Dictionary of Food Science and Technology

DICTIONARY OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Second Edition

Compiled and edited by the International Food Information Service

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication C International Food Information Service (IFIS Publishing) 2005 Second edition published 2009 C International Food Information Service (IFIS Publishing) 2009

FSTA – Food Science and Technology Abstracts® and Food Science Central® are registered trade marks within Europe and the USA.

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ISBN: 9781405187404

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Dictionary of food science and technology / compiled and edited by the International Food Information Service. – 2nd ed. p.;cm. ISBN 978-1-4051-8740-4 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Food industry and trade–Dictionaries. I. International Food Information Service. [DNLM: 1. Food Technology–Dictionary–English. TP 368.2 D554 2009]

TP368.2.D58 2009 664.003–dc22 2008053562

Typeset by IFIS Publishing Printed in Singapore

1 2009 PREFACE AND GUIDE TO DICTIONARY USAGE

The first edition of the Dictionary of Food Science and Technology was published in 2005 to complement the 2004 edition of the companion Thesaurus to the bibliographic database FSTA – Food Science and Technology Abstracts®. Since that time, not only has the Thesaurus been updated several times online and in print1, but the passing of time has also meant that many of the terms appearing in the first edition of the Dictionary have become outdated; new terms have also become apparent. In this second edition of the Dictionary, 763 completely new terms have been defined for the first time, and all 7,849 existing terms from the first edition have been checked for accuracy, resulting in over 1,500 term definitions being rewritten. This second edition of the Dictionary contains 8,612 terms in total. In keeping with the first edition, the second edition contains a large number of definitions covering food commodities of every description and also many definitions of terms which are specific to food science and technology (for example, covering sensory analysis, consumer research, food composition, catering and food safety). It is further augmented with definitions of terms from cognate disciplines (including biochemistry, biotechnology, chemistry, economics, engineering, microbiology, packaging, physics and public health). Whenever appropriate, local names, synonyms and Latin names also appear. New additions to this edition include over 140 nutrition and health-related terms, reflecting recent increases in the importance and emphasis placed on nutrition and health by the food industry, academia and the general public. Coverage of these topics in FSTA has also increased in recent years. Similarly, terms relevant to pet foods and pet nutrition appear for the first time, since their appearance in the FSTA database from 2006 onwards. The Dictionary has been designed to be comprehensive, clear and easy to use. Alphabetical order in the Dictionary is determined on a letter by letter basis (not word by word) as follows:

Acetates Acetic acid Acetic acid bacteria Acetic fermentation Acetobacter.

Characters such as numbers, hyphens, primes, subscripts and superscripts are ignored when ordering terms, as are small capitals, hyphenated modiﬁers and alphabetic Greek characters. For example, N-Acetylglucosamine, -Amino acids, and 2-Aminobutane all appear under the letter A. Similarly, ␣-Carotene and ␤-Carotene both appear under the letter C. The Greek alphabet is given at Appendix A.

1 FSTA Thesaurus, eighth edition, IFIS Publishing 2007; ISBN 978-0-86014-171-6

xi Preface and Guide to Dictionary Usage xii Terms in the Dictionary are shown in bold typeface. Cross-references within deﬁnitions to other terms appearing in the Dictionary are also shown in bold. For example,

Ale Historically, a beer type made without hops; in modern usage, a range of British-style beers, commonly brewed with top-fermenting brewers yeasts

Thus, the entry for ale given above shows that the Dictionary also contains deﬁnitions for the terms beer, hops and brewers yeasts. Similarly, the entry for bacteriocins

Bacteriocins Peptides produced by specific bacteria that possess antibacterial activity. Both purified bacteriocins and bacteriocin-producing bacteria are used in the food industry, applications including inhibition of the growth of pathogens and spoilage organisms indicates that the Dictionary also has definitions for the terms peptides, bacteria, antibacterial activity, pathogens and spoilage. The definitions in the Dictionary have been compiled and edited by specialist scientific staff at IFIS Publishing who also produce FSTA and the companion Thesaurus. IFIS is an acronym for the International Food Information Service which was founded in 1968. The IFIS mission is to provide information products and services, commission research and provide education in information science for the international food science, food technology and nutrition community. IFIS Publishing is a not-for-profit organization (Charity No. 1068176) and a company limited by guarantee (Company No. 3507902). The Dictionary has been compiled to appeal to a wide range of readers. It is hoped that this resource will be a valuable tool for people of all levels working in the fields of food science, food technology and nutrition, as well as students of these subjects and their teachers, and anyone who has a general interest in the issues facing the international food sector. We would be pleased to hear from readers of the Dictionary who may wish to comment on this edition or suggest candidate terms for future editions. Correspondence concerning the Dictionary should be addressed to the Head of Publishing, IFIS Publishing, Lane End House, Shinfield Road, Shinfield, Reading RG2 9BB, UK; e-mail: ifis@ifis.org. CONTENTS

Foreword ix

Preface and Guide to Dictionary Usage xi

The Dictionary 1

Appendix A Greek Alphabet 465

Appendix B Scientiﬁc Societies and Organisations in the Food Sciences 467

Appendix C Web Resources in the Food Sciences 471

vii A

AAS Abbreviation for atomic absorption spec- Absorbents Materials or substances that are capable troscopy. of absorption. Uses of absorbents include incorpora- Abalones Marine gastropod molluscs belonging to tion within food packaging (to absorb oxygen as a the family Haliotidae, which contains around 70 spe- preservation technique, to control humidity, and to cies; widely distributed, but found mainly in the West- manage aroma and flavour problems in packaged ern Pacific (Japan and Australia), and also off Califor- foods) and for purification of foods and beverages, nia and Southern Africa. Only the adductor muscle is such as drinking water and liquid foods. edible, having a mild sweet flavour; this muscle is Absorption Process involving molecules of one sub- normally tenderized to soften the naturally tough, rub- stance being taken directly into another substance. Ab- bery texture. Marketed in a variety of forms, including sorption may be either a physical or a chemical proc- powdered, brined and canned products. ess, physical absorption involving such factors as solu- Abate Alternative term for the pesticide temephos. bility and vapour-pressure relationships, and chemical Abattoirs Types of slaughterhouses where animals absorption involving chemical reactions between the are slaughtered for meat and offal. Abattoirs usually absorbed substance and the absorbing medium. Ab- include lairage (a holding area for live animals), a sorption includes such processes as the passage of nu- slaughtering line and cold stores. Facilities for process- trients and other substances from the gastrointesti- ing of by-products (blood, intestines, skins, fat, bristle, nal tract into the blood and lymph, and also the up- unusable waste products), and treatment of waste water take of water, fats and other substances into foods. and air are often included. Acacia Plants of the genus Acacia (family Fabaceae), Abondance cheese French semi-hard mountain mostly tropical shrubs and trees. Acacia seeds are used cheese made from milk of cows of the breeds Abon- as foods, and shoots may be used in soups, curries, dance, Montbeliard and Tarine. Characterized by a omelettes and stir fries. Acacia honey has a mild flow- strong aroma and a complex flavour. The crust and a ery flavour. Several species of Acacia yield gums, such grey layer beneath are removed before consumption. as gum acacia which is also known as gum arabic. Abreh Alternative term for abrey. Acai Small, dark purple fruits from the palms Eu- Abrey Sudanese, non-alcoholic, fermented bever- terpe oleraceae. The pulps and juices may be used in ages made from sorghum. beverages, as well as in functional foods. Rich in dietary fibre and fatty acids, and have strong anti- Abscisic acid Plant growth regulator, important in oxidative activity. ripening of fruits and cereals. Acanthamoeba Genus of free-living amoebae Absidia Genus of fungi of the class Zygomycetes. which occur in soil and fresh water. Some species Occur as saprotrophs on decaying vegetable matter, may be opportunistic pathogens. grains, soil or dung, and meat, or as parasites or pathogens of plants or animals. Some species may Acaricides Pesticides used to control mites and be used in the production of chitosan (e.g. Absidia ticks (family Acaridae), many of which are responsible coerulea, A. glauca and A. atrospora). Other applica- for animal diseases and spoilage of stored crops. tions include the production of enzymes for use in Examples include amitraz, bromopropylate, couma- the food industry (e.g. Į-galactosidases). phos and fluvalinate. Residues in foods may represent a health hazard to consumers. Absinthe Spirits flavoured with aniseed and wormwood. Widely believed to exhibit neurotoxic- ACC Abbreviation for the plant growth regulator, 1- ity as a result of thujone derived from wormwood. aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid. The spirit was prohibited in many countries early in the Acceptability The degree to which the quality of a 20th century. However, legal manufacture and sale of food is regarded as satisfactory. the beverage have become more widespread since the Acceptable daily intake A safety level for sub- 1990s. stances used as food additives. Usually calculated as 2 Acceptance Acetophenone 1/100th of the maximum dose of the substance that bles and flowers, and in soil. Used industrially in the causes no adverse effects in appropriate test organisms. manufacture of vinegar. May cause spoilage of Abbreviated to ADI. beer and wines. Acceptance The willingness to regard the quality of a Acetic fermentation The process by which acetic food as satisfactory. acid bacteria such as Acetobacter and Glucono- ACE inhibitors Enzyme inhibitors which inhibit bacter spp. metabolize an alcoholic substrate to form activity of peptidyl-dipeptidase A, EC 3.4.15.1, acetic acid, the main constituent of vinegar. Alco- also known as angiotensin converting enzyme or ACE. holic substrates can be obtained from a variety of Inhibition of this enzyme in vivo leads to reduced sources, such as fruits, vegetables and grain. vasoconstriction, thus ACE inhibitors exhibit anti- Acetobacter Genus of Gram negative, strictly aero- hypertensive activity and are components of some bic, rod-shaped acetic acid bacteria of the family functional foods. Acetobacteraceae, that are capable of oxidizing etha- Acephate One of a number of systemic organo- nol to acetic acid. Occur on fruits and flowers. May phosphorus insecticides used to control a wide be responsible for spoilage of beer and wines. range of chewing and sucking insects (e.g. aphids, Acetobacter aceti and A. pasteurianus are used in sawflies and leafhoppers) in fruits and vegetables. commercial production of vinegar. Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). Acetoin Flavour compound found commonly in dairy Acerola Alternative term for Barbados cherries. products and wines. Synonyms include 3- hydroxy-2-butanone and acetylmethylcarbinol. Acesulfame K One of the non-nutritive artificial sweeteners (trade name Sunett). A white crystal- Į-Acetolactate Molecular formula, C5H8O4; syno- line powder, approx. 200 times sweeter than sucrose. nym, 2-acetoxypropanoic acid. Precursor of the fla- Often blended with other sweeteners to give a more vour compounds diacetyl and acetoin which are sugar-like taste and to mask aftertaste. Stable under valuable in dairy products but which cause off fla- heat, and moderately acid or basic conditions. Used in vour in sake and beer. foods and beverages since 1983 and approved by >100 Acetolactate decarboxylases EC 4.1.1.5. Decar- countries worldwide. Used in beverages, dairy prod- boxylases used to reduce maturation times in ucts, preserves, bakery products, confection- winemaking by converting acetolactate to acetoin, ery, salad dressings and breakfast cereals. and in brewing to reduce levels of diacetyl, a cause Acetaldehyde Aldehyde, synonym ethanal. One of of taints in beer. Also used to analyse diacetyl and the common flavour compounds in many foods and acetoin concentrations in beer. Diacetyl produces a de- beverages. May cause taints in some foods. Toxic sirable aroma in dairy products, and development at excessive concentrations. of lactic acid bacteria with reduced levels of these enzymes has been attempted. Acetals Group of diethers which occur as natural fla- Acetolactate synthases EC 2.2.1.6. Transferases vour compounds in foods such as fruits and which catalyse the conversion of pyruvic acid to - herbs, and alcoholic beverages. May be used in Į acetolactate in the presence of its cofactor, thiamine flavourings. diphosphate. These enzymes can also catalyse forma- Acetan Anionic, xanthan-like exopolysaccha- tion of 2-ethyl-2-hydroxy-3-oxobutanoate from pyru- rides formed by Acetobacter xylinum. Of potential vate and 2-oxobutanoate. Involved in synthesis of use in thickeners or gelling agents. amino acids (valine, isoleucine and leucine) and Acetates Salts or esters of acetic acid. Flavour flavour compounds, including acetoin and diace- compounds in many foods and beverages. May be tyl. used as preservatives. Acetomonas Former name for the genus Glucono- Acetic acid Member of the short chain fatty acids bacter. group, which occurs in a range of foods and bever- Acetone Smallest of the ketones, synonym pro- ages. May be one of the flavour compounds, or panone. Widely used as a solvent in food analyses, cause taints, depending on food or beverage type and particularly for lipids and related compounds. Pro- the concentration at which it is present. Acetic acid is duced along with butanol and ethanol as a microbial the main constituent of vinegar. It may be used for fermentation product from unconventional feed- preservation or flavouring of foods. stocks including food processing wastes. Acetic acid bacteria Any aerobic, rod-shaped Gram Acetophenone Aromatic ketone and one of the fla- negative bacteria, e.g. Acetobacter spp. and Glu- vour compounds in honeys and a variety of other conobacter spp., capable of oxidizing ethanol to foods and beverages. A precursor for phenylethanol. acetic acid. Occur on the surface of fruits, vegeta- 3 Acetylacetone Acidophilin Acetylacetone Ketone which occurs in the flavour tribute to antibacterial activity in egg shell compounds of foods and beverages, including beer, membranes and to autolysis due to autolysins in coffee and fermented dairy products. Also some bacteria. widely used as an analytical reagent, e.g. in the deter- ȕ-N-acetylhexosaminidases EC 3.2.1.52. Glyco- mination of formaldehyde. Synonym is penta- sidases which catalyse the hydrolysis of terminal nedione. non-reducing N-acetyl-D-hexosamine residues in N- Acetylation Introduction of acetyl groups into a com- acetyl-ȕ-D-hexosaminides. Substrates include N- pound or substance. Usually achieved by reaction with acetylglucosides and N-acetylgalactosides. Involved in acetic anhydride, acetic acid or an acetate such as degradation of polysaccharides including chitin. vinyl acetate. Sometimes used to protect hydroxyl N-Acetyllactosamine synthases Alternative term groups during organic syntheses. Such modification is for lactose synthases. also used to alter the physicochemical properties, Acetylmethylcarbinol Flavour compound found functional properties or nutritional quality of sub- commonly in dairy products and wines. Synonym stances such as starch, proteins and carbohy- of acetoin. drates. N-Acetylneuraminic acid One of the organic ac- Acetylcholinesterases EC 3.1.1.7. Esterases ids, synonym sialic acid. A nitrogen-containing which convert the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to sugar derivative with a carbonyl functional group choline and acetates. Act on a variety of other ace- found ubiquitously in complex carbohydrates. tic esters and also possess transacetylase activity. In- Acetyltransferases Acyltransferases which are hibition of these enzymes can be a marker for neu- members of the class EC 2.3.1 and catalyse transfer of rotoxicity. Some acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are acetyl groups, usually from acetyl-coenzyme A. used medically, e.g. to treat Alzheimer's disease, Acha Species of cereal crop, Digitaria exilis, indige- and some are used as pesticides. These enzymes can nous to West and North Africa and grown for its grain. be used analytically to detect pesticide residues in foods and beverages. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory Achromobacter Genus of strictly aerobic, rod- activity has been found in essential oils and plant shaped, non spore forming Gram negative bacteria foods. Also known as cholinesterases. of the family Alcaligenaceae. Occur in soil and water. Some species produce pigments and enzymes of N-Acetyl-L-cysteine One of the antioxidant com- industrial importance. pounds used as food additives, e.g. to minimise browning and off flavour formation in fruit juices, Acid casein Casein produced by acid precipitation other fruit products and vegetable products, and from milk at its isoelectric point, pH 4.7. Acidification to inhibit haemagglutinins in legume meal. Also can be achieved by direct addition of an acid or used to inhibit formation of biofilms on food contact through the action of lactic acid bacteria. surfaces. Commercially available as a food supplement Acid curd cheese A cheese produced by microbial claiming to provide detoxification effects and benefits ripening of quarg, ripening proceeding from the out- to the immune system. side of the cheese. Cultures used include bacteria, Acetylene Hydrocarbon which acts as a plant growth fungi and yeasts, the selection depending on the type regulator and can be used to control ripening of of cheese being made. fruits. Acidification Process by which the pH of a substance N-Acetylglucosamine Derivative of the amino sugar is decreased to below 7 making it acidic. glucosamine in which the amino group is acetylated. Acidity The degree to which a substance or solution is Component of cell walls and chitin. acidic, being dependent upon the concentration of hydrogen ions. Level of acidity is expressed using pH. Acetylglucosaminidases Comprise Į-N- acetylglucosaminidases (EC 3.2.1.50), which hydro- Acidocins Bacteriocins produced by Lactobacil- lyse terminal non-reducing N-acetyl-D-glucosamine lus acidophilus. residues in N-acetyl-Į-D-glucosaminides, and manno- Acidolysis Esterification reactions of acids with syl-glycoprotein endo-ȕ-N-acetylglucosamidases (EC esters. Used to produce structured lipids (e.g. aci- 3.2.1.96), which catalyse endo-hydrolysis of the N,Nc- dolysis of tristearin with long chain fatty acids) or diacetylchitobiosyl unit in high-mannose glycopeptides to modify the lipid composition of fats and oils (e.g. and glycoproteins containing the [Man(GlcNAc)2]Asn acidolysis of seal blubber oils with lauric acid and structure; one N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residue remains interesterification of butterfat with CLA). Cata- attached to the protein, while the rest of the oligosac- lysed by lipases or chemical catalysts. charide is released intact. These glycosidases are Acidophilin Fermented milk prepared by fermenta- involved in chitin degradation applications, and con- tion of milk with a mixture of lactic acid bacteria, 4 Acidophilus milk Acremonium including Lactobacillus acidophilus, and kefir oils and fats. Commonly used acidulants in the food grains. industry include citric acid, acetic acid, propionic Acidophilus milk Fermented milk produced by acid and lactic acid. fermentation of milk with Lactobacillus acidophilus. Acid values The level of free fatty acids present in Consumption of acidophilus milk has beneficial effects lipids. The acid value, also known as the acid number, on the intestine. is determined by measuring the amount of KOH in Acidophilus pastes Cultured milk products milligrammes that neutralizes 1 g of the lipid. Acid made using curd resulting from milk acidification values of fresh edible fats tend to be low and increase with Lactobacillus acidophilus. with storage as the glycerides present in the lipids break down to generate free fatty acids. Acid phosphatases EC 3.1.3.2. Hydrolases with wide specificity which catalyse hydrolysis of ortho- Acid whey Whey produced by acid coagulation of phosphoric monoesters into an alcohol and orthphos- milk during cheesemaking. phate. Also catalyse transphosphorylation. Widely dis- Acinetobacter Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped, psy- tributed in nature, and therefore found in a range of chrotrophic Gram negative bacteria of the family foods. Involved in acidity regulation in fruits, and in Moraxellaceae. Occur in soil, water and raw milk, and flavour development, e.g. in cheese. Also used as a on the surfaces of chilled meat and fish. Some spe- marker of thermal processing in meat. Produced cies may be used in production of lipases (e.g. Acine- by microbial fermentation for commercial applica- tobacter radioresistens and A. calcoaceticus). tions. Ackee Common name for Blighia sapida, also known Acid rain Rain which has low pH caused by formation as akee. This fruit was introduced to the West Indies of acids due to interaction of industrial gas emissions from West Africa and is particularly popular in Ja- with water. Studies with simulated acid rain have maica. Fruits are pear shaped and can be consumed shown adverse effects on yield and quality of exposed raw, cooked, or in canned or frozen forms. Unripe crops, especially fruits such as apples, pears and ackee contains hypoglycine A, a toxic amino acid, peaches. Fruit marketability and composition were which can cause the potentially fatal Jamaican vomit- affected. ing sickness. Levels of hypoglycine A rapidly diminish Acids Chemical compounds which release hydrogen at maturity, but damaged or fallen fruit should not be ions when dissolved in water, or whose H can be re- consumed. placed by metal atoms or basic radicals, or which react Aconitic acid One of the organic acids found in with bases to form salts and water. Include both or- sugar cane. Used in flavourings and acidulants ganic acids and inorganic acids. Inorganic acids for the food industry and also in the manufacture of may be used in food processing or cleaning of equip- emulsifying agents, plastics and detergents. ment. Organic acids of many types are constituents of Acorns Nuts obtained from the oak tree (Quercus a wide range of foods, both as natural constituents and spp.). Widely available, and used as a source of food as processing aids. Important types of organic acids in by some populations, particularly in times of need. Can foods include fatty acids, amino acids and car- be pounded into meal for use in baked goods or used boxylic acids. as coffee substitutes. Acorns are high in starch Į-Acids The main bitter compounds of hops res- and are used in Korea to produce an edible starch gel ins, used to impart a bitter taste to beer. Converted to known as mook. They also represent a source of edi- the more soluble and more bitter iso-Į-acids during ble oils. boiling of worts. Also known as humulones. Acoustics Study of the physical properties of sound; ȕ-Acids Low-solubility resin constituents in hops also refers to techniques based on transmission, gen- which have little bittering capacity in beer. Also eration or reception of sound. Acoustic devices have known as lupulones. been used to detect insects infestation of grain. Acids resistance Ability of organisms to withstand Acoustics has also been employed in examining the acidic conditions. Important for survival of microor- structure of materials, e.g. pasta, and as the basis of ganisms in acid environments such as the gastroin- non-destructive methods to determine the texture of testinal tract and during fermentation of foods. foods, such as fruits, cheese and bakery products. Acidulants Organic acids used in foods to control pH and fulfil a variety of functions. Applications in- Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Epi- clude preservation of meat products, flavour endemic disease commonly abbreviated to AIDS. hancement, prevention of discoloration in sliced Acremonium Genus of fungi of the phylum Asco- fruits, and prevention of development of rancidity in mycota. May be used in biotechnology for the pro- 5 Acrocomia Activation energy duction of cellulases (e.g. Acremonium cellulolyticus Actinomycetales Order of aerobic Gram positive and A. alcalophilum). bacteria. Occur in soil, composts and aquatic habi- Acrocomia Genus of palms, including Acrocomia tats. Most species are free-living and saprophytic, but mexicana, which has edible fruits, and is used as a some form symbiotic associations and others are source of palm oils (oil of coyal) and in manufacture pathogenic to man, other animals, and plants. of palm wines. Also includes A. sclerocarpa, which Actinomycetes Obsolete name for Actinobacteria, a has edible fruits that are used as a source of coconut- class of aerobic Gram positive bacteria which oc- like oils. cur in soil and water. Some species are used in the Acrolein Aldehyde, synonym propenal. Formed by production of enzymes (e.g. lipases and cellu- microbial fermentation from the precursor 3- lolytic enzymes). This class also includes some hydroxypropionaldehyde. Causes bitter, acrid off plant and animal pathogens. odour or off flavour problems in spirits and cider. Actinoplanes Genus of Gram positive, aerobic bac- Also occurs in overheated fats. Precursor for teria of the family Actinoplanaceae. Occur in soil, acrylamide. plant litter and aquatic habitats. Actinoplanes mis- Acrylamide Synonym 2-propenamide (C H NO). 3 5 souriensis may be used in production of enzymes Member of the amides which is a neurotoxin and ex- (e.g. glucose isomerases and xylose isom- hibits carcinogenicity in animal models. Formed erases). in foods during thermal processing as a product of the Maillard reaction between asparagine and re- Actinospectacin Alternative term for the antibiotic active carbonyl compounds, e.g. in reducing spectinomycin. sugars. Forms gels of polyacrylamides on polym- Actins A family of multifunctional intracellular pro- erization under specified conditions which are used teins, best known as a myofibrillar component of stri- for PAGE. ated muscle fibres. They constitute about 13% of mus- Acrylonitrile Monomer used in manufacture of a cle proteins and are the major components of the I- range of plastics used in packaging materials or band or thin filament of the sarcomere. Actins contain other food contact applications. Acrylonitrile residues high levels of the amino acid proline. Imino-groups may migrate out of plastics items and cause contami- within proline contribute to the folding of actin mole- nation of foods. cules and result in formation of G-actin (globular ac- F-actin Filamentous actins, formed by longitudinal tin). G-actin, a spherical molecule approximately 5.5 polymerization of G-actin (globular actin) mono- nm in diameter, constitutes the monomeric form of ac- mers. Two strands of F-actin coil spirally around one tin. In the presence of potassium chloride and ATP, G- another to form the superhelix, which is characteristic actin polymerizes into long fibres of F-actin. Most ver- of actin myofilaments within myofibrils. tebrate genomes contain numerous actin genes with Actinidains EC 3.4.22.14. Cysteine endopeptidases high sequence homology in protein coding regions, but (proteinases) found in kiwifruit (Chinese gooseber- considerable variability in intron size and number. This ries) with specificity similar to that of papain. One of genetic diversity can be utilized for livestock speci- the major allergens in these fruits. Produced in mi- ation and meat authenticity tests. Determination of crobial fermentations as recombinant enzymes for actin content has been proposed as a means of calculat- commercial uses, which include tenderization of ing the meat content of meat products. meat. Also known as actinidins. Activated C Alternative term for activated carbon. Actinidins Alternative term for actinidains. Activated carbon Amorphous forms of elemental Actinomucor Genus of fungi of the family Mu- carbon, particularly charcoal, which have been coraceae. Occur as saprotrophs on decaying vegetable treated, e.g. by acid or heat, to improve their powers of matter, soil or dung, or as parasites or pathogens absorption. Used for a variety of food and industrial of plants or animals. Actinomucor elegans and A. tai- applications, including drinking water purification, de- wanensis are used in production of East Asian special- coloration of sugar solutions and sorption of residues ity foods, such as sufu and meitauza. of pesticides from wines. Actinomyces Genus of facultatively anaerobic Gram positive bacteria of the family Actinomycetaceae. Activation energy Minimum energy required for a Occur as the normal flora of the mouth and throat or as chemical reaction to proceed; the difference in energy pathogens in humans and cattle. Actinomyces pyo- between that of the reactants and that at the transition genes is the cause of summer mastitis in cattle, and state of the reaction. Activation energy determines the can therefore contaminate their milk. way in which the rate of a reaction varies with temperature. 6 Active packaging S-Adenosyl-l-methionine Active packaging Packaging materials which acceptor molecule. Includes transferases involved in have functions additional to their basic barrier action. transfer of amino-acyl groups (EC 2.3.2.-), acyl groups Used for packaging a wide range of foods and bever- other than amino-acyl groups (EC 2.3.1.-), and acyl ages. Types of active packaging include: packs groups that are converted to alkyl groups on transfer which adsorb ethylene to control ripening of fruits; (EC 2.3.3.-). Involved in a variety of metabolic path- packs which regulate moisture levels; packs which ways, including lipids and sterols. contain oxygen scavengers; packs which contain Additives Ingredients added in low quantities to foods CO2 scavengers or generators; packs which release or during processing for one or more specific purposes. absorb flavours or aromas; antimicrobial packaging These include prevention of chemical and microbial (e.g. packs which release ethanol to control the growth spoilage, enhancement of flavour or colour, im- of fungi); packs with special microwave heating prop- provement of nutritional values or as an aid to erties; and packaging with monitoring systems processing. The most common types of additives in- (time/temp. exposure indicators or temp. control). clude preservatives, colorants, sweeteners, fla- Active sites Locations on the surface of catalysts at vourings, emulsifiers, thickeners and stabiliz- which reactions occur. On enzymes, substrates are ers. bound at the active sites, the shape of the site being Adenine Purine, synonym 6-aminopurine. Component important for strong and specific binding to occur. base of nucleic acids, nucleosides and nucleo- Actomyosin A complex of the two major muscle tides. proteins, actins and myosin. Actomyosin is Adenosine Nucleoside of adenine and ribose, syno- formed during muscle contraction with simultaneous nym adenine riboside. Constituent of nucleotides hydrolysis of ATP to ADP. Within myofibrils during and nucleic acids. contraction, each myosin head region on a thick myo- Adenosine diphosphate Phosphorylated adenoside filament attaches to a G-actin molecule within a thin derivative, and breakdown product of the nucleotide myofilament. This interaction leads to formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Level may be used crossbridges between actin and myosin, and to forma- as an indicator of freshness in foods such as meat tion of the actomyosin complex. Formation of actomy- and fish. Usually abbreviated to ADP. osin results in rigidity and lack of extensibility in mus- Adenosine monophosphate Nucleotide formed by cles. In the presence of ATP, as in living animals, the breakdown of nucleic acids, adenosine triphos- actomyosin complex dissociates rapidly; however, post phate (ATP) or adenosine diphosphate (ADP). mortem, actomyosin is the dominant form of myofi- Level may be used as an indicator of freshness in brillar protein and it plays a major role in the develop- foods such as meat and fish. Commonly abbreviated to ment of rigor mortis. During post mortem storage, AMP. tenderness of meat is affected by modification of Adenosinetriphosphatases Alternative term for the actin-myosin interaction. Thermal denaturation of ATPases. actomyosin occurs at temp. between 30 and 50qC. Adenosine triphosphate Nucleotide which is im- Acylamidases Alternative term for amidases. portant in energy metabolism. Ratios of adenosine Acylases Alternative term for amidases and ami- triphosphate to its decomposition products may be noacylases. used as indicators of freshness in foods such as meat and fish. Levels may also be used as an indica- Acylation Introduction of acyl groups into a com- tor of microbial counts in foods. Commonly abbrevi- pound or substance. Usually achieved by reaction with ated to ATP. an acyl halide or carboxylic acid anhydride. Such modification is used to alter the physicochemical S-Adenosyl-L-methionine One of the coenzymes properties, functional properties or nutritional involved in methyl group transfer. Plays an important quality of substances such as starch, proteins and role in several human metabolic pathways. Even sugars. though it is synthesized in the liver, relatively low levels are found in individuals suffering from coronary Acylglycerols Systematic name for fatty acid es- heart diseases, Alzheimer's disease, liver cir- ters of glycerol, such as monoacylglycerols, rhosis and depression. This has lead to its use as a food diacylglycerols and triacylglycerols. Major com- supplement and its potential application as an ingredi- ponents of natural fats and oils (particularly as tria- ent of functional foods. Not widely available in the cylglycerols); also used as emulsifiers. Synonym for diet. Produced during fermentation of various micro- glycerides. organisms, including Bifidobacterium bifidum and Acyltransferases EC 2.3. Enzymes which catalyse Kluyveromyces lactis. transfer of acyl groups from a donor molecule to an 7 Adenoviruses Adsorption Adenoviruses Double stranded DNA-containing Adipose tissues Connective tissues which func- viruses of the genus Mastadenovirus and family tion as an energy reserve and insulation layer com- Adenoviridae which can infect mammals and birds. posed of cells (adipocytes) which synthesize and Infection of humans, which can occur via ingestion of store large lipid globules. faecally contaminated water or shellfish, can cause Adjunct cultures Non-starter cultures used in addi- gastroenteritis. tion to starters, mainly in cheesemaking, to pro- Adherence Binding of microorganisms specifi- duce a specific benefit, e.g. smoother texture, im- cally or non-specifically to a substratum or to other proved flavour or accelerated ripening of cheese. cells. May be mediated by specialized microbial com- In production of yoghurt, adjunct cultures have been ponents or structures (e.g. adhesins and prostheca). used to manufacture products with increased levels of Adherence to a particular host tissue is a preliminary nutrients such as folates. stage in pathogenesis for many pathogens. Adjuvants Ingredients added to a mixture to improve Adhesins Bacterial cell surface appendages or ex- the effectiveness of the primary ingredient. For exam- tracellular macromolecular components that facilitate ple colour adjuvants are used to enhance food colour. adherence of a cell to a surface or to other cells. Im- portant in the colonization of mucous membranes, e.g. Adlay Alternative term for Jobs tears. the intestinal mucous membranes by enteropathogenic ADP Abbreviation for adenosine diphosphate. Escherichia coli. Also facilitate adherence of bacte- ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylases Alternative ria to surfaces such as glass, ceramics and synthetics. term for glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltrans- Adhesion Attachment and sticking together of one or ferases. more substance. Adhesives may be used to promote adhesion, e.g. in packaging materials. Sometimes ȕ-Adrenergic agonists Group of non-hormonal used to refer to adherence of microorganisms to a growth promoters. Used to enhance growth rates substratum or other cells. This may be mediated by and improve feed efficiency and lean meat content of specialized microbial components or structures such as animals; also used in veterinary medicine as bron- adhesins or prostheca. This type of adhesion is im- chodilatory and tocolytic agents. In general, rapidly portant for the action of the microorganism, e.g. a pre- excreted from the body; non-authorized use during liminary step in pathogenesis of pathogens. withdrawal period has resulted in cases of human food Adhesives Substances used to stick items together. poisoning. Banned for use as growth-promoting Most adhesives form a bond by filling in the minute agents in farm animals in many countries, including pits and fissures normally present even in very smooth European Union member states and the USA. Com- surfaces. Effectiveness of an adhesive depends on sev- monly used examples are clenbuterol and racto- eral factors, including resistance to slippage and pamine. shrinkage, malleability, cohesive strength, and surface Adsorbents Substances that are capable of adsorp- tension, which determines how far the adhesive pene- tion. Used widely in the food and biotechnology in- trates the tiny depressions in the bonding surfaces. dustries. Uses include removal of unwanted materials Adhumulone Į-Acids fraction of the bitter com- in foods and beverages that affect either food safety or pounds of hops. food quality. Examples include removal of proteins ADI Abbreviation for acceptable daily intake. from white wines, pathogens from drinking wa- Adipic acid Synonym for hexanedioic acid. Used in ter sources, radioelements from foods, oxidation acidulants, antimicrobial preservatives or starch- products from frying oils allowing oil recovery and modifying agents. Adipic acid esters are used as reuse, and bitter compounds from fruit juices. plasticizers in plastics. Other applications include: for isolation of compounds with potential use in foods; in the immobilization of Adipocytes Cells found in adipose tissues. These enzymes; as agents in analytical techniques such cells are specialized for the synthesis and storage of fat as gas analysis and chromatography; and for re- (lipid) globules. The fats are usually stored in the moval of unwanted aroma and flavour in packaged form of triglycerides and serve as a source of en- foods. ergy. Also known as fat cells. Adipogenesis The formation of adipose tissues. Adsorption Adhesion of the molecules of liquids, Also called lipogenesis. gases and dissolved substances to the surfaces of solids, in contrast to absorption, in which the molecules Adiponectin One of the hormones produced and actually enter the medium. Adsorption is employed in secreted by adipocytes. Regulates metabolism of hydrogenation of oils, in gas analysis, and in lipids and glucose. chromatography. 8 Adulteration Aflatoxin B2 Adulteration Addition of substances to foods, or sub- particularly fish and fermented foods, and may also stitution of food ingredients with inferior substances, be used in the production of lactate 2- with the intent of lowering the quality and costs of monooxygenases. producing the food and defrauding the purchaser, e.g. Aerolysins Cytolytic toxins secreted by Aeromo- addition of starch to spices, and of water to milk nas hydrophila. Form channels in cell lipid bilayers, or beer. leading to destruction of the membrane permeability Adzuki beans Common name for seeds produced by barrier and osmotic lysis. Vigna angularis, also known as azuki beans. Small red Aeromonas Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod- beans with a mild, sweet flavour, which are widely shaped Gram negative bacteria of the Aeromo- cultivated in Japan and China. Traditionally consumed nadaceae family. Occur in salt and fresh water, sewage boiled, ground into meal or used to make sweet bean and soil. Aeromonas hydrophila, frequently found in pastes known as ann or an. Seeds may also be germi- fish and shellfish and occasionally in red meat and nated to produce bean sprouts. poultry meat, may cause septicaemia, meningitis and Aerated confectionery Confectionery produced gastroenteritis in humans. with incorporation of air as an ingredient. Use of air Aerosol packs Containers for pressurized liquids, adds bulk to the product without increasing its weight, which are released in the form of a spray or foam when improving product texture and flavour. Aeration of a valve is pressed. Aerosol propellants, usually lique- confectionery results in a range of products with densi- fied gases, are used in the packs. Used as dispensers 3 ties ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 g/cm . Such products infor a variety of foods. clude chews, mallows, honeycomb and meringues. Aerosols Substances, including foods, stored under Aeration Introduction of air into a product to enhance pressure in a container (for example in aerosol cans) texture, mouthfeel, rheology and visual appeal. containing a propellant and released as a fine spray or The following methods are used to aerate foods: fer- froth. Also, in a chemical sense, suspensions of submi- mentation; whipping or shaking of low-medium croscopic particles dispersed in air or gas. viscosity liquids; mixing of doughs or high viscosity Afalon Alternative term for the herbicide linuron. pastes, in which air bubbles are entrapped as surfaces come together; steam generation during slow to mod- Affination The first stage in processing of raw sugar, erate cooking, baking or frying; entrapment of air in which the layer of mother liquor surrounding the between sheeted layers, as in pastries and crois- crystals is softened and removed. Raw sugar is mixed sants, or between pulled strands, as in pulled taffy with a warm, concentrated syrup of slightly higher pu- and candy; frying in very hot oils, such that internal rity than the syrup layer so that it will not dissolve the steam rapidly forms, causing the product to puff; use crystals. The resulting magma is centrifuged to sepa- of chemical raising agents such as baking pow- rate the crystals from the syrup, thus removing the ders or sodium bicarbonate; rapid dry heating of greater part of the impurities from the input sugar and small or thin products to induce blistering or slight leaving the crystals ready for dissolving before further puffing; gas injection (e.g. air, carbon dioxide, ni- treatment. The liquor which results from dissolving the trogen and nitrous oxide); expansion extrusion; washed crystals still contains some colour, fine parti- pressure beating (dissolution of air or gas under pres- cles, gums and resins, and other non-sugars. sure in a syrup, fat mixture or chocolate); puffing, in Affinity chromatography Chromatography tech- which products such as breakfast cereals containing nique in which an immobilized ligand is used to retain superheated moisture are subjected to a sudden release an analyte that is later eluted under conditions where of pressure; and vacuum expansion, followed by rapid the binding affinity is reduced. The ligand, which may cooling to set the expanded products. be a substance such as an enzyme, hormone or antigen, Aerobacter Obsolete genus of Gram negative, rod- is bound to a matrix such as silica. shaped bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae, Aflatoxicosis Mycotoxicosis caused by ingestion the species of which have now been reclassified into of aflatoxins in contaminated foods or feeds.

the genera Enterobacter and Klebsiella. Aflatoxin B1 Potent hepatotoxic, hepatocarcinogenic, Aerobes Organisms that require atmospheric oxygen mutagenic and teratogenic mycotoxins produced by to live. Often refers to aerobic bacteria or other mi- Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Formed during croorganisms. Facultative anaerobes are aerobes growth on a wide range of crops, including peanuts, that can also grow under anaerobic conditions. corn and other cereals, and oilseeds. Metabolized Aerococcus Genus of Gram positive, coccoid lactic to aflatoxin M1 and aflatoxin Q1. acid bacteria of the family Aerococcaceae. Aerococ- Aflatoxin B2 Moderately potent hepatotoxic, hepato- cus viridans has been isolated from a variety of foods, carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic mycotoxins 9 Aflatoxin B3 African yam beans produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. peanuts) and oilseeds (e.g. soybeans). Con- Dihydroxy derivatives of aflatoxin B1. Formed dur- tamination can take place both pre- and postharvest. ing growth on the same commodities as aflatoxin B1 Host crops are particularly susceptible to infection (including peanuts, corn and other cereals, and following prolonged exposure to high humidities or oilseeds), but in smaller amounts. Metabolized to damage during drought conditions. Once ingested, aflatoxin M2, and excreted in milk in this form. aflatoxins are metabolized by the liver to a reactive in-

