent senior officers at Naval Headquarters Islamabad, PN Hydrography Department Karachi, Marine Fishery Department Karachi, Karachi Shipyard, Karachi Port Trust and officials of PN War College Lahore and other intellectuals who supported and encouraged me to complete my research work.

I am also grateful to the library staff of department of Political Science especially Mr. Abdul Jabbar. I also pay thanks to the staff of the Quaid-e-Azam library, Center for South Asian Study library, Punjab Public library Lahore, the Main Library staff of the University, PN War College Library Lahore, the library of National Defense University Islamabad and Inter Services Public Relations (ISPR) Directorate, Islamabad for their help and cooperation.

At the end my family deserves special praise. I have special regards for my wife. I can’t forget the prayers of my children, especially my daughter Aayesh Shahzad and valuable support of my bosom friends Commodore Muhammad Arshad, Commander Muhammad Azam Khan and Muhammad Zahid Akram. I must say that with the support of all these people I have completed this task, but all the errors to be found in this work will remain my own.

Commodore S M Shahzad SI(M)

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ABSTRACT The development and well being of the human race is very closely interlinked with the seas, which take up about 70% of the earth's surface area. Owing to shrinking of resources on land most of the maritime nations have fully exploited what the seas offer as a medium of transportation and the rich resources that they hide within their bowels but few are still lacking behind on the pretext of various challenges being faced out at sea. Now the technology is at a stage where even the tidal and wave energy can be harnessed for power generation. This immense potential of the seas makes them a valuable asset for any nation. Pakistan is also fortunate to have a more than 1000 Km sea frontage and has benefited from it but the extent of derived advantage is far less than what it can be. Total area of Pakistan's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is 240,000 Sq km. Whereas, with the approval of Continental Shelf by UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) on 13 March 2015, yet another area of 50000 Sq km has been added which makes a total of 290,000 Sq km which is larger than the combined land area of Sindh and KPK provinces of Pakistan and can be rightly regarded as the maritime province of the country. Nevertheless Pakistan has yet to tap its rich resources to the optimum advantage. It would not be wrong to say that relevant stake holders are not even fully aware of the resources that can be exploited and the available figures are only estimations which cannot be used for effective planning for management and exploitation of these resources. Conscientious effort has been been made in this dissertation to find out the reasons why Optimum exploitation of maritime resources in Pakistan is not being done, due to lack of protection of resources and various challenges out at sea or some other reasons. By pitching the maritime resources with certain challenges being faced at Pakistan’s EEZ in the Indian Ocean, it was analyzed that in fact it is lack of ‘will’ at all levels of the government, private and public stake holders. Nevertheless, detailed estimation through survey and mapping of living and non-living resources needs to be undertaken in systematic manners with complete harmony at all level using one window operation. Most of the challenges are already being thwart with the help of International community out at sea in the Indian Ocean. A National Maritime Authority needs to be created at Federal level with the portfolio of maritime affairs presently being handled by various ministries, divisions and departments at Provincial and Federal level. Pakistan Navy must be equipped adequately to be a credible force for protection of sovereignty, Maritime Security, SLOCs and to act as a potent force in Pakistan’s EEZ.

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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Immediately after the start of Mughals era in the subcontinent, the land focused policy started, which kept the Mughals away from the Oceans. Ultimately Mughals had to pay heavy price, when Britishers invaded India. But once again now the old desire of Central Asian Republics (part of former Soviet Union) and China‟s “Access to the warm waters” is soon going to be materialized through the China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and by construction of Gwadar Port. Geographically the corridor (CPEC) connects through the 3000 KM road and rail link including the Kashghar in West China autonomous region to Pakistan‟s South Western part of Gwadar (Baluchistan). This is multifaceted deal which involves the following areas of cooperation (Iqbal, 2015, p.3).  Coal-fired power plants.  Hydroelectric & wind generated power.  Solar Power stations.  Coal supplies.

This corridor is also expected to help some of the most under developed areas of Pakistan by reducing poverty and generating job opportunities while on the other hand it would considerably reduce the transportation time of goods and energy for Chinese products. Currently export of goods from China to Middle East and Africa via Strait of Malacca takes about 45 days that could be reduced to less than 10 days if transported through Gwadar Port. In a broader view the CPEC will closely connect the Central Asia, West Asia and Gulf states through energy and economic cooperation.

The Indian Ocean contains few important choke points and Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCs). More than 100,000 ships travels via these routes annually with goods valued above US $ one trillion (Mehta, 2009). It is now the world‟s most important route for the movement of long haul cargo, (Lee, 2011) accounting for nearly one half of all the world‟s container traffic (Kaplan, Moon Soon, 2011) and more than 80% of the total petroleum products (Lee, 2011). Energy lifelines of many countries start and stop here. The United States, France and Japan are

all major importers of energy from the Gulf and their dependence will only increase with time (Das, 2009). The east-west shipping route cutting right across the north Indian Ocean which is the most important trade passages of the world and thousands of merchant ships move on it all the time (Das, 2009). The geographical position of the Indian Ocean, and its strategic waterways, provide the shorter and more economical sea lines of communication between Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This region comprised more than 37 littoral states and 11 hinterland states (Akhtar, 1981,p.14). More than 25% of the world‟s population lives here.

Indian Ocean states provide substantial number of the members to the United Nation. For the Muslim countries, the Indian Ocean derives its importance from the fact that almost half of the ocean washes the shores of the Islamic world (Ahmer, 1986). Most of the Muslim states sit astride or are in close proximity of the Indian Ocean choke points. Pakistan is also located at the junction of oil rich Gulf region and the energy abundant Central Asia. Pakistan‟s unique geographical position makes it a bridge between Central Asia and the rest of the world. After becoming fully operational, Gwadar Port will provide a cost effective outlet to the Central Asian energy resources to the outside world and its development as a major transshipment port would give tremendous boost to economy and its international stature (Ahmer, 1986). As a result of these developments, the increased maritime activity in North Arabian Sea Ports would thus increase maritime interests‟ manifolds.

It is a known phenomenon that Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of any country contains natural resources, which include minerals, fish products, mangroves, seaweeds, and hydrocarbon resources which are not explored to its full extent in the Indian Ocean (Arunachalam & Suryanarayan, 1993). The resources of the ocean from hydrocarbons, marine and botanical products to metals, can be exploited jointly and severally without any outside interference (Nadir, 2010). Unfortunately much researched material on Potential and Maritime Affairs in Pakistan EEZ is not available although many Western writers and some Indian authors have dwell specifically on the Indian Ocean. Nonetheless, Indian Ocean contains enormous natural resources but true potential is unknown due to some challenges out at sea.

Most of the Indian scholars have already indicated the depleting resources on land and ultimately nation‟s increased dependence on sea resources. An attempt has been made during the course of this research to find out true potential of resources and challenges being faced to tap 2

these resources in Pakistan EEZ in the Indian Ocean along with some recommendations for effective handling of the Maritime Affairs in Pakistan EEZ in Indian Ocean. Before proceeding further it is imperative to scroll basic but essential definitions relating to various zones including Exclusive Economic Zone

1.2 Pakistan Maritime Zones The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982 depicts a detailed legal structure of various Maritime Zones. Pakistan is among the 166 countries (till Jan 2015) which have signed the (UNCLOS, 1982). Pakistan has also declared various maritime zones as per UNCLOS-1982 which are appended below (UNCLOS, 1982).

1.2.1 Internal Waters and Its Area in Pakistan Waters between baseline and coastal side of the territorial sea form essential part of the internal waters, of the relevant country exercises full autonomy over it (UNCLOS, 1982,pp.18- 19). In case of Pakistan, the area of internal waters is 5190 sq. km.

1.2.2 Territorial Sea and Its Area in Pakistan Measuring from the baseline, next 12 NM breadth of the water is called Pakistan‟s territorial sea (Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976, p.1) it covers a total area of 19500 sq km.

1.2.3 Contiguous Zone and Its Area in Pakistan Measuring from the baseline, next 24 NM breadth of water is called Pakistan‟s contiguous zone. In this zone, Pakistan has the authority to prevent, punish violations of customs, fiscal (financial) obligations and immigration/sanitation laws (UNCLOS, 1982,p.25). It covers 39000 sq km of an area in sea.

1.2.4 EEZ and Its Area in Pakistan Maximum limit of Pakistan‟s EEZ is up to 200 NM as declared by the country (UNCLOS, 1982,p.34). It covers a total area of 240,000 sq km. This available area out at sea is more than the combined area of the Pakistan‟s provinces of Sindh and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK). (The exact area of provinces of Sindh and Khyber Pakhtunkhw (KPK) of Pakistan is 140,914 sq km + 74,521sq km = 215,435 sq km) (Google, 2016). It may be called as a maritime 3

province of Pakistan, which does not have any unified national structure to benefit from these natural resources for nation‟s building. In fact entire research hinges upon this zone which is widely known as EEZ as the topic of subject research is “Maritime Affairs in Pakistan‟s Exclusive Economic Zone in Indian Ocean”.

1.2.5 Continental Shelf After fulfilling all technical and legal requirements, Pakistan had got an additional area of approximately 50,000 sq km on 13 March 2015 (UNCLOS, 1982,p.44). With the approval of this claim, Pakistan now has an extension in sea area from 200 to 350 NM. On this additional area Pakistan has special rights for exploration of sea bed natural resources. A total 290,000 sq km sea area is now belongs to Pakistan in the Indian Ocean (Khan, 2015). It is pertinent to mention that presently Pakistan has no disagreement with Iran and Oman on Maritime boundaries, whereas delimitation with India is indecisive owing to pending Sir Creek issue.

The future of human being is very closely interlinked with the oceans, which is 70% of the earth surface as the resources on earth are depleting very fast (Kohli, 1997). Owing to fast decreasing resources on shore, requirement of fish, mineral and related natural resources from the sea is increasing with every passing day. The world's maritime states support bulk of the global trade and carry the lifeblood of a global structure. Keeping in view the economic value of these resources, these are valuable assets for any state. Thus its proper management and effective protection is required with accurate supervised management.

Subsequent to industrial rollover, the resources on earth were utilized with a very fast speed. More so, the population outburst and national, regional and international conflicts are becoming the further cause of reduction of natural resources on land. Same is the case with non- renewable energy which is also decreasing but requirement is increasing thus in future such requirements may not be fulfilled easily (Weeks, 2013). The demand of these resources is increasing day by day on land. Now these resources need to be exploited / extracted for survival of human beings from the sea. Presently, maritime nations have already started looking towards the resources out at Sea and supporting more than 60 percent of the population which is increasing day by day (Dirk, 2001). Pakistan is blessed with more than 1000 Km of coastline which comprises Sindh coast; consisting of mainly Indus Delta creeks and Makran Coast. Indus Delta is situated south east of Karachi and contains large chunk of mangroves which provides 4

breeding grounds for fisheries. The other zones i.e. Makran coast extended from west of Karachi till Jiwani. Number of cliffs, rocks, mud volcanoes and sheltered bays can be seen on this Coast. It is important to mention that relevant stakeholders are not aware of these resources as exact mapping of the sea has not taking place uptill now. The available data is based on assumptions which cannot be taken as authentic data for future planning. Nonetheless these resources need to be well protected through physical protection and requisite legislation. In Pakistani legislative is being provided to some extent by various legal laws, Acts and maritime Ordinances, whereas the physical protection in Pakistan EEZ is the responsibility of Pakistan Navy (PN). Nonetheless, Pakistan Maritime Security Agency (PMSA) and Pakistan Coast Guard (PCG) are also multiplying factors in physical protection of these resources on coast and out at sea in the EEZ of Pakistan.

1.3 Maritime Assets Marine Resources/potentials primarily includes living and non living resources including ports, harbour and merchant/fishing fleets. The detail of which is appended below.

1.3.1 Major Ports Presently, Pakistan has only two ports, Karachi Port Trust which is generally known as KPT and Port Bin Qasim is well known as PQA. The third one Gwadar Deep Sea Port is in its infancy stage. The first two ports are capable of handling various types of containerized, liquid, coal and bulk cargoes. KPT and PQA are already linked with Central and Northern part of the country through well established roads, motorways and vintage rail links. Whereas Gwadar Deep Sea Port has not effectively started its operation as port infrastructure is being developed. Presently, the port is linked with Sindh province via coastal highway whereas number of roads and motorways are being built at a very fast speed to link this newly established port with Central and Northern part of the country. The constructions of this communication network i.e. roads, motorways and highways started in February 2016 and expected to be completed by end of 2018 when Gwadar port will be linked with entire country till the border of China in the North. These roads are part of CPEC connecting the Kashghar in West China autonomous region to Pakistan‟s South Western part of Gwadar (Baluchistan) (Iqbal, 2015,p.3).

1.3.2 Merchant Marine PNSC is presently handing only 5% of Pakistan trade through its 9 Ships including 4 5

Aframax Tankers and 5 Bulk Carrier (Commodore Arshad, personal communication, April 20, 2016). Although PNSC has started making profit from last few years, but still needs to be improved in terms of size and capacity. Presently Pakistan‟s 98% trade including all kinds of import and export is through sea including raw material and oil. The Indigenous crude oil production meets only about 18% of the total requirement. Now PNSC could be placed in both categories‟ being a national asset it is the potential but owing to its depleting conditions it‟s a challenge to bring it back to the ladder of success.

1.3.3 Fish Harbours The location of various fish harbours on Pakistani coast is at Korangi, Karachi, Pasni and Gwadar. These harbours do not contain any state of the art infrastructure except vintage boats and boats maintenance facility. In 2014, the fisheries production in Pakistan was at 563,392 metric tons out of which 355,900 metric tons were marine catch rest 207,492 metric tons was catch from rivers on land. However, the total export in year 2014 was 137,381 metric tons earning of which brought the country US $ 349 million. Whereas a total export of 2015 remain 130,358 metric tons bringing US $ 325 million from export (Rind, 2013). Fish export value could be US $ 2.5 to 3 billion if effective value addition is done timely. More so, almost entire fishery infrastructure including harbours on Pakistani coast needs to be revamped with state of the art machinery, equipment and processing plants.

1.3.4 Fishing Fleet As per the statistics of 2015, the number of registered fishing boats were around 19,107 whereas, the number of operational boats were 18,519. Presently, Pakistani fishermen are generally fishing in Coastal Waters. Some are using larger gill-netters which are expensive and used for operation in deeper waters. Keeping in view the vintage wooden boats presently being used by local fishermen, modern boats with new techniques are needs to be introduced for fishing in Pakistan EEZ. In Pakistan EEZ, mechanized gill-netters, trawlers, mechanized-cum- sail boats like Hora & Doonda and sail boats are operating. Majority of these boats operate up to 12 NM in zone -1 and up to 12-20 NM in zone -2 from the coast.

1.3.5 Fishery Protection/Off Shore Patrolling By Maritime Forces To control the illegitimate fishing and other unauthorized activities on coast, PCG operate whereas out at sea for the fishery protection and to control other illegitimate activities in 6

Pakistan EEZ, PMSA performs following functions: - Search and Rescue (SAR). - Pollution Control - Anti Smuggling - Illegal weapon, drugs and human trafficking

PMSA is being augmented with new ships required to increase its potential to undertake the assigned tasks effectively. Out of six new Maritime Patrol Vessels (MPV) size ships to be constructed at Karachi Shipyard, first two will be joining PMSA by January 2017. As and when required, activities / operations of PMSA are being augmented by PN out at sea in Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean.

1.4 Research Facilities Pakistan Hydrographic Department is a subsidiary of Pakistan Navy effectively involve in research and development activities out at sea but quite oftenly meet setbacks due to non availability of state of the arts equipment, machineries and sensors. The other two departments, National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) and Pakistan Marine Fisheries Department are also facing shortage of well trained personnel and shortage of machineries. Resulting in non production of any meaningful research in the fields of hydrography and mapping of living and non-living resources in Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean. Unfortunately none of the Pakistani university has maritime affairs department except Karachi University, Bahria University (National Centre for Maritime Policy Research) and University of Agricultural and Marine Lasbela which also does not contribute meaningful research on living and non-living resources in Pakistan‟s EEZ.

1.5 Living Resources of Pakistan EEZ The EEZ of Pakistan depicts being enrich geological region with unique distinctive oceanic phenomena support many other mine and mineral resources. Lot of efforts is desired to find out the exact potential of these resources in Pakistan EEZ. Presently available data is collected primarily through foreign resources which also indicate promising hydrocarbon and mineral deposits. Nonetheless, Pakistan fishery department is also not supporting the country‟s GDP except adding 1 percent fish export value. However, fishing resources in Pakistan EEZ

are under exploited as compared to Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. On one hand, fishery plays an important role in Country‟s economy and on the other hand it is also a source of bread and butter for Coastal population. Approximately, 90,000 persons are attached with fishery industry in Pakistan and another 332,000 fishermen are actively involved in fishing operation (Dr Israr Ahmed, personal communication, August 24, 2016). Owing to decreasing food resources on land, Pakistan needs to pay attention for extracting more fish from the sea to be used as food for growing population in the country. Presently, Pakistan is exporting US $ 350 million to US $ 400 fish annually but that can be brought to US $ 2.5 to 3 Billion annually by value addition and through effective planning (Dr Israr Ahmed, personal communication, August 24, 2016).

1.5.1 Mangrove Forests Pakistan coastal area is also very enrich with mangrove forests. The Sir Creek area East of Karachi covers an estimated area of 260,000 hectors (Moazzam, 2013,p.136). Whereas on the Balochistan coast, mangrove forests are at Gwadar bay, Miani Hor and at Khor Kalmat covering an area of approximately 18,350 acres (Baloch, Rehman, Saeed, Kalhoro, & Buzdar, 2014,p.67) where as Indus delta region contains a huge "mangrove forests". These forests are primarily provides breeding grounds for fisheries including shrimps, prawns, lobsters, crabs and different bird's species.

1.5.2 Seaweed Resources Maritime countries have also now started effectively utilizing the seaweed resources for food, fodder and fertilizer. The seaweed resources owing to their chemical properties and nutritional are also successfully being utilized by various industries like textile, leather and paper making in addition it is also being used for pharmaceutical, cosmetics and agricultural (Arunachalam & Suryanarayan, 1993,p.33). In Pakistan, areas along Sindh coast are famous for seaweed resources. Although, proper survey of seaweed resources in Pakistan's coastal area has never took place. Nonetheless, it is believed that Sindh coast is enrich with seaweeds resources.

1.6 Non Living Resources of Pakistan EEZ include following 1.6.1 Mineral Potential The National Institute of Oceanography in Pakistan believes that geological structure in southwest of Makran is famous for deposits of non living natural resources. It also believes that mineral like ore, zinc, cooper and sulphade are present in the area. But unfortunately, potential 8

of these resources have not been explored by relevant Pakistani authorities. Oceanographic mapping of the area is to be conducted to identify the exact amount of these deposits which have already been traced by the Oceanographic Ship MV Behr e Paima. There are about 30 types of common minerals found in marine sediments. Theoretically, the Indian Ocean has some 10,000 tons of minerals (Dr Shahid Amjad, Personal Communication, April 20, 2016). Mining of minerals from the EEZ / Continental Shelf of Pakistan is yet an uncounted but highly promising field. Public sector has not been able to participate in exploiting these sea based resources therefore there is a need to promulgate a policy framework to allow exploitation of Pakistan‟s marine sediments and minerals.

1.6.2 Seabed resources of Pakistan Arabian Sea represents all important geological features common in other oceanic regions and has good prospects of seabed resources. Based on the geological knowledge of North Arabian Sea, reserves of various mineral resources in Pakistan Continental Shelf are potentially available (Commodore Arshad, personal communication, April 20, 2016). Briefly, some the resources in Pakistan Off Shore are appended below:

1.6.2.1 Phosphorate Phosphorate mineral is a raw mineral for fertilizer. Marine phosphorate generally occurs on the ocean floor in the form of nodules, sand, mud and consolidated beds.

1.6.2.2 Placer Minerals Concentration of heavy minerals has been observed by action of waves and current on beaches. Deposits of coarse grained tin, chromium, titanium and tungsten-bearing placer minerals associated with coarse grained sand and gravel, all occur in shallow coastal regions of North Arabian Sea (NAS).

1.6.2.3 Building Material Shells and calcareous sand have been used for construction and lime making since historical times. These important building materials are becoming more and more expansive on land. Deep water sediments contain abundant calcium and silica.

1.6.2.4 Metallic Deposits Murray Ridge is a good environment for accumulation of polymettalic sulphide in Pakistan‟s offshore areas. Strong possibility of finding zinc/ copper-rich sulphides also exist because of their similarity with the submarine hot spots.

1.6.2.5 Hydrocarbons A region south of Makran is the second largest offshore basin also known as Indus Delta in the world after Bengal delta. Offshore sedimentary basins stretch over an area of about 300,000 Sq Km and are highly under-explored with drilling density of about 0.4 per 10,000 Sq Km. As per estimates a reserve of something like over 300 trillion cubic feet of gas and huge quantity of oil exist in offshore area of Pakistan in Indian Ocean.

1.6.2.6 Gas Hydrates The preliminary data and information obtained during research cruises along Makran coast and published scientific literature indicate good prospects of huge gas hydrate reserves. Estimated extent of gas hydrate fields is 200 Km long, 100 Km wide and 600 meters thick.

1.7 Challenges Pakistan's EEZ is extended southward in North Arabian Sea in the Indian Ocean. This area is opening up to world's most famous choke points comprise of Strait of Malacca, Persian Gulf, Red Sea and cape of Good Hopes. Almost 300 ships are crossing these routes on daily basis engage in import and export of various countries worth trillions of dollars. Persian Gulf is also produces bulk of shares of oil being supplied worldwide through these routes. So the physical production of these ships is the biggest challenge in Indian Ocean. The Afghan war and fragile security situations in many south Asian countries and their social, political and military conflict has a negative spill over in the Indian Ocean where Pakistan Navy is confronted with various challenges. These include violent extremism and maritime criminal activities out at sea. The Sea Lines of Communications (SLOCs) protection is yet another challenge, however the piracy human smuggling, arms / drug trafficking and maritime terrorism is also being confronted by Pakistan Navy in the EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean (Aleem, 2013,p.54).

1.7.1 Pakistan’s Maritime Interests and Compulsion Pakistan, like other regional states has discernable strategic interests in the Indian Ocean 10

Region. With a coastline of over 1000 KMs, EEZ protruding 200 NMs and Continental Shelf of 50000 KMs into the Arabian Sea covering a total 290,000 Sq KMs, the maritime domain is central to country‟s economy and well being. More than 95% of Pakistan‟s trade being seaborne and most of nations POL imports coming from the Gulf makes their continuous and safe passage on absolute necessity. With legal settlement of the boundary claim for Continental Shelf, Pakistan has added another 50,000 Sq KMs to its EEZ, being rich in fishery, possibly hydrocarbons and seabed recourses, all exploitable for socio-economic development of national human being. With regards to development of maritime infrastructure along the arid Makran coast, Gwadar deep sea port is a major commercial undertaking, with prospects of becoming a trans-shipment port in the region in near future.

Pakistan remains cognizant of the host of traditional and non-traditional maritime security threats in the Indian Ocean. Traditional threats hampering good order at sea include maritime terrorism, piracy, illegal fishing, human trafficking, drug smuggling and trafficking of weapons. Whereas, non-traditional security concerns range from marine natural hazards and climate change to energy, food, and human and environment security. This warrants effective patrolling of EEZ, besides robust and sustained forward presence in the North Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman and Gulf of Aden, pursuant to the national as well as international obligations. Keeping in view all these challenges Pakistan Navy is to per say keep the SLOCs open and secure by maintaining law and order situation in the EEZ of Pakistan in Indian Ocean.

1.7.2 Extra Regional Forces (ERF) Maritime affairs are becoming more complex in the Indian Ocean Region due to prevailing fragile security situation. Presence of ERF is making situation more intricate Although Pakistan is operating in collaboration with these forces but the biggest challenge for PN is the covert designs of these forces in the area. Nonetheless while Pakistan is looking after the Maritime interest in the area the biggest worry still remains the substantial Naval build up. The complex security matrix in the Indian Ocean especially in North Arabian Sea dictates a special attention of Federal Government in building matching capabilities of Pakistan Navy.

1.7.3 Indian Maritime Interests India has 7,500 kilometers of coastline and 2.01 million sq.km of Exclusive 11

Economic Zone (EEZ). The EEZ of India is equivalent to about 66% of its landmass and 4.2% of the Indian Ocean (Sinha, 1994, p.4). Indian imports and exports through sea are of 97% in volume for which by compulsion it has to keep the SLOCs open. It is wildly believed that the Indian Ocean is truly Indian (Panikkar K. M, 1995). Based on these assumptions it can be deduced that interest of India in the Indian occasion is growing very fast Owing to her own hegemonic designs India is rapidly developing its Maritime assets and presently it has 500 merchant vessels, 13 major ports and approximately more than 200 small ports. To protect these Maritime assets India is also multiplying its naval arsenal with unmatchable capabilities Although Indian foreign policy is very effective but still Indian navy is conducting naval diplomacy by its warships visits and presence (Mehta, 2009). Therefore, Pakistan Maritime trade facing biggest challenges out at sea from out of proportion Indian naval buildup.

1.7.4 Illegal Arms/Drug Trafficking After 9/11 attack on Afghanistan by collation forces created uncontrollable situation in the area Resultantly arms and drug trafficking became the bane and found its outward routs through North Arabian sea Yet another challenge for Pakistan Navy is to control illegal arm trafficking, drugs and Norco-terrorism in the EEZ of Pakistan. It is widely believed that arm/drug smugglers are using routs starting from the coast of Pakistan/Iran and Oman moving towards Somalia and Yemen. The famous route between Baluchistan coastline and Yemen is known as Hash Highway for transportation of illicit cargo. To monitor this fragile area, it is the responsibility of Pakistan Navy and PMSA is to curb arms trafficking and drug smuggling in the EEZ of Pakistan.

1.7.5 Human Smuggling The outburst of population in South-eastern countries in general and Pakistan in particular has given rise to un-employment. By compulsion unemployed youth of these area becoming hijacked in the hands of illegal human smuggler agents. Consequently illegal migration of skilled and unskilled workforces to these Middle Eastern countries is very common (Ahmed, 2015, p.5). Human trafficking is also very common from poor African countries including Somalia. Beside these Gulf countries, the final destination of these human victims is Europe via Turkey and Greece. These human smugglers often facilitate terrorist for their movement to safe haven for further committing illegal criminal activates. 12

1.7.6 Piracy History of Piracy out at sea is also very ancient but the pirates keep moving from area to area. Initially, they were active in Malacca Straits and South China Sea but during last decade, they moved from Bay of Bengal and the South-Arabian Sea to Somalia close to Red sea. Owing to increasing pirates activities in 2008, the International Maritime Bureau (IMB) has declared the area around Somalia as very dangerous spot. The IMB has issued advisory time and again to the ships operating in the area to remain at the distance of 200 NM from the coast of Somali

1.7.7 Maritime Terrorism Certain terrorist groups have the capacity to attack merchant vessels out at sea. These groups conduct such attacks at the time of opportunity just to create harassment and to shatter the confidence of the merchant mariners. It has got no linkage with piracy which is carried out in order to obtain ransom. It is worth mentioning that with advances in maritime security, such maritime attacks by certain radical groups have also been decreased out at sea. But the possibility of attacks from rough radical element at sea still persists in the Indian Ocean Region. Although the threat probability of such attacks is diminishing owing to the presence of Extra Regional Forces present in Indian Ocean Region but shipping remains relatively alert at the time which cost extra. Nonetheless such possibility may not be dismissed altogether as few incidents have occurred in near past in the Region. The terrorist threat at sea must be viewed with concern as any main attack can upset international safety and the global economy. The need to respond to that threat has already led to considerable changes in the global maritime security environment over the past two decades.

1.7.8 Pollution in Karachi Harbor Owing to increasing pollution in Karachi harbor samples of contaminated water were taken from both east and west wharfs for laboratory test. The results of seawater collected Karachi Harbor on 16 September 2015 show dissimilarity from standard values. The under mentioned chart depicts that the basic composition of seawater has changed.

Table 1 Lab tests of sea water collected from Karachi Harbor by PN Dockyard Laboratory at Karachi

S No Tests Standard Value of East Wharf West Wharf Seawater (MS Jetty) 01 PH 8.2 7.15 6.25 02 Conductivity 52.000 mMho/Cm 47,000 mMho/Cm

03 Chloride 19,350 ppm 17,800 18,400 04 Sulphate 2.712 pmm 2,256 2,240 05 Sodium 10,760 ppm 10,500 10,500 06 Potassium 387 ppm 360 360 07 Calcium 413m 370m 08 Magnesium 1,294 ppm 1,282 1,350 09 Alkalinity 142 ppm 130 152 Source: (MD Dockyard Karachi Office, 16 September 2015)

1.7.9 Sir Creek Issue The Kutch area of India and Sindh on the Pakistani side has numerous creeks in its vicinity ie Padala, Kori, Sirand Kajhar creeketc. Sir creek is situated between Pakistan and India in Indus delta region. Which has not been resolved, since 1989, many bilateral talks have been arranged between the two countries to find a diplomatic solution of the issue but India‟s evasive attitude rendered all forms of dialogue fruitless. To this day Sir Creek issue stands unresolved despite moderate use of back channel diplomacy. There is an urgent need to bring this issue in the limelight along with many other grave issues which are directly hindering the progress and healthy relations between the two countries.

1.8 Karachi Shipyard Karachi shipyard is widely known as Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works (KS&EW) is a subsidiary organization working under the Ministry of Defense Production, Government of Pakistan. Tremendous shipbuilding and repairing facilities are available at the yard. It also has three berths including number of electrical/mechanical shops equipped with necessary machinery. Till late, Karachi shipyard has completed the construction of 445 ships, and repaired over 5,000 ships of various categories (Suleman, 2016, p.2). Ship construction, repair and maintenance facilities also extended for ships of China and Iran. KS&EW has also constructed Agosta 90-B Submarines, Coastal Tankers and Missile Boats for Pakistan Navy. Keeping in view of increasing requirement of ships construction repaired and maintenance Federal Government is planning two more shipyards by 2018 out of two one will be at Gwadar other at Karachi. 14

1.9 Ship Breaking Industry Pakistan ship breaking industry was the major source of earning Foreign Exchange during 80‟s when it was on highest peak. More than 30,000 workers were engaged in ship breaking in the decade of eighties. Nonetheless subject flourishing industry is on decline owing to quickly changing policies by the Federal Government. Now once again this industry is on a road to recovery (Zeb, Gadani Shipbreaking yard under threat, 2013, p.2), at present, 68 plots are operational in the Gadani ship breaking yard, which are run by 38 operators and employ more than 12,000 workers. In the year 2012, the yard had 133 ships to dismantle. This is reflected by the ship breaking platforms, Pakistan received 111 vessels in 2014 for dismantling as against 105 in 2013 and 124 in 2012 (Zeb M. K, 2015).

1.10 Ports and Harbours Infrastructure development in the coastal area plays a pivotal role in strengthen the national economy. When Pakistan came into being in 1947, there was only one port, i.e. Karachi port trust later in early 70‟s Port Qasim was constructed and both ports combating the sea trade of Pakistan. Keeping in view the increasing trade activity and Chinese interest for their import exports through Pakistan, yet another port at Gawadar was constructed and now handed over to Chinese authorities, China Overseas Port Holding Company (COPHC) for operation (Khan M. A., Maritime History and Muslims-II, 2013, p.7). Strategically located Gawadar port is away from existing port complex of KPT and port Qasim. Serves international shipping on the gateway to Persian Gulf. Now the major challenge is to run this port efficiently in an early time frame after linking up with northern part of the country via China Pakistan Economic Corridor.

1.11 Development of Coastal Tourism Coastal beaches, picnic spots, and sea resorts attracts lots of tourists across the world and earn huge chunk of national exchequer. Pakistani coast also has many lucrative spots where modern beaches and picnic resorts can be developed. Once fully developed and projected through media, the captioned picnic resorts can attract national and international tourists. The favorable climate and off shore wind allows the availability of coastal spots even during winters where such facilities if developed will be available round the year. A well deliberated plan thus needs to be chalked out to develop such spots from Manora to Cape Monze with the help of

Chinese investors by Ministry of Tourism. More so to start with, similar projects can be undertaken on suitable sites close to Gwadar port by the Chinese authorities involved in the port operations. This will result lot of job opportunities for locals and same time attract tourist. But the biggest challenges remain the security concerns and the will to do by the people sitting at the helms of the affairs.

1.12 General Awareness about Maritime Affairs General awareness for Maritime affairs is negligible in Pakistan as the businessmen community, academia bureaucracy and political leadership has no interest in Marine related infrastructure. There is a need for coastal area development which is not taking place due to lack of will by authorities sitting at the helm of affairs. Fishermen community is also lacking in basic education and thus trained manpower is not available across the coast. Research in the field of maritime affairs is negligible in all school, college and universities in entire country. Requisite technical machinery, equipment and sensors are not held with National Institute of Oceanography thus, there is need to create maritime awareness among the public and relevant stake holders to thwart various challenges relating to maritime affairs in Pakistan.

1.13 Problem Statement Marine potential in any country can play a vital role by earning foreign exchange to its national exchequer. Unfortunately maritime potential in Pakistan EEZ in the Indian Ocean is not fully exploited. The available data is just an estimation that too compiled with the help of foreign experts. Some experts are of the view that these maritime resources are not being fully exploited owing to various challenges out at sea. In this dissertation critical analysis is being carried out to find out the actual reason for not exploring maritime resources. The potential of maritime resources in Pakistan EEZ needs to be fully exploited on priority. Effective planning and protection of these resources will definitely enhance regional prosperity in general and Pakistan economy in particular. Political stability, law & order situation and political will at government level thus now has become compulsion for resourceful maritime Affairs in Pakistan EEZ in Indian Ocean.

1.14 Research Questions  What is the extent to which Pakistan can benefit from its maritime assets and natural resources of its EEZ?  What are the challenges being encountered out at sea by Pakistan regarding mapping and extracting the potential of EEZ in the Indian Ocean, at various levels?  Is development of Pakistan‟s maritime capital a benefactor in overall economic development of the region in general and Pakistan in particular?  How should Pakistan move forward keeping its focus on further exploration and protection of its EEZ in the Indian Ocean?  Why Maritime Affairs in Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean have become so complex?

1.15 Significance of the Research The Indian Ocean provides a medium of transportation of two third world shipments, in particular from Persian Gulf oilfields which contains approximately 40% of the Global oil. Movement of such merchant ships / oil tankers traffic makes it an important SLOCs of immense importance. Other than the Gulf States, rests of the Indian Ocean region countries have not started exploration in their AOR. Nevertheless, geological studies have shown lot of symptoms for the presence of oil and mineral potential in Indian Ocean. Today, about 90 percent of intercontinental trade including all petroleum products, half of the world containers traffic travels via Indian Ocean. According to one estimate, the Indian Ocean accounts for 70 % of the traffic of petroleum products for the whole globe (Timmons & Sengupta, 2007). The consumption of oil increased manifold as ever increasing numbers of hundreds of millions of Indians and Chinese joining the global, thus Oil tankers also ply between the Persian Gulf and South and East Asia. The energy needs will rise about 50 percent across the world by 2030, half of the world energy will be consumed in China and India (Kaplan, 2011, p.7). Subsequently, India will cross United States soon in consumption of energy and will become the global fourth energy consumer. 90% of China and Japan energy needs will soon be coming from the Persian Gulf through the Arabian Sea (Kaplan, 2011, p.8). Thus increasing the importance of Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean as Gwadar is strategically located at the Gateway of Persian Gulf.

The selection of topic “Maritime Affairs in Pakistan EEZ in Indian Ocean” is inspired by prevailing energy race and fragile security situation in the Indian Ocean. More so, shrinking of resources on land has compelled maritime nations to started paying attention towards sea based resources. Unfortunately, Exclusive Economic Zone of Pakistan in Indian Ocean is a much neglected area. In near future, relevant authorities in Pakistan also have to look towards offshore resources for which dedicated efforts and focus attention is required by the Federal Government to determine true potential of these resources prior planning of its exploitation and protection. All these aspects are being thoroughly analyzed in this dissertation.

There is no real maritime forum or think tank in Pakistan looking after the maritime affairs of Pakistan EEZ. More so, various ministries, divisions, department are involved in handling maritime affairs which resulted in distracted, disjointed, and ineffective efforts. Presently, other than the Federal Government two Provincial Governments of Sindh and Balochistan are also involved in maritime affairs without any mutual coordination (Shahzad, 2014). Businessmen community, scientists, marine experts and relevant stakeholders are not interested or have no will to undertake maritime affairs seriously in Pakistan. The purpose of this research is to have a look that is it the various challenges out at sea are imposing impediments for effective planning or exploitation of these maritime resources or there is a some other reason. Efforts were also made to determine the requirement of new maritime provincial body to create synergy amongst all the concerned government departments. Adequate security measures to thwart challenges being faced out at sea while dealing with various Maritime Affairs are also being discussed in this dissertation.

In Pakistan EEZ in Indian Ocean basically include all kind of natural resources. The living resources include all kind of fishery yield. Number of species of fish, shrimps, lobster, Crabs, oysters, whales, porpoises, dolphins, turtles, cephalopods (squids, octopuses, cuttlefishes) are available in abundance in Indian Ocean along with various types of mangroves marine algae. The non living resources include maritime infrastructures including Sea ports, fish harbors, merchant ships, fishing and passenger boats, ship construction and ship breaking industries. In addition minerals and hydrocarbons at the bottom of the sea also form part of non living resources. The trade via sea is also measured as part of the non living capital. The scope of the study increases manifold due to presence of abundance of natural resources like

manganese, aluminum, cadmium, Iron, cobalt, Nickel and Copper in Indian Ocean. “The value of the manganese nodules alone can be as high as ₤40,000 per square mile” (Kohli, 1997, p.93).

Dedicated efforts are required for survey and mapping of these mineral deposits in Pakistan‟s EEZ and continental shelf by utilizing modern techniques, machinery and processes. According to one estimate, the value of hydrocarbons found on the continental shelves is much higher than found on the land. In case of Pakistan, the hydrocarbon exploration out at sea regions is much below the extent to exploration being carried out on land (Commodore Arshad, personal communication, April 20, 2016). Although exact figures are not available anyhow prevailing data indicates much stock of these resources available in Pakistan‟s EEZ in Indian Ocean but the issue is due to some of the challenges prevailing out at sea the exploration is not taking place. These challenges need to be analyzed with the prism of complex Maritime Affairs in Pakistan EEZ in Indian Ocean.

1.16 Research Methodology Since already existing theories have been tested in various situations thus it is a deductive research. Both quantitative and qualitative data has also been analyzed. Thus, dissertation is hinges upon synthesis of research methods. The sea water data of quantitative nature tested in Dockyard laboratory was a proof to support argument during discussion regarding pollution in Karachi harbor in the dissertation. Nonetheless, major reliance of this research is of qualitative nature. While qualitative data was compiled through the primary and secondary sources by taking interviews of relevant stakeholders to support the argument to study the economic value as well as security compulsion regarding maritime affairs and potential needs to be explored and exploited through revision of policies and their successful implementation in Pakistan EEZ in Indian Ocean.

All available primary and secondary sources were exploited during this course of research. The primary sources include interviews, reports, thesis, official papers, conference reports and government publications. Whereas the secondary sources includes newspaper articles, reference books, journals, and internet articles. Major reliance was made on the interviews, official documents, keeping in view their originality, credibility. Some of the data was collected from Government department including NHQ archives. Pakistan Maritime Shipping Act-1976 and UNCLOS-1982 was consulted for references, as already a total 166 19

countries have signed the UNCLOS. A detailed study of all relevant material, books, conventions, policies, legislations was also carried out for meaningful research.

1.17 Literature Review Pakistan EEZ in the Indian Ocean has a large untapped potential of both living and non- living resources. Unfortunately, meaningful research regarding Pakistan EEZ has not been carried out by any institute in Pakistan whereas most of the western and some Indian writers have written books on the Indian Ocean. Although EEZ of Pakistan has also been blessed with tremendous natural resources but the exact potential is not known. The dangers of scarcity of food, energy and mineral resources on land will ultimately force the maritime nations to explore the resources out at sea for which proper research and mapping of the EEZ is required. Keeping in view the future requirements, most of the coastal nations have claimed various maritime zones. Just like those states many countries of Indian Ocean have also extended their legal claim to UNO for further extension of maritime territory by claiming their continental shelf. Nonetheless, analysis of available material is appended in subsequent paragraphs to find out the relevant material and gaps left by the authors for future research.

In research, “Exclusive Economic Zone Claims: An Analysis and Primary Documents” the authors has carried out an in-depth study of various claims submitted to UNO for extension of their EEZ and Continental Shelf by various coastal states. In fact, it is a vivid account of facts which by compulsion needs to be revised time to time as obviously latest standing of coastal states regarding their claims to be reviewed or depending the progress of their cases in the International Court of Justice. Many of such claims of extension have been recently approved including the extension of continental shelf case of Pakistan (Smith, 1986).

In another study, “Marine Minerals in Exclusive Economic Zones” author expressed the prospective of natural resources in the Indian Ocean. Without the exact knowledge of these living and non living resources, effective planning may not be possible. In fact this could be the sole reason that the progress is limited in the field of all maritime affairs in Indian Ocean region countries. Nonetheless, limited data is available as upshot of efforts made by various institutions and relevant stakeholders dealing with maritime related affairs (Cronan, 1992). In fact talking specifically of Pakistan EEZ even the available data is not authentic as mostly it is based on assumptions. 20

In yet another study, “Pakistan: A Country Study” the role of country in peace and conflict has been discussed along with the economic, political and fragile security situation with the role of security institution who are involved to combat the security. Subject study also provided brief account of national institutions and their role in the international arena. During the discussion, author also highlighted the role of various institutions at the international arena but unfortunately the author was also not able to give an account of Pakistan‟s Exclusive Economic Zone and the role of institutions rating to Pakistan maritime industry (Blood, 1996).

The bulk of writing is supporting and amplification the sea power and capital of the Oceans but unfortunately evidence could not be found in any literature which dictates that natural resources out at sea cannot be explored or exploited due to prevailing challenges of various nature out at sea. Maximum available literature on the topic was explored in various dimensions of maritime affairs were analyzed but author has not found even a single evidence or theory that potential of any EEZ in the Indian Ocean has not been explored due to complex Maritime affairs in general and maritime security challenges in particular.

The author in his study, “The Exclusive Economic Zone in the International Law” has provided in depth analysis regarding the extension of various zones out at sea by summiting their claims as per UNCLOS-1982 (Brownie, 2004). The author has also carried out an in length discussion regarding Law of the Sea but laws regarding specific nature, where two neighboring states are implicating each other due to variety of factors was not discussed. The author has missed how and where to resolve these cases.

In a research, “Maritime Security and the Law of the Sea” the author has given a detailed brief of fragile maritime security out at sea and its fallout on Coastal states, the author has also discussed in detail other maritime threats like maritime terrorism. Coastal states to maintain security out at sea with limited resources owing to their specific security compulsion. It is also well mention in the book, the role of maritime security forces out at sea while dealing various maritime security threats under particular security situations by various regional states (Klein, 2011). Klein‟s research work is immensely useful in this dissertation as author has maintains neutrality. But the author has missed that under water Maritime resources also need to be protected.

In a research „‟Trade and civilization in the Indian Ocean‟‟ the author has amply painted the importance of sea trade. An analysis of the long chain of oceanic trade, from the South China Sea to the eastern Mediterranean, which dominated seaborne commerce for many centuries up to the Industrial Revolution, reveals the unique features of Asian commercial capitalism as well as the contributions of Asian merchants worldwide. The author also asserted the economic history of the Indian Ocean system from the rise of Islam to 1750. Author described how the unification of the Middle East and North Africa under Islam helped bond the regions around the Indian Ocean into an economically dynamic system. Trade in the ocean was largely peaceful until the Portuguese entered the ocean. However, the sheer vastness of the Indian Ocean, the strength of the Ottoman Empire, the expansion of the Mughals in subcontinent, the naval efforts of the Aceh sultanate in Sumatra and the rise of the Protestant maritime powers of England, all contributed to the futility of the Portuguese venture. The study, based on more than twenty years' research and reflection on pre-modern trade and civilizations, presents an in depth analysis and interpretation of Asia's historical position and development (Chaudhri, 1985). The author has missed the challenges being faced by these Merchants out at sea. The biggest challenge is the sea piracy which remained the biggest threat for these merchants since centuries. In depth analysis of the sea piracy will be carried out during the course of this research.

According to research on “The Wealth of Oceans‟‟ author has discussed the marine environment, global change, pollution, fishing and aquaculture population growth and the future of the seas. A major hurdle for the future, they argue, is time; detecting and analyzing environmental problems. The author has tried to establish the relationship between humans and oceans.