Aflatoxin B3 Toxic mycotoxins produced by older termediate, aflatoxin M1. Hepatotoxic and hepatocar- cultures of Aspergillus parasiticus and A. flavus. Al- cinogenic in humans and animals, and can result in ternative name for parasiticol. aflatoxicosis. African breadfruit seeds Kernels of fruits pro- Aflatoxin D1 Carboxylated product of aflatoxin B1, duced by the tree Treculia africana. Eaten roasted as produced by the reaction between aflatoxin B1 and heated ammonium hydroxide. Possesses lower toxic- nuts or ground into meal which is used to fortify foods or to prepare porridges. ity than aflatoxin B1. African locust beans Seeds produced by Parkia Aflatoxin G1 Potent carcinogenic and genotoxic mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus parasiticus. filicoidea or P. biglobosa. Not eaten raw, but fer- Formed during growth on a wide range of crops, in- mented to produce food flavourings or protein-rich cluding peanuts, corn and other cereals, and oil- iru or dawadawa. The yellowish pulp surrounding seeds. Possess toxicity and structure similar to those the seeds can also be eaten, either raw or as an ingredient in soups, stews and beverages. of aflatoxin B1. African mangoes Common name for the African tree Aflatoxin G Mildly carcinogenic and genotoxic my- 2 species, Irvingia gabonensis. Also known as bush cotoxins produced by Aspergillus parasiticus. Oc- mango or wild mango. Fruits resemble cultivated cur in a wide range of foods, including nuts, seeds, mangoes, but they are botanically unrelated. Pulp of beans, spices and fruits. Dihydroxy derivative of the fruit is eaten fresh or used for the preparation of aflatoxin G , with lower toxicity. 1 products such as juices and jams. African mango Aflatoxin M1 The toxic, 4-hydroxy derivative of afla- seeds, also known as dika nuts, have a variety of toxin B1, found in the livers, kidneys, blood, faeces, food uses. urine and milk of mammals that have consumed afla- African mango seeds Seeds from the tropical toxin B contaminated feeds or foods. Subsequently 1 African tree Irvingia gabonensis which are rich in fats occurs in dairy products, particularly cheese, and and are used in Africa to make dika bread as well as a human milk. Produced in small quantities by As- type of butter. Alternative term for dika nuts. pergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, and can occur in corn, nuts and soybeans. Associated with liver African nutmeg Seeds of the African tree, Monodora damage and cancer. Possesses lower toxicity than myristica. Used as spices in Nigeria and other parts of Africa. aflatoxin B1. Aflatoxin M1 can be degraded by UV radiation. African oil beans Edible oilseeds of the leguminous tree Pentaclethra macrophylla, native to tropical Aflatoxin M The toxic, 4-dihydroxy derivative of 2 Africa. Cooked seeds are fermented to produce ugba. aflatoxin B2, found in the livers, kidneys, blood, faeces, urine and milk of mammals that have con- African spider herb Common name for Cleome gynandra, also known as cat's whiskers. The plant sumed aflatoxin B2 contaminated feeds or foods. Also grows wild in most tropical countries, and is mainly occurs in human milk. Aflatoxin M2 is considerably consumed as a leafy vegetable. Leaves are a rich less toxic than aflatoxin M1. Produced in small quantities by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. source vitamin A, vitamin C and minerals such as calcium and iron. Leaves also contain glucosi- Aflatoxin P Demethylated and hydroxylated product 1 nolates and phenols, which can impart astrin- of aflatoxin B , and the principal urinary metabolic 1 gency. product found in animals. Considerably less toxic than African yam beans Beans produced by aflatoxin B . 1 Sphenostylis stenocarpa. Popular grain legume of West Aflatoxin Q1 The 3-hydroxy derivative and major me- Africa and other areas of tropical Africa. Beans have a tabolite of aflatoxin B1 in humans, rats and primates. distinctive flavour and are high in starch and moder- Considerably less toxic than aflatoxin B1. ately high in proteins. Prolonged cooking time is rec- Aflatoxins Mycotoxins produced by certain strains ommended to inactivate antinutritional factors pre- of Aspergillus, most notably A. flavus and A. para- sent in the beans. The plant also produces edible tu- siticus. Formed during growth of these fungi on com- bers. modities such as cereals (e.g. corn), nuts (e.g. 10 Aftertaste Agmatine Aftertaste A flavour, often unpleasant, that lingers in minty flavour and aroma, whilst A. foeniculum (an- the mouth after a food has been swallowed. ise hyssop) tastes like liquorice. Afuega'l Pitu cheese Unpasteurized Spanish Agave Plants of the genus Agave, the flowers, leaves, cheese usually made mainly from cow milk. Fresh stalks and sap of which are used as a source of food or red chillies are added to the cheese and more are beverages. Starch in buds is converted into sugar rubbed into the rind as the cheese is allowed to mature, causing a sweet nectar to be exuded from the flowers. giving the rind a buff to deep orange colour. The rind Sap is used to make a refreshing beverage or can be also has a dusting of white mould. boiled to make sugar syrups. Fermentation of the Agar Extract obtained from various species of red sap produces vinegar or the alcoholic beverage seaweeds belonging to Eucheuma, Gelidium and pulque. Fermented sap from A. tequilana is distilled Graciliria genera. Contains agarose and agaropectin to make tequila. polysaccharides. Sets following dissolution in Ageing Process in which properties change over time. warm water to form agar gels, which are widely used Ageing includes the intentional storage of foods and as thickeners and stabilizers in the food industry. beverages to induce desirable changes in sensory Additionally used in gelling agents to prepare cul- properties, such as for wines and cheese (also re- ture media for bacteriological plate counts. Also ferred to as ripening). The term is also used to denote known as agar-agar. the artificial hastening of this process, such as treat- Agar-agar Alternative term for agar. ment of flour with ammonium persulfate to produce a more resilient dough. Agarases Enzymes, often produced by marine bac- Agglomerates Masses or collections of particles or teria, including Į-agarases (EC 3.2.1.158) and ȕ- items. agarases (EC 3.2.1.81). Į-Agarases are derived from organisms such as Thalassomonas spp., and catalyse Agglomeration The process by which particles or endohydrolysis of 1,3-Į-L-galactosidic linkages in items are collected together and formed into a mass. agarose, forming agarotetraose as the major product. Agglutination The clumping together of cells, such as ȕ-Agarases cleave the 1,4-ȕ-D-galactosidic linkages in bacteria, due to cross-linking by proteins such as an- agarose in a random manner, forming the tetramer as tibodies. Agglutination is utilized in immunologi- the predominant product. Polysaccharides formed cal techniques for detecting bacteria in foods. In have potential for use in foods. Both enzymes are also food processing, however, agglutination of starters, able to hydrolyse porphyran. such as those used in the manufacture of dairy prod- Agar gels Gels formed by dissolving agar in water. ucts including certain cheese varieties, can have det- Widely used as thickeners and stabilizers, e.g. in rimental consequences for the process outcome. ice cream, soups, jellies, sauces, glazes and Agglutination tests Immunological techniques meat products. in which antigens on the surface of particulate material, such as bacteria, or inorganic particles, such as Agaricus Genus which includes some edible fungi, latex, are precipitated with antibodies. Antibodies such as the widely cultivated common mushroom, react with the antigens causing the cells to clump to- Agaricus bisporus, which is sold commercially in flat, gether and form visible aggregates or agglutinates. cup or button forms. Other edible species include the Applications include detection of Escherichia coli wild mushrooms A. campestris (field mushroom) O157:H7. and A. arvensis (horse mushroom). Agglutinins Substances, such as antibodies and Agaritine Genotoxic substance present in raw mush- lectins found in plant seeds, which cause agglutina- rooms. tion of cells to form clumps. Agarose Purified gelling fraction of agar, a complex Aggregation The process for forming a whole by polysaccharide produced by algae of the class Rhodo- combining several different elements or items. phyceae. Agarose is a neutral, linear polymer com- Agitation The process of stirring, shaking or disturb- posed of alternating ȕ-D-galactopyranose and 3,6- ing briskly, particularly applied to a liquid. anhydro-Į-L-galactose sugars. Used as a matrix in gel electrophoresis for the separation of large Aglycones The part of a glycosides molecule which molecules such as DNA, as well as in purification of is not a sugar residue, e.g. the anthocyanidins com- fermentation products such as enzymes. ponent of anthocyanins. Agmatine One of the biogenic amines, which oc- Agastache A genus of herbs to which several spe- curs in a wide range of foods, including fish, cheese cies belong, most of which are native to North Amer- and alcoholic beverages. Concentrations in foods ica. The leaves may be used as flavourings or to pre- may increase with increasing storage time. pare herb tea. Agastache rugosa (Korean mint) has a 11 Agricultural produce Albacore Agricultural produce Collective name for crops and ing branch of the airline company or a contracted other commodities obtained as a result of agriculture foods service operator. Chilled or frozen items are and used for provision of food, fibre or other materials. then reheated in special ovens during the flight. Examples include fruits, cereals, cotton and livestock. Air quality Measure of the condition of the air, espe- Used in a similar way to the term agricultural prod- cially with respect to the requirements for specific en- ucts. vironments. In food processing and packaging facili- Agricultural products Term used in a similar way to ties, air quality is important for food safety and shelf agricultural produce. Collective name for crops life, and health of personnel. Special filtration systems and other commodities obtained as a result of agricul- are used to remove airborne hazards such as micro- ture and used for provision of food, fibre or other ma- organisms, insects and dust from the atmosphere. terials. Examples include fruits, cereals, cotton and Air speed Velocity of air, of particular importance livestock. during food processing operations such as air drying Agrobacterium Genus of Gram negative, aerobic, and air cooling. In a more general context, it also re- rod-shaped bacteria of the family Rhizobiaceae. Oc- fers to the speed of a body (e.g. aircraft, missile) rela- cur in soil. Typically plant pathogens that form galls or tive to the air through which it is moving. tumours on roots or stems. Agrobacterium rhizogenes Ajowan Common name for the umbelliferous plant, causes hairy root, A. rubi causes cane gall and A. tume- Trachyspermum ammi (syn. Carum copticum). Culti- faciens causes crown gall. vated in parts of Egypt and Asia for its pungent, aro- Agrocybe Genus including edible fungi such as matic seeds, typically used in flavourings for In- Agrocybe cylindracea, a mushroom with similar char- dian foods. Related to caraway and cumin, but has a acteristics to matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake), A. strong flavour of thyme. Also used as a source of aegerita and A. parasitica. thymol. AIDS Common abbreviation for acquired immunodefi- Akamu Cereal products produced by boiling the ciency syndrome, an epidemic disease caused by infec- starchy extract from fermented corn, millet or sor- tion with human immunodeficiency viruses ghum until complete gelatinization occurs. (HIV) and spread through direct contact with body flu- Akara Deep fried pastes made from cowpeas, sea- ids. The HIV retroviruses cause immune system fail- soned and flavoured with chopped capsicums, on- ure. HIV can be transmitted from infected mothers to ions and salt. Popular foods in West Africa, where infants through breast feeding. they are consumed as snack foods, side dishes or Aiele fruits Olive-like fruits produced by the aiele fast foods. Steamed cowpea paste is known as tree (Canarium schweinfurthii) which are widely con- moinmoin. sumed in West African countries. Pulp and kernel are Alachlor Selective systemic chloroacetanilide herbi- rich in oleic acid and palmitic acid. Oils produced cide used pre-emergence to control annual grasses and from the fruits show similarities to olive oils. Also broad-leaved weeds among various vegetables, nuts known as African black olives, mbeu or black fruit. and corn. Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous Air cooling A process for reducing the temperature (WHO III). of foods or other items by increasing the flow of air Alanine One of the non-essential amino acids. Oc- over them using fans or other devices. The air used curs in most food proteins. must be lower in temperature than the item to be Alar Alternative term for the plant growth regulator cooled. daminozide. Air drying Removal of moisture or liquid from a sub- Alaska pollack Commercially important marine stance using air, or to preserve an item by evaporation. fish species (Theragra chalcogramma) belonging to Airflow properties Characteristics of the flow of air the cod family (Gadidae); widely distributed in the Pa- through, or across the surface of, a substance or piece cific Ocean. Flesh has a moderate to low fat content of equipment. Airflow properties are utilized in design- and a mild, slightly sweet flavour. Normally marketed ing ovens and driers and in determining the most in frozen form and processed into fillets, blocks and appropriate ways of storing large quantities of foods surimi, but also sold fresh or as a cured product. Also such as fruits, vegetables, cereals and carcasses in or- known as walleye pollack. der to minimize spoilage. Albacore Marine fish species (Thunnus alalunga) Airline meals Meals provided for consumption dur- belonging to the tuna family which is widely distrib- ing aircraft travel, designed to be served and consumed uted in tropical and temperate waters. Flesh is lighter in a limited amount of space. Menu items are prepared in colour and has a milder flavour than that from and packaged at a central location either by the cater- other tuna species. Widely considered to be the best 12 Albendazole Alcohols tuna species for canning, but is also marketed fresh, substrates can be used to produce alcoholic bever- smoked and frozen. ages, e.g. grain for production of beer, and grapes Albendazole Anthelmintic widely used in sheep and and other fruits for production of wines. However, cattle for treating roundworms and flukes. Along with the constituent sugars must be released from these its various metabolites, is normally depleted rapidly substrates prior to fermentation. Fermentation can be from edible tissues and milk. carried out by endogenous yeasts or by addition of starters. The most common yeasts used in the manu- Albumen Alternative term for egg whites. facture of alcoholic beverages are Saccharomyces Albumins Proteins which are soluble in water or cerevisiae and S. carlsbergensis. Synonymous with dilute salt solutions and coagulable by heat. Albumins ethanolic fermentation. occurring in foods include conalbumin, lactalbumins and ovalbumins. Alcoholic soft drinks Beverages with flavour and other properties typical of soft drinks (e.g. fruit fla- Alcaligenes Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram voured beverages), but with addition of a significant negative bacteria of the family Alcaligenaceae. Oc- concentration of alcohol, usually approx. 5%. Com- cur in the intestinal tracts of vertebrates, soil, water, monly known as alcopops or flavoured alcoholic milk, and as part of the normal skin flora. May cause drinks. Introduced during the 1990s, the first product ropiness in milk and cheese. Some strains are also was alcoholic lemonade. A new wave of second gen- used in biotechnology for the industrial production eration products has revitalized the market recently. of enzymes. Concern exists that underage drinkers find these prod- Alcohol Common name for ethanol, especially in the ucts appealing and easy to drink. context of alcoholic beverages. Alcohol O-acetyltransferases EC 2.3.1.84. Mem- Alcohol dehydrogenases Group of enzymes cata- bers of the acyltransferases which catalyse forma- lysing the oxidation of alcohols. Alcohol dehydro- tion of acetyl esters from acetyl-CoA and short-chain genases (EC 1.1.1.1) catalyse the oxidation of alcohols aliphatic alcohols, such as methanol and ethanol. to aldehydes or ketones with concomitant reduc- Involved in formation of volatile ester aroma com- tion of NAD+. Also known as aldehyde reductases, pounds e.g. isoamyl acetate in fruits and also al- these enzymes act on primary and secondary alcohols, coholic beverages produced as a result of alco- and also on hemi-acetals. Catalyse the final step of al- holic fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae coholic fermentation. Alcohol dehydrogenases which expresses these enzymes. (NADP+), EC 1.1.1.2, catalyse the oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes with concomitant reduction of Alcohol oxidases EC 1.1.3.13. Flavoprotein oxi- NADP+. Some members act only on primary alcohols, dases which catalyse conversion of primary alco- while others also act on secondary alcohols. Alcohol hols in the presence of O2 to aldehydes and hydro- dehydrogenases (NAD(P)+), EC 1.1.1.71, catalyse the gen peroxide. Act on lower primary alcohols and oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes with concomitant unsaturated higher alcohols, but not branched chain or reduction of NAD(P)+. Reduce aliphatic aldehydes of secondary alcohols. Uses include in biosensors and carbon chain length 2-14, with greatest activity on C4, assays for determination of primary alcohols. Term C6 and C8 aldehydes. Also known as retinal reductases, also used generally to describe any of the enzymes since they can reduce retinal to retinol. Alcohol dehy- which oxidize alcohols, including long-chain alcohol drogenases (acceptor), EC 1.1.99.8, catalyse the oxida- oxidases (EC 1.1.3.20) and secondary-alcohol oxidases tion of primary alcohols to aldehydes in the presence (EC 1.1.3.18). of an acceptor. Alcohol reduced beer Beer in which the ethanol Alcohol free beverages Beverages of types nor- content has been reduced. mally containing ethanol, which have been formu- Alcohol reduced beverages Beverages in which lated or processed to be free from ethanol. the ethanol content has been reduced. Alcoholic beverages Beverages containing a significant concentration of ethanol. Major types include Alcohol reduced wines Wines in which the etha- beer, wines, spirits, liqueurs and rice wines. nol content has been reduced. Alcoholic fermentation Process by which certain Alcohols Alkyl or aromatic compounds contain- microorganisms (mainly yeasts) metabolize sug- ing a hydroxyl (OH) group. Classes of alcohols impor- ars anaerobically to produce alcohols. In this process, tant in the context of foods include aliphatic alcohols, glucose is converted to pyruvic acid, which is de- e.g. methanol, ethanol and higher alcohols, poly- carboxylated to acetaldehyde. The acetaldehyde is ols, glycols, aromatic alcohols, terpene alcohols and subsequently reduced to ethanol. A wide variety of sterols. 13 Alcoholysis Algicides Alcoholysis Esterification reactions involving es- Ale Historically, a beer type made without hops; in ters and alcohols. Includes the breakdown of modern usage, a range of British-style beers, com- triglycerides to form monoglycerides, and reac- monly brewed with top-fermenting brewers yeasts. tions with methanol (methanolysis) and glycerol Aleurone Layer of cells found under the bran coat (glycerolysis). Catalysed by lipases or chemical and outside the endosperm of cereal grains. Rich in catalysts. Can be used to improve the health promot- cereal proteins and minerals as well as containing ing properties of fats (e.g. glycerolysis of tuna oils non-digestible carbohydrates and phytic acid. to generate monoacylglycerols rich in PUFA). Can also be used to produce fatty acid esters for applica- Alewife Marine fish species (Alosa pseudoharengus) tion as preservatives or emulsifiers. belonging to the herring family (Clupeidae); occurs in Al compounds Alternative term for aluminium marine and estuarine waters along the Atlantic coast of compounds. North America. Marketed in fresh, dried/salted, smoked and frozen form; popularly consumed as a Aldehyde dehydrogenases Include members of fried product. subclass EC 1.2. Dehydrogenases which catalyse oxidation of aldehydes to the corresponding acids. In Alexandrium Genus of dinoflagellates responsible most cases, the acceptor is NAD+ or NADP+. Used in for outbreaks of paralytic shellfish poisoning. techniques to determine aldehyde levels in foods and Common species include Alexandrium catenella, A. beverages. minutum and A. tamarense. Aldehyde reductases EC 1.1.1.21. Enzymes with Alfalfa Common name for the leguminous plant, Medi- wide specificity, catalysing the conversion of alditols cago sativa, also known as lucerne, generally grown + and NAD(P) to the corresponding aldoses and as a fodder plant, although young leaves and alfalfa NAD(P)H. Can be used to convert xylose to xylitol, sprouts can be used as a vegetable, e.g. in Chinese useful as a food sweetener. cooking. Aldehydes Carbonyl compounds containing the Alfalfa seeds Seeds produced by alfalfa (Medicago CHO radical. Many are important for flavour or off sativa) which are germinated to make alfalfa sprouts flavour in foods and beverages. Aldehydes formed by for human consumption. Sprouts are generally eaten oxidation of fatty acids are important causes of fla- raw in sandwiches and salads. vour deterioration of lipid-rich foods. Aldicarb Systemic insecticide, acaricide and nemato- Alfalfa sprouts Crisp sprouts obtained by germi- cide used for control of chewing and sucking insects nation of alfalfa seeds. Popular in salads and (especially aphids, whitefly, leaf miners and soil- sandwiches. dwelling insects) in a wide range of fruit and vegetable Al foils Abbreviation for aluminium foils. crops. Classified by WHO as extremely hazardous Algae A heterogeneous group of unicellular and multi- (WHO Ia). cellular eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms which Alditols General term for polyols, sugar alcohols most occur in aquatic habitats. Includes both micro- produced by reduction of sugars on an aldehyde algae and macroscopic forms (e.g. seaweeds). Cer- group. Examples of alditols include D-sorbitol, D- tain algae are harvested for commercial production of mannitol and xylitol. thickeners (e.g. agar, alginates, carrageenans) Aldolases Alternative term for fructose- or proteins (e.g. single cell proteins). They are also bisphosphate aldolases. a source of pigments and may be cultured to generate Aldose 1-epimerases EC 5.1.3.3. Convert Į-D- Ȧ-3 fatty acids. Some algae produce toxins that ac- glucose to ȕ-D-glucose but also act on L-arabinose, D- cumulate in fish and shellfish, and may cause food xylose, D-galactose, maltose and lactose. Have been poisoning in humans via consumption of these foods. used extensively as components of biosensors for Algal oils Oils derived from single cell organisms, analysis of sugars. Also known as mutarotases and such as Spirulina platensis. Also known as single cell aldose mutarotases. oils. Claimed to represent a cleaner and more concen- Aldrin Cyclodiene organochlorine insecticide that has trated source of Ȧ-3 fatty acids, particularly doco- been used to control root worms, beetles and termites sahexaenoic acid, than fish oils. Used as ingredi- in soils around fruits and vegetables. Oxidized in ents of functional foods. Possess anti- insects to form the active compound dieldrin, a po- inflammatory activity. tent neurotoxin. Subject to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and has been banned Algicides Chemicals used to control growth of algae for use on crops in most countries. in water bodies or water containers. Examples include bethoxazin, dichlone, quinoclamine and simazine. 14 Alginate gels Allantoin Alginate gels Gels derived from alginates. Cal- and dairy products, and detection of phosphates cium alginate gels are commonly used for immobiliza- in drinking water. tion of biocatalysts. Alkalinity The degree to which a substance is alkaline. Alginate lyases Alternative term for poly(ȕ-D- Level of alkalinity is expressed using pH. mannuronate) lyases. Alkalization Process by which the pH of a substance Alginates Any of several derivatives of alginic acid is increased to above 7 making it alkaline. (e.g. sodium, calcium or potassium salts or propylene Alkaloids Organic nitrogenous bases. Many have glycol alginate). Used as stabilizers, thickeners pharmacological activity. Some foods contain toxic and gelling agents in foods. alkaloids, e.g. solanine in potatoes. Some alka- Alginic acid Polysaccharide (polymer of D- loids are desirable food constituents, e.g. the purine mannuronic acid) obtained from brown algae such as alkaloids caffeine and theobromine in tea, coffee, Macrocystis pyrifera or Laminaria. Possesses sig- chocolate and cocoa. nificant hydrocolloidal properties making it suitable Alkanes Saturated hydrocarbons of the methane for thickening, emulsifying and stabilizing applica- series, including methane, ethane, propane and butane. tions. Authorized for use in foods in various forms, including as sodium, calcium and potassium alginates. Alkenes Acyclic hydrocarbons having the general formula CnH2n and a single C to C double bond. Pre- Alicyclobacillus Genus of aerobic or facultatively sent in many foods, frequently in the volatile com- anaerobic, rod-shaped, spore-forming Gram positive pounds fraction. Ethylene (C2H4) is particularly im- bacteria. Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris and A. aci- portant in ripening of fruits. Synonymous with ole- docaldarius may cause spoilage of fruit juices. fins. Alimentary pastes Alternative term for pasta. Alkylcyclobutanones Ketones produced from Aliphatic compounds All organic compounds triglycerides by radiolysis that are thus used as a which do not possess an aromatic (Kekule ring) struc- marker for irradiation of foods containing fats, e.g. ture. Includes many types of hydrocarbons includ- meat, eggs and dairy products. Potential car- ing acyclic, cyclic, saturated and unsaturated com- cinogens, their presence has raised concerns about pounds. the safety of irradiated foods. Alitame One of the high intensity, dipeptide artificial Alkylphenols Alkyl substituted phenols with oes- sweeteners (trade name Aclame), formed from L- trogenic activity classed as endocrine disrupt- aspartic acid, D-alanine and a novel amine. Has good ers. Present as environmental contaminants. May water solubility, no aftertaste, does not contain be produced via biodegradation of alkylphenol phenylalanine, and sweetness is approximately 2000 polyethoxylates which are widely used non-ionic sur- times that of sucrose at typical usage levels. Offers factants (e.g. nonylphenol and octylphenol), or from good stability at elevated temperatures and over a degradation of antioxidants used in packaging broad pH range, and has good shelf life. Alitame is (e.g. 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol). Some, e.g. cresols and permitted for use at a max. level of 40-300 mg/kg in a ethylphenols, may be formed from conjugated alkyl- wide range of foods and beverages, such as bakery phenols in milk and act as flavour compounds in products, dairy products, frozen desserts, cheese. chewing gums, hot and cold beverages, beverage Alkylresorcinols Phenols with antifungal activity mixes and tabletop sweeteners. found in rye and other cereals, cashew nut shells and Alkalies Bases which are soluble in water and include some bacteria and algae. Similar in structure to the strongly basic hydroxides of sodium, potassium or commercially used antioxidants such as BHA and ammonium. Neutralize, or are neutralized by, acids. BHT. Like other resorcinolic lipids, display biological Solutions have a pH higher than 7. Alkalies are used in properties and have been reported also to have anti- the food industry during processing (e.g. peeling of tumour activity, antimicrobial activity and anti- potatoes) or in cleaning applications. Alternative parasitic activity. spelling is alkalis. Allantoin Member of the imidazoles class of hetero- Alkaline phosphatases EC 3.1.3.1. Catalyse forma- cyclic organic nitrogen compounds having the tion of orthophosphate and an alcohol from an ortho- chemical formula C4H6N4O3. Product of the metabo- phosphoric monoester, and also catalyse transphos- lism of purines, excreted in urine and milk. Has phorylation. Enzymes with wide specificity. Uses in- therapeutic uses for treating wounds and ulcers. Can be clude analysis of tannins in grapes and red wines, utilized as a nitrogen source by microorganisms and detection of the adequacy of pasteurization of milk some legumes, including soybean plants. 15 Alleles Almond oils Alleles Alternative forms of genes or DNA se- They are hunted or farmed (free-range or indoor pro- quences that occupy the same position (locus) on either duction systems) for alligator meat and skins. of two homologous chromosomes in a diploid or- Alliin One of the organic sulfur compounds con- ganism. If both chromosomes have the same allele, tributing to the flavour compounds fraction in gar- then the organism is homozygous for this allele. If the lic and Allium spp. vegetables. allele is different, the organism is heterozygous for this Alliinases Alternative term for alliin lyases. particular allele. Alliin lyases EC 4.4.1.4. Also known as alliinases, Allergenicity The ability of substances to act as al- these lyases are found in onions and garlic, where lergens. they are responsible for formation of the characteristic flavour. They also catalyse formation of allicin, Allergens Antigens that are capable of inducing an thought to have a number of health benefits. Have been allergic reaction when they come in contact with spe- used to determine alliin contents in garlic extracts. cific tissues of susceptible individuals. Allergens may induce formation of reaginic antibodies. Common Allium Genus of low-growing perennial plants, that food allergens include proteins from shellfish, includes cultivated vegetables such as onions, nuts, eggs, fish and milk. leeks, shallots and garlic, and many wild edible species. Noted for their distinctive flavour and pun- Allergies Hypersensitivity states induced by the body gency, due to the presence of organic sulfur com- in reaction to foreign antigens that are harmless to pounds such as alliin. These compounds are also as- other individuals in similar doses. Allergic reactions sociated with the therapeutic properties noted for garlic are of four basic types and can be immediate or de- and other Allium spp. layed in their onset. Type I reactions, which involve Allspice Spice obtained from the dried fruits of the release of histamine from mast cells by immunoglobu- tropical tree Pimenta officinalis (syn. P. dioica). Fla- lin E, can be induced by many food allergens often re- vour resembles a blend of cinnamon, cloves, nut- sulting in respiratory and dermatological symptoms. meg, ginger and pepper. Used in flavourings for Severe type I reactions include anaphylaxis. Most meat products and bakery products. Also known foods have been demonstrated to produce allergic reac- as pimento or Jamaican pepper. tions in certain individuals, however, common causes Allura Red General-purpose, water-soluble artificial of food allergy in adults include shellfish, nuts and colorant. Also known as FDC red 40. Used to impart eggs. In children, the pattern of food allergy differs a reddish-yellow colour to foods such as desserts, from that in adults, with allergies to eggs, milk, pea- confectionery and cereal products. nuts and fruits being common. In contrast to adults, children can outgrow allergies, especially to milk and S-Allylcysteine Sulfur containing amino acid which soy infant formulas. is one of the major organic sulfur compounds in garlic. Responsible in part for some of the health Allicin One of the organic sulfur compounds benefits of garlic, including hypolipaemic activity, occurring in onions and other Allium spp. vegeta- anticarcinogenicity and radical scavenging ac- bles. Important flavour compounds fraction with tivity. antibacterial properties. Allyl isothiocyanate Naturally occurring volatile Alligator meat Meat from alligators. Most of the organic sulfur compounds found in Brassica meat from alligator carcasses is in the tail; however, vegetables and some other plants, such as cassava. jaw meat is favoured because of its very low content of Largely responsible for the pungency of foods such fats and eating quality. Usually, alligator meat is as mustard and horseradish. Possess antimicrobial trimmed heavily of fat because the fat has an unpleas- properties and are used in food preservatives and as ant flavour. Each carcass includes both light and dark antifermentative agents in winemaking. Like other meat. In comparison with free-range alligator farming, isothiocyanates, display goitrogenic properties. indoor farming may be associated with an increased Allyl sulfides Organic sulfur compounds found prevalence of salmonellae. Due to biomagnification, in garlic, onions and leeks. Also flavour com- alligators living in polluted areas can accumulate pounds. Demonstrate anticarcinogenicity, anti- substantial concentrations of heavy metals. tumour activity and antioxidative activity. In- Alligator pears Alternative term for avocados. clude diallyl disulfide. Almond oils Oils rich in oleic acid and low in cho- Alligators Large semi-aquatic predatory reptiles in the lesterol derived mainly from the seeds of bitter al- genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae. There are monds (Prunus dulcis). Used in cooking and in two species, namely the American alligator (A. missis- foods as well as in the cosmetics industry. sippiensis) and the Chinese alligator (A. sinensis). 16 Almonds Alzheimer's disease Almonds One of the most widely grown type of nuts. Alum Double salts of aluminium sulfate combined Produced on the tree Prunus dulcis (syn. P. amygdalus, with sulfates from monovalent metals. Used as co- Amygdalus communis). Sweet almonds (P. dulcis agulants for purification of water, including drink- var. dulcis) are grown for their edible nuts which are ing water. Also used in the coagulation stages of important ingredients in many confectionery prod- tofu manufacture and as an adjuvant in immuniza- ucts, such as marzipan, macaroons and sugar al- tions. monds. Bitter varieties (P. dulcis. var. amara) are Aluminium Light metal, chemical symbol Al, which cultivated for their almond oils, which are used as may be used in food packs or food processing equip- flavourings. ment. Occurs in the trace elements fraction in the Aloe Plants of the genus Aloe (family Lilaceae), such diet; there is no known nutritional requirement. There as Aloe vera. Used in the manufacture of foods, bever- is concern that excessive intake may be toxic, and die- ages, and pharmaceutical and cosmetic products due to tary aluminium has been implicated as a causative fac- their characteristic flavour, aroma and biological tor in Alzheimer's disease. activity (attributed mainly to the presence of aloins). Aluminium compounds Chemical compounds of Aloin Bitter tasting compound which is a major com- aluminium. May be food constituents, additives or ponent of aloe leaves. An anthroquinone which on its contaminants. There is concern about possible ad- own is used as a laxative but which also displays anti- verse health effects of high intakes of aluminium com- fungal activity and analgesic effects. pounds via foods or beverages. Alpacas Long-necked, sheep-like, domesticated animals of the family Camelidae that are native to South Aluminium foils Aluminium packaging materials America. Alpacas (Vicugna pacos) are larger than the which are used to decorate, protect and preserve foods, wild vicuna, but smaller than the other camelids, and providing a barrier to external factors, such as light, are bred mainly for their fibre. Alpaca meat is edible, oxygen and water vapour. Food applications include: and is rich in proteins and low in cholesterol. foil containers and lids; metallized films; and wrap- Alternan Glucans fraction derived from fungi of the pings. Also used in laminated packaging to enhance genus Alternaria. Has potential for use in thicken- the barrier properties and rigidity of other packag- ers or stabilizers for foods. ing materials such as plastics and paper. There is very little migration of aluminium from aluminium Alternansucrases EC 2.4.1.140. Glycosyltrans- foil containers into food. Environmental considerations ferases that transfer Į-D-glucosyl residues to the non- include the importance of recycling and the use of reducing terminal residues of Į-D-glucans, producing aluminium foil laminates to fuel incineration proc- glucans with alternating Į-1,6- and Į-1,3- linkages. esses. Enzyme from Leuconostoc mesenteroides produces alternan, a glucan with potential applications in food Aluminium phosphide Synonym for phostoxin. additives. Used in fumigants for stored grain, as it releases the Alternaria Genus of fungi belonging to the Pleospo- toxic gas phosphine. raceae family. Occur in soil and vegetable matter. Alveograms Records of air pressure inside bubbles Many species are pathogenic to plants. Alternaria so- formed by inflating pieces of dough until rupture, a lani may cause early blights of potatoes and toma- test performed on alveographs. toes. Some species (e.g. A. alternata, A. citri, A. solani and A. tenuis) may produce mycotoxins, includ- Alveographs Apparatus used to analyse the physical ing alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether, on properties of dough and the baking properties of foods such as rice, fruits and vegetables. wheat. A piece of dough is inflated using air until it forms a bubble and bursts. Traces of the pressure in- Alternariol One of the mycotoxins produced by side the bubble (alveograms) are used to indicate Alternaria spp. These fungi are present in soils and dough strength, stability and distensibility. on plants and hence as contaminants of plant foods, e.g. cereals, oilseeds, fruits and vegeta- Alzheimer's disease One of several brain disorders bles, and products produced from them, including that are classified as neurodegenerative diseases. beverages. Causes cytotoxicity and carcinogenic- It is a progressive, irreversible disease that gradually ity. impairs cognitive performance, ultimately destroy- Alteromonas Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped, Gram ing a person's memory and ability to learn, reason, negative bacteria occurring in coastal and marine make judgments, communicate and carry out daily ac- habitats. Some species may cause spoilage of fish tivities. It is the most common form of dementia and other sea foods. among older people. Maintaining good nutrition may delay the progression of disease. 17 Amadori compounds Amine oxidases Amadori compounds Intermediates of the Maillard stroying Angel) and A. verna (Fool's Mushroom)). In- reaction occurring between amino groups and re- gestion results in abdominal pain, persistent vomiting ducing sugars. Amadori compounds are produced and watery diarrhoea, usually followed by death due to by rearrangement of nitrogen-containing carbohydrate organ failure. ring structures and their fate is dependent on the condi- Ambaritsa Raw dry sausages, traditionally made in tions present in the reaction medium. Acid hydrolysis Bulgaria. They are prepared primarily from pork, but of these compounds can result in unsaturated ring sys- include smaller amounts of beef. Moisture content tems that have a characteristic flavour and aroma, should be <33% (by wt.). which under less acidic conditions may polymerize to Amberjack Alternative term for yellowtail. form an insoluble dark-coloured material. Ambient storage Storage in surrounding atmos- Amala Traditional Nigerian paste-like product made pheric conditions. Ambient temperature is often in- by reconstituting yam meal in boiling water. Some- terchangeable with room temperature. Various pack- times fortified with legume meal, e.g. cowpea meal aging and preservation approaches have been em- or soy meal, to improve the protein content and nutri- ployed to enable foods to be stored safely and without tional quality. Typically, amala is dark brown in col- significant quality deterioration under ambient condi- our and is eaten with soups. tions. Amanita Genus of soft, fleshy fungi, which includes American groundnuts Common name for seeds both edible and highly poisonous species. Edible spe- produced by Apios Americana, a legume native to cies include Amanita rubescens, which should not be North America, which also produces small edible tu- eaten raw, and A. caesarea. Care should be taken in the bers. The tubers can be dried and ground into a pow- identification of these mushrooms as many cases of der which is added to flour or used in sweeteners poisoning have occurred due to unintentional ingestion and thickeners. of related, lethal species, such as A. phalloides (death American lobsters Lobsters of the species Homa- cap mushroom). rus americanus. Found in the north Atlantic Ocean. Amanitins Class of amatoxins. Also known as ama- Also known as Atlantic lobsters or true lobsters. nitoxins or amantines. Ames test Technique used to assess the mutagenic- Amaranth Red food colorants which are stable to ity of chemicals. Samples are incubated in medium light. Made from small, pigmented flowers of plants of containing liver homogenate and derivatives formed the genus Amaranthus. are mixed with a mutant strain of Salmonella Ty- Amaranth flour Amaranth grain that is milled for phimurium that lacks autotrophic properties towards food use. histidine. These properties are restored by metabolic Amaranth grain Seeds from plants of the genus derivatives formed in the sample during incubation in Amaranthus, which are high in starch, proteins, the presence of liver enzymes. lysine and minerals. Also known as grain amaranth. Amidases EC 3.5.1.4. Convert monocarboxylic acid Amaranth starch Starch extracted from amaranth amides to monocarboxylates and ammonia. Have grain. Most commonly utilized in parts of South been used for production of D-alanine from DL- America, Africa and Asia where amaranth is cultivated alaninamide. as a food crop. Amidation Addition of amide groups or amino ac- Amaranthus Genus of dicotyledenous plants of the ids to molecules to improve their functional prop- family Amaranthaceae. Certain species of Amaranthus erties or physicochemical properties. For exam- are grown for amaranth grain or grain amaranth, ple, amidation of pectins for use as food additives, which is high in starch, proteins, lysine and min- modification of fatty acids with diethanolamine erals. Other species are grown for their spinach-like forming diethanolamides for use as emulsifiers, re- leaves, which are good sources of protein, vitamin C, moval of the electrically charged free carboxy termi- minerals and ȕ-carotene. nals of synthetic peptides to make them more like Amasi Traditional Zimbabwean fermented milk natural peptides, and amidation of lactoferrin and ȕ- resembling thick curd. Fermentation is performed lactoglobulin to improve their antimicrobial ac- at ambient temperature and naturally fermented cream tivity. may be added to improve viscosity. Often eaten with Amides Organic nitrogen compounds containing stiff corn porridges. the CO.NH2 radical which are common constituents of Amatoxins Powerful mycotoxins produced by sev- foods. Include capsaicin and urea. eral species of mushrooms of the genus Amanita Amine oxidases Two enzymes: EC 1.4.3.4 (flavin- (e.g. Amanita phalloides (Death Cap), A. virosa (De- containing), also known as monoamine oxidases and 18 Amines Aminotransferases tyramine oxidases; and EC 1.4.3.6 (copper-containing), tural isomers (Į, ȕ, Ȗ, İ) and has the chemical for- also known as diamine oxidases. The former act on mula C4H9NO2. Ȗ-Aminobutyric acid, commonly ab- primary, and usually secondary and tertiary, amines breviated to GABA, is a non-protein amino acid and to form aldehydes, while the latter act on primary inhibitory neurotransmitter with antihypertensive monoamines, diamines and histamine. Several bac- activity. GABA is produced from L-glutamic acid teria are able to degrade biogenic amines through in a reaction catalysed by glutamate decarboxy- production of diamine oxidases and these enzymes lases, and is found naturally in foods, including soy- have been used in biosensors for determination of beans and cereals. Certain strains of lactic acid biogenic amines in foods. bacteria and yeasts produce GABA, and thus can be Amines Organic nitrogen compounds derived used to enrich fermented foods. from NH3 by substitution of organic radicals for the H 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate oxidases atoms. Depending on whether 1, 2 or 3 H atoms are EC 1.14.17.4. Accepted name now aminocyclopropan- replaced, they are classed as primary, secondary or ter- ecarboxylate oxidases, but commonly referred to as tiary amines. Include a wide range of compounds im- ACC oxidases. These oxidases catalyse the final step portant for flavour and aroma of foods. Amines are in ethylene biosynthesis in higher plants, converting formed during breakdown of proteins and contribute to 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) the characteristic odour of spoiled foods such as fish. to ethylene, and are involved in ripening of fruits. Biogenic amines such as histamine may be toxic. 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthases Amino acid oxidases Oxidases which catalyse the EC 4.4.1.14. Catalyse the rate-limiting step in ethyl- oxidative deamination of amino acids in the pres- ene biosynthesis in higher plants which leads to rip- ence of water and O2 to form oxo-acids. Includes EC ening of fruits. 1.4.3.2 (L-amino-acid oxidase) and EC 1.4.3.3 (D- 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid Plant amino-acid oxidase) which act on L- and D-amino ac- growth regulator important in ripening of fruits. Of- ids, respectively. Involved in metabolism of amino ten abbreviated to ACC. acids. Uses include in bioconversions of D- to L- amino acids, in biosensors, including those for de- Aminoethanol Synonym for ethanolamine. Amine tection of amino acids, and for production of keto acids which in pure form exists as a colourless, combustible, such as Į-ketoglutaric acid. hygroscopic liquid with an aroma of ammonia. A member of the biogenic amines group, which oc- Amino acids Organic acids characterized by pos- curs in various foods, including wines and cheese. session of one or more COOH and NH2 groups. Amino acids are the main constituents of proteins. 10 amino Aminoethoxyvinylglycine Plant growth regulator acids (arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, which acts by blocking ethylene synthesis through methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and inhibition of 1-aminocyclopropane-1- valine) are essential nutrients in the human diet. carboxylate synthases. D-Amino acids Amino acid enantiomers with a Amino N Nitrogen which is present in foods and other specific configuration around a chosen chiral element, substances in the form of amino (NH2) groups. usually the Į-carbon atom. These amino acids have Į-Amino N Index of the amino acid N content of the opposite configuration to L-amino acids. Many D- foods, beverages or their raw materials and intermedi- amino acids are naturally occurring in microorgan- ate materials. Used, for example, in brewing. isms, plants and animals, and some are of especial in- Aminopeptidases EC 3.4.11. Exo-acting pro- terest for the synthesis of novel sweeteners. teinases that hydrolyse peptide bonds and remove Aminoacylases EC 3.5.1.14. Hydrolyse N-acyl-L- amino acids one at a time from the chains of pro- amino acids, releasing the corresponding L-amino ac- teins, working from the amino terminus. Used for re- ids. Can be used for purification of L-amino acids from ducing the bitterness of protein hydrolysates, racemic mixtures of the corresponding N-acyl-DL- and important in flavour development in dairy amino acids. Can also be used for acylation of amino products and meat. acids in organic solvents. Amino sugars General term for sugars substituted Aminobenzoic acid Aromatic acid used in antim- with an amino group at the carbon-2 position. Exam- icrobial preservatives for use in foods. ples of amino sugars include galactosamine, glu- 2-Aminobutane Alternative term for (RS)-sec- cosamine and furosine, an important indicator of butylamine. Maillard reaction in dairy products. Aminobutyric acid Member of the organic acids, Aminotransferases Alternative term for transami- this organic nitrogen compound encompasses 4 struc- nases, EC 2.6.1.-. 19 Amitraz Į-Amylases Amitraz Non-systemic formamidine acaricide and detectable in livers and kidneys of animals 5 days insecticide used for control of mites, scale insects, after withdrawal. whitefly and aphids on various fruits and vegeta- Amoxycillin Alternative spelling for amoxicillin. bles. Also employed in veterinary applications. Clas- AMP Abbreviation for adenosine monophos- sified by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). phate. Amla Fruits of the sub-tropical deciduous tree Em- Amperometry Technique based on measurement of blica officinalis Gaertn. (syn. Phyllanthus emblica), current resulting from oxidation or reduction of an also known as aonla or Indian gooseberry. Fruits are electroactive species. A constant potential is main- usually processed into products such as pickles, fruit tained at a working electrode or on an array of elec- juices and syrups, as the raw fruits are highly acidic trodes with respect to a reference electrode. The cur- and astringent. Amla are a rich source of vitamin C rent is correlated with the content of the electroactive and also contain tannins, alkaloids, auxins and species. minerals. Reported to have hypocholesterolaemic and Ampicillin Broad-spectrum semisynthetic penicillin antioxidative activity and are widely used in tradi- antibiotic used in the treatment of several diseases in tional Indian medicine. cattle, swine, sheep and poultry. Rapidly excreted, Ammonia Gas, chemical formula NH3, which is primarily in unchanged form in the urine; relatively formed on breakdown of nitrogen-containing com- small amounts are excreted in milk. pounds such as proteins, peptides and amino ac- Amycolatopsis Genus of aerobic Gram positive ids. Has a characteristic pungent odour and is toxic at bacteria, type species Amycolatopsis orientalis, of the high concentrations in air. May be used in refriger- family Pseudonocardiaceae. Isolated from soil, vegeta- ants for freezing or cooling systems. ble matter and clinical specimens. Some species pro- Ammonium compounds Group of compounds con- duce antibiotics or biotechnologically significant taining the NH4 radical. In the context of foods, impor- enzymes. One strain has been used in biotransfor- tant members include betaine, inorganic ammonium mations to produce vanillin from ferulic acid. salts (e.g. ammonium bicarbonate used as a leaven- Amygdalin Glycosides fraction present in bitter ing agent and ammonium salts used as nutrients for almonds which is hydrolysed by water to yield hy- yeasts) and quaternary ammonium compounds drocyanic acid and benzaldehyde. used as disinfectants. Amyl alcohol Synonym for pentanol. One of the Amnesic shellfish poisoning Disease resulting higher alcohols, comprising five carbon atoms and a shellfish mussels from ingestion of (commonly ) single alcohol group. Of importance in the flavour domoic acid containing the neurotoxin (produced by compounds fraction of alcoholic beverages. certain toxigenic marine diatoms). Symptoms include Forms part of the toxic fusel oils fraction of spirits. abdominal cramps, vomiting, disorientation and mem- Used as a solvent and as a substrate for production of ory loss. the flavouring amyl acetate. Amoebae Common name for a number of species of Amylases Enzymes that hydrolyse the Į-1,4 glyco- unicellular, usually microscopic, organisms of the or- sidic linkages in both amyloses and amylopectins. der Amoebida and the class Sarcodina. Occur in fresh Act on starch, glycogen, and related polysaccha- and salt water, moist soil, and as parasites in humans rides and oligosaccharides. Specific types are Į- and animals. Characterized by ability to alter their amylases and ȕ-amylases. shape, generally by the extrusion of one or more pseu- -Amylases EC 3.2.1.1. Glycosidases which cata- dopodia. Į lyse endohydrolysis of 1,4-Į-D-glucosidic linkages in Amoebiasis Specifically refers to an infection of the polysaccharides containing three or more 1,4-Į- intestine, liver or other sites with Entamoeba histo- linked D-glucose units. Act on starch, glycogen, lytica, a pathogenic amoeba, acquired by ingesting and related polysaccharides and oligosaccharides in contaminated water or foods. In general, may be any a random manner; reducing groups are liberated in the infection caused by any amoebic parasite. Character- Į configuration. Present in a wide range of foods, in- ized by severe bloody diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fe- cluding cereals, fruits and vegetables, and in mi- ver, vomiting and ulceration of the colon. Also known croorganisms used in food fermentations such as as amoebic dysentery. Saccharomyces and Lactobacillus spp. Isolated Amoxicillin Penicillin antibiotic used against a wide Į-amylases can be used to convert starch to dextrins variety of bacterial infections in farm animals. Be- in the production of corn syrups, as a flour supple- comes widely distributed in animal tissues following ment to aid growth of yeasts and gas production in administration, but is rapidly eliminated; typically un- dough making, and for solubilization of brewing 20 ȕ-Amylases Anabolic steroids adjuncts. Can cause allergies, particularly in the slow or absent, thus pastes of gelatinized waxy starch baking and milling industries. are non-gelling but gum-like. ȕ-Amylases EC 3.2.1.2. Amylases which hydrolyse Amyloses Polysaccharides composed of chains of 1,4-Į-D-glucosidic linkages in polysaccharides, re- Į-1,4-linked glucopyranose residues that, together with moving successive maltose units from the non- amylopectins are constituents of starch. Amyloses reducing ends of the chains. Act on starch, glyco- have much lower molecular weights than amylopectins gen, and related polysaccharides and oligosaccha- (at least 100-fold less) and are non-branched. In con- rides, producing ȕ-maltose by an inversion reaction. trast to amylopectins, retrogradation of cooked amy- Used for production of high maltose syrups. loses is rapid, and thus gel formation occurs. Amylases inhibitors Substances that inhibit the Amylovorins Small, heat-stable and strongly hydro- activity of amylases (including Į-amylases and ȕ- phobic bacteriocins synthesized by Lactobacillus amylases) which catalyse the breakdown of starch amylovorus. Show a relatively narrow inhibitory spec- into sugars. Į-Amylases inhibitors present in trum, mainly against related Lactobacillus species, al- foods can act as antinutritional factors by inhibit- though some species of Clostridium and Listeria are ing the breakdown of starch into sugars by amylases also sensitive. present in the saliva and pancreatic secretions. Amyrin Triterpene alcohols fraction which occurs in Į-Amylases inhibitors Components of foods that the unsaponifiable fraction of some fats, and may be inhibit Į-amylases. Presence of Į-amylase inhibitors used as a marker of origin or authenticity of fats (e.g. in starch-rich foods can reduce the rate of starch di- for detection of cocoa butter substitutes in gestion and release of glucose into the bloodstream. chocolate). Types of Į-amylase inhibitor include proteins of An Alternative term for ann. higher plants (such as cereals and legumes), and polypeptides and nitrogen-containing carbohy- Anabaena Genus of filamentous cyanobacteria of drates produced by Streptomyces spp. the Nostocaceae family. Major components of freshwater plankton. Some species, such as Anabaena Amylodextrins Acyclic, branched polysaccha- flos-aquae and A. circinalis, can form algal blooms in rides composed of glucose monomers. Produced by fresh water, producing anatoxins, which are neuro- partial hydrolysis of starch. Uses include as fat toxins. substitutes. Anabolic agents Natural and synthetic hormonal- Amyloglucosidases Alternative term for glucan type growth promoting substances. Most are deriva- 1,4-Į-glucosidases. tives of reproductive steroid hormones (oestro- Amylograms Records of results obtained using amy- gens, progesterone and testosterone), but non- lographs to investigate flour or starch viscosity steroidal compounds (naturally or non-naturally occur- as a function of temperature. ring) such as zeranol and stilbene oestrogens are also Amylographs Instruments used to measure the vis- available. Widely used in many countries to promote cosity of cereal flours or other starch-based products weight gain and feed efficiency in farm animals (prin- during variations in temperature. Samples are mixed at cipally in cattle). Their use is not permitted in the EU, a constant speed and viscosity is recorded on charts although many types may be being used illegally. Also (amylograms). known as anabolic drugs. Amylolytic enzymes Term encompassing enzymes Anabolic drugs Chemical substances based on natu- that degrade starch, in particular Į-amylases, ȕ- ral or synthetic growth promoting hormones. Most are amylases, glucan 1,4-Į-glucosidases, pullu- derived from reproductive steroids (oestrogens, lanases and Į-glucosidases. progesterone and testosterone) while a few are Amylomyces rouxii Species of filamentous fungi of based on polypeptide hormones (e.g. recombinant bo- the class Zygomycetes. Used in the production of vine somatotropin). Used to promote weight gain Asian fermented foods such as tape. and feed efficiency in farm animals. Use is not permit- Amylopectins High molecular weight polymers that, ted in the EU, although illegal use has been reported. together with amyloses, form starch. Composed of Anabolic steroids Anabolic agents derived from Į-1,4-linked glucopyranose chains connected by Į-1,6- or similar in structure to reproductive steroid hor- linkages. 