According to the author, for thousands of years humanity has seen the oceans as a limitless source of treasures to be fished, harvested, mined, and salvaged. The challenges out at sea for Marine ecology has well covered by the Author as now new emerging technology, accelerating developments in the field of maritime affairs, the oceanic studies offer a new perceptive of the oceans, its role in a worldwide ecosystem, and its susceptibility to threats from human beings. Drawing on the latest research this study offers a fascinating tour to the complex oceanic world and establish the way toward changes that will preserve, rather than squander, the wealth of the oceans (Weber & Gradwohl, 1995). 22

The research “Influence of sea power history‟‟ contains Mahan's analysis and discussions of the factors leading to Britain's naval domination in the eighteenth century, with strategic and tactical recommendations based on these factors. The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 assert the argument that, beginning in the time of Alexander the Great, those nations with strong commercial and military command of the seas were the nations of greatest strength, wealth, and power. Though the determinants of military supremacy and the global balance of power have changed due to tremendous advances in modern day technology, the principles and strategies discussed in the study remains unchanged and relevant. The author argue, that how the use of the general navies, or the strategy of using a strong navy to protect the fleet of an aggressive merchant marine, is the single most important root cause of advancing economic and therefore military prosperity in any nation. The author describe that how nations thrived or declined during the 17th and 18th centuries through prudent or imprudent application of naval power. It unquestionably shaped the imperialistic policies of pre-World War I and pre-World War II Germany and Japan respectively (Mahan, 1989).

According to Mir “Geopolitik Pakistan – Pakistan‟s weltanschauung” The importance of Pakistan is increasing day by day due to its Geo strategic location in the Indian Ocean. The significance is further growing ever since the idea of construction of Gwadar port was conceived and with the addition of CPEC Global perception is again changing very fast. The author has also amply highlighted the importance of Indian Ocean while discussing the geo-oceanic politics. All important choke points in the Indian Ocean have been well described with their Importance and challenges. The Gwadar Port, its location and future role for providing the transshipment facility for China and central Asian States have described well. The only aspect which author has missed during the course of his research is that the Gwadar Port is not only the desire of Pakistan rather is one of the Pearl of the “String of Pearls‟‟ the expansion of China‟s interest in the Indian Ocean (Nadir, Geopolitik Pakistan – Pakistan‟s Weltanschauung, 2013).

Attard in a study, “The Exclusive Economic Zone in International Law‟‟ has observed the EEZ‟s basic character, its constitutive elements relating to the coastal state‟s competence within the Zone, and its relationship with other aspects of maritime law, such as high seas and Continental Shelf. In spite of the National, International recognition of the subject, maritime resources underneath the sea bed „beyond the limits of national Jurisdiction‟ is not yet practically available for exploitation. It is therefore the Zones of sea-bed and the water column adjacent to 23

coastal states which will continue to provide the major focus of interest both in the short and long runs. Although importance of the EEZ has been realized for some time, but has not been adequately reflected in the literature of the law. The author has persuaded the subject with complete balance and provided comprehensive treatment to various Zones at sea. The author has also observed the conservation and the all kind of natural resources in the EEZ (Attard, 1987).

In another study, „‟Indian Ocean Strategies through the Ages‟‟ it was found that the India Ocean was the oldest means of communication and exchange of goods, human beings, cultures and techniques between highly developed civilizations which had grown up in the littoral states of the Indian Ocean. These included the Harappan, Babylanian, Sumerian and Egyptian civilizations. The author Emphasize the necessity to look carefully once again at the naval traditions of the littoral countries of the Indian Ocean, the challenges and opportunities facing them today, and the likely lines of convergence or conflict. The author also asserts a public awareness of the ocean and its true potential (Bhargava, 1990). Nonetheless, during the study, the author has missed the reason why these opportunities are not being exploited / explored to its true potential, is it because of some challenges or complex maritime Affairs?

In a study, „‟Strategic concepts of the Indian Ocean‟‟ the author has emphasize the importance of the Indian Ocean, role of Big powers, undersea war, prospects of deterrence, the Naval Arms race and effect of Nuclear War at Indian Ocean. The Indian Ocean is more than five thousand miles of it separate Australia and South Africa, and in all, it is over seventeen million square miles in area. There are following forty-eight Counties which either drain into the Indian Ocean or lie landlocked, and have no way out except across a neighbor‟s territory to reach the global sea (Akhtar, 1981, p.14).

Table 2 Countries Around Indian Ocean * In more than one basin Australia* India Maldives Islands South Africa* Afghanistan Indonesia Mauritius Sri Lanka Bahrain Iran Mozambique Sudan Bangladesh Iraq Nepal Swazi Land Bhutan Israel* Oman Tanzania Botswana Jordan Pakistan Thailand* Burma Kenya Peoples Republic Uganda of Yemen Burundi Kuwait Qatar UAE

Comoro Islands Lesotho Reunion Yemen Egypt* Malavsia Rwanda Zimbabwe Republic Ethiopia Malawi Singapore* Saudi Arabia French Territory of Malaysia Somalia Seychelles‟ The Afrars & Issas Islands Source: (Strategic Concept of the Indian Ocean by “Syed Akhtar Ahsan”).

The oil producing countries of the Persian Gulf contains over 60% of the Global oil capital. Western Europe (60% of all oil used), Australia (65%), Japan 90%) and Africa (83%) are all heavily dependent on the area for substantial part of their oil requirements (Akhtar, 1981, pp.15-16).

In a study, “the Indian Ocean and its Islands strategic, scientific and historical perspectives” the author has elaborated the resources of 200 NM EEZ, sovereign rights over maritime resource of the seabed and the subsoil have been given for research, environment protection and to control marine pollution. The author has further explained that the area beyond 200 NM is part of high seas. The EEZ falls short of full sovereignty, because the freedom at seas, counts the Navigational rights and over flight which are open to all. The author also establishes that the human race has hither to depended largely a land resources for its welfare and survival, with intensive exploitation, land resources are being rapidly depleted and it is believed that, within the next fifty years, there will be an acute shortage of many raw materials that are presently obtained from the land. This is why attention has been drawn towards the oceans which cover 70% of land surface. The oceans contain almost all natural resources that are available on land. Since ancient times, the sea has been used mainly far two purposes, fishing and shipping, but the recent discovery of offshore oil and gas and other minerals, as well as the potential for extraction of chemicals, minerals, as well as the potential for the extraction of chemicals, drugs and tidal energy have convinced everyone that some of the biggest treasures of the world laying hidden in the sea bed. Thus, the ocean is called `our last frontier and mankind looks towards the sea as future hope. The old scuffing that the country which controls the sea rules the earth, has proved to be true beyond doubt. But the author has missed the ways and means to explore these resources (Arunachalam & Suryanarayan, 1993, p.33).

In a study “Super power rivalry in the Indian Ocean” the author examine the security situation, expressing the changes that include the erosion of the British naval power, the

emergence of China as a major military force, the rise of Japan, the development of Diego Garcia as a nuclear base by Americans, and the regular appearance of the Soviet fleet in the Indian Ocean. The author establishes that there is some justification for China and Russian maritime activities in the Indian Ocean, as it provides the only sea passage linking, the far flung ports of these countries in the East. The author establishes that naval power struggle in the Indian Ocean has already started and it is likely to become, more intense in the near future, owing to Asian century. The Indian Ocean will be the world‟s main hotbed of conflicts in next 50 years. The littoral and hinterland states of the Indian Ocean, having suffered for centuries under the yoke of colonialism, wants peace; and they fear lest the mounting tension in the region should imperil their security (Bhasin, 1981). But the author has missed the ways and means, how to strengthen the security in the Indian Ocean.

In a study, “India‟s Ocean Policy” the author has expressed that in the wake of mounting population pressure on lands resources, the future laying in tryst with the marine environment. Development and security, not only strategic but otherwise, have intimate relationship with her interaction with the surrounding waters. The marine resource-based euphoria is being epitomized in several forms. The making of Indian Ocean Policy is both a critical and delicate exercise. It is a compact of hierarchy of interests both short and long terms. The developments with regards to maritime interests are fast and ever changing that the policy options need to be dynamic for optimizing nation‟s interests. New paradigms have emerged and the future developments could be realized and appreciated on the basic plank of understanding, conflict resolution and cooperation in harvesting riches from the sea. Regional conciliation and understanding and global interdependence are cardinal points of policy options with regard to the maritime environment. The ocean policy is an integral part of the overall development policy. There are certain compulsions which need deeper appreciation. Imperatives and motivations both are decisive in influencing the Ocean Policy options (Sharma, 1994).

In another study, “Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean” the author observed that a historical study of long-distance trade enables us to see the underlying cohesion of the India Ocean and the contrasting nature of its different civilizations. Students of pre-modern Asia are often daunted by the formidable problem of comparative history. There are few studies which examine the historical past of the Indian Ocean countries before 1800 as a single subject. The tendency of history schools to divide themselves into regional branches has led to intense 26

specialization, adding greatly to our knowledge of finer details; but the task of integrating this knowledge into a general mosaic of interpretation is still incomplete. The purpose of this work is to begin a personal pilgrimage along that long road. Inter-regional trade conducted by sea and land symbolized at that time one of the most powerful features of social systems. If the pre- Industrial Revolution man was forced to live on bread or rice produced within walking distance, he was not altogether satisfied with clothing woven under his own roof. The daily necessities of life – clothing, pottery, tools, prophylactic, and even articles of food – assume through the application of specialized skills and artistic imagination the status of valued, luxury objects. The process of exchanging such items incorporated many different forms, social customs, ritual usage, economic considerations, and above all, the problem of distance. Furthermore, long- distance trade as an international movement of goods and people provided a measure, even in our period, of the role of money and prices and of the state of the arts. It could not survive without universal agreement on the notion of safe-conduct, on a law of nations, and on the means to distribute the economic gains (Chaudhri, 1985, p.45).

In a study, “Marine Geology and Oceanography of Arabian Sea and Coastal Pakistan” Coastal Makran is a subduction zone where the Indian Ocean plate moves northward under continental crust. The structural and strait graphic history of the area is complex and can be subdivided into three major episodes: The middle \Miocene and older phase was dominated by deposition of turbidities on a vast deep sea fan which originated from the east, supplied from uplands raised by the collision of India and Asia. Sediment transport was forwards the west and stand stones found along an axial belt of nearly 400 km show little change in texture or bedding characteristics, suggesting a fan rivaling the dimensions of the Bengal Fan. Spectacular mud volcanoes can be seen on Makran coast in Pakistan. The gases are mainly methane, but traces of heavier hydrocarbons and isotopic compositions indicate generation from thermally mature source rocks. Possible reservoir include middle Miocene coarse grained turbidities or late Miocene – Pliocene shelf sand stones, through the latter are mostly very fine grained, burrowed, and low in permeability. Attractive structures can be identified, particularly offshore, from prominent seismic reflectors of possibly middle Miocene age. Many other such studies indicate the presence of oil and gas reserves underneath the Makran Coast. However, these potential objectives are overlain by over pressured young sediments that are serious obstacles to drilling (Haq & Milliman, 1984, p.3).

According to Mir in a study, “Gwadar on the Global Chessboard” if there is a New City which will affect the world, in a most profound manner it is Gwadar. A miracle of geography, which can turn the world economic paradigms is the the Allah‟s gift to Pakistan. The Gwadar Coastal Development Concept was conceived in the year 2000. The initial concept prepared for Gwadar will be much more than a rich metropolis of the world. It will convert Pakistan into a truly multi-regional state actor rather than the conventional wisdom of being a South Asian entity only. This will change the political, economic, strategic, socio-cultural destiny of Pakistan for good, and for the better. It would also make Baluchistan, the richest province of Pakistan. Gwadar is the junction point of multi-regions. “Global Gwadar” the future concept based on `share wealth, share peace, share future‟ is manifestation of Globalism-Pakistan style. While Gwadar would enjoy global appeal, the mere fusion of Chinese trading affluence and Gulf wealth on Makran Coast, would change the “Financial Destiny” of Pakistan. Even in a depressive global economic scenario, Gwadar shines like a beacon lighthouse of hope. It could also usher a new era of global cooperation, geo-economic bonding and a tranquil world (Nadir, Geopolitik Pakistan – Pakistan‟s Weltanschauung, 2013).

According to Kaplan, “India‟s and China‟s aspirations for great power status, as well as their quest for energy security, have compelled them to redirect their gazes from land to the seas” (Kaplan, 2011, p.9). New blocks of power are emerging very fast as this century has already been declared as Asian century, that‟s why the interest of emerging powers, is increasing in the Indian Ocean. China needs a shorter route for her trade in the Indian Ocean via Pakistan using CPEC. Whereas, US using her absolute energy, and weight to promote India as counter check on china is likely to play further greater role in Indian Ocean Region.

After in-depth consultation of available literature, it has been concluded that specific data regarding Pakistan EEZ is not available keeping in view this compulsion author has enhance the scope of the research on scholarly lines with a prism of relevant IR theories. Subject research is a guide line for the future researchers and policy makers. Certain recommendations are also made at the end of the research so that policy makers at national level may use it as a guide book for exploitation and exploration of Pakistan EEZ in the Indian Ocean and while drafting relevant maritime policies and strategies.

1.18 Organization of the Study The dissertation comprises of six chapters. Chapter one is regarding introduction of various maritime zones, set of questions, theoretical framework based upon fusion of theories, significant of the research. It also includes Literature review, significance of the research and theoretical frame work. Some pertinent questions around which entire research is hinges upon, further explanation of the methodology adopted to find possible answers is also in first chapter.

Second Chapter includes living and non living resources, Maritime economics and trade. In Chapter three, Domestic and Regional challenges to EEZ of Pakistan have been highlighted including Piracy at sea with recommendation to cope with these challenges. In Chapter 4, Development of Maritime Capital inclusive ports and harbors whereas infrastructure set up of ships making and breaking in Pakistan. In the Chapter 5 Maritime Issues of Strategic Nature includes Extension of Continental Shelf, “Maritime Security”, Maritime Pollution, Maritime Awareness including Maritime disaster management, Capacity Building through Utilization of new technologies. In the Chapter 6 “Findings” and recommendations have been be proposed for the given challenges and opportunities.

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Chapter 02

RESOURCES AND PAKISTAN’S MARITIME POTENTIAL

2.1 Prologue

It is God who hath subjected the sea unto you that the ships may sail therein at His command and that you may seek gain unto yourself by commerce of His bounty and you may give thanks (Sura 45, Ayat 12, 2015). While explaining the word maritime God has reflected that sea is to be used as medium for commerce while using ships as a means of transportation and the bounty means the sea resources. Nonetheless, the word “maritime” encompasses everything related to the sea, and includes ocean resources (like the food, energy, minerals, oil and gas), mercantile marine, fishing fleet, ports & harbors, coastal infrastructure, maritime industry, EEZ and naval forces. In this dissertation a detail account of all these resources in Pakistan‟s Exclusive Economic Zone in Indian Ocean will be carried out.

The Indian Ocean Region (IOR) includes 36 littoral and 12 hinterlands states making a total of 48 independent states (Kaplan, 2011, p.11). The region is home to some 2.6 billion inhabitants who make up 40 percent of the world population (Suresh, 2012, pp-13-14) in a land mass which is just about 25 percent a huge population (Kumar, 2011, p.14). There are also 1,284 islands studded within the widely disparate littorals in terms of size, population and per capita incomes (Ahmed, 2009, p.15). This region has been an active zone of national liberation movements. Decades have passed since the tide of these movements broke the colonial empires and swept away the colonial system as such. But the struggle of the peoples who have won political freedom for independence, for the right to be masters of their natural wealth continues. The past has left the region with many conflicts. The ethnic and religious prejudices have further compounded the situation. All this makes the region‟s political gamut complex and contradictory.

The Indian Ocean is a vast stretch of sea-water, touches the Pakistani coast through North Arabian Sea. Though there are different opinions about its territorial limits, the area of the Indian Ocean according to one expert is 16,362,742 square miles, while another puts it at 30,095,723 square miles (Rudd, 2011) . Today the energy factor multiplies the significance of

the Indian Ocean exponentially. A major share of oil lies beneath Saudi Arabia and Iraq, while the Gulf region has nearly 45 percent of the world‟s gas reserves (Khan, 2007, p.36). The region accounts for 10 percent of the global GDPs. Notwithstanding these varying estimates, as compare to Atlantic the Indian Ocean carries less water, but much smaller than the vast Pacific.

The countries of Indian Ocean Region covers over 1/3 of the Global population and the area is rich in important minerals and raw materials. More than 2/3 of the Global oil reserves and 60% of the universe supply of diamonds belongs to this Region. If the oil deposits of the African coast and Indonesia are added, the oil wealth of the Indian Ocean region works out to around three-fourths of the world aggregate. Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq and Abu Dhabi are the major oil-producing countries in this region. Japan imports more than 90 per cent of its oil needs from the Indian Ocean region, Italy 84.5 per cent, Australia 69 per cent, Britain 66 per cent, West Germany 62 per cent, France 51 per cent and the United States 8 per cent. Besides oil, this area bounds in 20 out of the 40 raw materials of strategic importance imported by the western countries. These include uranium, thorium, coal, iron, copper, manganese, tin, mica, bauxite, chromites, nickel, cobalt, antimony, asbestos, vanadium and phosphate, etc. The Indian Ocean can only be accessed through nine important passages or choke points (Aleem, 2013, p.53). These include Persian Gulf, Cape of Good Hope, Bab-el-Mandeb, Malacca Strait, Suez Canal, Lombok Strait, Sunda Strait and nine Degree Channel. Five of these passages are today known as key energy SLOCs. Blocking of any Choke point may become source of disturbance of sea borne trade and prices of oil and commodity may become upheavals in global economy (Suresh, 2012, p.3).

One-fifth of the world‟s arable land lies in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, producing rich crops of wheat, rice, cotton, tea and coffee. The Indian Ocean region is predominantly agricultural, though in recent years industrialization has begun to take root in some of the countries. Of the 48 countries of the region comprising a little less than one-third of the world comity of nations, 40 have hardly any industrial infrastructure. However, India, South Africa, Pakistan, Singapore, Australia and Indonesia do have developed an industrial base. That partly explains the strategic importance of these countries-rich in natural wealth but inhabited by poor people.

Significantly, the Indian Ocean is also rich in its marine resources. The Continental Shelves covering about 4.2% of its area is containing enormous mineral deposits. Recent oceanographic surveys have revealed that the narrow shelf south of Sumatra, the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea is rich in oil, tin, gold and sea food. Ferromanganese nodules of 2.5 cm size and significant quantities of nickel and cobalt, besides 15-30 per cent manganese, have been sampled from various locations in the deeper parts of the Indian Ridge and west of it, at 200 south latitude in the south-east Arabian Sea. Offshore presence of calcareous deposits suitable for chemical and cement industries have been reported from bottom samples in the Andaman‟s and Nicorbar Islands and off Saurashtra, Kerala and Lakshadweep. Phosphate nodules and barium concentrations have been found off the west coast of Lakshadweep. Nonetheless focus during current research will remain on the Maritime Affairs in Pakistan‟s EEZ in Indian Ocean.

Centuries ago, the importance of Oceans was realized by the states, and command on the seas was a way to rule the entire world through controlling the SLOCs / Ships routes out at sea. In fact it was, Portuguese who initially started claiming and controlling coastal strips of their waters along the coast during 17th century. Whereas that point in time the sea was open to to all till Hugo Grotius offered his policy of “open seas”, was well taken, as per his doctrine sea was open to all nations, any state had the right to use open sea for its peaceful purposes and economic gain of human beings. He further explain yet another law for maritime states to declare any specific belts along their own coast lines as their national territory, where these states can conduct any research of its economic resources and allowed to conduct military and/or non-military functions. It also provided favorable circumstances for the coastal states to draft regulations and enforce maritime policies regarding their own territorial waters. The Hugo Grotius theory of res communes was taken as a bench mark for drafting future sea related theories and the Law of the Sea. Subsequently, lay down a detailed structure for the regulations about oceans.

2.2 Various Maritime Zones at sea Pakistan has signed the United Nations Convention on the law of the sea in 1982 along with other 155 countries. Taking the advantage of this convention, Pakistan initially declared its baseline and subsequently claimed various other maritime zones which are given below.

2.2.1 Baseline Territorial sea can be measured by the breadth drawing a base line in the low water along the coast which is measured on the large scale charts officially recognized by the coastal State. The exact definition of baseline as per UNCLOS-1982 is appended below:

“In localities where the coastline is deeply indented and cut into, or if there is a fringe of islands along with coast in its immediate vicinity, the method of straight baselines joining appropriate points may be employed in drawing the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. The drawing of straight baselines must not depart to any appreciable extent from the general direction of the coast, and the sea areas lying within the lines must be sufficiently closely linked to the land domain to be subject to the regime of internal waters. The system of straight baselines may not be applied by a State in such a manner as to cut off the territorial sea another State from the high seas or an exclusive economic zone” (United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea, 1982, pp.17-18).

2.2.2 Pakistan’s Internal Waters The area of Pakistan‟s internal waters comprises 5190 sq. km. It is the waters between coast and the baseline and Pakistan exercises full autonomy on its internal waters . (Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976). Picture covering the area of Pakistan‟s internal water is appended below for further understanding:-

Map No 01 Pakistan’s Internal Waters

Source: (PN Hydrography Department Karachi)

2.2.3 Pakistan’s Territorial Waters The area of Pakistan‟s territorial waters comprises 19500 sq. km. Measuring from the baseline it is further extended Southwards in the open sea till 12 NM (UNCLOS, 1982, p.17). Further clauses are appended below:- (1) Pakistan hereinafter referred to as the territorial waters, as well as to the airspace over, and the bed and subsoil of such waters. (2) The limit of territorial water is 12 nautical miles beyond the land territory and internal waters of Pakistan measured from the baseline. (3) The baseline from which such limit shall be measured and the waters on the landward side of which shall form part of the internal waters of Pakistan shall be specified by the Federal Government by notification of the official Gazette. (4) Where a single island, rock or a composite group thereof constituting a part of the territory of Pakistan is situated off the main coast, the baseline referred to in subsection (5) Shall be drawn along the outer seaward limits of such island, rock or composite group”.

Picture covering the area of Pakistan‟s territorial sea is shown on next page.

Map No 02 Pakistan’s Territorial Waters

Source: (PN Hydrography Department Karachi)

2.2.4 Pakistan’s Contiguous Zone The area of Pakistan‟s contiguous zone comprises 39000 sq. km. Measuring from the baseline it is further extended Southwards in the open sea till 24 NM. (Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976). Further clauses of Pakistan‟s contiguous zone according to the Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976 are appended below:- 1. Pakistan‟s contiguous zone to its territorial sea, described as the contagious zone, the coastal State may exercise the control necessary to (a) Prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea. (b) Punish infringement of the above laws and regulations committed within its territory or territorial sea. 2. The contiguous zone may not extend beyond 24 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. The contiguous zone covers an area of 39000 sq. km” (UNCLOS, 1982, p.26).

Picture covering the area of Pakistan‟s contiguous zone is shown on next page:

Map No 03 Pakistan’s Contiguous Zone

Source: (PN Hydrography Department Karachi)

2.2.5 Pakistan’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) The area of Pakistan‟s EEZ comprises 240,000sq. km. Measuring from the baseline it is further extended Southwards in the open sea till 200 NM (UNCLOS, 1982, pp.34-37). Further clauses of Pakistan‟s EEZ according to the Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976 are appended below:-

“The exclusive economic zone is an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, subject to the specific legal regime established under which the rights and jurisdiction of the coastal State and the rights and freedoms of other States are governed by the relevant provisions of this Convention. In the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State has sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources, whether living or non-living, of the waters superjacent to the seabed and of the seabed and its subsoil, and with regard to other activities for the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone, such as the production of energy from the water, currents and winds”.

Picture covering the area of Pakistan‟s EEZ is shown on next page

Map No 04 Pakistan’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

Source: (PN Hydrography Department Karachi)

2.2.6 Pakistan Continental Shelf Pakistan has recently claims its continental shelf and acquired another 50,000 Sq.Km of area astride Pakistan‟s EEZ. The exact definition of continental shelf as per UNCLOS-82 is appended below:

“A coastal State comprises the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory to the outer edge of the continental margin, or to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured where the outer edge of the continental margin does not extend upto that distance”.

The continental shelf of a coastal State shall not extend beyond the limits provided. The continental margin comprises the submerged prolongation of the land mass of the coastal State, and consists of the sea bed and subsoil of the shelf, the slope and the rise. It does not include the deep ocean floor with its oceanic ridges or the subsoil thereof. “The fixed points comprising the line of the outer limits of the continental shelf on the seabed, drawn in accordance and either shall not exceed 350 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured or shall not exceed 100 nautical miles from the 2,500 meter isobaths, which is a line connecting the depth of 2,500 meters. In spite of, on submarine ridges, the outer limit of the continental shelf shall not exceed 350 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured”.

Pakistan has more than 1000 KMs coastal line. On 13th March, 2015 Pakistan‟s claim of continental shelf was approved by UNO and Pakistan‟s, sea bed territory has increased by another 50,000 square km, making it a total of 290,000 square km. This area is bigger than the combined area of Sind and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) provinces of Pakistan.

It is pertinent to mention that Pakistan has timely availed the opportunity offered by Article 76 of UNCLOS 82 and gained an additional area of 50,000 Sq. Km. Approval of Pakistan‟s claim was the result of continuous efforts of 15 long years. Immediate upon approval Pakistan has gained exclusive rights over the newly acquired area (UNCLOS, 1982, pp.44-45). It is imperative that consolidated steps originating by the policy makers, supported by experts and implemented at field level are required to put in place a long term sustainable resource 45

exploitation model. Necessary steps at ministerial/ departmental level may be undertaken to promote sustainable exploration, implementation of national jurisdiction and exploitation of seabed resources (Dr Israr Ahmed, personal communication, August 24, 2016).

2.3 Achievements of Pakistan in Maritime Domain Relevant authorities of Pakistan attended the initial conference on UNCLOS held in 1958 and same day signed this convention without ratification. The Exclusive Fishery Zone Act 1975 covers the entire area and is implemented in true letter and spirit in all Pakistan‟s Maritime Zones. Now law and order in all zones is being maintained by the law enforcement agencies i.e. PN and PMSA under the umbrella of subject law. According to Deep Sea Fishing Policy 1995 Pakistan enjoys special right on resources up to 200 NM and Pakistan has confirmed its baseline on 29 Aug 1996 when Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued SRO 714(I) 96. The UNCLOS 82 was implemented on 16 November 1994 and Federal Government of Pakistan decided to ratify it on 26 February 1997 subject to the following declarations: “It was decided at that point in time that the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan shall, at an appropriate time, make declarations provided for in articles 287 and 298 relating to the settlement of disputes”.

2.4 History of Pakistan Ratification of UN Laws In 1945, United States has extended its influence over the resources on the maritime nation's continental shelf including minerals, hydrocarbons and posed a new challenge to the freedom at seas. The subject doctrine became quickly very famous among other Maritime nations including Argentina, Chile, Peru and Ecuador. Objective remained to have power over reduction of fish stocks in contiguous seas. Such progressively increasing actions by various nations were indicative of growing interest of coastal states in respective Continental Shelves and ocean resources.

Nonetheless, all living and non-living maritime resources rendering invitation for exploration. During decade of 60s, exploration of oil, Tin, Diamond, Polymetallic potato shaped nodules were in full swing around the world. The centre of attraction was offshore oil in the North Sea that is the reason many oil enrich countries including Britain, Denmark and Germany were in conflict for securing respective Continental Shelves. Next valued resource was fishing. Large fishing boats were approaching high seas, far from their native coast. The

struggled between UK and Iceland brought Royal Navy Ships to rescue these fishing boats captured by Iceland for violation. The overall scenario at that time highlighted necessity for a mechanism to regulate offshore affairs.

2.5 Beginning of the Law of the Sea Malta's Ambassador to the UNO raised the alarm and highlighted to the world community about looming conflict out at sea in November 1967. Such apprehension at UN forum set a process in motion that spanned 15 years and witnessed convening of the 3rd UN Conference regarding Law of the Sea for writing detailed treaty for oceans around the globe. The process culminated with a good news in 1982 when United Nations Convention regarding Law of the Sea shortly known as “the Convention or UNCLOS 82” was adopted.

It is worth mentioning that Pakistan played an active role in the making of UNCLOS - 1982. Pakistan remained part of various committees and held important appointments such as vice president of working committees and chairman of working group. Sound guidelines provided by Pakistan in smooth functioning of working committees were acknowledged at the UN forum. Being a strong proponent of this convention and realising future dividends offered to coastal state, Pakistan ratified the UNCLOS 82 on 26 February 1997. Subsequently, Pakistan made a submission to UN on 30 April 2009 as per article 76 of the Convention for extension of its continental shelf.

2.6 UNCLOS-82 Once again, it is important here to briefly discuss about the scope of UNCLOS-82. It defines various maritime zones and control marine sovereign rights of coastal states over seas and oceans. The convention also discussed many other aspects inclusive rights relating to navigation economics and land-locked sates, marine pollution, conservation of maritime life, technical investigation, anti piracy and many more. On 16 November 1994 the Convention entered into force. Till to date the Convention had been ratified by 166 States (Commodore Arshad, personal communication, April 20, 2016). As for as article 76 of the convention is concern, it define technical complexities of outer continental shelf vis-a-vis nation‟s jurisdiction. It is vital at this stage to grasp basic contours of the provisions of Article 76 of UNCLOS. In this regard, complex technicalities have been deliberately omitted to facilitate easy comprehension, especially by young readers, university students and future researchers. 47

2.7 Pakistan’s Maritime Assets Regarding Fishing Industry During the course of this research, various aspects of fisheries, fishermen, boats, men power, training institutions, research centres were consulted in both provinces of Pakistan from Sir Creek in Sindh to Gwadar in Balochistan. Nonetheless, numbers of meetings were also held with relevant stakeholders including Government and the Naval Authorities across the country. The outcome of fishery research is appended below.

2.7.1 Fishery Resources Marine fishery resources play a vital role to boost countries economic health around the world and also famous for a good source of nutrition especially for the coastal population. Owing to continuous population burst in Pakistan and scarcity of food on land fishery industry needs special attention by the authorities sitting at the helms of the affairs. The marine fish resources presently contributing only its 10 % to the national economy, whereas, its capacity is US$ 2.5 to 3 billion annually with value addition. In fact till date, fish out at sea is being exploited though traditional wooden boats without using modern technology.

The capacity of marine fishery resources within Pakistan's EEZ is still not known. The available data is based on assumption. Nonetheless, it depicts the presence of huge stocks of living and non living resources in Pakistan EEZ. Talking about marine fishery alone, state of the art machinery equipment and sensors are required for actual assessment of fish stock underneath the sea waters in Pakistan EEZ. Marine fishery is undertaken in various zones declared by the Marine Fishery Department out at sea. The coastal fishing is restricted up to 12 NM from the coast in both provinces of Sindh and Baluchistan. The other two zones are broadly being a regulated through Federal Government of Pakistan. In fact, the marine area, from the coastline has been divided into following three fishery zones:-

a) Zone- I (from coastline up to 12 NM) b) Zone-II (between 12 to 20 NM) c) Zone-III (between 20 to 200 NM)

Generally Zone-I & II are earmarked for local fishermen, no deep sea fishing vessels are allowed to operate in Zone-I & II, further in Zone-III deep sea fishing vessels up to 1000 GRT are allowed to operate as per deep sea fishing policy. However local fishing boats are allowed to operate in all three Zones for fishing.

Nonetheless, since 2005 no deep sea stern trawler is in operation in the EEZ of Pakistan, further there is no Tuna long liner is in operation since 2006 in the EEZ, thereafter the applications for the grant of licenses were invited through news papers from time to time and LOI were issued to different companies, but none of them could bring the vessel for operation in the EEZ. At present no deep sea fishing vessel is in operation in the EEZ of Pakistan. Owing to prevailing fragile security situation in Indus Delta region close to Sir Creek, Pakistani fishermen oftenly face harassment by Indian Coast guards, whereas many Indians fishermen occasionally conduct fishing in Pakistani area of jurisdiction and take away precious fish stocks from Pakistan‟s EEZ illegally. PMSA continuously making efforts to stop Indian‟s stealing Pakistani fish from the EEZ of Pakistan.

At present there are total 246 fish processing plant available / listed with Marine Fishery department of Pakistan, the details of fish processing plants which are in operation are as under:-

Table: 3 List of Fish Processing Plants

Types of plant Nos. of plant Capacity Freezing Plants 18 273 M. Tons

Canning Plant 01 13 M. Tons Fishmeal 08 107 M. Tons

Source: Pakistan Marine Fishery Department, Government of Sindh, Pakistan

Out of 246 fish processing plants available in/around Pakistani fish harbors only 27 are presently operational and rest are either old or non operational. Owing to unhygienic condition, non professional handling, vintage transporting system, Pakistani fishery products are unable to meet the hygienic standards set by European community. Because of this, the European Union (EU) has imposed ban on fishery imports from Pakistan in 2007 (Khan A. S, 2012). According

to Mr Israr Ahmed DG Marine Fisheries Department of Pakistan, the ban was imposed due to unhygienic conditions at the fish harbour and due to other shortcoming / deficiencies. Nonetheless, the ban was lifted by EU in the year 2013 after rectification of shortcomings (Dr Israr Ahmed, personal communication, August 24, 2016).

In 2007, once the fish export to the EU was ban, the local fishermen started exploring new avenues for fish exports. In this regard, few countries were approached in collaboration with marine fishery department and as a result, emerging markets were found in East Asia, African countries and Middle East.

Due to outburst of population in Pakistan and scarcity of protein food on land for human consumption, Pakistan needs to pay special attention towards marine fishery and extract more fish for local use. Nonetheless, Pakistan‟s marine fish can also be seen in the context whether it can meet the nutritional protein necessities of the local population. Most of the fishermen in Pakistan are living in some 45000 villages in the coastal area. As per critical analysis, the recorded consumption of fishery products is lowest in Pakistan and highest in Sri Lanka in South Asian region (Maritime News Digest, 2016, p.3). In Pakistan, the national consumption figure, based on the household consumption survey of 2011, was estimated that only about 26% of total catch was consumed locally as food fish. Accordingly per capita food fish supply was worked out at 1.6 Kg per year. According to Pakistan Marine Fishery department per capita food fish supply/ consumption is almost at the same position even in 2016 in Pakistan. The FAO survey report attributed the low figure to the tendency to export much of the fish production and the low purchasing power of majority of Pakistani‟s citizens.

Pakistan has also failed to explore the full potential of seafood exports. An official study claims Pakistan‟s coastal area produces (2015) around 359,534 M.Tons of fish, out of which only 130,358 M.Tons was exported worth US $325 Million (Dr Israr Ahmed, personal communication, August 24, 2016). If fish catch is fully materialized, the export of fish from Pakistan can fetch an additional $2.5 to 3 billion annually. It is further noted that the country‟s seafood export volume dropped by 7.30 percent or 7,2238 metric tons to 91,965 metric tons in July-March 2015-16 from 99,203 metric tons in the same period last fiscal year. In March 2016, the country‟s seafood export however posted an increase of five percent or $1.302 million to $ 27.863 million from $26.561 million in March 2015. In terms of quantity, seafood export in 50

March 2016 grew by over eight percent or 876 metric tons to 11,358 metric tons from 10,482 metric tons, official statistics suggest (Khan A, 2016). Moreover, as per WWF Pakistan report, roughly 1,000 species of fish and 12 species of cetacean, or marine mammals, are available in Pakistan‟s EEZ. There are over 332,000 active fishermen in Pakistan, with another 90,000 people associated with the trade and ancillary industries. Many use trawlers and small nets to catch fish, a practice considered harmful for marine life. Unsustainable practices in fishing, destructive gear, uncontrolled fleet size, and poorly-planned development are other factors leading to untapped potential. The scarcity of trained workers can be seen in all government departments relating to fishery industries in Pakistan.

Presently, maritime affairs subject is not a part of syllabi in any school, college and universities in Pakistan baring few universities who only talk about marine biology. Thus comprehensive research facility is not available in the country. National Institute of Oceanography and Pakistan Hydrographic department are also facing shortage of state of the art machinery, equipment and sensors. Owing to negligible research in the field of marine fishery, trained manpower is also not available. Presently, individual working for this sector have learn the art through traditional means of learning from the elders of their clan. A well trained manpower is the immediate requirement of this sector, more so professionals from academia also needs to be employed in Government department relating to fishery sector with a proper carrier pattern to excel in career on merit in Pakistan marine fishery department. According to Mr Israr Ahmed DG Marine Fisheries Department of Pakistan the Department has taken many step in Pakistan to develop fisheries sector of the country with the aim to increase export earning as well as for providing protein rich diet for the nation. In this context, a project titled “Fisheries recourses appraisal in Pakistan (FRAP) was initiated under which much awaited stock assessment of the fisheries stock was studied / determined (Dr Israr Ahmed, personal communication, August 24, 2016).

The fisheries resources play a significant role in economic welfare, income generation, employment and food security of a country. Global fish production was recorded 82.6 million tonnes in 2011 and 79.7 million tonnes in 2012. In Pakistan, annual fish production and export is appended below:

Table: 4 Fish Exports from Pakistan Year Marine Catch in Inland Catch in Total Exported US Earning from M. Tons M. Tons in M. Tons Export in Million US$

2010 337,916 195,461 133,200 296 2011 334,778 198,568 134,624 315 2012 349,050 201,877 138,680 317 2013 351,747 204,805 150,498 369 2014 355,900 207,492 137,381 349 2015 359,534 208,617 130,358 325 Source: Pakistan Marine Fishery Department, Government of Sindh, Pakistan.

Nutritionists pointed out that fish must be included in our diets due to low fat, high digestible protein and an excellent source of low caloric sources of many nutrients. On fresh weight basis, fish contains 13-25% good quality of protein and also comprised of all the eight essential amino acids including the sulphur containing lysine, methionine, and cysteine. The fat content varies form 0.2-25%. Fish, meat consists of about 15-36% soaked oily acids and 58- 85% unsaturated oily acids. Fatty fish is considered the main source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely DHA (docosahexanoic acid) which are necessary for appropriate growth of children. Regarding their essentiality, the presence of poly-Unsaturated Fatty Acid ( PUFAs) in pregnant women‟s diets cause the proper development of the brain in the development of fetus. The omega 3 plays a vital role in mitigating risk of preterm delivery and low birth weight. Since DHA is a main part of the brain, eye ratina and heart muscle, DHA has been measured as vital for brain and eye growth and is also excellent for cardiac muscles. Eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) has also been noticed to be helpful in brain disorders and cancer cure. Fish lipids are a good source of EPA and DHA (Nazish & Abbas, 2016). Considering all these benefits it is considered essential that fish consumption in Pakistan needs to be enhanced which is presently lowest in Pakistan and highest in Sri Lanka in South Asia. In Pakistan, the national consumption figure, based on the household consumption survey of 2011, per capita food fish supply was worked out at 1.6 Kg per person per year. If fish consumption is increased obviously fish catch needs to be increased manifold using modern fishing technology.

2.7.2 Fish Harbors The hub of fishery activities in Pakistan is at metropolitan city of Karachi, where Karachi fish harbor and korangi fish harbor are commercially engage in fishing activities. Nonetheless 52

Gwadar fish harbor is also picking up momentum with the construction of Gwadar Port, yet in another coastal city of Pasni, the Pasni Fisheries Harbour Authority (PFHA) has urged government of Balochistan and federal government to develop Pasni as „Fish City‟ and permit seafood export directly from there to the Gulf States (Maritime News Digest, 2016, p.3). The largest fisheries base of Balochistan at Pasni harbor has almost completed its redevelopment and Rebuilding to resume seafood landing within current financial year (2016-17). Around 70 percent of the local population depends on fishing for their day to day living. According to Managing Director, PFHA, Ali Gul Kurd , the Japanese government had provided Rs.800 million to dredge the silted harbor and redevelop the primary and necessary infrastructure that had been in tatters since 2007 (Khan A, 2016, p.3). The Pasni harbor was initially established in 1989 and served as a key facility to Pakistan national economy till turning dysfunctional almost a decade ago. Masqat, the capital city of Oman, is just six to eight hours sailing away from the Pasni harbor. The direct seafood export to Oman will help the Balochistan province to earn more at low cost of transportation and to keep a check on fish smuggling to Iran, MD PFHA is of the view that Karachi is too far with high transportation cost and low return to the local fishermen. More so, law and order in Balochistan province had also improved off late that helped the business atmosphere to grow manifold. The making of Pasni as fish city will attract local investment from different parts of the country, thus the backward coastal city of Pasni, is expected to have much to contribute in augmenting the national economy (Khan A, 2016).

China has offered 46 billion US dollars investment to Pakistan as a part of China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), many developmental projects are in progress as a part of CPEC investment in Pakistan. Minister for Planning Mr Ahsan Iqbal while addressing a seminar held at PN war college Lahore on 20 March 2016 mentioned that the CPEC will benefit the most backward areas of the country and this change has started to appear in the form of emerging settlements alongside a section of the western route from Quetta to Gwadar, which is scheduled to be completed by end 2017 (Iqbal, 2016).

Out of total production of fish, about 40 % is consumed locally and 22% is reserved for export whereas approximately 28% is locally used for fish meal and poultry industry whereas remaining is considered trash fish. The total quantities and percentage of edible and trash fish of the total marine fish catch in Pakistan Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) from 2010-2015 is appended below: 53

Table: 5 Distribution of Marine Fish Catch

Year Total marine catch Edible fish Trash fish Quantity % Quantity % 2010 337,916 212,140 63 96,818 29 2011 334,778 210,170 63 100,694 30 2012 349,050 234,145 67 104,997 30 2013 351,747 244,158 69 105,964 30 2014 355,900 246,150 69 101,180 28 2015 359,534 247,201 69 101,547 28

Source: Marine Fishery Department, Government of Sindh, Pakistan Pakistan‟s fishery channel of disposition of total fish including Marine & Inland is appended below:

Table 6: Channel Of Disposition of Fish ( Marine & Inland) in. M.T Disposition of Channels 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Marketed as Fresh 259,356 264,233 269,952 274,167 280,003 281,111 Freezing 99,213 83,492 84,361 83,486 86,321 87,202 Canning ------Curing 15,129 18,068 21,388 22,113 23,182 25,140 Subsistence 62,861 66,859 70,229 70,822 72,706 73,151 Fish Meal 96,818 100,694 104,997 105,964 101,180 101,547 TOTAL 533,377 533,346 550,927 556,552 563,392 568,151 Source: Pakistan Marine Fishery Department, Government of Sindh, Pakistan.

The average unit price in FY 15 was $2.49 per kg versus $2.45 in the preceding year. This value can can increase manifold and fetch billions of dollers with value addition. The other neglected factor about fish harbours in Pakistan is the infrastructure development. State of the art machinery along with well trained workers with fleet of modern fishing boats can only stop the decline in export of fish from EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean.

In fact authentic data about exact density of fish in EEZ of Pakistan is not available its entire shelf. In the dearth of actual fish stock, landings of fish at site may not essentially reveal the data of the catch. More so, regularly stock of unwanted fish is again thrown back at sea, nevertheless, the existing statistics may only be used as bench mark for fish catch and landing trend analysis. In the same context it may be analyzed from landed stock that what kind of fish is underexploited and or overexploited. After in-depth study carried by Marine Fisheries Department of Pakistan in August 2016, following chart was issued regarding Pakistan Marine Fishery Resources including landing:

Table: 7 Marine Fisheries Resources of Pakistan (all in tones)

Landing Total Type of Fish Bio-mass M.S.Y. 2015 Potential Pelagic Species (Small) 700000 300000 82,173 201,153 Pelagic Species( Large) 80,000 60,000 62,443 20,715 Demersal Species 500,000 300,000 171,632 32,015 Shrimp 88,000 35,000 18,981 - Cephalopods 20,000 12,000 10,080 5,475 Mollusks 8,000 4,000 2,307 3,375 Crabs 10,000 6,000 6,118 320 Lobster 1,300 600 1,257 - Ivory Shell - - 2,307 - Jelly Fish - - 1,495 - Razar Clam - - 195 - Clam - - 546 - Mesopelagics 10,000000 5000,000 - 5,000,000 In TOTAL 11407,300 5717,600 359534 5263,053 Source: Pakistan Marine Fishery Department, Government of Sindh, Pakistan.

At the time of inception of Pakistan in 1947 the capacity of fisheries export was only Rs 2.86 million which has now (2015) reached to US $ 325. Fisheries industry has still more potential and can play a pivotal role to country's economy. Yet another survey reveals that approximately 2.5 million tons of fish stock may be found in EEZ of Pakistan in Indian Occasion. Presently out of total catch substantial amount of fish is not been used or wasted

owing to unhealthy practices and lack of technical skill. Main fishery item of Pakistan exports are Shrimp and shell fish. Special attention is required for exploration of these species using state of the art of fishing equipments.

2.7.3 Fishing Fleet There were around 400 fishing vessels present in Karachi Fish Harbor during 1966 and the figure has been increased to 17,686 in 2010. Nonetheless, according to the statistics of 2015, provided by Marine Fisheries Department of Pakistan, the table of operational and registered fishing vessels with Marine Fisheries Department of Pakistan is appended below:

Table: 8 Registered / Unregistered Boats Operating Out at Sea Following types of Registered vessels are currently Vessels in fishing sector in (Categories) 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Pakistan. SINDH a. Trawlers Trawlers 3,102 3,215 3,265 3,336 3,439 3,526 b. Gill- Netters Gill-Netters 4,635 4,782 4,813 4,850 4,932 5,112 c. Long Liners Motorized 2,845 2,878 3,012 3,125 3,264 3,356 d. Hora S. Total 10,582 10,875 11,090 11,311 11,635 11,994 fishing boats BALOCHISTAN e. Dhonda Trawlers ------(Gill- Netters) Gill-Netters 5,105 5,345 5,626 4,670 4,932 5,112 Motorized 1,747 1,831 1,958 2,113 1,963 2,001 S. Total 6,852 7,176 7,584 6,783 6,895 7,113 Grand Total 17,434 18,051 18,674 18,094 18,530 19,107 In operation In numbers VESSELS (Categories) 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 SINDH Trawlers 2,034 2,094 2,112 2,336 2,412 2,536 Gill-Netters 1,105 1,295 1,366 1,423 1,496 1,623 Motorized - cum-Sail 4,625 4,784 4,863 4,968 4,587 5,213 S. Total 7,764 8,173 8,341 8,727 8,495 9,372 BALUCHISTAN Trawlers ------Gill-Netters 1,747 1,831 1,958 2,115 1,963 2,001 Motorized- Cum Sail 5,105 5,345 5,638 5,736 7,016 7,146 S. Total 6,852 7,176 7,596 7,851 8,979 9,147 Grand Total 14,616 15,349 15,937 16,578 17,474 18,519 Source: Pakistan Marine Fishery Department, Government of Sindh, Pakistan. 56

Sail boats are also being used for fishing in Pakistan. Mostly fishermen in Pakistan are occupied in territorial water and contiguous zone. However, larger gill-netters comparatively operate in deeper waters. Generally these boats are old vintage and using traditional fishing techniques. There was a dire need to use modern techniques and deep sea fishing boats for all kind of fishing in EEZ of Pakistan. Lack of maritime awareness is the big obstacle to use all its marine resources. Nonetheless according to Mr Israr Ahmed DG Marine Fisheries Department of Pakistan, following scientific efforts have been made so far to increase the type / quantity of fish catch in Pakistan Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): The scientific efforts has been made so for by this department are as under:-

The Vessels operating in the EEZ are not allowed to use fishing nets having mesh size not lesser then (90 mm) at the cod end for easy escape of fish & to protect under size fish from fishing, to increase fish catch / production (Ahmed D. E., 2013, p.172).

This department has organized day to day various workshop / training programs for fishermen on modern fishing method / fishing gear etc to increase production of fish and shrimp. To enhance fish / shell fish production Govt of Pakistan has approved a project tilted

“Reactivation of Hatchery Complex for Production of Fish and Shrimp Seeds” which will produce fish shrimp seeds which are to be released into the sea & will also be distributed to local fishermen to increase production of marine water.

Installation of (TED) in the trawl nets of fishermen to safeguard endangered species of marine turtles. To increase quantity of fish Govt has imposed a ban on fishing for the month of June & July each year for fishermen not to catch shrimp, to safeguard shrimp / fish Juvenile transiting in the shallow waters.

2.7.4 Way forward for fishery improvement in Pakistan Following need to be considered for fishery improvement in Pakistan:

A Working committee needs to be created with the support of relevant stake holders for preparing recommendations for the government regarding revamping of existing maritime infrastructure. Necessary alteration and compulsory modification if required for Fishery Jetties at

specific harbours along the Pakistani coast may also be indicated by the committee. Re designing of old faulty infrastructure or non operational fishing jetties may be under taken on priority on the recommendations of the committee to make them operational once again. In addition to this committee, technical assistance from NIO and HPN may also be solicited for preparation of future road map for effective management, development of business plans and prepare recommendations for revision of deep sea fishing policy 1995 and Pakistan‟s maritime policy issued in 2002.

Owing to new development at Gawader port special attention needs to be paid for development of fisheries along Balochistan coast. With the help of Chinese authorities a complete master plan is to be required to conceive regarding restructuring of present fishery setup along with proposing new options for the development of landing sites, jetties, ports along the Balochistan coast.

Karachi Fish harbor, korangi fish harbour and ketti Bandar Baba Island society is little better as compare to Balochistan fishery community. There are many opportunities for developing the fisheries, fishermen community, construction of boats, training institutions, research centres on these sites. Subsequently trained manpower of high standard can be provided to both the coastal provinces of Pakistan from sir creek in Sindh to Gwadar in Balochistan. A grand fishery strategy needs to be developed with the help of relevant stakeholders. Subject strategy must include recommendation for maritime infrastructure development and welfare of fishermen community.

2.7.5 Assessment of Quality and Standards Presently there is no mechanism to gauge the standards and quality in fishery department at any level. In fact well trained, educated men power is required in fishery sector to develop quality standards. Modern laboratory to gage the quality standards as per EU defined mechanism is urgently required. To enhance export potential of the fishery industry in Pakistan modern boats with good technical equipment are also required, above all hygienic condition needs to be maintained.

2.7.6 Assessment of Compliance Status The lack of training facility at Marine Fisheries Department (MFD) and on all fish harbours is hindering the development of the industry on the modern lines. Quarterly exports targets to be set by the Federal Ministry of Livestock and dairy development whereas MFD is to be made responsible for assessment of compliance status along with ensuring quality standards.

2.7.7. Assessment of Value Addition & Productivity It has been amply highlighted that value addition to fish catch prior export can bring bounties to the national exchequer. The share in the global markets can be further enhanced if fishery products are properly dried up tinned packed and timely delivered. Many exporters have already realised the prospective of value addition to the growing consumer requirements, the rise of supermarket retailing and more favourable trading environment in most of the importing states. In Pakistan the fishery export is in its infancy phase, most of the exporters are in the process of multiplying their opportunities by value addition to their fisheries products. Nonetheless owing to present price hike and the financial constraints for brining in new machinery and continuous increasing fuel and electricity costs are the major impediments in investing more for value addition by the exporters.

2.7.8. Policy Capacity and Support National Policy and Strategy for Fisheries and Aquaculture Development issued in September 2007 reveals the steps to improve the fishermen community along the Pakistani coast. This is probably the first time in Pakistan such policy was issued for the betterment fishery sector. Nonetheless, living resourced at sea were discussed in bit and pieces in subject policy.

Although fishery is being handled by Sindh and Balochistan provinces in Pakistan but somehow the major fisheries policies have always been issued by the federal government (Dr Shahid Amjad, Personal communication, April 20, 2016). It is further highlighted that keeping in view the federal fishery policy, officials of both Provinces may draft their own fishery policies. Generally the fishermen folk have different point of view, as they feel that Policies issued by federal ministry will never be able to address the local issues of the fishermen community rather it always added to their miseries of the community because the ground realities are not known to those authorities. Above all the provincial departments of Sindh have not been able to bane

destructive nets as per law. Many valuable fish species are becoming obsolete on the coast of Sindh due unregulated fishing and non implementations of fishing regulations.

The federal government through PMSA must revise the national fisheries policy. The ministry must control the factors like over-fishing, use of prohibited nets, demolition of mangroves and pollution consequential in the extinction of fish species. Among all, destruction of mangroves has played significant role for damaging the fish species along the coast. It was the need of time that construction of more jetties, transportation and processing facilities can play a major role to increase the exports of sea products to adjacent Muslim countries (Dr Shahid Amjad, Personal communication, April 20, 2016).

2.8 Untapped Resources EEZ of Pakistan The resources at seabed and oceans are progressively more being viewed as a substitute to resources at land. Such as the oil and gas deposits out at sea now form a key share of overall energy sources of any maritime nation. As other non-living land based resources begin to decline, and offshore exploitation of non living resources becomes commercially viable with the latest technology, more such resources can be explored as compared to be to be mined from the offshore areas. Much of such resources are available on the seabed in abundance in EEZ, it therefore becomes the source of contention between two neighboring states for control over these seabed resources. In some circumstances, these offshore resources may become strategically important to the coastal state by, if expensive, source for certain minerals not found on land in those countries. Latest research have highlighted, resources such as polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich crusts, present in the international waters of Indian Ocean. These resources are very valuable, like Polymetallic sulphde contains high deposits of zinc, copper, gold, lead, silver and barium, while the cobalt-rich crusts, include copper, manganese, cobalt, nickel, iron and zinc (Dr Shahid Amjad, Personal Communication, April 20, 2016). Research institutions have also shown their interest in other seabed deposits like gas hydrates, oil and gas, phosporates and many other valued metals. It is predictable that many organized efforts to develop resources of the deep seabed will be initiated in near future.

In 1998, the German Research Vessel “R/V SONNE” while visiting Pakistan EEZ has found the methane concentration in the water, offshore Pakistan. They have also given detail 60

information of high concentration of methane plumes, signifying great deposits of gas hydrates off Balochistan coastline (Commodore Arshad, personal communication, April 20, 2016). The presence of hydrates gas is usually linked with pelecypod Calyptogena sp. and Pogonophora worms, connected with dynamic gas seep. Many on shore mud volcanoes are also reported on Makran coast. Chandra Gup, is the active sludge volcano, the source of methane gas bubbles being emitting, is predominately sulphide oxidizing bacteria. Earlier an island coupled with methane gas erupted off Hingol close to Makran coast, which is also considered as part of the Balochistan subduction zone. Nonetheless, subsequently the emerged island eroded slowly by tall energy waves throughout monsoon period. Whereas, methane gas bubbles, persistently kept flowing from the base of the Island upwards on sea surface (Haq & Milliman, 1984). More advanced technology is required to commercially exploit the gas hydrates from EEZ of Pakistan from Indian Ocean. Presently such technology is only available with Japan, which can be acquired for exploration of the area.

There is a strong possibility of presence of mineral and non mineral ore deposits such as zinc, copper rich sulphide at of Murray Ridge, which extends from southwest of Makran coast. Currently, deposits and ore which are of high economic importance have not yet been quantified. It is the need of time that there should be more organized efforts, for exploration of these resources from bottom of Pakistan's EEZ.

Mainly shrimp, fin fish, minerals earns millions of dollars in foreign exchange for national economy in Pakistan. In addition, sand mining, beach recreation and tourism, which are are of high economic value derived from Pakistan‟s coastal zone. The source of financial capital of Pakistan‟s coastal zone is mainly from direct exports of these products whereas our national economy may be boost up if these are export after some value addition.

It is pertinent to indicate that Biomass of Mesopelagic fish in Pakistani EEZ still remains untapped, The approximate value of Mesopelagic untapped stoch is around 10,000,000 m. tons, whereas, specific technical equipment has not been develop at yet to tap such kind of fish in North Arabian Sea. Generally, coastal inhabitant is engaged with fish and fishery sector in Pakistan. Presently only one percent of Pakistan‟s GNP is being earned through fish export.

2.9 Living Resources of Pakistan’s EEZ Pakistan‟s EEZ resources are appended below.

2.9.1 Mangrove Forests It is estimated that 260,000 hectares of Pakistan‟s coastal areas are covered with mangrove forests starting from Sir Creek to Karachi. A study reveals that approximately an area of 18,350 acres at Balochistan coast is covered by mangroves, some area in the Indus delta has also being declared as “Mangrove forests”. Sind coastline of 250 KM in close proximity of Delta covers approximately 600,000 hectares, and borders the the city of Karachi in the northwest (Edwards, 1995, p.03). The Indus Delta comprises of 129,000 hectors of mangrove forests, extensive areas of mudflats, various minor creeks and a total of 17 major creeks. Owing to availability of sweet water in Indus Delta Region it accommodates 97% of the total mangrove forest whereas the remaining 3 % extended on the Baluchistan.

Major locations of the dense forests are in the vicinity of the pockets created by the creeks. River Indus being the longest river of Pakistan drains into delta and is the source of fresh water before entering into the Arabian Sea. It is pertinent to mention that world‟s fifth largest mangroves forest is in the Indus Delta Region which is the source of breeding for fisheries. Increased human activity in the area around Karachi harbor has become a point of concern for environmentalists globally as it is a direct threat to the several mangrove forests located in the region. China Creek is a creek that lies to the East of the port and covers approximately an area of about 6 Km hosting many tiny mangrove islands (Tagar, 2015, pp-229-233). Another larger mangrove forest is found in the southwest of the Karachi port as sweet water of River Layari drain in close proximity. In August 2003 an oil spill incident took place in near vicinity, from the Greek registered Tasman Spirit oil tanker. The resulting devastation to the environment included huge loss of turtles and fish. Moreover heavy losses were occurred to the mangrove forest in the close vicinity. One of the cause of degradation of mangroves around the Karachi harbour is due to cutting the mangroves for use as a firewood as depicted in the picture shown on next page:

Figure No 01 Degradation of Mangroves around the Karachi Harbour

source: Managing Director PN Dockyard, Karachi

Being the breeding sanctuaries for aquaculture and different species of birds these forests hold immense importance both environmentally and economically. Many rare species like halophytes, algae, shrimps, oysters, gastropods mud-skipper, thread-fin, pomfret, mullet and dolphin being reproduce here, owing to conducive breeding environment whereas Karachi Sand spit area are home of extinct species of Green and Olive Ridley.

According to recent estimations about 90% of the tropical marine fish species, especially prawns, which hold great commercial weightage, spend atleast some part of their life in the mangroves. The continuous degradation of the mangrove forests is a grave risk to the large population of fish in the region. Also from the aspects of environmental security these forest are pivotal for the area since they reduce erosion. More so, unfortunately people living in the coastal area also cut these mangroves trees to be used as firewood. Many administrative organizations maintain control over the Indus Delta Region. Understanding the immense worth of the Delta Mangrove ecosystem, have planted huge quantity of mangroves saplings in the region using modern techniques.

Pakistan Navy, being member of National Coordinating Body (NCB) of Mangroves for the Future (MFF) is playing an active role in addressing challenges to Pakistan‟s Coastal ecosystem. PN provides an active support and technical expertise to NCB for selection and finalization of MFF led initiatives for strengthening Integrated Coastal Management in Pakistan. In this regard, Pakistan Navy in line with Prime Minister‟s vision of “Green Pakistan” launched “Pakistan Navy Mangrove Plantation Campaign 2016” in the coastal areas of Sindh and Balochistan provinces (Captain Usman Tariq Pakistan Navy, Personal Communication, April 8, 2016). By end October 2016, over 1 million mangroves have been planted at selected sites.

Pakistan Navy with the financial support (small grant US$10,000) from MFF and International Union for the Conservation of Nature has undertaken a campaign to improve PN personnel awareness on environmental issues. During the Campaign, thousands of PN personnel were educated about importance of marine environment protection. PN with own and co- financing from MFF has installed a number of Reed Bed Sewage Treatment Plants. Medium grant of US$88,900 was approved by MFF for the installation of Reed Bed System at Manora Island close to Karachi, Pakistan (ibid).

The inhabitants of the coastal area also prove to be a major hindrance for the maintenance of mangroves in the coastal area of Pakistan. An estimated 1.2 million people live in the vicinity of the mangrove forests on the coastal areas of Pakistan. A enormous, proportion of which is directly or indirectly engaged in fishing activities. Rapid population growth is being caused by the high returns associated with fishing. Over the past decade Pakistani coastal areas have experienced an annual growth of about 6 to 8 percent. This growth is also fuelled by the migrants from other areas of the country as well as the immigrants from Bangladesh and Burma.

The mangrove system of Pakistan and its fast altering state due to human activities has attracted global attention over the past few years. Between years 1980 and 1995 the estimated rate of degradation of these forests has been 6 percent. Presently, only 15% mangroves can be considered in a healthy state. Initially, more than eight various species of mangrove were available. However, presently, only three famous species of mangroves are available along the coat in Pakistan, with avicennia marina contributing to about 95% of the mangrove population. The ecological stress is further reflecting by the fact that the other species like Ceriops tagal and Aegiceros corniculatum grow in small patches. Natural growth of the mangrove forests can only be seen at Sonmiani beach.

Another source of mangroves loss is the pollution which is being created specially in the Karachi Harbour. Two main rivers three streams and many other industrial effluent are being drained into Karachi Harbour. Since the inception of Pakistan, this bad practice is continue and drainage into Karachi harbor is increasing with each passing day. This 70 years drainage has resulted in the loss of many precious mangrove species along the coast of Karachi towards South East.

Biodiversity losses to mangroves are a direct result of over population of the coastal areas of the Indus Delta. Unchecked access of public to these mangrove forests has created an free for all environment taking the advantage of which cutting of mangroves for commercial use is continued unabated. Although in certain areas of Indus Delta Region, cutting of mangrove is prohibited and the local fishery department has already taken exceptional steps to control the wood cutting. The weak implementation of laws has only restricted this activity and not completely eradicated it however these measures will still have long-term implications on mangroves. However, the utilization of these forests for fuel by the local communities is not 65

recognized as a serious threat of overharvesting. The knowledge regarding the role of these forests needs to be created among the local population which remains to find their way to the minds and remain oblivious to the necessity of these forests.

2.9.2 Sea Weed Resources

The nutritional values and chemical properties of seaweeds make them the perfect source for medicines, fertilizer and phycocolloids (Saifullah, 2002, p.160). The seaweed market demand is for nearly about $5 billion. 12.4 million tons is estimated to be the world‟s total annual harvest. Due to their chemical nature some of the byproducts of sea weeds have proven to be extremely useful in many industries.

The area of coast of Sindh in Pakistan are known to be well endowed as far as sea weed growth is concerned. A comprehensive survey of the seaweed resources of Pakistan‟s coastal areas is yet to be conducted. In this regard it is believed that the winter season is comparatively favorable for sea weeds as there levels in the sea escalate to reach estimated values as high as 112 tons/hectors (Rizvi, 2010, pp.53-57). There are various types of seaweed in abundance around coastal area of Karachi. A variety of marine benthic algae belonging to the Cholorophyta, Phaeophyta and Rhodophyia are also available. Despite their immense untapped potential at present seaweeds are not being exploited to the extents where they can be beneficial (Afzal & Shameel, 2005, pp.97-107). It is the need of time that some new methodologies should be used to study the biomass of seaweed resources, potential for seaweeds culture, and nutrient evaluation of seaweeds must be explore.

The target can be accomplished by relentless work in seaweed culturing so that they can be available round the year. For development in this sector it is pertinent that the sub-tidal region of EEZ be explored fully so that its seaweed resources can prove to be a benefactor. Among the advantages promised by this sector huge benefits lie in the region of job generation which will not only engage a great sum of people in culturing and farming but will also play a role in the development of the Region.

2.10 Non-Living Resources of Pakistan’s EEZ Pakistan‟s EEZ non living resources are appended below.

2.10.1 Mineral Potential of EEZ in Indian Ocean On the sea bottom abundance of nonliving resources are available, taking the example of only mine and minerals massive stocks of precious metals can be found such as zinc aluminum, cadmium, cobalt, Iron, copper and nickel. Adm kohli in his book “The Indian Ocean and the India‟s Maritime Security” has explicitly explained these deposits with specific commercial value as appended below:

“It is reported that one square mile of sea bed where these nodules are found may be covered with 70,000 tons of minerals yield about 30,000 tons of manganese, 3,600 tons of aluminum, 2,300 tons of cadmium, 17,000 tons of Iron, 4,00 tons of cobalt, 1,200 tons of Nickel, and 650 tons of Copper. The value of the manganese nodules alone can be as high as ₤40,000 per square mile” (Kohli, 1997, p.5).

It is pertinent to mention that the estimated commercial value provided by the Admiral is decades old. The current commercial value of these metals can be calculated according to present market value. Imagine the value of one Sq kilometer area of Pakistan EEZ if explored for these mineral. Scientific hydrographic surveying can identify the extent of mineral deposits within Pakistan‟s EEZ in Indian Ocean. In Pakistan recently National mineral policy has been formulated with the consensus of all provinces for development of mineral resources but unfortunately EEZ of Pakistan has not been given due importance as there was no one to represents case of minerals of EEZ (Dr Shahid Amjad (personal communication. April 20, 2016).

2.10.2 Capacity of Hydrocarbons in Pakistan EEZ Millions of years are required for the formation of oil and natural gas resources which take place naturally within wide sediments of unoxidised natural material. It was predicted that at the start of the 21st century the probable proven worldwide oil resources were around one trillion barrels. The subsea environments claim about 252 billion barrels (25 percent) of the total sum (Pakistan, 2013, pp.4-7). Indus Delta Region of Pakistan is believed to be oil reach area in the EEZ of Pakistan. It has many similarities with other Delta regions in the sea like Indonesia, 67

Nigeria, and Egypt in term of oil and gas deposits in tectonic style rock bottom properties. Unfortunately, Pakistan has drill only 17 offshore wells as compare to 725 on land. The last well was drill at offshore in 2010 with the name of Shark-I by Pakistan Petroleum Limited (PPL). The hole was drill to the depth of 3,500 meters below the Sea belt but unfortunately it was concluded that drill is not commercially viable (Hasan, 2013) . Earlier also PPL made an attempt to find oil and gas reserves in open sea about 200 NM Southwest of Karachi in block-E without any success. Now another drill is being planned between 2,500 and 3,000 meters below the Sea belt excluding the depth of 2,200 meters from sea surface to seabed at the cost of US$150 million. Although, the first well was drilled in the year 1966 in Indus Dalta by the Sun Oil Company, but Unfortunately, Pakistan has not gained any success in the EEZ of Pakistan for oil and gas exploration. Since then about 17 attempts have been made without any success in the EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean (Dr Shahid Amjad (personal communication. April 20, 2016).

2.10.3 Feasibility of Sea Windmills on Pakistani Coast Pakistan has a very limited fuel reservoirs and most of the oil stock is being imported which cost very heavy to national exchequer. Presently electricity in the country is being generated through coal, oil, natural gas, hydro, nuclear and some part of electricity is also being imported. There is dire need in the country to develop alternate energy sources like hydropower, solar and wind energy. Owing to high wind speed in particular reaction Pakistani coast in the South and some places in northern area can provide conducive environment for installation of windmills. Ministry of Environment has already initiated a first wind power project in the southwestern coast of Balochistan in 2012 and has completed their feasibility study for establishment of farms across the country on different coast. Moreover different foreign investors like Brazil, Germany, Malaysia, USA, Spain and China are ready to invest in the wind power generation projects (Mirza, 2013, p.11). The only difficulty that foreign investors are facing is non-availability of historical wind data and available wind data for the potential wind development area is gathered by the Pakistan Metrological Department (PMD) is not being of International standard. Nevertheless primary data collected by PMD can be taken as bench mark to start a new project. It is pertinent to mention that many Western countries including USA have their own wind Atlas and wind data acceptable to local and foreign investors. Norway and Japan has already installed sea windmill on their coast and generating electricity. China and

India has also been very active since last few decades for collection of wind data and inviting local and foreign investors for installation of windmill in their coastal areas.

In Pakistan close to coastal belt the area of Gharo and Jhim Pir is very suitable for installation of windmill. The wind mills have already started generating electricity in the Gharo area and about six villages comprising of approximately 400 houses each have been recently lit. The Research and development work in this field is primarily being carried out by public sector organization owing to lack of capabilities at private sector. Under mention organizations are very active since 2001 (Mirza & Ahmed, 2006, p.5).

a. Pakistan Council for Renewable Energy Technologies (PCRET) b. Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB)

Two units of 1 and 10 KW of electric supply have already been installed in the coastal area of Pakistan based on the wind data provided by PMD. The wind corridor from Gharo to Keti Bandar is unidirectional and wind blow from sea to landward side. To calculate the capacity of wind energy in the area PMD carried out wind mapping by installing 42 masts. The result of the data analysis has informed that “a wind strip on the Sindh Coast which covers about 9700 Km2 with average wind speed ranging from 6-8m/s at a height of 80 m above sea level. The estimated theoretical wind power installed potential of the area is 43000 MW and realistic power installed potential is estimated to be about 11000 MW considering the area utilization limitation indicated by PMD” (Mirza, 2013, p.4).

In Pakistan, more than 90 wind mills have been installed through PCRET till 2015. More than fifty two national and international investment companies are presently working hands in gloves with Alternate Energy Development Board (AEDB) for wind power projects in the coastal area of Pakistan. AEDB is also actively involved in facilitating wind IPPS the coastal area of Pakistan.

2.10.4 Possibility of Tidal Energy from Ocean Waves in Pakistan EEZ The oceans cover 70 % of the earth planet. Mechanical energy is being generated from the Oceans waves and tides. Indus deltaic region is situated about 170 km South East of Karachi with composite network of creeks. The tidal water maintains higher speed (0.2-0.5m/s) 69

throughout flood and ebb tides while flowing in and out of these complex creeks. Preliminary feasibility surveys conducted by NIO Pakistan for drawing out of energy all along the Indus deltaic stream structure estimates approx. 1100 Mega Watt power can be generated from the 17 main creeks. The salt water inundates approximately around 80 km inland owing to the tidal rise and fall which is a positively help drawing out of energy from subject tidal currents (Wright, 2016). The Ocean Basically Produce Three Types Of Renewable Energies

 The thermal energy drawn from the sun's heat.

 The mechanical energy from the Ocean waves and tides.

 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversation (closed Cycle)

“Warm seawater vaporizes a working fluid (ammonia/propane). The vapor expands at moderate pressures and turns a turbine coupled to a generator that produces electricity. The vapor is then condensed in heat exchanger (condenser) using cold seawater pumped from the ocean's depths. The condensed working fluid is pumped back to the evaporator to repeat the cycle. The working fluid remains in a closed system and circulates continuously” (Amjad, 2015).

2.10.5 Future Maritime of energy from coastal and offshore areas

During personal discussion, (Dr Shahid Amjad (personal communication. April 20, 2016) provided an interesting description regarding Future Maritime of energy from coastal and offshore areas where he mentioned follow:

 Ocean thermal energy project can be initiated to harness the temperature difference (of about 20oC) to produce electricity in offshore areas of Pakistan.  Wave and tidal energy is clean source of energy, renewable, and almost free  Wave and tidal energy consumption creates no pollution  About 1100 MW of energy from wave and tide can be used for production of electricity.  Tidal waves (2- 4 m heights) are active throughout the year.

2.11 Deduction EEZ of Pakistan, comprises of distinct geological regions with unique oceanic phenomena‟s features which support huge chunk of fish stocks including the mineral deposits

and substantial hydrocarbon resources. The EEZ of Pakistan is considered to be a maritime province of Pakistan, also sometimes referred to as fifth Province of the Country. The existing other four provinces of the country are working under a well defined government mechanism which is absolutely missing in this fifth province. There is a dire need to channelize all these available resources which have been explicitly explained in this chapter through a proper government departmental mechanism. Presently around five ministries and twenty federally administered divisions/departments are looking after the maritime affairs of the country. If a separate maritime province is created with all these ministries and division/departments, the enormous resources discussed in this chapter can be channelized by these departments through one window operation which can work in harmony with the federal government. The benefits of these resources can add to the national exchequer of the country, which can provide economic boost to the fragile economy of Pakistan. Unfortunately owing to the poor research based infrastructure of the present day government departments related to the sea the exact data of these resources is not available. However the available data is through foreign means and cannot be termed authentic. Only once the required governmental bodies are installed in their desired place a survey can be conducted which can be expected to produce factual based data regarding living and non-living resources which can be trusted by the state. The data discussed in this chapter is acquired by numerous worthy governmental organizations such as Marine Fisheries Department (MFD) however it is essential to mention that it is not completely free of assumptions and estimates.

In Pakistan marine related indigenous research can be considered to be negligible owing to the vintage machinery, equipment and out of date sensors held by National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) and Pakistan Hydrography Department (PHD). The state of the art latest machinery, equipment and sensors required for further in depth research in this field can be directly interlinked with the US$ 46 Billion support program available through CPEC agreement by China. Utilizing the liberalist theory of IR both the countries can cooperate and conduct joint mapping of the resources available in Pakistan‟s EEZ for exploring those resources discussed earlier. In light of the mentioned theory the approach for collaboration can be taken a step further by conducting joint ventures with neighboring Muslim countries like Iran and Oman to attain an exact mapping of the natural seabed resources available in Pakistan‟s EEZ.

It is pertinent to highlight that the already available research material is general in nature that too relating to the Indian Ocean. Nothing particular about Pakistan‟s EEZ is ever discussed before. This chapter has amply highlighted the natural seabed resources of Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean in a sequential manner which is why this document may prove to be an instrumental tool for future researchers looking forward to conduct research in this field

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Khan, M. A. (2007, 05). The United States, the North Arabian Sea, and Pakistan. U.S Naval Institute Proceedings , p. 36.

Kohli, S. N. (1997). The Indian Ocean and India's Maritime Security. New Delhi: The Newstatement Press.

Kumar, N. (2011). Challenges in the Indian Ocean Region: Response Options. New Delhi: KW Publishers.

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Mirza, U. K., & Ahmed, N. (2006). Wind Energy Development in Pakistan. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews , 5.

Nazish, N., & Abbas, D. K. (2016). Fisheries: neglect in curbing malnutrition in Pakistan. Maritime Digest .

Pakistan, G. o. (2013). An Overview of Mineral Potential of Pakistan. Islamabad: Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resources.

Rizvi, M. A. (2010). Comperative Antibacterial activities of Seaweed Extracts from Karachi Coast Pakistan. Karachi: Hamdard University Karachi.

Rudd, K. (2011, 11 14). The Indian Ocean: in need of a regional organisation to match its growing influence. The Hindu .

Saifullah, H. S. (2002). Seaweed Resources of Pakistan. ISESCO Seminar on Utilization of Marine Resources, (p. 160). Karachi.

Suresh, R. (2012). Peace in the Indian Ocean: A South Asian Perspective. New Delhi: Serials Publications.

Tagar, D. H. (2015). Singh Forestry Resources: Causes of Deforestation and Policy Guidelines for its conservation (A Case Study of Lower Indus Valley Sindh-Pakistan). Karachi: University of Karachi.

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UNCLOS. (1982, 12 10). Jamaica.

Wright, A. (2016, 10 29). Google. Retrieved 10 29, 2016, from Tidal Energy: http://www.solar783.com/tidal.pdf

Chapter 3 CHALLENGES TO PAKISTAN EEZ

3.1 Introduction In previous chapter a mention was made on the immense potential held by the EEZ sector of Pakistan. It is assumed that substantial measures are not being undertaken to exploit it to its full potential at domestic and international level due to certain looming challenges. In this chapter an attempt has been made to point out the challenges which make the aim of fully exploring the promise of EEZ a seemingly insurmountable task.

The EEZ of Pakistan covers approximately 290000 sq. km including the continental shelf area of 50,000 sq. km. Pakistan‟s EEZ of is having stock of incredible quantity of quality fish. The area is meant for all kind of fishing including small boats operating in shallow water along the coast and large deep sea fishing. The actual mapping of the fish stock is still uncertain but the potential is about 2.5 to 3 billion US dollars (Ghauri, 2016). Existing resources are still underexplored to the required level as compare to other oceans like Atlantic and Pacific. This area of Pakistan is thickly rich with all kind of natural resources. Keeping in view the existing fragile domestic security situation, assume ably certain challenges of national and regional level out at sea render the task of extraction of economic benefits from its maritime zone something not free from difficulty.

3.2 Administration of Fishery Resources Although fisheries resources have been amply highlighted in last chapter (Chapter two), but certain challenges being faced by this industry due to poor administration will be discussed here. The fisheries resources are depleting fast in national EEZ matching to other maritime states of the Indian Ocean region, thus to save these resources immediate preservation action are required. Some of the peculiar challenges of this industry are appended below;

 Total fish catch of Pakistan stood at 568,151 metric tons during Financial Year 2015, out of which marine share was 359,534 mt and inland was 208,617 mt brining $325m to the national exchequer. In fact, the exports declined to 130,358 mt in last fiscal year as compared to $349 million export in 2014 due to mismanagement and poor handling (Dr Israr Ahmed, personal communication, August 24, 2016). 76

 The country‟s seafood export volume dropped by 7.30 percent or 7,238 metric tons to 91,965 metric tons in July-March 2015-16 from 99,203 metric tons in the same period last fiscal year. In March 2016, the country‟s seafood export however posted an increase of five percent or $1.302 million to $27.863 million from $25.561 million in March 2015. In terms of quantity, seafood export in March 2016 grew by over eight percent or 876 metric tons to 11,358 metric tons from 10,482 metric tons, official statistics suggest (Khan, 2016) .

 Worldwide average per capita fish consumption was increased from 9.9 Kg in the 1960s to 19.2 kg in 2012. In Pakistan, per capita fish consumption is 1.6 to 2 Kg, which is the lowest in all over the world (Nazish, 2016, p.3). Out of total catch, some is sold in the local market for domestic consumption, a portion is exported, some is used for chicken feed industry and rest is spoiled/ wasted due to poor administration.

 Various species of tuna fish (kawakawa, long tail, skipjack, frigate, and yellow fin) are present in Pakistan‟s EEZ, but international market is not being explored for its due share of export due to unprofessional conduct and maltreatment. Other reasons for less export are non standard value addition, using unsuitable methods of handling and improper preservation of tuna.

 A specific net of proper mesh size is only authorized for fishing in Pakistan EEZ so that if even a small fish entangled with the net be easily get away. But unfortunately all kinds of nets are being used by the fishermen out at sea due to poor implementations of relevant laws. Various kinds of fishing nets used by the local fishermen, includes Bottom trawl nets, pelagic trawl nets (Katra nets) and Gill netting and long lining etc. Two types of fishing nets namely bag nets and trawl nets are banned by Government of Sindh to operate in the creek areas. The government has recommended mesh size for the bottom trawl net at cod end is (90mm) for deep sea fishing trawlers operating in the EEZ of Pakistan (Khan M. M, 2015).

 Negligible academic background, poor handling, less technical knowhow of the fishermen community training are some of the other factors of unprofessional conduct.  In fact only 246 fish processing plants are available in Pakistan, however presently only 27 plants are operational on the coast of Pakistan (ibid), out of operational, most are on 77

Baluchistan coast which are comparatively new. Owing to bad administration exact requirement of fish processing and freezing plants according to fish catch is yet not known to the relevant stakeholders in Pakistan.

 It is pertinent to mention that European Union imposed ban in April 2007 (Khan A. S, 2012) on import of fishery products from Pakistan primarily owing to shortcomings observed about hygienic conditions on the locations of all stages of landing, distribution, processing and production of sea food products. Although, after the conscientious efforts, the ban was lifted by EU in the year 2013 after rectification of short comings (Zeb, 2013). But hygiene conditions at all fishing harbours in Pakistan still needs improvement.

3.2.1 Surveillance of area under national jurisdiction Coastal State is responsible for implementation of local laws and articles of UNCLOS in the maritime zones of national jurisdiction, with the addition of over 50,000 Sq km and extension of outer limits from 200 to 350 NM. Now the challenge is added responsibility, precision of Pakistan Navy and PMSA would increase substantially. Consequently, it would require number of modifications in the existing operational plans and publications; moreover, requirement of additional combatants in this regard would also be the need of future and needs to be worked out by respective Head Quarters.

3.2.2 Charting and Research According to UNCLOS-82 maritime nations to protect the marine environment and the resources in their area of jurisdiction if these are signatory to subject law. Hhydrographic data and relevant publications may also be contemplated by these nations. As same is the case with Pakistan, Behr Paima survey ship, since its induction in 1982, has completed harbour/ coastal surveys and up to date charts covering whole coast. This platform provided enormous professional exposure to PN Hydrographers. Resultantly, name of the country was projected by hydrographers on all international forums like International Hydrographic Organization, ROPEME Sea Area Hydrographic Commission, North Indian Ocean Hydrographic Commission, UNCLCS, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (Commodore Arshad, personal communication, April 20, 2016). However, with services of BEHR PAIMA for about 33 years, induction of additional platforms is required for deep sea surveys and marine scientific research. 78

3.3 Challenges in the Indian Ocean and to Pakistan’s EEZ Pakistan is occupying a very strategic location at the mouth of Strait of Hormuz in the Indian Ocean. There are 48 littoral and hinterland states encircling the Indian Ocean Region (Akhtar, 1981). The Indian Ocean also has a large number of islands, both big as well as Coral atolls. The island of Socotra near Red Sea and that of Marisa off the coast of Oman near the Hormuz Strait, providing access to the Persian Gulf, are part of the Republic of Yemen and the Sultanate of Oman, respectively.

The Indian Ocean is surrounded by land mass on three sides, but there are only three major entry points in the south-east, west and south-west, which are, (i) the Straits of Malacca; (ii) around the Cape of Good Hope; (iii) the Suez Canal. Other minor routes are through the Straits of Sunda, Lombok and Makassar and other narrow Indonesian waters and around Australia- Cape York in the north-west and Base Strait in the south-east (Suresh, 2012, pp.1-3).

Indian Ocean has carried the commercial and cultural traffic since the dawn of history. It has played an important role as a trade passage for the economic prosperity of its surrounding region and the world at large. The popular sea routes of Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Aden have long been used for trade and communication. The geo strategic imperatives in the Indian Ocean started changing since mid 1960s because the countries which were formerly the European colonies got independence and were in the process of settling thereby seeking liberty for greater freedom of action to pursue their respective national interests. In parallel after the withdrawal of British from the Indian Ocean, USA and Soviet Union got into a cold war. But soon after collapse of Soviet Union, US became the sole super power and orchestrated the environment within the IOR (Rais, 1986).

With the effects of globalization, the world became interconnected and importance of trade increased. As the economies of the world‟s economic giants started rising, their sensitivities for the smooth flow of trade through Indian Ocean also increased. Events of 9/11 fuelled the spark and what one can see today is increased legitimate concerns of the world on maritime security in the region. Indian Ocean today accounts for half of the world's container traffic and 70 % of the total traffic of petroleum products passes through this Ocean from the Middle East to the Pacific (Kaplan, 2009, pp.21-25). Forty percent of the world trade passes through the Strait of Malacca 79

and 40 % of all traded crude oil passes through the Strait of Hormuz (ibid). More than 85% of the oil and oil products bound for China cross the Indian Ocean and pass through the Strait of Malacca whereas India is dependent on oil for 33 % of its energy needs of which 65 % it imports (ibid). These figures show that world is heavily dependent on smooth flow of oil and goods through Indian Ocean and their sensitivities of the nations involved are legitimate.

Pakistan also depends heavily on trade through sea. Pakistan exports and imports have steadily increased over the years (Govt of Pakistan, 2014-2015). The rising import/export trend implies that Pakistan‟s reliance on sea borne trade will increase in coming years. About 65 % of sea borne trade is handled by Karachi port whereas remaining 35 % is handled by port Qasim (Government of Pakistan, 2016). Thus ensuring unhampered use of SLOCs of the Indian Ocean for free flow of trade and energy becomes even more important for Pakistan than before.

Besides trade, Indian Ocean is also filled with natural resources like hydrocarbon resources, minerals and fish. These resources are important for the economic success of both littoral and extra regional states. It contains more than two third of the capitalist‟s world reserves and 60 % of all the deposits of diamond (Kumar, 2000, p.28). If the oil deposits of the African coast and Indonesia are added, the oil wealth of the Indian ocean region comes to about three fourth of the world‟s aggregate. Iran, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait are the major oil producing countries in the region (ibid). The continental shelves covering about four percent of the total area of the Indian Ocean contain enormous mineral deposits. More than 65 % of world‟s uranium reserves are in IOR. Recent oceanographic surveys have revealed that the areas near south of Sumatra, Persian Gulf and Red sea are rich in oil, tin, gold and sea food. The vast marine food potential is another vital factor determining the importance of the Indian Ocean. It is estimated that Indian Ocean contains more than 12 million tons of catch fish. The countries around the Indian Ocean catch only 9 million tons of fish which is about 15 percent of world‟s total catch of 66 million tons. Hence Indian Ocean is full of economic potential both in terms of facilitating the global maritime trade and her own ocean resources. Therefore as the world‟s trade will increase and technology becomes handy to exploit ocean resources, quest by the nations to have more economic gains will increase vis-à-vis rivalry, which will further add the significance of the Indian Ocean.

Any negative security issue on land with socio-political background, military conflicts ashore, and other negative activities such as Arms trafficking, drug smuggling, human smuggling terrorism planned on land ultimately have spill over to shape a rather uncertain precarious milieu at sea. In the same context after 9/11 incident and Afghan war fall out many countries of South Asia including Pakistan are facing fragile security situation on land thus, maritime environment in Pakistan‟s EEZ remains in a state of flux. Thus Pakistan Security Agencies like PN and PMSA are confronted with various challenges out at sea in Pakistan EEZ in Indian Ocean. Some of these challenges have been broadly dwelled upon as appended below.

3.3.1 SLOC Protection Sea lines of Communication (abbreviated as SLOC) are principal sea routes between various ports, used for trade (import/export), logistics, oil transportation and by security forces like naval forces coast guards. Yet the North Arabian Sea (Pakistan offshore areas) has one of the busiest sea lanes with 2,500 vessels, carrying 33 million tons of crude oil annually (IOC 1984) from the oil rich gulf counties. SLOC is generally used in reference to naval operations to ensure that SLOCs are kept open, or in times of hostilities, to close them.

The third largest Ocean of the Globe is Indian Ocean (IO), covering twenty percent of the world‟s entire oceans area (Panikkar, 1945). It extends from South Asia to Antarctica and from East Africa to South East Australia. The Indian Ocean is connected with the Pacific Ocean through Strait of Malacca and with the Atlantic Ocean by the expanse of Africa and through the Suez Canal. The important link between Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea is through Suez Canal. The main subsidiary seas of the Indian Ocean are the, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, Red Sea and Bay of Bengal. This Ocean is connected with all these shores through special travelling ways called SLOCs , which need to be protected all the time for safe travelling and protected import export.

The Indian Ocean Region (IOR) comprises of 48 littoral and hinterland countries (Indian Maritime Doctrine, 2009). These countries either drain into the Indian Ocean or lie landlocked and have no way out except across a neighbor‟s territory to reach the Indian Ocean which a houses the centre of global energy gateway. Since the economic development of a state is closely linked to its trade and energy supplies therefore Indian Ocean is important for the well being and prosperity of the world. Since most of the trade across the globe is conducted through sea 81

therefore Indian Ocean has gained special impetus in the strategic security matrix of both littorals and extra regional countries due to concerns over maritime security which dictates SLOCs protection. The threat to maritime trade from non state actors has taken prominence and is a serious challenge for world in general and Indian Ocean littorals in particular. Besides, interstate rivalries and increased presence of ERF are also the factors wherein Indian Ocean is now referred to as the „Centre Stage for the 21st Century‟ where protection of SLOCs has gain importance. The Strait of Bab-el-Mandab, Hormuz, and Malacca are the principal oil shipping lanes, as well as the main navigational choke points of the world commerce. Forty percent of seaborne crude oil passes through the Strait of Hormuz at one end of the ocean, and 50 percent of the world‟s merchant fleet capacity is hosted at the Strait of Malacca, at the other end, making the Indian Ocean the globe‟s busiest and most important interstate (Kaplan R. D, 2010. p.7). Important SLOCs emerging from Pakistan EEZ in North Arabian Sea are subsequently diverting towards three important choke points i.e. Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca and Bab-el- Mandeb. The SWOT analysis of these important choke points is appended below:

3.3.1.1 Strait of Hormuz Strengths: a. Has great strategic and economic importance for regional as well as extra- regional countries.

b. About 17 million barrels of oil (40 percent of global consumption) is shipped through the strait on daily basis.

c. Links two important seas in the Indian Ocean-Persian Gulf (west) with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea.

d. Separates two distinctly separate cultures-Iran (north) from the Arabian Peninsula (south).

e. The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of crude oil, and related industries dominate the region.

f. Compared to other choke points, the strait is relatively wider: 35 to 95 Km.

Weakness

a. Tankers collecting oil from various ports on the Persian Gulf must pass through the strait. 82

b. Because of its natural resources, access to the Persian Gulf and the strait has become the focus of international tension.

c. In the 1980-1988 Iraq-Iran war, each side attacked the other's oil tankers.

d. Has an average depth of only 35-50m which is shallow and constrains heavy tankers/shipping.

e. Vulnerable to maritime terror attacks.

Threats

a. During period of International sanctions, on several occasions Iran threatened to block the strait.

b. The Persian Gulf is rich with abundant fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, but its ecology has come under pressure from industrialization and construction.

c. With the rise of Arab nationalism (Pan-Arabism) in the 1960s, some Arab states of the region started adopted the term “Arabian Gulf” to refer to the waterway.

Opportunities

a. With Iran now clear of sanctions, opportunity for a collective security of the strait between regional countries further improves.

3.3.1.2 Malacca Strait

Strengths

a. The world‟s second-busiest waterway (Is funnel shaped and 500 miles (800 km) long).

b. Most important waterway connecting the Indian Ocean (Andaman Sea) and the Pacific (South China Sea).

c. About 15 million barrels of oil (35 percent of global consumption) is shipped through the strait.

d. In 2010, almost half of the world‟s total annual seaborne trade tonnage passed through the Strait of Malacca and the nearby Straits of Sunda and Lombok.

e. Serves as the main transit route supplying vital commodities to fuel the fast- growing economies of Asia and beyond.

f. Is the shortest sea route between India and China.

Weaknesses

a. Water depths rarely exceed 120 feet (37 metres) and are usually about 90 feet (27 metres).

b. Has a width of only 40 miles (65 km) in the south that broadens northward to some 155 miles (250 km).

c. Piracy infested strait.