3-6% of glucose residues are Į-1,6-linked, mones. Examples of naturally produced steroids used giving rise to a highly branched polymer. Starch that is in animal production include oestradiol-17ȕ and pro- almost exclusively composed of amylopectin is termed gesterone (female steroids), and testosterone waxy, e.g. waxy corn (>99% amylopectin and <1% (male steroid). Synthetic examples include amylose); in starch of this type, retrogradation is melengestrol acetate and trenbolone acetate. Used 21 Anacystis Anencephaly to promote growth and feed conversion efficiency in a lants to a number of Indian foods including chut- range of farm animals. Anabolic steroids are banned neys and curries. for use in animal production in the EU, although many Anasazi Ancient variety of Phaseolus vulgaris, rein- may be being used illegally. troduced onto the market following the successful cul- Anacystis Obsolete name for Synechococcus. tivation of samples discovered in a New Mexico cave. The purple and white beans have a delicate flavour, Anaemia Diseases caused by a reduction in the size similar to that of pinto beans, and a relatively low or number of red blood cells (erythrocytes) and/or content of indigestible sugars compared with other the quantity of haemoglobin. Results in reduced beans. ability of blood to transfer oxygen to the tissues. The most prevalent form of anaemia worldwide is that of Anatoxins Neurotoxins produced in fresh water by iron deficiency, although there are many other causes, some species of filamentous cyanobacteria of the genus Anabaena, especially A. flos-aquae. Include including deficiencies of folates and vitamin B12, infection and conditions that result in excessive de- the alkaloids anatoxin-a and anatoxin-a(s). Extremely struction or insufficient production of red blood cells. poisonous, sometimes killing animals drinking con- Common symptoms include tiredness, lethargy, dizzi- taminated water within a few minutes. May represent a ness and breathlessness. Food fortification ap- hazard for drinking water safety. proaches have been proposed for reducing the preva- Anchoveta Small herring-like fish which occurs lence of anaemia due to nutritional causes. abundantly in Pacific waters off the western coast of Anaerobes Organisms that do not require atmospheric South America. Anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) are a oxygen to live, or cannot survive in the presence of commercially important source of fish meal and fish oxygen. Often refers to anaerobic bacteria or other oils. microorganisms. Facultative aerobes refer to an- Anchovy Group of herring-like marine fish species aerobes that can also grow under aerobic conditions. belonging to the family Engraulidae. Commercially important species include European anchovy (Engrau- Anaerobic digestion Type of bioremediation lis encrasicolus), northern anchovy (E. mordax) and process based on microbial metabolism which occurs Japanese anchovy (E. japonica). Anchovy are marin the absence of oxygen. Any biological material can keted in fresh, dried, smoked, canned and frozen forms be treated via this process, including agricultural and and are also used to make anchovy pastes. food wastes and effluents, to produce biogas and a digestate which may be used in fertilizers. Bioreac- Anchovy oils Oils derived from the muscle of En- tors in which this process in performed industrially graulis spp. which are rich in eicosapentaenoic are termed anaerobic digesters, with UASB bioreac- acid and docosahexaenoic acid. tors being a type of these. Depending on the tempera- Anchovy pastes Processed fish products comprising ture at which it is performed, the digestion may be ground anchovy (Engraulis and Anchoa spp.) mixed classified as mesophilic (30-35qC) or thermophilic with ingredients such as vegetable oils and sea- (55qC). sonings. Often used in toppings for pizzas and as a component of pasta sauces and salad dressings. Analogues In relation to foods, products that are made to resemble and act as substitutes for specific Androgens A class of steroid hormones that are commodities. Similar to simulated foods. Reasons associated with the development and maintenance of for producing analogues include to provide alternatives male secondary sex characteristics, such as facial and to meat for vegetarians, for consumption by those body hair, deepening of the voice and muscle devel- with special dietary requirements or to reduce costs. opment. Testosterone is the most abundant androgen in the male body. Also the precursor of oestro- Analysers Instruments used in analysis. gens. Analytical techniques Methods used in analysis. Androlla Dry cured pork sausages traditionally Anaphylaxis A severe type I allergic reaction occur- made in Galicia, Spain. ring rapidly in sensitized individuals following expo- Androstenone Steroid hormone with a characteristic sure to small amounts of allergens. Symptoms can odour; implicated in boar taint occurring in pork range from itching and angioedema to widespread tis- produced from non-castrated male swine. sue oedema, airway constriction, respiratory distress Anencephaly A lethal neural tube defect character- and circulatory collapse. Foods that can induce ana- ized by the absence of the cranial vault and the major- phylaxis include peanuts, eggs and sea foods. ity or all of the cerebral and cerebellar hemispheres. Anardana Dried seeds of wild pomegranates (Pu- Anencephaly results from failure of the neural tube to nica granatum). Added in condiments or acidu- close during embryogenesis. The risk for developing 22 Anethole Animal stress anencephaly, as with other neural tube defects, is casses are also called dressed carcasses. Major animal reduced by increasing the level of folic acid in the carcass meats in Europe and the USA are produced maternal diet during pregnancy. from cattle, sheep and swine, whilst in the Middle Anethole Synonym for p-allylphenyl methyl ether. East, Africa and Asia, water buffaloes, camels and One of the flavour compounds which occurs in goats are more important. Conditioning or ageing of herbs and spices, especially anise and fennel. carcasses results in break down of muscle glycogen into lactic acid, which tends to improve tenderness Aneurin Alternative term for thiamin (vitamin B1), used commonly in Europe. Alternative spelling is and shelf life of meat. aneurine. Animal diseases Pathological conditions that occur Aneurine Alternative spelling for aneurin (thiamin). in animals that are used as sources of foods and may affect the quality or safety of the foods. Examples that Angel cakes Very light, airy sponge cakes made affect food quality or safety include mastitis and ma- with stiffly beaten egg whites and no egg yolks or lignant hyperthermia. fats. Also known as angel food cakes. Angelica Herb obtained from umbelliferous plants of Animal fats Lipid products derived from animal the genus Angelica, particularly A. archangelica, sources. Include butter, lard, tallow, suet and fish which is grown extensively in southern Europe. The oils. young celery-like stalks are crystallized and used for Animal foods Foods derived from sources in the ani- decorating cakes and confectionery products. mal kingdom. Examples include aquatic foods (sea Leaves are occasionally used for flavouring stews, foods and aquaculture products), dairy prod- while roots and seeds are used as flavourings for ucts, eggs and egg products, animal fats, in- some types of gin and liqueurs, respectively. sect foods, meat and meat products, and other Angiogenesis The formation of new blood vessels animals such as worms (earthworms). from pre-existing vessels. A natural physiological Animal models Animals used to simulate human process that has an important role in growth and devel- physiological and pathological processes. Animal opment, as well as wound healing. However, some models allow investigations that would not be ethical diseases cause the body to lose control over this or practical in humans. process resulting in excessive or insufficient growth of Animal proteins Proteins that are derived from new blood vessels. Angiogenesis performs a critical animal sources such as meat, fish, eggs and dairy role in cancer development. Several dietary compo- products. nents may possess anti-angiogenic properties, includ- Animal rennets Proteinases present in the aboma- ing genistein, selenium and tea polyphenols. sum of young ruminants, e.g. calves, and used for Angiogenin A polypeptide that is a potent mediator of clotting of milk during cheesemaking. Comprise a new blood vessel formation. It exhibits ribonuclease mixture of the main enzyme, chymosin, and pep- activity and has been implicated in tumour angio- sins, the ratio of these enzymes affecting the final genesis. Present in milk, and has potential applica- properties of the cheese. Due to shortages of animal tion as a bioactive component of foods, pharmaceuti- rennets and the increasing popularity of vegetarian cals and cosmetics. cheeses, microbial rennets, genetically-engineered Angiotensin I-converting enzymes Alternative enzyme preparations synthesized by various microor- term for peptidyl-dipeptidase A. ganisms and milk clotting enzymes of plant origin Angkak Red pigment produced by fermentation of rice (vegetable rennets) have been developed. with Monascus spp. Used in natural food colorants Animals Eukaryotic, generally multicellular, hetero- in the Far East. trophic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Meta- Anhydrous milk fats Milk fats with a very high fat zoa. Many are hunted for meat or farmed for milk, content and negligible moisture content. Sometimes meat or eggs. Animal cells are distinguished from called water free milk fats. those of plants, algae and fungi by a lack of cell Aniline Synonym for aminobenzene or phenylamine. walls. Toxic amines fraction which is used in chemical syn- Animal science Discipline relating to the science and theses, e.g. for dyes. Aniline may occur as a contami- technology of the production, management and distri- nant in foods. bution of animals, including those intended for food Animal carcasses Dead bodies of animals, particu- use. larly those used for meat production. The term is used Animal stress Any unusual events or conditions by butchers to describe animal bodies after removal of which bring about physiological or behavioural the heads, limbs, hides and offal; these processed car- changes in animals. In addition to fear and physical 23 Animal welfare Anthracene trauma, it includes environmental factors such as cold, used. Typically prepared by boiling and pounding the heat, humidity, light, sound and wind. The term stress beans and adding syrups to form a paste. also describes the results of such events or conditions. Annatto Yellowish red natural colorant obtained from Stress often occurs when animals are faced with unfa- seeds of the tropical tree Bixa orellana. Contains a fat- miliar, threatening or harmful situations. Transport to soluble component (bixin) and a water-soluble com- markets or abattoirs and poor pre-slaughter manage- ponent (norbixin). Used to add colour to cheese, ment of animals are widely recognized as causes of sausage casings and bakery products. animal stress. Animal stress is not only an animal Annealing Heating an item and allowing it to cool welfare issue, but is also associated with various de- slowly, so as to remove internal stresses. fects in meat including the DFD defect and the PSE Anserine Synonym for N- -alanyl-1-methylhistidine. defect. Susceptibility to stress differs greatly between ȕ Peptide which occurs in fish and meat, and may con- species, breeds, genders and individual animals. tribute to their sensory properties. Animal welfare Protection of the rights of animals, whether in the wild or in captivity. For animals used in Antelope meat Meat from antelopes, sometimes agriculture as food sources, conditions (and possibly referred to as venison. Antelope meat has a lower food quality) can be improved by high quality care and content of fats than lean beef, but has a similar con- humane use. Implementation of high standards of care tent of essential amino acids. It may be cooked by for animals used in research is believed to improve the roasting, but requires basting to prevent the meat quality of the resultant scientific data. from becoming too dry. Anion exchange Type of ion exchange in which Antelopes Various species of swift running, deer-like, hydrogen ions and anions may be displaced from the hollow-horned, hoofed ruminant mammals of the sub- ion exchange resin. family Antilopinae. The major well-known species include elands, gnus, gazelles and impala. Many are Anions Negatively charged particles that have gained hunted for their meat and some species, for example one or more electrons. These ions migrate towards the blackbuck antelope (Antilope cervicapra), have positively charged electrodes (anodes). been farmed successfully to produce antelope meat Anisakiasis Infection in humans caused by the third of a high quality. larval stage of the parasitic nematode Anisakis sim- Anthelmintics Drugs used to treat internal infections plex, usually as a result of eating contaminated raw or of animals caused by parasitic worms (nematodes undercooked sea foods. Pseudoterranova larvae and cestodes). Most frequently used in younger farm have also been implicated as causative organisms. Also animals which are more susceptible to parasitic infec- known as anisakidosis. tions. Residues are most likely to be found in milk Anisakidosis Alternative term for anisakiasis. when withdrawal periods have not been strictly ob- Anisakis Genus of parasitic nematodes of the family served; livers may also contain residues. Examples Anisakidae. Anisakis simplex has been implicated in include albendazole, dichlorvos, ivermectin and anisakiasis, an infection caused by consumption of thiabendazole. contaminated raw or undercooked sea foods. Anthocyanidins Flavylium salts which are the agly- Anisaldehyde Common name for p- cone component of pigments of the anthocyanins methoxybenzaldehyde. One of the flavour com- group. pounds occurring in a wide range of foods. Anthocyanins Class of organic pigments (gly- Anise Alternative term for aniseed. cosides of malvidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, Aniseed Liquorice-flavoured, fragrant seeds of cyanidin, delphinidin and petunidin) giving pink, Pimpinella anisum. Used as spices and flavourings red, blue and purple colour to many foods and bev- for many foods and beverages, including confec- erages of plant origin (including fruits and red tionery and alcoholic beverages such as ani- wines). Extracted anthocyanins may be used as food sette. colorants. Colour is pH-sensitive, and stability dif- Anisette Aniseed-flavoured liqueurs manufactured fers from that of artificial colorants. in France. Anthocyanogens Alternative term for leucoantho- Anisole Phenolic compounds which occur naturally in cyanins. Anthocyanins found in a range of plant a range of foods. Chlorinated anisole derivatives may foods, and also in wines. In a polymerized form, con- cause taints, e.g. in corks and wines. stituents of polyphenols and condensed tannins. Ann Traditional Japanese bean jams used as the base Anthracene One of the polycyclic aromatic hy- for many confectionery products. Usually made drocarbons (PAH). Occurs as an environmental con- from adzuki beans, although other beans may be taminant in a wide range of foods, water and packag- 24 Anthracnose Antifreeze proteins ing materials. May also be formed during smoking Antibiotics resistance Ability of microorgan- or cooking of foods. isms to be unaffected by treatment with specific an- Anthracnose Any of several plant diseases caused tibiotics. Resistance can result from a range of by fungi (particularly Colletotrichum spp.). Charac- mechanisms, including decreased permeability of the terized by dark spots that appear on leaves, stems or organism to the drug, modification of drug or receptor, fruits. One of the main postharvest diseases, affecting and production of a modified protein that is unaffected the quality of stored produce such as bananas, citrus by the antibiotic. Organisms can become resistant ei- fruits and mangoes. ther by undergoing spontaneous mutations or by ac- Anthraquinones Pigments of the quinones group quiring resistance genes from other resistant organisms which occur in a range of plants and plant products. through the processes of conjugation and transduction. Anthrax Disease caused by the spore-forming bacte- Plasmids containing multiple resistance genes can be rium Bacillus anthracis and transmitted through transferred not only amongst similar, but also quite dif- foods, skin abrasions and inhalation of spores. Gas- ferent, bacteria. trointestinal anthrax is usually transmitted through Antibodies Proteins, also known as immu- consumption of meat from infected animals. B. an- noglobulins, that are produced by the body in re- thracis is considered to be a potential bioterrorism sponse to foreign substances (antigens) and are capa- agent. ble of forming complexes with the antigens. Mecha- Anthropometric parameters Measurements of the nisms by which antibodies protect the body include agglutination precipitation human body, including length, height, body mass or of foreign antigens, toxins index, body weight, head circumference, waist-to-hip lysis of foreign cells and neutralization of . ratio, percentage body fat and skinfold thickness. Anticaking agents Anhydrous compounds that are Commonly used as indices of growth and development added in small amounts to dry foods (e.g. salt, bak- in infants, children and adolescents, and in nutritional ing powders, pudding mixes) to prevent the parti- assessment for examining an individual's nutri- cles caking together and thus ensure the product re- tional status, degree of obesity and risk for various mains dry and free-flowing. Typical anticaking agents diseases. for the food industry include magnesium and calcium Antiallergic activity Ability to prevent or ameliorate carbonates, magnesium stearate, calcium silicate and allergies. Certain foods and food components may calcium stearate. possess antiallergic activity. Anticarcinogenicity Ability of a food or food com- car- Antiatherogenic activity Ability of foods or food ponent to slow, inhibit or reverse the process of cinogenesis components to slow, inhibit or reverse the process of , in particular, the ability to attenuate atherosclerosis, the pathological process underlying carcinoma formation in response to application of carcinogens cardiovascular disease. Consumption of foods possess- known . Anticarcinogenicity of a sub- ing antiatherogenic activity is potentially beneficial for stance can be determined in vitro using cell culture or health as a result of the consequent decreased risk for in vivo using animals treated with carcinogens or a car- cardiovascular diseases. cinoma cell line. Anticarcinogens Antibacterial activity Ability to kill or inhibit the Substances that inhibit the forma- car- growth of bacteria. tion of carcinomas induced by application of cinogens. Potential dietary anticarcinogens include Antibacterial compounds Compounds that possess phytoestrogens (isoflavonoids, lignans), fla- antibacterial activity, e.g. certain antibiotics, an- vonoids, lycopene, glucosinolates, terpenes, tiseptics and disinfectants. allyl sulfides and simple phenols. Antibiotics Substances produced by microorgan- Antifoaming agents Used in a similar manner to isms that can kill or inhibit other microorganisms; defoaming agents to control foams formation dur- used to treat bacterial and fungal infections in humans ing food processing. Examples include dimethyl- and animals. Grouped into several different classes, the polysiloxane. most widely used being ȕ-lactam antibiotics (in- Antifreeze proteins Proteins cluding penicillins and cephalosporins). Other occurring naturally in fish classes include aminocyclitols, aminoglycosides, am- a range of organisms (especially cold water ), phenicols, macrolides, nitrofurans and quinolones. which prevent or minimize freezing of tissues on expo- Residues may occur in animal foods; toxic effects are sure to low temperatures. Of potential use in the food freezing point unlikely, but potential hazards include allergic re- industry for lowering the of foods and sponses in consumers and development of resistant inhibiting recrystallization of ice. Possible applications ice cream frozen foods meat strains of bacteria. include in , or chilled products. 25 Antifungal activity Antiproliferative activity Antifungal activity Ability to kill or inhibit the lard reaction products and other polyphenols. growth of fungi. Antimutagens are also produced by certain probiotic Antifungal agents Substances that possess antifun- bacteria and bacteria used to produce fermented gal activity. Also known as antimycotics. foods. Antifungal compounds Compounds that possess Antimycotics Alternative term for antifungal antifungal activity. agents. Antigenicity Ability of substances to act as antigens Antinutritional factors Substances that reduce the by eliciting an antibody-mediated or cellular immune nutritional value of a food by reducing its nutrients response. content, bioavailability, digestibility or utilization. Antigenotoxicity Ability to prevent damage to DNA Antinutritional factors include enzyme inhibitors caused by genotoxins. (proteinases inhibitors and amylases inhibitors Antigens Substances that induce an immune represent in a wide range of foods and microorganisms), sponse, either by stimulating formation of antibod- inositol and its derivatives (including phytates and ies or by eliciting a cellular response. phytic acid present in legumes and cereals) and antivitamins such as thiaminase, dicoumarol, theo- Antihypertensive activity Ability of a substance to phylline alleviate or reduce high blood pressure (hyperten- . sion). Food components that demonstrate antihyper- Antioxidant compounds Natural compounds pre- tensive activity often act as ACE inhibitors. Potential sent in foods that exhibit antioxidative activity. dietary antihypertensive agents include bioactive Antioxidants Substances used in the preservation peptides in dairy products and plant foods, and of foods which act by retarding deterioration, rancid- garlic constituents. ity or discoloration due to oxidation. The most Anti-inflammatory activity Ability to inhibit or commonly used synthetic food antioxidants include counteract the inflammatory response, which is an in- BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole), BHT (buty- nate immune response to tissue injury by stimuli lated hydroxytoluene) and propyl gallate. Natu- such as chemicals, trauma, extremes of temperature or rally occurring antioxidant compounds include microbial attack. Many foods and food components tocopherols and ascorbic acid. Consumption of a possess anti-inflammatory activity. These include diet rich in natural antioxidants is considered benefi- some fatty acids, tocotrienol, lactoferrin, colos- cial for health and for the prevention of degenerative trum, wines and honeys. diseases. Antimicrobial activity Ability to kill or inhibit the Antioxidant status A facet of nutritional status, growth of microorganisms. which relates to the state of the body in terms of the Antimicrobial compounds Compounds that possess consumption, utilization and stores of antioxidant nu- antimicrobial activity. trients, as well as levels and activity of antioxidant Antimicrobial packaging films Packaging films, enzymes (e.g. superoxide dismutases, glutathione e.g. polyethylene films, that contain antimicrobial peroxidases, glutathione reductases and catalases). compounds, such as enzymes, zeolites, bacte- Many dietary components possess antioxidative ac- riocins, organic acids and chlorine dioxide. The tivity and can contribute to antioxidant status, includ- aim of using such films for packaging foods is to in- ing vitamins, minerals, polyphenols and carote- hibit microbial growth on the foods and thus extend noids. their shelf life. Antioxidative activity Ability of a substance to in- Antimony Toxic member of the trace elements hibit oxidation. Substances possessing antioxidative group, chemical symbol Sb, which may occur in foods. activity can be utilized in foods, such as oils, to inhibit Antimutagenicity Ability of a substance to reduce oxidation, thus improving shelf life and quality. either spontaneous mutation rates or mutation rates in- Foods possessing a high antioxidative activity have duced by known mutagens. Antimutagenicity of a also been investigated as potentially health promoting substance against a mutagen can be determined using foods, as lipid oxidation has been associated with a the Ames test. range of pathological processes, including atherosclerosis. Also known as antioxidative properties. Antimutagens Substances capable of reducing background spontaneous mutation rates or reducing the Antioxidative properties Alternative term for anti- ability of known mutagens to cause DNA damage. oxidative activity. There is a wide range of antimutagens in foods and Antiproliferative activity Ability to slow or inhibit beverages, such as fruits, vegetables, spices and cell proliferation, especially proliferation of tumour green tea, including catechols, flavonoids, Mail- cells during cancer development. Many foods and 26 Antisense technology Apoptosis food components have been shown to exhibit antipro- Antiviral activity Ability to kill or inhibit the growth liferative activity, including a variety of flavonoids of viruses. Many food components possess antiviral present in plant foods. activity. These include lactoferrin and other constitu- Antisense technology A type of gene silencing ents of milk and other dairy products, polyphe- which uses DNA or RNA sequences to bind in vivo to nols, tannins and polysaccharides from some complementary DNA or mRNA strands, respectively, mushrooms. preventing correct gene expression. Can be used to Antivitamins Antinutritional factors that destroy turn off selectively production of certain proteins. or inhibit the metabolic effects of vitamins. Examples Has been used to delay ripening in fruits, modify the of antivitamins in foods include thiaminase (antivita- composition of fatty acids in oilseeds and modify min B1, present in raw fish and other animal foods), the starch contents of potato tubers. caramel colorants (antivitamin B6) and dicoumarol Antiseptics Antimicrobial compounds used to (antivitamin K). treat human and animal body surfaces (particularly Ants Common name for narrow-waisted, generally skin). wingless insects of the family Formicidae. May be consumed as insect foods. Can also act as insect Antisera Sera which contain antibodies that are pests. either specific to antigens (monovalent antisera) or reactive against more than one antigen (polyvalent an- Anu Common name for Tropaeolum tuberosum, also tisera). Antisera can be produced by immunization of known as mashua. An important tuber crop of the An- an animal either by injection of antigen(s) or infection des, which is closely related to the garden nasturtium. with microorganisms that contain the antigen(s). Consumption of the raw tuber is limited due to the bitter taste, associated with isothiocyanates, but fla- Antisprouting agents Plant growth regulators vour generally becomes milder when the tubers are used to prevent sprouting of crops (especially root boiled. Nutrient contents compare well with those of or bulb crops, e.g. potatoes) during storage. Also other tubers. Anu flowers are also edible. known as sprouting inhibitors. Aonla Alternative term for amla. Antithrombotic activity Ability to prevent or regulate the formation of blood clots or thrombi, and thus Aperitifs Alcoholic beverages intended to be con- protect against coronary heart diseases and car- sumed before meals to promote appetite. Proprietary diovascular diseases such as stroke. Foods and aperitifs include products based on flavoured wines or beverages displaying antithrombotic activity include spirits. plant derived products, fish oils and dairy products Aphids Common name for plant parasites of the fam- containing bioactive peptides. ily Aphididae. Includes insects that suck plant sap Antithyroid agents Drugs that inhibit the produc- and exude sugary secretions favoured by ants. Some tion of hormones produced in the thyroid gland; used species are important vectors of plant viruses. to increase meat yield in animals by reducing their Apiculture The practice of keeping bees, often with basal metabolism, lowering gastrointestinal motility the intention of producing honeys, propolis, bees- and stimulating extracellular water retention. May wax or royal jelly. Bees may also be kept for use in cause excess accumulation of water in muscle tissues, farming systems for pollination of crops. resulting in poorer quality meat; residues may be a po- Apigenin Yellow pigments of the flavonoids tential risk to consumer health. Examples include group which occur in a wide range of plants and plant- thiouracil and methimazole. derived foods. Antitranspirants Plant growth regulators which Apocarotenal Member of the carotenoids group of reduce the intensity of transpiration of food crops; used natural pigments which occurs in oranges and other to improve yield, and product quality or shelf life. plant foods. May be used in natural colorants. Antitumorigenicity Ability of a substance to slow, Apoproteins Term describing the protein component inhibit or reverse the process of tumorigenesis, in par- of conjugated proteins, e.g. the globin component of ticular, the ability to attenuate tumour formation in the haemoglobin. presence of tumour promoters or carcinogens. Anti- Apoptosis Controlled destruction of cells which oc- tumorigenicity of foods and food components can be curs as a natural process during tissue growth and de- determined either in vitro using cell culture or in vivo velopment. Also referred to as programmed cell death. using animal models. Failure of apoptosis is thought to be involved in uncon- Antitumour activity Ability of a substance to inhibit trolled cell growth in some types of cancer, and also or reverse the progression of established tumours. autoimmune diseases. 27 Apparent density Apricots Apparent density Weight of a porous material per mon domesticated apple is an interspecific hybrid des- unit volume. Apparent density of a porous substance is ignated Malus domestica. Many varieties are grown for always lower than the theoretical density of its con- use as dessert, cooking, ornamental or cider apples. stituents. Fruits are large round pomes that range in flavour Appearance Perception of the outward form of a from sweet to sharp, and in colour from green and substance. The appearance of a food contributes to its yellow to red and brown. Useful source of vitamin C, overall sensory properties. potassium and dietary fibre. Cooking apples are Appenzeller cheese Swiss semi-hard cheese made usually green, and larger and more acidic than dessert from cow milk. It can be made with skim milk and apples. Crab apples grow wild in many regions; these brine cured for 12 months, or with whole milk and are barely edible, but can be used to make jelly. cured with brine, pepper and sediment from white Apple sauces Sauces made by stewing chopped winemaking. apples with sugar to form a pulp. Available in Appetite A natural longing to satisfy bodily needs, canned or bottled form. Used in desserts and as an particularly, but not exclusively, the recurring desire accompaniment to meat dishes, especially pork. for food. Appetite is increased in the state of hunger Apple vinegar Vinegar made using apples as the and decreased during satiety. Appetite for foods, in starting material. Similar to cider vinegar. general, and for particular foods, may become modi- Apple wines Alternative term for cider. fied over time. A particularly intense appetite for cer- Apricot jams Jams made from fresh or dried apri- tain foods occurs during cravings. cots. Used as spreads, as glazes for pies and Apple brandy Spirits manufactured by distillation cakes, or as confectionery ingredients. of fermented mashes based on apples. Well known Apricot juices Fruit juices extracted from apricots apple brandy types include calvados. (Prunus armeniaca). Apple cider Used in the US to refer to unfermented Apricot kernels Constituents of apricot seeds, rich apple juices. In the UK, an alternative name for ci- in oils and proteins, but limited in use by the pres- der. ence of amygdalin (yielding toxic hydrogen cya- Apple juice concentrates Apple juices which nide (HCN)). Detoxified apricot kernels are used in have been concentrated. May be diluted to produce the manufacture of bitter almond oils, persipan normal strength apple juices or used in the manufac- and marzipan substitutes. Also consumed as roasted, ture of other beverages or foods. salted or dried products in some countries. Apple juices Fruit juices extracted from apples Apricot nectars Fruit nectars prepared by addition (Pyrus malus, syn. Malus domestica). Commonly con- of water and/or sugar to apricot juices. sumed as beverages, but may be fermented to cider or Apricot pulps Soft, succulent flesh from apricots, used in manufacture of apple brandy. which is used in a range of processed foods, such as Apple musts Alternative term for apple juices, fruit juices, ice cream and infant foods. Sheets of especially those to be fermented in manufacture of ci- apricot pulp are dried to make apricot leathers. der. Apricot purees Flesh of apricots that has been Apple pectins Pectins obtained from apples. Ap- mashed to a thick, paste-like consistency by various ple pomaces are one of the main commercial means, such as sieving, mashing or processing in a sources of pectins. blender. Used in a range of products including infant Apple peel Outer skins of apples; used as a source of foods, cakes and fruit juices. apple pectins. Apricots Stone fruits from Prunus armeniaca (syn. Apple pomaces The solids residue remaining after Armeniaca vulgaris), a tree which originated in ancient extraction of apple juices or apple musts. China and is now widely cultivated in warm temperate Apple pulps Soft mass prepared from the flesh of zones. The orange/yellow coloured fruits are utilized in apples by processes such as slicing, chopping and a similar manner to peaches and are eaten fresh, mashing. Typically available in dried, frozen or canned canned or dried. The distinctive aroma makes the fruit forms and used in products such as sauces, infant suitable for manufacture into apricot jams and apri- foods and desserts. cot juices or for incorporation into flavourings for products such as ice cream, desserts and infant Apple purees Thick, smooth preparations made from foods. Compared with other fruits, apricots have a cooked, strained apples. Used in products such as in- high nutritional value, including high amounts of vi- fant foods and apple sauces. tamin A, carotenes, proteins, potassium and Apples One of the most widely grown and economi- iron. cally important fruits of temperate regions. The com- 28 Apricot seeds Arachin Apricot seeds Hard seeds found in the centre of the pentosans. Found associated with the pectic sub- flesh of apricots. The kernels within the outer casing stances in plant cell walls. Present in fruits and are utilized as a source of oils and in making a form of fruit juices, and may be used as food additives, marzipan substitute as well as being eaten roasted, e.g. as bulking agents. Also known as arabans. salted or dried. Also called apricot stones. Į-N-Arabinofuranosidases EC 3.2.1.55. These Apricot wines Fruit wines manufactured by alco- glycosidases hydrolyse terminal, non-reducing Į-L- holic fermentation of mashes prepared from ap- arabinofuranoside residues in Į-L-arabinosides. Re- ricots (Prunus armeniaca). lease arabinose from Į-L-arabinofuranosides, Į-L- Aquaculture Production of aquatic organisms under arabinans containing (1,3)- and/or (1,5)-linkages, ara- controlled or semi-controlled conditions; mainly for binoxylans and arabinogalactans. Occur naturally food purposes. A wide range of aquaculture prod- in plant foods including fruits and cereals, where ucts, including farmed fish, farmed shellfish, they are involved in the degradation of pectins and aquatic plants and algae are produced commercially lignocelluloses. Isolates, mainly microbial, are also across the world. used, e.g. in the production of fruit juices, wines Aquaculture products Aquatic organisms (such as and bread. Also known as arabinosidases. fish, shellfish and aquatic plants) produced by Arabinogalactans Polysaccharides in which the aquaculture for food or industrial purposes. main constituent sugars are arabinose and galac- Aqualysins Thermostable bacterial proteinases, in tose. Occur in the pectic substances fractions of a particular aqualysin I (EC 3.4.21.111), an alkaline ser- wide range of plant foods, including fruits, vegeta- ine endopeptidase secreted by Thermus aquaticus. bles and cereals. May be of importance for the proc- Aquatic foods Foods derived from aquatic organ- essing properties of plant foods. isms, including fish, shellfish, aquatic plants and al- Arabinose Monosaccharide of five carbon atoms gae. (pentoses) found predominantly in plants as a com- Aquavit Scandinavian spirits, distilled from fer- ponent of complex polysaccharides, such as gums mented mashes based on grain or potatoes, and and pectins. commonly flavoured with aromatic seeds and spices. Arabinose isomerases Isomerases which cata- Also known as akvavit. lyse the conversion of D- or L-isomers of arabinose Aqueous two phase systems Solvent systems (EC 5.3.1.3 and EC 5.3.1.4, respectively), to the corre- comprising 2 aqueous polymer solutions or aqueous sponding isomers of ribulose. Also act on fucose, polymer and salt solutions which are immiscible at cer- galactose and altrose. EC 5.3.1.4 enzymes from bac- tain concentrations. Used for extraction, purification, teria have been used to catalyse isomerization of D- concentration, downstream processing, etc. of galactose to D-tagatose, a low-calorie sugar. biomolecules. Polyethylene glycol is a commonly Arabinosidases Alternative term for Į-N- employed polymer with phosphates or sulfates used as arabinofuranosidases. salts. Other polymers used include dextran, ethylene Arabinoxylans Polysaccharides in which the main oxide-propylene oxide co-polymers and surfactants. constituent sugars are arabinose and xylose. Form The degree of partitioning of biomolecules between part of the pentosans fraction in cereals and ce- the immiscible aqueous solutions is determined by real products, and may be of importance for techno- their size, charge and hydrophobicity. Particularly logical properties in processes such as baking and suitable for isolation of enzymes and other pro- brewing. teins, since extractions are performed under mild conditions which do not cause denaturation. Arabitol Polyol synthesized by reduction of arabi- Arabans Alternative term for arabinans. nose or produced by microbial fermentation of plant hydrolysates. Arabic bread Flat round bread composed of yeasts- leavened dough which, when baked, is easily split to Arachidic acid One of the saturated fatty acids make sandwiches. Also known as pita bread. with 20 carbon atoms. Occurs at low concentrations in a wide range of fats, oils and tissue lipids. Arabidopsis Non-commercial genus of the mustard (Brassicaceae) family of plants. Arabidopsis thaliana Arachidonic acid One of the Ȧ-6 polyunsaturated is commonly used as a model for plant research stud- fatty acids with 20 carbon atoms. Widely distributed ies, including lipid synthesis studies in related Brassica in foods and essential in the human diet. plants such as oilseed rape. Arachin One of the two major globulins present in Arabinans Polysaccharides in which the main peanuts, the other being conarachin. As well as constituent sugar is arabinose, and thus classified as having good nutritional quality, both globulins play an 29 Arachis oils Aroma concentrates important role in flavour development during peanut Stems are utilized for starch (sago), while young processing. buds are consumed as a vegetable. Seed kernels have Arachis oils Alternative term for groundnut oils. been reported to have potential as a source of vegeta- Arak Asian spirits which may be manufactured from ble fats. a range of raw materials, including palm juices, sugar Arenga Genus of palms, some of which are used as a juices, dates or rice. Also know as arrack. source of edible fruits, palm sugar and palm wines. Arare Alternative term for rice cakes. Arepas Alternative name used in Colombia for tortillas: round, thin unleavened pancakes which are tra- Arbutin 4-Hydroxyphenyl-ȕ-D-glucopyranoside, ditionally made with corn flour and baked on a hot chemical formula C12H16O7. Member of the phenols and glucosides chemical classes, and present in surface. plant foods. Particularly characteristic of pears, and Argemone oils Oils derived from any species of the used as a marker to detect adulteration with pear genus Argemone (prickly poppies) which are found in products of more expensive fruit products. Acts as North America and the West Indies. an inhibitor of tyrosinases, hence purified prepara- Arginine One of the basic amino acids, present in tions are used as skin whitening agents. Has therapeu- most food proteins and essential in the human diet. tic use as a diuretic. Arkshells A group of bivalve molluscs similar to Arbutus berries Fruits of the Mediterranean shrub cockles. Edible species include Scapharca subcre- Arbutus unedo, also known as strawberry tree nata, Arca noae and Anadara broughtoni. fruits or madrona fruits. The bitter-tasting red ber- Armagnac A high-quality brandy manufactured in a ries are rarely eaten fresh, but are used in a range of specified region of the Gers district in southwest fruit products, including jellies, jams and wines. France. Also used to make liqueurs in France and Portugal. Armillaria Genus of mainly lignicolous fungi belong- Archaea Group of prokaryotes first identified in the ing to the family Agaricales and once called Armil- 1970s which are taxonomically distinct from bacte- lariella. Species include the edible fungi Armillaria ria. These microorganisms are morphologically mellea, also known as the honey fungus, bootlace fun- similar to bacteria, but genetically very different. In- gus and shoestring fungus. cludes methanogens and species isolated from extreme Armillariella Former name for the genus of fungi environments, such as halophiles, thermophiles Armillaria which includes edible species. and psychrophiles. Pyrococcus, Sulfolobus and Army rations Foods intended for use by soldiers. Thermococcus are all genera of archaea. Enzymes Various categories are available for use in different from archaea can show excellent stability under harsh scenarios. The foods are packaged so that they are conditions and are therefore of use in biotechnology compact and light, and so that they have a long shelf and food processing applications. life (at least 6 months at 38qC, 3 years or more at Arcobacter Genus of microaerophilic, rod-shaped 27qC). Canned foods and dried foods are com- Gram negative bacteria of the family Campylobac- mon. All rations, with the exception of restricted ra- teraceae. Occur in the reproductive and intestinal tracts tions which are intended only for short term use, must of animals and humans. Some species are pathogenic, meet military RDA for nutrients. e.g. Arcobacter butzleri which frequently contaminates Arochlor Commercial name for a range of poly- raw chicken meat. Raw milk is also a source of in- chlorinated biphenyls (PCB) which occur as confections. taminants in foods. Arctic char A salmonid fish (Salvelinus alpinus) Aroma Physiological sensation, also known as smell, from northern Europe and North America which oc- that results from stimulation of olfactory receptors in curs in fresh and marine water; some forms are land- the nasal mucosae and the interpretation of this infor- locked, spending their whole lives in freshwater, while mation by a specialized area of the cerebral cortex. highly migratory forms spend most of their lives at sea. Food aroma, which is generated by release of volatile Flesh flavour is highly regarded. Marketed fresh, aroma compounds from the food, makes a marked smoked, canned and frozen. contribution to overall flavour. Areca Any of various Asiatic palm trees of the genus Aroma compounds Volatile compounds that are Areca, including A. catechu, the source of betel nuts. present in foods and contribute towards aroma. Areca nuts Alternative term for betel nuts. Aroma concentrates Concentrates typically ob- Arecastrum Genus of palms which includes Arecas- tained by extracting and/or concentrating volatile trum romanzoffianum (syn. Syagrus romanzoffi- compounds from a source material, e.g. fruit anum), also known as queen palm or pindo palm. juices, coffee or butter. Can be used as flavour- 30 Aromatic compounds Artichokes ings in various foods or to restore aroma lost during Arrowroot Starch obtained from rhizomes of Ma- processing. Other methods of producing aroma con- ranta arundinacea, a West Indian plant. Neutral in centrates include fermentation and enzymic modifi- flavour and easily digestible, it is used as a thickener cation (e.g. for cheese flavour concentrates). in invalid diets, and also in fruit sauces, pie fillings Aromatic compounds Organic compounds and desserts, where it imparts a clear finish. Can also characterized by a cyclic, conjugated structure, such as refer to starch obtained from roots or rhizomes of sev- occurs in benzene. Some aromatic compounds, such eral other tropical plants. as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), Arrowtooth flounder A relatively under-exploited may occur as toxic or carcinogenic contaminants in flatfish species (Atheresthes stomias) occuring in foods. Also refers, more generally, to flavour com- north to mid-Pacific waters. Flesh texture is less firm pounds or aroma compounds present in foods than that of most other flatfish, due to presence of a and beverages. cysteine proteinase in flesh; this species therefore has a Aromatization Procedure for increasing the aroma low market value compared with other flatfish. Mar- of a food or beverage. Strategies include the addition keted in fillet form; also frozen into blocks and proc- of aroma compounds to the product or container, essed into portions. and the facilitation of aroma compound release through Arsenates Toxic salts of arsenic acid, which may chemical or mechanical means. Also refers to the occur as contaminants, especially in drinking wa- chemical conversion of non-aromatic compounds into ter. aromatic compounds. Arsenic Toxic element which may occur as a con- Aromatized wines Wines, often fortified wines, taminant in a range of substances, including water and which have been flavoured with herbs, spices or sea foods. Chemical symbol As. other plant-derived ingredients. Arsenicals Molecules or compounds which contain Aromatizing agents Alternative term for flavour- arsenic atoms or ions. Includes organic and inorganic ings. arsenic species. Potentially toxic contaminants of Aroma volatiles Alternative term for aroma com- foods, particularly sea foods and water. pounds . Arsenobetaine Organic arsenic species, major form Aronia Genus of plants of the family Rosaceae. Violet- of arsenic found in sea foods and other biological black berries produced by Aronia melanocarpa, also materials. Chemical formula C5H11AsO2. Has rela- known as black chokeberries, contain high amounts tively low toxicity. of anthocyanins, folic acid and minerals, and are Artemisia Genus of plants used as the source of believed to possess health giving properties. Used as a spices. Includes davana (Artemisia pallensis), tar- source of juices and in the production of natural food ragon (A. dracunculus), wormwood (A. absinthium) colorants. May also be used to impart colour and and mugwort (A. vulgaris). flavour to other beverages, dairy products, confectionery and snack foods. Arthritis Inflammation of one or more joints resulting in swelling, redness and pain. A range of condi- Arracacha Common name for Arracacia xanthor- tions that includes rheumatoid, autoimmune, infectious rhiza, a member of the umbellifer family, which is and osteoarthritides. Increased risk for certain arthriti- grown in South and Central America, primarily for its des has been linked with dietary and nutritional factors, large, starchy, edible roots, which resemble carrots or including poor nutrition and consumption of meat, parsnips in appearance. Roots, which are also known fried foods and fats. Oils rich in -3 fatty acids, as Peruvian carrots or Peruvian parsnips, are cooked Ȧ such as fish oils, borage oils and evening prim- and consumed as a vegetable or processed into a vari- rose oils, vegetarian diets and nutrients with anti- ety of products including infant foods, soups, oxidative activity have been associated with symp- bakery products and alcoholic beverages, such tomatic relief. as chicha. The young stems can be used in salads and have similar characteristics to celery. Arthrobacter Genus of obligately aerobic Gram Arrack Alternative term for arak. positive bacteria of the family Micrococcaceae which occur in soil. Some species, including A. nico- Arrowhead Common name for Sagittaria sagittifolia, tianae, may be used as cheese starters in the pro- a perennial herb with arrowhead-shaped leaves which duction of smear cheese. Other species may be used grows in ponds, rice fields and swamps in parts of in the production of industrial enzymes. South-East Asia. The starchy roots (corms) are peeled, sliced and cooked in stews or fried. Widely cultivated Artichokes Term generally applied to the edible buds in China and Japan. from Cynara scolymus (globe artichokes). May also refer to the edible tubers from Helianthus tuberosus 31 Artificial colorants Ascorbic acid (Jerusalem artichokes), Stachys sieboldii (Japa- Asafoetida Bitter, strong smelling resin extracted nese artichokes) and S. affinis (Chinese artichokes). from the roots of the umbelliferous plant Ferula Artificial colorants Colorants which have been foetida. The pungent garlic-like aroma and flavour manufactured synthetically, as opposed to those ex- are due to the presence of sulfur compounds. Used in tracted from natural sources (natural colorants). spices for Asian foods, pickles and Worcester- Tend to be less expensive and have better colour in- shire sauces. tensity, uniformity and stability than natural colorants. Asbestos Fibrous magnesium calcium silicates, which Examples include azo dyes and FDC colours. may be used for thermal insulation or in filter aids. Artificial flavourings Flavourings which contain Some types are carcinogenic. Asbestos fibres may oc- one or more artificial components not yet identified in cur as contaminants in substances such as water. a natural material. Synthetic flavourings containing the Ascidians Small marine filter feeding organisms same chemicals as those found in a natural product are which are primitive chordates of the class Ascidiacea known as nature-identical. Synthetic flavourings are and are widely distributed around the seas of the usually less expensive than natural flavourings, and world. Also known as sea squirts. Benthic non- less likely to vary in quality, availability and process- motile organisms, often attached to outer surfaces of ing stability. boats, jetties and oil rigs. Some species are utilized as Artificial foods Alternative term for simulated sea foods, particularly Halocynthia roretzi, Styela foods. clava and S. plicata. Artificial neural networks Systems of computer Ascochyta Genus of fungi of the subphylum Pe- programs and data structures which are modelled on zizomycotina and phylum Ascomycota. Species cause the human nervous system and brain. Incorporate large diseases in many crops, including grasses, pulses numbers of processors operating in parallel, each with (e.g. chick peas, beans) and cereals. an individual sphere of knowledge which has been fed Ascomycetes Former term for a large class of fungi into it along with rules about relationships. Networks containing approximately 2000 genera. Still commonly can use this information to recognize patterns in large used to describe members of the subdivision Ascomy- amounts of data. Used in the food industry in model- cotina. Typically terrestrial saprotrophs or parasites. ling of processes and predicting the behaviour of foods Includes most yeasts, the edible morels (Morchella) under specific conditions. Also known as neural and truffles (Tuber), the cup fungi, the powdery mil- networks. dews, the black mildews and the sooty moulds. Artificial sweeteners Synthetic non-nutritive Ascorbases Alternative term for L-ascorbate oxi- sweeteners, also known as high-intensity sweeten- dases. ers, usually many times sweeter than sucrose. Exam- ples include aspartame, saccharin, sucralose, Ascorbate oxidases Alternative term for L- acesulfame K and alitame. Widespread applications ascorbate oxidases. include low calorie foods, soft drinks and sugar L-Ascorbate oxidases EC 1.10.3.3. Enzymes free foods. which oxidize ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic Arxula adeninivorans Species of thermotolerant acid. These oxidases can be used to determine the yeasts of the class Saccharomycetes. Used in bio- levels of vitamin C in foods and beverages, and as technology applications for the production of en- part of an antioxidant protection system for food zymes such as lipases and glucan 1,4-Į- preservation. glucosidases. Ascorbates Salts of ascorbic acid, including so- Aryl-alcohol oxidases EC 1.1.3.7. Oxidases which dium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate, which can catalyse the oxidation of primary alcohols with aro- be used as food additives. Food uses include as an- matic rings to form aromatic aldehydes, including tioxidants in products such as meat products, as some aroma compounds and flavour com- browning inhibitors for fruits and vegetables, pounds, such as benzaldehyde, and hydrogen and as bakery additives. peroxide. Involved in lignin degradation by white Ascorbic acid Synonym for vitamin C, an antioxi- rot fungi. dant nutrient present in a wide range of foods. Neces- Arzua cheese Spanish semi-soft cheese made from sary for growth of bones and teeth, for maintenance of pasteurized cow milk. Elastic fine rind and creamy blood vessel walls and subcutaneous tissues, and for body. Eaten as a dessert with honey, as a sandwich fill- wound healing; dietary deficiency results in scurvy. ing or in cooking. Used for the fortification of foods, and as food ad- As Chemical symbol for arsenic. ditives, including as bakery additives, browning inhibitors in cut fruits, curing agents in meat 32 Ascorbyl palmitate Aspartate transaminases processing, and as stabilizers in beverages such as Asparaginases EC 3.5.1.1. Hydrolases which cata- beer. lyse the conversion of L-asparagine to L-aspartic Ascorbyl palmitate One of the fatty acid esters acid and ammonia. Involved in metabolism of that are used as food antioxidants. Formed by es- amino acids in vivo. Potentially useful for reducing terification of ascorbic acid and palmitic acid. the acrylamide content of cooked foods, through re- Particular applications include in oils and meat moval of asparagine which is a precursor of this toxin. products. Asparagine One of the non-essential amino acids, occurring in most food proteins. Aseptic packaging Packaging technique in which an aseptic product is placed into an aseptic container in an Asparagus Lilaceous plants of the genus Asparagus, aseptic environment. The sealed container is designed particularly A. officinalis, which is widely cultivated in to maintain aseptic conditions until the seal is broken. Europe and the USA for its edible young shoots Used to enhance shelf life of foods, e.g. fruit juices. (spears). Lightly cooked asparagus spears are regarded Advantages over conventional sterilization tech- as a luxury vegetable and can be eaten hot or cold. niques include high product quality, optimization of They are also widely used in soups. sterilization, minimum energy consumption and low Asparagus beans Common name for seeds pro- production costs. Aseptic packaging is not suitable for duced by Vigna sesquipedalis. Long thin legumes use with products containing large particles, and shelf that resemble string beans, but which are actually life stability is shorter than for sterilized foods. related to cowpeas. Flavour is similar to that of Aseptic processing High-temperature, short-time string beans and has also been likened to that of as- process which results in products with improved tex- paragus. Also known as sitao, Chinese long beans or ture, colour, flavour and nutritional values com- yard-long beans due to their ability to grow up to 3 feet pared with conventional canning. This technology in length. Asparagus beans are picked before reaching involves filling of pre-sterilized containers with a this stage and used in salads or stir-fries. Young commercially sterile cooled product, followed by asep- leaves and stems are steamed and consumed as vege- tic hermetic sealing with a pre-sterilized closure in an tables. atmosphere free of microorganisms. Asparagus peas Common name for Lotus tetra- Ash Mineral content of foods, determined by combus- gonolobus, a southern European plant, occasionally tion of the sample under defined conditions and weigh- grown for its edible pods, which are harvested before ing of the residue. maturity and consumed as a vegetable (usually steamed). Ashbya gossypii Species of filamentous fungi of Aspartame One of the low calorie artificial sweet- the class Saccharomycetes. Used in biotechnology eners (chemical name aspartyl phenylalanine methyl applications for the production of riboflavin using ester; trade names NutraSweet and Canderel). A vegetable oils as a carbon source. dipeptide (aspartic acid and phenylalanine) ester, Asiago cheese Unpasteurized Italian hard cheese approximately 180-200 times sweeter than sucrose. originally made from ewe milk, but now made en- Non-cariogenic and without an aftertaste. Loses tirely from cow milk. Two types of Asiago are made, sweetness on prolonged storage and exposure to heat i.e. a lightly pressed cheese made from whole milk (unsuitable for baking). Safe for diabetics, but not for and matured for 20-30 days (Asiago Pressato individuals with phenylketonuria as phenylalanine cheese) and a mature cheese made with skim milk is released during metabolism of aspartame. An ingre- (Asiago d'Allevo). An intense flavour develops in dient of many foods and beverages sold worldwide, cheese matured for 2 years. and commonly used in diet soft drinks and sugar-free Asiago Pressato cheese Type of Asiago cheese chewing gums. Often blended with acesulfame K that is mild and delicately flavoured. Interior of this to give a more sugar-like taste and to increase potency. fresh cheese is white with a hint of straw colouring. Aspartate aminotransferases Alternative term for Asian pears Pears produced by Pyrus pyrifolia and aspartate transaminases. P. serotina. Grown extensively in Asia, particularly Aspartate transaminases EC 2.6.1.1. Also known Japan, China and Korea, and currently gaining popu- as aspartate aminotransferases. One of the trans- larity in the West, partly because of their distinctive ferases, this enzyme catalyses the reaction of the crisp texture, which remains unchanged after picking amino acid L-aspartic acid with 2-oxoglutaric acid to and long-term cold storage. Frequently called apple produce oxaloacetic acid and L-glutamic acid. pears due to their crisp, juicy qualities, they are also Also acts on the aromatic amino acids L-tyrosine, known as Oriental pears or Japanese pears. L-phenylalanine and L-tryptophan. Raised plasma 33 Aspartic acid Atlantic salmon levels of these enzymes are indicative of hepatic dam- gers include sulfites and sulfiting agents found in a age, and thus may be measured to investigate the range of foods, and known food allergens. hepatotoxicity of a substance. Astringency A sensation of dryness in the mouth Aspartic acid One of the non-essential amino ac- combined with roughening of the oral epithelium and ids, occurring in most food proteins. puckering of the muscles of the face and cheeks. It is Aspartyl phenylalanine methyl ester Systematic induced by foods containing chemicals such as tan- name for aspartame. nins and other polyphenols, acids and aluminium salts. Sensory perception of astringency has been at- Aspergillic acid Antifungal compound produced by tributed to binding of tannins to salivary proteins. Aspergillus flavus. Aspergillus Genus of fungi of the class Hyphomy- Astrocaryum Genus of palms including Astro- cetes. Some species can cause food spoilage (e.g. As- caryum vulgare which, along with other palms, is a pergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and A. niger). Many source of tucuma oils and edible fruits. species produce mycotoxins (e.g. aflatoxins, Atherosclerosis A pathological process resulting in cyclopiazonic acid, ochratoxins, patulin). Cer- thickening and hardening of the walls of medium and tain species are used in production of industrial en- large arteries due to formation of atherosclerotic zymes (e.g. synthesis of amylases, catalases, plaques. Cardiovascular diseases produced by oc- proteinases and lipases by A. niger). Also involved clusion of the affected arteries can be of gradual onset in production of fermented foods (e.g. manufacture (angina, peripheral vascular disease) or sudden onset of koji, miso, sake and soy sauces by A. oryzae) (stroke, myocardial infarction). Rate of develop- and other agents for the food industry (e.g. citric acid ment of atherosclerosis is affected by many factors in- and gluconic acid production by A. niger). cluding lifestyle and diet. Aspic Savoury clear jelly made from meat or fish Athletes Persons who participate in sporting events, stocks, often made with gelatin. Used as a setting especially those performed in competitive contexts. A gel or for glazes on foods such as meat and vegetables. variety of sports foods, sports drinks and sports Also available in powdered form. supplements are available to athletes which claim to Aspirators Instruments or equipment for drawing enhance exercise performance or to improve re- fluids by suction from vessels or cavities. covery after physical activity. Ass milk Milk obtained from asses. Close in composi- Atlantic halibut Marine flatfish species (Hippoglos- tion to human milk. sus hippoglossus) of the family Pleuronectidae that is Astacene Pigments fraction of the carotenoids native to the northern Atlantic ocean, but endangered group, derived from astaxanthin. Occurs in crusta- due to overfishing. Aquaculture means the fish is cea and may be extracted from wastes generated by still available for food use. When cooked, the firm, processing sea foods such as shrimps. tender flesh flakes easily and has a mild flavour. Whole fish, fish fillets and fish steaks are available in Astaxanthin Pigments fraction of the carotenoids both fresh and frozen forms. group, occurring naturally in certain crustacea, fish (e.g. salmon and trout), microalgae and yeasts. Atlantic mackerel Commercially important pelagic Used as a feed additive in aquaculture and fed to marine fish species (Scomber scombrus) which oc- laying chickens to improve the pigmentation of curs abundantly in cold and temperate coastal waters, egg yolks. One of several colorants listed as food often forming large shoals near the surface. Flesh is dyes within the E number system operated in Europe firm and fatty with a distinctive savoury flavour. The (E161j) and also marketed in nutraceutical products. species is marketed in fresh, frozen, smoked and Exhibits good radical scavenging activity and po- canned forms and is popularly consumed fried, grilled tential health benefits. or baked. Asthma A breathing disorder that results from spasm Atlantic salmon A well known freshwater of the muscles surrounding the airways of the lungs fish/marine fish species (Salmo salar) of high com- (bronchospasm) that is generally reversible. Narrowed mercial importance; indigenous to geographical areas airways cause shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing linked to the Atlantic ocean but also cultured in other and congestion. Atopic (allergic) asthma is most com- areas. World Atlantic salmon production is more than mon and can be associated with food allergies. A half a million tonnes per year. Flesh has a highly val- wide range of asthma triggers have been identified, in- ued flavour. It is marketed and consumed in a wide cluding environmental pollutants, drugs, cold air and range of forms, including fresh, frozen, smoked and exercise. Asthma triggered by foods is rare; food trig- canned products. 34 Atomic absorption spectrophotometry Autolysis Atomic absorption spectrophotometry Alterna- saka and curries. Also known as egg plants in North tive term for atomic absorption spectroscopy. America and brinjal in India and Africa. Atomic absorption spectroscopy Technique in Aureobasidium Genus of yeast-like fungi of the which the mineral composition of a sample is deter- family Dothioraceae, which occur in fruits, vegeta- mined from the absorption of light by atoms. A mono- bles and sea foods. A. pullulans may be used as a chromatic source of light at a specific absorption postharvest biocontrol agent in fruits to inhibit wavelength is passed through the sample following at- spoilage fungi, as well as for the industrial produc- omization by various means. Often abbreviated to tion of pullulan and various enzymes including pul- AAS. lulanases. Atomic emission spectroscopy Technique in Auricularia Genus of fungi of the class Agaricomy- which the mineral composition of a sample is deter- cetes. Includes edible species, e.g. Auricularia auri- mined from the emission of light from excited atoms at cula-judae (wood ear fungus) and A. polytricha (cloud wavelengths characteristic of the atoms. ear fungus) which grow on dead wood and are popular Atomic force microscopy Imaging technique in in Asian cusine. which the surface of the sample is scanned using a Austamide Tremorigenic mycotoxins produced by small tip to construct a 3-dimensional image. The tip Aspergillus ustus. One of the indole alkaloids. may be in contact with or just above the surface. Mo- Australian chestnuts Seeds produced by the tree, lecular forces exerted against the tip by the surface are Castanospermum australe. Also known as Moreton used by image processing software to give infor- Bay chestnuts or blackbeans. Poisonous when fresh, mation about the surface. but can be consumed after roasting to remove tox- Atomizers Devices that convert a substance into very ins. Common to some parts of Australia, where they fine particles or droplets. are consumed by aborigines. Contain castanospermine, ATP Abbreviation for adenosine triphosphate. an antiviral which has been investigated for possible use in AIDS therapy. ATPases Include EC 3.6.1.3 and members of EC 3.6.3 and EC 3.6.4. Hydrolases which catalyse the hy- Authenticity The genuineness of foods and beverages; drolysis of ATP to ADP as a fundamental energy- can be with respect to various factors, such as ingredi- producing reaction in all living organisms. Can be used ent content, processing methods and geographical ori- to assess denaturation of proteins in meat and gin. For certain foods and beverages, labelling schemes fish during storage. In microorganisms, these en- have been implemented to indicate authenticity. A zymes are widely measured in metabolic studies, and range of methods is used to test authenticity depending are involved in acids resistance and tolerance to on the potential method of adulteration. ethanol. Autoclaves Strong containers employed in processes using high pressures and temperatures, e.g. steam Atrazine Selective systemic triazine herbicide used for sterilization. pre- and post-emergent control of annual grasses and broad-leaved weeds in a range of cereals (particularly Autofluorescence Natural fluorescence emitted corn and sorghum), fruits, vegetables, coffee, by substances, including many biomolecules. Can be oil palms and sugar cane. Often used in combina- exploited in development of analytical techniques tion with other herbicides. Classified by WHO as for their detection. However, can also be a problem unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. when labelling biomolecules or cells with fluorescent probes, e.g. in fluorescence microscopy, since it Atta Indian wholemeal wheat flour used in prepara- increases background fluorescence. tion of Indian bread. Autolysins Endogeneous enzymes found in cell Attalea Genus of palms, including Attalea colenda walls which can hydrolyse certain structural cell com- and A. cohune, used as a source of palm oils. ponents (e.g. peptidoglycans in bacteria) to bring Attieke A traditional product of the Ivory Coast made about autolysis. by fermentation and steam-cooking of cassava Autolysis Process by which the structural components roots. of cells are degraded by their autolysins. Usually oc- Aubergines Egg-shaped fruits of Solanum melon- curs after the cells have experienced a traumatic event gena, a native plant of tropical Asia, but now culti- such as injury or death. May result in the release of in- vated widely in tropical and warm temperate regions. tracellular enzymes from cells, which may play an im- Fruits are usually black or dark purple in colour, al- portant role in cheese ripening. Can be responsible though green, creamy white or yellow varieties are also for inactive cultures or for sensory defects (by auto- available. Consumed as a vegetable, typically fried or lytic products) in wines and beer. stuffed, or used as an ingredient in ratatouille, mous- 35 Autoxidation Azinphos-methyl Autoxidation An autocatalytic oxidation reaction avocado oils. Fruits do not ripen if left on the tree that occurs spontaneously in the atmosphere. Initiators and are usually treated with ethylene in ripening include heat and light. Unsaturated fatty acids rooms to ensure uniform maturation. present in foods are susceptible to autoxidation when Avoparcin Narrow-spectrum glycopeptide antibiot- exposed to the air, with the reaction proceeding by a ics active against Gram positive bacteria. Used in free-radical mechanism. The reaction may result in the past for growth-promoting purposes (improves ab- production of stable nonpropagating products that con- sorption of nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract) in tribute to off flavour. In addition, radicals produced chickens, turkeys, swine and calves. Remains by autoxidation may cause bleaching of food colour virtually unabsorbed within the gastrointestinal tract and destruction of vitamin A, vitamin C and vita- and is rapidly eliminated in the form of the parent min E. This type of deterioration is prevalent in fried compound; no withdrawal period is required. Banned snack foods, nuts, oils and margarines. for use as a feed additive across Europe during 1997, Auxins Plant growth regulators important for and subsequently in many other countries. This fol- ripening and quality of fruits. lowed concerns that continued use of avoparcin in Availability The extent to which dietary nutrients are food-producing animals may lead to acquired bacterial present in a form that can be absorbed and utilized. resistance development in the gut of the animals and Similarly, bioavailability. pose a possible threat to human health by being a con- Avenanthramides Phenols unique to oats that tributing factor to the emergence of vancomycin re- possess antioxidative activity. N-Cinnamoyl deriva- sistant enterococci. tives of anthranilic acid or hydroxyanthranilic acid. aw The symbol for water activity, which is a measure Avenasterol Sterols fraction which occurs in the of the water vapour generated by the moisture pre- unsaponifiable fraction of many vegetable oils. In sent in a hygroscopic product. It is defined as the ratio combination with other sterols, avenasterol concentra- of the partial pressure of water vapour to the partial tion may be used as an index for identification and for pressure of water vapour above pure water at the same monitoring the authenticity of vegetable oils sam- temperature. In foods, it represents water not bound to ples. food molecules. Level of unbound water has marked effects on the chemical, microbiological and enzymic Avenins Glutelins present in oats; the major stor- stability of foods. age proteins of this cereal. Awamori Rice-derived spirits originating in the Avermectins Insecticides and acaricides which Okinawa region of Japan. may be used for control of pests on plants and parasites on animals. May occur as contaminant residues Ayu A fish species (Plecoglossus altivelis) distributed in foods. in western North Pacific waters that regularly migrates Avian flu Also known as bird flu or avian influenza. between the sea and freshwater; some forms remain in Caused by the Avian Influenza A (H5N1) virus. Pri- lakes and rivers for long periods. Ayu are cultured in marily affects poultry, but can be spread by wild several Asian countries and their flesh flavour is birds. First human cases seen in Hong Kong in 1997, highly regarded. Usually marketed fresh and consumed due to close contact with infected birds. Not thought to fresh, fried and grilled. represent a food safety risk, as long as proper han- Azaperone Sedative drug used primarily to reduce dling, cooking and general hygiene procedures are stress in swine prior to and during transportation. Fre- observed. However, can cause severe economic prob- quently administered to animals a few hours prior to lems for poultry producers. slaughter; a high level of active residues in edible Avidin Glycoproteins fraction which occurs in egg tissues is a potential hazard to consumers. Also known whites and binds biotin. as Stresnil. Avocado oils Unsaturated oils rich in oleic acid Azaspiracids Group of toxins produced by marine derived from the pulp of avocados (Persea ameri- algae. Cause food poisoning in people eating con- cana). taminated shellfish, especially mussels. Avocados Common name for Persea americana, also Azinphos-ethyl Non-systemic insecticide and acari- known as alligator pears. A pear-shaped fruit with a cide used for control of chewing and sucking insects leathery green or black skin enclosing yellow to orange and spider mites on fruit trees, vegetables, cereals and flesh and a single pit. Compared with other fruits, avo- coffee plants. Classified by WHO as highly hazardous cados have high protein and oil contents. Traditionally (WHO Ib). marketed fresh and used like a vegetable, they can also Azinphos-methyl Non-systemic organophosphorus be processed into guacamole or used as a source of insecticide used for control of chewing and sucking 36 Azodicarbonamide Azoxystrobin insects on fruit trees, vegetables, cereals, nuts, amaranth, tartrazine, Sunset Yellow and Car- sugar cane and coffee plants. Classified by WHO moisine. as highly hazardous (WHO Ib). Also known as Azotobacter Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram guthion. negative bacteria of the family Pseudomonadaceae. Occur in soil and water. Capable of nitrogen fixation, Azodicarbonamide Oxidizing bakery additives thereby converting atmospheric nitrogen into a chemi- used to age and bleach cereal flour, and to condition cal form which is usable by plants. Azotobacter vine- dough for breadmaking. landii is used to produce alginates. Azodrin Alternative term for the insecticide Azoxystrobin A translaminar systemic and protectant monocrotophos. member of the strobilurin class of fungicides. Active against a broad spectrum of fungi and used on a wide Azo dyes Series of artificial colorants containing at range of crops. Classified by WHO as unlikely to least 1 chromophoric azo group. Examples include present acute hazard in normal use. B

Babaco Common name for Carica pentagona. A seed- Bacitracin Peptide antibiotic produced by the bacteria less pentagonal-shaped fruit, which is related to paw- Bacillus subtilis and B. licheniformis; active against paws and believed to have originated in Ecuador. The Gram positive microorganisms and used (in the form ripe fruit is golden yellow in colour and has a delicate of zinc bacitracin) to promote growth in calves, lambs, strawberry-like aroma. Flesh is very juicy, slightly swine and turkeys. Also used to enhance egg produc- acidic, low in sugar and rich in vitamin C. Immature tion in poultry and for treatment of mastitis in cows. green fruit can be used as a vegetable. Remains virtually unabsorbed in the gastrointestinal Babassu oils Edible oils derived from the babassu tract of animals; distribution in edible tissues is con- (Brazilian palm nut), which have similar fatty acids sidered negligible. composition and physical properties to coconut Backfat Fatty tissue covering the back area on animal oils. Used as a cooking oil, as well as in the manufac- carcasses. In swine, a particularly thick fat layer is ture of soaps and cosmetics. present in the back region, which is thick enough to be separated and used independently. Swine backfat is Babassu palm kernels Softer, central parts of the fairly soft at room temperature. Backfat thickness is babassu nut (Brazilian palm nut) which form the thought to affect attributes of pork such as flavour source of babassu oils. and eating quality. Baby corn Small ears of immature corn, generally Bacon Meat from the sides, backs and bellies of harvested between 2 days before and 3 days after silk- swine, preserved by curing; it may be smoked or un- ing. Baby (dwarf) corn is sold fresh or canned and smoked. When bacon is sold after curing but before generally measures around 4-9 cm in length and 1-1.5 smoking, it is called green bacon, pancetta or raw cm in diameter. Popular in Oriental cuisine. kaiserfleisch. Smoking produces a strong flavour in Baby foods Alternative term for infant foods. bacon. In order to decrease the retail price per kilogram, some bacon manufacturers increase the weight Bacilli Generally refers to any rod-shaped bacterial of their product using water, phosphates and other in- cells. May be used specifically to refer to a member of gredients. Most bacon is sliced into rashers before re- the genus Bacillus. tail; middle rashers have a round eye of lean meat, Bacillus Genus of aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, whilst streaky bacon is the tail end of the loin. A rasher rod-shaped, spore-forming Gram positive bacteria of bacon can contain up to 40% fat. of the family Bacillaceae, which occur in soil and wa- Baconburgers Round, flat cakes of chopped or ter. Some species are used commercially as sources of minced bacon, cooked by grilling or frying. Bacon- enzymes (e.g. glucose isomerases, subtilisins). burgers are usually eaten in bread rolls, and can be B. cereus can cause spoilage of pasteurized milk served with lettuce, tomatoes, onions, pickles, and cream, while B. subtilis and B. licheniformis can mustard and tomato ketchups. cause spoilage of bread. B. cereus is responsible for 2 Bacteria Heterogeneous group of usually unicellular types of food poisoning: diarrhoeal food poisoning, prokaryotic microorganisms, generally possessing a associated with consumption of meat, vegetables, characteristic cell wall, and found in virtually all envi- dairy products, puddings, soups and sauces; ronments. Some cause diseases in humans and animals, and emetic food poisoning, associated with consump- while others are used in the manufacture of foods (e.g. tion of rice, pasta, pastry and noodles. B. an- dairy products). thracis may occasionally cause gastroenteritis asso- Bacterial biomass Quantitative estimate of the total ciated with undercooked meat. B. thuringiensis is an bacteria present in a given habitat, in terms of mass, important insect pathogen used as an agent for bio- volume, or energy. control . Some species have been transferred to the Bacterial counts Estimations of numbers of bacte- genus Geobacillus, including G. stearothermophilus ria in a sample. and G. thermoleovorans. 38 Bacterial spoilage Bag in box packaging Bacterial spoilage Spoilage caused by the action of Bacteriostats Chemical agents that inhibit the growth bacteria. and multiplication of bacteria. Includes several dis- Bacterial spores Spores (either endospores or exo- infectants, spices and antibiotics. spores) formed by bacteria (e.g. Bacillus and Clos- Bacteroides Genus of obligately anaerobic, rod- tridium spp.) under conditions of nutrient limitation. shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family Bac- Endospores are resistant and may be disseminative, teroidaceae. Occur in the oral cavity, respiratory cavity rather than reproductive, while bacterial exospores are and intestinal tract of humans and other animals. Some characteristically reproductive and disseminative. They species are opportunistic pathogens. are generally more resistant than vegetative cells to Bactofugation High speed centrifugation process heat, desiccation, antimicrobial compounds and radia- used to remove most bacterial endospores, yeasts and tion, and can remain dormant for long periods. fungi from milk, thereby extending its shelf life. Bactericides Biological, chemical or physical agents Used to produce milk with a low spore count for that kill bacteria, but not necessarily their en- cheese production to prevent late blowing of hard dospores. Include formaldehyde, peracetic acid, hy- cheese. drogen peroxide and activated carbon. Bactris Genus of palms which includes Bactris gasi- Bacteriocins Peptides produced by specific bacte- paes, also known as pupunha or peach palm, a species ria that possess antibacterial activity. Both purified utilized for its edible fruits and palm hearts. bacteriocins and bacteriocin-producing bacteria are Bacuri Fruits similar to mangosteens produced by used in the food industry, applications including inhi- Platonia insignis or P. esculenta, trees growing in the bition of the growth of pathogens and spoilage or- Amazonian forests of South America. Yellow, with a ganisms. leathery shell enclosing creamy white flesh. Flesh is Bacteriocins resistance Ability of bacteria to eaten fresh or canned, or used in manufacture of prod- withstand treatment with, or exposure to, bacterio- ucts such as purees, jams, ice cream, fruit juices cins. Mechanisms of resistance include decreased and liqueurs. permeability of the cell membrane, alteration of cell Bael fruit Thick-shelled fruits of Aegle marmelos, a receptors and modification or destruction of bacterio- rutaceous tree native to India. The citrus-like fruits are cins by enzymes. rich in vitamin C, with slight astringency, and are Bacteriological quality Extent to which a substance consumed fresh or processed into products such as (e.g. a food) is contaminated with bacteria. juices and jams. Fresh fruits have a yellow pulp, which Bacteriology Scientific study of bacteria. turns reddish brown when dried. Particularly prized for Bacteriophages Viruses that infect bacteria. In their medicinal properties, especially as a treatment for the case of lytic phages, bacterial synthesis of DNA, dysentery. Also known as Bengal quinces or Indian RNA and proteins ceases following infection, and quinces. new phage constituents are synthesized using the host's Bagasse Cane sugar processing waste that is com- transcription and translation apparatus. Following self- posed of unextracted sugar and the remains of the assembly of phages, host cells rupture, releasing sev- sugar cane after milling. Used as a fuel source, in eral hundred new phage particles. Many phages, how- feeds, as a substrate for microbial fermentation and ever, are lysogenic and integrate into the host cell for paper and board manufacture. Also called sugar DNA as prophages. These remain dormant and only cane bagasse and megass. Occasionally refers to undergo the lytic cycle under appropriate environ- wastes from other plants, such as cassava, beets mental conditions. Bacteriophage infection of start- and agave. ers causes significant losses in the manufacture of Bagels Yeasts-leavened rolls with a hole in the mid- cheese and other fermented dairy products. Al- dle, characterized by a glazed crust and a tough chewy tered forms of bacteriophages are often used as DNA texture. Made by dropping into boiling water briefly cloning vectors. before baking. Bacteriophages resistance Resistance of bacteria Bagging Packing of substances, such as foods, into to infection by bacteriophages. Resistance may be bags. mediated by alteration of the cell wall or by various Bag in box packaging Packaging consisting of a intracellular mechanisms, such as restriction modifica- flexible inner bag, which closely fits inside a box. The tion systems. Several resistance mechanisms have been product is contained in the inner bag, which acts to found to be plasmids-based and, potentially, can be keep out atmospheric oxygen. The rigid outer box pro- introduced into bacteria in order to increase their resis- tects the contents. Used widely for breakfast cere- tance to infection. als and also for storing and dispensing wines. 39 Bagoong Banaba Bagoong Fermented salted fish paste originating from Baking powders Bakery additives comprising the Philippines; usually made from an anchovy-like mixtures of sodium bicarbonate, starch and one fish called dilis (Stolephorus indicus) or from young or more acidic substance (e.g. cream of tartar). When herring. moistened and heated, they act as raising agents by Bags Containers with a single opening that are used generating carbon dioxide, bubbles of which have a for storing or carrying items. Made from a variety of leavening effect. flexible materials. Bags for food use are usually made Baking properties Characteristics of cereals, bak- from paper or plastics. The term is also used for ery additives, flour or dough associated with their small perforated paper sacks in which tea leaves or suitability for use in baking. coffee grounds are placed, and which are used to Baking quality Extent to which a flour is able to make small quantities of tea or coffee beverages. produce a well leavened bread, which has optimal Baguettes Small narrow loaves of crusty bread con- texture and an even distribution of air pockets formed taining little or no shortening. Often used to make during fermentation, or good quality bakery prod- sandwiches. ucts. Bajra Indian millet, Pennisetum typhoideum. Balady Middle Eastern unleavened sourdough flat Baked beans Haricot beans (usually navy bread, especially popular in Egypt. beans) that have been baked and canned in tomato sauces. Other ingredients include modified Balsamic vinegar Richly-flavoured dark vinegar starches, water, sugar, salt and spices. A good produced in Modena, Northern Italy, by slow ageing of source of proteins and dietary fibre. grape juices in wooden casks. Frequently used in salad dressings and marinades. Bakeries Facilities in which bakery products are manufactured. Also refers to retail outlets in which Balsam pears Alternative term for bitter gourds. bakery products are sold. Bambara beans Alternative term for bambara Bakers confectionery Alternative term for bakery groundnuts. products, especially those of a sweet nature, e.g. Bambara groundnuts Fruits of Voandzeia subter- cakes. ranea (syn. Vigna subterranea), also known as bam- Bakers yeasts Leavening agents, specifically Sac- bara beans. Grown extensively in the tropics, particu- charomyces cerevisiae, used in making bread and larly Africa. Seeds are rich in starch and proteins, other bakery products, which convert fermentable but low in minerals and contain only about half the sugars present in the dough into carbon dioxide. oil content of true groundnuts (peanuts). Can be Available in fresh (compressed), liquid and dried eaten fresh, boiled or roasted, or ground into meal to (granulated) forms. make porridge or bean cakes. Immature seeds are Bakery additives Ingredients used in making bak- sweeter and easier to cook than mature, hard seeds. ery products with the aim of prolonging shelf life Bamboo Tall tree-like plants belonging to the grass or improving the quality of the finished products. In- family and characterized by hollow woody stems and clude humectants, antifoaming agents, an- edible young bamboo shoots. Of great economic tistaling agents, crumb softeners and texture improv- importance in many areas. Species utilized for bamboo ers. shoots include those belonging to the Bambussa, Phyl- Bakery fillings Fillings used in bakery products, lostachys and Dendrocalamus genera. e.g. cakes and biscuits. Bamboo shoots Emerging ivory-coloured shoots of Bakery product mixes Pre-mixed dry formulations several species of bamboo. These include Bambusa which usually require the addition of liquid ingredients oldhamii, Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Phyllostachys to make batters or dough. edulis. An important component of Oriental cuisine, Bakery products Products in which flour based bamboo shoots are available fresh or canned and have components are major ingredients, and which are a crispy texture. Bitter-tasting shoots require precook- cooked by baking. Include biscuits or cookies, ing due to the presence of cyanogenic glucosides. bread, cakes, doughnuts, scones and tortillas. Banaba Common name for the plant Lagerstroemia Baking Cooking of foods in ovens by surrounding speciosa, the leaves of which are extracted to make with dry heat. The temperature of the oven is varied banaba tea which is drunk as a herb tea, principally depending on the type of food that is to be cooked. in the Philippines and Japan. Banaba leaf extracts also Baking ovens Enclosed chambers or compartments in have blood sugar lowering activity, making them use- which foods are cooked or heated by application of dry ful in treating diabetes mellitus and as major compo- heat (baking). nents in weight reduction products. 40 Banaba tea Barley Banaba tea Aqueous extract prepared from the leaves tain 2-3 hard seeds. The skin is very thin and suscepti- of the banaba tree (Lagerstroemia speciosa) which is ble to bruising. Can be eaten fresh or processed into drunk as a herb tea, principally in the Philippines and products such as jams and preserves. Fruits are a Japan. Claimed to have many beneficial properties for very rich source of vitamin C and represent an impor- health, including insulin-like activity. tant commercial source of the vitamin. Banana juices Fruit juices extracted from ba- Barbados cherry juices Fruit juices extracted nanas (Musa spp.). from Barbados cherries (Malphigia punicifolia). A Banana peel Thick outer skin of bananas, which rich source of vitamin C. helps protect the fruit and whose colour provides a Barbecued foods good indication of ripeness. Occasionally incorporated Meat and other foods cooked out into jams. of doors on a barbecue (originally a revolving spit over an open fire, nowadays more likely to be a wire grid Banana pulps Banana flesh or a preparation made placed over hot charcoals or a gas fire source). Popular from it by mashing. Used as the starting material for barbecued foods include sausages, burgers and manufacture of various products, including banana fish or meat steaks. milkshakes, fruit juices and infant foods. Banana purees One of various fruit purees used as Barberry figs Alternative term for prickly pears. ingredients of foods and beverages or marketed as in- Barbiturates Drugs derived from barbituric acid that fant foods. Prepared commercially from ripe ba- act on the central nervous system to produce a sedative nanas by peeling, mashing, de-seeding, deaeration effect or induce anaesthesia; used to reduce animal and homogenization operations. stress, particularly prior to and during transportation. Bananas Fruits produced by large tropical plants of High levels of active residues in meat may pose a the genus Musa. Wild fruits contain seeds and are in- health hazard to consumers. Examples include barbital, edible, whereas edible cultivars are seedless (sterile) amobarbital and phenobarbital. hybrids, and a good source of carbohydrates and Bar codes Machine-readable codes which contain vitamin A. Yellow dessert bananas are relatively high product specific information. Traditionally bar codes in sugar and are consumed fresh, whereas starchier are formed by patterns of parallel lines of varying plantains (green bananas) are used like a vegetable in thickness with spaces of varying length between them, cooking. Bananas are also widely used in foods such as but 2D barcodes with greater data representation ca- fruit purees, fruit juices and bakery products. pacity are also used. Information is usually read from Bannocks Traditional Scottish flat bread or cakes linear bar codes using light pens or laser/LED scanners made usually from barley flour or oatmeal. Cooked and from 2D codes using camera-based readers. Stan- on a griddle and eaten plain or flavoured, with break- dard international codes are used. Benefits of using bar fast or evening meals. codes include: rapid and efficient data capture; im- Banvel Alternative term for the herbicide dicamba. proved product traceability; the possibility of auto- Baobab Common name for Adansonia digitata, a mated product storage; improved control of product giant tree of the Bombacaceae family, used as a source storage and distribution; time and costs savings; and of foods in many parts of Africa. Baobab fruits are improved customer service. Consumer unit bar codes, similar in appearance to gourds and yield an edible which encode fixed information, are used on primary pulp known as monkey bread, which is used in foods packaging of products intended for sale directly to and beverages. Leaves are also edible and can be made consumers at retail outlets. Traded unit bar codes, into soups or stews, while seeds are ground to pro- which include fixed as well as supplementary product duce a meal (frequently mixed with millet) or used information (e.g. product weight, batch number and for production of baobab oils. Mixtures of milk and time of production), are often compulsory within prod- baobab fruit juices are popular beverages in some uct supply chains. Transport unit bar codes used to la- areas. bel pallets and encode shipping containers are used Baobab oils Oils produced from the gourd-like fruit to track pallets through supply chains. of large trees of tropical Africa which belong to the Barley Edible grain from Hordeum vulgare used as a genus Adansonia. cereal and livestock feed and in malt production. Con- Barbados cherries Fruits from Malpighia glabra tains little gluten, and so is unsuitable for bread- (syn. Malpighia emarginata), a large shrub native to making. Most popular form is pearl barley in which the West Indies and South America. Also known as the outer husk and part of the bran layer are removed acerola or West Indian cherry. The bright red fruits are by polishing. Provides a source of vitamins (e.g. about the size of cherries, but have 3 lobes and con- niacin, folates) and minerals (e.g. zinc, copper, iron). 41 Barley fibre Bavistin Barley fibre Rich source of ȕ-glucans. Used in ing Agaricus mushrooms, puff balls, Boletus and foods as source of dietary fibre, and in thickeners, chantarelles. viscosity stabilizers and improvers. Also added Basil Herb obtained from the genus Ocimum. The main to animal feeds. Demonstrates hypocholesterol- varieties used in cooking are sweet basil (O. basili- aemic activity and antihypertensive activity. cum) and bush basil (O. minimum). Flavour of the May reduce risk of cardiovascular diseases and fresh leaves has been likened to a blend of liquorice improve glucose metabolism. and cloves, while dried leaves are more lemony and Barley flour Ground hulled barley used to make less pungent. Much used in Italian cuisine (particularly unleavened bread and porridges. tomato-based dishes) and a key ingredient of pesto. Barley malt Malt prepared from special malting Baskets Perforated containers used to hold or carry barley cultivars; mainly used in brewing. Barley food. Made from interwoven strips of wood (e.g. bam- malt is the main malt type used in brewing worldwide. boo), twigs, wire, or other lightweight flexible materi- Barley starch Starch isolated from barley. als. The open structure of baskets allows ventilation of Barracuda Pelagic predatory marine fish species the product. Compared with solid containers, the in- (Sphyraena spp.); widely distributed in warmer regions creased flow of air allows greater cooling rates. of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Flesh is firm in Basmati rice A premium long grain variety of rice texture with moderate fat content. Marketed fresh and which has a fragrant aroma and flavour. Cultivated as a salted or dried product. mainly in the Himalayan foothills of India and Paki- Barramundi Fish species (Lates calcarifer) of con- stan. White, brown and easy cook basmati rices are siderable economic importance; found in coastal wa- available. ters, estuaries and lagoons in the southwest Pacific re- Bass Name given to a variety of marine fish and gion. Sold in fresh and frozen form and consumed freshwater fish. In Europe, the name particularly re- steamed, pan-fried, grilled and baked. Cultured in fers to a marine fish species (Dicentrarchus labrax) Thailand, Indonesia and Australia and can reach 1500- widely distributed in eastern Atlantic regions from 3000 g in one year in ponds under optimum conditions. North Africa up to Norway. Enters coastal waters and Barrels Cylindrical containers for liquids and dry river mouths in summer, but migrates offshore in materials. Traditionally made of wooden staves held colder weather and occurs in deep water during winter. together by metal hoops, but may also be made of A highly valued food fish; usually marketed fresh or cheaper and/or more durable materials, such as metal smoked. Also known as European sea bass. or plastics. Oak barrels are used for the ageing of Bastard halibut Marine flatfish species (Paralicthys wines and spirits; constituents of the wood (e.g. olivaceus) from the flounder family (Paralicthyidae), tannins, lignin and fragments, carbohydrates, ac- which occurs in the western Pacific Ocean. Highly ids and esters, volatile phenols, oak lactones, prized as a food fish in Japan. Usually marketed fresh. pyrazines, furfural and norisoprenoids) have ma- Also known as hirame and Japanese flounders. jor effects on flavour of wines and spirits. Barrels are Basting The spooning of liquid over a food during also used as measures for liquids, e.g. beer and oils, cooking to keep it moist. This technique is often used based on the capacity of standard barrels. Also known in the preparation of meat, particularly during roast- as casks or kegs. ing when heating is prolonged. Barrier properties Extent to which materials, includ- Batters Thin liquid mixtures of pouring consistency ing food and beverage packaging materials and made from flour, milk and eggs. May be used as edible films, resist the penetration of substances coatings for foods such as fish prior to frying, or such as water, water vapour or certain gases. cooked on their own to make products such as pan- Bartail flatheads Bottom dwelling fish (Platycepha- cakes, waffles and Yorkshire puddings. lus indicus) found in coastal waters and estuaries in Baumkuchen Moist almond sponge cakes, often South Pacific and Indian Ocean regions; also occurs in baked in the shape of a pyramid. the eastern Mediterranean, where it was recently introduced. A valued food fish that is normally marketed Bavaricins Bacteriocins produced by Lactobacil- fresh and is cultured commercially in Japan. lus spp. Basidiomycetes Terminology used loosely to refer to Bavarois Cold desserts made with eggs, gelatin Basidiomycota, one of two large phyla of fungi that and whipped cream. Also known as Bavarian comprise the subkingdom Dikarya (the other is Asco- cream. mycota). Spores (basidiospores) are produced in the Bavistin Alternative term for the fungicide carben- basidia. Contains many types of edible fungi, includ- dazim. 42 Bay Beauvericin Bay Alternative term for laurel (Laurus nobilis), a frozen or canned, but most are dried to form a long-life small, evergreen tree. May also refer to bay leaves, staple food in many parts of the world. Beans are typi- the herbs obtained from this tree. cally kidney-shaped and a good, inexpensive source of Bayberries Red bayberries (Myrica rubra) are an proteins, fibre and folates. The term is also com- economically important crop in China. Fruits are monly applied to seeds which resemble beans, such as drupes, consisting of soft and succulent segments sur- coffee beans and cocoa beans. rounding a central, cherry-like stone. Size and colour Bean sprouts Young shoots of germinated beans, depend on variety. Have a palatable sugar acid balance particularly mung beans. Rich in vitamins and and contain several vitamins and other nutrients. minerals and a common ingredient in salads and Eaten fresh or processed into fruit juices, wines, Oriental dishes. canned foods, frozen foods and dried foods. Bearberries Berries produced by the bush Arc- Decompose readily under ambient conditions. Stor- tostaphylos uva-ursi, which grows wild in northern and age and transport are difficult. American bayberries Arctic areas of Europe, Asia and North America. Simi- from other Myrica species, also known as candleber- lar in size to currants, with a tough skin and mealy ries, can be ground for use as spices and condi- white pulp containing hard seeds. Eaten raw as an ments. emergency food or used as an extender with other ber- Bay leaves Aromatic leaves obtained from the laurel ries in bakery products such as fruit pies. Extracts tree, Laurus nobilis. Used as a herb to flavour to stews, of leaves from the bush have antioxidative activity, sauces and many other foods. Generally added whole making them of interest in production of natural anti- and removed before serving. oxidants for use in foods. Bayrusil Alternative term for the insecticide qui- Bear meat Meat from bears. In comparison with nalphos. beef, it has high protein and low fat contents. Bear Baytex Alternative term for the insecticide fenthion. steaks can be cooked like beef, but the meat may be Bdellovibrio Genus of aerobic Gram negative bac- tough so it is often marinated for a couple of days in teria of the family Bdellovibrionaceae. Occur in soil, oil and wine or vinegar. In some countries, such as sewage and in both fresh and marine waters. Charac- Thailand, wild bear meat may be consumed raw or par- teristically intracellular parasites of other Gram tially cooked, and is consequently a source of trichi- negative bacteria, reproducing between the cell wall nosis. and plasma membrane of the bacterium and ultimately Bears Members of the widespread mammalian family killing it. May have potential for the control of spoil- Ursidae; there are several species including Asiatic age bacteria and pathogens in foods. black bears (Selenarctos thibetanus), polar bears Beach peas Seeds produced by Lathyrus maritimus (Thalarctos maritimus) and grizzly bears (Ursus arc- or L. japonicus, leguminous plants growing particu- tos). Bears are hunted for their skins and for bear larly along the shores of Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, meat. but also in coastal areas of Europe and Asia. New Beating Vigorous stirring of cooking ingredients, stalks may be cooked by stir frying, steaming or usually in a circular motion with the intention of incor- boiling. After the plant has flowered, young pods are porating air. cooked and eaten like snow peas. These young pods Beauty foods Health foods, beverages or supple- are rich in vitamin B complex, ȕ-carotene and pro- ments specifically intended to provide beauty benefits teins. Also known as sea peas and seaside peas. for consumers, for example by improving the appear- Beakers Tall, wide-mouthed plastics or glass con- ance of the skin. Also referred to as cosmeceuticals. tainers, often with a pointed lip for pouring. Also Beauveria bassiana Species of entomopathogenic used to describe simple drinking vessels without han- fungi of the family Cordycipitaceae. Anamorph of dles commonly made from clays or plastics. Cordyceps bassiana. Occurs naturally in soils. Used as Bean curd Coagulated product obtained from beans. a biocontrol agent against insect pests such as bee- Used particularly with reference to soy curd (tofu). tles, thrips and corn borers. Produces the mycotoxin Bean jams Sweet bean pastes, such as ann, which beauvericin. form the basis of many Japanese confectionery Beauvericin Cyclic hexadepsipeptide mycotoxin pro- products. duced by Beauveria bassiana and several Fusa- Bean pastes Pastes prepared from beans such as rium strains. Possesses insecticidal properties and an- soybeans, e.g. miso or ann. timicrobial activity, being active against Gram Beans Seeds which grow in pods produced by plants positive bacteria and mycobacteria. One of the en- such as Phaseolus spp. Some beans are eaten fresh, niatins group of antibiotics. May be produced in 43 Beche de mer Bees Fusarium-infected cereals. A specific cholesterol be used in preparation of beef tea, an extract of stewing acyltransferase inhibitor that is toxic to several human beef that may be used as a food for invalids. cell lines and can induce apoptosis and DNA frag- Beef loaf Meat products prepared primarily from mentation. beef mince, but also containing pork mince or pork Beche de mer Name commonly given to edible sea sausagemeat. Other ingredients may include on- cucumbers (Holothuroidae; Stichopus spp. and Cu- ions, tomato purees, garlic, white bread, milk, cumaria spp.); a popular delicacy in Japan, China and herbs, eggs and seasonings. The ingredients are the Philippines. Marketed in gutted, boiled and dried mixed before baking in a loaf tin. Once cold, beef loaf forms. can be cut into firm slices. Generally, it is served cold. Beech nut oils Yellow oils derived from the kernels Beef mince Meat mince prepared from beef which of Fagus sylvatica, which are rich in olein and contain is available in several grades; these primarily relate to stearin and palmitin. Used as a cooking oil and salad the percentage of fat in the mince. For example, beef oil. mince may be graded as: extra lean; lean, which has Beef Meat from cattle, including bulls, calves, cows, good flavour but does not shrink excessively on cook- steers and oxen. Quality is determined largely by ing; or regular, which is usually made from lower cost breed, age and gender of the animal; it is also influ- cuts of beef. Also known as ground beef or minced enced by animal feeding, slaughtering technique and beef. treatment of the meat post-slaughter. Tenderness Beef muscles Alternative term for beef. and flavour are increased by hanging cattle car- Beef patties Meat patties prepared from beef casses (ageing/conditioning). Raw fresh beef is mince. They include hamburgers. usually bright red in colour with creamy coloured Beef products Processed foods such as jerky, marbling; however, meat from older cattle, particu- patties and sausages that are made from beef. larly bulls, tends to be darker in colour. Composition Beef roasts Joints of beef which are intended for varies with fat content and between different cuts, e.g. cooking or have been cooked by roasting. brisket, forerib, rump and silverside. Cuts which con- Beef sausages Sausages made primarily from tain few connective tissues can be cooked by beef. They may include pork, but the proportion of roasting, frying or grilling; however, tougher cuts this is less than that of beef. should be cooked by stewing or braising, in order to Beef steaks Thick slices of high-quality beef taken soften the connective tissue. During the 1980s and from the hindquarters of cattle carcasses, including 1990s, markets for beef were affected negatively by sirloin, porterhouse, T-bone, fillet and rump steaks. consumer health concerns relating to high levels of They are usually cooked by grilling or frying. saturated fats in red meat and to prion diseases, particularly bovine spongiform encephalopathy Beer Alcoholic beverages manufactured by alco- (BSE). Legislation is now in place to prevent BSE- holic fermentation of worts using either top or bot- infected beef from entering the food chain, but all beef tom fermenting brewers yeasts. The malt is com- on sale in the EU must be labelled with its country of monly barley malt, but other malt types, including origin to ensure traceability. Alternative term for wheat malt or sorghum malt may be used. Non- beef muscles, bovine muscles, bull muscles, calf meat, malted cereals or other brewing adjuncts may be calf muscles, cattle muscles and cattle tissues. used in combination with the malt. Beer is commonly, but not always, flavoured with hops. Beefburgers Round, flat cakes of beef mince, cooked by grilling or frying. Beefburgers are usually Beermaking Alternative term for brewing. prepared from beef mince with a high content of fat. Beer manufacture Alternative term for brewing. They are commonly eaten in bread rolls, served with Bees Insects of the order Hymenoptera that are of lettuce, slices of onion and tomato ketchups. commercial importance due to the ability of some spe- Beef extracts Water-soluble extracts prepared from cies to produce beeswax, honeys and royal jelly. beef, used widely as flavourings. Preparation in- Some bee species of Halictidae or Apidae families volves immersion of beef mince in boiling water to have evolved to living in social groups or colonies. leach out the water-soluble extractives, and concentra- One of these species, the honeybee (Apis mellifera), tion. Direct extract can be produced by exhaustive ex- produces a bee colony or comb, constructed of hex- traction of beef; it contains a high concentration of agonal cells composed of beeswax, in which to store gelatin. Beef extracts are rich nutritional sources of food (honeys), and house insect eggs and larvae and the vitamin B group; they can be formulated for use the reproducing female bee or queen. Bees also have as spreads for bread, as flavourings, and, when an important role in pollination of plants, including mixed with water, as beverages. Beef extracts can also fruit trees. 44 Beeswax Beluga whales Beeswax Yellow-coloured substance secreted by bees and thick juices are formed by concentration of the thin to make honeycombs. Solid, but easily moulded when juices. warm. Consists of esters, cerotic acid and hydrocar- Beet sugar molasses Alternative term for beet bons. Used to make edible wax coatings for foods molasses. and edible films. Aqueous extracts may be used as fla- Beet sugar products Products generated by beet vourings. sugar factories. Refers to both intermediate and end Beetles Members of the large insect order Coleoptera, products, including beet sugar juices, beet mo- characterized by thickened shell-like forewings and lasses, beet sugar syrups and exhausted sugar membranous hind wings. Tribolium castaneum and beet cossettes. Sitophilus oryzae are common insect pests of stored Beet sugar syrups Highly concentrated aqueous grain. Larvae of some species may be consumed as in- solutions of beet sugar produced by evaporation sect foods. of purified beet sugar juices (thin beet sugar Beet molasses Molasses produced as a by-product juices). of beet sugar refining. Beet molasses commonly Behavioural effects Alterations in human behaviour contain approximately 60% sucrose. Also called beet that can result from dietary constituents. Examples in- sugar molasses. clude modulation of mood, cravings and cognitive Beetroot juices Juices extracted from beetroots performance. (bulbous roots of Beta vulgaris). Consumed on their Behenic acid Synonym for docosanoic acid. One of own or mixed with other vegetable juices, e.g. car- the constituent fatty acids of the lipids fraction in rot juices, or fruit juices. Also drunk after fermen- various food plants. A low uptake from the digestive tation. Useful as natural colorants due to the pres- tract makes it potentially useful in preparation of low- ence of the red pigment betanin. High contents of ni- calorie natural fat products. trates and nitrites, which might limit this applica- Beijerinckia Genus of nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the tion, can be removed by incubation with denitrifying family Beijerinckiaceae whose fermentation prod- microorganisms. ucts include exopolysaccharides with potential additives thickeners stabi- Beetroots Bulbous, crimson red, roots of Beta vul- use as food such as or lizers garis, grown widely in Europe and America. Con- . The type species is Beijerinckia indica. sumed as a boiled vegetable, pickled or used as the ba- Bell peppers Large, sweet-tasting fruits of Capsi- sis for borshch. The red pigmentation of the root is cum annuum with bell shaped pods that can vary in due to the presence to betanin. colour from green and white through to shades of red, orange, yellow and purple. One of the most popular Beets Fleshy roots produced by plants of the genus types of sweet peppers; many different cultivars are Beta, such as sugar beets, used as a source of sugar, available, most of which are non pungent. Can be eaten and beetroots, which are eaten as a vegetable. raw in salads or added to a variety of cooked dishes. Beet sugar Sucrose purified from roots of sugar Belly fat White adipose tissues found lining the beets (Beta vulgaris). Stages of beet sugar manufac- bellies of animals, and in particular the pork bellies ture include: cleaning and cutting of roots; hot water of swine. These fats are used as ingredients in various extraction of sugars; purification of beet sugar foods, e.g. processed meat products. juices by precipitation of impurities with lime- Belona Commercial cereal-based product composed of phosphoric acid or lime-CO2 treatments; filtration to wheat, wheat protein concentrate, defatted soy meal, remove solids; concentration of the purified beet sugar refined soybean oils, vitamins and minerals. juices; and crystallization of the pure beet sugar. Used in weaning foods in Nigeria. Commercially available beet sugar comprises t99.80% Beluga Freshwater fish species (Huso huso); the sucrose and <0.05% moisture. largest member of the sturgeon family (Acipenseri- Beet sugar factories Factories that contain process- dae); also known as great sturgeon. Found in the basins ing lines equipped for refining of sugar from sugar of the Black and Caspian seas in Europe. Highly val- beets (Beta vulgaris). Factories also usually contain ued and sought after, mainly for its roe (caviar); flesh sugar storage and packaging facilities. is also sold fresh, smoked and frozen. Bester, a hybrid Beet sugar juices Aqueous solutions of beet sugar of female beluga and male sterlet (Acipenser produced during processing of roots of sugar beets. ruthenus), has been successfully cultured for produc- Raw juices are solutions produced by direct hot water tion of high quality caviar. extraction of the roots and contain beet sugar and im- Beluga whales Species of whales (Delphinapterus purities. Thin juices are purified beet sugar solutions leucas) widely distributed in the Arctic Ocean, which 45 Bengal gram Bergamot essential oils is still hunted on a subsistence level by indigenous Benzoates Salts of benzoic acid, used as antim- people of Canada and Alaska for whale meat, blub- icrobial preservatives in foods. ber and other raw materials. Also known as white Benzoic acid Organic acid which, along with its salts, whales. is used in antimicrobial preservatives for a wide Bengal gram Indian name for chick peas. range of foods. Bengal quinces Alternative term for bael fruit. Benzophenone Organic compound of chemical for- Benlate Alternative term for the fungicide benomyl. mula C13H10O, also a member of the ketones and polyphenols chemical classes. Has a geranium- or Benomyl Systemic benzimidazole fungicide which is rose-like aroma and been used in flavourings. Also used for control of a wide range of fungal diseases of used as a photoinitiator for curing (cross-linking) of fruits, vegetables and cereals. Often used in con- inks via UV irradiation and as a UV filter in plastic junction with other pesticides. Degradation in plants packaging materials. Benzophenone residues in and animals is relatively slow. Classified by WHO as inks or from plastics are considered sources of con- unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. tamination for foods through migration from food Bentazone Selective contact herbicide used for con- contact materials. trol of certain weeds in crops, particularly cereals and Benzopyrene Carcinogenic and mutagenic poly- vegetables. Rapidly metabolized to various deriva- cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) fraction tives in plants and animals and degrades rapidly in which occurs as a contaminant in foods. soils. Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO Benzothiazole Member of the heterocyclic com- III). pounds class of flavour compounds, occurring in Bentonite Type of absorbent clay (a colloidal hy- a range of foods. May cause taints in some foods. drated aluminium silicate) formed by the breakdown of Benzyladenine One of the plant growth regula- volcanic ash that has the ability to absorb water with tors which may be used to improve ripening and an increase in volume. Bentonite uses in the food in- quality of fruits. May also be used as a thinning agent dustry include fining agents for winemaking, in cultivation of fruits. clarifiers for fruit juices and vegetable oils, bakery additives to reduce staling, stabilizers Benzyl alcohol Aromatic alcohol which is a constitu- and filter aids. ent of the flavour compounds and aroma compounds in various fruits and spices, and in plant- Benzaldehyde Aromatic aldehyde which is one of the derived products such as alcoholic beverages. flavour compounds in a wide range of foods. 6-Benzylaminopurine Plant growth regulator used to Benzene Aromatic hydrocarbon which exists as a control processes such as ripening and senescence, colourless liquid with a sweet odour and which can and composition of fruits, vegetables and cereals. evaporate into the air and dissolve in water. Widely used in industry in the manufacture of chemicals and a Benzyl isothiocyanate One of the typical flavour range of substances including plastics, rubber, dyes, compounds in vegetables and spices of the fam- detergents, drugs and pesticides. Carcinogenic in ily Cruciferae; formed by hydrolysis of glucosi- humans at high doses. Present as a pollutant of air from nolates. May display cytotoxicity and anticar- a variety of sources, and has also been found as a con- cinogenicity. taminant in drinking water, mineral waters and Benzylpenicillin Alternative term for the antibiotic soft drinks. Contamination of carbon dioxide used in penicillin G. processing can lead to the presence of benzene in car- Berberries Berries produced by Berberis vulgaris. bonated beverages. Ripe fruits are edible, but unripe berries contain toxic Benzidine Toxic and carcinogenic aromatic amine alkaloids. Bright orange red when ripe with a tart which may occur as a contaminant in foods, especially flavour. Can be made into jellies, pickled, used as a some colorants. Benzidine and its derivatives are garnish or made into spirits and liqueurs. Their juice also used as reagents in food analyses. is rich in vitamin C. Also known as barberries. Benzimidazole A heterocyclic compound comprising Ber fruits Alternative term for jujubes. fused benzene and imidazole rings which forms the Bergamot essential oils Essential oils obtained structural basis of a group of fungicides and from the bergamot orange. Main use is in flavourings anthelmintics including albendazole, benomyl, for Earl Grey tea. Also used in citrus flavourings for carbendazim and thiabendazole. The residues soft drinks and in some natural fruit flavourings, of these compounds may occur as contaminants in such as apricot. Contains bergapten, a skin sensitizer. foods. Alternative term for bergamot oils. 46 Bergamot oils Bifidobacterium Bergamot oils Alternative term for bergamot es- of alkaloids such as arecoline. Chewing of betel quid sential oils. is associated with an increased risk of oral cancer. Bergapten Furocoumarin of the psoralens group of Beutelwurst Types of blood sausages derived flavour compounds, characteristic of bergamot from pork and swine offal (including intestine and essential oils. Also occurs in celery and parsley. brain), and encased in swine intestines. A regional spe- Bergkaese cheese Hard cheese made from unpas- ciality in Germany. teurized cow milk in Switzerland, Austria and Ger- Beverage concentrates Concentrated solutions or many. Traditionally made from milk of cows grazing syrups which may be diluted to prepare beverages, mountain pastures. Similar to Emmental cheese. e.g. soft drinks. Alternative spelling is bergkase cheese. Beverage mixes Mixtures of ingredients which may Berries Name commonly applied to various small, be dissolved to prepare beverages, e.g. soft drinks. juicy, stone-less fruits. Include strawberries, bil- Beverage powders Beverage mixes in the form berries and loganberries. In a botanical sense, the of powders, which are dissolved in water or other liq- term relates to fruits having a pulpy edible part con- uids prior to dispensing or consumption. taining one or more seeds, such as cranberries, Beverages Liquids intended for drinking. Types in- grapes and bananas. clude alcoholic beverages, soft drinks, teas, Berry juices Fruit juices extracted from any of a coffee, cocoa beverages, dairy beverages, range of berries, including: bilberry juices, health beverages, fruit beverages, soy bever- blackcurrant juices, cranberry juices, elder- ages and drinking water. berry juices, hawthorn juices, raspberry juices, Beverages factories Factories in which beverages redcurrant juices and strawberry juices. are manufactured or processed. Betacoccus Former name for the genus Leu- Beyaz cheese Turkish semi-soft cheese made from conostoc. raw ewe milk. Usually made with vegetable ren- Betacyanins Red/violet pigments of the betalains nets and stored in brines for at least 6 months before group, which occur naturally in red beets and other consumption. Used in salads, pastries and many plant foods. Used as natural colorants in foods. local dishes. Similar to feta cheese. Betaine Soluble nitrogen compounds occurring in BHA Abbreviation for butylated hydroxyanisole. a range of foods, especially sugar beets, molasses BHC Abbreviation for benzene hexachloride. Alterna- and beet sugar factory wastes. May be included in tive term for the insecticide HCH. flavour compounds, and have antioxidative ac- BHT Abbreviation for butylated hydroxytoluene. tivity. Bierschinken Ham sausages containing coarsely Betalaines Alternative term for betalains. cut pieces of meat, originally made in Germany. Top Betalains Class of pigments naturally occurring in quality bierschinken contains more than 60% coarsely fruits and vegetables, especially those derived from cut, cured, tendon-free meat, with good cohesion in plants of the Caryophyllales family. Include red/violet slices of thickness 1 mm. Medium quality bierschinken betacyanins and yellow betaxanthin. May be used contains half or more coarsely cut meat, including as food colorants. pieces of meat which vary in size from cubes of side Betanin Member of the betacyanins group of pig- length 2 cm to egg-sized pieces. ments, characteristic of red beets. May be used as Bierwurst Chunky, tubular, dark red coloured, cooked natural colorants. German sausages. They are prepared from beef and Betaxanthin Yellow pigment of the betalains group. pork; the meat is chopped and blended, and season- Betel leaves Aromatic leaves of the Asian climbing ings, such as garlic, are added. The sausages are plant, betel vine (Piper betle). Used to wrap betel cooked at high temperature and smoked. They are usu- nuts for the ritual chewing of betel quid. Also used as ally sliced and served cold in sandwiches. Alternative an edible wrapping for food in some Asian countries. term for beerwurst or beer salami. Betel nuts Acorn-shaped seeds of the betel palm, Bifidobacterium Genus of anaerobic, rod-shaped Areca catechu, also known as areca nuts. Seeds are Gram positive bacteria of the family Bifidobacteri- used medicinally as an antihelminthic, but are most aceae. Occur among the normal microflora of the commonly used for the ritual chewing of betel quid, a urogenital and gastrointestinal tracts. B. bifidum may popular masticatory, comprising betel nuts, slaked lime be incorporated into some starters used for the manu- and spices wrapped in betel leaves (Piper betle). facture of fermented dairy products. Some species Chewing of this preparation is widespread throughout (e.g. B. lactis, B. longum and B. breve) may be used as Asia, and causes mild stimulation due to the presence probiotic bacteria. 