Threats

a. China feels threatened that US or India could block the strait in crisis.

b. Blocking of strait could trigger major crisis in region leading to conflict.

3.3.1.3 Bab-el-Mandeb

Strengths

a. Mutual collaboration and coordination agreement between Malaysia and Thailand is opportunity to provide safe and secure marine trading through Strait of Malacca.

b. Connects Red Sea (northwest) with the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean.

c. The strait is 20 miles (32 km) wide and important geographically, politically, economically and militarily.

d. With the building of the Suez Canal, the strait assumed great strategic and economic importance, forming a portion of the link between the Mediterranean Sea and East Asia.

e. The flow through this strait provides for the circulation between the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, since no flow takes place through the Suez Canal.

f. The strait‟s Arabic name means “the gate of tears,” so called from the dangers that formerly attended its navigation. 84

Weaknesses

a. The region contrasts and elements of tension persist due to different political regimes, religious and cultural heritages economic resources etc.

b. The region is considered a confrontation arena between superpowers.

c. On the peripheries are states considered weak or failing. Threats

Threat of piracy and other maritime crimes persist

Opportunity

Ongoing peace process / cease fire agreement between Yemen and Saudi Arabian lead forces is the opportunity to provide safety to world oil / shipping trade from piracy and armed robbery at sea through BEM.

3.3.2 Interests of Regional and Extra Regional Countries

Although geo strategic scene in the Indian Ocean is highly characterized by the high degree of extra regional influence but nevertheless, littorals of the Indian Ocean have their own interests. Events like 9/11, Afghan war, maritime terrorism and piracy have although provided the so called legitimacy to extra regional countries in IOR but the degree of their interests and effects on IO littorals portray the importance of the Indian Ocean Region as well.

3.3.3 Indian Interest in the Area Along with many legitimate interests in the Indian Ocean, there are some other factors which show Indian hegemonic designs to act as predominant influencer in the region and are considered as a threat to security of Pakistan. Former Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee issued a statement regarding India‟s strategic priorities same is appended below (Kapila, 2003).

“The strategic frontiers of today‟s India, grown in international stature, have expanded well beyond confines of South Asia. Our security environment ranges from Persian Gulf to Straits of Malacca across the Indian Ocean, includes Central Asia and Afghanistan, China and South-East Asia. Our strategic thinking has also to extend to these horizons.”

It is analyzed from the above statement that India is following the strategic and maritime goal of establishing an all around maritime presence in the Indian Ocean. Indian navy has also transformed into a formidable force and is pursuing the national policy objectives through naval diplomacy. Indian Navy Maritime Doctrine issued in 2009, also underscores India‟s desire to attain a unique strategic position within the IOR.

In line with realest theory, Indian maritime ambitions which are hegemonic and expansionist in nature pose serious threat to Pakistan. India‟s strategic perception of the Indian Ocean has undergone a radical change because traditionally India followed a land oriented policy. During recent years India has successfully exploited its geography, environment and domestic resources to develop a potent navy capable of defending her entire spectrum of maritime objectives. Indian defense budget had gradually increased in recent years (Government of India, 2014-2015, p.111). Nuclearisation of South East Asia has also the implications for the security of Pakistan. India‟s declared nuclear doctrine emphasizes “No First Use” but reserves the right to a massive retaliatory strike in case of a nuclear attack. India launched its first nuclear submarine INS ARIHANT and became the sixth country in the world to possess under water nuclear capability, surprisingly without any resistance from the world community. However, if Pakistan acquires this capability the response of world community is questionable. Indian Navy is heading towards nuclear weapons development and massive platforms modernization programs. During any future conflict PN would face the nuclear threat which necessitates an appropriate response. Besides, by acquiring this capability India is in better position in the international arena to negotiate and pursue her policy objectives from a favorable position.

Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) is a regional forum comprising of Indian Ocean States, was established by Indian Navy in February 2008 (Inidan Ocean Naval Symposium - Pathway to Regional Maritime Cooperation, 2008). While IONS may be claimed as a consequential step to enhance cooperation in the region, it is nonetheless deemed to be a platform for the Indian navy to further her strategic domination over the Indian Ocean littorals. Indian navy today deems itself to be the principal military instrument and central to Indian foreign policy. Indian Navy had also proposed the UAE Naval Chief to be the next chairman of the IONS. These broader initiatives of IN have serious implications for Pakistan and Pakistan must work in close collaboration with regional nations because by not participating on such platforms, Pakistan is relatively loosing on diplomatic front. 86

The future outlook of a IN strategic force is centered on 3 aircraft carriers, Nuclear Submarines, AWACS and Maritime Aircraft which will enhance her capability manifold. Indian Navy‟s present tally of modern ships and sophisticated submarines will be further increase to many folds by 2025, while its fixed wing and rotary assets will be doubled to 500. These numbers will thus increase the conventional gap between Pakistan and India. Although Pakistan cannot match the India build up but PN to be configured to give a matching response to the adversary.

India had deepened her military ties with African Indian Ocean Rim States since early 90s mainly with Seychelles, Mauritius and Madagascar. Since 2003, Indian navy had patrolled the EEZ and territorial waters of Mauritius and Seychelles (Vines & Bereni, 2008). In fact it manifests India‟s economic and political ambitions to play a bigger role in the region. The growing Indian influence will have serious repercussions for Pakistan both diplomatically and militarily. At present about 15% of India‟s crude oil is imported from Africa and India is endeavoring to increase her crude oil imports from Africa. If India increases her oil imports from Africa, then in case of limited Indo- Pak conflict India will gain the leverage to continue her flow of energy needs from Africa, which will deny Pakistan the advantage of her superior strategic orientation.

The commonality of interest between India and Israel has resulted in a well developed collaboration in the military, strategic and intelligence fields. India purchased over $5 billion worth of military hardware from Israel Between 2002 and 2007 which made Israel as the India‟s main global supplier of defense apparatus. The potent weapon systems supplied to Indian navy are threat to Pakistan‟s security. Nonetheless compression of Indian Navy with Pakistan Navy is appended below:

Table: 9 Comparison of Pakistan Navy and Indian Navy Fleet

Platform IN PN Aircraft Carrier 02 - Nuclear Submarine 01 - Submarine 13 5 Destroyer/ Frigate 24 9 Missle Corvettes 24 - Chariot (CE2F)/Midgets 11 3 Amphibious Forces 20 1 Missile Crafts/Patrol 138 10 Mine Sweepers/ Hunters 7 3 Fleet Tankers 4 2 Coastal Tankers 6 2 Auxiliary Support Ships 21 2 Miscellaneous 24 4 Total 295 41

Source: Naval Headquarters Islamabad

Table: 10 Comparison of Pakistan Navy and Indian Navy Aviation

Platform IN PN Boeing P-8-Poseidon 8 - Maritime Jaguars 18 - MiG-29K/KUBs 39 - LRMPs 13 8 MPAs 32 12 Basic Trg A/C (Kiran, Deepak & AJTs) 31 - Helicopters + UAVs 99 21 Total 240 41 Source: Naval Headquarters Islamabad

3.3.4 Pakistan Interest in the Area

Pakistan has a coastline of more than 1000 Km and an EEZ of 240,000 sq km now an additional area of 50000 sq km added through extension of its Continental Shelf in the Indian Ocean making a total of 290,000 Sq km. More so, Pakistan interest in Indian Ocean in enhanced many fold after manifestation of China Pakistan Economic Corridor package of US$ 46 billion signed in 20016 to connect the Gwadar Port with western part of China (Impact and Prospects of CPEC for International Stake Holders, 2015).

In his message on the occasion of defense day on 6 September 2016, Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral Muhammad Zakaullah NI (M) highlighted that Pakistan Navy is contributing effectively to the overall deterrence and national security. In view of the game-changing development of China Pakistan Economic Corridor with Gwadar port as its „pivot and enabler‟, maritime security all along our coast especially off Gwadar has assumed greater significance. Pakistan Navy is determined and vigilant to safeguard against any conventional or asymmetric threat to Pakistani ports and maritime infrastructure with special focus on seaward security of Gwadar given the national importance of CPEC project.

The Admiral reiterated that Pakistan Navy is resolute in its commitment to continue with our national effort in the National Action Plan and Operation Zarb-e-Azb in synergy with our security forces both ashore and along our maritime frontiers. In the face of multiple maritime challenges, Pakistan has forged a strong partnership with the international community to combat common challenges such as maritime terrorism, piracy and organized crime. The evolving tactics and strategy of the amorphous enemy demand alertness, adept handling and a coherent approach.

Pakistan is taking as a challenge to all conventional and sub-conventional threats rising there in Indian Ocean Region and trying to develop its own doctrine to protect its own maritime interests. The draft doctrine is being under discussion at different levels in the Pakistan Navy and with relevant stakeholders at Federal Government level. Develop coherence and uniformity of thought and action within Pakistan Navy and promoting cooperation with Army, Air Force, allied navies and coalition partners is the main aim of this doctrine. The doctrine develops

coherence to all stakeholders of maritime developments in Pakistan. It also helps to meet the requirement of evolving threat matrix and maritime environment in the IOR with the under mentioned concept.

“With the regional environment of IOR being marred by uncertainty and political instability, Pakistan has to maintain its maritime security, be cognizant of its security interests and put forth its doctrinal assumptions based on concepts governing application of maritime forces, the command and control structures and a carefully crafted role for its naval forces,”

In addition to security issues it also focus to provide conducive environment to develop better relations with allied navies, the doctrine also highlighted issues relating to protection, movement and commercial interests of ships and deals with issues like change of climate and rise/fall of sea level. The doctrine also covers the factors which play central role in securing strategic security and economic prosperity of the region and the increasing need for delving into cooperative mechanisms as a tool for crisis management.

Pakistan is located strategically important area and its naval force structure made it a reckonable power in the Region. “The evolving strategic environment in the region requires Pakistan Navy to develop a balanced mix of capabilities to rise up to the challenge”. But since Pakistan Navy is focusing to maintain minimum creditable deterrence force. In north Arabian sea, her force goals set in for 2025 are not that ambitious as compare to Indian Navy, a deal for acquisition of 8 submarine from China was signed in 2016 and the acquisition will be completed somewhere around 2024. More Frigates and corvettes are being planned; nonetheless a fleet tanker is under construction at Karachi shipyard with Turkish collaboration. Whereas Pakistan‟s draft maritime doctrine, which is in the final stages of approval, focuses on protecting country‟s security interests in view of growing uncertainty and political instability in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) (Zakaullah, 2015).

“The doctrine will provide contextual clarity to all stakeholders and observers of maritime developments, besides developing coherence, uniformity of thought and action within navy,” it is pertinent to mention that the doctrine flows from the maritime, military, nuclear and naval strategies of the national security policy.

In fact with the shifting of the global economic centre of gravity from the Atlantic to the Asia-Pacific, the oceans would become a medium for employment of strategic coercion and deterrence. Nuclearization of Indian Ocean by India, which earlier this year conducted tests of submarine-based K4 ballistic missiles, is one of the major concerns for Pakistan. This is expected to affect the maritime security of all the 32 Indian Ocean littoral states. It is considered that the matrix of conflict employed by the draft doctrine uses peace or uneasy peace at one extreme and war at the other. The doctrine also focused on issues relating to protection, movement and commercial interests of ships and deals with issues like change of climate and rise/fall of sea level as mentioned earlier.

Pakistan Navy is primarily focusing on regional and international maritime cooperation instead being Indian centric. PN initiated AMAN series of exercises in 2007 which proved to be major success and has now become biennial event. The slogan for exercise AMAN is “Together for peace” which means that all participating nations have a common aim to maintain peace and stability in the arena and provide freedom of navigation and trade. The exercise at sea is aimed to enhance tactical proficiency, develop common tactics against asymmetric threats and promote its related interoperability among the participating ships of various nations. The international perspective of AMAN helps PN to meet international standards and integrates into the global systems of maritime security (Ahmed, 2015).

Focusing the international cooperation, Pakistan is also participating in the Coalition Maritime Campaign plan (CMCP). The CMCP is maritime component of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). In line with Government policy, Pakistan Navy joined CMCP in year 2004. Since then 65 x PN DDs/FFs with embarked helicopters have participated in CTF-150. Furthermore, PN has also Commanded CTF-150 for eight times. PN Command team generally comprises of 11 officers and 15 CPO/Sailors. Details of PN Commands of CTF-150 are as follows (Captain Faisal Abbasi, personal communication, April 18, 2016).

Table: 11 Details of PN Commands of CTF-150 S No CTF 150 Command Tenures From To a. 1st Command 24 Apr 06 22 Aug 06 b. 2nd Command 01 Aug 07 25 Feb 08 c. 3rd Command 20 Jul 09 16 Dec 09 d. 4th Command 15 Apr 10 14 Oct 10 e. 5th Command 17 Apr 12 30 Aug 12 f. 6th Command 01 Aug 13 30 Nov 13 g. 7th Command 13 Aug 14 04 Dec 14 h. 8th Command 30 Jul 15 03 Dec 15 Source: Naval Headquarters Islamabad Pakistan Navy also joined CTF-151 to counter menace of Piracy in year 2009. Till to date 34 x PN DDs/FFs have participated in CTF-151. PN has also Commanded CTF-151 for seven times.. Details of PN Commands of CTF-151 are as follows:

Table: 12 Details of PN Commands of CTF-151

S No CTF 150 Command Tenures From To a. 1st Command 29 Nov 10 31 Mar 11 b. 2nd Command 1 Oct 11 15 Jan 12 c. 3rd Command 13 Dec 12 7 Mar 13 d. 4th Command 6 Jun 13 5 Sep 13 e. 5th Command 27 Feb 14 12 Jun 14 f. 6th Command 26 Feb 15 31 May 15 g. 7th Command 21 Dec 15 31 Mar 16

Source: Naval Headquarters Islamabad

3.3.5 Growing Indo – Iranian Collaboration The growing Indo – Iranian collaboration apparently for economic reasons has also the geo strategic implications for Pakistan in the Indian Ocean. Joint development of Chahbahar port by India and Iran alongwith a 200-kilometer long road from Chahbahar to Afghanistan depicts India‟s desire to reach the Central Asian markets (Azhar, 2015, p.124). India will exploit the opportunity and reach to central Asian markets in collaboration with Iran which will deny 92

Pakistan the opportunity to reap the benefits of Gwadar port. Pakistan shall improve the relations with Iran because convergence of interests of Pakistan and US is likely to be short lived.

Naval diplomacy has been a corn stone of Indian strategy. India is extensively utilizing her naval forces in furthering her politico- diplomatic objectives by resorting to naval diplomacy in the form of good will cruises, joint naval exercises, conferences and humanitarian assistance thereby increasing her influence in the Indian Ocean. Although Gulf countries were the strategic backyard of Pakistan but over the period of time India has successfully used her naval forces as a tool of diplomacy in increasing the relations with GCC countries. Therefore Pakistan Navy shall take proactive diplomatic initiatives to further the politico-strategic objectives in the Gulf.

3.3.6 China Interest in the Area Due to rapid increasing energy demands at home, the key interest of China is secure SLOCs and energy trade through Indian Ocean owing to it‟s growing dependency on energy imports. Thus China requires an uninterrupted flow of energy for sustaining economic development. This compulsion has forced China to review her policy to ensure safe route of its transport ships via the Indian Ocean. Presently 77 % of its oil imports and 30 % of trade worth US $ 300 billion moves through the Indian Ocean (Khurana, 2008, p.1). China has deployed her two warships and a supply ship off Somali coast on “anti-piracy mission” which is against her traditional naval force posture. In addition China is developing number of ports in many countries Indian Ocean region and has termed them as „String of Pearls‟ (Li, 2008, p.5) just to strengthen her position in the Indian Ocean. These facilities include Gwadar port of Pakistan as well, others Hambantota port of Sri Lanka, port at Chittagong, Bangladesh and surveillance base at Myanmar.

Western critics have coined the term of „String of Pearls‟ due to their concerns over economic growth of China and India had exploited this term at various forums to exaggerate the convergence of China‟s and Pakistan‟s interests against US interests. As the world‟s concern over China is growing therefore use of Gwadar port by China in future, is likely to place political pressure on Pakistan by US. Nonetheless, China Pakistan Economic Corridor being constructed under One Belt One Road (OBOR) signed in 2016 to connect the Gwadar Port with western part of China. After the construction of subject economic corridor most of the china trade will be

conducted through North Arabian Sea in Pakistan EEZ in the Indian Ocean, thus multiplying Chinas interest in the area manifold (Azhar, 2015, p.121).

3.3.7 Interest of USA in the Area The policies of United States relating to Nations of Indian Ocean Region are drawn from the relevance of Indian Ocean resources and geo politics to the worldwide balance of power. Thus political dimension of US policy cannot be isolated from the economic and security interests that US attempts to maintain, secure or promote in the Indian Ocean Region. About 25 % of US oil import comes from Persian Gulf (Dehua, 2014, pp.20-21). USA was the largest supplier of arms to the world with 41 % share wherein 62 % of the arms were supplied to Asian countries alone worth US $ 9 billion in year 2014. According to International Relations all Nations are to be submissive to international structure and derive their policies accordingly. Hence, Pakistan may not be considered as an exception. Thus engagement with USA is considered as a strategic compulsion for Pakistan.

3.3.8 ERF Presence, A Balancing Force or Threat

Pakistan‟s cooperation with US on war against terrorism in Afghanistan resulted in US becoming a counter weight in easing military tensions between Pakistan and India. After Mumbai attacks as well, Pakistan‟s commitment on western border to counter the Taliban was understood by US which subsequently eased the tensions between India and Pakistan. However, after the attainment of political objectives by US in Afghanistan, major shift in her strategic interests is expected. The Indo – US collaboration in nuclear field also highlights the greater shift in US strategic thinking whereas Pakistan‟s nuclear program had remained under a sharp criticism from US. Therefore, after the withdrawal of US from Afghanistan, neutral stance of ERF during Indo-Pak conflict is doubtful. US continued drone attacks on Pakistani soil also highlight a significant fact that in future if Pakistan diverges from US interests, US may not remain friendly or neutral to Pakistan which could take various facets against which Pakistan must guard by at least acquiring a sea based second strike capability. Nonetheless during Uri attack in India and subsequently so call surgical strike by India, the US stance remained neutral.

3.3.9 Narcotics/Weapons Smuggling The genesis of narcotics and weapons smuggling can be found in Afghanistan. Narcotics production, refining and supplying to global arena via Indian Ocean is known to world across. Pakistan is the most affected country being in its neighborhood as supplies of narcotics and illegal weapons has free flow from Afghanistan towards Pakistan. Even such smuggling continues beyond Pakistan using EEZ of Pakistan in Indian Ocean, initially using hideouts across coastal areas of Pakistan. Subsequently, small fishing boats from Makran coast are hired for illegal weapons and drug smuggling activities towards Gulf States and beyond. The UN estimates that Afghan insurgents extract approximately $125 million per year (on average over the past four years) from taxing opium farmers and traders (Mumtaz, 2011, p.103).

3.3.9.1 Narcotics Trafficking Routes

The main international and domestic routes used by smugglers are as appended below (Mumtaz, 2011, p.102):-

International Routes. These can be categorized into three:-

Northern Route. From Afghanistan through Central Asian Republic States and Russian Federation.

Southern Route. From Afghanistan through Pakistan for shipment of drugs to Iran, Turkey, Middle East and Africa. From Africa, a portion of the smuggled drugs are transported to European market and even to US and Canada.

Balkan Route. From Afghanistan through Iran, Turkey to the West and Central Europe.

Domestic Routes. Torkham ( Afghanistan ), FATA / Chaman (Pakistan).

There are following three additional main routes other than many small hidden routes:-

Route 1. From eastern Afghanistan into FATA and then either towards China via Gilgit by road or towards Karachi via KPK.

Route 2. From Afghanistan to Balochistan (mostly through cities of Dalbadin and Quetta), then towards Iran by road or towards Makran Coastal areas or Karachi for further transported to Middle East and Turkey. 95

Route 3. By Air.

Narcotics Concealment Techniques. The methods and techniques used by smugglers for hiding Narcotics continuously vary. Almost everything can be used to hide Narcotics in any way to the imagination.

Narcotics Trafficking Techniques. Drugs are dumped at different places along Pakistan Afghan border and later shifted to coastal areas using different means of transportation at different stages of smuggling:-

Pakistan - Afghan Border to Makran Coast. Vehicles with variety of cavities are used along highways to bring in drugs to Karachi and coastal areas.

Coastal Belt to Sea Shore. Using camels or light vehicles, traffickers bring drugs into the coastal belt for further transfer to sea.

Sea Shore to Sea and Onwards. In this terminal phase, Boats and Dhows are used disguised as a fishing boat with complete legal formalities. The Dhow reaches at a given point and spreads its fishing net to justify its presence in the area. Speed boats bring drugs up to the Dhow and the Dhow moves to destination after carrying Narcotics.

3.3.9.2 Precursor Trafficking Pakistan is a known destination and transshipment point for precursor chemicals - substances used in the production of drugs - such as acetic anhydride, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. Drug trades rely on huge quantities of controlled and uncontrolled precursors.

3.3.9.3 Hash highway The route between coastline of Balochistan, Pakistan and coastline of Yemen is passing through EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean is called “Hash Highway” (Shahzad, 2014, p.63). This route is considered to be the main route for smugglers to take away the prohibited arms, drugs cargo and related chemicals from Makran coast to Yemen and from there to other countries around the world. The picture of the Hash Highway is appended on next page:

Map No 05 Hash Highway

Source: PN Hydrography Department, Karachi

“Pakistan is considered the main transit country for narcotics produced in neighboring Afghanistan (heroin and opium in particular) and Karachi is the city, that had a key position on the transit routes,”. Nonetheless, Arms and drug trafficking and its nexus with narco-terrorism seems something very simple to handle but it presents a biggest challenge to Pakistan‟s maritime security environment out at sea in Pakistan EEZ in Indian Ocean. Pakistan Navy along with coalition maritime forces handling this challenge very effectively in the Indian Ocean.

3.3.10 Illegal Immigration/ Trafficking Movement of illegal immigrants is carried out through EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean from Pakistan – Iran border. Despite best efforts of PN, PMSA and PCG, illegal immigration across Pakistan – Iran Border remains continue. Illegal immigrants are recruited in groups by the agents and are given a cover story including details of border towns. Train and public transport is used by the individual to reach at given destination at coastal area. Specified transport companies are used and normal fare is charged. In addition, Illegal immigrants are transported through foot and boats under the monitoring of agents. All those using Iran as transit country have final destinations in Europe through Turkey or Middle East. From Pakistani coast a new voyage to next destination starts through specially chartered boats. Most of these illegal immigrates either die in the boats due to scarcity of food and fresh water, few of them also shot down by the coast guards of respective landing Gulf State. Nonetheless, some swim across and enjoy their success.

Bulks of the Illegal immigrants previously use to move to Gulf region. However now a large number Illegal immigrants also attempt to try their luck towards European countries. Illegal Border Crossing into EU by Pakistan and Afghanistan Nationals from 2008 to 2012 is appended next page:

Table: 13 Illegal Border Crossing into EU by Nationals of Pakistan and Afghanistan 2008-2012 as % change on 2011

Between BCPs 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

All Borders 159,100 104,599 104,060 141,051 72,437 -49 Total

Pakistan 3,157 1,592 3,878 15,377 4,877 -68

Afghanistan 19,284 14,539 25,918 22,992 13,169 -43

Land ND 57,440 89,800 69,897 49,193 -30 Border Total

Pakistan 2,640 1,328 3,675 13,781 3,344 -76

Afghanistan 1,224 2,410 22,844 20,394 9,838 -52

Sea Borders ND 47,159 14,260 71,172 23,254 -67 Total

Pakistan 517 264 203 1,594 1,533 -3.8

Afghanistan 18,060 12,129 3,074 2,598 3,331 28

Clandestine Entries at BCPs

Sea Border ND 137 168 159 486 208 Total

Land ND 159 74 123 115 -6.5 Border Total

Pakistan ND 2 12 10 24 140

Afghanistan ND 18 8 58 190 228

Net source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/454802/number-of-clandestine-entries-at-bcps-to-the-eu/

3.4 Analysis Illegal immigration has increased many folds after the commencement of zarb-e-azb operation in Pakistan. Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) in Pakistan is responsible to get hold /apprehend these agents involved in human trafficking which is not something very simple to handle but it presents a biggest challenge to Pakistan‟s maritime security Forces out at sea in Pakistan EEZ in Indian Ocean. Pakistan Navy along with coalition maritime forces handling the issue very effectively in the Indian Ocean. Pakistan Navy also considered that the Information Sharing and Interoperability amongst the countries of Indian Ocean Region is the need of the hour. Keeping in view these nontraditional threats Pakistan became the member of Indian Ocean Naval Symposium in March 2015 (Captain Faisal Abbasi, personal communication, April 18, 2016).

Pakistan Navy, now being a member of IONS, is committed for contributing its share for peace and security in the Indian Ocean Region. IONS provided a platform to the participating navies and Maritime Security Agencies to work together for maintaining safety and security in IOR. Pakistan, believes in collaborative Maritime Security to deal with transnational threats including natural disasters and above all to contribute towards global economy.

"Therefore, Pakistan Navy envisages that every regional country through its Navy and Maritime Security Agency must be a part of this effort and contribute in overall security of region,” Overall Indian Ocean Region is facing a plethora of challenges such as illegal trade, human trafficking and risk of maritime terrorism. "Pakistan is located astride the world's most important trade routes including 'energy highways'. 95 percent of our trade and 100 percent of our oil imports are transported through sea. Therefore, safety and security of Pakistan trade is essential".

3.5 Piracy yet another Challenge at Sea Piracy at sea with all its lore and literature is not new and is believed to have existed in turbulent periods as early as 14th century BC when Sea People, as they were then called, threatened Aegean and Mediterranean voyages. It is said that great Roman Emperor Julius Caesar was also captured by Cilician pirates and released only after payment of huge ransom

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amounting to fifty „talent of gold‟ – one talent roughly equated with weight of one person (Khattak, 2015, pp.2-4).

Pakistan got embroiled in this menace as a huge large chunk of its EEZ, which has recently been extended from 200 nautical miles to 350 nautical miles, was affected by piracy off the coast of Somalia. Pakistan began to contribute its naval forces towards a Multinational Coalition Task Force which took up the role to fight piracy and was named as Combined Task Force 151 (CTF-151). It comprised of about 25 naval vessels from NATO, USA, Pakistan, Singapore, and Japan, patrolled approximately 8.3 million square kilometers of ocean which is roughly the size of Western Europe.

Vice Admiral Taj Muhammad explains that, this effort was supplemented by ship owners with adoption of best management practices, armed guards and security onboard and development of onshore security forces. But the scale of problem was so huge and environments so asymmetric, that often a mere 250 dollars pirate skiff would seem to have an advantage over a 250 million dollars state of the art naval vessel. This became obvious from the statistics where 26 ships had been captured in each of the years 2009 and 2010, with unsuccessful attempts on 68 vessels in 2008 and 52 vessels in 2010. According to another report, there were 127 attacks on ships in 2010 and 11 attacks in 2011. Out of these 47 attacks were successful in 2010 and 25 in 2011. The activity peaked in February 2012 when pirates held 10 vessels and 159 hostages (ibid). The state of piracy attack and armed robbery in the IOR from 2010-2014 are appended below:

Table: 14 Details of Piracy Attacks and Armed Robbery in the IOR

Types of Attack 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Attempted 89 105 67 28 28 Boarded 196 176 174 202 183 Fired Upon 107 113 28 22 13 Hijacked 53 45 28 12 21 Total 445 439 297 264 245

Source: (Pakistan Navy War College Review 2014-2015, p.14)

Now, after years of concerted efforts by Pakistan Navy, during which no incident of piracy has occurred in Pakistan‟s EEZ, and in collaboration with Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

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almost the entire EEZ has been excluded from High Risk Area (HRA) of piracy. Pakistan had strongly opposed inclusion of its EEZ in HRA at the time of its declaration but did not succeed in its purpose. Of late, Pakistan‟s demand for exclusion of its EEZ from HRA was consistently supported by some regional states which helped considerably. The decision was announced by Contact Group on Piracy off the Coast of Somalia (CGPCS) which revised its limits of HRA declared by shipping industry and its provisions will be effective from December 2015. The new development will benefit seaborne trade as shipping destined for Pakistani Ports will be exempted from extra insurance and security charges levied since 2010. It will also help fishing and deep sea research exploration activities.

In fact, when Somalia collapsed as a functional nation state and its tiny navy disappeared, its vast ocean area and rich fishing resources off its coast where exposed to vagaries of predatory forces from afar. If this was not bad enough, developed western countries resorted to dumping industrial waste off the coast of Somalia since it would cost a few dollars per barrel as opposed to hundreds of dollars in waste disposal in accordance with stringent environmental regulations in their own countries. The toxic waste destroyed rich fishing fields which made survival of fishermen even more difficult and exacerbated an already dangerous situation.

Threatened with their livelihood, local fishing community bounced back into what initially appeared to protect their rights by forming armed groups to stop shipping involved in toxic dumping. This soon blew up into a major threat which up till then had only been restricted to narrow Straits of Malacca. Even the names adopted by some of the pirate networks, such as „National Volunteer Coast Guard‟ reflected their initial primary motive but opportunities to seize unarmed vessels for ransom as an alternate and more rewarding source of income were never too far to see.

By 2005, piracy off the coast of Somalia had extended into open oceans comprising of five zones from the coast, with outermost zone threateningly close to Pakistan‟s EEZ (Khattak, 2015, p.3). Compelling and overlapping financial and security imperatives eventually forced major nations to mount a huge anti-piracy operation. In an ironical turn of events, the west which had a role in resurgence of this scourge in the first place due to its unscrupulous trade practices, got at the receiving end.

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Shipping deliveries were impeded and increased shipping costs spiraled to about 7 billion dollars per year since 2011. In the same year, an estimated 3,000 to 5,000 Somali pirates were operating and are believed to have earned an estimated US$ 146 million or US$ 4.87 per million per ship. This meteoric rise was eventually checked when nearly 1,000 of them were captured as a result of stepped up anti-piracy operations and are undergoing trials in 21 different countries.

From Somalian perspective – subsequent to disintegration of its armed forces and total absence of an effective coast guard, their homeland‟s sea front was totally vulnerable and routinely exploited by extra-regional interest groups. It was therefore not surprising that approximately 70 percent of its coastal population at the time strongly supported piracy as a form of national defense of their territorial waters, which not only protected their fishing grounds but also exacted justice and compensation for the stolen and destroyed marine resources.

CGPCS has played a significant role in putting down piracy activities and its unique and inclusive construct merits some attention (Khattak, 2015, p.4). It represents a new international governance model for a truly comprehensive approach to complex problems. The group works with UN but is not of the UN. There is no formal structure, no rigid protocol, no standing infrastructure and institutional overheads.

For now piracy phenomenon off Somalia has suffered a severe blow but the region is far from stable and continued vigil would be in order. Pakistan would do well to try and carve out a greater role for itself in the working of CGPCS especially since its geographical location is closer to the region from where piracy threat can re-emerge in the future.

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Figure No 02 Hub of Piracy around Somalian Coast

Source: http//:www.thewayofthepirates.com/pictureofsomalias-coral-ree

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In the maritime domain, the distinction between terrorism and piracy has become narrow and distorted. Certain terrorist groups have both the capacity and opportunity to conduct pirate attacks in order to obtain revenue. Although it is said that piracy in the Gulf of Aden is over, the Somali pirates still retain the capability of conducting acts of piracy against vessels of opportunity. The oil rich West African Gulf of Guinea has now emerged as the new epicenter of armed piracy. Today 2 out of every 5 piracy attacks take place in the Gulf of Guinea. It is a different brand of piracy than that which plagued the waters off Somalia, more violent and laser focused on stealing oil and other petroleum products that fetch millions in the local black market (Hasnain, 2014, p.83).

Nonetheless, number of Pirate attacks against ships started decreasing worldwide from 2010 onward. Data regarding number of Pirate attacks against ships worldwide from 2009 to 2015 is appended below:

This statistic depicts the number of pirate attacks against ships worldwide from 2009 through 2015. There were 246 such incidents in 2015.

Table: 15 Details of Number of pirate attacks against ships worldwide from 2009 to 2015

Source : https://www.statista.com/statistics/266292/number-of-pirate-attacks-worldwide-since-2006/

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Number of actual and attempted piracy attacks worldwide in 2015. In 2015, there were around 147 such attacks off the Southeast Asian coast.

Table: 16 Statistics and Facts about Pirate Attacks

Pirate attacks are posing a genuine threat to maritime transport. Pirates are capable of cutting off important transit choke points such as the Strait of Bab al-Mandab between Arabia and Africa or the Strait of Malacca in Southeast Asian waters. In 2015, the trade routes around the Indonesian coast, as well as in Malaysian and Nigerian waters were counted among the most perilous sea paths globally.

Source: https://www.statista.com/topics/1290/pirate-attacks/

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Table: 17 Details of number of actual and attempted piracy attacks worldwide in 2015

This statistics represents the number of pirate attacks on ships worldwide in 2015, ranked by nationality of the shipping company. There were some 28 pirate attacks on vessels that were managed by Liberian companies.

Source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/263411/pirate-attacks-on-ships-by-nationality-of-the-shipping- company/

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Table 18: Details of locations actual and attempted attacks 2011-2015

Locations of Actual and Attempted attacks, January to December: 2011 - 2015 Locations 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Sea Asia Indonesia 46 81 106 100 108 Malacca Straits 1 2 1 1 5 Malaysia 16 12 9 24 13 Myanmar (Burma) 1 Philippines 5 3 3 6 11 Singapore Straits 11 6 9 8 9 Thailand 2 1 FAR EAST China 2 1 4 South China Sea 13 2 4 1 Vietnam 8 4 9 7 27 INDIAN SUB Bangladesh 10 11 12 21 11 CONTINENT India 6 8 14 13 13 SOUTH AMERICA Brazil 3 1 1 1 Colombia 4 5 7 2 5 Costa Rica 3 1 Dominican Republic 1 1 Ecuador 6 4 3 Guyana 1 2 1 Haiti 2 2 2 Peru 2 3 4 Venezuela 4 1 1 AFRICA Algeria 1 Angola 1 1 Benin 20 2 Cameroon 1 1 1 Dem, Republic of Congo 4 2 1 3 Dem, Rep, of Sao Tome & Principle 1 Egypt 3 7 7 1 Gabon 2 1 Ghana 2 2 1 4 2 Guinea 5 3 1 3 Gulf of Aden 37 13 6 4 Ivory Coast 1 5 4 3 1 Kenya 1 1 1 2 Liberia 1 2 Mauritania 1 Morocco 1 1 Mozambique 2 2 1 1 Nigeria 10 27 31 18 14 Red Sea 39 13 2 4 Sierra Leone 1 1 2 1 Somalia 160 49 7 3 Tanzania 2 1 1 The Congo 3 4 3 7 5 Togo 6 15 7 2 REST OF Mediterranean Sea 1 WORLD Oman 1* 2 Papua New Guinea 1 Total at Yard End 439 297 264 245 246

Source: https://www.icc-ccs.org/piracy-reporting-centre/live-piracy-report

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3.6 Maritime Terrorism The terrorists are increasingly aware of the fact that the maritime industry represents and exploitable soft target in terms of smuggling in arms, personnel or lethal Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and as a point of attack. They understand the fact that a strike on a large port facility could cripple a nation‟s economy, significantly impacting world stock markets and cause significant causalities and potential long term environmental damage. The Horrific effect of the 11 September 2001 terrorist attack on the WTC and Pentagon the extra- ordinary lengths to which terrorist organizations will go in order to make political statements. The subsequent terrorist attacks as mentioned earlier suggest that terrorist groups routinely make use of commercial shipping to pursue their ends and more disturbingly have planned further attacks on maritime communications (Azam, 2008, pp.76-77).

Recent history provides examples of how effective maritime terrorism can be both as a direct weapon on in the terrorist arsenal and as a malignant influence upon others way of life Global trade is dependent mainly on maritime transport (Hasnain, 2014, p80-82). It is estimated that more than 46,000 vessels and 4,000 make up world‟s maritime transport system. Today, about 80% of the world‟s trade is conducted by sea and because of this fact maritime net work has become an attractive target of terrorist. In the past, the terrorists targeted land or aviation assets but today experts believe that this could soon change to include shipping, ports, coastal facilities and container/container yards. Recent history provide examples of how effective maritime terrorism can be both as a direct weapon in the terrorist arsenal and a malignant influence upon the way of life. Lot of investment in maritime security has been made by governments worldwide however, the threat is still imminent. The ports and shipping is far from secure. Terrorists, today threaten ships and ports directly. Updated intelligence indicates that terrorists are stepping up attacks against shipping. The risks are numerous and encompass passenger cruise ships and ferries, container and bulk shipping, not to mention the port facilities themselves. Some of the significant risks include potential attack on ports, vessels and illicit trafficking in and/or use of weapons/explosives etc.

Today one of the most frightening terrorist threats to maritime security involves smuggling of Weapons of Mass Destruction. A weapon smuggled in a container could be detonated upon arrival at a port or at any strategic point along the container‟s route. In addition

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to death and destruction, any such attack using WMD would undoubtedly have a traumatic effect on the national psyche, not to mention the regional and global economy.

3.6.1 Recent acts of Maritime Terrorism Following acts terrorism speak of some of the threats encountered in the past:  ACHILLE LAURO hijacking in the Mediterranean Sea, in October 1985.  Suicide bombing on the USS COLE in Yemen on 12 October 2000 during refueling.  Ramming of explosive laden dingy boat into the starboard side of French Tanker.  LIMBURG on 6 October 2002.  Pirate attack on passenger liner MV SEABOURN SPITIT 115 km off East Coast of Somalia on 5 November 2002. The above acts of terrorism are very clear indicators that ports and shipping are very attractive targets for criminals and organized crime. In October 2000 suicide bombers in a Zodiac speedboat packed with explosives blew a hole in an American warship, the USS Cole, killing 17 sailors on board (Nelson, 2012) as depicted in picture below: Figure No 03 USS COLE after attack

Source: www.globalsecuritystudies.com/Nelson%20Piracy%20Final.pdf assessed on 29 October 2016

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Figure No 04 MV Limburg on Fire In October 2002, an explosive laden boat hit the French oil tanker, MV Limburg, off the coast of Yemen. The oil tanker was carrying 300,000 barrels of Iranian crude oil and though it was crippled by the attack it stayed afloat and spilled around one third of its cargo (90,000 barrels) into the Gulf of Aden (Greenberg & Chalk, 2006, pp.1-11). Picture of the M V Limburg incident is appended below.

Source: http://www.google.com.pk/search?q=picture+of+mv+limburg assessed on 29 October 2016

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Figure No 05 Attack on MV M STAR The latest attack on Japanese oil tanker namely MV M Star laden with crude oil in July 2010 while passing through Strait of Hormuz (Greenberg & Chalk, 2006). Picture of the MV M Star is appended below:

Source: http://www.google.com.pk/search?q=picture+of+mv+star assessed on 29 October 2016

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Depending on the measure, between 80% and 90% of global trade moves by sea, with the majority of non-bulk cargo carried in shipping containers. Over 15,000,000 containers are currently in circulation, making over 200,000,000 port visits annually (Nincic, 2012, p.2). The world‟s top ten container ports handled 178,000 thousand TEU (twenty foot equivalents) in 2010, nearly as much as the next 40 ports together (179,070 thousand TEU). With trade concentrated in so few ports in today‟s global economy, even a single maritime terrorist incident has the potential for significant economic disruptions with considerable financial and human implications. Given these potential impacts, the threat of maritime terrorism must continue to be taken very seriously. Thus certain new initiative were introduced to improve maritime security against terriest as appended below.

3.6.2 New initiatives to improve maritime security against terrorists Since 9/11 several new initiatives have been instituted to improve maritime security against terrorists. These include:

International Shipping and Port Facility Safety (ISPS) Code, which came into effect on 01 July 2004 requires all countries engaged in ocean-going commerce to set up minimum standards of security at their port facilities and likewise to certify and document vessels sailing under their flag (Kovacs, 2005, p.8).

Container Security Initiative (CSI) which seeks to develop bi-lateral agreements between the United States and foreign countries to pre-screen high-risk containers in ports of loading (Bellamy, 2011, pp.126-127). While the majority of containers do not pose any security threat all identified high-risk containers will be inspected, either before loading at a CSI port or, if arriving from another port, upon arrival in the United States. Customs-Trade Partnership against Terrorism (C-TPAT), is the second major voluntary security initiative promoted by the U.S. The C-TPAT aims to ensure that participants implement policies, plans and procedures to ensure the integrity of their entire supply chain.

Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) aims to disrupt and deter the illicit trade in WMD by searching ships and planes suspected of carrying nuclear, chemical or biological weapons, or materials that could be used to make them. Regional Maritime Security Initiative (RMSI) (Bellamy, 2011, pp.126-127) is a security proposal designed by Admiral Thomas Fargo, 113

Commander of the US Pacific Command, to safeguard the strategic waterway of the Malacca Straits.

Maritime forces under the umbrella of different Task Forces e.g. CTF 150 are conducting regular patrol in potential areas of maritime terrorism. In addition Naval Ships of individual countries are also maintaining their presence in their areas of jurisdiction to curb this menace. Naval forces, even if they cannot intervene to eliminate the factors that generate and maintain terrorist phenomenon at sea, are effective tool in combating it and maintaining maritime security to an acceptable level. Mitigating the potential effects that can lead to maritime terrorism is possible only through coherent reactions to the information provided by the intelligence services. Training, equipping and maintaining a high level of training for naval forces engaged in combating terrorism has become a prime concern for naval forces belonging to countries with major interests in maintaining an acceptable level of safety of the maritime transport.

3.6.3 Analysis The detailed examination of threat reveals that, the marine environment lends itself to a broad range of plausible attack scenarios. By examining how these possible contingencies might manifest, assessing their operational implications, and exploring their relationship to historical attacks and the characteristics of known terrorist groups, one can generate an empirically based foundation for characterizing the risks confronted by sovereign states across the globe. Keeping in view the maritime terrorism incidents and capabilities of terrorist organizations, it can be established that the port facilities, Ships, Container Shipment etc are vulnerable and terrorist can attack them in order to achieve their objectives. Hence, it is proved that Maritime terrorism is a reality and effective measures are necessary to address this menace.

Despite the different initiative adopted by US and other nations, a continuous presence of Naval Forces in shape Coalition Maritime Campaign Plan (CMCP) is ensuring security to international shipping. As shipping accounts for more than 80-90 percent of global trade, through more than 2,800 ports, including 361 in the United States. In 2004, merchant ships carried 90 percent of the world trade, worth $8.3 trillion. With more than 120,000 commercial ships and 1.2 million mariners plying the oceans‟ highways, concerted international efforts have made those routes far safer today than they were a few years ago (Azam, 2007, p.38). CMCP is the maritime component of Operation Enduring Freedom launched by a US led coalition of

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naval forces in the Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea, Arabian Gulf and Horn of Africa. The operation aims to prevent, deter and destroy international terrorist organizations by denying them the use of the maritime environment thereby contributing towards stability and security. Moreover, in contemporary security environment where corporate stakeholders and national policy makers are more and more aware of the non-traditional security threats and extra regional powers are more and more willing to offer financial or technical support; it would be a mistake not to exploit all possibilities of further enhancing maritime security cooperation against maritime terrorism. In post 9/11 scenario, different regulations have been formulated to address the treat of maritime terrorism however, more concrete efforts are needed in this regard. If we do not adopt a proactive and positive posture in the present day arrangements it would provide all the more possibilities for terrorists to creep in to our life.

In this regard the concept of maritime security has undergone a radical shift. Now, littorals are facing mountainous challenges of transnational and asymmetric threats in maritime domain. Terrorist organizations can use it to achieve strategic objectives for political gain. The threat to shipping posed by maritime terrorists is a fearsome issue whether they are in port, or navigating in a restricted waterway, commercial vessels are easy targets for terrorists. In order to prevent terrorist attack on a maritime target, a proactive approach is required. This necessitates a deepening of cooperation between world communities.

Although maritime terrorism incidents are less but it is a hard reality. Terrorism has neither creed nor nationality and, no country big or small, is immune from it. Thus keeping in mind the maritime terrorists incidents in mind and the effects it created on maritime security/ global economy, it is concluded that the maritime terrorism is exists and it can be exploited by terrorists at any time. Any one incident in any part of the world will have serious impact on trade and shipping which ultimately contributes in surge of shipping, insurance, security and cargo handling charges. The major percentage of global trade is through the Oceans and in order to provide security to sea trade different measures have been adopted in the shape of ISPS, CSI, PSI, C-TPAT and RMSI. The effectiveness of such measures depends on States participating in and implementing these measures. International and regional efforts should now focus on encouraging States to participate in such measures and on examining how States can effectively implement their obligations under the relevant conventions. Naval forces, even if they cannot intervene to eliminate the factors that generate and maintain terrorist phenomenon at sea, are an 115

effective tool to combating it and maintaining maritime security to an acceptable level. Mitigating the potential effects that can lead to naval terrorism in maritime trade is possible only through coherent reactions to the information provided by intelligence services.