47 Bifidus factors Bioactive peptides Bifidus factors Dietary constituents, particularly a Bile salt hydrolases Alternative term for choloyl- component of human milk, that promote growth of glycine hydrolases. Bifidobacterium in the gastrointestinal tract. Bile salts Alkaline salts present in bile involved in This activity is demonstrated by certain prebiotic oli- emulsification of fats in the intestine. Include so- gosaccharides, lactulose and derivatives of gly- dium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate. coproteins. Biltong Traditional South African intermediate mois- Bifidus milk Fermented milk containing Bifido- ture meat product prepared from meat of domestic bacterium spp. that make the product beneficial for animals or game, but mainly from beef. Meat is cut intestinal health. into strips, trimmed and dipped in a solution of salt, Bigeye snapper Common name widely used for the and sometimes preservatives and spices, prior to fish species Priacanthus tayenus and Priacanthus drying to the desired moisture content. The dried prod- macracanthus belonging to the family Priacanthidae. uct may also be smoked. Consumed by chewing the These marine fish, which are widely distributed strips or by grating to a powder which can be spread on across the Indo-West Pacific ocean, are of minor bread. commercial importance, and are generally frozen and Binders Alternative term for binding agents. subsequently processed for surimi or a fermented fish Binding agents Substances used as additives in a mince, with by-products including gelatin produced range of foods to hold ingredient mixtures together, from the processing wastes. Some authorities attrib- providing adhesion, solidification and correct ute this common name to the marine fish species Lut- consistency. Can include various polysaccha- janus lutjanus or L. lineolatus belonging to the snap- rides (such as celluloses and gums) and proteins. per family (Lutjanidae). Binding systems comprising enzymes, such as Bigeye tuna Marine fish species (Thunnus obesus) transglutaminases or thrombin, in combination from the tuna family. Found in the Atlantic, Indian and with other proteins have also been employed. Also Pacific Oceans but absent in the Mediterranean. Flesh known as binders. from this tuna species is highly prized; used for sa- Binding capacity Ability of one substance to attach shimi production in Japan. Marketed mainly canned to another. or frozen but also sold fresh. Bins Large containers used for storing specified sub- Bighead carp Freshwater fish species (Aristichthys stances or containers used for depositing rubbish. Also nobilis) belonging to the carp family (Cyprinidae) and used to describe partitioned stands for storing bottles of high commercial importance. Widely distributed of wines. throughout the world. Marketed fresh and frozen. Bioaccumulation The net accumulation of com- Bilberries Dark blue berries produced by the Euro- pounds or metabolites in an organism due to ingestion pean shrub Vaccinium myrtillus. Also known as or environmental exposure. Particularly used to refer to whortleberries and similar in flavour to American the accumulation of contaminants such as pesti- blueberries. Rich in vitamin C, they can be eaten cides and toxins. raw or used in products such as pies, jams, jellies Bioactive compounds Substances which display and fruit wines. biological activity, e.g. immunomodulation, opioid Bilberry juices Fruit juices extracted from bil- activity, antihypertensive activity or hypolipae- berries (Vaccinium myrtilis). mic activity, upon ingestion. Found in a range of Bile acids Steroidal acids present in bile, which play foods, and are of interest to the functional foods an important role in digestion and absorption of sector. Include bioactive peptides (occur widely in fats. Cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acids (primary dairy products), many vitamins and fatty acids, bile acids) are produced by the liver from cholesterol flavonoids and phytosterols. and are secreted as glyco- and tauroconjugates into Bioactive peptides Peptides produced from plant bile. On secretion of bile into the lumen of the gastro- or animal proteins, which display biological activity intestinal tract, bile salts bind colipase, allowing (e.g. opioid activity, immunomodulation or anti- lipolysis of triglycerides, and also participate in hypertensive activity), and are of interest to the formation of micelles facilitating absorption of lipids. functional foods sector. Milk proteins are a par- Dehydroxylation of primary bile acids by intestinal ticularly rich source of bioactive peptides, such as ca- bacteria generates secondary bile acids (deoxycholic sein phosphopeptides, ȕ-casomorphins and lacto- and lithocholic acids). Bile acids can be reabsorbed as ferricin. Peptides that inhibit activity of peptidyl- part of the enterohepatic circulation. dipeptidase A (ACE inhibitors) are found in a 48 Bioassay Biological membranes number of food sources and have potential use as anti- involve alterations in flavour, aroma, appearance or hypertensive functional food ingredients. texture. The organisms involved are typically bacte- Bioassay Technique for measuring the biological ria and fungi, and their activity is dependent on fac- activity of a substance by testing its effects in living tors such as nutrients present, aw, pH, temperature material such as a cell culture. and degree of aeration. Bioavailability Extent to which a dietary component Biofilms Films of microorganisms, usually embed- can be absorbed and utilized by the target tissue of the ded in extracellular polymers, which adhere to surfaces body. Nutrients with low bioavailability may be in a submerged in or subjected to aqueous environments. form that is poorly absorbed from the gastrointesti- Possess increased resistance to detergents and antibiot- nal tract (e.g. lysine combined with reducing ics, as the extracellular matrix and outer layers of the sugars as a results of the Maillard reaction, min- cells protect the interior of the community. Frequently erals in the presence of antinutritional factors cause fouling of the surfaces of water pipes. In cooling such as phytates) or may be biologically inactive water systems, can reduce heat transfer and harbour once absorbed. Legionella. Presence on food preparation surfaces Biocatalysts Substances that catalyse biochemical can cause hygiene problems. processes in living organisms. The most well known Bioflavonoids Flavonoids present in a wide range examples are enzymes, although RNA may also ful- of plant foods, some of which exhibit potential health fil this function. benefits. Biochemical oxygen demand Alternative term for Bio foods Term used to describe biotechnologi- biological oxygen demand. cally derived foods or functional foods. Biochemistry Science of the chemistry of living or- Biogarde German yoghurt-like acidophilus milk ganisms. usually made with starters containing Streptococcus Biocides Chemical agents, such as pesticides, her- thermophilus, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifido- bicides and fungicides, that are toxic or lethal to bacterium bifidum. living organisms. Biogas A mixture of gases produced by anaerobic Biocontrol Deliberate exploitation by humans of one digestion of organic wastes, comprising mainly meth- species of organism to eliminate or control another. ane and carbon dioxide with traces of hydrogen, Commonly involves introduction into the environment nitrogen and water vapour. Used as a fuel. Product of parasites, insects or pathogens which can in- of bioremediation of many types of food processing fect and kill or disable particular insect pests or wastes. weeds of crop plants. Also known as biological con- Biogenic amines Amines (e.g. histamine, trol. tyramine, tryptamine, putrescine) synthesized by Bioconversions Utilization of the catalytic activity decarboxylation and hydroxylation of amino acids of living organisms to convert a defined substrate to a by microbial enzymes. Can cause allergic reactions. defined product in a process involving several reac- May be formed in cheese, wines, chocolate and tions/steps. The term is often used interchangeably fermented foods. with biotransformations. Advantages include the Bioghurt German yoghurt-like acidophilus milk ability to operate under mild conditions, the ability to usually made with starters containing Streptococcus produce specific enantiomers and the ability to carry thermophilus and Lactobacillus acidophilus. out reactions not possible using conventional chemical Biohydrogenation Hydrogenation reactions cata- synthesis. Bioconversions differ considerably from lysed by living organisms. Frequently refers to mi- fermentation, since in the latter, the products often croorganisms acting on free fatty acids in the ru- bear no structural resemblance to the pool of commen of dairy cattle. May reduce the synthesis of milk pounds given to the microorganisms. fats in these ruminants and affect milk composition, Biodegradability Ability of a substance to undergo leading to increases in trans fatty acids. biodegradation. Biological activity Activity of compounds, generally Biodegradation Degradation of a substance as a re- organic in origin, within living organisms. For food- sult of biological (usually microbial) activity, render- derived chemicals, this is generally a non-nutritional ing it less noxious to the environment. property, such as antimicrobial activity, antioxi- Biodeterioration Deterioration (spoilage) of an dative activity, immunomodulation or other object or material as a result of biological (usually mi- physiological effects. crobial) activity. Biodeterioration of foods causes them Biological membranes Selectively permeable to become less palatable and sometimes toxic, and can membranes containing mainly lipids and proteins 49 Biological oxygen demand Biotechnology products that surround the cytoplasm in eukaryotic and prokary- Bioreactors Vessels for generating products using the otic cells. Can also contain carbohydrates and synthetic or chemical conversion capacity of a biologi- sterols. The precise composition depends on the spe- cal system, e.g. involving enzymes or a cell cul- cies and, in some cases, on growth conditions and age ture. Examples include fermenters, stirred tank of the cells. The lipids (phospholipids and glycol- bioreactors and membrane bioreactors. During ipids) usually form a bilayer within which proteins are fermentation, microorganisms can be grown partly or wholly embedded, some spanning the entire freely suspended in bioreactors or as immobilized width of the bilayer. Artificial biological membranes cells, and their fermentation products can include (liposomes) are often used to transport biological biomass, large molecules such as enzymes or other molecules. proteins, and a wide variety of organic com- Biological oxygen demand Amount of dissolved pounds. Also used for bioremediation of industrial oxygen required for microbial oxidation of biodegrad- effluents, such as food industry waste water. able matter in an aquatic environment containing or- Bioremediation Use of microorganisms and/or ganic matter, such as sewage, water or milk. Gives an enzymes to reduce the pollution potential of indus- indication of contamination by microorganisms trial effluents, such as food industry waste water, which take up oxygen for their metabolism. Also converting them to less hazardous forms. Can also be known as biochemical oxygen demand or by the ab- used to generate biomass and biogas. breviation BOD. Biosensors Biomolecular probes that can be used to Biological values Indication of the nutritional value measure a variety of parameters in biological systems of food proteins. Relative measure of the amount of by translating a biochemical interaction at the probe absorbed proteins retained by the body, assuming no surface into a quantifiable physical signal. Immobili- loss of protein nitrogen during digestion. Values are zation of enzymes, antibodies, receptors, DNA, highest for egg proteins (0.9-1.0) and milk pro- cells or organelles on the surface of a transducer forms teins (0.85), with meat proteins and fish proteins the basis of various biosensors. Used widely in the (0.7-0.8), cereal proteins (0.5-0.7) and gelatin (0) food industry for measuring levels of various compo- having lower values. nents in foods and beverages, detection of con- Biology Science of the properties of living organisms tamination and adulteration, and for monitoring and the interactions of these organisms with their envi- and process control of fermentation processes, ronment. bioconversions and biotransformations. Bioluminescence Production of light as a product of Biosurfactants Potent surface active agents pro- biochemical reactions by organisms including bacte- duced by a variety of microorganisms, including ria, fungi, some fish and fireflies. Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus, Candida, Cory- Biomagnification Form of bioaccumulation, de- nebacterium, Mycobacterium, Acinetobacter scribing the accumulation of residues in living or- spp., Bacillus subtilis, Serratia and Thiobacillus spp. ganisms and increases in their concentration through Low molecular weight biosurfactants are often glycol- food chains. Particularly used for increases in levels of ipids, and high molecular weight biosurfactants are toxins or other contaminants. generally either polyanionic heteropolysaccharides containing covalently-linked hydrophobic side chains Biomarkers Objective and measurable biological or complexes containing both polysaccharides and pro- indicators. Can be indicators of normal biological teins. Biosurfactants have a number of advantages over processes, pathogenic processes, and exposure and re- their chemical counterparts, such as biodegradabil- sponse to chemical, physical or biological agents. Used ity, effectiveness at extremes of temperature and pH, widely, such as: to monitor the progression of dis- and lower toxicity. Biosurfactants are used in the food eases; to assess exposure to dietary constituents and industry as emulsifiers and stabilizers. contaminants; and to evaluate response and compli- ance during diet therapy and pharmaceutical inter- Biotechnologically derived foods Foods produced ventions. by means of biotechnology. Biomass Quantitative estimate of the total population Biotechnology In its broadest sense, any industrial of living organisms present in a given habitat, in terms process in which microorganisms are used. More of mass, volume or energy. commonly used for those industrial processes in which genetic engineering Biomycin Alternative term for chlortetracycline. techniques have been used to construct novel strains to improve their properties and Biopolymers Polymers which occur in living organ- produce new products. isms. Included in this group of macromolecules are Biotechnology products polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids. Products produced by microorganisms in biotechnological processes. 50 Bioterrorism Bitter acids Bioterrorism Use of biological agents for terrorist Biscuit factories Factories in which biscuits are purposes, e.g. by introducing pathogens or toxins manufactured. into foods or water supplies, or by releasing pests Biscuits Bakery products that vary greatly in size, to destroy crops. shape and texture, but are generally small, thin and Biotin A water-soluble vitamin in the vitamin B short or crisp. Usually made with flour, butter or group, involved in the biosynthesis of fatty acids vegetable shortenings, sugar and sometimes a and the metabolism of amino acids and fatty acids. leavening agent; other ingredients, e.g. cocoa, Rich dietary sources include egg yolks, cattle liv- chocolate chips, dried fruits, nuts, cheese or ers and yeasts. Avidin, a protein present in raw egg flavourings, are added according to the type of bis- whites, can act as a vitamin antagonist by binding cuits to be made. Usually eaten as snack foods, of- biotin and reducing its bioavailability. Also known ten with beverages. Can be eaten as part of a meal as vitamin H and coenzyme R. along with cheese. Called cookies in the USA, where Biotransformations Specific modification of a de- the term biscuits refers to soft, scone-like products. fined compound to a defined product with structural Bison Humpbacked, shaggy coated members of the similarity through the use of biological catalysts (en- family Bovidae. There are two species: the North zymes, or whole dead or resting microorganisms). American bison (Bison bison); and the European bison Advantages are the same as those for bioconver- (B. bonasus). Bison are reared on game farms for bi- sions. son meat production, particularly in the USA and Biphenyl Fungicide which inhibits fungal sporula- Canada. tion, used primarily to control fungal growth on the surface of stored citrus fruits. Residues on fruits Bison meat Meat from bison. Bison meat is very sometimes persist throughout the storage period. Clas- lean and tender, and has a similar flavour to lean sified by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in beef; it has no pronounced gamey flavour. normal use. Also known as diphenyl. Bisphenol A Common name for 4,4ƍ- Bird foods Foods specifically produced for pet isopropylidenediphenol, an intermediate used in pro- birds. Frequently used ingredients include seeds, duction of epoxy, polycarboate and phenolic resins. nuts and dried fruits. Most are formulated to meet Polycarbonates, plastics used in a wide range of the nutrition needs of particular species. Also include products including microwave cookware and food live foods (various worms and insects), organic pet containers, are formed by reaction of bisphenol A foods, nestling/weaning foods, extruded pet with phosgene. Bisphenol A is also used in coatings foods. Can be in the form of pellets. for cans. There are concerns over the possibility of Bird rape Oilseeds produced by Brassica rapa or migration of bisphenol A monomers from cans or B. campestris. containers into foods as intake might have endocrine Birds Warm-blooded vertebrates in the class Aves that disrupting effects. have wings and feathers and lay eggs. Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether Constituent of epoxy Birds nests Edible birds nests are nests made by resin coatings used in food cans or food storage con- swifts and swallows, especially species of the genus tainers. Residues may migrate into the foods in the Collocalia, in which minor feathers are mixed with ge- cans or containers. Often abbreviated to BADGE. latinous strands of saliva. Used in traditional Chinese Bisphenol F diglycidyl ether Occur as contami- medicine and Chinese cuisine. Most commonly eaten nants of canned foods, particularly fish, such as in birds nest soups, but also used in other dishes. tuna, mackerel and sardine, and vegetables, such Nests are often relatively inaccessible, making them as tomatoes, due to migration from can coatings. expensive and prone to fraud. Authenticity can be Components of epoxy resins used as inner can coat- established by analysis of either the amino acids or ing materials. Potential endocrine disrupters with the oligosaccharides of the glycoproteins. anti-androgenic activity. Also demonstrate cytotoxic- Birefringence The optical property of a substance, ity against epithelial cells in the gastrointestinal usually a crystal, in which a ray of light passing tract. through the substance is separated into two plane- Bisulfites Hydrogen sulfite salts used in antimicrobial polarized rays (double refraction). The effect can occur preservatives and antioxidants in foods and bev- when the velocity of light in the material is not equiva- erages. lent in all directions, resulting in different refractive indices for light polarized in different planes. Bitter acids Bitter compounds in hops, specifi- Biscuit dough Dough used to make biscuits. cally Į-acids (humulones) and ȕ-acids (lupulones). 51 Bitter almond oils Blackcurrants Bitter almond oils Oils rich in oleic acid derived Bitter pit Physiological disorder of apples associated from seeds of bitter almonds. Contain benzalde- with low calcium concentrations in the fruit. hyde and hydrocyanic acid; the latter compound, Bitter principles Alternative term for bitter com- which is toxic, is removed during extraction. Used in pounds. flavourings. Bitto cheese Italian cheese made on an artisanal Bitter almonds Common name for nuts produced by scale from cow milk or cow milk mixed with not Prunus dulcis (syn. P. amygdalus). Too bitter for fresh more than 10% goat milk. Granted Denomination of consumption and also contain highly toxic hydro- Origin status. Rind has a characteristic straw-yellow cyanic acid, or hydrogen cyanide. Cultivated mainly colour which intensifies with ripening. Texture and for manufacture of bitter almond oils (principal flavour vary with stage of ageing, young cheese be- component benzaldehyde), which are used as fla- ing soft with a sweet and slightly aromatic flavour, vourings following removal of the hydrocyanic acid. while older cheese acquires a piquant flavour and is firmer. Used as an ingredient in local cooked dishes Bitter compounds Compounds with a bitter taste; and salads. these may be used as flavourings in foods or bever- Bivalves Molluscs from class Bivalvia having paired ages, e.g. hops bitter acids in beer, or quinine in shells (valves) usually connected by a hinge that per- soft drinks. mits the valves to open and close. The four major Bitter gourds Ovoid orange-yellow fruits from the groups of bivalve are clams, oysters, scallops and tropical climbing plant Momordica charantia. Fruits mussels. Most bivalves inhabit marine waters; many are also known as balsam pears and have a characteris- species are caught or cultured for human consumption. tic bitter taste, which can be minimized by salt-water Bixin Fat-soluble carotenoid obtained from the seeds treatment, and by selecting young fruits. Bitter gourds of Bixa orellena. The main colouring component of can be eaten raw in salads, cooked as a vegetable or annatto, and also used as a colorant in its own right, used in pickles and curries. Contents of vitamins, e.g. in margarines, salad dressings and bakery minerals and essential amino acids are similar or products. superior to those of other Cucurbitaceae. Young shoots Black beans Small, mild, earthy-flavoured beans. can also be eaten as a substitute for spinach. Usually sold dried. One of the many varieties of Bitterness Flavour produced by bitter com- common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), they are jet pounds such as caffeine and other alkaloids, often black in colour with a creamy flesh. Widely consumed at low thresholds. in Latin America and the Caribbean, e.g. in black bean soups. These are not the same as the black beans used Bitter orange essential oils Essential oils ob- in Oriental cuisine, which are black soybeans. tained from the peel of bitter oranges by cold pressing. They are yellow-orange in colour and Blackberries Large, purple or black glossy berries have a more delicate aroma than sweet orange oils. from Rubus fruticosus and certain other Rubus spp. The main constituent is limonene, but other compo- (wild and cultivated). Eaten raw or used in jams, nents include myrcene, camphene, pinenes and pies, vinegar and wines. Also known as bramble- cymene. Bitter orange essential oils are used as fla- berries. Many similarities to dewberries. vourings by the food industry. Blackberry juices Fruit juices extracted from blackberries (Rubus spp.). High in vitamin C. Bitter oranges Citrus fruits from the tree Citrus Black cumin Dark seeds of Nigella sativa, used as aurantium, also known as Seville oranges, sour or- spices in foods such as curries, pickles, bread and anges and bigerade oranges. The sourness of these cheese, in a similar manner to cumin. Occasionally fruits means they are not eaten raw and are instead known as nigella or black onion seeds. The term is used to produce marmalades, candied peel and fla- sometimes used to refer to dark varieties of true cumin. vourings. The peel is a source of bitter orange essential oils. Blackcurrant juices Fruit juices extracted from blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum). Rich in vitamin C. Bitter peptides Peptides, formed during enzymic Generally diluted or blended with other fruit juices be- hydrolysis of proteins, which have a bitter taste and fore consumption. may impair the sensory quality of the food. Bitter pep- Blackcurrants Small, purple/black berries produced tides derived from casein may be a particular prob- by Ribes nigrum, mainly grown and consumed in lem in cheesemaking. Bitter peptides may also France, the UK and Germany. Eaten fresh or cooked, cause problems in soy products and protein hydro- or used for manufacture of blackcurrant juices or lysates. Treatment with peptidases may eliminate blackcurrant-based liqueurs such as cassis. quality problems attributable to bitter peptides. 52 Blackeyed peas Bleaching Blackeyed peas Variety of cowpeas (Vigna ungui- Black spot Alternative spelling for blackspot. culata). Blackspot Disease of plants presenting as black Black gram Common name for Vigna mungo (syn. blotches, loss of leaves and rotting, resulting from ei- Phaseolus mungo) also known as urd beans or ther bacterial or fungal infections. Can also refer to the munggo. A tropical pulse widely consumed in India result of mechanical injury to plant foods such as po- and South East Asia. Many different cultivars, typi- tatoes during handling, which is characterized by cally with a green or brown coloured seed coat. Con- black patches. In addition, used to describe the black sumed in split, boiled or roasted forms or processed discoloration of crustacea, such as prawns, into dhal for use in fermented foods such as idli. which can occur during chilled and frozen storage. Black gram sprouts are popular in Asia. Green pods Black tea Tea prepared from Camellia sinensis leaves can be boiled and used as a vegetable. which have undergone a fermentation stage in which Black nightshade Common name for Solanum ni- changes in phenols and flavour compounds oc- grum. Generally regarded as a nuisance plant, but con- cur. sumed as a leafy vegetable in parts of Kenya and other Black truffles Common name for the pungent edible parts of Africa and Asia. Ripe berries are also eaten fruiting bodies of Tuber melanosporum. Sensory in some regions. Plants and their fruits contain solana- properties are largely due to the presence of or- ceous glycoalkaloids and can have toxic effects. ganic sulfur compounds, and vary according to Black olives Term used for table olives that have geographical origin (found mainly in Spain, France either been harvested when fully ripe (also known as and Italy). Black truffles from the Perigord region of untreated or natural black olives), or which have been France are particularly prized. Certain other species harvested at an unripe stage, darkened by oxidation such as T. indicum, T. himalayense and T. brumale and treated with alkalies to remove bitterness. share similar morphological characteristics making Black pepper Pepper made from the unripe green identification difficult. berries (peppercorns) of Piper nigrum, which are Bladders Edible offal from animals. Bladders are sun dried to give a black, wrinkled appearance, and hollow non-fiberized collagen-containing muscular then ground to a fine powder. Flavour is more aro- organs. Dried urinary bladders, such as cattle bladders, matic and pungent than that of white pepper. are used as sausage casings. In some cultures, con- Black puddings Large cooked blood sausages sumption of raw gall bladders from certain species of with a compact texture, prepared from swine blood, fish is believed to improve health; however, there are suet, breadcrumbs and oatmeal. They are almost reports of acute hepatitis and renal failure associated black in colour. Usually they are sold precooked, but with this practice. Swim bladders in fish have a high are often reheated by sauteing before serving. collagen content, and in some countries are used to Black rice Cultivars of rice (Oryza sativa) containing produce foods. anthocyanins, which give a characteristic dark pur- Blakeslea Genus of fungi of the family Choan- ple coloration to the grains. The pigments may be ephoraceae. Occur as saprotrophs on decaying vegeta- extracted and used as natural colorants. ble matter, soil or dung, or as parasites or patho- Black salsify Root crop from Scorzonera hispanica, a gens of plants and animals. Blakeslea trispora is used member of the Compositae family. The parsnip- in production of ȕ-carotene and lycopene. shaped, black-skinned root is a source of inulin and is Blanching Plunging of foods (particularly vegeta- consumed as a boiled vegetable or used in coffee bles and fruits) firstly into boiling water for a brief substitutes. Also known as scorzonera or black oys- period, and then into cold water to stop the cooking ter plant. Salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius) is a similar process. Blanching is used to firm the flesh and to white rooted plant. heighten and set colour and flavour (e.g. of vegeta- Black sea sprat Euryhaline fish species (Clupe- bles before freezing), and to loosen peel prior to onella cultriventris) from the herring family (Clupidae) peeling (e.g. of peaches and tomatoes). Inactivates found in the Black Sea (northwestern parts), Sea of enzymes, thus prolonging the shelf life of frozen Azov and Caspian Sea in eastern Europe; also known foods. as kilka. Processed and marketed in similar ways to anchovy. Blancmanges Sweetened cooked desserts made with milk, thickened with cornflour or gelatin and Black soybeans Soybeans that have been fer- flavoured, e.g. with vanilla. Served cold with sauces mented and preserved by salting. Blackish in colour or fruit toppings. and used for the preparation of black bean sauces and meju. Bleaching Making a material whiter or lighter by a chemical process or by exposure to sunlight. 53 Bleaching agents Blossom end rot Bleaching agents may be employed. For example, article of food. As a food, it must not be contaminated oils can be bleached using fuller's earth, activated with stomach ingesta, urine or foreign material. Pre- carbon or activated clays. Many impurities, including liminary processing includes whipping or defibrina- chlorophylls and carotenoid pigments, are ad- tion to prevent clotting; anticoagulants, such as sodium sorbed onto such agents and removed by filtration. citrate or sodium phosphate, may be added to blood for When some oils are heated, heat bleaching takes place, human consumption. Both blood and blood compo- in which pigments such as carotenoids are converted nents are used in foods; e.g., as ingredients in blood to colourless materials. sausages, comminuted meat products and dry Bleaching agents Substances used to make a mate- protein concentrates. rial whiter or lighter by a chemical process. Examples Blood pressure The pressure of blood within the include fuller's earth, activated carbon and activated arteries which, in general, is governed by cardiac out- clays, which are used to bleach oils. Impurities are ad- put and arterial tone. Arterial pressure cycles from a sorbed onto such agents, which are then removed by minimum at diastole (diastolic blood pressure), when filtration. Other bleaching agents used in the food in- the heart is filling, up to a maximum at systole (sys- dustry include chlorine, chlorine dioxide, sodium tolic blood pressure), when the heart is at peak contrac- metabisulfite and hydrogen peroxide. tion. Can be affected by a range of dietary components. Bleeding Removal of as much blood as possible from Blood proteins Include both plasma proteins and an animal's body during slaughter; also known as ex- proteins from the cellular components of blood, par- sanguination. Bleeding should be performed soon after ticularly albumins, globulins and fibrinogen. stunning. Thorough bleeding is an essential step in Commonly, they are recovered from blood by ultrafil- conventional slaughter. As blood is an excellent me- tration. Blood proteins from animals have many food dium for growth of spoilage bacteria, retained blood uses; for example, they are used as binders in sau- can lead to early decomposition of meat; moreover, sages and as ingredients, particularly as emulsifi- excess blood in meat is unappealing to consumers. In ers, in other foods. general, only about 50% of total blood volume can be removed; the remainder is held mainly in vital organs. Blood sausages Cooked sausages produced using In sheep and cattle, bleeding is usually effected by cattle and/or swine blood, but also including ingredi- severing the carotid arteries and jugular veins; in ents such as diced, cooked pork fat, cooked meat swine, the anterior vena cava is usually severed. mince, gelatin-producing materials, oatmeal, Blending The mixing and combining of two or more bread, apples, chestnuts, onions, cream and a ingredients with a spoon, beater or electric blender to wide range of spices. Flavourings used vary from form a harmonious combination. This term also relates region to region, and national preference for texture to a mixture of two or more flavours combined to ob- also varies. For example, French, Italian and Spanish- tain a particular character and quality, as in wines, style blood sausages are moist and have a loose tex- teas and blended whisky. ture, whilst German and English versions are more compact. Blood sausages are usually sold precooked, Blesboks Medium-sized antelopes (Damaliscus but tend to be grilled or fried whole, or cut into slices dorcas phillipsi) found in elevated grasslands of South and grilled before serving. Varieties produced in dif- Africa. Hunted as game. Meat is red, with a low fat ferent countries include blutwurst in Germany, mor- content, and is tender and juicy when cooked. Eaten cilla in Spain, black puddings in the UK, boudin fried, grilled, roasted or in dishes such as casseroles noir in France and biroldo in Italy. and stews. Also made into biltong or jerky. Blights Any of various plant diseases that cause Bloom Spoilage of chocolate by deposition of fats rapid withering of aerial plant parts (leaves, stems, or sugar. Fat bloom is the appearance of white spots fruits). Can cause severe economic and quality losses (composed of crystals) on the surface of chocolate, in crops, e.g. potato blight, caused by Phytophthora caused either by cocoa butter triacylglycerols un- infestans infection of potatoes, or Fusarium head dergoing polymorphic transition at the surface, or by blight in wheat. cocoa fats rising to the surface of the chocolate as a Blood A red viscid liquid consisting of a straw- result of high or fluctuating temperatures. Sugar bloom coloured liquid portion, plasma, in which various types is deposition of sugar crystals on the surface of choco- of blood cells are suspended, including: red blood cells late, caused by excessive moisture. (erythrocytes); white blood cells (leukocytes); and Blossom end rot Physiological disorder of plants platelets. Plasma also contains dissolved proteins, associated with calcium deficiency. Affects toma- fats, minerals, salts and sugars. Blood collected toes and some other crops such as watermelons and hygienically from slaughtered food animals forms an peppers. 54 Blotting Boars Blotting Transfer of nucleic acids and/or proteins photosynthesis. Occur in fresh, brackish, marine and either directly or from a gel to a chemically reactive hypersaline waters. Some freshwater bloom-forming matrix (e.g. nitrocellulose), on which the nucleic ac- strains (e.g. Anabaena, Microcystis and Nodularia) ids/proteins bind covalently in a pattern identical to produce potent cyanotoxins (saxitoxin, micro- that on the original gel. After blotting, target molecules cystins and nodularin, respectively) which may con- are detected through the use of complementary labelled taminate reservoirs. Tainting of drinking water sup- nucleic acids or antibodies. Includes northern plies by such cyanobacterial blooms may cause illness blotting, Southern blotting and western blot- or death in humans and animals which drink the water. ting. Blue mussels Common name for mussels of the Blowing Defect of cheese, also known as late blow- species Mytilus edulis or M. galloprovincialis which ing, that leads to gas formation and abnormal flavour have high commercial value. Distributed worldwide. development during ripening. Caused by butyric Due to high demand, wild populations are supple- acid fermentation by Clostridium tyrobutyricum, a mented with mussels produced by aquaculture. pasteurization-resistant contaminant of milk that can Blue whiting Marine fish species (Micromesistius occur when animals have been fed silage. poutassou) from the cod family (Gadidae) which is Blubber Thick, subdermal lipid layer found in ceta- widely distributed across the northern Atlantic Ocean cea and other large marine animals, often forming up and also occurs in the west Mediterranean Sea. Has to 25% of the animal's total weight and acting as an tender white fine-textured flesh with a flaky delicate insulator. May often become contaminated by or- flavour. Marketed fresh and frozen (mainly headed ganochlorine compounds such as polychlorinated and gutted), and also processed for fish oils and fish biphenyls (PCB). Frequently consumed by Arctic meal. In France, this fish is utilized for the production inhabitants. of fish balls. Blueberries Edible, smooth-skinned dark blue ber- Blutwurst Salty, spicy blood sausages, originally ries of several species of Vaccinium, grown predomi- made in Germany, that are prepared from pork, beef nantly in North America. Fruit of V. corynbosum are and cattle blood. Commonly, they are eaten as a snack known as highbush blueberries, while those of V. an- or mixed with sauerkraut. Sold precooked, but usu- gustifolium are known as lowbush blueberries. Berries ally heated before serving. are similar in flavour to European bilberries and con- Board Long, flat, usually rectangular, piece of rigid or tain a wide range of phytochemicals and antioxidant semi-rigid composite material used to make containers, vitamins. Eaten raw or consumed in baked or other e.g. boxes or cartons. Available in various types processed foods. that differ in composition and thickness, including Blueberry juices Fruit juices extracted from blue- cardboard, paperboard and fibreboard. berries (Vaccinium spp.). Boar meat Pork produced from entire male swine carcasses. In comparison with pork produced from Blue cheese Hard white cheese with blue veins. It castrated male swine, boar meat comes from leaner usually has a tangy or spicy flavour. In addition to be- carcasses which have larger eye muscles, and the meat ing eaten as a dessert cheese, it is also used in salad has a better flavour. However, consumers may avoid dressings, dips and sauces. boar meat because it is perceived to be associated with Blue crabs Marine crabs (Callinectus sapidus) boar taint. Other problems may include poor slicing found on the Atlantic coast and Gulf coast of the USA. properties, poor rind finish and soft fat, skin blemishes The most commercially valuable crab species con- from fighting, poorer yields of matured bacon, high sumed in the USA. Usually marketed fresh, in soft and carcass pH values, lower keeping quality, and presence hard shell stages. of the PSE defect. Bluefish Marine fish species (Pomatmus saltatrix) of Boars Mature entire male swine. Usually those used high commercial value belonging to the family Poma- for breeding, but can also relate to those used for meat tomidae. Widely distributed in all world oceans with production. Production of boar meat has certain eco- the exception of the eastern and north-western Pacific nomic advantages to the producer, as boars grow faster Ocean. Mainly marketed fresh, but also sold frozen, and use feeds more efficiently than castrated male dried or salted. A popular game fish, produced com- swine; they are thus a source of cheaper lean meat. mercially by aquaculture. However, boars are more excitable than castrated male Blue green algae Older term for cyanobacteria, a swine and fighting may occur during transport and large group of prokaryotic, photosynthetic, unicellular lairage, causing stress, skin damage, high carcass pH or filamentous organisms, which differ from other bac- values, rapid spoilage and the PSE defect in the meat teria in that they possess chlorophyll a and carry out produced. In broader use, the term is used to describe 55 Boar taint Bone health mature males of certain other mammalian species, such Boiled sausages Sausages that are heat processed as guinea pigs or hedgehogs. by boiling during manufacture. Examples include Pa- Boar taint An unpleasant off odour and off flavour, riska, Posebna and Hrenovke sausages. which arises when meat from certain swine is heated. Boiled sweets Sugar confectionery products Also known as boar odour. Boar taint occurs mainly in formed by boiling sugar and glucose syrups with boar meat but may also occur, to a lesser extent, in flavourings and other ingredients as required, to pork from female and castrated male swine. Boar taint form a glassy mass upon cooling. sensitivity differs markedly between consumers; nota- Boilers Fuel-burning devices for heating water in bly, more women than men are able to detect it. The which foods can be immersed and cooked. major compounds responsible are androstenone and Boiling Process of raising the temperature of a liquid, skatole in swine fat. Taint associated with skatole is by application of heat, to the point where it bubbles characterized by the descriptors mothball and musty, and turns to vapour. The term also means cooking and that associated with androstenone by parsnips, si- food in a boiling liquid. lage, sweaty and dirty. An integrated approach to man- Boiling point Temperature at which a liquid boils. agement of boar taint has been proposed, involving This occurs when the vapour pressure of the liquid is techniques such as immunocastration, genetic selection equal to the atmospheric pressure of the surrounding and processing of tainted meat. environment. Usually abbreviated to b.p. Bockwurst Mildly flavoured, fresh or parboiled Ger- Boletus A large genus of wild fungi, many of which man sausages, a type of bruehwurst, made from are edible. B. edulis (also known as cep) is one of the veal and pork, usually with a higher proportion of best known edible species. It is found throughout veal. Recipes often include chives, chopped parsley, Europe and can be fried, baked in casseroles, used in eggs and milk. The sausages have a short shelf life salads or soups, or dried. B. badius is another edible and require thorough cooking before they are eaten. species with a similar flavour to B. edulis. Traditionally, they are served with bock beer, espe- Bologna Smoked, cooked sausages prepared from cially during Bavarian bock beer festivals in Germany. finely minced, cured pork and/or beef. Their name BOD Abbreviation for biological oxygen demand. originates from the city of Bologna in Italy, but true Body Texture term relating to the fullness of a prod- Italian bologna is known as mortadella. Bologna of uct; especially applied to wines. various diameters can be purchased in rings, rolls or Body composition Anthropometric parameters slices; they are retailed fully cooked and ready to describing the percentage of lean mass (which includes serve. Types of bologna include chub bologna, beef muscles, bones, organs and water) and fat mass in the bologna and ham-style bologna. body, which together make up a person's body wt.. Bolti Common name, used especially in Egypt, for the Bodying agents Additives used to impart desirable freshwater fish Oreochromis niloticus (formerly Ti- lapia nilotica), also known as Nile tilapia. Of high body, viscosity and consistency to foods. Often used to improve texture of low calorie foods. commercial importance. Widely distributed in lakes and rivers in Africa and also produced by aquacul- Body mass index Index of human obesity which is ture. Marketed fresh and frozen. calculated as the weight in kilograms divided by the Bombay duck Marine fish species (Harpodon ne- square of the height in metres. The normal range is hereus) from the Indo-West Pacific; primarily caught usually quoted as 20-25 kg/m2. along the coast of the Maharashtra region of India. Re- Body wt. The weight of any animal, including hu- garded as an excellent food fish with jelly-like flesh mans. Measured in kilograms, pounds, or stones and having high moisture content. Marketed fresh and as a pounds. The body mass index is often employed to dried/salted product. assess whether body weight deviates from optimal, Bonbons Generic term for sugar confectionery. such as in obesity. Applied to a variety of types of sweets, often with a Bogue Marine fish species (Boops boops) of high chewy centre. commercial importance belonging to the porgies fam- Bone health The physical condition of the skeleton, ily (Sparidae). Found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, including size, strength and structure. Bone health can Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Marketed fresh and be affected by a number of factors, including genet- frozen and eaten pan-fried, broiled or baked. ics, diet and lifestyle, demographic characteristics Boiled ham Boneless ham, which is cured, shaped and and diseases. Calcium and vitamin D are well fully cooked by steaming or boiling. It is sold whole known for their role in bone health; however, several or is sliced and packaged before retail. other dietary components affect the health of the skele- 56 Bone marrow Borshch ton, including other vitamins and minerals and sarda (Atlantic bonito), S. chilliensis (Pacific bonito) phytoestrogens. Inadequate bone nutrition is as- and S. orientalis (Oriental bonito). Fat content of flesh sociated with a number of diseases, including rickets, ranges from moderate to high; the most strongly fla- osteoporosis, bone fractures and growth retardation. voured of the tunas. Marketed mainly fresh; also dried- Bone mineral density is an intermediate marker of salted, canned and frozen. bone health. Boondi Deep fried fritters made with Bengal gram Bone marrow Soft, gelatinous, highly vascular con- meal and eaten as snack foods in India. nective tissues that occur in certain long bones. Re- Borage Common name for the Mediterranean herb, sponsible for producing red blood cells as well as Borago officinalis. Leaves have a flavour reminiscent many white blood cells. When bones of high marrow of cucumbers and are consumed as a vegetable or content are used during mechanical recovery of meat, used in flavourings for beverages, soups and the lipid and haem concentrations of the recovered salads. The purple star-shaped flowers are used as a product are increased, and the tendency of the meat to garnish, often in crystallized form. Seeds are used for undergo oxidation is increased. production of borage oils. Bone mineral density Level of mineralization of Borage oils Oils derived from seeds of borage bone. Measurements can be taken by dual energy X- (Borago officinalis) which contain -linolenic acid, ray absorptiometry or ultrasound, and are used in the Ȗ palmitic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid. clinical assessment of osteoporosis risk. Many dietary and lifestyle factors have been proposed to modu- Borassus Genus of palms which includes Borassus late bone mineral density, including positive effects flabellifer, also known as palmyra palm, a species being reported for dietary calcium, tea, soy isofla- which yields edible fruits and whose inflorescence is vones and vegetable proteins. a source of palm wines, sugar and vinegar. B. Bones Components of the skeleton made from hard, aethiopum (black rum palm) is also utilized as a source rigid structural material. Bones are composed of an or- of ingredients for foods and beverages. ganic matrix of collagen, osseoalbumoid and os- Bordeaux mixture Broad-spectrum fungicide origi- seomucoid; this is impregnated with mineral salts, nally developed in France to control disease in particularly calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate grapes. Made by mixing copper sulfate and hydrated and magnesium phosphate. Fluorides and sulfates lime in water. Used to control disease in a wide range are also present. The central cavities of most bones of tree fruits and vine fruits, and blights in pota- contain red bone marrow; however, the cavities of toes. the long bones contain yellow marrow. Bones are Boric acid Mineral acid with chemical formula processed to produce fats and gelatin. Chopped H3BO3. Has mild antiseptic properties and uses include bones may be boiled to prepare bone broth. Degreased as an insecticide against ants and cockroaches and animal bones are used to prepare bone meal, which is as a fungicide in food crops. Also used in buffers and used as a supplementary source of calcium and phos- for chemical analyses. Historically used in food pre- phates in foods and feeds, and as a source of phos- servatives. phates in plant fertilizers. Bone charcoal is used in Borneol Member of the terpene alcohols class of fla- sugar refining and in bleaching. Specialized bone vour compounds present in many fruits, herbs powders are used to remove fluorine from drinking and spices. water. Bongkrek Traditional Indonesian type of tempeh Borneo tallow Seed lipid from Shorea stenoptera made by fermentation of presscake of coconuts or which is rich in palmitic acid, stearic acid and coconut milk residue with Rhizopus oligosporus. oleic acid. Shows a sharp melting profile due to its Consumption can lead to fatal food poisoning due to high content of a single triacylglycerol (stearic acid- contamination of the product with Pseudomonas oleic acid-stearic acid, SOS) and may be used in co- cocovenenans (Burkholderia gladioli), strains of coa butter equivalents. which produce the toxins toxoflavin and bongkrekic Boronia Genus of woody flowering plants. Flowers acid; favourable conditions for optimum production of some species, especially Boronia megastima, yield coincide with conditions under which bongkrek is essential oils which are used in fruit flavourings manufactured. for foods and beverages. Boning Removal of the bones from meat or fish, Borshch Soups made from meat stocks, beet- usually before cooking. roots and cabbages. Popular in Russia, the Ukraine Bonito Any of several species of medium sized tuna, and Poland. Served hot or cold, usually with a dash of especially those from the genus Sarda, including S. sour cream. 57 Botanical origin Bovine spongiform encephalopathy Botanical origin Origin of plants or plant foods. Bouillon Thin, unclarified broths or soups typically Can be used to detect adulteration or establish au- made by boiling beef or chicken in water. Similar to thenticity. stocks. Botrytis Genus of fungi of the family Sclerotiniaceae Bouquet Aroma of foods or beverages, in particular, and phylum Ascomycota. Includes species which are that of wines. plant pathogens. Botrytis cinerea commonly affects Bourbon whiskey A type of American corn whis- winemaking grapes and strawberries, causing key, originally made in Bourbon County, Kentucky, either grey rot (bunch rot) or noble rot. Bunch rot on USA. grapes can cause serious losses to the wines industry. Noble rot infection of grapes can be beneficial to Bovine Relating to or belonging to the cattle family. winemaking; the fungus dehydrates the grapes, giv- Bovine immunodeficiency viruses Lentiviruses ing the berries a higher percentage of solids (sugars, which cause lymphadenopathy, lymphocytosis, central organic acids and minerals) and giving rise to a nervous system lesions, progressive weakness and more intense, concentrated final product with distinc- emaciation in cattle. tive flavour. Bovine muscles Alternative term for beef. Bottled mineral waters Mineral waters which have been packaged in bottles for distribution and re- Bovine serum albumin Protein fraction present in tail sale. cattle blood and frequently used as a model in studies on factors influencing properties and behaviour of Bottled water Any type of potable water which has food proteins. been packaged in bottles for distribution and retail sale. Bovine somatotropin Alternative term for bovine Bottles Portable containers often made from glass growth hormone. Recombinant bovine somatotropin or plastics, used to hold or store liquids. Typically with may be administered to cattle to modify milk produc- narrow necks, which can be closed with caps, corks tion, growth rate, or composition of cattle carcasses or stoppers. The term also refers to metal containers or beef. This application is permitted in some coun- which are used to transport and store liquefied gases. tries but prohibited in others due to concerns about the Bottling Process of putting substances into bottles for safety of food products. storage and preservation. Most commonly applied Bovine spongiform encephalopathy Commonly to beverages, such as wines, fruit juices and abbreviated to BSE, one of a group of prion dis- beer, but also used to describe a method of preserving eases, this one affecting cattle. BSE can be transmit- fruits in syrups or in the form of jams. After the ted to humans and other animal species via contami- products have been placed in the bottles, the containers nated cattle-derived foods and feeds. Individual cattle are sealed with corks or other closures to prevent in the UK were probably first infected with BSE in the air or microorganisms from entering and causing 1970s, but BSE was not formally identified until No- spoilage. vember 1986. It is believed to have developed because Bottom fermenting yeasts Brewers yeasts of intensive farming practices, particularly the inclu- (Saccharomyces spp.) which flocculate and collect sion of meat and bone meal from animal carcasses at the bottom of the fermentation tank during fer- in cattle feeds. BSE may have originated in an individ- mentation of beer. Used in brewing of a range of beer ual cow as a consequence of a gene mutation and types, including lager. spread to other cattle because cattle remains were recycled in cattle feeds. In cattle, BSE has a 5-year incu- Botulism Foodborne disease caused by ingestion of bation period. BSE became widely recognized as a food contaminated with botulotoxins produced by threat to human health when variant Creutzfeldt- Clostridium botulinum. Symptoms include vomiting, Jakob disease (CJD) was identified in 1996 and abdominal pain, visual disturbances and difficulty in linked with the consumption of BSE-infected beef. speaking and swallowing. Foods commonly implicated Extensive action was taken to prevent further entry of are low-acid, low-salt foods (e.g. improperly canned prions into the human food chain and legislation is in vegetables and soups, and fish and meat prod- place, which it is hoped will eventually eradicate BSE. ucts). The farming industry in the UK, the worst affected Botulotoxins Extremely potent neurotoxins pro- country, has suffered severe damage as a result of the duced by Clostridium botulinum, which cause botu- BSE epidemic, but is recovering, and the number of lism. Also known as botulinus toxins, botulinum tox- suspected cases reported each week has fallen signifi- ins, botulins and botulismotoxins. cantly. 58 Bovista Brassicasterol Bovista Genus of fungi of the class Basidiomycetes. has a well-balanced amino acid composition. Brains Bovista plumbea (lead puffball) and B. nigrescens have a very high content of fat, a large proportion of (dark puffball) are edible mushrooms. which is made up of complex phospholipids and gly- Bowels Common name for the large and/or small in- colipids. Brains are a rich source of minerals (espe- testines. They form a part of edible offal. cially Fe, P, Ca and Mn) and vitamins B2 and B12. Bowls Round, concave containers which can be Braising Light frying of foods (usually meat or used for holding foods. Usually hemispherical and vegetables) followed by stewing in a small amount open at the top. Made from various materials, includ- of liquid at low heat for a lengthy period of time in a ing glass, wood and plastics. Also a specific type closed (tightly covered) container. The long, slow of drinking goblet. cooking develops flavour and causes tenderization Boxes Containers, often with four sides perpendicu- of the food by gently breaking down fibres. Braising lar to the base and a cover or lid. Made from various can be undertaken on stoves or in ovens. materials, including wood, cardboard and plastics. Bran Protective outer layer of the seeds of cereals that Can be used to store or package foods. is separated from the kernels during milling. Often Boxthorn Common name for the solanaceous plant used in breakfast cereals and other products as a Lycium chinense, also known as matrimony vine. source of dietary fibre. Fruits and leaves are used as vegetables or infused Branched chain fatty acids Minor group of fatty to prepare teas in some parts of Asia. acids whose fatty acyl chain has a branched structure Boysenberries Rubus hybrid berries obtained by rather than the usual linear structure. Most commonly crossing loganberries, raspberries and blackber- they are saturated fatty acids and the branch is ries. Purple red in colour, and a rich source of an- small, comprising only a methyl side group, and is lo- thocyanins. cated on the 2nd or 3rd carbon atom furthest from the carboxylic acid group. Examples include isobutyric Boza Fermented beverages consumed traditionally acid and isocaproic acid, both of which contribute in Turkey, Bulgaria and other Balkan countries. Made to cheese flavour. from various types of cereal, most commonly bulgur wheat or millet, but also barley, oats or corn, Branching enzymes Alternative term for 1,4-Į- which is cooked in water and then crushed before fer- glucan branching enzymes. menting with yeasts. The thick beverage has an un- Brandies Spirits manufactured by distillation of usual sweet and sour flavour. It is served chilled, fermented fruit-based mashes or wines (including sprinkled with cinnamon and garnished with roasted grape wines or fruit wines) or wine by-products. chick peas. Branding Process of applying a trademark or distinc- b.p. Abbreviation for boiling point. tive logo to a food or its packaging to identify its Bracken Edible ferns from Pteridium aquilinum and manufacturer or retailer. related species. Consumed as a vegetable in some parts Brandy Spirits manufactured by distillation of of the world, including Japan, New Zealand and Can- wines; unless further qualified, the term brandy gen- ada. Also used as a source of starch. Bracken con- erally refers to spirits distilled from grape wines. tains a number of toxins such as ptaquiloside, a potent carcinogen, which can also be transmitted via milk Brassica Genus of plants belonging to the Cruciferae from cattle feeding on bracken. Curled, undeveloped family. Native to the Mediterranean region and culti- bracken fronds (fiddleheads), which are consumed vated widely in Europe. Important Brassica crops in- as a delicacy in some areas, are particularly hazardous clude cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, swedes, to health, as they contain carcinogens that must be turnips, rapeseeds and mustard seeds. Also of destroyed by roasting before consumption. Bracken interest due to their contents of compounds believed to fiddleheads can be consumed accidentally as they re- protect against cancer (e.g. indoles and glucosi- semble those of the ostrich fern, which are not poi- nolates). sonous. Brassica seeds Oilseeds produced by plants of the Brains The main organs of the central nervous system genus Brassica, including rapeseeds and mustard (CNS), located within skulls. Brains of slaughtered seeds. animals are a part of edible offal; however, in many Brassicasterol Phytosterols fraction which is European countries, recent concerns relating to prion characteristic of vegetable oils derived from Bras- diseases have led to the exclusion of brains and other sica oilseeds (including rapeseed oils) and may central nervous system tissues from the food be used as an indicator of adulteration of other oils chain. Nevertheless, the protein component of brains with rapeseed oils. 59 Brassinosteroids Breakfast Brassinosteroids Hydroxysteroids which act as Breadcrumbs Small fragments prepared by grinding plant growth regulators in a wide range of plants, bread. Used in coatings, usually for fried foods, including food crops. stuffings and in some desserts. Bratwurst Fresh sausages, usually made from a Bread crust Crisp, outer part of bread, which is de- mixture of highly seasoned pork, veal and onions. hydrated and browned during baking. Seasonings may include ginger, nutmeg, cori- Bread dough Unbaked thick, plastic mixture of flour ander or caraway. Numerous different types of and liquid (e.g. water) that is kneaded, shaped and bratwurst are produced in Germany; many districts rolled to make bread. The elasticity of bread dough is produce their own special varieties. Traditional brat- dependent upon the amount of gluten contained in the wurst must not contain nitrites as curing salts. Al- flour. though some pre-cooked bratwurst is sold, most re- Breadfruit Green, starchy fruits from the breadfruit quires cooking before it is eaten. Other product names tree (Artocarpus communis, syn. A. altilis). An impor- may also include the term bratwurst (e.g. bauernbrat- tant subsistence crop of the Pacific islands, where it wurst and smoked bratwurst), but these sausages are provides a significant source of energy due to its high produced by hot smoking and fermentation and are starch content. Also popular in the Caribbean and classified as raw dry sausages, rohwurst. throughout the tropics. Fruit is typically roasted, boiled or fried and consumed as a vegetable; it can also be Brawn Meat products prepared from pork, swine fermented or processed into meal. Breadfruit seeds are ears and swine tongues. Ingredients are boiled with also eaten in some areas and are a good source of pro- herbs and peppercorns before mincing and pressing teins (the seeded form of breadfruit is known as into a mould. Mock brawn differs from brawn as it is breadnut). prepared from different types of offal. Breading Coating of foods with breadcrumbs or Brazil nut oils Oils derived from Brazil nuts, large, other crumbs usually before frying or baking. The edible seeds of the South American tree Bertholletia food is dipped first into a liquid (e.g. beaten eggs, excelsa. Contain olein, palmitin and stearin. milk or beer), then into the crumbs, which may be seasoned with herbs or spices. The breaded product Brazil nuts Nuts produced by the South American is then fried or baked. Breading serves to retain the tree, Bertholletia excelsa. Eaten raw, salted or roasted, moisture content of the food and forms a crisp crust or added to other foods such as ice cream and con- after cooking. fectionery. Good source of several B vitamins and minerals, with particularly high amounts of bioavail- Breadings Breadcrumbs and other types of crumb able selenium. Used as a source of brazil nut oils. used in breading foods, usually before frying or baking. Brazzein One of the sweet proteins, this high- Breadmaking Process by which bread is prepared potency, 54 amino acid, sweet-tasting, thermostable from flour and other ingredients that vary according to protein is isolated from berries of the West African the type of bread to be made. Steps involved include plant Pentadiplandra brazzeana. On a weight basis, fermentation, kneading of the dough, proofing brazzein is 500-2000 times sweeter than sugar, and is and baking. stable over a broad pH range. A good alternative to, or Breadmaking properties Characteristics of cere- addition to, available artificial sweeteners. Com- als, flour or dough that determine their suitability bines well with most high intensity sweeteners, and for bread manufacture. improves stability, flavour and mouthfeel when blended with acesulfame K and aspartame. Can be Bread manufacture Alternative term for bread- extracted from genetically modified corn through or- making. dinary milling. Studies have also investigated produc- Bread rolls Bread products formed from pieces of tion of a recombinant form of the protein using bacte- dough shaped as required before baking. May have a ria. soft or crisp crust. Also commonly referred to as rolls. Bread Bakery product made from cereal grains (mostly Breakfast First meal of the day, traditionally large commonly wheat) ground into flour, moistened and meals eaten before work. Today, many neglect or kneaded into a dough and then baked. Often leavened skip breakfast due to busy schedules. This trend exists by the action of bakers yeasts or by addition of so- in industrialized nations worldwide, where local break- dium bicarbonate. fast traditions are being replaced with modern West- Bread crumb The soft inner part of bread, which is ern-style foods, often packaged or pre-made. Typical surrounded by the bread crust. breakfasts vary widely by world region, and content 60 Breakfast cereals Brewing by-products depends on cultural and family preferences. Beverage Brettanomyces Genus of yeasts of the order Sac- choices at breakfast are fairly uniform worldwide, and charomycetales. Anamorph of Dekkera. Can cause can comprise fruit juices, milk (hot, cold or cul- spoilage of beer, grape musts, wines, soft tured), and hot caffeinated or non-caffeinated bever- drinks and pickles. However, can also be important ages such as tea, coffee and hot chocolate. Studies to both the brewing and wine industries due to the sen- indicate that children and adolescents who usually sory compounds it produces. At low levels, these com- have breakfast generally consume more daily calories pounds can have a positive effect on wines, e.g. giving than those do not and, yet, are less likely to be over- an aged character to some red wines. However, at weight. higher levels, their perception is nearly always nega- Breakfast cereals Cereal products commonly tive. In most beer styles, Brettanomyces is viewed as a consumed with milk or cream as part of breakfast. contaminant; however, in some styles, e.g. certain tra- Pre-cooked or ready to eat foods prepared from ce- ditional Belgian ales, it is encouraged as it produces a real grains by processes such as flaking, puffing, unique flavour profile. toasting or shredding. Often sweetened with Brevetoxins Potent neurotoxins produced by the sugar, syrups or fruits. May be enriched with bran unicellular dinoflagellate protozoan Ptychodiscus bre- as a source of extra dietary fibre. Often fortified with vis. Also known as brevitoxins. Responsible for shell- vitamins, and, in response to consumer demand, fish poisoning in humans. lower sugar brands now exist. Hot cereal porridges Brevibacterium Genus of aerobic, coryneform Gram consist of cereal grains that are boiled to improve pal- positive bacteria of the family Brevibacteriaceae. atability. Occur in soil, water, dairy products and decompos- Breakfast foods General term applied to foods con- ing matter. Brevibacterium linens and B. aurantiacum sumed at breakfast. Typical breakfast foods vary may be used as starters in the production of cheeses widely by world region, and content depends on cul- such as smear cheese. tural and family preferences. Breweries Industrial premises used for brewing of Bream Freshwater fish species (Abramis brama) beer. distributed across Europe and parts of Asia; a member Breweries effluents Waste water from brewer- of the carp family (Cyprinidae). The flesh is bony, in- ies. sipid and soft. Marketed fresh or frozen and eaten Brewers grains Alternative term for brewers spent steamed, grilled, fried and baked. In Greece, roe from grains. bream is used to make a type of caviar. Breast cancer Malignant tumour originating from Brewers spent grains By-products from the clarifi- breast tissue. Dietary factors, including fat intake, have cation stage of the brewing process, comprising the been suggested to increase cancer risk. As the tumours solid residue of substances such as malt grist, from are often hormone-dependent, phytoestrogens, such which the soluble material has been extracted in the as isoflavones and lignans present in plant foods, mashing process. have been studied extensively as potential chemopre- Brewers yeasts Yeasts of the genus Saccharo- ventive agents. myces, now generally classified as S. cerevisiae but Breast feeding Feeding of a suckling infant with some formerly classified as S. carlsbergensis or S. human milk from the mother's breast. uvarum, used for brewing of beer. Brewers yeasts may be divided into top fermenting yeasts (used Breast milk Alternative term for human milk. for ale and similar beer types) and bottom ferment- Bregott Swedish butter substitute made by mixing ing yeasts (used for lager and similar beer types) on approximately 80% butterfat with 20% vegetable oil, the basis of their characteristics during the fermenta- usually soybean oil, and processing using the same tion process. principles as in buttermaking. The product has good spreadability direct from the refrigerator and a fla- Brewing The process of manufacture of beer; impor- vour similar to that of butter. It has a relatively high tant stages of the process include mashing to extract content of linoleic acid. soluble material from malt and other ingredients, hopping, clarification, boiling the worts, alco- Bresaola Moist, very lean, cured, air-dried meat holic fermentation, ageing and filtration. products, commonly made from beef, and sometimes from horse meat. A speciality of northern It- Brewing adjuncts Fermentable material other than aly. Usually, bresaola is cut into paper-thin slices be- malt used in the brewing process. Brewing adjuncts fore serving with bread and fruits or pickled vegeta- may include unmalted cereals, syrups or sugars. bles. A similar Swiss product is called bundnerfleisch. Brewing by-products By-products of the brewing process, including brewers spent grains, surplus 61 Brick tea Bromides brewers yeasts and carbon dioxide formed dur- as fuels. Briquetting may also aid waste disposal or ing fermentation. recycling. Brick tea Tea leaves which have been compressed to Brix values Properties that give an indication of the form a solid block. Widely traded and used in Tibet density of sugar in a solution at a specific tempera- and parts of China and Central Asia. ture. Brix values are frequently used to express the Brie cheese French soft cheese made from cow sugar levels in fruits, beverages and sugar juices. milk. Produced as a 1 or 2 kg wheel packed in wooden Named after the German inventor A. F. W. Brix. boxes. Broad beans Type of faba beans (Vicia faba). Brightness The intensity of a colour (in contrast to Broccoli Common name for certain varieties of Bras- its hue or saturation). In addition, the term is used to sica oleracea, particularly B. oleracea var. italica. indicate the level of light appearing to emanate from an Green sprouting broccoli (also known as calabrese) has object. a tight cluster of deep emerald green florets on a thick, Brill A marine flatfish species (Scopthalmus rhombus) edible stem and is prepared and used in a similar man- distributed across the northeast Atlantic, Mediterra- ner to cauliflowers. Sprouting broccoli has a looser nean and eastern Atlantic along European coasts. Mar- cluster of smaller flower heads. Broccoli is rich in vi- keted fresh and frozen, whole or gutted and as steaks tamin A and vitamin C and is attracting interest as a and fillets. source of glucosinolates that may protect against Brilliance The luminance of an object, which includes some forms of cancer. both brightness and saturation. Brochothrix Genus of Gram positive, facultatively Brilliant Blue Artificial colorant also known as FD&C anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Listeri- Blue no 1. Imparts a greenish blue tinge to foods. Used aceae. Brochothrix thermosphacta may cause spoil- in a range of foods, including sugar confectionery, age of meat and meat products. bakery products, desserts and beverages. Broiler meat Meat from broilers, specific types of Brined cucumbers Alternative term for cucumber chickens. Also used as an alternative term for pickles. chicken meat. Brined meat Meat brining that is preserved by . Broiler muscles Meat from broilers, specific types brines Meat cuts may be immersed in , which contain of chickens, also used as an alternative term for salt curing agents or salt and other dissolved in wa- chicken meat. ter. However, it takes a long time for brines to diffuse the whole meat product; thus, in general, only special- Broilers Fast-growing strains of chickens reared ity meat products are brined by immersion. A more under intensive conditions before slaughter, for meat rapid, uniform distribution of brines throughout meat production at about nine to twelve weeks of age. De- products can be achieved by direct injection of brines velopment of intensive systems to produce broilers has into the meat cuts, methods for which include artery led to large-scale production at low prices. pumping, multiple injection and stitch pumping. Broiling Cooking of foods (usually meat or fish) by Brines Water saturated or strongly impregnated with exposure to direct heat. Food can be broiled in ovens, salt used for pickling or preservation of foods. directly under a gas or electric heat source, or on a Sweeteners such as sugar or molasses can be added barbecue, directly over charcoal or other heat source. to the brines to make sweet brines. Bromates Salts of bromic acid, including potassium Brining The process of treating foods with brines for bromate, which is used in flour improvers. Bro- preservation or pickling. mates can also be formed as disinfection by- Brinjal Alternative term for aubergines. products during ozonation of drinking water Brioches Rich buns made with flour, butter and containing bromide ions. eggs and raised with yeasts. Sometimes flavoured Bromelains EC 3.4.22.32 (stem bromelain) and EC with currants, candied fruits, chocolate or 3.4.22.33 (fruit bromelain). Cysteine endopeptidases cheese; sweet or savoury fillings such as custards with broad specificity found in the stem and fruit, re- or sausages may also be added. spectively, of pineapples. These proteinases have Briquetting Use of presses for compacting various been used in tenderization of meat and for produc- materials, including foods, to improve their handling tion of protein hydrolysates from meat or leg- or other properties. Ice cream for example may be umes. Have anti-inflammatory activity and are formed into bricks, blocks or slabs and sold as bri- included in some health foods. quettes. The same process may be applied to food Bromides Salts of hydrobromic acid. Foods may be- processing wastes (e.g. rice hulls) intended for use come contaminated with bromides as a result of fumi- 62 Bromine Brucellosis gation with methyl bromide to control infestation reaction and/or caramelization. Browning can be with insects. either a favourable process and encouraged using Bromine Member of the halogens group of ele- browning agents, or unfavourable and reduced us- ments, chemical symbol Br. Occurs naturally in many ing browning inhibitors. foods. May also be present in the form of residues of Browning agents Ingredients or additives that bromides following fumigation. promote browning of foods during processing, Bromocyclen Obsolete insecticide and acaricide used thereby imparting a darker colour to the finished for control of ectoparasites (principally mites and product. Examples include caramel, milk and certain ticks) in animals. sugars. Commercial browning agents are often ap- Bromomethane Chemical name for the fumigant plied to foods cooked in microwave ovens in order methyl bromide. to produce surface browning. Bromophenols Phenols and organobromine Browning inhibitors Substances used to prevent compounds of which some members have been browning in foods, also known as anti-browning identified as key flavour compounds in sea agents. Use of sulfur dioxide or sulfites is one of foods, and causes of taints in other foods and water. the most widespread chemical means of controlling Bromophos Broad-spectrum, non-cumulative and both enzymic browning and nonenzymic brown- non-systemic organophosphorus insecticide listed by ing. Other browning inhibitors include kojic acid, WHO as obsolete. which inhibits tyrosinase activity, citric acid and cysteine. Bromoxynil Selective contact herbicide with some systemic activity; used for post-emergence control of Browning reactions Alternative term for brown- annual broad-leaved weeds in cereals and other ing. crops. Often used in combination with other herbi- Browning susceptors Alternative term for micro- cides to extend the spectrum of control. Normally hy- wave susceptors. drolyses rapidly to less toxic substances in plants and Brown rice Rice from which the husks have been soil. Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous removed, leaving the germ and outer layers contain- (WHO II). ing the bran intact. Brook trout An anadromous fish (Salvelinus fon- Brown rot Any rot resulting in browning and decay of tinalis) of the family Salmonidae, also known as plant tissue, particularly common in fruit trees. Brown speckled trout. Although commonly considered a trout, rot in pome fruits and stone fruits is frequently this fish is actually a char. It is native to the north and caused by fungi of the Monilinia genus. east of North America and is available commercially in both fresh and smoked forms. Brown sugar Granulated white sugar that has been Broths Soups based on stocks to which ingredients covered with a layer of cane sugar syrups to give it such as cereals and vegetables may be added. In a brown appearance and a caramel-like flavour. microbiology, the term broths refers to liquid culture Brown sugar has a higher moisture content and a media. higher ash content than white sugar. Brown heart Physiological disorder affecting apples Brown trout Freshwater form of the species Salmo and pears thought to result from injury caused by trutta. Also has a silver bodied migratory form (sea carbon dioxide. Characterized by internal browning trout) which swims out to sea for a period before re- of the fruit flesh, originating in or near to the core. Ex- turning to freshwater to spawn. Marketed fresh, frozen tent varies from a small spot of brown to almost the or smoked. entire flesh being affected. The defect is not detectable Brucella Genus of aerobic Gram negative bacteria externally. Symptoms may increase as storage time is of the family Brucellaceae. Occur as intracellular extended. parasites or pathogens in humans and animals. Brownies Moist, fudge-like cakes originating from Transmissible to humans through consumption of in- the USA. Made with chocolate and frequently nuts, fected dairy products or meat, causing the zoonotic especially walnuts or peanuts. disease brucellosis. Consumption of unpasteurized Browning Process by which foods become brown, milk and cheese is a common cause. resulting from either enzymic or nonenzymic reactions. Brucellosis Any human or animal disease caused by Enzymic browning occurs in freshly cut fruits and infection with bacteria of the genus Brucella. Hu- vegetables due to the oxidation of phenols by mans become infected by coming into contact with catechol oxidases. However, nonenzymic animals or animal foods that are contaminated with browning is generally a consequence of the Maillard these bacteria. In humans, brucellosis can cause a 63 Bruehwurst Buffalo yoghurt range of symptoms that may include fever, sweats, Buckwheat oils Oils extracted from the grains of headaches, back pains and weakness. buckwheat. Bruehwurst Frankfurter-type sausages which are Buckwheat starch Starch isolated from buck- heat treated during preparation. The various types of wheat. Granules are round or polygonal in shape bruehwurst include beutelwurst and bockwurst. and are smaller than wheat starch granules. Has similar Skinless varieties are produced by heating the sausage functional properties to cereal starches. Although emulsion in a mould; the outer layer of emulsion sets the majority of buckwheat starch is readily digestible, a to form a firm skin. For optimum quality, bruehwurst small portion resists hydrolysis. This starch forms sat- sausages are made from slaughter-warm meat. Major isfactory fillings, but not acceptable quality cakes. defects include weakness of flavour and incorrect use Buckwheat starches can be used as fat substitutes in of seasonings. In fat-reduced bruehwurst, texture processed foods. Memilmuk is a Korean jelly made may be very firm and rubbery. from buckwheat starch. Bruising Damage to the surface of foods, particularly Budu A type of fermented fish sauce produced from fruits and vegetables, resulting from mechanical salted anchovy. Product has an olive-brown colour. impacts. Popular in Malaysia and Thailand. Buffalo butter Butter made from buffalo milk. Brussels sprouts Common name for Brassica ol- Buffalo cheese Cheese made from buffalo milk. eracea var. gemmifera. A relatively recent variety of cabbage characterized by a stout stem yielding numer- Buffaloes The general name for several species of ous compact heads (sprouts) resembling miniature large ruminant mammals in the family Bovidae. Buffa- cabbages. Consumed fresh as a winter vegetable and loes are native to sub-Saharan Africa (Synceros caffer) also available frozen. A good source of vitamin C, and to India and south-east Asia (genus Bubalus, in vitamin A, folic acid and potassium. Like other which there are four species); in these regions, domes- Cruciferae, contain phytochemicals such as indole ticated buffaloes are used to provide draft power, buf- glucosinolates, which may help protect against falo meat and buffalo milk. Buffaloes are also cancer. farmed in other countries, such as Italy, as sources of buffalo meat and buffalo milk. In popular use, the term Bryndza cheese Soft Slovak cheese made from ewe buffaloes is also used to describe North American bi- milk that is popular throughout Eastern Europe. It is son. matured for at least 4 weeks and has a fat content of Buffalo gourds Common name for Cucurbita foeti- about 45%. Similar cheeses are the Romanian Brinza, dissima. Potential starch crop or source of oilseeds. Hungarian Brynza, Sirene from Bulgaria and Greek The root starch has physicochemical properties Feta. intermediate between those of cassava and corn. BSE Abbreviation for bovine spongiform en- Buffalo meat Meat from buffaloes, that has a simi- cephalopathy. lar flavour to beef, but a lower content of fat. During Bubble gums Sweetened products made from chicle cooking, care must be taken to prevent the meat from (gum-like exudate consisting of coagulated milky juice drying out. from the bark of the evergreen sapodilla tree, Achras Buffalo milk Milk obtained from buffaloes. Com- zapota) or similar resilient substances (e.g. plasticized pared with cow milk, buffalo milk has a higher fat rubber or polymers), and chewed for its flavour. Bub- content (approximately 8%), higher contents of pro- ble gums differ from chewing gums in the user's teins, calcium and some other minerals, vitamin ability to blow bubbles from them during chewing. A and biotin, and lower contents of potassium, and Buchu oils Aromatic oils which are extracted from vitamin B2 and vitamin B6. Contains no caro- leaves of the African shrubs Agathosma betulina and tenes. Used in making a range of dairy products, A. crenulata. Used in flavourings. including mozzarella cheese and Domiati cheese. Buckwheat Grains of Fagopyrum esculentum used as a cereal. Unsatisfactory for the manufacture of bread. Buffalo milk cheese Cheese made from buffalo Whole grains are cooked like rice and made into milk. baked puddings. Also made into other products such Buffalo mozzarella cheese Soft Italian plastic, as porridges, noodles or griddle cakes. Good spun-curd cheese made from pasteurized buffalo milk. The curd is treated with extremely hot water source of proteins, niacin and vitamin B1. and kneaded into a shiny lump. Buckwheat flour Flour made from buckwheat Buffalo yoghurt Yoghurt made by fermenting buf- grains. Most commonly used in making pancakes, falo milk. such as blini. 64 Buffering capacity Butanoic acid Buffering capacity Ability of a substance or solution and greyish flesh. The plant grows wild in many areas to resist change in acidity or alkalinity. of the USA and Europe, and is cultivated in Japan Bulgur Cracked wheat grains prepared from soak- where it is also known as gobo. The root has a crispy ing, cooking, drying and light milling. May be texture and sweet pungent flavour, much prized in ground into flour; also used in many Middle Eastern Japanese dishes. Also used in the manufacture of pick- dishes. les and soft drinks. Bulk density Weight per overall unit volume of a Burfee Concentrated dried dairy products prepared substance. Bulk density is used in particular for porous from khoa. Popular as sweets in India. Alternative substances where density is affected by pore volume spelling is burfi. and can be increased by the presence of pore fluid. Burfi Alternative term for burfee. Bulking agents Originally used to describe inert Burgers Round, flat cakes of meat mince, cooked products added to contribute bulk and act as inexpen- by grilling or frying. Specific types of burger include sive fillers/extenders for more expensive ingredients. baconburgers, beefburgers, cheeseburgers Now also used in low calorie foods and low fat and hamburgers. They are commonly eaten in foods to produce a feeling of satiety and to replace bread rolls, served with lettuce, slices of onion and functional properties, flavouring characteristics tomato ketchups. and other qualities of the sugar and/or fat which has Burgos cheese Spanish fresh cheese made from been removed. Substances used as bulking agents in- raw cow milk or ewe milk. Pure white with a clude methylcellulose, fibre, polyols and slightly acid and salty flavour. Used in baking or polydextrose. eaten as a dessert with sugar and honeys. Bull muscles Meat from specific types of mature, Burkholderia Genus of aerobic Gram negative uncastrated, male bovine animals, usually male cattle, bacteria of the family Burkholderiaceae, species of and also an alternative term for beef. Beef from older which were formerly classified as belonging to the ge- bulls tends to be tough, but toughness is not a problem nus Pseudomonas. Some species, including B. ce- in beef from younger bulls. Bull beef has a good water pacia, are of potential biotechnological use as produc- binding capacity and a good water holding capacity. ers of enzymes such as lipases, for bioremediation Consequently, meat from the forequarters of bull car- of sites contaminated with polychlorinated bi- casses is often used as an ingredient in sausages. phenyls or as biocontrol agents. However, some Bull beef tends to have a lower intramuscular fat con- strains are plant and human pathogens. The species tent than beef from steers. In comparison with beef B. gladioli produces the toxin bongkrekic acid, respon- from steers or heifers, bull beef may be discriminated sible for outbreaks of food poisoning associated against as it tends to be darker in colour and coarser in with the fermented coconut product bongkrek. texture, and may lack finish; it is also associated with an increased incidence of the DFD defect. Bush butter Fruits produced by the bush butter or African plum tree (Dacryodes edulis). Tough purple Bulls Mature, uncastrated, male bovine animals, usu- peel encases a layer of bitter greenish flesh surround- ally cattle. Production of beef from bulls has several ing a large seed which is fed to livestock. The fruits advantages over production of that from steers; in par- must be boiled for approximately 1 minute to make ticular, bulls grow faster, convert feed more efficiently them tender enough to eat. Also known as African and achieve greater carcass weight than steers. pears or safou. Buns Small yeast-raised rounded pieces of bread which are sometimes sweetened or flavoured, and may Bush okra Alternative term for ewedu. contain dried fruits. Choux buns are made from 2,3-Butanediol Alternative term for 2,3-butylene choux pastry and usually filled with whipped cream. glycol. Burbot Freshwater fish species (Lota lota) related 2,3-Butanedione Synonym for the flavour compound to cod which is the only freshwater member of the diacetyl. Yellow, flammable liquid with a strong hake family (Lotidae). Widely distributed in Europe aroma and buttery flavour derived from fermenta- and the USA, but rare in Great Britain. Has lean white tion of glucose. Soluble in water and alcohol. Used flesh with a delicate flavour. Sold mainly as a salted as an aroma carrier in foods and beverages. product, but also marketed fresh in the USA. Liver is Butanoic acid Synonym for butyric acid. A mem- sold smoked or canned in Europe. Also utilized as a ber of the short chain saturated fatty acids which source of fish oils and for fish meal production. occur as flavour compounds in a wide range of Burdock Common name for Arctium lappa. Long foods and beverages. Especially characteristic of slender root vegetables with a reddish brown skin milk fats and dairy products. At high concentra- 65 Butanol Butter starters tions, it may be responsible for development of off Butterine Fat product that was developed originally as flavour. a substitute for butter. Composed of approximately Butanol Synonym for butyl alcohol. Member of the 80% vegetable, animal or marine fats and 20% water, alcohols class of flavour compounds which oc- together with additives such as emulsifiers, color- curs in a wide range of foods. ants and preservatives. Butanone Member of the ketones class of flavour Buttermaking Process by which butter is made from compounds. Occurs in a wide range of foods, espe- milk or cream. Consists of cream ripening, churn- cially dairy products and meat products. ing, washing and working. Cream ripening involves a series of temperature treatments, with or without incu- Butcheries Slaughterhouses where animal car- bation with butter starters, that affect the consis- casses are divided into primal cuts before distribu- tency and flavour of the final product. Churning tion to the retail meat trade. Some trimming to re- breaks up the milk fat globule membranes, allow- move carcass fat may take place at this stage. The pat- ing formation of butter grains which eventually sepa- tern of butchering and the naming of the primal cuts rate from the buttermilk. The butter grains are generated vary between regions and countries. washed with water to remove proteins, sugar and mi- Butter Spreadable water-in-oil emulsion product made croorganisms, and worked into a homogeneous mass from milk fats or cream by the buttermaking by kneading. process. Usually contains at least 80% fat, with the re- Butter manufacture Alternative term for the but- mainder being water. Salt is sometimes added as a fla- termaking process. vouring and colour may be adjusted using annatto Buttermilk Tangy flavoured residue remaining after or ȕ-carotene. Rich in vitamin A; also contains vi- separation of butter grains during buttermaking. tamin E and vitamin D. Main types of butter mar- Low in fat but rich in phospholipids and proteins, re- keted are cultured cream butter (also known as lactic sulting from breakdown of the milk fat globule butter or sour cream butter) and sweet cream butter, membranes during churning of cream. Buttermilk the latter having a higher pH value. remaining after manufacture of sweet cream butter dif- Butter beans Alternative term for lima beans. fers slightly in composition from that resulting from Butterbur Plants of the genus Petasites with large, soft cultured cream buttermaking. A commercial product leaves formerly used to wrap butter. Refers often to called cultured buttermilk is made by adding lactic Petasites hybridus (common butterbur), but the leaves acid bacteria to skim milk, the lactic acid proof another species, Pentasites japonicus (giant butter- duced during fermentation giving the product a tart bur or fuki), are eaten as a vegetable in Korea and Ja- flavour similar to that of churned buttermilk. Butter- pan. They contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids that have milk is used as a beverage and as an ingredient in bak- been linked with liver damage. Preparation involves ing. addition of salt and soaking in water. Butternuts Nuts produced by Juglans cinerea, trees Butter clams Marine bivalves (Saxidomus gigan- of the walnut family. Shells are hard, but not difficult teus) found in middle to lower intertidal sediments to open. Characteristics and food applications of the along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America. kernels are similar to those of other walnuts. Also Smaller specimens are often eaten raw, while larger known as white walnuts. adults are usually steamed or fried; highly prized for Butter oils Oils prepared from milk fats. Generally production of clam chowders. have a very high fat content, usually not less than 90%, Butter factories Factories in which butter is made. and a very low water content (no greater than 0.5%). In anhydrous butter oils, moisture content is no greater Butterfat Used as an alternative term for milk fats, than 0.1%. butter oils or ghee. Butterscotch Hard confectionery made by boiling Butterfish Marine fish species (Brama brama; also brown sugar and butter or corn syrups together known as pomfret) with a deep laterally compressed in water. Generally distinguished from caramels by body which is widely distributed in the Atlantic, Pa- the absence of milk or milk substitutes among the in- cific and Indian Oceans. Flesh has high fat content gredients. with a tender texture and a rich, slightly sweet flavour. Sold fresh and frozen and cooked in a variety of Butter spreads Spreads, often low in fat, based on ways. In the USA, the marine fish Peprilus triacanthus milk fats. is also commonly known as butterfish; this species is Butter starters Bacterial mixtures, usually Strepto- marketed in similar forms to B. brama, but is also coccus, used in ripening of cream in manufacture of popular as a smoked product. cultured cream butter. Responsible for formation of 66 Butter substitutes Byssochlamys flavour/aroma compounds such as diacetyl and ace- Butyltins Organotin compounds including tribu- toin. Affect stability of milk fat globule mem- tyltin and its degradation products, dibutyltin and branes, facilitating their breakdown during churn- monobutyltin. Fish, shellfish and marine mammals ing, the next step in the buttermaking process. may be contaminated by tributyltin, as a result of its Butter substitutes Products intended to be similar to use as an antifoulant paint additive on ship and boat butter in appearance and properties, but which differ hulls, docks, fishing nets and buoys to discourage the in composition. growth of marine organisms (e.g. barnacles, bacteria, Butyl acetate One of the aroma compounds. This tubeworms, mussels and algae). ester is a major contributor to aroma in fruits, par- Butyric acid Synonym for butanoic acid. One of ticularly apples, strawberries, melons and pears. the short chain saturated fatty acids which occurs Used in flavourings added to various foods, includ- as one of the flavour compounds in a wide range of ing bakery products, cereal products, ice foods and beverages. Especially characteristic of milk cream and cheese. fats and dairy products. At high concentrations, it Butyl alcohol Synonym for butanol. Member of the may be responsible for development of off flavour. alcohols class of flavour compounds which oc- Butyric fermentation Process by which certain bac- curs in a wide range of foods. teria (mainly Clostridium spp.) produce butyric Butylamine Synonym for 2-aminobutane. Fungicide acid. Although a useful industrial process, it can cause which has been used to prevent spoilage of fresh cheese spoilage (blowing). Production of butyric fruits and vegetables. Classified by WHO as mod- acid in the colon by fermentation of dietary fibre erately hazardous (WHO II). Also known as tutane. may reduce the risk of certain cancers. Butylated hydroxyanisole Commonly abbreviated Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens Species of ruminal an- to BHA. A synthetic fat-soluble phenolic antioxidant. aerobic bacteria of the family Lachnospiracecae Has good heat stability and is widely used in the which is butyrate producing. Thought to affect the final food industry to add stability to fats and oils. Appli- concn. of conjugated linoleic acid in dairy prod- cations include cereals, confectionery products, ucts. bakery products and packaging materials. Often Butyrometers Apparatus used to measure the fats used synergistically with butylated hydroxytolu- content of milk. Samples are mixed with sulfuric acid ene (BHT) and other antioxidants. in special graduated tubes which are then centrifuged. Butylated hydroxytoluene Commonly abbreviated Fat separates as an upper layer, the size of which is to BHT. A widely used synthetic antioxidant with measured from the markings on the tube. similar properties to butylated hydroxyanisole Butyrophilin Acidic glycoprotein associated with (BHA), but less stable at high temperatures. Applica- milk fat globule membranes. Has potential roles tions include bakery products, breakfast cereals, in lactation and autoimmune diseases. and food packaging materials. Displays good syn- Byssochlamic acid Mycotoxin produced by the heat ergy when used in combination with BHA. resistant fungus Byssochlamys fulva, responsible 2,3-Butylene glycol One of the glycols, synonym for spoilage of canned fruit products and fruit 2,3-butanediol, and a precursor of the flavour com- juices. pound diacetyl (2,3-butanedione). Formed by micro- Byssochlamys Genus of fungi of the family Tricho- bial fermentation in various foods and beverages, comaceae, which can form heat resistant spores. B. especially wines. Formation of 2,3-butylene glycol is fulva and B. nivea can cause spoilage of canned a useful parameter for identification and differentiation foods and fruits, and may produce mycotoxins of wine yeasts. such as patulin. C