United Nations passed different resolutions in post 9/11 scenario in collaboration with IMO. These regulations need to be implemented in impartial manner. Besides dealing with the terrorist at sea, solution of this menace should be found on land by provided better economic, social, educational, political, religious and basic necessities so that the young people should not be driven by ill minded people towards this revolting crime. Incidents of Maritime terrorism are being held at many places across the glow out at sea. Some of the maritime terrorism incidents and piracy prone areas across the globe is depicted in under mentioned picture:

Map No 06 Maritime Terrorism Incidents and Piracy Prone Areas across the globe

Shaded areas denote piracy prone areas; blue triangles denote terrorist incidents.

Source: Maritime/ Piracy incidents prone areas. www.icc.mibt.com assessed on 13 October 2016.

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3.7 Pakistan Navy contribution Pakistan Navy played a significant role to counter arms trafficking, drugs smuggling, human smuggling/trafficking in person, piracy at sea and maritime terrorism in North Arabian Sea in Pakistan EEZ and as a collation partner with regional and international Navies in Indian Ocean. Pakistan Navy being one of the pioneer partners of the CMF has used its influence in taking across the mission and objectives of the CMF to other regional navies and has helped in leveraging influence for expanding regional cooperation and interoperability. Many of regional countries have participated in CMF and counter piracy efforts following Pakistan‟s example. In line with Government policy, Pakistan Navy joined CMCP in 2004. Till date (OCT 2016), 65 x PN DDs/FFs with embarked helicopters have participated in CTF-150. Furthermore, PN has also Commanded CTF-150 for eight times. Whereas, Pakistan Navy joined CTF-151 to counter menace Piracy in year 2009. Till date, (Oct 2016) 34 x PN DDs/FFs have participated in CTF- 151. PN has also Commanded CTF-151 for seven times (Captain Faisal Abbasi, personal communication, April 18, 2016).

At present, coalition forces are involved in conducting intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, and Maritime Interception Operation (MIO) in the three affected choke points in Arabian Sea in the Indian Ocean. The campaign is executed by conducting operations to achieve the desired operational effects tailored to specific mission or task and to specific Maritime Operating Area (MOA). The Coalition Maritime Campaign Plan also allows the participating countries to avail exemption from one or more types of operations in any particular area as dictated by their national policies.

PN‟s extended deployment in CMF has accrued following advantages (Ahmed, 2015, p.54):  PN‟s stature as a competent and professional Navy has been recognized and duly acknowledged internationally specially by the CMF member states/navies.  The coalition environment has promoted greater interoperability with the world‟s leading navies and PN has attained professional standards in line with the best tactics, techniques and procedures (TTPs) followed by leading navies in the world.  By virtue of deployments of PN ships and aircraft in support of CMF and mutual interaction with other regional and extra regional navies, PN today stands more

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experienced with respect to the complex maritime dynamics in the regional commons. This in turn has augmented our ability to swiftly respond to any regional maritime crisis.  Near permanent and extended presence in the regional seas afforded enhanced Maritime Domain Awareness.  Intelligence sharing with coalition partners not only improved PN‟s database, but also made our operations more effective in Pakistani EEZ to counter drugs/ narcotics trafficking and other illicit activities.

Pakistan Navy being one of the pioneer partners of the CMF has used its influence in taking across the mission and objectives of the CMF to other regional navies and has helped in leveraging influence for expanding regional cooperation and interoperability. Interaction of PN Commanders of TF-150 with leadership of regional navies helped them in developing a doctrine against crimes at sea. Many of regional countries have participated in CMF and counter piracy efforts following Pakistan‟s example.

Contribution of Pakistan Navy in CMF is being highly acknowledged globally for ensuring maritime peace in the region. Pakistan Navy being the first amongst the regional navies to join the CTF 150 in 2004 for counter terrorism and CTF 151 in 2009 for counter piracy which surely shows Pakistan‟s broader involvement in international peace and security missions at the global level. The Commanders from Pakistan Navy have been entrusted with Command and Control responsibilities of both the task forces for a number of times. All in all, the experience gained, both from Command and Ship perspective, is invaluable. Apart from regular interactions with the military Commands of the nearly 20 countries represented in the naval deployment under the umbrella of USNAVCENT, PN Commanders and their staff keep in touch with their regional counterparts. Pakistan Navy‟s presence in the region at sea and on shore has brought it closer to its regional comrades and enabled it to gain a unique insight into the diversified societies and cultural aspects more of the respective countries. Such an initiative also furthers Pakistan‟s credentials as a responsible state, willing to stand shoulder-to-shoulder with the international community in combating the twin scourges of maritime terrorism and piracy.

3.8 Deduction The potential estimated in this sector is only next to infinity but there exists a general absence of “will” to work in this sector in Pakistan. The challenges encountered in this field 118

which make the objective of exploiting EEZ to its true potential elusive to the various government organizations have been identified and laid down in detail in this chapter. It is essential to mention that they do not have any worthwhile implications on the fact that underdevelopment of this sector can be narrowed down to lack of ambition rather than the lack of ability to beat the odds stacked up in the form of maritime challenges.

Utilizing the ideology of the neoliberals to propagate the concept of cooperation for mutual gains two multinational maritime task forces have already been constituted in the Indian Ocean. Their aim is to thwart maritime challenges such as piracy, maritime terrorism and drugs/illegal weapons/human trafficking to some extent out at sea. In this regard Pakistan Navy is actively participating in both CTF 150 and CTF 151. Nonetheless the effectiveness of PN is limited by the resources available to conduct operations, counter Indian hegemonic ambitions and ulterior motives of ERF in the EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean. PN is happy to be a primary part of international efforts to secure the seas. Nonetheless, capabilities of Pakistan Navy as compare to Indian Navy are much less which needs to be enhanced keeping in view the challenges being faced out at sea. Thus it can be easily deduced that these challenges are not directly proportional to the exploration of resources from EEZ of Pakistan in Indian Ocean. Rather it is the actually absence of the will to do at all government level. This can be easily created through conducting maritime awareness campaign by involving Policy makers, academia, and future researcher at national level.

Based on the challenges outlined in this chapter conclusive proof is amply highlighted to answer question number 5 of this dissertation. As it is quite evident that the maritime affairs in Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean are very complex owing to India‟s hegemonic designs in the Indian ocean , ulterior motives of ERF and lack of harmony between various federal ministries. Government departments and provincial organizations/agencies have further compounded the already complex situation out at sea in the EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean.

It is further highlighted that in any previously conducted research material regarding challenges to this region in general and Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean in particular have never been discussed in this length. An attempt has been made in this chapter to arrange the presently faced complex security matrix/challenges in an orderly fashion so that the future researchers can take a lead in conducting further research on these challenges. 119

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Akhtar, A. S. (1981). Strategic concepts of the Indian Ocean. Maidstone: man in association with Waijdalis.

Azam, K. M. (2008). Maritime Terrorism. IPRI Journal Winter 2008, Volume VIII, Number-1 , 76-77.

Azam, K. M. (2007). The United States, the North Arabian Sea. Pakistan Proceedings (p. 38). Lahore: PN War College.

Azhar, A. D. (2015). Gwadar versus Chahbahar. 6th International Maritime Conference (p. 124). Karachi: Bahria University.

Bellamy, P. C. (2011). Regional Impact of Maritime Security Regimes. 4th International Maritime Conference 2011 (pp. 126-127). Karachi: Bahria University.

Dehua, D. W. (2014). Maritime Economy and Globalisation. International Maritime Symposium (pp. 20-21). Lahore: PN War College.

Ghauri, I. (2016). Pakistan's Coastline of Apathy. The Express Tribune .

Government of India, M. o. (2014-2015). Annual Report . New Delhi: Government of India press.

Government of Pakistan, K. P. (2016). Annual Report 2015. Karachi: Government Printing Press.

Govt of Pakistan, F. D. (2015). Economic Survey of Pakistan. Islamabad: Pakistan Press.

Greenberg, M. D., & Chalk, P. (2006). Maritime Terrorism: Risk and Liability. Centre for Terrorism Risk Management Policy , 11.

Hasnain, S. H. (2014, 5 14-15). Organised Crime and Piracy. International Maritime Symposium PN War College , p. 83.

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Impact and Prospects of CPEC for International Stake Holders. (2015). 6th International Maritime Conference (p. 122). Karachi: Bahria University.

Indian Maritime Doctrine. (2009). 57.

Inidan Ocean Naval Symposium - Pathway to Regional Maritime Cooperation. (2008). Dawn Newspaper .

Kapila, S. (2003, 11 04). India Defines Her Strategic Frontiers: An Analysis. South Asian Analysis Group Paper No. 832 .

Kaplan, D. R. (2009). Centre Stage for 21st Century. Foreign Affairs , 21-25.

Kaplan, R. D. (2010). Monsoon. New York, USA: The Random House Publishing Group.

Khan, A. (2016). June-July 2016: Sindh Government set to place complete ban on fishing. Business Recorder .

Khan, A. S. (2012). Life Goes on. Dawn .

Khan, M. M. (2015). 70% of Fish in Pakistan Destroyed in Post-Harvest Period. The Express Tribune .

Khattak, V. T. (2015, 12). Exclusion of Pakistan's EEZ from High Risk Piracy Area. Navy News , 2-4.

Khurana, G. S. (2008, 1 1). China's Sting of Pearls in IO and its Security Implications. Strategic Analysis, Vol-32 , p. 1.

Kovacs, T. (2005, 12). Maritime Security in the Straits of Malacca: Risks and Responses. DERI Working Paper , p. 8.

Kumar, K. (2000). Indian Ocean as a Zone of Peace. New Delhi: APH Publishers.

Li, M. (2008, 1 12). China's Gulf of Aden Expedition and Maritime Cooperation in East Asia. Journal of Analysis and Information , p. 5.

Mumtaz, C. A. (2011). Narco Terrorism and Drug Trafficking. 4th International Maritime Conference (pp. 102-103). Karachi: Bahria University.

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Nelson, E. S. (2012). Maritme Terrorism and Piracy: Existing and Potential Threats. Golobal Security Studies, WInter 2012, Volume 3, Issue 1 .

Nincic, D. J. (2012, 7 16). Maritime Terrorism: How Real is the Threat? MSR Viewpoint , p. 2.

Panikkar, K. M. (1945). India and the Indian Ocean. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.

Rais, B. R. (1986). Indian Ocean and the Super Powers. New Jersey: Billings Publishers.

Shahzad, S. M. (2014). The Exclusive Economic Zone of Pakistan: Opportunities and Challenges. Islamabad: National Defence University.

Suresh, R. (2012). Peace in the Indian Ocean: A South Asian Perspective. New Delhi: Serials Publications.

Vines, A., & Bereni, O. (2008). India' Engagement with the African Indian Ocean Rim States. London: Chatham House.

Zakaullah, A. M. (2015). 6th International Maritime Conference (p. 14). Karachi: Bahria University.

Zeb, K. M. (2013). EU Allows two local firms to export fish. The Dawn.

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Chapter 4

DEVELOPMENT OF MARITIME CAPITAL

4.1 Prelude An endeavor is made in this chapter to solicit the answer of the third research question, which is depicted as “Is development of Pakistan‟s maritime capital a benefactor in overall economic development of the Indian Ocean region in general and Pakistan in particular?” Pakistan has been blessed with a coastline of more than 1000 km. Its geo strategic location on the mouth of Strait of Hormuz intersects with numerous trade routes and other choke points including Red Sea and the state of Malacca (Ghauri, 2016). Furthermore its warm water ports provide the trade routes to the land locked South Asian countries, Central Asian states and shortest routes to Chinese trade.

The importance of Pakistan‟s maritime trade routes has recently increased manifolds after China concluded US$ 46 Billion CPEC agreement. After the linking of Gwadar port with China Pakistan Economic Corridor, once again Pakistan has captured the attention of the Central Asian Republics (part of former Soviet Union) which demand access to the warm water ports. Geographically the corridor (CPEC) connects through the 3000 KM road and rail link including Kashghar in West China autonomous region to Pakistan‟s South Western part of Gwadar (Baluchistan) (Government of Pakistan, 2016). This multifaceted deal includes coal-fired power plants, hydroelectric and wind generated power, solar power stations and coal supplies. This will result in exponential growth of Pakistan‟s economy.

To fully benefit from the influx of foreign funds there is a need to revamp the existing maritime infrastructure along the coastline including all ports, harbors and fishery jetties to increase their operational capacity. In this regard Karachi Shipyard is already on the road to recovery but its capacity/capability needs to be increased vastly along with constructing yet another shipyard in the vicinity of Gwadar Port. If focused attention is provided to Pakistan National Shipping corporation and Ship breaking Industry of Pakistan, these organizations can become major contributors to the overall economic development of the Indian Ocean region in general and Pakistan in particular. It is further reiterated that ports, harbors and numerous maritime industries play a vital role in the countries economy. Furthermore to maximize its

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effects on the maritime capital research, training, infrastructure, effective legislation and policy implementation should be enhanced so that it becomes a strong contributing factor at national level.

4.2 Ports and Harbours In fact shipping in truly the lynchpin of global economy, without shipping, intercontinental trade would simply not be possible. Globalization and enhanced trade activities have caused tremendous growth in maritime transportation. In the competitive world, inefficiency in port operations grows high cost of doing business, which spells doom for the economy (Qureshi, 2013-2014, p.37). Sea ports provide the berthing facilities/ infrastructure for ships. After the start of containerization in 1950‟s, port areas from where the ships were loaded and unloaded with containers specifically, are named as container terminals. Ports are considered as the gateway to economic development, handling millions of tons of cargo. Ports in any country seem to play the most important role in developing the business/ trade. Therefore, it is imperative to manage the daily operations at port in an efficient manner.

Ports and harbours have always signified the economic power and maritime potential of any country. Pakistan has only two main ports namely Karachi Port (KPT), Port Qasim (PQA) till late, Gwadar Port is still in its infancy stage, covering a coastline of more than 1000 km. Currently the capacity utilization of the Karachi Port and Port Qasim is around 65 percent which can be enhanced up to 80 to 85 percent. Since the inception of Pakistan, Karachi Port has been the main source of Pakistan‟s sea trade. Furthermore construction of Port Qasim in late 70s augmented the economic power and maritime potential of Pakistan. As both ports are located in near vicinity at Karachi, covering all major SLOCs at one point, make it prone to to air, and naval threat posed by traditional enemy i.e. India. KPT, being the premier port is the biggest port of Pakistan having natural harbour. Few berths of the port were privatized for efficient handling of the cargo. Two known private firms Pakistan International Container Terminal (PICT) and Karachi International Container Terminal (KICT) played a significant role for refurbishment of the vintage port installations. The handling capacity of KICT and PICT at Karachi port is of vital significance to national economy (Rana, 2016). Therefore the protection of SLOCs out at sea and connected oil piers at Karachi is imperative for national interest. Furthermore, there was a need felt for construction of new port away from the existing ones

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which are located very close to enemy ranges and due to increased economic activities ; as a result Gwadar Port established.

The KPT and PQA are well equipped and well integrated with mainland via road and train links. At present Gwader port is partially operational but with ongoing construction of CPEC at a high pace, the port will be fully operational by end of year 2017. At present there are only 3 jetties operational whereas construction work on 9 more jetties will be commenced by August 2017. Currently there is no oil pier installed at Gwader port however according to vision 2045 Gwadar port will have floating liquefied natural gas facility along with Gwader special Economic zones which are going to enhance its current capabilities. Further description of each port of Pakistan is appended below:

4.2.1 Karachi Port Trust (KPT) Karachi Port Trust (KPT) is a federally administered public sector organization that oversees the operations of Karachi Port. It is responsible to the Ministry of Ports and Shipping of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, but exists and operates as a Trust working under a Board of Trustees legally separate from the Federal Government. Between 1880 and 1887, the Karachi Port was administered by the Karachi Harbour Board. The Karachi Port Trust was then established by the Act-IV of 1886, effective from 1 April 1887.

The Karachi Port is administered by a Board of Trustees, comprising of the Chairman and 10 Trustees. The Chairman is appointed by the Federal Government and is also the Chief Executive Officer of Karachi Port Trust. The remaining 10 Trustees are equally distributed between the public and the private sector. The public sector Trustees are appointed and private sector trustees are elected for two years (extendable for public sector trustees).

4.2.2 Organizational Structure and Staffing Karachi Port Trust has six divisions comprising of Operations, Planning & Development, Finance, Administration, Engineering and Civil Works & Estate. Each division is headed by a General Manager and supported by Head of Departments (or Dupty Managers working under a General Manager).

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Table 19: KPT Organizational Structure

Chairman

Internal Audit

BoT/Secretary (Other) Staff Departments

Operations Engineering

Finance Civil Works & Estate

Planning & Administration Development

Source: Head Office Karachi Port Trust, Karachi.

Besides these six divisions, another six staff departments directly report to the Chairman. Internal Audit and BoT/Secretary directly support the Chairman and the BoI in their administrative task; the other staff departments serve the entire organization.

4.2.3 Port Facilities Karachi Port has an 11.5 Km long, 13.5 m deep channel. It has 30 dry cargo berths, 13 berths on West Wharves, 17 berths on East Wharves and 3 liquid cargo berths for POL and Non- POL products (Qureshi, 2013-2014, p.37). This makes a grand total of 33 berths. The port provides round the clock safe navigation for all vessels including container ships and tankers up to 75,000 DWT (Ishfaq, 2015). The port has two container terminals namely, Karachi International Container Terminal (KICT), operated by Hutchison) and Pakistan International Container Terminal (PICT), operated by ICTSI, both have been established by the private sector on BOT basis. Non-container handling operations are carried out by the separate private stevedoring companies. 126

Figure No 06 The layout and terminal zoning of the existing Karachi Port

Source: Head Office, Karachi Port Trust, Karachi

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In 2006, KPT launched the construction of the new Deep Water Container Port at Keamari Groyne, situated to the south at the approaches to Karachi Port (Rana, KPT to build Elevated Expressway to Connect Deep Water Port, 2016) . PDWCP is to presently handle Post Panamax Plus with 14.5 m draft when dredged depth is CD – 16.0 m. New Panamax or even Post New Panamax with 15.5 m draft may be handled when harbour is dredged to CD – 18.0 m.

4.2.4 Hutchison Port Holdings: South Asia Pakistan Terminal (SAPT) Phase-1 is for the delivery of the first 4 berths, comprising 1.5 km of quay wall, together with 85 ha of container stacking yard to cater for a throughput of 2.5 – 3 million TEU. Hutchison Port Holdings (HPH) is the concessionaries of the first phase called: South Asia Pakistan Terminal (SAPT). KPT infrastructure development includes quay wall, dredging & reclamation, and marine protection works, HPH is responsible for superstructure and equipment (Ishfaq, 2015).

Figure No 07 Development Plan of KPT

Source: Head Office, Karachi Port Trust, Karachi

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Cannibalization from the SAPT could be an issue for KICT and especially for PICT. An assumption for a division of containers over the terminals can be that KICT and PICT focus more feeder vessels whilst focuses on mother vessels and potential transshipment cargo. The overview of the Karachi Port‟s Trust throughput is presented in the table below:

Table 20: KPT throughput 2006-2015

Karachi Port 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 Throughput in 1,000,000 tons

General 13.0 14.8 15.5 19.0 20.2 20.0 20.4 21.2 22.1 Cargo (Including Containers)

Dry Bulk 7.5 10.7 11.4 11.2 9.4 6.7 6.4 7.0 7.6

Liquid 10.4 11.7 11.8 11.2 11.8 11.2 12.0 13.1 13.7 Bulk

Total 30.8 37.2 38.7 41.4 41.4 37.9 38.8 41.3 43.4

Containers 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.7 (1,000,000 TEUs)

Total 1,870 2,122 2,294 2,146 2,099 1,722 1,596 1,674 1,732 Vessels Calls

Source: Head Office, Karachi Port Trust, Karachi

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Annual cargo volumes at Karachi port show, an interesting trend until 2010/11 (41.4 million tons). Mainly due to the impact of the economic crisis, annual cargo volumes have decreased to a level of 38.8 million tons in 2012/13. In 2014/15, Karachi has recaptured volumes and handled a new record high throughput with 43.4 million tons.

4.2.5 KICT Karachi International Container Terminal (KICT) is situated on the West Wharf at Berths 26-30. KICT commenced operations in November 1998. It was the first private container terminal in Karach Port. KICT over the years has developed in phases. Previously only two phases were functional and the terminal area was 135,000 m2. The annual capacity of KICT was 350,000 TEUs in Phase-1 and 550,000 TEUs in phase-2. Cost of Phase-1 and 2 was USD 65 million. Phase-3 was launched on March 7, 2005. An additional area of 104,000 m2 with an investment of USD 55 million has been included in KICT. Terminal capacity has been increased to 900,000 TEUs presently. The 973 meter long berths of the terminal has been deepened to cater for CD – 13.0m draught container ships. Phase-3 was inaugurated by the Prime Minister of Pakistan in Novermber 2008 (Shahzad, 2014, p.85).

4.2.6 PICT Pakistan International Container Terminal (PICT) was awarded by KPT on a BOT basis in June 2002 (awarded Premier Mercantile Services). This terminal at berths 6-9 at East Wharf has 600 meter quay wall with -13.7 m design depth over an area of 210,000 m2. PICT has also developed in phases. After completion of Phase-4, the terminal capacity is 750,000 TEUs per annum (completed in 2010) (Shahzad, 2014, p.85).

Table 21: KICT & PICT main dimensions

Item KICT PICT Total Area (Hectares) 26 21 (+ 5) Container Berths 5 (26 – 30) 4 (6 – 9) Total Berth Length (m) 973 604 Depth Alongside (m) 13.5 13.0 Container Quay Cranes 11 6 Mobile Harbour Cranes 2 2 Source: Head office, Karachi Port Trust, Karachi

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4.2.7 Port Qasim (PQA) The Port Muhammad Bin Qasim, generally known as Port Qasim, is Pakistan‟s second busiest port, handling about 35% of the nation‟s cargo (17 million tons per annum), situated south east of Karachi. Both, PQA and KPT are fully active ports of Pakistan, together handling more than 90% of all external trade of Pakistan. The percent facilities at this port are as appended below have been established both by the public and private sector (Rasul, 2014, pp.10- 11). a. Iron Ore and Coal Berth. b. Multi Purpose Terminal (04 Berths). c. Fotco Oil Terminal. d. Qasim International Container Terminal (02 terminals). e. Cangro Vopak Chemical Terminal. f. Liquid Cargo Terminal. g. Grain and Fertilizer Terminal.

Comparison Port of Karachi and Qasim

The table below provides a summary of the key features of port Karachi and Qasim.

Table 22: Comparison KPT and PQA

Key Features Karachi Qasim

East & West Wharf Deep Water Port Qasim Container Port (under construction – start of operations in 2017)

Draft (access channel) Approach: 13.5m CD -16m CD (depth) -13m CD

Harbour: 12.2 to 13.5m CD

Length Existing KPT DWCP channel and 45 Km channel: 11.5 Km basin – 10.5m (access Channel)

Max Vessel Draft: 12-12.5 meter Draught: 15 meter Draught: 13 dimensions (PICT & KICT) meter (QICT) Length: 340 meter Length: 305 meter Length: 305 meter 131

(same for oil tankers and bulk)

Area To be included SAPT: 85 ha 7,522 ha

Quay Length PICT – 600 meter 1,500 meters (4 berths 2,427 meter each of 375 meter)

KICT – 973 meter

(Total East & West Wharves: 6,629 meter)

Volumes 43.4 million tons 30.0 million (2014/15) tons (2014/15 971,000 TEU)

1.7 million TEU

Personnel 5,769 employees 1,855 employees

Revenues Rs.13.7 Bn (2013-2014) Rs. 7.5 Bn (2013-2014)

Costs Rs. 9.3 Bn (2013-2014) Rs.5.8 Bn (2013-2014)

Profit Rs.8.2 Bn (2013-2014) Rs.1.1 Bn (2013-2014)

Source: Head office, Karachi Port Trust, Karachi

4.2.8 Gwadar Port A newly constructed port is strategically located at the mouth of Persian Gulf. Owing to non performance of the Port, by Port of Singapore Authority on 18 February 2013 operating rights of Gwadar Port were handed over to the Chinese Overseas Port Holding Company (COPHC) (Khan, 2013). This port has the potential to support worsening economy of Pakistan vis-à-vis act as a transshipment port for China and can also provide shortest access to warm

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waters to many land-locked Central Asian States. Chinese are also interested to use this port for their import and export by linking the port with through China Pakistan Economic corridor (CPEC). The port was initially built in 2007 with technical help from Beijing as well as Chinese financial assistance of about $248 million. Gwadar port, on Pakistan‟s southwest coast will see roughly one million tonnes of cargo going through it by 2017 (Dawn, April 13, 2016).

4.2.8.1 Significance of Gwadar port

Apart from being a strategic location, Gwadar Port is aggressively marketed by the Government of Pakistan for industrial activity. The Government is preparing regulations to develop Gwadar Port in line with Hong Kong and Dubai free ports, The government has already acquired 2,281 acres for free industrial zone. In the first phase, 637 acres have been handed over to holding companies so that Chinese firms could start their projects in the zone. The Chinese companies have already started coming to Gwadar free industrial zone and the government would soon hold a conference of exporters and importers to work out the modalities and time frame for starting industrial activity, an airport of international standards would also be built in Gwadar (Ahmed, 2015, pp.118-119).

4.2.8.2 Strategic Importance of Pakistani Coast The coastal areas of Pakistan, especially Makran Coast, enjoy a unique geographically, political and strategic position in the national and regional context (Mir, 2010, p.128). Accordingly, it has remained under focus of various regional and global stakeholders throughout its history:- a. The area prides itself in having five small sea ports that are Jiwani, Gwadar, Pasni, Ormara and Gaddani.

b. Its geographically-strategic location on the Central Asian trade routes and on the highway to warm-waters.

c. It is located on the flow corridor of energy from the energy surplus North to the deficient South.

d. It is located at the entrance of Persian Gulf controlling important locations, from here which 70% of the world oil is transported to the developed nations / countries.

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e. It offers the shortest routes to Arabian Sea for China.

f. The people of the area enjoy socio-ethnic ties with bordering Iran and Afghanistan.

4.2.8.3 Prevailing Environment in the Coastal Area of Pakistan Sindh Coast There is no political unrest in the coastal area of Sindh and also bears no visible signs of militancy in the area. The area is generally peaceful with exception of few law and order incidents. KPT, PQA, Keti Bandar, Karachi Fish Harbour and Korangi Fish Harbour are also located on the Sindh Coast. The Sir Creek is located South East of Karachi on the Sindh Coast which is a bone of contention between Pakistan and India and it is unresolved issue.

Makran Coast Coastal areas of Makran Division are considered peaceful in Balochistan. However, deterioration in law and order situation can be emerged on initiation of mega projects since development and prosperity together could not be absorbed by anti-state elements and hostile countries. In present day environment, the nature of threat is manifesting in the shape of Baloch sub-nationalist forces / insurgents. The details are:-

a. Mountainous terrain with sparse population on the Northern fringes of District Gwadar provides ideal places for camps and safe haven to miscreants.

b. Main group operating in Makran area is Baloch Liberation Front (BLF).

c. Baloch Liberation Front area of operations stretches largely across Awaran, Panjgur, Washuk, Turbat and Gwadar Districts in southern Balochistan.

d. Whole coastal belt from Jiwani to Ormara is engaged in fishing business. Whereas, some people of the area are also working in government departments.

Some of the issues being exploited by the sub nationalists are as appended below:-

a. Right over the land and resources of area. b. Lack of development. 134

c. Non-employment of locals. d. Development and mega projects are not for the Baloch people but meant to grab local resources for other provinces. e. Punjab domination.

Other than newly developed Gwadar port, Jiwani and Pasni Ports are also situated on Makran Coast. Ormara is a small city where Pakistan Navy has established an operational base. To boost the education facilities in the town PN has recently established a cadet college in the area which will be a gate way for Baloch community to join Pakistan Armed Forces in general and PN in particular. PN has also established a 100 bed hospital in the same locality to provide health care facilities to the local community.

Current Developments and its Implications Pakistan has taken few strategic decisions that have direct linkage with the coastal areas especially Gwadar and likely to have some implications for global and regional stakeholders:- a. Handing over of Gwadar Port to China on 30 June 2013 raises its potential of being used as a strategic location naval base, thus creating alarm for both regional and international forces. b. Opening of trade routes between Iran and Pakistan will strengthen ties between two countries, which may not be acceptable to few global and regional powers. c. These projects will not be to the liking of Baloch sub-nationalists and all out efforts will be made to disrupt their materialization.

4.2.9 Pasni Fish Harbour Pasni Harbour was built in 1987 with the assistance of Dutch firm. Its population is around 400,000. The town consists of a small Port and fish harbour. The major population of town is engaged in fishing as their major occupation. Pasni Fish Harbour is located in Pasni, Balochistan. At present, operational control of the harbour rests with the Government of Balochistan (Khan A., 2016). The port reconstruction / development project was started in 1987 and completed in 1989 at the cost of Rs. 563 million of which Rs. 495 million were provided by Asian Development Bank and rest by Government of Balochistan. In Pasni, Pakistan Navy, Pakistan Maritime Security Agency and Pakistan Coast Guard have established their stations.

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4.3 Pakistan’s Maritime Potential Security at sea is essentially required due to ever increasing trade of Pakistan through EEZ in Indian Ocean and for increasing energy need and basic necessities, medicine and edible oil etc industrial production and economic growth at national level. On one hand it is very essential for Pakistan to keep the SLOCs open and secure through well protected security mechanism. On the other hand development of Maritime sector is a compulsion for Pakistan. In this chapter pillars of maritime sector fundamentally desired for development of basic infrastructure relating to this specialized field are discussed in detail.

4.4 Pakistan Shipping Industry 4.4.1 Historical Perspective of Pakistan Shipping Industry Presently shipping in Pakistan revolves around Pakistan National Shipping Corporation (PNSC) the solo corporation. After the inception of Pakistan, the business of shipping was managed by private ship owners, who built the national fleet from scratch. In 1963, National Shipping Corporation (NSC) was formed by the Government of Pakistan. In 1970, the fleet strength of Pakistan‟s merchant fleet comprised 71 large ocean going ships (owned by 9 private shipping companies and the National Shipping Corporation). The creation of Bangladesh was instrumental towards reducing the fleet strength of Pakistan to 57 ships. In 1971 some ships were sunk while others vintage ships were scrapped.

In 1974 entire shipping sector including public and private owned ships were nationalized. Pakistan Shipping Corporation (PSC) was created by pooling the resources of nine available private shipping companies, having only 26 ships. The national fleet strength became 51 vessels by adding 26 of the nine nationalized companies and 25 ships with the state-owned NSC. Pakistan National Shipping Corporation (PNSC) came into being in1979, when both corporations (PSC and NSC) were merged. During the Fifth Five-Year Plan PNSC procured 14 ships instead of planned decision of acquisition of 19 ships causing a loss of 5 ships in the bureaucratic procedures. These ships were considered most unsuitable in all aspects. Later, National Tanker Company (NTC) was formed and procured one tanker that too was scrapped. Later NTC was merged with PNSC. Subsequently, PNSC further procured 3 feeder container ships which have also been sold out. In addition, PNSC has acquired three old single hulled tankers. Presently PNSC has only 9 ships as appended below (Obaidullah, 2014, p.57):

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Table 23: Available 9 Ships with PNSC Ship Built Acquired Type DWT Sibi 2009 2011 Bulker 28,442 Hyderabad 2004 2011 Bulker 52,951 Malakand 2004 2010 Bulker 76,830 Chitral 2003 2010 Bulker 46,710

Multan 2002 2012 Bulker 50,244

Kaghan 1986 2006 Bulker 65,716

Quetta 2003 2008 Tanker 107,215 Lahore 2003 2010 Tanker 107,018 Karachi 2003 2010 Tanker 107,081 Total 642,207 Source:International Maritime Symposium, Pakistan Navy War College 14-15 May 2014

The Shipping in Pakistan is in public sector with only 9 modern vessels having a DWT of just over 600,000. Pakistan, with 98% of its total trade being seaborne, spends approximately US$ 3.5 Billion as freight charges on its imports and exports. Its sea borne trade is approximately 67 M tons per annum of which maximum are carried by foreign vessels (Obaidullah, Indo-Pacific - the Super Maritime Region of the 21st Century, 2015, p.113).

Water borne transportation is the cheapest means of transportation; distantly followed by pipeline, rail and road. Economics of scale is big ships which can carry big volume which result in saving of lot of money on cost of transportation. Haulage through water is much easier and big ships can be towed by small tug boats. Comparison of POL transportation charges (rupees / metric ton / km) is manifested below (Rao, 2014, p.51):

Table: 24 Transportation Economics Rupees / Metric Ton / Km Sea 0.15 Pipeline 1.02 Railways 1.27 Oil Tankers 1.79 Source: International Maritime Conference 2014 held at Bahria University Karachi

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Table 25: History of Shipping in Pakistan Year Milestone 1947 Only 3 ships in private sector 1960 Increased to 41 ships in private sector 1963 National Shipping Corporation (NSC) launched in public sector 1974 Private shipping nationalized to form Pakistan Shipping corporation (PSC) 1979 NSC & PSC merged to form PNSC. Total 48 ships 1992 Private Shipping again permitted – 48 licenses issued 1993-96 Four groups added 9 vessels Tri Star, Ray Shipping , Dewan Shipping 2001 Liberal Shipping Policy announced 2006 Mega container Line* *None survived beyond approx 2-3 years operation Source: Pakistan National Shipping Corporation Head Office Karachi

Present fleet of PNSC handles about 5% of the country‟s trade, particularly oil imports, in terms of value, and 26.43% in terms of tonnage. Contrary to the general impression, the listed company is handling more tonnage on nine ships, younger and bigger than 48 old small ships it operated a decade back. According to World Trade Organization data, Pakistan imported $45 Billion and exported $ 25 billion last year, accounting for a mere 0.37% of global trade, showing enormous scope for expansion. The trade per capita was projected at $425 and the trade-to-GDP ratio at 33.8%. Leading shipping and logistic experts talk bitterly about how a potential sector was „systematically crushed‟ over the past 40 years. Despite the natural advantage of geography and demography and economic benefit of rising demand of import and export, they did not see much future for shipping (Subohi, 2015).

Table 26: Important to shipping in Pakistan Pakistan spends US$ 3.5 B annually on freight to foreign carriers. 50 M of 67 tones annual trade is carried by foreign ships. 50% of Pakistan‟s Strategic cargo i.e. POL and 85 % of dry carried by Foreign Carriers. Foreign dominance Shipping in Public Sector only with 9 ships Source: Pakistan National Shipping Cooperation Head Office Karachi

Despite a global recession in the shipping business Pakistan National Shipping organization had earned a record profit of Rs.2.3 billion in 2015-16 and also declared a dividend

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of 20 percent per share. This was possible because the PNSC carried cargoes from the public sector as well as private companies and its oil tankers remained engaged for the haulage of POL products throughout the year (Ferry service planned for Karachi Commmurers, 2016, p.3).

Table 27: PNSC- Commercial Performance Year Pakistan Sea Trade PNSC (Million Tons) PNSC’s (Million Tons) Contribution (%) FY 2000 37.6 3.95 FY 2010 61.0 7.92 FY 2011 62.0 9.33 FY 2012 63.3 10.31* FY 2013 62.4 13.3 FY 2014 67.77 17.91 *Highest Lifting since 1979 Source: Pakistan National Shipping Cooperation Head Office Karachi

The corporation also planned to buy two oil tankers by the end of the current financial year which would take the number of its tankers to six. Thereafter, the total number of ships will be 11. The decision to purchase oil tankers after the government in its budget for 2016-17, had exempted purchase of vessels from duty and taxes. But the tankers that PNSC would buy would be 10 years old because their cost would be much less as compared to new ones (ibid).

Table 28: PNSC Operating Profit/ (Loss) – FY 1979- FY 2014

Year Number Profit/Loss Year Number of Profit/Loss of Ships After Taxation Ships After Taxation

1979 48 8907 1996 15 39,152

1980 42 25900 1997 15 71,599

1981 44 26936 1998 15 101,811

1982 45 84751 1999 15 102,400

1983 43 336140 2000 15 582,373

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1984 35 297431 2001 14 224,560

1985 31 8990 2002 14 496,390

1986 29 25505 2003 13 615,740

1987 26 2259133 2004 14 1,782,990

1988 23 702948 2005 14 2,898,540

1989 23 276998 2006 15 1,427,550

1990 22 201497 2007 14 2,336,873

1991 22 126562 2008 14 2,448,880

1992 22 68078 2009 11 2,312,842

1993 22 95292 2010 10 967,824

1994 19 326640 2011 11 1,632,942

1995 15 443208 2012 9 753,155

2013 9 1,990,000

2014 9 2,149,057

Source: Pakistan National Shipping Cooperation Head Office Karachi

Pakistan, a nuclear armed country of this region, with a population of approximately 200 M, is situated in a strategic location in the North Arabian Sea and at the doorstep of the Persian Gulf. It provides the shortest land route to the CAR and is boarded by two nuclear-armed countries. It has strategic location as to its west lie the major energy producers of the world and the top energy consumers of the world lie to its east. Pakistan‟s performance however in the maritime domain has remained unsatisfactory over the years. Nonetheless, PNSC historical Fleet and carrying capacity from 1979 to 2014 is shown on the next page:

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Table 29: PNSC Historical Fleet and Carrying Capacity Year Number of Ships DWT ON MTI 1979 48 579486 1980 42 547923 1981 44 590868 1982 45 650984 1983 43 634976 1984 35 515632 1985 31 468199 1986 29 449983 1987 26 410,234 1988 23 370,766 1989 23 370,766 1990 22 352,716 1991 22 352,716 1992 22 352,716 1993 22 352,716 1994 19 313,040 1995 15 264,410 1996 17 290,353 1997 15 261,836 1998 15 261,836 1999 15 261,836 2000 15 261,836 2001 14 243,749 2002 14 243,749 2003 13 229,579 2004 14 469,931 2005 14 570,466 2006 15 636,9182 2007 14 836,821 2008 14 536,821 2009 11 477,238 2010 10 633,273 2011 11 646666 2013 9 642207 2014 9 683796 Source: Pakistan National Shipping Cooperation Head Office Karachi

The Merchant Shipping Policy 2001 has introduced host of incentives for shipping sector. The real motive behind these incentives is to revive the shipping sector, create the job opportunities for public and generate the related business activities in the country.

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4.4.2 Shipping Policy 2001 Until 2002, an obsolete Merchant Shipping Act of 1923 governed and regulated shipping in Pakistan due to which merchant marine could not flourish. Attention of several Governments of Pakistan was drawn in this regard but due to the appointments of pseudo-professionals at the helm of the organizations of merchant marine nothing appreciable could be framed. Several governments attempted to frame Merchant Shipping Bill to replace the obsolete Act of 1923 but failed bitterly. The Government in order to attract investors has announced, “The Pakistan Merchant Marine Policy 2001” on 10 July 2002.

4.4.3 Salient Features – Formulation of Merchant Marine Policy

In order to frame a viable Merchant Marine Policy and Act of a country; it is imperative to consider the following salient features:

a. To actively study the overall global scenario of world shipping; its legislation, strength and development.

b. To take into account the national sea borne trade requirements including that of provisions for taking active participation of global sea borne trade.

c. To ensure, framing of rules and regulations in strict conformity, with the requirements of International Codes, Practices and Maritime legislation.

d. To ensure that the rules and regulations framed are crystal clear without any ambiguity and are fully elaborated and defined thereby leaving no avenue for administrative corruption/ misinterpretation.

e. To appoint professional technocrats of merchant marine at the helm of affairs in the organizations of merchant marine to ensure proper implementation of the various sections of the Shipping Policy and Act in order to obtain optimum efficiency, profitability, expansion of merchant marine and gainful utilization of the national and overseas finances.

f. To curb upon all means of Administrative and Operational corruption, inefficiency, mal-practices and embezzlements of huge funds and award

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exemplary punishments to the culprits engaged in nefarious activities contrary to national interest.

4.4.4 Analysis of Shipping Sector The importance of shipping in promoting trade cannot be denied. But unfortunately due to lack of maritime awareness, neither the shipping sector could flourish nor were major additional ports developed in the past. The private sector also disappeared with the nationalization of Shipping Industry. There have been no consistent and long term policies to boost the shipping sector. It is nothing, but lack of comprehension and foresightedness. Immediately, focused attention is required, first to create general awareness about maritime affairs among the academia, policy makers and at all levels of public and private sector. Then there is a need to develop maritime sector on priority. The causes, of downfall of shipping industry in Pakistan are appended below:

4.4.4.1 Pakistani Shipping Owners The private sector of Pakistan was attracted by the foreign shipping companies since nationalization of 1970s. Presently a huge number of ships owned by Pakistani owners are under Flag of Convenience (FoC) register and our own nationals are reluctant to bring their ships under Pakistani flags. This has been the major factor resulting into decline of shipping industry of Pakistan. These ships need to be brought back to Pakistan by giving special incentives like Tex exemption.

4.4.4.2 Pseudo Professionals are at the Helm of Affairs Ports and shipping is a very highly technical and sophisticated subject. The changes and development of ship design, cargo handling techniques, advancement of technology, use of electronic systems, modern communication techniques, all warrant that the affairs of merchant marine should be entrusted to professionally qualified technocrats of merchant marine who are fully abreast with commercial shipping and unless such a policy is implemented it is well nigh impossible to have any development and progress in the shipping sector.

4.4.4.3 Unrealistic and Damaging Approach If proper merit is not followed during induction/recruitment, it is ultimately exercised by personnel who are least suited for jobs entrusted to them, both by virtue of qualifications, 143

experience and temperament too. Likewise in a democratic system the politically motivated persons are entrusted jobs and exercise power to the will of politically elected persons in the power corridors. The criteria in both these cases is obedience to those in the power corridors and blowing of trumpets proclaiming that all is fine, no matter the national economy is ruined, corruption reaches its nadir and the people each day become poorer, jobless and are constrained to resort to corrupt practices and become part of a corrupt society, finding no other way out to exist. The social fabric is damaged and even law and order situation arises, mobs gather, burn national assets, kill people, revolt and raise slogans for a revolution. In both the above mentioned cases it is imperative to adopt a policy to induct suitably educated, qualified, experienced and those conversant in the fields of disciplines where they are given authoritative positions, including an honest system of accountability and progress. It is imperative to change our present approach especially in the merchant marine to obtain the desired results of having a strong profitable and prosperous merchant marine.

4.4.4.4 Shipping Policy There was no shipping policy and the one which was followed was outdated. Although „Pakistan Merchant Marine Policy 2001‟ announced in 2002 was to "facilitate and attract private sector investment in shipping," but so far nothing has been added to Shipping Industry. Which dictate further reforms and rewriting of policy.

4.4.4.5 Inadequate National Shipping Fleet As mentioned earlier, at present PNSC operates only 09 ships. Due to old age the maintenance and operation of the fleet has become expensive. The fleet combination is also unsuitable to meet modern trade requirement. PNSC have to strive hard to induct private entrepreneurs and replace the aging sector fleet of 9 vessels.

4.4.4.6 Development of Additional Ports Should the efforts were made earlier to develop additional ports along our coast then it would have brought Pakistan at par with the developed ports of Dubai, Oman etc. and would have helped revive shipping industry by earning foreign exchange. Still there is a requirement of at least two more Ports along the Pakistani coast as alone Gwadar port will not be able to sustain bulk of incoming Chinese flux of cargo in near future.

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4.4.4.7 Equal Opportunity There was discrimination between the public and private sector and equal opportunities were not provided to the private sector (Rehman, 2005). The "Right of First Refusal" and cargo preferences were given to the PNSC over the private sector, which led to elimination of healthy competition and resulted in a stalemate.

4.4.4.8 Skilled Manpower Unfortunately Pakistan has not utilized the talents and expertise of our skilled manpower in both the public and private sectors. Pakistan neighbors and other countries like China, Philippines and Ukraine have utilized the talents and expertise of their technical and skilled manpower and its updating through periodical training, which has resulted in the earning of remittances of about USD 2 Billion from the seafarers alone serving on foreign vessels. Moreover, Indian seafarers employed on foreign ships remit over USD 1 Billion to their exchequer whereas our seafarers who used to remit USD 70 Million were jobless after 9/11 and are discriminated against (Shah, 2007). They find hard to survive and it is great loss to exchequer of Pakistan.

4.4.5 Seamen Employment Before 1971 large numbers of seamen were employed on Pakistan flag carriers as well as on foreign ships of international shipping companies. While working on foreign ships our seamen earned huge amount of foreign exchange and contributed towards economy by sending large amount to their families in Pakistan. With the general decline in Pakistan's shipping industry from 1972 onwards Pakistan share in the seafarers supply market has dwindled and Pakistan has lost her share of market to Philippine, India and now China. Pakistani seafarers, who use to bring approximately USD 70 Million annually, are now neglected, which is a great loss to the national exchequer. No one even pondered how to address the problem of trade and Pakistani crew as little importance is attached in shipping sector and the country continues to lose about USD 1.8 Billion for freight bill. In Pakistan, government have to address this problem proficiently by utilizing Pakistani human resource, which professionally second to none, IMO is willing to offer free assistance in training of seafarers.