C Chemical symbol for carbon. ture. Eaten as a table cheese after 3 months and used Ca Chemical symbol for calcium. for grating after 2 years. Cabbage juices Vegetable juices extracted from Cacioricotta cheese Italian cheese produced from cabbages (Brassica oleracea). May be blended with cow milk, goat milk, ewe milk or water buffalo other vegetable juices or fruit juices, and may be milk. Apulian Cacioricotta is a cheese produced on an used in the manufacture of lactic acid fermented artisanal scale from pasteurized goat milk in a specific beverages. region of Italy. It is eaten fresh as a soft dessert cheese or ripened and used mainly for grating over local Cabbages Any of various cultivated var. of Brassica dishes. oleracea. Typically have a thick stalk with a large, compact head formed from green or reddish purple Caciotta cheese Italian soft, mild cheese made edible leaves (e.g. savoy cabbages, white cab- from cow or ewe milk. bages). Cabbages that do not form a head are known CaCl2 Chemical formula for calcium chloride. as kale, winter greens or collards. Consumed as a vegetable, used as coleslaw ingredient or fermented Cacodylic acid Alternative term for dimethy- to produce sauerkraut. Red cabbages are used for larsinic acid. pickling. Chinese cabbages are Brassica pekinen- Cacti Large family of spiny, succulent plants, fruits sis. from some of which are edible. The most common Cabrales cheese Spanish hard blue cheese made edible parts are the fleshy fruits of various species of from cow, ewe and goat milks. Matured in natural prickly pears. Other types include Barbados goose- limestone caverns. It has a creamy texture, complex berries and pitayos (pitaya). The sweet fruits of vari- flavour and powerful bouquet. ous cacti can also be fermented to produce alcoholic beverages Cacao Alternative term for cocoa. . Garambullo cactus (Myrtillocactus ge- ometrizans) produces purple fruits which are a poten- Cacao beans Alternative term for cocoa beans. tial source of betalain type pigments. Cachaca Sugar cane spirits produced by the dis- Cactus fruits Alternative term for cactus pears. tillation of fermented cane sugar juices. Both white and gold (aged) varieties are available and the Cactus pears Spiny fruits produced by several varie- alcohol content ranges from 38 to 48% by volume. Ca- ties of cacti, especially Opuntia ficus-indica. The soft chaca originates from Brazil where it is consumed in flesh is similar in texture to that of watermelons. its pure form, but elsewhere it is mainly used as an in- Usually eaten fresh, but also used as an ingredient for gredient in cocktails. desserts and beverages. Also known as prickly Caciocavallo cheese A type of pasta filata pears, Indian figs, barberry figs and cactus fruits. cheese from southern Italy prepared from cow milk. Cadaverine Toxic, foul-smelling biogenic amine pro- Includes Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese which duced by the decarboxylation of lysine by various is produced in the province of Palermo in Sicily. Ca- microorganisms in decaying meat and fish. ciocavallo Silano cheese produced in the Italian re- Cadmium Toxic heavy metal, chemical symbol Cd. gions of Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Molise and May occur as a contaminant in a wide range of foods Puglia has EU protected designation of origin (PDO) and beverages. status. Caesium Radioelement, chemical symbol Cs, which Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese Italian pasta may occur as the radioactive isotopes 137Cs or 134Cs in filata cheese made from cow milk, but said to have foods as contaminants from radioactive fallout. been made originally from mare milk. A traditional cheese produced in the province of Palermo in Sicily Cafestol Diterpene found in coffee which increases that is gourd-shaped and hung from the thin end to ma- plasma triacylglycerol and cholesterol concentrations. 68 Cafeterias Callus culture Cafeterias Self service restaurants. Often located spinach; staple foods are sometimes enriched with within larger establishments, such as department calcium. Also important in the setting of pectins stores, schools or universities. gels, and the firmness of processed fruit and vegeta- Caffeic acid Member of the hydroxycinnamic ble products. acid class which occurs in many plants and plant de- Calcium chloride Calcium salt, chemical formula rived foods. Has antioxidative activity in foods. CaCl2, and one of several calcium salts used as addi- Caffeine One of the xanthine alkaloids naturally tives in foods and beverages. Applications include present in several plant foods, including tea, coffee flavour preservation in pickles, as a firming agent in and cola nuts. Acts as a stimulant. Used as an ingre- fruits and vegetables, and as a source of calcium for dient in some soft drinks, including cola bever- calcium alginate gels. ages and energy drinks. Calcium hydroxide One of several calcium salts Caffeoylquinic acid Synonym for chlorogenic used as additives in foods and beverages. Chemical acid. Phenol present in many foods of plant origin. formula Ca(OH)2. Member of the alkalies, and also Plays an important role in enzymic browning of known as slaked lime. Specific applications in the food fruits and vegetables. Has antioxidative activity, industry include as an acidity regulator and a firming and may contribute to possible health-promoting or agent. protective actions of dietary phenolic compounds. Calcium lactate One of several calcium salts used Caja Common name for Spondias lutea (syn. S. as additives in foods and beverages. Chemical for- mombin), also known as yellow mombin. A South mula [CH3CH(OH)COO]2Ca (and up to 5 molecules of American fruit, the pulp and skin of which are used water). Particular uses include as dough condition- locally in the preparation of fruit juices, ice cream ers, acidity regulators, antioxidants, emulsifiers, and liqueurs. firming agents, stabilizers and thickeners. Cake batters Batters usually prepared from flour, Calcium tartrate The calcium salt of tartaric acid. eggs, butter or margarines, and sugar that are Calcium tartrate may precipitate in wines, forming an used to make cakes. Other ingredients are added ac- undesirable haze or sediment. Haze stabilization cording to the type of cakes to be made. treatments may be required to prevent this problem. Cake mixes Powdered formulations containing all the Calf meat Meat from specific types of young, sexually ingredients required to make cakes. immature bovine animals, usually milk-fed cattle, and Cakes Soft bakery products produced by baking a also an alternative term for beef. batter containing flour, sugar, baking powders Calf muscles Meat from specific types of young, and beaten eggs, with or without shortenings. Ac- sexually immature bovine animals, usually milk-fed cording to the final product, other ingredients are also cattle, and also an alternative term for beef. included, such as flavourings, nuts, chocolate and Calf rennets Substance extracted from the abomasum dried fruits. of calves that is used in coagulation of milk for Caking Solidification of powders or granules into a cheesemaking. The active enzyme is chymosin; mass. Caking can be a problem during the storage of pepsin is also present. dried foods and sugar. Caliciviruses Genus of RNA-containing viruses of Calamintha Genus of herbs with a mint like the family Caliciviridae. Include Norwalk viruses aroma. Includes Calamintha nepeta, which is used in and Norwalk-like viruses, which are responsible for soups and sauces. acute gastroenteritis in humans and are transmitted Calamus Medicinal herb (Acorus calamus) also by the faecal-oral route via contaminated water and known as sweet flag. Dried rhizomes are used in the foods (e.g. shellfish and salads). formulation of vermouths, liqueurs and bitters, and Callipyge phenotype In sheep the callipyge locus also for medicinal and veterinary purposes. is involved in muscling. In lambs expressing this Calciferol Synonym for ergocalciferol and vitamin gene, weight of some muscles is increased. However, D2; one of the group of sterols which constitute vi- tenderness of the meat from affected muscles is not tamin D. Synthesized by irradiation of the plant as good as in normal lamb. Various techniques for provitamin ergosterol. tenderization of meat from callipyge lambs have Calcium Mineral with the chemical symbol Ca. Con- been investigated, including freezing, electrical stituent of most foods and an essential nutrient in the stimulation and calcium chloride injection of car- human diet, particularly important for strong bones and casses. teeth of which it is a major component. Rich sources Callus culture Mass of cells, generally plant cells, include milk and dairy products, oily fish and with no regular form resulting from the growth of un- 69 Calmodulin Camphechlor differentiated tissue on semisolid agar. Used in tissue Camel meat Meat from camels that has a similar culture as the starting material for the propagation of appearance, colour, texture and palatability to plant clones or to initiate suspension cultures. beef. Mature camels produce rather tough meat; con- Calmodulin Calcium ion binding protein which can sequently, meat from young animals is often preferred. moderate the activity of various metabolic enzymes Camel milk Milk obtained from camels. Similar in in plants, animals and microorganisms. composition to cow milk, with approximately 4.2% Calocybe Genus that includes some edible fungi, fat, 3.5% protein, 4.5% lactose and 0.8% ash. such as the edible milk-white mushroom Calocybe in- Camels The common name for two species of large, dica. herbivorous, long necked, mainly domesticated, ungu- Calories Metric units of energy used widely to indi- late mammals that are well adapted to living in arid cate the level of energy in foods and nutrients. One conditions. Camels belong to the genus Camelus of the normal calorie (also known as the 15° calorie) is the Camelidae family. The one-humped camel is known as amount of energy required to heat pure water from the Arabian camel (C. dromedarius) whilst the two- 14.5 to 15.5°C at atmospheric pressure (equivalent to humped camel is known as the bactrian camel (C. 4.185 J). The small calorie or therm is equivalent to ferus). Camels are reared as a source of camel milk 4.204 J and is the energy required to heat pure water and camel meat. They are major meat animals in from 3.5 to 4.5°C. many Arab and sub-Saharan African countries. Calorific values Amount of calories in foods or Camembert cheese Soft French cheese made from nutrients, indicating the levels of utilizable energy. cow milk. Crumbly and soft at the beginning of rip- Also known as energy values. ening, it gets creamier over time (usually 2-3 weeks). A genuine Camembert has a delicate salty flavour. Calorimetry Technique for measuring the energy content of foods from the number of calories formed Cameros cheese Soft fresh cheese made from during combustion of a known amount of sample. raw or pasteurized goat milk in La Rioja (northeast Spain). The inside of the cheese is a bright white col- Calpains Proteinases with broad specificity in- our, and the texture is jellied. It is easily melted. The volved in meat tenderization and deterioration of flavour is somewhere between sweet and acid. Since it fish quality during post mortem storage. There are is a fresh cheese, it is usually eaten as a dessert or with three separate types of these cysteine endopeptidases, honey. including: calpain-1 (EC 3.4.22.52), requiring Ca2+ concentrations in the micromolar range; and calpain-2 Camomile Herbs obtained from Anthemis nobilis (EC 3.4.22.53), requiring Ca2+ concentrations in the (syn. Chamaemelum nobile). The plants are a source of millimolar range. essential oils used to flavour liqueurs, other beverages and confectionery. Flowers are used to Calpastatins Proteinases inhibitors present in make herb tea. Wild camomile (Matricaria recutita meat which act on calpains and play a role in modu- syn. M. chamomilla) has similar uses. Also known as lating the tenderness of meat during storage. chamomile. Calvados Apple brandy manufactured in a defined cAMP Abbreviated name for cyclic adenosine 3',5'- district in the Normandy region of France. monophosphate, one of the nucleotides. A univer- Calves Specific types of young, sexually immature sally distributed metabolite formed by the action of bovine animals, usually cattle which are <8 months of adenylate cyclase on ATP. cAMP is an important me- age, that produce beef. Male calves are called bull diator in signal transduction pathways, and an activator calves and females are called heifer calves, quey calves of several kinases and physiological processes, in- or cow calves. cluding expression of some virulence-related genes in Camelina oils Vegetable oils obtained from oil- microorganisms. seeds of the plant Camelina sativa. Rich source of Campesterol Sterol which occurs in many vegeta- PUFA, in particular linolenic acid. PUFA account ble oils and vegetable fats. The relative concentra- for around 50% of the total fatty acids content of tions of campesterol and other sterol fractions may be camelina oilseeds. used as parameters for identification and authenticity Camelina sativa Species of plants of the family testing of oils. Cruciferae, native to Europe and temperate regions Camphechlor Non-systemic contact and stomach of Asia, but now also grown in other regions. A source insecticide with some acaricidal action. Used for con- of oilseeds from which camelina oils can be ex- trol of a wide range of insect pests in crops and soil, tracted. The defatted seed cake may be used in feeds. often in combination with other pesticides. Subject Common names include false flax. to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic 70 Camphene Cane sugar Pollutants and usage on crops has largely been dis- intakes of dietary fats) and with reduced risk (e.g. in- placed by less persistent insecticides. Also known as creased intakes of fruits and vegetables). Common toxaphene. examples include breast cancer, lung cancer, co- Camphene Monoterpenoid which is one of the fla- lorectal cancer and prostate cancer. vour compounds present in a wide range of herbs Candida Genus of yeasts of the class Saccharomy- and spices. cetes. Occur in soil and on plants. May be used in the Camphor Monoterpene ketone which is one of the production of fermented foods (e.g. Candida kefir flavour compounds in a wide range of herbs and in the production of kefir and koumiss, and C. spices. famata in the production of fermented sausages). Campylobacter Genus of Gram negative, microaero- C. lipolytica and C. xylanoides cause meat spoilage, philic rod-shaped bacteria of the family Campylobac- while C. valida causes spoilage in wines. C. utilis and teriaceae. Occur in the reproductive and intestinal C. lipolytica may be used for production of single tracts of animals and humans. Some species are patho- cell proteins. C. rugosa, C. antarctica and C. inter- genic, e.g. Campylobacter jejuni, which frequently media produce lipases which have potential use in contaminates raw chicken meat. Raw milk is also a the food industry. source of infection. Campylobacteriosis is the in- Candied fruits Fruits, usually whole, preserved by fectious disease caused by bacteria of this genus. Peo- softening in water and then soaking in syrups of pro- ple who become ill with this disease, during which gressively increasing sucrose concentrations. After they can experience diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever drying, the fruits are coated in sugar to make crystal- and vomiting, usually recover within 2-10 days; how- lized fruits or dipped in concentrated sugar syrups ever, rarely, long-term complications can occur (e.g. to make glace products, such as glace cherries. Often arthritis and Guillain-Barre syndrome). regarded as luxury products, although glace cherries Campylobacteriosis Any human or animal disease are frequently used as ingredients in bakery prod- caused by infection with Campylobacter spp. C. je- ucts. juni causes food poisoning in man characterized by Candling Technique for determining the quality of diarrhoea, fever, abdominal pain, nausea, headache and eggs wherein the egg is held before a light which muscle pain. penetrates the egg and makes it possible to inspect the Camu-camu Fruits produced by Myrciaria dubia, an contents and shell. Amazonian shrub. The round, light orange to purple Candy Sweet crystallized product formed by boiling of fruits are the richest source of vitamin C discovered sugar. Also a US term for sugar confectionery so far. Compared with oranges, they contain 30 times products in general. the vitamin C content, 10 times the content of iron, 3 Candy floss A fluffy mass of spun sugar that is times more niacin, twice as much riboflavin and formed from thin threads. Often served on a stick. Also fifty percent more phosphorus. Fruits are eaten out known as cotton candy, particularly in the USA and of hand and the fruit pulp is used to prepare a range of Canada. products, including fruit juices and fruit nectars, Cane molasses Molasses produced as a by-product marmalades, sherbet, vinegar and ice cream. of refining of sugar from sugar cane (Saccharum Also known as rumberries. officinarium). Cane molasses are composed of ap- Canapes Small pieces of bread, toast or crackers proximately 40% sucrose. Also known as blackstrap spread with savoury toppings, such as cheese or molasses and sugar cane molasses. pates. Served as appetizers or cocktail snack foods. Canestrato Pugliese cheese Italian hard cheese Canary grass Annual grass (Phalaris canariensis) made from unpasteurized ewe milk. During manufac- from the Mediterranean. Its grains are commonly used ture, peppercorns are added after the curd has been as food for caged birds, but are also consumed by hu- cut, scalded and salted. Flavour and consistency mans. vary according to the ripening period selected. Canavanine Non-protein amino acid, which is a po- Cane sugar Sucrose extracted from stalks of sugar tentially toxic arginine antimetabolite. Found in al- cane (Saccharum officinarium). Processing of sugar falfa and certain other legumes such as jack beans. cane to produce cane sugar involves: washing and cut- Canbra oils Former name for canola oils. ting the cane stalks; extraction of cane sugar juices Cancer A range of malignant diseases characterized by crushing the stalks using a series of heavy rollers; by uncontrolled cell proliferation that results in tissue purification of the raw cane sugar juices by precipita- invasion and destruction. Dietary factors have been tion of impurities (liming and clarification); filtra- linked with increased risk for certain cancers (e.g. high tion to remove the precipitates; evaporation of the pu- 71 Cane sugar factories Cantharellus rified juices which results in concentration of the cane Canneloni Pasta tubes which may be stuffed with sugar juices and crystallization of sucrose. Dried pu- meat, vegetables or cheese and are often baked in rified cane sugar is composed of 99.80% sucrose and tomato or cream sauces. has <0.05% moisture content. Canneries Factories producing canned foods. Cane sugar factories Factories containing proc- Canning A sterilization process in which spoilage essing lines equipped for extracting cane sugar organisms and pathogens are eliminated from foods, from sugar cane (Saccharum officinarium). Sugar and the foods are hermetically sealed in containers cane factories located close to where the sugar cane is (cans). Most commercial canning operations are cultivated (plantation factories) are involved with based on the principle that bacterial destruction in- manufacture from sugar cane of pure white sugar or creases tenfold for each 10qC increase in temperature. raw cane sugar. Sugar refineries are normally situ- The safest method for most foods involves canning ated nearer to the markets for sugar and are involved under conditions of high heat and pressure. Food ex- in purification of raw or salvaged sugar to produce posed to high temperatures for short periods of time is white sugar. Sugar cane bagasse generated by known to retain more of its natural flavour. these facilities may be used for cogeneration. Canning equipment Machinery for preservation Cane sugar juices Aqueous solutions of cane of foods in sealed containers (cans). sugar produced during processing of sugar cane. Canning quality Canning quality scores represent the Raw juices are produced by compression of the sugar sum of scores for colour (chroma, uniformity, and at- cane stalks and contain cane sugar and impurities, thin tractiveness), wholeness, smoothness, firmness, juices are the purified raw juices and thick juices are moistness, lack of fibre, mouthfeel and flavour of concentrates of the thin juices. canned foods. Cane sugar products Products generated by cane Canola Alternative term for rapeseeds. sugar factories. Refers to both intermediate and end Canola oils Rapeseed oils originally derived from products, including cane sugar juices, cane sugar a Canadian variety of rapeseeds which contain low syrups, massecuites and molasses. (<2%) amounts of erucic acid. Also low in glucosinolates. Cane sugar syrups Highly concentrated aqueous solutions of cane sugar produced by evaporation of Canopy Uppermost level of plant vegetation in a for- purified cane sugar juices (thin juices). est or area under cultivation, such as a vineyard, or- chard or vegetable plot. Canopy density and structure Canna Edible tubers of Canna edulis or C. indica affect intensity of light reaching the plant, which may which grow in South America and the West Indies. Di- impinge on crop quality. rect consumption is limited by poor eating quality Cans Rigid cylindrical metal containers made of and long cooking times, but baking yields a white, steel sheet or plate, aluminium, copper or other metals. mucilaginous mass with a sweet flavour. The roots Used as packaging for foods and beverages; most are typically contain 25% starch and may be cultivated sealed hermetically for storage and retail over long pe- for extraction of this constituent. riods of time. Canna starch Starch isolated from canna. The Cantaloupes One of the main cultivated types of starch granules, which are large in size and visible melons (Cucumis melo). Grown commercially in to the naked eye, are very digestible. Canna starch is Europe, they have orange (occasionally green), aro- used as a substitute for arrowroot, and is also used to matic flesh and a yellowy-orange ribbed, warty rind. make cellophane noodles in China. Canteen meals Meals served in canteens, i.e. Canned foods Foods preserved by canning. One of restaurants catering for workers in establishments the main advantages of canned foods is their ease of such as schools or factories. Food is usually prepared storage at ambient temperatures. Shelf life is typically in large amounts and served from a central point. around 2 years for canned fruits and vegetables and Canteens Restaurants located in establishments longer for canned meat. such as schools and factories. Usually self service and Canned pet foods Foods with a high moisture designed to cater for large numbers of people. Also re- content for cats and dogs. Main ingredients are fers to vessels with caps or other closures used for car- meat or fish, but may also contain herbs, cereals rying water or other beverages, especially while travel- and fruits. Special formulations are available with ling. raised or reduced levels of particular nutrients to Cantharellus Genus of fungi, which includes chan- meet particular health needs. Seasonal products also tarelles. True chantarelle (C. cibarius) is a much-prized exist, e.g. thanksgiving meals for dogs. species in France and continental Europe, character- 72 Canthaxanthin Caps ized by a funnel-shaped, apricot-yellow cap and a faint ols, tocopherols and ferulates in vegetable oils; fruity aroma. Other edible species include C. tubi- and herbicides in vegetables. formis and C. infundibuliformis. Capillary electrophoresis Electrophoresis tech- Canthaxanthin Red pigment of the carotenoids nique in which separation is performed in buffer filled group. Occurs naturally in crustacea and salmonid capillaries across which high voltages are applied. Ad- fish and has antioxidative activity. Used as a feed vantages over conventional electrophoretic techniques additive to improve the colour of egg yolks, skin include faster analysis and the possibility of incorpo- colour of broilers and flesh colour of aquacultured rating on-line detection of separated species. salmon or trout. Capocollo Italian cured pork sausages which are a Ca(OH)2 Chemical formula for calcium hydroxide. speciality of the Parma region. Pork shoulder is cured, CAP Abbreviation for Common Agricultural Pol- flavoured with spices and seasonings such as icy. sweet red peppers, packed into natural casings and Capacitance Ability to store energy in the form of air dried. Eaten raw, especially in antipasti platters. electric charge. One of the electrical properties Capons Castrated male chickens, which are fattened used in a wide range of food industry analyses, exam- for eating. Compared with cockerels, capons show ples of which include monitoring of yeasts in brew- slightly increased growth rates, less crowing and fighting, food composition, quality deterioration in frying ing behaviour, and greater meat tenderness. oils and bottling efficiency. Capping devices Alternative term for caps. Cape gooseberries Small, white or yellow fruits produced by Physalis peruviana (syn. P. edulis). Eaten Cappuccino coffee Type of coffee beverage which fresh or used in jams and jelly products. Similar in is topped with whipped cream or frothed milk. Of- appearance and utilization to ground cherries (P. prui- ten served sprinkled with cocoa powder or cinnamon. nosa), but slightly larger in size and less sweet. Also Caprenin Semi-synthetic triacylglycerols that were known as goldenberries. developed for use in low calorie fat substitutes. Capelin Marine fish species (Mallotus villosus) be- Composed of two medium chain fatty acids (capric longing to the smelt family (Osmeridae) which occurs acid and caprylic acid) and one very long chain extensively in the north Atlantic, north Pacific and ad- fatty acid (behenic acid) esterified to glycerol. joining regions of the Arctic. Marketed in fresh, fro- Melting profile was similar to that of cocoa butter, zen, lightly smoked, salted and dried forms. Also util- so was developed for particular use in confection- ized as a source of fish oils and for fish meal pro- ery. However, the product had difficult tempering duction. characteristics and appeared to increase serum cho- Capers Unopened flowers of the shrub, Capparis lesterol levels slightly, and was withdrawn from the spinosa, pickled in vinegar and used as a spice. market. Commonly used in pickles, sauces and toppings Capretto Lean goat meat from goat kids fed on milk for pizzas. up to 5 months of age. Meat is pale pink in colour and Capillaria Genus of parasitic nematodes of the fam- finely textured. Low in fat, but rich in protein. ily Trichuridae. Capillaria philippinensis and C. hepat- Capric acid Synonym for decanoic acid. Medium ica, found in freshwater fish, are the causative chain fatty acid which occurs in various fats, includ- agents of capillariasis. ing milk fats. One of the flavour compounds Capillariasis Severe and potentially fatal disease in found in various foods. humans caused by eating raw fish contaminated with Caprine Relating to or resembling goats. the larvae of Capillaria philippinensis and C. hepat- Caproic acid Synonym for hexanoic acid. Medium ica. Symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea, vomit- chain fatty acid which occurs in various fats, including, diarrhoea and anorexia. ing milk fats. One of the flavour compounds Capillary electrochromatography Combines high found in various foods. performance liquid chromatography with capillary electrophoresis. An electric potential is ap- Caprylic acid Synonym for octanoic acid. Medium plied across the long axis of the capillary column, chain fatty acid which occurs in various fats, includ- causing mobile phase flow by electrophoresis. The ing milk fats. One of the flavour compounds flow dynamics generated lead to improved efficiency found in various foods. and resolution, and short analysis times. Used in the Caps Protective covers or lids, particularly for bot- separation and analysis of multicomponent mixtures, tles. May include a thread and be used to reseal con- e.g. flavanone glycosides in citrus juices; ster- tainers after use. 73 Capsaicin Carbadox Capsaicin One of the flavour compounds of chil- or processed into tarts, jams and juice products. Also lies and other capsicums, in part responsible for known as five fingers or star fruit, due to their five their pungent characteristics. prominent spokes and star-shaped cross section. Capsaicinoids Flavour compounds of chillies Caramel Complex mixture of brown flavour- and other capsicums related to capsaicin and ing/colouring substances produced when sugars are partly responsible for the pungent characteristics. heated above their melting point during carameliza- Capsanthin Pigment of the xanthophylls group tion. Thermal degradation of the sugars results in a which occur in peppers (capsicums). similar bitter-sweet flavour profile to that of molas- Capsicum annuum Domesticated Capsicum sp. that ses and maple syrups. Caramel is used in flavour- includes many of the most economically important ings and flavour enhancers for a wide range of capsicums, including bell peppers, paprika, pi- foods, including caramels, cakes and biscuits. miento peppers, and many kinds of chillies. Fruits Colouring properties are employed in caramel col- tend to be less pungent than those of C. frutescens. orants. Capsicums Fruits of the Capsicum genus, also Caramel colorants Colorants resulting from the known as peppers. The genus contains several do- carefully controlled heating of carbohydrates (e.g. mesticated species, such as the economically-important sugars or malt syrups) in the presence of small Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens, and many amounts of food-grade acids, alkalis or salts. Widely hundreds of varieties. Capsicums are grown worldwide used to impart a yellow or brown colour to numerous and vary in pod size, colour, shape, flavour and foods and beverages, including cola beverages and pungency. Some types are used primarily as a vege- other soft drinks, beer, soy sauces, bakery table, while others are used as spices or for produc- products, browning agents and sausage cas- tion of oleoresins. Common types of capsicum in- ings. Both positively and negatively charged caramel clude bell peppers, paprika and chillies. Good colorants are available (particles of the caramel color- source of many nutrients including the antioxidant ant must have the same charge as the colloidal particles vitamins A, C and E. Pungency is due to the presence of the product to be coloured, in order to avoid precipi- of capsaicinoids. tation). Also reported to act as vitamin antagonists Captafol Protective contact fungicide used for control to vitamin B6. Caramel is also used in flavourings. of a wide range of fungal diseases in fruits, vegeta- Caramelization Form of nonenzymic browning. bles and cereals. Restricted or banned in many coun- Different chemical process to the Maillard reaction. tries. Classified by WHO as extremely hazardous Involves removal of water from sugar molecules, fol- (WHO Ia). lowed by isomerization and polymerization. Oc- Captan A protectant fungicide used for control of a curs during dry heating or roasting of foods with wide range of fungal diseases in fruits, vegetables high contents of sugars. Generates a range of flavour and cereals. Classified by WHO as unlikely to pre- compounds, including caramel substances, diacetyl sent acute hazard in normal use. Also known as ortho- and hydroxymethylfurfural, depending on the heat- cide. ing temperature and the types of sugars present in Capybaras Semi-aquatic herbivores of the family the foods. Leads to desirable colour and flavour in Hydrochoeridae and the largest living rodents various foods and beverages, including bakery worldwide. Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) products, coffee, beer and peanuts. are endemic to most temperate and tropical regions of Caramels Sugar confectionery products similar to South America that lie to the east of the Andes. Capy- toffees made from sweetened, condensed or evapo- baras are occasionally hunted in these areas for their rated milk, butter or vegetable oils, and sugar. meat, which is similar in appearance and flavour Boiled at lower temperatures than toffees, and may be to pork. soft or hard. Carabao A domesticated subspecies of water buffaloes of the family Bovidae that is native to south east Caraway Seeds of the umbelliferous plant Carum Asia. Carabao (Bubalus bubalis carabanesis) are used carvi. Used as a spice in a wide range of products in- as a source of both milk and meat. cluding bakery products, cheese, meat and schnapps. Caraway essential oils are also widely Carambolas Common name for Averrhoa carambola. used for flavouring purposes. Tropical fruits native to Indonesia, and now grown in many hot countries. Rich in vitamin C, with a waxy, Carbadox One of the antibacterial drugs which are golden yellow skin and translucent, juicy yellow flesh used as growth promoters in animals. Residues may with large brown seeds. Can be eaten raw or cooked, persist in meat from treated animals. 74 Carbamate pesticides Carbonic acid Carbamate pesticides Group of pesticides which Carbolines Pyridoindole compounds which may be inhibit activity of cholinesterases in insects. Used formed in foods (e.g. fish and meat) during cooking for control of chewing and sucking insects (especially or processing. Tetrahydro-ȕ-carbolines and ȕ- aphids, whitefly, leaf miners and soil-dwelling in- carbolines, generated during the Maillard reaction, sects) in a wide range of fruit, vegetable and cereal are potential carcinogens. crops. Examples include aldicarb, carbaryl and Carbon Element, chemical symbol C, which is a con- carbofuran. stituent of all organic compounds. A specially Carbamide Synonym for urea. The excretory product modified form, activated carbon, is used in various of nitrogen metabolism produced in the liver of mam- processing aids for foods and beverages. mals following the breakdown of amino acids. Its Carbonatation Process used in the manufacture of formation during the fermentation of wines is sig- white sugar for purification (clarification) of nificant, since it is a precursor of ethyl carbamate, a sugar juices. Various carbonatation methods have well known carcinogen. Used as a fertilizer and as a been developed for specific purposes, but the basic feed supplement for ruminants, and is found in milk. principle is the same. The process involves addition of Carbaryl One of the N-methylcarbamate insecti- lime (CaO) to sugar juice followed by bubbling of cides. Has slight systemic properties and also acts as carbon dioxide through this mixture. A precipitate a plant growth regulator. Used for control of chewing of CaCO3 forms that entraps suspended impurities and sucking insects in a wide range of fruits, vege- within its crystalline structure and adsorbs soluble im- tables and cereals. Classified by WHO as moder- purities. Soluble impurities may also react with the ately hazardous (WHO II). Also known as naphthyl- lime to form insoluble Ca salts. methylcarbamate, sevin and vioxan. Carbonated beverages Beverages, especially Carbendazim Systemic benzimidazole fungicide used soft drinks, which have been impregnated with suffi- for control of a wide range of fungal diseases in cient carbon dioxide to cause effervescence. crops. Degrades relatively slowly in plants. Classified Carbonates Salts of carbonic acid which include by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). Also known carbonate anions (CO 2-) together with a cation. Ex- as bavistin and carbendazole. 