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4.4.6 Causes of present statue In fact owing to lack of awareness, political will & lukewarm patronage and Continental mindset of the relevant authorities have brought the origination to this present alarming state. Nonetheless, favorable environment is available in the country for further progress of the origination as 67 M ton/annum of seaborne trade to be handled in Pakistan. Assured Cargo of 23 m ton (POL & LNG) transportation cost can be charged in Pakistani Rupees instead of dollars thus saving of FE component. Employment for Pakistani seafarers would be another factor. Although freight rates are improving but the Price of ships is still 40% lesser than that of 2008 prices, which provide a great opportunity for PNSC to buy new ships availing a rare and real opportunity (Cdre S M Obaidullah, GM (Ops) PNSC, Personal Communication, April 11, 2016)

It is further suggested that to improve the overall fishing structure in the country Government of Pakistan must revise the Shipping Policy issued in 2001. During revision of subject policy more incentives may be offer, while removing specific anomalies. Tanker and LNG ships needs to added to carry captive cargo of LNG and POL. Modern dredgers be added to augment current capacity of PNSC. More so appointment of Heads of all Maritime Organizations & Board of Directors to be institutionalized and may not be left on the wishes of any one individual. Government of Pakistan directive depicting Chief of the Naval Staff as Chief Technical Advisor on Maritime Affairs is to be completely revamped, to be comprehensive and effective.

4.4.7 Role of private investor, education sector and media Private sector should invest in shipping including dredging. Universities & Colleges should conduct courses in maritime discipline. TV channels dedicate airtime for awareness and promotion of maritime industry in Pakistan. Higher Education Commission (HEC) must ensure that all public and privates Universities must add a chapter in relevant syllabi to harvest God Given Gift. Bring about fresh and attractive policies for shipping sector like many other maritime nations including India. Pivotal statistics of Pakistani volume of trade and oil are given on the next page:

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Table 30: Volume of Pakistan Trade and Oil PIVOTAL STATISTICS Pakistan total seaborne trade 67 M Import of POL products 20 M Crude Oil 8 M Processed Oil 11-12 M Import through PNSC 9 M Remaining through foreign carriers 11 M

Source: Pakistan National Shipping Cooperation Head Office Karachi

4.5 Ship Building Industry To get an insight of the ship building industry, the author visited Karachi Shipyard on 19 and 20 August 2016 and met many head of the departments after in length discussion, summary was prepared. Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works (KS&EW) generally known as Karachi shipyard, is the solo shipyard of Pakistan contemplating for its Ship Repair, maintenance, Building and other Engineering requirements of the country . Details of the KS&EW are added below:

4.5.1 Introduction of KS & EW (Capt (R) Shakil Tahir Pakistan Navy, personal communication, August 19, 2016) provided an interesting description regarding Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works.

KS&EW Limited is the first Heavy Engineering industry of Pakistan, created in 1957. Although, it was basically designed for series production of ocean going small and medium size ships, its function in the development/ manufacturing of other heavy industry related products is more prominent and especially in early years after creation of Pakistan. Despite the fact that an overwhelming part of its available facilities and manpower were apportioned for Shipbuilding, it has made significant achievements in General Engineering. Some of the pioneering roles of KS&EW in the industrialization process of Pakistan include: -

a. Gates for Barrages and Dams, b. Complete Sugar Plants and its machinery & equipment. c. Industrial Boilers. d. Electric Overhead, Luffing and Gantry Cranes. 147

e. Large size LPG Storage Tanks. f. Drilling Rigs. g. Mobile and Skid Mounted Caravans. h. H.T & L.T Transmission Towers j. Over-head Pedestrian Bridges.

In 1958, KS&EW General Engineering (G.E) division was established, which helped the national cause by manufacturing bulk-head gates & relief valves for Warsak Dam in 1961, radial gates for Teesta Barrage (East Pakistan) in 1962, and manufacturing 64 gates for Guddu Barrage in 1962-63. In addition KS&EW also managed the crisis by repairing within record time the gates for Sukhar Barrage in 1984 & 85. Similarly removing of semi-spherical Bulk Head Gates of Tarbela Dam in the shortest period of six (6) weeks in 1987, averting a natural calamity was a big achievement. The well equipped General Engineering Division of KS&EW offers a much diversified range of engineering goods and products for the local industry. It is a Public (unlisted) Company, with its shares owned by Ministry of Defense Production and Pakistan Navy. It is administratively controlled by Ministry of Defense Production, Government of Pakistan. KS&EW is an MS certified company from M/s Lloyds Register UK.

4.5.2 History of KS&EW (Commodore Saleem Iqbal SI(M), Pakistan Navy, personal communication, August 19, 2016) provided complete history of the Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works Ltd.

Shipbuilding industry experienced a sudden boom at the end of Second World War. The shipyards, design houses and other relevant services provider grew exponentially around the globe. The significance of shipbuilding industry arises from the fact that a great number of professional workers are now in deficient as required by the shipyard, and other relevant industries. The requirement of a national ship building along with provision of ship manufacturing, repair and maintenance facilities to Pakistan navy is also a major contributing factor. Shipbuilding is therefore an attractive industry not only for developed but also for developing nations. China enrolled as a shipbuilding nation during 1980s and captured world's major share during 2008-10, presently ranked first ahead of South Korea and Japan in terms of gross tonnage, In China, the industry alone generated US$ 91 Billion revenue in 2015. At present many developing countries around the globe are entering into various kinds of joint ventures and models to become a shipbuilding nation. 148

Though, Pakistan has a coast line of over 1,000 Km, but unfortunately no worthwhile measures have been undertaken to harvest benefit from this natural gift. The project known as Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works Limited, was approved in a cabinet meeting presided by the first prime minister of Pakistan, Mr. Liaquat All Khan, on the pursuance of the first Naval Commander-in-Chief Admiral J W Jaffered. The establishment of facility was thought as essential as defense of Pakistan. The Government of Pakistan and Government of Germany provided the financing for the project under a loan agreement in 1952. Finally, KS&EW came into existence as PIDC project in 1957 and MV Whimbrel was the first merchant ship produce by KS&EW.

4.5.3 Shipbuilding Infrastructure at KS&EW Karachi Shipyard is strategically located in north Arabian Sea in Indian Ocean and is providing Shipbuilding and Ship Repair facilities to local and foreign customers. The major local customers include PN, PNSC, MSA, KPT, PQA, GPA in the public sector and wide range of customers in the private sector have been well served over the past six decades, Facilities installed, are suited to build and repair medium size ships up to 18,000 TDW and multipurpose cargo vessels up to 26,000 TDW. Various workshops and facilities make Shipyard completely independent of any outside support for its production and repair activities. Machine Shop, fully equipped shipbuilding halls, Fabrication Shops and Foundry for cast iron and non ferrous metal were created to support Shipbuilding and Ship Repair in the most efficient manner. Having three building berths, two dry docks and long Quay-walls, the shipyard has the capacity to undertake simultaneous repair and construction of several ships. The layout of the shops is perfect to ensure smooth flow of raw, semi processed and finished for shipbuilding activities with utmost efficiency. Since its inception, Karachi Shipyard has constructed and delivered over 445 Crafts for PN, KPT, PQA and several foreign clients including China, Iran and UAE (Obaidullah, Indo- Pacific - the Super Maritime Region of the 21st Century, 2015, p.114).

4.5.4 Warship construction KS&EW During mid 90s, KS&EW entered into construction of warships; when it built a missile craft (PNS SHUJAAT) for Pakistan Navy. Later in 1996, lifting capacity dock of 4000 ton was delivered to PN for repair and maintenance of PN fleet. KS&EW has also being associated with the construction of the most intricate portion of Augusta 90B Submarine i.e. the pressure hull and associated non-pressure structure. KS&EW's work on the pressure hull has won quality 149

recognition by Direction des Constructions Navels-France, The recent accomplishment of KS&EW includes construction of two Small Tanker cum Utility Ships, F-22P Frigate PNS ASLAT, Fast Attack Craft (Missile) PNS DEHSHAT, various tugs, dredge tenders, utility vessels etc. The F-22P Frigate and Fast Attack Craft (Missile). Now a fleet tanker for PN is under construction at the same year.

4.5.5 Construction of Fleet Tanker for PN (Commodore Salman Ilyas Pakistan Navy, personal communication, August 19, 2016) provided an interesting description regarding construction of Fleet Tankers for Pakistan Navy.

KS&EW is currently building a state of the art, IMO/MARPOL complaint double hull 17000 tonnes displacement Fleet Tanker for Pakistan Navy. The design of PN Fleet Tanker (PNFT) is based on contemporary trends and is according to Bureau Veritas Rules for the Classification of Naval Ships (3rd Party Classification Society). Double hull design will provide PNFT with unrestricted entry into any port of the world. Endurance range of PNFT is +10000 NM at 15 Knots cruising speed, with 3 months naval store and spares capacity. PNFT is around 158 m long, with a beam of 22 m. A tripartite contract, among MODP, KS&EW, and M/s STM (Savunma Teknolojileri Muhendislik ve Ticaret A.S) of Turkey for construction PNFT was signed on 22 Jan 13. Design and Kit of Material (KoM) for construction is being provided by M/s STM. Total project time including design, construction, also Class qualified for all welding and trials is 48 months thus project will be completed on 27 Nov 2017. Construction of PNFT is commenced with steel cutting ceremony held on 27 Nov 13. In terms of steel weight, over 6000 tons of steel was cut to fabricate 250 hull blocks of PNFT and other associated outfitting items. Another unique feature of this project is that PNFT is to be painted under the Class complying IMO/PSPC Regulations MSC 215(82). This is the first time that a ship under construction at KS&EW is to be painted under the Class. Under these regulations, special dressing of all steel structures and associated members under lSO 8501-3:2001 {MSC 82/241 is to be undertaken prior application of paint under strict control of paint manufacturer's qualified inspector. Keel laying of PNFT was held on 7 Mar 14, five months ahead of the contractual date. Nonetheless, outfitting of 17000 tonnes PNFT has been equally challenging task. Scope of works under this domain includes laying of over 200,000 m cables, fabrication and installation of over 5000 foundations, over 40,000 m pipes, painting and insulation of over 500 compartments and tanks, etc. 150

4.5.6 Ship repairs at KS&EW (Commodore (R) Ahmad Raza, Pakistan Navy, personal communication, August 19, 2016) provided an interesting description regarding Ship repairs at Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works. KS&EW is having a highly structured Ship Repair setup where till now more 5000 ships have been repaired, including some of foreign origin. PN, PMSA, other shipping companies and various port authorities are also remain in contact with KS&EW for their repair maintenance and new construction work. Modern state of the art and well-planned facilities exist in KS&EW for undertaking additional construction like sugar mill plants, oil drilling rigs, turbines and wind mill polls. For underwater repairs, two dry docks are available, which can take vessels up to 26,000 DWT with following dimensions / facilities.

Table 31: Availability of Dry Docks at KS & EW

DRY DOCK Length Width Crane Facility Capacity 1. 186 M 27 M 30 Tons 26,000 TDW 2. 170 M 24 M 15 Tons 18,000 TDW Source: Head Office Karachi Shipyard, West Wharf Road Karachi

Following are the dimensions of quay walls for above water repairs: Table 32: Availability of Quay Walls at KS & EW

Quay Wall Location Length 1 North Side 500 Meters 2 South Side 165 Meters Source: Head Office Karachi Shipyard, West Wharf Road Karachi

Due to only setup of the country for commercial vessels, ship repair demand is much more than capacity. To cope with the increasing demand in the national and world-wide shipping sector, KS&EW has decided to revitalize the facilities to meet the requirements and challenges of repair projects as well as new shipbuilding, With this focus, KS&EW has launched a full- scale project to modernize and increase the capabilities of the existing installation for repair activities. One of modernization packages comprises of the provision of a Ship Lift & Transfer System. This mega project is executing on fast track basis and expected to be completed by December 2017. The project for installation of Ship Lift and Transfer System would enable 151

lifting of ships, submarines and commercial vessels from sea and place them on land in a short time to ensure quick repair cycles. Following are the principal characteristics of the project:

 Lifting capacity of ships 7781 tons  Platforms dimensions 125 x 32 m  Number of parking stations 13

4.5.7 Sugar plants & machinery KS&EW (Shakil Tahir Pakistan Navy, personal communication, August 20, 2016) provided an interesting description regarding secondary role of Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works about construction of heavy machineries like sugar plants. KS&EW offer complete Sugar Plants on turn-key basis besides making various components for maintenance, replacement or Balancing Modernization and Rehabilitation (BMR) of sugar mills. Owing to technological advancements in process of manufacturing sugar, KS&EW acquired latest technology through a technical collaboration agreement with a firm of France. With this collaboration, KS&EW successfully manufactured seven (7) complete Sugar Plants, all for Sindh region of Pakistan. In addition, KS&EW has so far manufactured and supplied a total of 25 Baggasse Fired Industrial Boilers to various Sugar Mills. Whereas it has also manufactured and supplied more than 84 Fire-Tube packaged type boilers unto 600 HP capacities to various industrial concerns. Manufacturing of all sorts of electric overheads, gantry and luffing cranes is yet another successful product of KS&EW. More than 190 cranes of up to 50 Ton capacity have been made for various prominent organizations of the country. KS&EW G.E. division continuously is playing a critical role in industrial growth of Pakistan by manufacturing and providing heavy steel structural parts to Pakistan Steel, General Tyre & Rubber Co., Crescent Steel & Allied Products etc., at the time of their establishment. Nonetheless, Karachi shipyard has also assisted in the establishment of Guddu Thermal power Plant, Kot Adu". Power Plant, Korangi Thermal Power Plant, Hubco Power Plant, Lalpir Power Plant and Uch Power plant by manufacturing steel structural parts in bulk tonnage, piping and bulk storage tanks. More so, in recent years to overcome the increased load of Shipbuilding G.E. Division has also diversified its activities to put its share towards shipbuilding, by constructing structural parts of various Submarines and other ships and vessels of Pakistan Navy. KS&EW's other products include pressure vessels, LPG storage tanks, cement plants machinery and equipment including kiln shells, heat exchangers, pressure vessels, equipment for petro-chemical G.E. 152

Division is also pioneer in developing and constructing, various other products like galvanizing tanks, pedestrian overhead bridges, Mobile and Skid Mounted Caravans, H.T & L.T. Transmission Towers, Flood Light Towers for various sports stadiums of Pakistan and Sewage Treatment Plants. All these products are now being made all over the country by private entrepreneurs using KS&EW's developed design. A new foundry was commissioned at Karachi shipyard which has come into production since 2014. It consists of a 10 tons per hour capacity cupola furnace for melting cast iron (highest in capacity in Pakistan, at par with only one cupola in private sector), 5 tons and 1.5 tons capacity induction furnaces on one megawatt power pack for melting of cast iron and cast steel, and 300 kg capacity non ferrous furnace for melting copper, brass, aluminum and their alloys.

4.5.8 Quality perspective of KS&EW (Commodore (R) Farooq Ali, Pakistan Navy, personal communication, August 20, 2016) provided an interesting description regarding quality control aspects of the Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works. Karachi Shipyard is an Integrated Management System (IMS) Certified Company. The yard strives to deliver quality products and services as leading shipyard in the area. In this regard, shipyard has acquired Quality Management, Environment Management and Occupational Health & Safety Management System certifications. The history of Quality Management System of KS&EW dates back to early 90's, when it became mandatory to acquire ISO 9002 certification for construction of state of the art Agosta 90 B Submarine for Pakistan Navy. Therefore, in a very short span of time all pre-requisites were completed for ISO certification and with the grace of Almighty Allah, the yard acquired ISO 9002 certification in 1997. It was the first ever company of Pakistan in public sector which was declared as ISO 9002 certified.

As per policy, KS&EW is committed to ensure satisfaction of valued customers by providing them quality products on time at competitive prices, in doing so KS&EW is determined to abide by QHSE (Quality, Health, Safety and Environment Protection) standards/regulations to ensure quality system through continuous training, aligning the organization and audits. KS&EW is a unique government organization in Pakistan that implemented IMS by applying lean manufacturing to reduce waste and non-productive time to increase overall productivity and to ensure in time delivery of products/projects.

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Customer Relationship Management is one of the key focus areas of KS&EW. While a mini revolution is underway through in-house improvements and development of quality culture at grass root level, KS&EW's skillfulness and dexterity in shipbuilding has been recognized arid highly praised by all the clients. The real testimony of this fact is the number of following construction projects presently in hand:

a. PN Fleet Tanker b. 1500 Tons Maritime Petrol Vessel c. 600 Tons Maritime Petrol Vessel d. Fast Attack Craft (Missile) No, 3 e. Fast Attack Craft (Missile) No, 4 (indigenous design) f. 2 x 32 Tons Bollard Pull Tugs g. Multi Purpose Barge (Indigenous design) h. 22 x Bridge Erection Boats j. Backhoe Dredger (Indigenous design)

4.5.9 Up gradation of KS&EW (Capt (R) Aqib Rifat Sheikh, Pakistan Navy, personal communication, August 20, 2016) provided an interesting description regarding restructuring and upgradation of Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works.

Since the established of shipyard the major up gradation of the yard was undertaken in early 70's when Dry Dock No 2 was built. Thereafter, no major up gradation of the yard was considered. The infrastructure became old and non-productive. A major effort was required to revitalize the shipyard. In this respect Ministry of Defense Production, Naval Headquarters and Planning Commission of Pakistan came to rescue the yard when project worth Rs 816 Million was approved in the year 2008 along with its up gradation package of F-22P Frigate contract, In fact these helped reconstruction of the shipyard on modern lines. It was through up gradation that KS&EW could construct the state of the art Frigate PNS ASLAT delivered in 2013, Missile Craft PNS DEHSHAT in 2014 and many auxiliary vessels like tugs, boats and barges to KPT, Pakistan Navy and Pakistan Army. The important elements of the up gradation packages along with their sponsoring authorities are depicted on the next page: 154

Table 33: Up gradation Packages along with Sponsoring Authorities

03 X 40 Tons Portal Cranes MODP/NHQ

02 X 102 Tans Heavy Load Lifting Flat Bed Trucks MODP/NHQ

NC Cutting Machine MODP/NHQ

MODP/NHQ 02 X Pipe Bending, Plate Straightened, Edge Planner and Welding Machines.

02 X 100 Tons Gantry cranes M ODP/NHQ

07 Story Building for Foreigner Technical Staff MOD

Painting and Grit Blasting Facility MODP/PSDP

Refurbishment of 3 Shipbuilding Berths MOOP/PSDP

Foundation of Heavy Machines MODP/PSDP

Refurbishment of 470 meters North Quay Wall MODP/PSOP

Renewal of Fire main Line MQDP/PSDP

Construction of Block Fabrication Areas MODP/PSDP

Refurbishment of Services and Road Network MOOP/PSDP

Construction of Warehouses MOOP/PSDP

MODP/PSDP Uplift of various Work Centers, Laboratories and old buildings Infrastructure

Ship Lift and Transfer System MODP/PSDP

Source: Head Office Karachi Shipyard, West Wharf Road Karachi

An elaborate Transfer of Technology program for KS&EW was undertaken after joint surveys by Chinese experts and KS&EW engineers prior the start of construction of War Ships F-22P Frigates. The up gradation of KS&EW construction facilities by induction of various new and modern machinery and equipment has not been only limited to construction of F22P, but has enhanced KS&EW capabilities to undertake 155

construction program of subsequent warships, submarines and commercial vessels. A state of the art painting and grit blasting workshop to cater painting of complete structure block in temperature and humidity controlled environment was commissioned, which is the first of its kind in Pakistan. A Ship Lift & Transfer System with a lifting capacity of 8000 tons with 13 parking stations is being installed and is planned to be complete by end 2017.

4.6 Ship Breaking Industry of Pakistan In Pakistan, across an area of 1,256 hectares exactly on 132 plots and 50 miles west of Karachi, the ship breaking activities are performed in Gadani open yards. The beach is 10 km long. Eight to ten vessels per month are dismantled or approx 100 vessels per year, predominantly from Europe, through beaching method (Masood, 2016, p.149). However, beaching method is not allowed under EU Rules. Method of Ship Breaking Beaching (Gadani) Slipway (Aliaga) Dry Docking (Developed Countries) Alongside (China)

Pakistan, Bangladesh and India are famous for ship breaking in the region. During 80s the industry was on her full boom, but gradually the decline started due to unfriendly government policies regarding continuous changing tariff, tax, and duty (Shahzad, 2014, pp.100- 103).

Moreover, the difference of decline is of USD 16.028 Million, or 65.17%, in Pakistan‟s imports of scrap ships during July-August 2007, as compared to USD 46.021 Million in the corresponding period of year 2006. Subject industry has been a source of raw material for steel products although the volume of its input has been quite low if seen in a larger context. Aside from providing an alternative supply for the steel industry, the country's main ship-breaking yard at Gadani is also a centre of economic activity in an otherwise impoverished area in Balochistan (Birkett, 2016). Gadani Ship Braking yard received a total of 111 vessels in 2014, 124 vessels in 2012, 105 vessels in 2013.

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Current activities at Gadani indicate that the activities lag behind the yards in Bangladesh and India. Ship breaking yards of Gadani are the dominant employer in the Balochistan province and also a major source of revenue on a local and federal level. The SDPI estimates that currently around 850,000 people are involved directly or indirectly in the Pakistani ship breaking industry. Eighty percent of ships scrapped at Gadani are oil tankers. Almost all regions prefer oil tankers. First of all this is due to the fact that around one-third of the world fleet comprises of oil tankers and, in comparison to other types of vessels, tankers are scrapped relatively quickly, and secondly tankers have a huge ratio of steel, so that a huge range of vessel materials can be recycled.

Immediately after the inception of Pakistan, a cluster of renowned businessman prepared serious plans to expand this unorganized business into a proper industry. Subsequently, keeping in view the economic potential and increasing importance of the ship-breaking industry, Government of Pakistan announced a lucrative incentive package in 1978, thereafter a number of steps were taken by relevant stakeholders including government departments including reforms of tariff, tax, and duty, Cogent steps were also taken for the safety and security of personnel working at ship breaking industrial town of Gadani. The golden period of such a mega shipbreaking industry is considered to be between years 1969 to 1983. In the 1980s, the Gadani shipbreaking industry provided lot of jobs to unemployed youth. Another study reveals that one of the world largest ship breaking industry during 1982-83 was having more than 30,000 direct employees while more than half a million people made a living out of the industry and was earning valuable Foreign Exchange for Pakistan. At present, 68 plots are operational in the Gadani ship breaking yard, which are run by 38 operators and employ more than 12,000 workers. In the year 2012, the yard had 133 ships to dismantle (Khan M. Z, 2013). But hard working labors is earning as little as US $6 per day, and they remain exposed to many dangers.

International agencies have shown many concerns on ship breaking industry of Pakistan. The studies indicate that “incorrect storage and inadequate dealings with hazardous substances in combination with the common practice of ship dismantling (beaching method) indicate negative impacts for the health of innumerable labourers and environment, including the maritime ecological system of the Pakistan coastline”. The hazardous substances get into the environment; toxic fumes are released into the air and pose a risk for human health. The international concerns are appended below: 157

a. Workers Health and Safety b. Inhuman working condition c. Lack of protective gears d. Lack of mechanized equipment e. Accidental deaths f. Damage to environment g. Hazardous materials from ships pollute surrounding environment, especially beach and surrounding marine environment.

If above mentioned measures not adopted in true letter and spirit at Gadani, the incidents like one occurred on 01 November 2016 will keep taking place. 28 workers lost their precious life and more than 60 were badly injured by burning, when fire broke out in an oil tanker at Gadani (baloch, 2016). Actually the vessel was not fully drained of oil when the dismantling work commenced. As a result explosion ripped through the oil tanker at Gadani ship breaking yard. Owing to negligible health and safety facilities precious lives were lost. Casualties could be many more as more than 70 workers were found missing, must be trapped in fire ball (Hassan, 2016).

Owing to ever increasing competition from rival ship-breaking yards in the region, especially from India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and upward surge of various taxes, the decline began in later part of 80s. In fact Gadani is the perfect example of the neglect in maritime sector of Pakistan. The blame cannot be attributed to any specific challenge, rather its again the will of the official sitting on the helms of affairs. Its again reiterated that maritime awareness need to be created among the masses in Pakistan so that concern stake holders may pay accord some priority to maritime affairs in Pakistan. Ship Breaking and Recycling Policy need to be drafted at the earliest. A pilot model ship recycling yard at Gadani to be established, this model if proven acceptable to the entrepreneurs/ government, it may be replicated in other yards to be established at Gwadar and Pasni. A model waste reception facility may also be developed and later replicated in other parts. The model ship recycling facility should be affordable for the local entrepreneurs; it should be labor intensive, so that labor does not lose their employment opportunity (Masood, 2016, p.151). More so, a simplified Ship Breaking Guidelines (preferably in Urdu) is to be developed for illiterate workers for their safety and security. The proposed model ship recycling facility may accommodate necessary equipment, such as cranes, pulleys and other basic items to make the working condition safer. Pre-cleaning of ships before

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recycling should also be considered. To remain viable in this international industry however, Pakistan needs to shift towards green ship recycling and should deal with hazardous materials by following international standards. China has taken a big leap forward by establishing its ship breaking industry alongside its ship construction industry to efficiency conduct green ship recycling and convert ship breaking into ship construction activity (Obaidullah, Indo-Pacific - the Super Maritime Region of the 21st Century, 2015, p.113).

4.7 Conclusion First and foremost, there needs to be a realization at national level that the future belongs to the nation which has sufficient maritime infrastructure on their coast. This realization then needs to be brought forward in practical terms by reciprocating the interest of China and the South Asian landlocked countries including Central Asian States in the coast of Pakistan. The government needs to make earnest endeavors towards commencing further maritime developmental projects on the coastline including construction of new ports and harbors. This would ensure that in the near future the nation does not suffer any losses due to the shortage of parking space on existing ports. This will also avoid a precarious situation of overcrowding at Gwadar port due to the heavy flux of inbound ships.

Presently the fishery export does not contribute to the national economy at par to its potential. The US$ 350-400 million fishery export has the potential of US$ 2.5 to 3 billion if technically preserved as per EU standards and properly value addition prior export. Same is the case with mineral resources for which exact mapping is required prior exploration/exploitation. The extent of the presence of natural resources in Pakistan‟s EEZ can be gauged by the well known fact that even if only the oil and gas reserves are extracted it can solve the energy crisis of Pakistan and can prove to be a game changer factor making Pakistan a sound regional player at international arena. The above mentioned measures lay down the boundaries for the way forward for Pakistan and also caters for the national interest in EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean. Subject way forward is a partial answer to the query raised in question number five however this answer will be explicitly explained in the last chapter.

Since the developments through CPEC are quite recent and are still considered to be in their infancy phase, gaps can be found in previously conducted research regarding the

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development of maritime infrastructure on the coastal areas of Pakistan. This chapter was composed keeping in mind the changing statuesque of ports and harbors in Pakistan so that it may provide a base for future researcher. A lead can be taken for future research on topics like Gwadar Port, CPEC, new ports and harbors on Pakistani coast.

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References

Ahmed, D. A. (2015). The Gwadar Kashgar Corridor and its Impact of the Region. 6th Internatinoal Maritime Proceedings , 118-119.

Birkett, H. (2016). Pakistani Shipbreakers from Cartel as Scrap Prices Heat up. Splash 24/7 . baloch, s. (2016). 10 workers missing since Gadni Ship blast, says labour leader. Dawn Newspaper , 02

Ferry service planned for Karachi Commmurers. (2016). Dawn , 3.

Ghauri, I. (2016). Pakistan's Coastline of Apathy. The Express Tribune .

Government of Pakistan, M. o. (2016). China Pakistan Economic Corridor. Islamabad: Govt of Pakistan.

Gwadar Port to be operational by 2017 Chinese Official. (2016). Dawn Newspaper . ibid. (n.d.).

Hassan, S. (2016). 11 dead in oil tanker blast at Gadani Ship Breaking Yard. Dawn Newspaper

Ishfaq, R. P. (2015). Putting Karachi Port on the Global Maritime Map. Dawn .

Khan, A. (2016). MD PFHA Urges Federal, Balochistan Governments to Develop Pasni as Fish City. Business Recorder .

Khan, M. Z. (2013). Gadani shipbreaking yard under threat. Dawn .

Khan, R. M. (2013). Shifting Gwadar Port Responsibilities. Pakistan Observer .

Masood, C. T. (2016). Towards an Environmentally Safe Shipbreaking Industry of Pakistan. 6th International Maritime Conference (p. 149). Karachi: Bahria University.

Mir, N. (2010). Gwadar on The Global Chessboard. Lahore, Pakistan: Ferozsons Pvt Ltd, Lahore, Pakistan.

Obaidullah, S. M. (2015). Indo-Pacific - the Super Maritime Region of the 21st Century. 6th International Maritime Conference (p. 113). Karachi: Bahria University.

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Obaidullah, S. M. (2014). Pakistan's Mercantile Marine-Challenges and Opportunities. Symposium Proceedings, International Maritime Symposium 2014 (p. 57). Lahore: PN War College.

Pakistan Shipping Industry. (2007). Business Recorder , 22.

Qureshi, M. A. (2013-2014). Enhancing Efficiency of Ports in Pakistan - Way Forward. Pakistan Navy War College Review , 37.

Rana, P. I. (2016). KPT Mulling Options for Deep Water Port Connectivity. Dawn .

Rana, P. I. (2016). KPT to build Elevated Expressway to Connect Deep Water Port. Dawn .

Rao, I. A. (2014). Gwadar - Kashghar Link - Translating the Vision. International Maritime Conference 2014 (p. 51). Karachi: Bahria University.

Rasul, D. F. (2014). Implementation of Global Environmental Standards for Ports in Pakistan. Policy and Regulatory Framework Governing the Maritime Sector for Pakistan (pp. 11- 12). Karachi: Bahria University.

Rehman, K. U. (2005). Shipping Sector Needs Reactivation. The News .

Shah, C. A. (2007). Shipping in the 21st Century. Business Recorder .

Shahzad, S. M. (2014). The Exclusive Economic Zone of Pakistan: Opportunities and Challenges. Islamabad: National Defence University.

Subohi, A. (2015, February 16). Why Shipping fails to sail. Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan: Dawn Newspaper

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Chapter 5

MARITIME ISSUES OF STRATEGIC NATURE

5.1 Preamble The neo-realist theory, dictates that states being a rational actors always focus for maximizing their power in the best national interest by defining national strategies, military doctrines and economic/foreign policies in a way to ensure their survival and security at all levels. Pakistan also needs to devise its long term strategies in the best national interest. A long outstanding issue of extension of continental shelf of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean has been approved on13 March 2015 by UNCLCS (Khan, 2016, pp.12-13). Nonetheless the Sir Creek issue is still unresolved with India which is to be settled at the earliest to accruing maximum benefits for Pakistan.

Marine pollution is not only spoiling the maritime eco diversity but is also adversely effecting the operation and metallurgy of Naval and merchant ships in Karachi harbor in particular. To combat the harmful effects of marine pollution on PN assets and infrastructure and other merchant vessels Pakistan needs to act as a rational actor and devise a strategy on priority in the best national interest. Disaster management is yet an important segment of maritime affairs which needs special attention. An attempt will be made in this chapter for in depth analysis of disaster management infrastructure present in Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean. Development of costal tourism, general awareness of maritime affairs will be analyzed in light of old national maritime policy issued in 2002. A requirement of revision of national maritime policy and future maritime strategy doctrine will also be discussed in this chapter with specific recommendations.

5.2 Sir Creek Issue 5.2.1 Overview Sir Creek is approx 60 Km strip of water counter-claimed between Pakistan and India in the Rann of Kutch (RoK) marshlands. The creek, which opens up into the Arabian Sea, divides the Kutch region of the Indian state of Gujarat with the Sindh province of Pakistan. History of the Sir Creek issue dates back to pre-partition (1843) between Princely State of Kutch and Government of Sindh, which amicably resolved by the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 163

in the form of Map number B44 (Mahmood, 2015, pp.10-11). The Rao of Kutch at that time agreed to the resolution, accordingly, the Government of India approved the ratification of boundary as per the recommendation of Bombay Government.

The Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary Tribunal (Rann of Kutch) between India and Pakistan was constituted pursuant to the agreement of June 30, 1965. While setting the Rann of Kutch boundary and left the Sir Creek part of the boundary out of consideration as the accompanied Map b-44 of resolution 1914 authoritatively showed the boundary demarcation on East Bank. Since 1968, India has been trying to cast shadows on this otherwise lucid boundary demarcation. Map B-44 clearly depicts the issue:

As depicted in Map B-44, boundary from “Western terminus” to the head of Sir Creek, which lies further to the west (Shah, 2009, pp.358-414), was not tabled in front of the tribunal as it was felt that Resolution Map B-44 clearly depicts the boundary and there lies no dispute. Moreover, as per Article 11 of Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties done at Vienna on 23 august 1978, India is bound to honor the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 and as such there is no dispute in Sir Creek but merely as issue raised by India, because inherently the creek is sovereign territory of Pakistan (Misra, 2000-2001, pp.91-96). Importance of the Resolution Map B-44 being only authentic and authoritative map was also acknowledged by the Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary case Tribunal. Excerpts of tribunal award are reproduced below:

“However, they were maps, and in the context of the political system in India during British times, the evidence on record leaves no room for doubt that none of the maps produced in this case was a conclusive and authoritative source of title to territory, except Indian Map. B-44, on which the boundary determination made in the Resolution of 1914 was authoritatively depicted”.

Above stated historical facts undoubtedly establish that the boundary between Sind and Kutch was clearly demarcated through 1914 Resolution on accompanying map B-44 as Green line, which lies on east Bank. It was only after the Award of Western Boundary Tribunal in 1968 that India came up with deviating stance on Sir Creek boundary, stating that mid of the Sir

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Creek and not east bank is the boundary. The first round of talks between Pakistan and India was held in 1969 ever since 12 rounds of talks have been held, without any conclusion. Pakistan‟s stance on Sir Creek is of historical and legal value whereas India has been playing around with different maritime principles and definitions to twist the facts in her favors and employ delaying tactics to avoid an obvious solution. During 12 rounds of talks on Sir Creek issue, Indian have shown contradicting and self-opposing views on their stance either mid of navigable channel or geographical mid of creek (Mahmood, 2015, pp.10-11). Pakistan‟s stance on sir Creek has always remained consistent that the boundary is East Bank of the creek on vertical segment till top of Sir Creek and from there due east following blue dotted line till it joins boundary pillar BP-1175 (Shahzad, 2014, p.106), India, however, has shifted her stance repeatedly.

Orientation of creek over the years has changed in both east and west direction. Determination of land boundary and land terminus point as per the spirit of 1914 resolution needs to be established for onward delimitation of maritime space.

In April 1965, India and Pakistan indulged in armed clashes in Rann of Kutch (RoK). Pakistan asserted that half of the RoK along the 24th parallel was Pakistan‟s territory whereas India claimed that the boundary ran along the northern edge of the Rann. The matter was referred to international arbitration and Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary Case Tribunal‟s Award (IPWBCT) was formed (Mahmood, 2015, pp.10-11). On 19 February 1968, the tribunal upheld most of India‟s claim to the entire Rann, conceding very small sections to Pakistan. Unfortunately, the tribunal left the Sir Creek part of the boundary out of consideration as it was supposedly agreed upon by both the states. Issue now is whether the boundary lies in the middle of Sir Creek as India believes, or on its east bank, as Pakistan claims. Pakistan claims its rights, in accordance with the Government of Bombay (GoB) Resolution of 1914, to the entire waters surrounding and fed by the creek. India, for its part, insists that it owns half of the area on the basis of the Thalweg Doctrine pertaining to international law (Shah A. S, 2016, pp.92-94). Economic, hydro-carbon and mineral potential of the creek has contributed to its importance and opposing claims of the parties. Eleven rounds of talks until 2011 and joint surveys in 2005 and 2007 by Indian and Pakistani authorities still look for resolution of the issue. Despite different interpretations regarding international boundary in Sir Creek, the issue is one of the subjects that could be resolved easily between India and Pakistan, initiating a gradual process of minimizing strain in bilateral relations. 165

Map No 7 Geographical depiction of Sir Creek Issue

Source: PN Hydrography Department at Karachi

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Map No 8 Resolution Map B-44

Source: PN Hydrography Department at Karachi

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5.2.2 Stance of Pakistan on the Issue

The contours of 1914 Resolution and corresponding map indicating Pakistan stance as discussed earlier, shown on the map (Green Line Eastern Boundary). In other words, midpoint of the line joining the creek mouth will be the terminus point from where the maritime boundary will originate to the outer limit of EEZ. In this case, sea surface area inside the creek towards Pakistan would be 80 Sq Km. Pakistan if accept this option, will lose of maritime area about 1274.12 sq km.

Map No 9 Boundary Line Effect on Sea Area

296 Sq.Km

Source: PN Hydrography Department at Karachi

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The orientation of the creek has changed, creating a gap of approximately two kilometers from the point as marked in the 1914 map to the current outflow of the creek. The mouth of the creek has widened and an island has appeared near the mouth of the creek due to siltation. Indian stance desires resolution of the issue through Thalweg doctrine. Pakistan does not consider Sir Creek to be navigable and hence views Thalweg irrelevant to the creek.

5.2.3 Indo-Pak Joint Surveys Owing to gradual changes that occurred in the orientation and bathymetry of the creek, survey of the creek was deemed necessitated. Both countries had been referring to their respective charts during the talks without common and undisputed data. Importantly, as per Law of the Sea, charts based on recent surveys should be used for boundary delimitation. India‟s agreement for joint surveys was an indicator of India‟s newfound seriousness in solving the issue (Srinivasan, 2007).

5.2.3.1 Joint Land Survey Initial requirement was to determine the actual position of the boundary pillars in the horizontal segment i.e. line extending westwards of BP 1175 till it reaches Sir Creek, as it was felt during the meeting held at Islamabad in December 2004 that these positions were not as per blue line on the Resolution Map of 1914 (Chaudhry & Cariappa, 2001). It may be stated that these 68 pillars had been constructed in 1924 between the Indian states of Gujarat and Sind and the same were used to define the boundary between India and Pakistan after the partition (Bhushan, 2005, p.5). The survey was jointly conducted by the survey teams of the respective land survey departments of the two countries from 3 to 12 Jan 2005. Pak Marines and Indian BSF who are deployed in the respective border areas supported the teams. Reps from PN Hydrographic Department were also part of the Pakistani team. Only one third of the pillars could be accessed through land transport whereas rests of the pillars were approached through boats. During the survey, remains of 38 out of 67 pillars were located. These were however sufficient to determine the alignment of the boundary line between the two states. During the survey, it was established that pillars position are not as per Blue dotted line on Resolution Map B-44, which resulted loss of 7.772 sq km area to Pakistan. India changed their pervious stance on Blue dotted line during IPWBCT constituted in 1968.

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5.2.3.2 Joint Hydrogrophic Survey

The other important need was to determine the current alignment of Sir Creek, which required hydrographic collection of data such as the existing coastline and depths etc. Decision for joint survey was made during Foreign Ministers level meeting held at Islamabad in Oct 2005. Terms of reference to conduct the survey were finalized at New Delhi in Dec 2005. The survey was conducted from 15 January to 17 February 2007. PN‟s SV BEHR PAIMA from Pakistan and INS SUTLEJ conducted the survey. Teams of the land survey departments of the two countries were also integral part of the joint survey and they collected the data to delineate the coastline in the area. All teams collecting data had joint composition in order to avoid any dispute w r t authenticity and quality of the data (Misra, 2000-2001, pp.91-96).

Data collected from month long survey was processed by the two countries at their respective facilities and thereafter survey data was also jointly processed at Wagha. Subsequently both countries published nautical charts which were essentially based on common data but on different scales.

5.2.4 Outcome of Joint Surveys During 10th round of talks held at MoD, Rawalpindi, both sides exchanged charts with their respective stances shown based on the joint survey (Muhammad, 2013). The survey results have revealed changes in the topography, bathymetry and orientation of the creek. These changes are significant but not unexpected. However, it was found during the survey that Green line touches the both east and west bank. Both countries continue to maintain their respective stances till to date. However, the description of boundaries in Sindh shown in the British Imperial Gazzete shows by inference that Rann was never part of state of Kutch (Ahmed, 2007).

5.2.5 Analysis More than a century old issue of Sir Creek continues to hang over the Indo-Pak diplomatic landscape. In the Sir Creek issue, following impediments are identified that hinder resolution of the pending issue:

a. Technical disparities b. Problems related to commonality of data c. Statutory / Legal problems 170

d. Economic concerns e. Diplomatic hindrances

5.2.5.1 Problems Related to Commonality of Data

Before 2007, impeding problems were rather complicated as both countries did not have common and recently-surveyed chart of the creek area. Pre joint hydrographical survey of Sir Creek eradicated following impediments:

a. Technical data of disputed areas were made available for future negotiations. b. Green line was plotted by both countries on their respective charts. c. Terminus point was decided. d. Orientation of creek was surveyed. e. Blue dotted line was founded different from actual position of pillars. Nevertheless, following observations are relevant:

a. Survey area limits at Sir mouth, the agreement remained inconclusive.

b. During the joint survey Indian plotted data on 1:150000 chart and Pakistan plotted its data on 1:500000 chart, therefore both countries hydrographers need to plot the data on common chart and delimit jointly (Khan, 2016).

5.3 Maritime Boundary Delimitation Maritime boundary delimitation is essential for a state to fully exercise its sovereign rights over its sea. Maritime boundaries of Continental Shelf are to be resolved bilaterally with neighboring States or as per provisions of Part XV (Settlement of Disputes) of UNCLOS.

As discussed earlier, Pakistan‟s maritime boundary with Iran and Oman including territorial sea and EEZ are settled as per bilateral agreements of 1999 and 2000, respectively. However, with India, maritime boundaries, right from to be agreed land terminus at Sir Creek till Continental Shelf requires delimitation. In addition to this, Continental Shelf boundary with Oman would be established depending upon the outcome of their Submission to UNCLCS. It is essential to build up capacity and expertise in the field of maritime boundary delimitation. In this regard, establishment of a Maritime Boundary Wing with requisite expertise would facilitate boundary delimitation. 171

Nonetheless, Captain Faisal Abbasi, personal communication, April 18, 2016 provided an interesting description regarding Sir Creek Issue and he mentioned that PN is maintaining proactive presence in the Area of Responsibility to safeguard pakistan maritime community. The presence of IN/ICG activities is being monitored through deployment of PN, PMSA and Coastal Command air/surface units. Furthermore, fishermen are also being advised to respect the maritime boundaries. In this reagard, Joint Maritime Coordination Centre (JMICC) is also playing a vital role in educating fishermen and issuing warnings of any impeding threat.

5.4 Continental Shelf United Nations (UN) had set May 2009 as a deadline for early signatories to UNCLOS for submission of claim for area beyond 200NM. Pakistan accordingly started working as a special project for submission of her case. The working of this special project comprises of three phases, Phase one was regarding desktop study, whereas phase two deals with bathymetric and seismic surveys and third phase was preparation of the case (Khan M. A, 2015).

Desk Top Study (Phase I) was undertaken in consultation with National Oceanographic Centre, Southampton, U.K.; Data Acquisition (Phase II) was done in two parts; during the first part French Marine Research Institute (Ifremer) did the detailed multi-beam bathymetric survey. In second part 2D Multi-channel Seismic Survey was conducted under the supervision of Law of the Sea experts of M/s Seaforth Canada. Geodetic survey of 990 km long Pakistan baseline was undertaken solely by Pakistan Navy Hydrographic Department without any involvement of foreign consultants. Phase III was completed in consultation with M/s Seaforth, Canada (Shahzad, 2014, p.116).

On 26 August 2013, a seven member Sub commission comprising of members from Japan, China, Mozambique, Kenya, Denmark, Georgia and Argentina was formulated at United Nations to evaluate technical details of Pakistan‟ case. In the yearlong process Pakistan technical delegation held multiple interactions with the UN Commission. During each interaction Pakistan delegation was asked number of technical questions and queries which were answered in a befitting manner through extensive technical work involving digital data, maps, reports and presentations. The preciseness and speed with Pakistan delegation responded to each query helped in culminating the whole process successfully within a year, while some other states have taken more than 3 years to complete this process. Moreover, Sub commission unanimously

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finalized the draft recommendations in favour of Pakistan‟s Case. On 10 March 2015 Pakistan delegation, headed by the Permanent Representative of Pakistan to UN, delivered final concluding presentation to UN Commission. After 03 days of consideration the UN Commission approved the final adoption of Recommendations and Pakistan area was extended to 350 NMs (Asghar, 2015, pp.4-5). It is noteworthy that Pakistan has become the first country in the Indian Ocean region amongst India, Oman, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa to have the sea limits extended and secured the vast resources of the extended area. Pakistan is fortunate to have Hydrographer of Pakistan Navy (HPN) as an elected member of UNCLCS from 2012 – 2017. Here it is worth mentioning that role of HPN in timely and favorable outcome on Pakistan‟s claim remained instrumental. Till 23 March 2015 in total, 80 countries have submitted claims to UNCLCS out of which recommendations of 22 countries including Pakistan have been finalized.

It is worth mentioning that overlapping continental shelves around the globe have been a recent cause of rising political temperatures and military deployments, indicating the severity of situation. South China Sea is the most prominent example of such hotspots, where, overlapping claims exist amongst China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei and Philippines. In East China Sea; overlapping claims exist amongst China, Japan and South Korea. Arctic is another such region, where; Russia, Canada, Denmark and Norway are contesting each other‟s claim.

As for as Indian Ocean region is concern, Bay of Bengal had overlapping claims from bordering states. In 2009, Bangladesh took Myanmar and India to International Arbitration which is permissible under the UNCLOS and consequently got decision on its maritime boundary disputes.

5.4.1 Analysis of Extension of Continental Shelf The benefits to be accrued from this project are additional seabed resources available, additional hydrocarbons resources, additional mine and mineral resources, needs to be explored at the earliest. Availability of oil and gas in the Indus fan has been well-studied in the Makran region of the Pakistan continental margin, although few indications have so far been noted of their widespread presence in the Indus Fan region (Khan S. A., Continental Shelf Extension: a gateway to future dividends , 2015, pp.12-13). As per a study conducted by International Seabed

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Authority (ISBA); expected potential of some of the resources in Pakistan continental shelf are as under:

Table 34: Expected Potential Resources in Pakistan Continental Shelf

Resource Quantit Value (Tons) (Million US$)

Manganese metal 4,125,000 8251

Copper metal 82,500 143

Ni metal 206,000 1,900

Cobalt metal 165 4

Oil/Gas 0.5 BBOE 14,000

Source: Pakistan Navy Hydrographic Department Karachi

Dividends from vast EEZ and Continental Shelf area through exploitation of its resources are only possible with superior awareness and realization of this immense wealth. Extension of outer limits of continental shelf timely availed by Pakistan. At this critical juncture it is imperative that consolidated steps originating from policy makers, supported by experts and executed at field level are required to put in place a long term sustainable resource exploitation model. Necessary steps by government of Pakistan at ministerial/ departmental level may be undertaken to promote sustainable exploration, implementation of national jurisdiction and exploitation of seabed resources of Pakistan EEZ in the Indian Ocean.

5.4.2 Background and details of Pakistan Continental Shelf (CS) When the UN Convection on law of the sea was being negotiated, particular attention was given to the description of the outer CS beyond 200 NMs in order to establish the precise limits of national jurisdiction. Article 76 of the Convention provides two options to identify the legal limit of continental shelf which are „1% sediment thicknesses and „FOS plus 60 NMs‟. On the other hand, it also defines two options for delineating outer limits in the shape of constraints lines or cut-offs which are „350 NM limit line from base point‟ or „100 NM from 2500 m isobath‟ (Territorial Water and Maritime Zones Act, 1976). In short, UNCLCS facilitates

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implementation of the Convention for the establishment of outer limits of the continental shelf ahead of 200 NM (Pakistan, 2015). The Commission analyses the Submission by Coastal State in detail and makes certain suggestions to coastal States for declaring of outer limits of Continental Shelf. The Commission comprises of 21 members. Pakistan is fortunate to have HPN as an elected member of UNCLCS from 2012 – 2017. Here it is worth mentioning that role of HPN in timely and favorable outcome on Pakistan‟s claim remained instrumental. Uruguay, Cook Island, Argentina and Norway are next in line for adaptation of recommendations.

On the other hand, shortly after submission of Pakistan‟s claim to Secy Gen UN, Oman lodged a Reservation with UN in Aug 2009, indicating that Oman intends to submit its claim which may include the same area for which Pakistan has submitted claim. Therefore, Pakistan‟s submission may not be considered until Oman has completed and submitted its continental shelf extension claim. As the said Reservation by Oman had the potential to jeopardize smooth processing of Pakistan‟s submission at UN, extensive state level efforts were undertaken to resolve the issue. Pakistan Navy played an active role in this process. As a result, the matter was resolved through mutual acknowledgment of rights in continental shelf area in Nov 14 (Syed, 2015). Notwithstanding, It may be mentioned that owing to the unfavorable geology, Oman‟s name is not in the list of 69 countries that have the potential for extension in continental shelf as identified in a technical study conducted by International Seabed Authority.

Particularly talking about Pakistan continental shelf project, Pakistan Navy conceived this project and consequently initiated the Continental Shelf case in 1996 on ministerial level. Although NIO was working on the project however, PN remained actively involved in all phases through provision of data and expertise.

NIO in liaison with PNHD established a project office at the NIO building, Karachi. Officers from PN Hydrographic service and Scientist from NIO worked together to conduct a desktop study leading to bathymetric and Seismic survey and finally preparation of Submission. During these phases foreign consultants also assisted to ensure that all work is done as per the requirement of the Commission. As Pakistan‟s case was based on 350 NM constraint line, which is measured from the base line, modern highly accurate geodetic survey of the baseline was an essential requirement of Submission (Khan S. A., Continental Shelf Extension: a gateway to future dividends, 2015, pp.12-13). PN Surveyors accepted this challenge and carried 175

out this technically and physically demanding task on their own without any involvement of foreign consultants. The compiled results of survey met the desired international standards and were accepted.

5.4.3 Submission of Pakistan Claim to UNO After preparation the Submission was made with Secretary General UN on 30 Apr 09, Pakistan‟s was placed on 29th in queue of countries awaiting their turn for formulation of Sub commission and subsequent review (Commodore Arshad, personal communication, April 20, 2016). Pakistan‟s Submission comprised of:

a. Main body of Submission. b. Accompanying Charts. c. Additional data including GIS projects. d. Digital Data.

5.4.4 Formulation of the Sub commission Pakistan‟s turn for the formulation of Sub commission came in 2013. On 16 Aug 13, during 32nd Session of UNCLCS Pakistan delivered a presentation to the full 21 member Commission. After presentation the Commission considered formulation of the Sub commission as per procedure in vogue. A major hurdle for Pakistan was the Reservation by Oman. Oman‟s reservation was brought into play by French member, who actively lobbied against formulation of the Sub commission. However, at this critical juncture presence of Pakistan‟s member at the Commission and sound legal arguments paid its dividends, where upon the matter was decided by majority of votes in favor of Pakistan. In voting, 13 members voted in favour, 4 members voted against, 2 members abstained (Commodore Arshad, personal communication, April 20, 2016). Consequently, the Sub commission for review of Pakistan‟s claim was formulated as appended below: a. Japan, Chairman. b. China, Vice Chairman. c. Denmark, Vice Chairman. d. Kenya, Member. e. Mozambique, Member. f. Argentina, Member. 176

5.4.5 Evaluation of Pakistan Claim by the Sub commission

The Sub commission undertook detailed analysis of Pakistan‟s Submission and various technical queries were raised in the process. Most queries were of critical nature and needed to be answered adequately to satisfy the criteria given in Scientific & Technical Guidelines (CLCS 11). Unsatisfactory response to any of the raised query had the potential to jeopardize the successful culmination of Pakistan‟s claim. Pakistan technical team worked diligently on formulating responses to each query, data was reprocessed in detail, modified results were prepared as per desired format and comprehensive reports were produced. The said reports were further vetted by the foreign consultants (M/s Seaforth, Canada) prior submitting to the Sub commission. In total, the Sub commission and Pakistan technical delegation exchanged 18 documents/ presentations during the evaluation process.

5.5 Formulation of Draft Recommendations During the interaction held with the Sub commission in Nov 2014, all the queries were resolved. Moreover, Pakistan delegation also succeeded in obtaining unanimous favorable recommendations from the Sub commission.

5.6 Adoption of Recommendations In the final stage, draft recommendation were presented 21 members Commission by the Sub commission on 10 Mar 15 in the morning. In the afternoon on the same day, Pakistan delegation delivered final concluding presentation to the Commission, covering major contours of Pakistan‟s Submission. Pakistan‟s presentation was very well received and appreciated for technical comprehensiveness. Thereafter, Commission commenced its consideration for final adoption of recommendation. Due to pressing commitments of Commission it was expected that Pakistan‟s recommendation would not be finalized in current session and rather in Aug 15 during next session. However, with support of likeminded members and through skilful canvassing of Pakistani member, Pakistan‟s recommendations were finally adopted on 13 March 2015 (Asghar, 2015, pp.4-5).

With this from submission till formulation and adoption of recommendations, Pakistan has successfully completed all steps as laid down in rules of procedure CLCS-40. Adoption of

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recommendation means that Pakistan has gained exclusive rights over additional area of 50,000 sq km. At this critical juncture it is imperative that consolidated steps originating from policy makers, supported by experts and executed at field level are required to put in place as a long term sustainable resource exploitation model. Necessary steps at ministerial/ departmental level may be undertaken to promote sustainable exploration, implementation of national jurisdiction and exploitation of seabed resources.

5.7 Marine Pollution Oceans cover a large part of the earth‟s surface and they are so deep that it seems like dumping trash and harmful chemicals will have no effect on them. However, it is not true. The oceans of the world are being harmed by human activities. Marine pollution is a serious issue that needs to be addressed immediately. It includes many threats such as oil spills, land-based sources, persistent organic pollutants (POP‟s), heavy metals, radioactive material, overfishing, marine litter and extinction of marine animals. It is claimed that marine pollution in the world has been controlled in all parts of the world. For instance, oil spills have been reduced by 63 percent since the mid eighties and tanker accidents have been controlled by 75 percent. Emissions of heavy metals have also been reduced in several parts of the world but they continue to be problematic in other parts. Heavy metal pollution in the Arabian Gulf region is caused by electronic waste and mine tailings. Other threats include the impact of dredging on marine coastal habitats, increasing coastal development and discharge of untreated sewage into the sea waters which result in the spread of huge amounts of nutrients into the sea and coastal areas. These factors along with changes in salinity, higher sea temperatures, melting sea ice and future changes in sea currents can have a strong impact on marine life (Steiner, 2016).

5.7.1 Types of Marine Pollution Marine pollution can be of four types; physical, thermal, chemical and biological pollution. These types are based on the type of pollution source resulting from human and anthropogenic activities and threaten the marine environment. All classes have a different impact on the various forms of marine environment. For instance, physical pollution can also affect chemical and ecological conditions of the marine environment while the ecological and biological conditions are adversely affected by chemical pollution.

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5.7.1.1 Physical Pollution This kind of pollution refers to the higher temperature-salinity levels and greater suspension of sediments in the sea water. There can be high temperature in a marine environment because of meteorological factors while both geological and meteorological factors can cause high salinity. Increasing temperatures and solar radiation are common in the North Arabian Sea that cause higher water temperature and loss of fresh water through the water surface resulting in greater salinity. Waste water and salinity resulting from coastal power and desalination plants can influence salinity and temperature. Water density, solubility of gases and viscosity are also affected by higher temperatures. Thermal stress is caused by such effects that cause respiration and ecotoxicological effects on many marine organisms. The effects of greater salinity linked with brine discharges are noticeable in enclosed and comparatively stagnant water (Captain Usman Tariq Pakistan Navy, Personal Communication, April 8, 2016).

One more type of physical pollution is represented by elevated suspended material in seawater that balances the transparency conditions so that light penetration and photosynthesis can be carried out naturally. The kind of bed sediments and the energy linked with water dynamics influence the levels of suspended material. Activities like dredging and other developmental activities have a strong influence on suspension conditions. Not only photosynthesis and basic production decline but other ecological effects like the loss of habitats and harm to fish species and sea grass beds have also been observed.

5.7.1.2 Thermal Pollution In the North Arabian Sea, it is very hot with air temperatures reaching as high as 45 degree Celsius in summers. It has been found that higher temperature in this region may be caused by waste matter of high temperature and salinity resulting from desalination and power plants. However, this observation has not been confirmed yet.

5.7.1.3 Chemical Pollution Chemical pollution is also common in marine environment. It can be found in sediments, water and biota. There can be many sources of chemical pollution such as accidental or natural oil spills, wastewater from industrial and agricultural activities and atmospheric deposition related with chemically polluted environment (Cdre Imran Ahmed SI(M), Managing Director PN Dockyard, Personal Communication, September 22, 2015). This type of pollution is very 179

common in the Arabian Gulf region due to oil spill accidents. Thick layers of oil are produced by this type of pollution that can lead to the closure of coastal facilities including desalination plants, end of tourism activities and harm marine life. Petroleum hydrocarbons related with oil spills and oil dispersant materials used during cleaning activities are harmful to many types of marine organisms. Much harm is done by intertidal and subtidal biotopes if the spilled oil touches the shores. Agrochemicals in water can cause contaminate water along with biological and ecological effects. Persistent organic pollutants or POPs and pesticides are very harmful to the marine environment. Trace metals contaminate the marine environment and it is commonly caused by industrial point or multipoint wastewater. This can be very hazardous.

5.7.1.4 Nuclear Dumping Although it has no relations with Pakistan EEZ but, nuclear dumping is an important issue because it can pollute the ocean and affect marine species and human life. Another harmful effect of nuclear dumping is eutrophication which refers to a biological procedure which involves the proliferation of oxygen due to dissolved nutrients, thus a hypoxic is created or it leads to an oxygen-deprived environment that harms marine life. Moreover, entire habitats and ecosystems can be destroyed by nuclear dumping. Ocean dumping can be controlled by recycling and producing less waste.

The dumping of dangerous chemicals was controlled by incineration which started in 1969. Gradually, this practice was adopted by many countries and by 1970s, it became very popular. Many studies have been conducted to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of this practice. Burning of harmful waste produces smoke which has harmful chemicals that can spread across the ocean. Research has shown that incineration is not a safe method of controlling the amount of wastes that are dumped into the ocean every year because it releases smoke.

It is claimed by many that this nuclear waste does not harm human health but the long- term effects of nuclear dumping remain unknown. It has been estimated by many that approximately 1,000 deaths will be caused in the next 10,000 years due to evaporated nuclear waste. Global Waste Survey and the National Waste Management Profiles conducted a research in 1995 to find out the amount of waste being dumped by each country in the world oceans every year. They aimed at creating a workable plan for those countries that dumped a higher level of waste so that ocean dumping could be controlled. In several areas of the world, mostly in third world countries, dumping had reached dangerous levels because of lack of resources to dispose 180

of waste. It was difficult to enforce laws in these countries; therefore, it was essential to implement a waste disposal strategy. It shows that more needs to be done to stop this practice (Kozakiewicz, 2014).

5.7.2 Causes of Marine Pollution

Some of the important causes of the Marine pollution are appended below:

5.7.2.1 Reclamation and Dredging

The coastal line of the North Arabian Sea is being modified. Construction activities include intensive dredging and reclamation. However, the major recreational, housing and economic developments are harmful for the coastal and marine environments in the North Arabian Sea especially in the Clifton beach of Karachi. According to an estimate, developmental activities have been going on many sites on Pakistani Coast including Karachi, Ormara and Gwadar in the North Arabian Sea. Both long term and short term chemical, biological and physical consequences may be caused by dredging and reclamation. These activities can physically harm the coastal and sub-tidal species and deoxygenate the underlining particles. Chemical and physical changes caused by dredging and reclamation can affect richness, biodiversity, abundance and biomass of marine species. Moreover, levels of heavy metals are increased by dredging and reclamation activities. These particles may reach essential food web components such as shellfish, fish and eventually harm human life.

5.7.2.2 Sewage Discharges

Pollution in Karachi harbour is basically caused by sewage discharges from Karachi. In spite of higher standards of sewage treatment plants by Karachi Water Board and KPT, domestic runoff is discharged in large quantities in the Karachi harbour. These discharges have high levels of nutrients like nitrate, ammonia and phosphate. Sewage dischargers usually contain chemical and biological pollutants including heavy metals that degrade fish reproduction process in Karachi mangroves area (Captain Usman Tariq Pakistan Navy, Personal Communication, April 8, 2016).

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5.7.2.3 Industrial Discharges There has been rapid industrialization in the area close to Qasim Port particularly in the fields of oil refining, chemical industries and tannery industry. These major industries discharge effluents that contain many chemicals including heavy metals, nutrients and hydrocarbon compounds. Petroleum refinery discharges contain different types of chemicals including greases, oil, sulphides, phenols, suspended solids, ammonia and heavy metals such as iron, chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, selenium, zinc and vanadium. Coastal and marine environments in and around Karachi (Cdre Imran Ahmed SI(M), Managing Director PN Dockyard, Personal Communication, September 22, 2015) harbour and port Qasim areas are considered hotspots for higher levels of heavy contaminated water. State of pollution in Karachi harbour due to industrial discharge from various factories in Karachi is depicted in the picture below: Figure No 8 Industrial Discharge into Karachi Harbour

Source: Maritime Affairs & Environmental Control Directorate, NHQ Islamabad

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5.7.2.4 Desalination Plants

Since there has been an increase on industrial development, population growth and development of construction activities on Pakistani coast, thus the need for fresh water has increased in this region. Seawater is used to fulfill most of the freshwater needs because of low precipitation and high aridity in the coastal population. Processes like desalination are used for this purpose. Water that is rejected from desalinated plants is introduced in coastal and sub-tidal zones along the coast. Higher levels of heavy metals, construction material have been found near desalination plants at Gwadar port.

5.7.2.5 Oil Pollution The Arabian Gulf is the largest oil reserve globally. Exploring, producing and transporting oil also contributes to pollution in the Arabian Gulf. Oil pollution in the Arabian Gulf region is caused by offshore oil wells, oil tanker accidents, underwater pipelines, oil terminals, loading and other related operations, worn oil, illegal dumping of ballast water and military activities. Many oil spill accidents have occurred in the Arabian Gulf. For example, nearly 10.8 million barrels of oil was spilled in the Arabian Gulf waters in the 1991 Gulf War. Higher levels of oil discharge have also been observed time to time in Indian Ocean (Farrington, 2013).

5.7.2.6 Radio Active Waste Nuclear waste needs to be disposed of properly by storing it in drums to avoid its spread when it reaches the ocean floor. It has been found that one curie (Ci) is defined as the amount of radioactive material that will produce 37 billion (3.7 x 1010) disintegrations per second. This is approximately the number of disintegrations per second in a gram of radium. A more recent unit is the Becquerel (Bq), which is the amount of radioactive material that produces one disintegration per second. One terabecquerel (TBq) is approximately equal to 27 curies. Minute radiation is measured in nanocuries, one nanocurie being a billionth (10-9) of a curie (Choucri, 2001, p.22).

5.7.2.7 Pollution from Ships Accidental pollution caused by ships in distress is a common cause of marine pollution but there are three basic types of routine ship operations that pollute the sea; these are tank

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washings, ballast water and engine room effluent discharges. These activities pump large amounts of oil into waters every day. Subject pollution can harm marine and coastal environment significantly (Captain Usman Tariq Pakistan Navy, Personal Communication, April 8, 2016).

5.8 Impact of Marine Pollution on Pakistan Navy Ships and Karachi Harbour Infrastructure Karachi Harbour is the home of Pakistan Navy Ships, Submarines and commercial vessels. Apart from infrastructure of national and commercial importance related to maritime trade. Karachi harbor houses high value operational and maintenance infrastructure of Pakistan Navy and Pakistan Maritime Security Agency. This infrastructure is related to operational availability and readiness of Pakistan Navy and PMSA warships for undertaking various peace and wartime operations. Due vital and valuable installation / infrastructure, the Karachi Port Complex has been designated as National Vulnerable Area / Point by the Government of Pakistan from security and defense point of view. State of pollution on jetties along Karachi harbour is depicted in the picture appended below (Cdre Imran Ahmed SI(M), Managing Director PN Dockyard, Personal Communication, September 22, 2015):

Figure No 9 Pollution along Karachi Harbour

Source: Maritime Affairs & Environmental Control Directorate, NHQ Islamabad 184

5.8.1 Marine Pollution in Karachi Harbour

Pakistan has a coastline of over 1000 Km. Major part of this coast is free from pollution, however, Karachi coastal waters receive heavy pollution from various land and sea based sources. The primary source of pollution in Karachi Harbour is land based in the form of liquid effluent of industrial as well municipal origin and solid waste. The major causes of pollution are inadequate sewage treatment and disposal facilities and non availability of effluent treatment plants with most of the industrial units situated in Karachi. State of pollution entering Karachi harbour is depicted in the picture below:

Figure No 10 Stream of Polluted Water Entering into Karachi Harbour

Source: Maritime Affairs & Environmental Control Directorate, NHQ Islamabad

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5.8.2 Land Based Sources of Marine Pollution

Liquid Waste: It is estimated that around 472 Million Gallon per Day (MDG) i.e. 122 MGD Municipal and 350 MGD Industrial, waste is discharged into Karachi Harbour and other coastal water of Karachi. Detail is as under (Captain Usman Tariq Pakistan Navy, Personal Communication, April 8, 2016):

a. Lyari River 220 MGD b. Kalri Nullah 10 MGD c. Pitcher Nullah 9 MGD d. City Station Nullah 7 MGD e. Solider Bazaar Nullah 31 MGD f. Nah-e-Khayyam 16 MGD g. Mehmoodabad Drain 44 MGD h. Malir River 82 MGD j. Korangi Industrial Area Drain 52 MGD

5.8.2.1 Solid Waste Karachi metropolis generates thousands of tons of domestic commercial, industrial and hospital waste on daily basis. A considerable portion of this waste remains out of the collection and disposal system and mixes up with the wastewater which ends up in Karachi Harbour. This solid waste spreads in the Harbour and accumulates in different bents, along the ships, jetties and inlets etc.

5.8.2.2 Treatment Facilities The ratio of treated water and discharge into sea is appended below: Present Treatment 55 MGD 12% Raw Sewage used by Farmers 6 MGD 1% Direct Discharge into Sea 411 MGD 87%

Present state of Effluent Treatment Plants in Karachi is given as under:

Table 35: Details of Effluent Treatment Plants in Karachi

Treatment Plant Original Capacity Present Treatment

TP-I 51 MGD 20 MGD TP-II 46 MGD Nil TP-III 54 MGD 35 MGD Source: Head Office Karachi Water & Sewerage Board

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About 87% of untreated sewage and waste contains highly toxic chemicals, metals, oil, grease etc which enter the coastal food chain and severely impacts human health. The chemicals alter seawater chemistry making it more corrosive. In addition, absorption of excessive levels of carbon dioxide in the surface seawater lowers its pH value converting it into acid and cause degradation of coastal ecosystem.

5.8.3 Impact of Marine Pollution on Ships and Harbour Infrastructure

Liquid as well as solid pollutants remain in Harbour for prolonged period as they are not completely flushed out into the open sea due to natural geography of the Harbour making Harbour waters even more hazardous. Toxic chemical and solid waste in Harbour severely affects the assets and port infrastructure (Cdre Imran Ahmed SI(M), Managing Director PN Dockyard, Personal Communication, September 22, 2015) as under:

a. The hull of Ships and Submarines deteriorate faster due to high rate of corrosion of polluted seawater. A study conducted by Pakistan Navy Dockyard Laboratory reveals that standard weight loss of mild steel in open seawater is 5.48 Gram per Sqr Mtr per Day as compared to 9.20 Gram per Sqr meter per day in Karachi Harbour waters. It has been estimated that Ships life span is reduced to about 33% due to marine pollution in Karachi Harbour.

b. High corrosion rate of seawater causes frequent failure and defects in Ships machinery / equipment, seawater pumps, pipes etc. Marine pollutants reduce life of ships engines as the polluted water circulated through engines for cooling, corrode the water circulation channel and reduces intake due to scaling.

c. Ships superstructure and fixed marine infrastructure including sheet piles of jetties, berths, docks, port terminals and other Harbour ancillaries decay at a faster rate and need frequent maintenance.

d. Polluted and highly corrosive water also damages electronic equipment and other installations including hydrographic equipment, beacons, anchors and float etc.

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e. The suspended solid waste especially polyethylene bags pose operational difficulties for ships in the harbour once they choke the cooing water intake of Ship and craft. Engines of jet propelled Fast Response Boats (FRBs) of PMSA have been damaged a number of times due to presence of solid waste in the harbour. f. Solid waste is also dangerous for fast moving platforms. Propeller of one of PN fast moving vessel was damaged in the past which had to be procured from abroad. g. High rate of siltation in PIDC Channel due to inflow of untreated water the Harbour restricts operational usage of Naval Berths. This results in increased dredging operation which requires additional funds. h. Besides operational and maintenance difficulties, the presence of floating debris and highly toxic pollutants lower the aesthetic value and quality of life in and around Harbour. j. Price of large naval ships is around US$ 300 Million. Loss of 33% ships life means loss of about US$ 90 Million for one ships to Pakistan Navy. k. About Rs. 470 Million has been spent to refurbish naval jetties along the PIDC channel.

It is estimated that marine pollution causes damage to Pakistan Navy ships, submarines and equipment to the tune of about 1 Billion US Dollars over their life span. Just to confirm the figures a sample of water from Karachi harbour was collected and tested on 16 September 2015 in PN Dockyard laboratory. Test result is appended below.

Table 36: Lab Analysis of Karachi Harbour Water

S No Tests Standard Results Value of East Wharf West Wharf Seawater 1 Chloride (CL-) 19.35 17800 18400 2 Sodium (Na+) 10.76 10500 10500 2- 3 Sulphate (SO 4 ) 2.71 2256 2240 4 Magnesium (Mg 2+) 1.29 1282 1350 5 Calcium (Ca 2+) 0.41 370 365 6 Potassium (K+) 0.39 360 360 7 Alkalinity (ppm) 1.2 130 152

Source: Chemical Laboratory at PN Dockyard, West Wharf Road Karachi

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State of pollution in Karachi harbour at PN Dockyard is depicted in the picture below:

Figure No 11 Marine Pollution effecting the PN Ships at Karachi Harbour

Source: Managing Directorate at PN Dockyard Karachi

5.8.4 Legal Framework on Protection of Harbour Pollution

Pakistan has formulated adequate policy and legislative framework for the protection of the environment and overall biodiversity. Various measures put in place at Government level to counter marine pollution are as under:

a. Sindh Environmental Protection Act, 2014 (1) Sindh Environmental Protection Agency (Sindh EPA) b. Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997 (1) Pakistan Environment Protection Agency (Pak EPA) (2) SRO 9 (KE)/2005 dated 21-02-2005 (3) Govt of Pakistan Notification F No. I (A-1)/96-L/E dated 23-7-2014 c. Pakistan Maritime Security Agency Act, 1994 d. KPT Act, 1886.

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5.8.5 Pakistan Navy Efforts to Control Marine Pollution In order to improve seaworthiness and operational availability of warships, and to prevent huge losses to national exchequer, Pakistan Navy has always kept marine pollution control very high on its agenda. Some of the efforts in this regard are highlighted at later part of this chapter.

5.8.6 Legal Powers/Role of Sindh EPA and PMSA for Pollution Control It may be mentioned that after 18th amendment in Constitution in Pakistan, the subject of environment and pollution has been developed to the provinces. Therefore, the Sindh EPA (under Sindh Environmental Protection Act, 2014) has been given vast legal powers to take necessary measures for control of all types of land based pollution. However, the issues of pollution in the territories under jurisdiction of Federal Government including Sea Ports, Naval Bases, Territorial Waters and EEZ are to be dealt by the Federal Government (under Pakistan Environment Protection Act, 1997) through Pak EPA. Furthermore, for control of pollution in Internal Waters (Sea Ports), Territorial Waters and EEZ, the limited authority of Pak EPA (as defined at Section 6,7,16 & 17 of Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997) has been entrusted to PMSA vide SRO. However, Sindh EPA shall be incharge of the matters related to land based pollution and its effects on maritime resources, for which it shall coordinate with PMSA and other institutions. Under KPT Act, 1886 (Section 90), KPT is also the responsible to maintain the marine environment to ports limit free from pollution of the sea and impose Fine against the polluters.

Land based pollution particularly the industrial pollution in Karachi is major source of harbour pollution damaging high value national assets i.e ships, submarines and Harbour infrastructure. Sindh EPA has been entrusted with varied legal powers under the Sindh Environmental Protection Act, 2014, to enforce stringent pollution control measures particularly on Industries, such as:

a. Sindh Environmental Quality Standards (SEQs) b. Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) c. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) d. Environmental Monitoring e. Environmental Audit f. Environmental Protection Orders g. Prosecution and Penalties (Fine/Imprisonment) to Defaulters

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A close coordination needs be maintained between Sindh EPA and PMSA, for safeguarding the Harbour from all types of land based pollution. A comprehensive Mechanism/ SOP may also be instituted between both the organizations for effective implementation of their respective Legal Mandate in this regard. KPT may also be coordinated by PMSA / Sindh EPA for pollution control measures within port limits.

5.8.6.1 Efforts by PN to control marine pollution Pakistan Navy made following efforts to control marine pollution in Karachi Harbour (Rizwan, 2015, pp.6-7): a. Marine Pollution Control Board during the period when it was functioning under the chairmanship of CNS made lot of progress to counter marine pollution. b. Directorate of Maritime Affairs and Environmental Control was established at Naval Headquarters in 1994 to look after environmental management aspects in PN and to coordinate with Govt, Semi Govt and Civil Organiztaions / NGOs. c. Pakistan Navy took up the issue with Senate Standing Committee on Defence and Defence Production (SCDDP) in 2006 which resulted in re-activation of the Marine Pollution Control Board (MPCB) in 2009. d. Realizing the need to protect Karachi Harbour and coast from oil spill incidents, Pakistan Navy formulated a national Marine Disaster Contingency Plan (NMDCP) in 2007. In order to effectively counter marine disasters, PN regularly conducts BARRACUDA series exercises annually with active participation of all stakeholders. e. Pakistan Navy has made dedicated efforts to revise National Maritime Policy (NMP) to incorporate changing trends in the maritime sector and to make it more dynamic and purposeful. Among other important maritime issues, the revised policy also focuses on marine pollution. f. Pakistan Navy particularly focuses on environmental protection and preservation by its ships and establishments. In this regard, Chief of the Naval Staff has taken personal interest in controlling marine pollution in Karachi Harbour. CNS guidelines on environmental issues have been issued to all Naval units, establishments and personnel. In addition, PN Manual of Environmental Protection (PBR-75A) has been promulgated incorporating instructions and guidelines in 2013. 191

g. Being member of National Coordinating Body (NCB) of Mangroves for the Future (MFF), Pakistan Navy is playing an active role in addressing challenges to Pakistan‟s Coastal eco-system. PN provides an active support and technical expertise to NCB for selection and finalization of MFF led initiatives for strengthening Integrated Coastal Management in Pakistan. In this regard, Pakistan Navy in line with Prime Minister‟s vision of “Green Pakistan” launched “Pakistan Navy – Mangrove Plantation Campaign 2016” in the coastal areas of Sindh and Balochistan provinces. Till end October 2016, over 1 million mangroves were planted at selected sites along the coast. h. Pakistan Navy with the financial support (small grant US$ 10,000) from MFF and International Union for the Conservation of Nature has undertaken a campaign to improve PN personnel awareness on environmental issues. During the Campaign, thousands of PN personnel were educated about importance of marine environment protection. PN with own and co-financing from MFF has installed a number of Reed Bed Sewage Treatment Plants. Medium grant of US$ 88,900 was approved by MFF for the installation of Reed Bed System at Manora Island close to Karachi, Pakistan. j. An indigenously mechanized Debris Collection Boat has been constructed by Pakistan Navy to supplement other pollution control measures. This Boat is frequently used to collect solid waste from harbour. In addition, a Multipurpose Barge (MB) has also been constructed which is used to collect compensating water containing only contents from Submarines. k. As Pakistan Navy is a major stakeholders and port user in Karachi Harbour, it has been suggested to Sindh Govt to include a PN Rep in project management team of Greater Karachi Sewerage Plan i.e. S-III Project. l. Pakistan Navy also regularly conducts Harbour and Beach Cleaning Days in collaboration with PMSA, KPT and ports users.

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Efforts to control marine pollution in Karachi harbour is depicted in the picture below:

Figure No 12 Collection of Garbage along the Jetties at Karachi Harbour

Source: Karachi Port Trust Conservancy Office, Karachi 5.9 Enactment of Rules and Regulation to Protect Coastal and Offshore Marine Environment of Pakistan

Pakistan has enacted several rules, regulation and policies to help protect, conserve and sustainably develop the coastal marine and offshore resources. The salient features of the National rules and regulations are briefly stated including.

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5.9.1 Pakistan Territorial Water & Maritime Zones Act 1976 The Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act 1976, and the Exclusive Fishing Zone (Regulation of Fishing) Act, 1975 as amended in 1993, identifies the Maritime Zones, (Internal Waters, Territorial Waters, Contiguous Zone and Exclusive Economic Zone of Pakistan.

5.9.2. First Maritime Policy of Pakistan The first National Maritime Policy of Pakistan was approved and notified on 16th October 2002 (Bhatti, 2014, pp.27-28). Among other matters, the Policy advocates Management of assets in a judicious manner with conscientious regard to the environment and international law. It also incorporates, “Ports, shipping, fisheries, offshore resources, petroleum, environment, tourism, R&D, human resource development and protection of maritime interest‟‟. One of the Policy Objectives is, the “Protection and conversation of the marine environment / ecosystem‟‟. Nonetheless, this policy is being revised and presently draft is under discussion with various stakeholders of Government and public private sectors.

5.10 Mandatory Requirements for Maintenance of Environmental Standards for Pakistan

5.10.1 Environmental Impact Studies

According to PEPA Act 1997, all development works at the ports require EIA studies before the start of planning work. The environmental mitigation plan of the study is to be incorporated in the feasibility study. Moreover, the environmental management plan has to be considered during construction phase of the project. In day-to-day operations, the port authorities have to comply with the National Environmental Quality Standards in the effluents and air emissions.

5.10.2 International Conventions Pakistan has signed and ratified 27 IMO conventions out of sixty four (Captain Usman Tariq Pakistan Navy, Personal Communication, April 8, 2016). Under these conventions, there are some obligatory tasks every country has to perform. A brief description of the same is shown on next page:

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5.10.3 The MARPOL 73/78

Is one of the prime Global Convention to address pollution from the ships. (1) It has been designed to minimize pollution of the seas, including dumping, oil and exhaust pollution. Its stated objective is to preserve the marine environment through the complete elimination of pollution by oil any other harmful substances, both accidental pollution and that from routine operations of ships in International waters as well in the Ports of call. (2) As per provisions of this Convention, the country, that the ship visits can conduct its own examination to verify the ship‟s compliance with international standards and can detain the ship in case of significant non-compliance. As pre International Practice this is done through inspection of ships by Port State Control (PSC) as well as Port Authority. The PSC normally checks the mandatory certificates and conducts inspection of the ships in case of any doubt or information regarding deficiencies in compliance with different provisions of the Convention. However, the Port Authorities can inspect the ships, calling their Port to ensure compliance. (3) The Convention includes regulations aimed at preventing and minimizing pollution from ship- both accidental pollution and that form routine operations and currently including following: (a) IOPP Certificate (International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate) (b) IPP Certificate (Noxious Liquids): (International Pollution Prevention Certificate for noxious liquids) (c) IPP Certificate (Sewage) (International Pollution Prevention Certificate for sewage) (d) Oil Record Book – I (e) Oil Record Book – II (f) Garbage Record Book (g) Garbage Management Plan

(4) These documents are mandatory for the ships and absence/expiry of anyone of them can be the cause of detention of the ship by Port Authority through Port State Control.

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5.10.3.1 Shore Reception Facility The MARPOL Convention also obliges the signatory country to provide reception facilities to the ships of various kinds of waste generated during their sea passage, which the ship cannot discharge otherwise. The MARPOL refer to specific waste categories. The categories of oily wastes that affect Karachi Port and the manner in which they effect are Bilge, Sludge, Slop, dirty Ballast Waste, oil and solid waste.

5.10.3.2 Garbage/Trash Wastes Any vessel that requires disposal of wastes, as per described category given in the under mentioned table, makes contact with its agent, who appoints a waste removing contractor and, the, contractor in turn submits the request to the port authorities, as per prevailing procedures.

Table 37: Disposal of Waste by Vessels S NO Type of garbage Category/Colors Capacity

1. Plastic A-Red 1.0 M3

2. Food Waste B-Green 060 M3

3. Domestic Waste – Rages, Paper, Cared C-Blue 020 M3 Board, Corrugated Board

4. Domestic Waste- Glass, Metal ,Cans, C-Blue 0.02 M3 Bottles, Crockery, Wood

5. Domestic Waste- Expired Battery, C-Blue 0.02 M3 SENSORS, Cartridge, Bulb/Tubes and OTHER Electronic and Electronic Waste

6. Cooling Oil D-Black 0.02 M3

7. Incinerator Ash E-Grey 0.02 M3

8. Operational waste F-Buff 0.40 M3

9. Cargo Residue F-Buff 0.04 M3

Source: Head Office Karachi Port Trust

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5.10.3.3. OPRC 1990 and Ports of Pakistan

Pakistan has developed National Maritime Disaster Contingency Plan since 2007 (Captain Usman Tariq Pakistan Navy, Personal Communication, April 8, 2016). In accordance with the plan, various oil spill response (OSR) exercises were conducted. KPT & PQA also developed their OSR Contingency Plans. KPT has organized National training workshops in this regard. According to the Contingency Plan, the Pots have to maintain certain stock of OSR equipment, including Booms, Anchors, Skimmers, Dispersant Spray System, Floating Tanks, OSR Workboat and last but not the address the environmental issues.

(1) National Marine Disaster Plans.

(2) Contingency Plan.

(3) Port‟s oil Spill Contingency Plan.

(4) Port Authorities equipped with OSRE.

(5) OSR mck drills. National training workshops on OSR.

5.10.4 Efforts of PMSA to control Marine Pollution

Marine disasters like major oil spills mainly from oil carriers are catastrophic for marine life, coastal / harbour installations, recreational areas and above all, the marine environment. As per National Marine Disaster Contingency Plan (NMDCP) promulgated by Govt of Pakistan, PMSA has been assigned the responsibility of coordination to deal with Marine Pollution accidents along with manning Disaster Response Centre (DRC) round the clock. As coordinator, PMSA handles all marine disasters including incidents of marine pollution monitors and coordinates following up activities within the Maritime Zones of Pakistan. In order to rehearse procedures as stipulated at NMDCP, PMSA coordinates yearly Marine Anti-Oil Spill Exercise code named BARRACUDA (Navy News, Maritime Oil Spill Exercise Barracuda-V,

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2014, p.15). In addition, an international seminar / workshop on the topic of oil spill was conducted by PMSA in October 2016 involving renowned international speakers. Other functions of PMSA are appended in ensuing paragraphs.

As the world at large focuses sharply on environmental issues, we too need to make an effort to keep our surrounding seas clean and healthy. It is common knowledge in the marine industry that dumping of toxic waste and operational discharges from tankers are the most significant chronic and continuous sources of polluting the oceans and causing „sub-lethal toxicity‟ for both human and marine life which induces generic damage even in low concentrations (The Nation, Pakistan's Resource Rich Fifth Province, 2016).

5.11 Pakistan Maritime Security Agency (PMSA)

5.11.1 Maritime Environment Overview

The prevailing maritime situation in the North Arabian Sea in the EEZ of Pakistan and adjoining coastal areas, particularly in Baluchistan, has started to witness contests by various actors not very friendly towards Pakistan, particularly after the announcement of CPEC by the present Government. The responsibilities of PN and Pakistan Maritime Security Agency have enhanced manifold to ensure protection of Ports, infrastructure and fisheries in the area and not let enemy to succeed. Pakistan Maritime Security Agency was established on 1st January 1987 for enforcement of national and international laws, policies and conventions in the Maritime Zones of Pakistan (Captain Atiq ur Rehman, Director Operations HQ PMSA, personal communication, October 18, 2016). The PMSA Act was passed by the parliament in 1994 and PMSA was given the requisite legal authority to perform assigned tasks.

5.11.2 Roles & Functions PMSA is the only Law Enforcement Agency at sea has been assigned with following functions to perform in its sea of responsibility. a. Prevent unauthorized exploitation of any economic resources by any person, vessel or device within the Maritime Zones. b. Protect Pakistani fishing vessels and crew against any threat, instructions or interference within the Maritime Zones.

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c. Enforce national and international laws, agreements and conventions on and under the water in the Maritimes Zones. d. Assist and coordinate search and rescue for the vessels, property and lives in any emergency in the Maritime Zones on high seas. e. Assist other departments and agencies of the Government to maintain and preserve the quality of marine life and to prevent and control the effects of marine disasters including marines pollution in and around the ports, harbours, coastal areas, estuaries and other areas of Maritimes Zones. f. Assist and co-ordinate with national and international agencies in hydrographic land oceanographic research, navigation, weather reporting ant other scientific activities in Maritime Zones. g. Assist other departments and agencies of the government in sage-guarding and protecting artificial islands, offshore terminals, installations and other structures and devices in the Maritimes Zones. h. Provide assistance for petroleum exploration and production in the Maritime Zones. j. Render assistance to other agencies in acquisition of mineral explorations, seismic studies and assessment data in the Maritime Zones. k. Cooperate with provide assistance to Customs, Coast Guard and other departments, agencies and authorities in Maritimes Zones in the discharge of their duties and functions. l. Provide and effective secondary Maritimes force for deployment in any emergency, war or conflict and

m. Perform such other functions as may be assigned to it by the Federal Government, from time to time, to protect maritime interests of Pakistan.

5.11.3 Functions of PMSA on behalf of various Ministries The major functions being performed by PMSA in the Maritime Zones of Pakistan on behalf of various ministries are as shown:

 Maritime Security Ministry of Defense  Anti-Narcotics Ministry of Interior and Narcotics Control

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 Anti-Smuggling FBR/Customs & Immigration  Anti-Human Trafficking Ministry of Interior and Narcotics Control  Enforcement of HMCR Ministry of Port & Shipping  Search and Rescue Ministry of Port & Shipping.  Environmental Protection Ministry of Climate Change  Protection of Non-living resources Ministry of Science of Tech, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural

5.11.4 PMSA’s Area of Responsibility Pakistan‟s coastline from Sir Creek in the East to the mouth of Gwatar Bay (East of Jiwani) in the west stretches of over 1000 KM. PMSA‟s Area of Responsibility extends upto 350 NM South of the coastline, with an area of 290,000 sq km, which also includes 50,000/- sq km (150 NM) area of continental shelf which has been approved by the United Nations.

PMSA has various independent squadrons and units housing different operational elements. In order to monitor such a vast area, the assets available with the agency include Surface Wing comprising of Corvettes, Fast Response Boats and various Speed Boats; Air Wing has a Squadron of Norman Defender Maritime Surveillance Aircrafts. In order to support operations along the coast, PMSA has established Coastal Bases at Gwadar, Pasni, Karachi and Korangi. Two more bases are under construction at Ormara and Keti Bandar. These coastal bases have variety of boats and Country Crafts.

5.11.5 Major Challenges and Achievement of PMSA PMSA conduct regular operation against prevailing Maritime Security challenges (Mumtaz, 2011, pp.102-103), which include:

a. Narco-Trafficking b. Gun Running c. Anti-Poaching d. Smuggling / trafficking of human and other commodities. e. Marine Pollution and Environment Protection. f. Security of Ports area. g. Piracy. h. Maritime Terrorism. j. Search and Rescue. k. illegal Fishing.

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5.11.6 Counter Narcotics Operations To highlight the efforts of PMSA in eradication of drugs trafficking, it may be mentioned that since 1990, the agency has seized almost 91 tons of various narcotics which have a street value of hundreds of millions in dollars. Most Recently, on 07 Oct 16, PMSA seized 01 ton of hashish worth 600 million rupees in local market in a successful Anti Narcotics Operation off Jiwani (The News, 2016).

5.11.7 Anti-Poaching Pakistan‟s EEZ is enormously rich both in living and non-living resources. Poaching, mainly by Indian fishermen, in common in our resource rich Indus Delta region, where Indian fishermen catch huge quantity of fish from our water per annum, in addition to causing huge ecological damage to various rare fish species. Poaching in Indian fishermen is a deliberate act as the fishermen generally intrude deep inside Pakistan EEZ. Around 600 Indian vessels enter Pakistan waters for fishing illegally every month whiles the revenue loss of four-month of illegal Indian fishing had been estimated to be around Rs.8 billion. Recently, PMSA had also confiscated an Iranian boat with illegal oil and fine quality drugs (Siddiqui, 2016).

5.11.8 Search and Rescue Pakistan is signatory of safety of Life At Sea (SOLAS) Convention of 1974. Accordingly, International Maritime Organization has allocated a vast area extending up to 840 NM from the coast of Pakistan for coordination of Search & Rescue. Pakistan Maritime Security Agency has been delegated the responsibility of manning Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre (MRCC) 24/ by the Government to readily respond to emergencies and coordinate Search & Rescue operations at Sea (Shahzad, 2014, p.135). PMSA, till to date has rescued 1635 precious lives and 118 vessels in distress at sea. PMSA actively participated in all flood relief activities in interior Sindh and Coastal Area rescuing thousands of people.

5.11.9 PMSA as Secondary Maritime Force All maritime nations maintaining paramilitary forces such as PMSA, integrate them with the Navy during Emergency, War or Conflict in order to augment their country‟s defense. PMSA, as Secondary Maritime Force is well geared and rehearsed for the same.

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5.11.10 International/Regional Cooperation and Exercises

PMSA is maintaining maritime cooperation with USA, India, China, Denmark, Turkey Iran, Sri Lanka, and, Oman through MoUs and other initiatives. PMSA is a regular and active participant of Heads of Asian Coast Guards Agencies (HACGAM) Forum and will be hosting 13th HACGAM in Oct 2017. PMSA is also an active member of South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP) and act as lead agency to enhance regional cooperation on marine pollution, preparedness and response in the SACEP region.

5.12 Pakistan Coast Guards Pakistan Coast Guards (PCG) is a rare blend of sea and land based troops serving under one Command. It has on its inventory vessels and marine equipment besides means to operate on land. This unique combination lends the force capacity and capability of conducting operations on land as well as in the Sea. This exceptional union differentiates PCG amongst other security forces and Law Enforcement Agencies deployed or operating along the coast, either on the land or in the sea.

5.12.1 History of PCG Until late sixties, Pakistan Customs was responsible for land and sea based frontiers of Pakistan with the objective to prevent smuggling of contraband items into and from Pakistan. Earlier in 1958, when Gwadar became part of Pakistan, the coastline got extended over 1,000 Kilometers, touching Pakistan - Iran border in the West. The extended frontages made the task of the Sea Customs further difficult, as it was then the only anti-smuggling agency responsible to watch the entire coastline in addition to land based activities. Resultantly, skeleton Headquarters of Pakistan Coast Guards was set up at Karachi in June 1971. Later in October 1972, raising of this force was formally promulgated through a Presidential Ordinance, which was later replaced by PCG Act-1973.

5.12.2 Organizational Structure of PCG The Force is commanded by a Brigadier. The Battalion Commanders, Company Commanders and staff officers are deputed from Army for a period of 2 to 3 years. The Marine Wing has officers deputed from the Pakistan Navy. All other ranks from Sepoy to Subedar

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Major are intrinsic to Pakistan Coast Guards. The force is comprised of four PCG Battalions, a Marine Wing, dedicated Recruitment and Training Centre, and few subunits as force troops.

Pakistan Coast Guards hosts sizeable strength as per requirements and mandate. The Force is equipped with adequate Marine assets comprising speed vessels like Fast Patrol Boats, Interceptor Boats and other small utility vessels. PCG is equipped with variety of Radars, which are deployed along the coast, and on the boats for surveillance of the coastline and territorial waters. Various scanners are held with PCG for checking of suspected cargo. It includes Gamma Rays Scanners and X-Rays (Mercedes vans).

5.12.3 Role / Mandate As per PCG Act 1973, mandate of this Force is defined as “Whereas it is expedient to provide for the constitution and regulation of PCG and for special measures to effectively check smuggling of any kind across the frontiers of Pakistan in the Coastal Area of Arabian Sea and also to deal with persons acting in a manner prejudicial to the defence and security of Pakistan in that area”.

5.12.4 Functions Main function of PCG under 1973 Act are:- a. Prevention of smuggling

b. Prevention of illegal immigration to and migration from the Country.

c. Stopping enemy agents or saboteurs from infiltrating into the Country along the Coastal Highway.

d. Supplementing defence during war.

Legal Powers

In order to accomplish the assigned tasks in a befitting manner, certain legal powers have been vested to PCG under various Acts.

5.12.5.1 Police Act – 1861

Under this act, all Officers and Junior Commissioned Officers are vested with Police powers; however it is only applicable outside the jurisdiction of Seaports and Airports since they have dedicated agencies for the purpose. The details are:- 203

a. Every post serves as a police station. b. Every Officer and Junior Commissioned Officer possesses powers of Station House Officer (SHO) and can:- c. Record FIR and carry out investigation. d. Present challan in relevant courts of law.

5.12.5.2 Control of Narcotics Substance (CNS) Act – 1997 Under CNS act, Officers and Junior Commissioned Officers are authorized to exercise powers to:- a. Carryout seizure and arrest in public places. b. Stop and search public / private transport. c. Trace and freeze assets when required.

5.12.5.3 Customs Act – 1969 PCG has been vested with anti smuggling powers to check illegal smuggling of goods since Jan 2014. Under this act PCG is authorized to check smuggling of contraband items.

PCG area of responsibility as defined in PCG Act - 1973 extends from Pak-Iran border to Sir Creek, covering an area of about 910 Kilometres in length. In addition, PCG is also looking after 160 Kilometres of Pakistan-Iran international border. In the Sea, it has the responsibility of territorial waters till 12 NM from the Coastline. Geographically, the Coastal areas can be divided into two distinct parts which are Sindh Coast and Balochistan or Makran Coast. Sindh coastal areas consist of inter connected creeks whereas the Balochistan coast consists of craggy mountains and gorges. Any type of movement in both the areas is difficult to detect. It is worth mentioning that PCG is the only Civil Armed Force that is deployed in two provinces of Pakistan.

5.13 Maritime Tourism According to Oxford dictionary the exact definition of marine tourism is as “Recreational activities that involve travel away from one‟s place of residence and which have as their host or focus the marine environment (where the marine environment is defined as those waters which

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are saline and tide affected)” (Ormas, 1998). Thus it can be concluded that Maritime Tourism activities are mostly based on:  Coastal tourism (Hotel, and restaurants, Island and beach resorts, sea sports)  Shipping and boating (cruise shipping, yachting)  Recreational activities (diving, snorkeling, reef walking, fishing, photography)  Wildlife interactions (bird watching, turtle watching, whale watching, fish feeding)

Because the tourism industry is one of the major users of the Marine environment, Safe and secure management systems need to be created all along the Pakistani coast to regulate tourism activities and minimize adverse impacts. Being a sine qua non requirement for tourism, security & peace measures must be ensured for enhancing domestic and foreign maritime tourism especially on the coast of Balochistan as number of locals, regional and international tourist are interested to visit newly emerging area of Gwadar. Some wants to explore the possibility of investment other are interested to come for recreational purposes in the of Gwadar area. TO attract more tourists at Karachi harbour, kemari and Manora Island, all sewage discharges into sea must be treated with nutrient reduction, or the effluent must be re-used on the land with minimal marine discharge in and around Karachi harbour. To further promote tourism around Manora Island, other destinations along the cost, special boats, ferries and small ships must be available all along the coast. So that proper organized trip of tourists can be planned from Karachi to Gwadar. Following may be taken care while drafting a maritime tourism policy: a. Diversity in maritime tourism should be expended. b. To enhance Yachts and cruise tourism, due importance should be given to construction of marine and port necessary to meet demands. c. Facilities should be adapted itself to satisfy the needs of the tourists by meeting comfortable accommodation, transport, entertainment, services and medical demands. d. Steps may be taken to open regional tourism with neighbor countries by solving exist problem with them. e. Media & advertisement sectors should be effectively used to eliminate/minimize the bad image of country and advertise opportunities for maritime tourism. f. Public‟s awareness should be raised concerning opportunities and challenges of maritime tourism.

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g. The government may encourage the private sector to promote tourism-friendly environment in the country in order to improve country national economy. h. To be monitored and minimized pollution, necessary mechanisms should be set up. By taking into consideration of possible adverse effect of climate change on maritime tourism, necessary measures should be taken.

5.14 Revision of National Maritime Policy National Maritime Policy of Pakistan (NMP) was promulgated through a Gazette Notification on 30 November 2002 first time in the history of Pakistan. Undoubtedly, NMP 2002 is a well researched and a comprehensive document that has set the tradition to view the maritime segment as an independent sector. In fact in the absence of this Policy, there was mind-set to view maritime sector as a part of sea transport or ports by the policy makers. Keeping in view the increasing requirements of energy, depleting resources on land with the increase of population and continuous changing power struggle to reach sea bed resources among the emerging powers of the globe, the policy dynamics of the oceans has changed. This dictates to review the old maritime policy issued in 2002 by Ministry of defense in Pakistan. Sea has always been a major reservoir of resources and offers extensive opportunities of prosperity besides posing challenges that imperil national security. Unlike past, after 9/11 Maritime nations are confronted with issues such as transnational terrorism, insurgencies and organized asymmetric crimes in addition to conventional threats. Therefore, roles and functions related to Maritimes Security world over have gained prominence and force structures of law enforcement agencies continue to undergo readjustments to cope with emerging policing and constabulary roles for countering non-military, transnational and asymmetric threats. Owing to all these challenges Pakistan maritime policy need to be rewritten on priority.

5.14.1 Rationale for the Revision of NMP 2002 Though it is just fifteen years old policy, it is felt that the current National Maritime policy needs a revision because there are many important Maritime aspects, which have either been ignored or insufficiently touched upon. Some of such issues are listed below: a. Maritime Clusters b. Ship Re-cycling c. Coastal Zone Risks d. Maritime Ancillary Services e. Framework for Maritime Coordination f. Changing role of Maritime Forces out at sea. 206

Moreover, tasking of relevant Ministries under old policy has been covered in every section under the title „Policy Directions‟. Tasking/ execution plans are normally not incorporated in Policies and over a period it is felt that policy and implementation strategy should not be part of single document and need to be separated. Therefore, the old policy is required to be rewritten keeping in view the ever changing domestic, regional and global security matrix. A wide-ranging all- inclusive maritime policy may include all relevant emerging concepts of sea bed exploration. A clear direction for security forces such as PN, PMSA, and PCG also need to be clearly spelled out regarding employment in Indian Ocean alone and with other regional and International players. It is pertinent to mention that policy and strategy are two different things, after the revision of Pakistan maritime policy, the maritime strategy must also be issued which will be drawn out of this new policy.

5.14.2 Salient Features of Revise Draft National Maritime Policy

The policy being revised must provide guidelines to both provinces e.g. Sindh and Balochistan of Pakistan for implementation by all relevant federal and provincial ministries in respect of functions entrusted. The revised policy may also include creation of a separate maritime province under a dedicated maritime authority which should work hands in gloves with, all government, public and private stakeholders. Subject independent maritime authority while governing this province effectively under one window operation must plan for maritime infrastructure, marine and coastal developments, environment, sea resources etc, and for issues pertaining to the maritime sector.

5.15 Maritime Awareness in Pakistan

Maritime affairs in Pakistan has never attain desired attention, even all major security policies are also being drafted with land fixated mind. God has provided un measureable natural resources to Pakistan out at sea in the EEZ of Pakistan. These resources are not being tapped to its optimum, primarily because of two reasons, first is lack of maritime awareness and secondly scarcity of will at all levels of public and private sector. There was no Maritime policy in Pakistan till 2002. To the utmost surprise of the readers, Maritime strategy has still not been issued by the Government of Pakistan. Presently Federal Government, provincials Government of Sindh and Balochistan are handling maritime affairs of Pakistan through a plethora of federal and provincials‟ ministries, divisions, departments, Organization and Institutions. The 207

consortium of these organizations does not work hand in glove, there is no harmony, and over and over again important decision making is done in isolation without consulting each other. Resulting in producing dreadful, irrelevant and un implementable decisions. Nonetheless, an effort was made through National Maritime Policy issued in 2002 by gives a framework for coordination amongst all national stakeholders. It is one of the most important sections of the policy that gives a framework for coordination through National Maritime Affairs Coordination Committee (NMACC). Subject committee is supposed to provide coordination of maritime affairs at national level among all stakeholders, whose composition is as under:

Secretary Defence Chairman Secretary Cabinet Division Member Secretary Interior Ministry Member Secretary Finance Ministry Member Secretary Foreign Affairs Ministry Member Secretary Planning & Development Ministry Member Secretary Communication & Railways Ministry Member Secretary Ports & Shipping Ministry Member Secretary Food & Agriculture Ministry Member Secretary Climate Change Ministry Member Secretary Petroleum & NR ministry Member Secretary Livestock & Dairy Development Member Secretary Science & Technology Member Secretary Economic Affairs Division Member Vice Chief of the Naval Staff Member Chief Secretary, Government of Sindh Member Chief Secretary, Government of Balochistan Member Executive Director HEC Member Managing Director KS & EW Member Director General PMSA Member Director General Pakistan Coast Guards Member

Maritime Affairs Wing at Ministry of Defence (MoD) is the secretariat of NMACC. Although on yearly basis regular meetings of this committee are held at MoD, but nothing worthwhile is discussed. Most of the senior officers send their representatives to attend meeting on their behalf owing to their other commitments. As a routine discussion held on various issues, certain resolutions are passed; decisions are taken but no mechanism to implement these decisions in true later and sprit. Looking at the state of the affairs it may not be ascertain that Maritime resources are not being explored due to certain challenges rather it is the persistent lack of will at all levels of the government departments. The other factor is lack of awareness, starting from the academia, intelligentsia, bureaucracy and political leadership no one has the

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clear understanding of the maritime affairs in Pakistan. Thus there is a dire requirement to generate debate on maritime issues by involving all tires of relevant stakeholders. A maritime province may be created under a dedicated “National Maritime Authority”.

5.16 Deduction Pakistan needs to act as rational actor and revise its maritime policy at the earliest. A new maritime strategy is to be conceived, analyzed and well debated with all the relevant stake holders prior presenting it to the national parliament for approval and subsequently its implementation in true letter and spirit.

Pakistan needs to react immediately to accrue the maximum benefits from the newly acquired 50000 Sq Km area in the EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean by the extension of the continental shelf. The necessary scientific ships, technical machinery, special instruments and desired sensors need to be acquired on urgent basis for the mapping of the area. Sir creek issue needs to be resolved on priority by effective dialogue using all back channels/track 2 diplomacy.

To combat the maritime disasters at sea Pakistan has already taken a substantial step by devising a National Maritime Contingency Plan (NMDCP) at national level which is being exercised regularly out at sea and is effectively implemented in the area. Now there is a need for regional cooperation in this regard. Neighboring countries in the region can effectively utilize Pakistan‟s doctrine of NMDCP by applying it in the entire region as already being practiced in Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean.

Pakistan‟s strategic location as a gateway to the Gulf States has gained importance significantly with the immergence of CPEC/Gwadar Port. Important choke points in the region controlling the world trade are also located very close to Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean thus Pakistan needs to devise its policies and strategies in a way which is beneficial at national and regional level. These suggestions are made based on the discussion carried out in this chapter which also answer the queries raised in question no 4 in the most effective way possible.

This chapter was composed keeping in view the emerging economic situation after the extension of continental shelf, some progress towards the resolution of the Sir Creek issue and the composition, approval and implementation of the NMDCP doctrine in the area. The in depth 209

analysis carried out in this chapter provides the foundations on which research has to be carried out especially on the topics relating to future maritime strategy and maritime policy required for Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean.

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Chapter 6

Major Findings and Recommendations

6.1 Major Findings The maritime sector of Pakistan is the bedrock of country‟s economy. Nearly 95 per cent of commerce (nearly 31 percent of GDP) and 100 per cent of country‟s fossil fuel imports are shipped via sea route. This translates to nearly 66.5 billion dollars of trade in terms of 2014 dollar value. Extensive examination of credible sources and data collected indicate that Pakistan is blessed with vast maritime potential. The country has over 1000 Km (540.4Nm) of coastline. It covering the coast of Sindh, (266.5 Km) and coast of Balochistan, (734.5 Km). The length of Pakistan‟s coastline ranks 74 among the 142 coastal states. The coast has vast potential for development of ports, harbours, shipyard, tourism and other allied industry.

The country‟s EEZ and continental shelf encompassing an area of roughly 290,000 Sq Km is suffused with both, living and non-living resources. Using the IR theories of realism and liberalism, this research support the assumption that despite being endowed by nature with sizable maritime potential, Pakistan is not adequately exploiting the same. The prime reasons for this could be summed up as:

a. Lack of maritime awareness and a historical continental legacy prevails in the country. A deficient thinking and inadequate appreciation on ocean related matters and it‟s economic and security significance for Pakistan, particularly in the current century by the country‟s strategic and political community has contributed to Pakistan‟s “maritime blindness” b. Absence of long term Maritime Vision (Maritime Vision 2030 was announced by the Government few years back but no headway has since been achieved. Planning Commission was tasked to do the needful. It is however yet to table any draft in the parliament or otherwise) c. Absence of new National Maritime Policy and Strategy which could have provided fresh impetus to the sector as required by the dictates of new century and developments in the region (last policy was issued in 2002).

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d. Lack of engagement by Pakistan Foreign office on developments taking place in the Indian Ocean. A reactive rather than proactive policy on Indo-Pacific region and little clarity on the diplomatic role Pakistan Navy is expected to play in overall Foreign policy of the country compounds the problem. e. Insufficient local Marine Scientific Research (MSR) including seismic surveys, mapping/charting of sea bed and ocean resources in Pakistan‟s EEZ. This also includes lack of coordination and synergy between in country research institutes and think tanks like NIO, NCMPR, Marine Science department Karachi University, Lasbela University etc. f. Political unrest and security issues in the province of Balochistan. g. Inadequate governance in maritime zones of Pakistan including overexploitation and poaching of marine living sources. Also, marine environmental degradation due to excessive pollution by urban centers like Karachi contributes to the problem h. Absence of sustainable marine development programme and destruction of marine ecology due to rising sea level (climate change), exacerbates the problem. The prevalent Climate change policy includes impact on coastal region but lacks implementation. j. Poor feasibility cum development along the coast for commercial and tourism purposes which could have drawn substantial foreign direct investment. k. Virtual absence of any meaningful discussion on electronic media related to maritime or ocean affairs and its significance in twenty first century. l. Absence of maritime culture and tradition in Pakistan‟s most populous province, Punjab. From this province is drawn bulk of manpower for the country‟s bureaucracy and military while it also shares the largest representation in the country‟s parliament. m. Non-availability of a Maritime Doctrine of Pakistan which could help wider public, bureaucracy and academia an understanding of the country‟s maritime potential and role of the Navy.

Pakistan‟s coast is ideally suited for commercial development and attracting foreign investment. However, it suffers from lack of attention by the government and a clear policy. But for the absence of national “maritime vision” and a fitting maritime tradition grounded in history that led to critical “maritime blindness” at national level, the port at Gwadar could have become what Jabel Ali is to Dubai or Salalah is to Oman long before China Pakistan Economic Corridor, 215

(CPEC) was even heard. There are several other places along the Makran coast which could easily be turned into vibrant ports, commercial spots and tourist resorts to help country earn economic dividends and build positive image.

Pakistan EEZ is having lot of living and non-living resources. The country‟s coastline is source of subsistence for millions and generate sizeable amount of coastal economy. Pakistan was once the world‟s top ranked country with the largest mangrove forest area, a natural habitat for marine species and organism. For a variety of reasons however, a large scale destruction and depletion of mangrove forests has occurred over the past three decades or so. This has seriously impinged on the marine ecology particularly along the coast denying large coastal population means of their livelihood. An elaborate long term plan of “mangrove plantation” was recently initiated by Pakistan navy. The plan covers both, Sindh and Makran coast as well as coastal area adjoining Jinnah Naval Base, Ormara.

In the absence of any long term maritime vision, and local expertise a vast potential in the EEZ as well as newly added continental shelf meanwhile continues to be either overexploited or else lies untapped. The much needed new maritime policy is too awaited. Fundamental changes have occurred in the maritime area of interest to Pakistan since the previous policy was issued in 2002. Besides living resources and variety of fish, potential for non-living resources ranging from hydrocarbon to manganese modules and other sub-soil sources is also believed to be considerably high. The Marine Scientific Research which begins with initial surveys and floor mapping suffers from lackadaisical approach and inadequate interest by provincial and federal governments.

Given the upcoming CPEC and other developments in the maritime zones of interest, it is now imperative for Pakistan to formulate and follow a systematic and sustainable development plan to accrue economic benefits from its EEZ and continental shelf, under renewed efforts. The area is aptly regarded as maritime province of Pakistan.

As part of CPEC, a beginning could be made in providing impetus to country‟s maritime sector in collaboration with China. This is particularly important in the field of Marine Scientific Research. It is pertinent to mention that China has been achieving great breakthroughs in deep sea exploration activities in Indian as well as Pacific Oceans. The International Seabed Authority

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(ISBA) has approved the Chinese bid for under-sea exploration in 10,000 square kilometers in the Southwest Indian Ocean. Chinese manned submersible recently created a world record by carrying out the deepest sea dive yet going down beyond 7000 meters (Kamlesh, & Agnihotri, 2015, p.ix).

The contemplated development of Gwadar Port and other infrastructure all along the coast must however be done keeping financial constraints and range of challenges likely to be encountered. Yet there is urgent need to synergize all national resources for optimum exploitation and sustainable development of marine resources and attendant facilities. Nonetheless, Gwadar Port will be an important gateway to East in future.

An EEZ of over 240,000 Sq Km and another 50,000 Sq Km as continental shelf promises huge marine resource potential of both, living and non-living kind. According to estimates, Pakistan has fish and seafood industry worth $2.5 to 3 billion. Current exports alone bring back about US$ 230 to US$ 240 million per year. In terms of fish production Pakistan is ranked 28th in the world.

On 13th March 2015, the UNCLCS approved the recommendations for extension of the outer limits of continental shelf on Pakistan‟s case. The opportunity to extend outer limits of continental shelf under Article 76 of UNCLOS 82 was achieved in time by Pakistan. But the triumphant leap came after efforts extending over decade and a half.

Overlapping continental shelves around the globe are today cause of rising political temperatures and military deployments as manifest in now simmering South China Sea. It is believed that continental shelf of Pakistan has almost 4,125,000 tonnes of Manganese metal, 82,500 tonnes of Copper metal and 206,000 tonnes of Nickle metal with a combined value of USD 10,294 million. This potential is in addition to other minerals and resources like Cobalt metal and oil and gas all of which await exploitation.

6.1.1 Shipping Sector as well as Ship Building/Breaking The current capacity of PNSC with 9 merchant vessels needs to be increased significantly. Given Pakistan‟s seaborne trade volume of 62.414 million tones projected to spike in foreseeable future, this requirement becomes urgent. 217

Likewise expansion in local shipyards should also be undertaken on priority basis. Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works (KSEW) is currently the only shipyard in Pakistan and also the oldest needs. Chinese assistance in constructing a new shipyard at Gwadar will be a significant step in the direction.

A comprehensive study on the shipping industry in Pakistan is urgently needed. This must be in tandem with various governmental policies and with appropriate provision for attracting private sector. The national flag carrier fleet must be developed to lift up to 50 percent of country‟s our cargo from current level of 21 percent of total seaborne trade.

The beach at Gadani, located on 10 Km stretch and about 50 Km northwest of Karachi, having Pakistan ship-breaking industry. During 1970s and 80s ship-breaking peaked here. It has capacity of breaking over 100 ships per year including small and large ships. Lately however, industry has been hit by Recycling Regulations and tough competition from China, Turkey and Bangladesh. The industry can flourish in country if the required infrastructure is in place and essential needs of trade and employees are met. A long term policy is needed if the industry is to be saved.

6.1.2 Various Challenges in Pakistan EEZ Effective governance including protection and sustainable development of marine resources is required. Protection means management, preservation and physical security against activities or illicit fishing including measures against IUUF (Illegal, Unreported and unregulated Fishing). This is done through affective law making and protection to be provided with the potent force having latest ships fitted modern sensors and machinery. Thus PN, PMSA and PCG need to be reorganized on modern lines with latest equipment.

The evolving non-traditional threats in Pakistan‟s area of maritime dictates revision of maritime security doctrine according to prevailing fragile security situation. The threat spectrum is wide and diverse. It includes but is not limited to climate change and rising sea levels, human weapons and narco trafficking, marine pollution, poaching, IUUF , terrorism to overwhelming presence of Extra Regional Forces. India‟s increasing military footprint and nuclearisation in Indian Ocean are meanwhile posing other kind of challenge to the maritime interests of Pakistan and stability in Indian Ocean. 218

6.1.3 Lack of Training and Awareness Presently, department relating to maritime sector in Pakistan does not have adequate trained manpower. This is a serious impediment in accelerated advancement of the national maritime sector. The country invariably lacks institutions that can impart maritime knowledge and expand national consciousness. Thus well trained technical manpower is not available for this specialized sector. A prime challenge is general awareness and poor development in coastal area. But since awareness on the significance of sea is deficient even in the political class of the country, the coastal areas remain under-developed. Not a single major political party in the country has anything mentioned on the maritime sector in their political manifestos. The local fishermen meanwhile lack education on the kind of gear to be used in coastal and deep waters. This results in the destruction of marine ecology.

6.1.4 Role of Bureaucracy, Academia and Media There is an urgent need to expand general public awareness on country‟s maritime potential and importance of EEZ. The country‟s political leadership, civil-military bureaucracy, academia, and media must be made conscious through an organized campaign. As principal advisor to the Government of Pakistan on all matters related to maritime affairs, the Chief of Naval Staff and Pakistan navy must take lead in this regard. At a fundamental level there is a dire need to publish a National Maritime Doctrine covering various aspects of the country‟s maritime sector, its economic dimensions and role of Pakistan navy. This should be a widely distributed document both, in-country and overseas. It will lead to improved understanding amongst the masses as well as national policy makers. Close to 95 percent of the global trade travels through sea. The containerized cargo and concept of inter-modal transportation has revolutionized the world. Thus restructuring of maritime infrastructure is to be given due priority at the earliest.

6.2 Recommendations 6.2.1 Recommendations- Maritime Trade & Economy The development of Gwadar port should be pursued as top national priority. As part of China‟s ambitious “One Belt One Road (OBOR), CPEC is one time opportunity that will turn around not only the maritime destiny of Pakistan but the country‟s national economy as well.

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Gwadar port will serve as a lynchpin for transit and trans-shipment connecting regions, boosting national economy and raising maritime profile of Pakistan as never before.

China‟s 21st century maritime Silk Road (OBOR) is projected to foster inter-regional economic cooperation and cultural communication. Pakistan‟s port at Karachi, Bin Qasim and Gwadar should seek to serve as integrated conduits for maritime trade. More Ports also needs to be established all along the Pakistani coast.

Growth in the maritime sector including ship building industry, ship breaking industry, ship owning, ports and terminal infrastructure development within the region‟s maritime clusters should be aimed at by the regional countries. While the direct impact is in the economic activity and jobs generated directly by the maritime clusters, the indirect advantage include the job demand created up and down the supply chain.

The sub region of the Indo Pacific comprising of Pakistan, India, Iran and Afghanistan should work together to eradicate terrorism from their respective soils. This will give a boost to the economic development of the sub-region and ensure a better quality of life for their people. The major stakeholders of the Indo Pacific, China and US, must forge commercial, social, cultural and welfare ties rather than military alliances to ensure peace, stability and uplift regional economy.

Pakistan should radically reorient its policies to look seaward for its progress and prosperity. Creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) along the coast can generate about US$ 1 trillion GDP. To overcome continental mindset and generate wider public awareness, Revised Maritime policy may be published as soon as possible. Maritime strategy needs to be drafted after involving all relevant stakeholders on priority. Government should formulate an effective mechanism for implementing plans related to the development of maritime industry.

6.2.2 Exploration of Natural Resources Fishing potential in Pakistan EEZ must be explored to optimum. There are barely any judiciously developed, protected, preserved or clearly demarcated fish breeding grounds. For a variety of reasons, the once large area of mangrove forests has rapidly declined over a period of time. The use of inappropriate gear by fishermen has further compounded the forests destruction

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process. The combined result is decline in fish production. On the contrary, reportedly illegal fishing and poaching in deep sea by local and foreign vessels continues unabated.

The situation requires sustainable policy and establishment of training institutes with marine research and development centers as well as technical training set ups. Up gradation of local and deep sea fishing vessels with state of the art equipment is to done on priority. Fish may be exported after reasonable value addition. New fish processing plants must be established along the coast. More so, hygienic condition in all fish harbours must be ensured at par with international standards.

6.2.2.1 Survey of Living Resources The existing data on living resources in Pakistan‟s maritime zones is mostly available through international sources. Hardly any local studies or sources are available. In the absence, it is difficult to determine exact quality and quantity of living resources. To that end, stock assessment of living resources in EEZ needs to be explored to its maximum.

6.2.2.2 Effective Utilization of Marine Environment of our coastal belt Unplanned commercial exploitation of certain target species by foreign investors off Balochistan coast and within the EEZ of Pakistan may create an ecological imbalance i.e. removal of large pelagic species by way of over exploitation of tunas, Spanish Mackerels etc. from the system. This over exploitation of pelagic fish will result in an upsurge of small pelagic fish (sardines, anchovy, scads etc.) of less commercial value. Removal of the predator (Tuna) by over fishing will increase the population of small pelagic species thereby creating an ecological imbalance. It is recommended that Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) be conducted prior to initiation of any projects. There is also a need to re-evaluate and monitor resources on a regular and systematic basis.

6.2.2.3 Non-Living Resources in Pakistan EEZ Fish exploration could be done with Chinese assistance under the umbrella of CPEC or otherwise through a duly signed agreement with equitable share for provinces and centre. Later, appropriate foreign investors may be invited for exploration of hydrocarbons and other minerals in off-shore areas.

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Fish farming be encouraged and developed along the coast. This must be backed by education of local community. Along with model villages, development of fish harbours at all suitable sites, and investment in wind mills after appropriate feasibility study and water desalination plants will result in rebuilding confidence of coastal community. This will also lead to increase in coastal economy.

6.2.3 Governance of Resources in Pakistan EEZ Governance in Pakistan EEZ is almost negligible. Absence of close coordination and sharing of information among various Government departments remains a major concern. Mechanism must be instituted for effective governance in the EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean.

6.2.4 New National Maritime Policy and Strategy The Revised Pakistan National Maritime Policy be issued at the earliest and new Maritime Strategy be drafted taking input from all relevant stakeholders for effective implementation of IMO Conventions to which Pakistan is signatory and signed ratification instruments. In addition, Government must revise the National Maritime Vision 2025 which was announced few years back but has since then become dormant. During revision of National Maritime Vision Knowledge, management and capacity building of port authorities/users w.r.t IMO conventions must also be considered. Introducing best practices of port operations and shipping industry through this vision be considered. In addition Pakistan must develop national action plan for BWM (ballast water management) and sediment convention.

6.2.5 Appropriate Legislation in Pakistan EEZ Redundant and old maritime laws, act, related policies must be revised at the earliest. If required new maritime laws must be instituted keeping in view the prevailing economic environment and fragile security situation in Pakistan‟s maritime area of interest.

6.2.6 Communication Infrastructure An elaborate and well developed communication infrastructure (road, rail, network) is essentially required to link all coastal stations with central and northern part of the country. Likewise, tourist spots at appropriate locations along the coast may be developed to attract local and foreign tourists. 222

6.3 Pakistan continental shelf extension program Specific recommendations pertaining to Pakistan continental shelf extension program are appended below:

6.3.1 Federally coordinated frame work Future exploitation of continental shelf include multitude aspects such as; technical and legal matters, research and exploration, resource assessment and exploitation. As all these aspects are interlinked, these require to be dealt in a coordinated manner through a body that has decision making and implementation powers. Keeping in view the successful experience of existing Technical Evaluation Committee shortly known as TEC, which is looking after the continental shelf project, it is considered, the responsibility of future exploitation may also be given to TEC. It is pertinent to mention that TEC is a high level inter-ministerial committee formed by Defence Committee of Cabinet in 1996. Under the guidance of TEC all concerned departments are proposed to take following actions: a. Ensure implementation of Pakistan‟s jurisdiction over the extended continental shelf. b. Create awareness about Continental Shelf at national level. c. Settlement of maritime boundaries with neighboring countries. d. National capacity building for human resource in associated fields. e. Composition of TEC may be reviewed to include important stakeholders like Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resources.

6.3.2 Recommendations regarding Challenges PN needs to be restructured significantly with latest weapons, sensors and equipment to counter threats and challenges across the spectrum. These include conventional (traditional) threats as well as non-conventional (non-traditional threats). As sentinel of maritime frontier, Pakistan navy is mandated to protect, preserve and advance Pakistan‟s national maritime interests in EEZ and beyond both, during peace and in war. PMSA and PCG must be equipped accordingly.

6.3.3 Maritime Awareness Maritime awareness must be created at all levels of public, private and Government departments. All relevant stakeholders must be taken onboard for maritime research and 223

development, technical education and development of well trained human resource in these specialized fields. In addition, a suitable think tank with professionals, scholars and experts may be established at PN War College, Lahore. This must be over and above the existing NCMPR at Bahria University, Karachi, Pakistan. The two must however collaborate in all matters related to policy and research work. Above all, MDP must be published at the earliest.

6.3.4 Coordination at Domestic and International Level In order to have correct estimation of natural resources, mapping and building database w.r.t Pakistan‟s maritime zones, following steps in this regard are essentially required: a. Existing data from national and international sources including seismic, bathymetric, oceanographic and hydrographic information shall be merged to form a GIS resource map. b. Identifying the gaps in data, a detailed national resource mapping plan shall be outlined in consultation with relevant experts. c. Pakistan Navy is actively pursuing the acquisition of a hydrographic survey ship. New survey ship must be procured within next 2 years ( By end 2018) for meaningful research without wasting any further time. d. A research ship acquisition is also being pursued by Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) at government level, this need to be expedited on priority. Memorandum of understanding, with friendly countries, to be signed for conducting research and mapping, in Pakistan EEZ in Indian Ocean at the earliest. Option of involving China in such venture must also be considered

6.3.5 To Resolve the Sir Creek issue following is recommended Based on the analysis of the maritime boundary dispute of Sir Creek pending between Pakistan and India, following is recommended: a. Pakistan may commit to proactive diplomatic initiatives to settle the maritime boundary delimitation issue on mutually rewarding basis. b. A high-level negotiation team consisting of technical and legal experts may be formed to carry out an in -house analysis of the probable Sir Creek issue vis-a-vis its pros and cons for Pakistan. c. Hydrographers of both countries must plot the associated hydrographic data on common chart and similar scale to minimize the technical misinterpretations and

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convenience of discussions. d. A joint working team may be formed in collaboration with India to deliberate on the opposing base lines in order to address raised objections. e. If all the bilateral options smother down, Pakistan may raise the matter with the ICJ or if both countries agree, may go for arbitration as provided in the statute of the ICJ. f. Maritime boundary in the Creek should be delimited only after land boundary dispute is amicably settled and land terminus is established to keep politico- economic pre-eminence over India.

6.4 Shipping Sector Needs Focus Attention The economic progress of Pakistan will depend largely upon the effective utilization of its strategically located seaports, their effective management, up gradation of facilities and optimum exploitation of sea based resources. Few recommendations regarding shipping sector are listed as under:

6.4.1 Review of Shipping Policy Shipping policy may be reviewed and declared every year like trade policy. The yearly shipping policy may incorporate the existing developments and changes cropped in the intervening period.

6.4.2 Involvement of Private Sector Private sector may be encouraged to enter the shipping business by: a. Issuing free licenses. b. Providing incentives like withdrawal of duties and tax holiday. c. Ensuring safety of investment

6.4.3 Foreign Investors Efforts may be made to encourage businessmen from Central Asian Republics states to contribute in the establishment of more Ports on Pakistani coast using the China model. More so joint ventures may also be offered for exploitation of Pakistan EEZ in the Indian Ocean.

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6.4.4 Expansion of Merchant Fleet Federal Government must allocate Special funds to import merchant ships as a short term strategy and for long term solution construction of merchant marine must be considered at KS&EW.

6.4.5 Persuasion of Pakistani Shipping Owners Pakistani ship owners may be persuaded to bring their ships under Pakistani flags by providing adequate financial and regulatory concessions.

6.4.6 Strengthening maritime cooperation with China Efforts may be made to further strengthen maritime ties with China in order to enhance its interests for more joint ventures in Pakistani coast like Gwadar Port. Research & development, Technical training, resources mapping, hydrocarbon exploration and Fish exploring/ processing are other field to be considered for cooperation with China.

6.5 Recommendations on Pollution and Environment There is a enormous prospective for adding of fish in the diet of public at large in Pakistan. Presently Pakistanis are using 1.6 Kg per person per year where as international standard is 20 Kg. Government of Pakistan may therefore promote capture fishing and aqua culture in Pakistan especially in coastal area.

Pakistan sea food needs critical analysis whether the sea food contents are safe and free of harmful substances. Especially the pollution and contaminated water of Karachi Harbour should be kept under check in relation to sea food contamination. Oil spill, ballast water pollution and the pollution created by barnacles from the recycling & ship breaking, liquid effluent and industrial discharge of Karachi along with solid waste must be dealt on priority to safe guard the aqua culture at Karachi harbour.

Sea level rise needs to be discussed for considering the gradual erosion of coastal areas. Ship Breaking and Recycling Policy must be developed on priority. More so, for the safety and security of the workers employed at ship breaking industry, a simplified Ship Guidelines (Preferably in Urdu) be developed.

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6.6 Federally coordinated frame work Keeping in view the successful experience of existing Technical Evaluation Committee shortly known as TEC, which is looking after the continental shelf project, it is considered, the responsibility of future exploitation may also be given to TEC. It is pertinent to mention that TEC is a high level inter-ministerial committee formed by Defense Committee of Cabinet in 1996. Under the guidance of TEC all concerned departments are proposed to take following actions: a. Ensure implementation of Pakistan‟s jurisdiction over the extended continental shelf. b. Create awareness about Continental Shelf at national level. c. Settlement of maritime boundaries with neighboring countries. d. National capacity building for human resource in associated fields. e. Composition of TEC may be reviewed to include important stakeholders like Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resources.

6.7 Conclusion It would not be wrong to say that relevant stake holders are not even fully aware of the resources that can be exploited and the available figures are only estimations which cannot be used for effective planning for management and exploitation of these resources. Conscientious effort has been been made in this dissertation to find out the reasons why Optimum exploitation of maritime resources in Pakistan is not being done, Is it because of their protection and meeting the challenges out at sea or due to some other reason through specific research questions. The EEZ of Pakistan which may be considered as the maritime province of Pakistan contains within itself unchartered seemingly limitless economic promise in the form of humongous fish stocks including the mineral deposits and substantial hydrocarbon resources. The benefits of these resources can add to the national exchequer of the country, which can provide economic boost to the fragile economy of Pakistan. Unfortunately owing to the poor research based infrastructure of the present day government departments related to the sea the exact data of these resources is not available. However the available data is through foreign means and cannot be termed authentic. Only once the required governmental bodies are installed at desired billets, a survey can be conducted which can be expected to produce factual based data regarding living and non-

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living resources which can be trusted by the state. However it is essential to mention that present data is not completely free of assumptions and estimates.

Since already existing theories have been tested in various situations thus it is a deductive research. Both quantitative and qualitative data has been analyzed. Thus, dissertation is hinges upon synthesis of research methods. The sea water data of quantitative nature was tested in PN Dockyard laboratory at Karachi was a proof to support argument during discussion in the dissertation. Nonetheless, major reliance of this research is of qualitative nature. While qualitative data was compiled through the primary and secondary sources by taking interviews of relevant stakeholders, copy of all interviews conducted is attached as appendix -1, to support the argument to study the economic value as well as security compulsion regarding maritime affairs and potential needs to be explored and exploited through revision of policies and their successful implementation in Pakistan EEZ in Indian Ocean. The data discussed in this dissertation is also acquired from numerous worthy governmental organizations such as Marine Fisheries Department (MFD), Pakistan Hydrographic department, Karachi shipyard, PNSC, KPT and Naval Headquarters. Pakistan Maritime Shipping Act-1976 and UNCLOS-1982 was consulted for references, as already a total 166 countries have signed the UNCLOS. A detailed study of all relevant material, books, conventions, policies, legislations was also carried out for meaningful research.

In Pakistan marine related indigenous research can be considered to be negligible owing to the vintage machinery, equipment and out of date sensors held by National Institute of Oceanography and Pakistan Hydrography Department. The state of the art latest machinery, equipment and sensors required for further in depth research in this field can be directly interlinked with the US$ 46 Billion support program available through CPEC agreement from China. The liberalist approach for collaboration can be taken a step further by conducting joint ventures with neighboring Muslim countries like Iran and Oman to attain an exact mapping of the living and non-living natural resources available in Pakistan‟s EEZ.

Among the challenges encountered in the development of EEZ includes the absence of a well defined government mechanism in this tacit Maritime province of Pakistan. If a separate maritime province is created with a dedicated National Maritime Authority with the merger of all these ministries and division/departments, the enormous resources discussed in this 228

dissertation can be channelized through one window operation which can work in harmony with the federal government. More so, the maritime affairs in Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean have become very complex owing to India‟s hegemonic designs in the Indian Ocean, ulterior motives of ERF and lack of harmony among various provincial, federal ministries. All these issues need to be addressed on priority.

Presently the fishery export does not contribute to the national economy at par to its potential. The US$ 350-400 million fishery export has the potential of US$ 2.5 to 3 billion if technically preserved as per EU standards and properly value addition is done prior export. Same is the case with mineral resources for which exact mapping is required prior exploration/exploitation. The potential estimated in this sector is only next to infinity but there exists a general absence of “will” to work in this specialized sector in Pakistan. The challenges encountered make the objective of exploiting EEZ to its true potential elusive to the various government organizations have been identified and laid down in detail in this dissertation. It is essential to mention that they do not have any worthwhile implications on the fact that underdevelopment of this sector can be narrowed down to lack of ambition rather than the lack of ability to beat the odds stacked up in the form of maritime challenges..

By pitching the maritime resources with certain challenges being faced at Pakistan‟s EEZ in the Indian Ocean, it was analyzed that in fact it is lack of „will‟ at all levels of the government, private and public stakeholders. Nevertheless, detailed estimation through survey and mapping of living and non-living resources needs to be undertaken in systematic manners with complete harmony at all level using one window operation. Most of the challenges are already being thwarted with the help of International community using liberalist theory of cooperation, out at sea in the Indian Ocean. In this regard two multinational maritime task forces have been constituted in the Indian Ocean with the aim combating maritime challenges such as piracy, maritime terrorism and drugs/illegal weapons/human trafficking out at sea. Pakistan Navy is also actively participating in both combined task forces (CTF 150, CTF 151).

First and foremost it is necessary to comprehend that these challenges are not directly propionate to the exploitation and exploration of natural resources in the EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean. Rather it is the actually absence of the will to do at all government level. This can be easily created through conducting maritime awareness campaign by involving Policy makers, 229

academia, and future researcher at national level. Furthermore, a realization needs to be created at national level that the future belongs to the nation which has sufficient maritime infrastructure on their coast. This realization then needs to be brought forward in practical terms by reciprocating the interest of China and the South Asian landlocked countries including Central Asian States on the coast of Pakistan. The government needs to make earnest endeavors towards commencing further maritime developmental projects on the coastline including construction of new ports and harbors. This would ensure that in the near future the nation does not suffer any losses due to the shortage of parking space on existing ports. This will also avoid a precarious situation of overcrowding at Gwadar port due to the heavy flux of inbound ships in near future.

Since the developments through CPEC are quite recent and are still considered to be in its infancy phase, gaps can be found in previously conducted research without considering the China factor, regarding the development of maritime infrastructure on the coastal areas of Pakistan. Whereas this dissertation was composed keeping in view the new structural developments, emerging energy requirements and continuously changing security dynamics in the Indian Ocean.

It is further concluded that Extension of outer limits of continental shelf opportunity offered by Article 76 of UNCLOS 82 has been timely availed by Pakistan. Pakistan has gained exclusive rights over the seabed and subsoil resources of an over 50,000 square Km additional area in Indian Ocean. At this critical juncture it is imperative that consolidated steps originating from policy makers, supported by experts and executed at field level are required to put in place as a long term sustainable resource exploitation model. Necessary steps at ministerial/ departmental level may be undertaken to promote sustainable exploration, implementation of national jurisdiction and exploitation of seabed resources at the earliest.

To curb the all unwanted, illegal activities at sea, and to ensure implementation of relevant international laws and treaties, all available assets of Pakistan Navy, Pakistan Maritime Security Agency, Pakistan Coast Guard along with support of shore-based collation centre, should be utilized to maintain vigilance and surveillance at the coast and in entire EEZ of Pakistan in the Indian Ocean. To fulfill such tasks these security agencies to be adequately equipped on priority. The emerging maritime arena in 21st century has compelled the nations to cooperate in light of liberalist theory of cooperation for mitigation of transnational, non- 230

traditional threats. The sharing of expertise, knowledge and information is essential to develop a comprehensive approach towards contemporary issues. This dissertation encourages to have a high level of regional and international cooperation through mutual understanding, bilateral or multilateral agreements or by becoming a member of credible forums/ institutes/ organization.

Moreover, in order to avoid the pitfalls of the past monitoring system, the National Maritime Co-ordination Committee (NMACC) may be made a part of National Maritime Authority under the supervision if this authority a Maritime Province needs to be created by merging all Federal, Provincial ministries, divisions and departments. Nonetheless, prior concluding let me reiterate that it is not the various challenges (which have already been adequately highlighted in the dissertation) which are being impediments in the exploration and exploitation of Pakistan EEZ resources in the Indian Ocean. Rather it is the absence of the WILL at all levels of government and private sector. There is a dire need to create will and awareness at all tire and segments of the society by explicitly explaining the benefits which can be extracted from Pakistan EEZ in the Indian Ocean. Thus to accrue the economic and financial benefits activation of Pakistan Maritime province must be given top priority at National level under a dedicated “National Maritime Authority”.

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