3 amples include sodium, potassium, calcium, Carbendazole Alternative term for the fungicide magnesium or ammonium carbonates. Food industry carbendazim. uses include as additives, and specifically as acidity Carbofos Alternative term for the insecticide regulators, anticaking agents, raising agents and malathion. stabilizers. Carbofuran Systemic N-methylcarbamate insecticide Carbonation Conversion of a compound into a car- and nematicide used for control of soil-dwelling and bonate, or the impregnation of a liquid with carbon foliar-feeding insects and nematodes in vegeta- dioxide (CO2) under pressure. CO2 is added to bev- bles and cereals. Classified by WHO as highly haz- erages to make them effervescent. Examples of car- ardous (WHO Ib). bonated beverages include lemonade and spar- Carbohydrases General name for enzymes that kling mineral waters. hydrolyse polysaccharides such as starch, cellu- Carbon dioxide A colourless, odourless gas (chemi- loses and pectins. Examples of starch-hydrolysing cal formula CO ) produced by the combustion of enzymes include Į-amylases, ȕ-amylases, Į- 2 carbon and organic compounds and by organisms dextrin endo-1,6-Į-glucosidases and glucan during respiration, and absorbed by plants for photo- 1,4-Į-glucosidases. Other carbohydrases include synthesis. Widely used in the food industry for modi- xylan endo-1,3-ȕ-xylosidases, endo-1,3(4)-ȕ- fied atmosphere packaging of foods and for su- glucanases and pectic enzymes. percritical CO2 extraction, whilst solid carbon di- Carbohydrates One of the main classes of com- oxide (dry ice) is used for cold storage and clean- pounds present in foods, which includes monosac- ing applications. charides, their derivatives such as glucosides, polyols, nucleotides and nucleosides, and their Carbon disulfide A colourless, extremely volatile oligomers and polymers (oligosaccharides and and flammable compound, with chemical formula CS2, polysaccharides). Important carbohydrates in foods with a disagreeable, fetid odour, used in insecti- include sugars, starch, pectins, fibre fractions, cides. Exposure to carbon disulfide can occur by celluloses and their derivatives, and polysaccharides breathing it in from the air and by drinking water or used as additives such as gelling agents and thick- eating foods that contain it. eners. Carbonic acid Acid formed when carbon dioxide (CO2) is dissolved in water. Forms various salts (car- 75 Carbonic maceration Cardamom bonates and bicarbonates), some of which are impor- ing from the carboxyl terminus. Useful for production tant in food processing. of protein hydrolysates and for modifying the fla- Carbonic maceration A winemaking process in vour of foods, e.g. dairy products. which whole grapes are macerated under a carbon Carboxypeptidase Y Alternative term for car- dioxide atmosphere before alcoholic fermenta- boxypeptidases. tion; it is used in manufacture of Beaujolais and simi- Carcass by-products Alternative term for offal. lar wines. Carbonic maceration enhances the fruity Carcass condemnation Occurs after inspection of character of the wine aroma. carcasses of slaughter animals, due to diseases, Carbon monoxide Toxic colourless, odourless gas, emaciation or injury, when the carcass is declared unfit with the chemical formula CO, which may be formed for human consumption. Usually takes place in by incomplete combustion of carbon-containing mate- slaughterhouses and is governed by a range of rials. May be used in modified atmosphere pack- regulations and certification procedures in different aging of meat or other foods. countries. Condemned carcasses may be incinerated, Carbon tetrachloride Synonym for tetrachloro- buried or used for other purposes. e.g. as ingredients of methane. Organic halogen compound and versatile animal feeds. organic solvent whose use has diminished since the Carcasses Dead bodies of animals and birds, espe- discovery that it is carcinogenic. May be used in fu- cially those prepared for cutting up as meat. The term migants. Can occur as a contaminant of treated is used by butchers to describe animals' and birds' bod- drinking water. ies after dressing (removal of the heads, limbs, hides Carbonyl compounds Organic compounds (or feathers in birds) and offal); these types of car- which contain the C=O functional group, including al- casses are also called dressed carcasses. Bird carcasses dehydes and ketones. Many are important flavour are usually chilled whole, whilst animal carcasses are compounds and aroma compounds in foods. usually split longitudinally into sides before chilling. Carboxin One of the systemic anilide fungicides. Many countries operate carcass classification schemes, Applied to a range of seeds, such as barley, corn, which are designed to categorize carcasses with com- oats, rice, wheat, vegetables and cotton. Classi- mon characteristics such as carcass weight, fatness fied by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in (fat class) and conformation. Usually, carcass classifi- normal use. cation schemes discriminate against very fat and very Carboxylesterases EC 3.1.1.1. Esterases which lean carcasses. hydrolyse carboxylic esters to alcohols and carboxy- Carcinogenesis Processes leading to the formation lates. Useful for removing acetyl groups from hemi- of cancer (tumours). celluloses to form easily fermentable carbohydrate Carcinogenicity A measure of the relative activity of substrates, and for modifying the gelation properties carcinogens. and other rheological properties of heteropolysac- Carcinogenicity testing Analyses, including the charides. Also involved in changes in the aroma and Ames test, to determine the carcinogenicity of flavour of wines and other alcoholic beverages. suspected carcinogens. Also applied to other chemi- Carboxylic acids Organic acids characterized by cal compounds as part of routine safety evaluation presence of the COOH group. studies. Tests can include the use of animal models, Carboxymethylation A form of chemical modifica- cell cultures or microorganisms. tion involving the introduction of carboxymethyl Carcinogens Substances that are able to induce car- (COOH-CH2-) groups. Used to alter the physico- cinogenesis, encompassing direct-acting agents that chemical properties and functional properties possess genotoxicity and indirect-acting procarcino- of biopolymers, including starch and proteins gens that require activation by cell metabolic path- commonly found in foods. ways, such as those involving the detoxification en- Carboxymethylcellulose Water-soluble cellulose zymes. Food sources of potential carcinogens are ether obtained by chemical modification. Widely used widespread, and include heterocyclic amines in food stabilizers, thickeners or binding agents formed in meat during cooking, acrylamide in in a variety of foods including ice cream, puddings, heated starchy foods, nitrosamines in nitrite-treated batters and icings. Also known by the abbreviation meat products, urethane in fermented foods CMC. and alcoholic beverages, and agaritine in mush- Carboxypeptidases EC 3.4.16-3.4.18. Exopro- rooms. teinases that hydrolyse peptide bonds and remove Cardamom Green spice pods containing numerous amino acids one at a time from protein chains, work- aromatic seeds produced by Elettaria cardamomom, a 76 Cardboard Carotenes shrub belonging to the ginger family. Pods and seeds Carnitine Amino acid found in muscle, liver and other are used extensively in flavourings for both sweet tissues. Also known as vitamin B7 or vitamin Bt. Re- and savoury dishes, particularly in Indian and Middle quired for the transport of fatty acids into mitochon- Eastern cuisine. White (bleached) pods are also avail- dria for oxidation. Rich dietary sources include meat able. and dairy products. Cardboard Rigid, moderately thick material made Carnobacterium Genus of Gram positive, aerobic, from paper pulp but heavier than paper. Used widely rod-shaped lactic acid bacteria of the family Car- to make containers, e.g. boxes, for packaging foods. nobacteriaceae. Species may be responsible for spoil- Cardiovascular diseases Congenital and acquired age of vacuum packaged meat (Carnobacterium di- diseases of the heart or blood vessels including coro- vergens), fish (C. piscicola) and chicken meat (C. nary heart diseases and stroke. Many risk factors mobile). Several carnobacterial bacteriocins are known for cardiovascular diseases have been identified, in- to exist, such as carnobacteriocin, carnocin and pisci- cluding lifestyle (smoking, lack of physical exercise), colins. diseases (obesity, hyperlipaemia) and diet. Cardiovas- Carnosic acid One of the diterpenes. Present in cular risk may be modified by lowering intake of fats, rosemary and sage and has antioxidative activ- modulating dietary fatty acids composition and in- ity. creasing consumption of whole grains, dietary fibre Carnosine Dipeptide (ȕ-alanylhistidine) which occurs and fruits and vegetables. in meat and fish and displays antioxidative activ- Cardoons Common name for Cynara cardunculus. ity. The plant is of Mediterranean origin and has many Carnosol One of the diterpenes present in rose- similarities to globe artichokes, to which it is re- mary and sage. Possesses antioxidative activity lated. Cultivated mainly for the fleshy leaf stalks, and antitumour activity. which can be blanched like celery, or used in dishes Carob beans Seeds from the leguminous Mediterra- such as salads and stews. Roots can also be cooked nean tree Ceratonia siliqua. Seeds are encased in a and used as a vegetable, while extracts from the dried sweetish pulp within the carob pods. They are used flowers are used as vegetable rennets in cheese- as the source of carob gums or can be ground and making. used as baking flour. Also known as locust beans. Caribou The common name for any of the four North American species of large deer in the genus Rangifer Carob gums Alternative term for locust bean within the Cervidae family. Caribou are hunted for gums, obtained from carob beans. their meat. Caribou meat is a traditional food for some Carob pods Pods from the carob tree (Ceratonia sili- ethnic groups, e.g. the Baffin Inuit in the Canadian qua), containing seeds (carob beans) encased in a Arctic. Caribou meat is referred to as venison. soft, sticky pulp. The pulp is high in sugar and has a Caries Alternative term for dental caries. taste similar to chocolate. Powdered pulp is marketed as a chocolate substitute and is also used in the Carmine Water-insoluble aluminium lake of car- manufacture of beverages and syrups. minic acid (the red pigment obtained from cochineal). Soluble in alkaline media and widely used in Į-Carotene One of the carotenes with antioxidant natural red colorants for foods and beverages. and provitamin A activities found in green and yellow Carminic acid Water-soluble red pigment obtained plant foods in association with chlorophylls. Has ap- from dried bodies of cochineal insects (Coccus cacti). proximately half the vitamin A activity of ȕ- Colour is orange to red, depending on pH. Carmine is carotene. Rich dietary sources include carrots, the insoluble aluminium lake of carminic acid. green beans, Swiss chard and tomatoes. As with other carotenoids, intake of Į-carotene is Carmoisine Bluish-red artificial azo dyes used in maximized if foods are eaten raw or lightly cooked. confectionery, soft drinks, ice cream and canned fruits. Also known as azorubine. ȕ-Carotene One of the carotenoids with antioxidant and provitamin A activities found in yellow and green Carnauba wax Yellowish wax exuded by the leaves plant foods in association with chlorophylls. Rich of the north-eastern Brazilian fan palm. Primarily dietary sources include carrots, sweet potatoes, green composed of carnaubic acid, which is also found in leafy vegetables and yellow fruits. In general, plant many plant oils and resins. Used to prepare coatings foods with more intense green or yellow colour have for foods e.g. fruits or sugar confectionery, de- greater concentrations of ȕ-carotene. creasing moisture loss and giving an attractive, shiny appearance. Also used to improve the barrier proper- Carotenes Long chain unsaturated hydrocarbons with ties of packaging films. provitamin A activity found in green and yellow plant foods such as carrots, sweet potatoes, green leafy 77 Carotenoids Carya vegetables and yellow fruits. Carotenes (which in- Carrot pulp wastes remaining after juice extraction can clude Į-carotene and ȕ-carotene) are the simplest of be utilized as a source of carotenoids. the carotenoids and are cleaved in vivo, generating Carrots Root vegetables from the umbelliferous two molecules of vitamin A. plant Daucus carota. The most important and well Carotenoids Pigments of the polyenoic terpenoids known vegetable umbellifer cultivated worldwide. class, which are present in a wide range of plant foods Wild forms of the species are also abundant. Cultivated and animal foods. Impart a yellow, orange, red or pur- roots are typically orange in colour and the best-known ple colour to foods, and may be used as food color- plant source of provitamin A carotenoids. Widely ants. Many have antioxidative activity; some have consumed as salad vegetables or cooked vegeta- vitamin A activity. bles. In addition, a large proportion of the crop is further processed by canning, drying or freezing. Also Carp A group of omnivorous freshwater fish from used to make products such as carrot chips, carrot the family Cyprinidae which are widely distributed cakes and carrot juices. across Europe and Asia. Several species of carp are valued as food fish; the major commercially important Carthamin A natural red pigment obtained from saf- species are common carp (Cyprinus carpio), crucian flowers (Carthamus tinctorius). Can be used in natu- carp (Carassius carassius), grass carp (Cteno- ral food colorants, but stability is a problem due to pharyngodon idella), silver carp (Hypothalmicthys mo- susceptibility to discoloration in aqueous solutions. litrix) and big head carp (H. nobilis). Commonly cul- Cartonboard Thin (usually about 0.25-1.00 mm tured (especially C. carpio), and marketed and proc- thick), rigid or semi-rigid material made from one or essed in a variety of ways. more layers of fibrous celluloses. Used widely to Carpet shells Any of several species of edible bivalve make cartons. molluscs in the genera Tapes and Venerupis, most of Cartoning Process of packaging items such as foods which occur along the Atlantic coasts of Europe and or beverages in cartons. North America. Commonly consumed species include Cartons Lightweight containers made from carton- T. decussatus, T. virginea, T. aureus and T. japonica. board. Usually delivered to the user in the form of Also known as clovis. flattened, pre-cut and pre-creased carton blanks. Carrageenan gels Thermoreversible gels formed Cartridges Components of dispensers for bever- from ț- and Ț-carrageenans. ț-Carrageenan gels are ages and sauces. Can be used as containers for strong and brittle, whereas those from Ț-carrageenans beverage ingredients. An aqueous medium may pass are softer and more cohesive. Applications include as through the cartridge to form the beverage. May be ingredients in dairy products, flans, puddings and cup-shaped and stackable, e.g. for coffee preparation low calorie jams and jellies. in vending machines. Also used to contain extrac- Carrageenans Gums extracted from red seaweeds tion media in filtration systems for water and bever- (mainly Chondrus crispus and Gigartina stellata). ages. Used as stabilizers, thickeners and emulsifiers in Carvacrol Phenolic monoterpenoid which is one of the a wide range of foods including milk beverages, flavour compounds in many herbs and spices, processed cheese, ice cream, other dairy prod- especially thyme and oregano. Has antioxidative ucts, desserts and ready to feed infant formulas. activity and antimicrobial activity. Can be classified into ț-, Ț- and Ȝ-carrageenans on the Carveol Monterpene alcohol which is one of the fla- basis of their solubility and gelation properties. Form vour compounds found in essential oils of thermoreversible carrageenan gels, which are also herbs and spices, including mint, caraway and used widely in the food industry. dill, and citrus peel. Formed by conversion of limo- Carrot chips Deep fried carrot slices, typically con- nene. sumed as snack foods. A lactic fermentation Carvone Monocyclic terpenoid ketone which is one of stage may be incorporated into the manufacture proc- the flavour compounds in many herbs and ess in order to decrease levels of reducing sugars. spices, especially caraway and dill. The enantiomer Carrot juices Juices extracted from carrots (Daucus L-carvone has a sweet spearmint aroma and is the carota). Rich in vitamins, especially vitamin A, and main flavour compound found in spearmint. Used in minerals. antisprouting agents for stored potatoes. Carrot pulps Pulps prepared from carrots. Used in Carya Plant genus which includes American tree spe- the manufacture of a range of products, including in- cies that produce hickory nuts. Carya illinoinensis is fant foods, confectionery and pulpy fruit juices. the source of pecan nuts. 78 Caryophyllene Casings Caryophyllene Sesquiterpene hydrocarbon which is Casein micelles Conglomerate of individual casein one of the flavour compounds present in a wide fractions found in milk. ț-Casein is located on the range of herbs, spices and fruits. surface of the micelles. Structure and stability of mi- Casein The main protein of milk, representing ap- celles are related to their calcium content. proximately 80% of the total milk proteins. Com- Caseinomacropeptides Large peptides constitut- posed of several fractions, including Įs-casein, Įs1- ing the C-terminal fragment of ț-casein, formed by casein, Įs2-casein, ȕ-casein, Ȗ-casein and ț- hydrolysis with proteinases. casein. A phosphorus-containing protein that is heat Casein whey Liquid remaining after precipitation of stable, but precipitated by alcohol, rennets and ac- casein by the action of acids or rennets. Also ids. Individual fractions are combined into larger units called whey. called casein micelles, structure and stability of which are related to calcium content. Cashew apple juices Fruit juices extracted from cashew apples (Anacardium occidentale). A rich Įs-Casein The main casein fraction in milk, ac- source of vitamin C. Tannins present in raw juice counting for approximately 50% of total casein in cow are removed by different methods. To prevent spoilage milk. Subdivided into fractions Įs1-casein and Įs2- of the raw juice, potassium metabisulphite and citric casein, each of which exists in several genetic vari- acid may be added along with a clarifying agent. Clari- ants that differ in amino acids composition. Contains fied juice can be stored for further use. Depending on relatively high proportions of lysine and trypto- local customs, juice is either processed and distilled phan. into liquors or consumed diluted and sugared as a re- Įs1-Casein A subfraction of Įs-casein. Found in freshing beverage. Cashew apple juice can also be used several genetic variants in cow milk. These variants for making wines and vinegar. differ in amino acids composition and have a bear- Cashew apples Edible fleshy fruits of the cashew ing on the properties and yield of milk. tree (Anacardium occidentale). Although this tropical Įs2-Casein A subfraction of Įs-casein. Found in tree is grown primarily for its crop of cashew nuts, several genetic variants in cow milk. These variants the cashew apple is also of commercial interest. The differ in amino acids composition and have a bear- acidic-tasting apple-like fruits are rich in vitamin C ing on the properties and yield of milk. and can be eaten raw or processed into jams, jellies ȕ-Casein One of the main casein fractions in milk, and ices. They are also fermented to produce juices representing approximately 33% of total casein in cow and liqueurs. milk. Contains relatively high proportions of essential Cashew nuts Kidney-shaped edible nuts from the amino acids. Found in several genetic variants that cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale). The nuts pro- differ in amino acids composition and have a bearing trude from the end of edible fleshy receptacles known on the properties and yield of milk. as cashew apples and are a highly prized commod- Ȗ-Casein One of the casein fractions in milk, origi- ity on the world market. They are usually consumed nating from ȕ-casein. roasted or used in confectionery products. ț-Casein One of the casein fractions in milk, repre- Casings Items used to give processed meat prod- senting approximately 10% of total casein in cow ucts a uniform or characteristic shape, to hold com- milk. Contains relatively high proportions of isoleu- minuted products together during further processing cine and threonine. Located on the surface of ca- and to protect meat products. Casings are most com- sein micelles. Found in several genetic variants in monly used as forms and containers for sausages; cow milk. These variants differ in amino acids com- these types of casings are specifically known as sau- position and have a bearing on the properties and yield sage casings. There are two major types of casings: of milk. natural and manufactured. Natural casings are derived almost exclusively from the gastrointestinal tract of Caseinates Salts formed by acid precipitation of ca- cattle, sheep and swine. Natural casings are highly sein from milk followed by neutralization and dry- permeable to moisture and smoke; moreover, they ing. Some caseinates, including potassium, sodium shrink and thereby remain in close contact with the and calcium caseinate are widely used as food ingredi- surface of a meat product as it loses water. Most natu- ents due to their nutritional and functional proper- ral casings are digestible and can be eaten. There are ties. Uses include binding agents, emulsifiers, four major classes of manufactured casings, namely whipping agents and protein supplements in foods. cellulose, inedible collagen, edible collagen and plas- Casein curd Gel formed by coagulation of milk by tic. Strength, shrinkage and permeability characteris- acids or rennets, e.g. during cheesemaking. tics differ between the different types of casings, pro- 79 Casks Catechin viding a range of products suitable for the preparation Cassia Spices obtained from the evergreen laurel of many different types of meat products. tree, Cinnamonum cassia, and some other Cinna- monum spp. Related to cinnamon, but less delicately Casks Large barrels for the transport and storage of flavoured. Cassia bark is often used as a substitute for liquids, especially alcoholic beverages, such as cinnamon, while leaves can be used in flavourings draught beer. Traditionally made from wood, but similar to bay leaves, and buds are used in a similar may also be made from plastics or metals. manner to cloves. Cassia oil is used in cola bever- ȕ-Casomorphins Pharmacologically active frag- ages. -casein ments of ȕ which exhibit biological effects in Cassia gums Galactomannan gums extracted from mammals. Cassia seeds. Swell in water and form high viscos- Cassava Starchy tubers produced by the tropical ity colloids on boiling. Structure and chemical proper- plant Manihot esculenta (syn. utilissima), also known ties have been likened those of carob gums and as manioc. An important staple food in many tropical guar gums. Although used mainly in pet foods, cas- regions, cassava tubers are a good source of carbo- sia gums have potential for use as thickeners in a hydrates and vitamin C, but are low in proteins, wide range of foods, either alone or in combination minerals and other vitamins. Tubers are the source of with other colloids. tapioca starch, while the leaves can be eaten as a Cassia seeds Seeds produced by leguminous plants vegetable in soups and stews. Fresh cassava roots and of the genus Cassia, particularly C. tora and C. obtusi- leaves (particularly those from bitter cultivars) contain folia. Source of cassia gums. the cyanogenic glycosides, linamarin and lotaus- Cassis Sweet liqueurs manufactured in France from tralin, and must therefore be detoxified prior to con- blackcurrants. sumption in order to prevent cyanide poisoning. De- toxification is achieved by conventional grating, wash- Castor beans High-protein oilseeds from the castor ing and cooking methods, or by fermentation into a va- plant, Ricinus communis, from which castor oils are riety of products including gari, fufu, attieke and extracted. Seeds also contain a toxic albumin (ricin) tape ketela. and a highly allergenic protein fraction, which limit its food use after oil extraction. Fermented castor bean Cassava chips Product made, mainly in tropical meal is used in a number of Nigerian foods as a spice countries, by peeling cassava tubers soon after har- and can also serve as the basis of a condiment, known vesting, slicing and drying the slices by solar dry- as ogiri. ing. This drying process is effective in reducing total Castor oils Yellow-brown viscous oils derived from cyanide levels in cassava, which contains the cyano- castor beans (Ricinius communis). Rich in rici- genic glycosides linamarin and lotaustralin, thus noleic acid, which is released by hydrolysis in the decreasing the risks of poisoning. small intestine when the oils are ingested, giving them Cassava meal Also known as manioc or tapioca a purgative action. Also used industrially in the manu- flour. Prepared from cassava (Manihot esculenta) facture of chemicals and resins. tubers by washing, peeling, chopping, drying and Catalases EC 1.11.1.6. Peroxidases which break milling. Major source of dietary carbohydrates, down H2O2 to water and O2. Used for removing the particularly in Africa and South America. Cassava tu- H2O2 added to cold-sterilized milk, improving the bers contain varying amounts of cyanogenic gly- baking properties of dough and improving the cosides, but most of these are eliminated during flavour of fermented whey. Exhibit antioxidative processing into cassava meal. Used to prepare gari, activity and play an important role in preventing oxi- fufu and tapioca dishes, as an ingredient of bakery dation of lipids in meat. In conjunction with D- products, such as bread, and as a replacer of wheat amino-acid oxidases, catalases can be used for produc- flour gluten low foods coeliac in for people with tion of Į-ketoacids, which are gaining importance as disease. Protein content is low, so may need to be nutraceuticals. The enzymes also protect microor- used in conjunction with additional protein sources, ganisms, including several foodborne pathogens, such as legume meal. against various environmental stresses. Cassava starch Starch isolated from the cassava Catalysts Substances that promote a chemical reaction tuber. Also called tapioca. by lowering the activation energy, but which are not Casseroles Meals that are slow cooked, usually in consumed or altered during the reaction. ovens, in lidded containers. Casseroles are made with Catechin Catechol which occurs in tea and many meat and/or vegetables cooked in stocks or other foods and beverages. Catechins are thought to sauces. have beneficial effects on health, because of their ap- 80 Catecholamines Cattle kidneys parent antimicrobial activity, antioxidative activ- Cathepsins Proteinases important in meat ten- ity and anticancer properties. derization during ageing, and also in deterioration of fish proteins gels, with subsequent effects on Catecholamines Phenolic biogenic amines which sensory properties. Also exhibit proteolytic activ- occur in tissues of plants and animals. Some, e.g. ity in dairy products. adrenaline and noradrenaline, act as hormones and high preslaughter levels of these compounds (as a re- Cations Positively charged particles that have lost one sult of stress) may be associated with poor meat qual- or more electrons. Cations migrate towards negatively ity. Aerobic oxidation of catecholamines in the pres- charged electrodes (cathodes). ence of catechol oxidases results in formation of Cat milks Specially formulated milk beverages for melanins, and hence browning of plant foods. cats. Contain lower levels of lactose than cow milk, because some cats are lactose intolerant. Include Catechol oxidases EC 1.10.3.1. A group of copper kitten milks and milks with added nutrients, such proteins that act on catechol and a variety of substi- as vitamins, minerals and taurine. Often given as a tuted catechols. Also known as diphenol oxidases, treat rather than a staple food. phenolases, polyphenol oxidases and tyrosinases, these enzymes also catalyse the reaction of monophenol Catmint Common name for Nepeta cataria and related monooxygenases (EC 1.14.18.1) under certain species. Used for flavouring herb tea and other bev- conditions. Involved in enzymic browning in erages. fruits, vegetables and cereal grains. Cats Small mammals (Felix silvestris), also known as Catechols Flavan-3-ols which are present in a wide house cats or domestic cats. Popular pets. Obligate range of foods of plant origin. May be polymerized to carnivores; their teeth and gastrointestinal tract are form tannins by the action of polyphenol oxidases specially adpated for the mastication and digestion (catechol oxidases). Catechols may contribute to of meat. However, they also eat cat foods contain- the antioxidative activity and health benefits of ing ingredients derived from plants. plant-derived phenols. Catsups Synonym for ketchups. Originally a spicy pickled fish condiment, nowadays the term refers to Catering Provision of foods and beverages in a com- various thick piquant sauces containing sugar, mercial or institutional setting, or at a function. In- spices, vinegar, and other ingredients such as to- cludes services provided by hotels, restaurants, matoes, mushrooms, nuts or fruits. Tomato canteens and hospital kitchens. Also encompasses ketchups are one of the most well known types of foods service. catsup and are a popular accompaniment for French Catfish Any of a group of 31 families of scaleless fries, burgers and many other foods. fish, often with whisker-like projections around the Cattle Large ruminant mammals with cloven hooves mouth (barbels) and posterior spines in dorsal and pec- and often with horns, from the family Bovidae. toral fins. Most catfish occur in freshwater, and many Worldwide, there are over 1000 cattle breeds, of which species around the world are valued as food fish. Flesh 250 are major breeds. Cattle fall into two groups, those tends to be firm with a mild flavour. Commonly con- developed from Bos indicus (Indian cattle or zebus) sumed catfish include channel catfish (Ictalurus and those, mainly European breeds, developed from punctatus), which are cultured in large numbers in the Bos taurus. Cattle are mainly domesticated for meat USA, Clarias spp., which are important food fish in (beef) and milk production. Different gender and age African countries, and Silurus spp., found in Asian groups of cattle are known as bulls (adult entire countries. males), steers (adult castrated males), cows (adult fe- Cat foods Pet foods specifically formulated to meet males), heifers (in general, young sexually mature fe- the nutrition requirements of domestic cats. Include males to the end of their first lactation) and calves (in wet cat foods in cans or pouches and dried cat general, sexually immature animals which are less than foods. Canned cat foods have a high moisture con- 8 months old). tent (approximately 80%) and contain more meat and Cattle kidneys Kidneys from cattle, part of edible less cereals and other added products than dried cat offal. They are reddish brown in colour and com- foods. Dried cat foods are often cheaper and more posed of 15-25 lobes, which are partially fused to- convenient than canned cat foods, but tend to contain gether. Left cattle kidneys have a three-sided shape, more filler, making them less nutritious. Also available whilst right kidneys are elliptical in shape. Kidneys are vegetarian, low fat and organic cat foods, and from mature cattle tend to have a stronger flavour and products with specific health promoting effects, e.g. are tougher than calf kidneys; they need to be cooked prevention of urinary tract infection. slowly using moist heat and are often used in steak and 81 Cattle livers Celery seeds kidney mixtures. In contrast, calf kidneys are tender, and tuna. The designation is usually preceded by the have a delicate flavour, and can be cooked by grilling name of the fish (e.g. cod caviar) and the name of the or sauteing. country of origin is often included. Cattle livers Livers from cattle, part of edible offal. Cayenne pepper Pungent powder made from the In particular, calf livers are valued for their smooth dried pods of chillies, including the seeds. Usually texture and delicate flavour; they are often consid- deep orange in colour. Used in small quantities as a ered a delicacy. Livers from milk-fed calves are very spice, traditionally in Mexican and Italian cooking, but pale in colour. Calf livers are usually cooked by grill- also in dishes from other regions. ing or sauteing, but may also be braised slowly or CCC Alternative term for chlormequat. roasted whole. cDNA Abbreviation for complementary DNA. Single Cattle muscles Alternative term for beef. stranded DNA formed from a messenger RNA Cattle tissues Alternative term for beef. (mRNA) template by reverse transcriptases. Radio- Caucas Alternative term for wild garlic. labelled cDNA can be used as a probe in genetic techniques. Caulerpa Genus of seaweeds commonly found in Cebreiro cheese Spanish soft fresh cheese made tropical and subtropical waters around Japan, Indone- from cow milk. Acidic, slightly bitter flavour, simi- sia, China, the Philippines and Taiwan. Some Caul- lar to that of yoghurt. erpa spp. are edible; traditionally utilized as a fresh salad accompaniment to Asian dishes. C. lentillifera is Cedar nuts Name used for some types of pine nuts, one of the most favoured species due to its soft and particularly those obtained from the Siberian pine. succulent texture, while in Thailand, C. racemosa is Ceftazidime Cephalosporin antibiotic active against commonly sold for use in spicy sauces; both these most Gram negative enteric bacteria, particularly species are cultured. Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Used to treat mastitis Cauliflowers Common name for Brassica oleracea in cattle and bacterial infections of the respiratory and var. botrytis. A vegetable characterized by large edible gastrointestinal tracts in cattle and swine. Rapidly de- flowerheads (curds), composed of a compact mass of pletes in animal tissues following administration. tiny, underdeveloped florets, which are usually cream Ceftiofur Cephalosporin antibiotic active against both or white in colour, but may also be shades of green or Gram positive bacteria and Gram negative bac- purple. Can be eaten raw in salads, cooked in a num- teria. Used to treat bacterial infections in cattle and ber of ways or used in pickles. A good source of vi- swine. Rapidly depletes in animal tissues following tamin C. Closely related to broccoli. administration. Use at the approved dosage and route is unlikely to result in residues exceeding the maximum Cavas Sparkling wines produced in Spain, mainly residue limit in milk and edible tissues; no milk with- within the Penedes region of Catalonia, using the drawal periods are required and residues are not haz- champagne method. Made using Macabeo, Parellada, ardous to industrial cheese and yoghurt starters. Xarel-lo, Chardonnay and Subirat grapes, cava is Celeriac Common name for Apium graveolens var. available in different degrees of sweetness. The CO2 present in the wines occurs as a result of secondary rapaceum. A variety of celery grown for its globose, fermentation after bottling. edible root rather than the stalk and leaves. The white fleshed root is usually consumed cooked and has a Caviar Salted roes (eggs) from various species of similar flavour to celery. Also known as turnip rooted sturgeon; prepared by a special process involving celery. washing, salting and ripening. Consumed as a table delicacy, with a highly esteemed flavour and texture. Celery Common name for Apium graveolens var. Black caviar from the beluga sturgeon is one of the dulce. A major leafy vegetable of the umbellifer family most highly prized and sought after types of caviar. with many food uses. Celery petioles (leaf stalks) can Marketed in small containers or in barrels. Grainy cav- be eaten raw or cooked and used to impart flavour iar (where roe are easily separated) and pressed caviar and texture to dishes such as stews and soups. Their (where roe is pressed to remove excess liquid) are distinctive flavour is due to the presence to terpenes common forms of caviar. Alternative spelling is cavi- and phthalides, which are also found in celeriac. are. Celery seeds and leaves are used as flavourings. Caviare Alternative spelling for caviar. Celery seeds Small brown aromatic seeds of Apium graveolens, with a similar flavour to celery petioles. Caviar substitutes Roes (eggs) from fish other than Both seeds and seed oils can be used to flavour stews sturgeon, which are prepared and packaged in a simi- and salads. Ground seeds can also be mixed with salt lar way to caviar. Principal fish species used are to form celery seasonings. bream, carp, coalfish, cod, herring, mullet, pike 82 Cell counts Cellulose sausage casings Cell counts Numbers of cells present in a given sam- lomonadaceae. Occur in soil. Capable of hydrolysing ple quantity. celluloses by production of cellulases. Also pro- Cell culture In vitro growth or maintenance of cells in duce multiple xylan degrading enzymes in the or on a medium. presence of xylan, carboxymethylcellulose and starch, Cell cycle An ordered series of events that occur in and to a much lesser extent, cellobiose. Cellulomonas eukaryotic cells that lead to cell division and the pro- flavigena produces a range of cellulases and xylanases. duction of two daughter cells. The cell cycle consists Cellulose acetate Tough polymer made by acetylation of celluloses and used as the basis of artificial of four phases: G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase (collectively known as interphase), and M phase (mitosis). fibres and plastics. Cellulose acetate membranes Loss of cell cycle regulation can lead to uncontrolled may be used for reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, cell growth and cancer development. ultrafiltration and electrophoresis. Composite gel fibre containing the polymer may also be used for the Cell lines Established collections of cells which can be immobilization of enzymes to produce biosen- cultured indefinitely and which usually have specific sors. properties which can be exploited in scientific research studies. Cellulose 1,4-ȕ-cellobiosidases EC 3.2.1.91. Glycosidases which hydrolyse 1,4-ȕ-D-glucosidic Cellobiases Alternative term for ȕ-glucosidases. linkages in celluloses and cellotetraose, releasing Cellobiohydrolases Alternative term for cellulose cellobiose from the non-reducing ends of the chains. 1,4-ȕ-cellobiosidases. In general, these enzymes can hydrolyse amorphous Cellobiose Reducing sugar composed of two mole- celluloses by themselves but only hydrolyse crystalline cules of glucose linked via a ȕ-1,4-glycosidic bond. celluloses in the presence of cellulases. Although free cellobiose is not found in nature, it is the Cellulose ether Derivatives in which some or all of monomer unit for celluloses, one of the most abun- the hydroxyl groups of celluloses are involved in dant substances in nature. Cellobiose may be prepared ether linkages. Ethylcelluose, methylcellulose and from celluloses by hydrolysis with cellulases. carboxymethylcellulose are examples which are Cellophane Thin, transparent material made from used as food additives. celluloses. Used as a wrapping for foods to protect Cellulose films Transparent plastic packaging against contamination and to preserve freshness. films made from celluloses. Include cellulose Cellulases EC 3.2.1.4. Glycosidases which cata- acetate films and cellophane (regenerated cellu- lyse the endohydrolysis of 1,4-ȕ-D-glucosidic linkages lose). in celluloses, lichenin and cereal ȕ-D-glucans. Pro- Celluloses Class of ȕ-D-(1ĺ4) glucans which are duced commercially from a number of fungi and bac- indigestible polysaccharides comprising the major- teria. These enzymes have many applications in the ity of plant cell wall material. Occur in large quantities food industry, e.g. processing of fruits and vegeta- in foods, and comprise much of the dietary fibre in bles and their juices, brewing, winemaking, im- plant foods. Derivatives such as modified celluloses proving the shelf life of bakery products, enhanc- and microcrystalline celluloses are used as food addi- ing the quality of soy protein hydrolysates and hy- tives. drolysis of celluloses prior to ethanolic fermenta- Cellulose sausage casings Sausage casings tion. made of celluloses, which must be removed before Cellulolytic enzymes Enzymes that act synergisti- sausages are eaten. Various sources of cellulose are cally to hydrolyse celluloses or chemically modified used, including cotton linters, which are first dissolved cellulose polymers. These enzymes are traditionally and then regenerated to produce casings. Benefits of classified into three groups, cellulose 1,4-ȕ- use include: ease of use; the variety of available sizes; cellobiosidases, cellulases and ȕ-glucosidases. uniformity of size; stretch and shrinkage properties True cellulase systems, produced by a number of which mimic those of natural casings; and greater fungi, are able to hydrolyse crystalline cellulose com- strength and lower microbial levels than natural sau- pletely, while low-value cellulase systems can only sage casings. To add artificial colour to sausage sur- hydrolyse amorphous cellulose. Cellulolytic enzymes faces, the inner surface of the casings may be coated can hydrolyse cellulose waste materials prior to etha- with an edible, water soluble dye, which transfers to nolic fermentation and, in conjunction with pectic the sausage surface. Very strong casings can be pro- enzymes, represent an alternative to chemical peel- duced by extruding cellulose onto a paper base mate- ing of fruits and vegetables. rial; these casings are used to prepare large sausages, Cellulomonas Genus of aerobic or facultatively an- such as bologna. Cellulose casings, removed before aerobic Gram positive bacteria of the family Cellu- retail, are also used to prepare skinless sausages. 83 Cellulosomes Cereal bars Cellulosomes High molecular weight multienzyme absent or reduced internal shells and heads surrounded cellulolytic complexes produced by Clostridium by tentacles. Includes cuttlefish, octopus and thermocellum and other bacteria. They consist of a squid; many species are commercially important food number of enzymes attached to a scaffolding protein, species. which contains a cellulose binding domain and several Cephalosporins Group of semisynthetic ȕ-lactam cohesin domains which interact with complementary antibiotics derived from the natural antibiotic cepha- dockerin domains of the catalytic subunits, integrating losporin C. Have a similar mode of action to penicil- them into the complex. lins, but tend to have a broader spectrum of action and Cellvibrio Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram nega- wider safety margin. Examples commonly used in tive bacteria of the Pseudomonadaceae family. treatment of farm animals include cephapirin, Found in soil. Produce cellulolytic enzymes and cephradine and ceftiofur. xylan degrading enzymes of interest to the food Cephalosporium Genus of fungi of the order Hy- industry. pocreales, some species of which are now classified in Cell walls Structures that are external to the cytoplas- the genus Acremonium. mic membranes of plant, fungal, algal and bacterial Cephapirin Cephalosporin antibiotic, commonly used cells. Maintain cell shape and rigidity and may protect in the form of benzathine or sodium salts for treatment cells from mechanical damage, osmotic lysis and anti- of mastitis in cows; also used for treatment of endo- biotics. metritis in cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Rapidly me- Central nervous system tissues Tissues associ- tabolizes in animals following intramuscular admini- ated with that part of the nervous system in vertebrates stration. which includes the brain, cranial nerves and spinal Ceramic membranes Employed in ultrafiltration cord. Due to concerns about a possible link between and microfiltration systems, ceramic membranes variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in hu- may be of the following types: flat, hollow fibre or mans and bovine spongiform encephalopathy open tubular. These membranes possess a high degree (BSE) in cattle, controls are in place in abattoirs and of resistance to chemical and abrasion degradation, and slaughterhouses to exclude BSE risk materials, tolerate a wide range of pH and temperature ranges. A such as central nervous system tissues, from the human wide variety of applications includes those relating to food chain. The risk materials are considered a source biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, isolation and con- of BSE prions, consumption of which could poten- centration of enzymes, standardization of the pro- tially result in the development of CJD. In addition, tein content of milk, extraction of proteins from techniques have been developed to screen meat and whey, preparation of quarg and fresh cream meat products for the presence of central nervous cheese by ultrafiltration, clarification of fruit system material. juices, microfiltration of alcoholic beverages, and concentration of whole eggs and egg whites. Centrifugal separators Machines with rapidly rotating containers used to separate two liquids, solids from Ceramics Articles made of clay that is permanently a liquid, or a liquid from a gas. In the food industry, hardened by heat. Ceramic materials are non-metallic, these separators are used for clarification of beer inorganic compounds - primarily compounds of oxy- and fermentation broths, during sugar processing to gen, but also compounds of carbon, nitrogen, boron or separate sugar crystals from syrups, and during food silicon. Problems have been found relating to migra- hygiene practices (e.g. cleaning in place). tion of heavy metals, particularly cadmium and lead, from ceramic containers or containers with ce- Centrifugation Process in which liquids are separated ramic glazes into foods with which they are in contact. from solids, or heterogeneous liquids are separated, on the basis of differences in density using machines Ceramides Generic term for a class of sphingolip- (centrifuges) with rapidly rotating drums. ids; N-acyl derivatives of a long chain base, e.g. sphingosine. Ceramides are present in a wide range of Centrifuges Machines with rapidly rotating drums foods, and may be of importance for human health. used to separate liquids from solids or heterogeneous Ceratocystis Genus of fungi of the class Plectomy- liquids on the basis of differences in density. cetes. Includes several plant pathogens, e.g. Ceratocys- Cephalins Mixtures of glycerophospholipids which tis fimbriata and C. paradoxa which cause black rot of can be fractionated into phosphatidylethanola- sweet potatoes and pineapples, respectively. mine, phosphatidylserine and phosphatidy- Cereal bars Processed cereal grains which are formed linositol. into bars and often contain other ingredients such as Cephalopods Common name for an advanced group dried fruits and nuts. of molluscs (class Cephalopoda) characterized by 84 Cereal bran Chai Cereal bran Protective outer layer of the seeds of Cetacea Order of mammals including whales, dol- edible members of the grass family which is separated phins and porpoises. from the kernel during milling. Often added to foods Cetavlon Trade name for the cationic detergent disin- as a source of dietary fibre. fectant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide Cereal by-products Secondary products of cereal (cetrimide). processing, e.g. bran and germ removed during mill- Cetylpyridinium chloride Antimicrobial agent used ing of cereals to produce refined flour. in disinfectants for cleaning areas such as food Cereal flours Flour produced by milling of cereals. processing equipment. Cereal products Generic term for foods which have Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide Cationic de- been formulated using cereals as their main ingredient. tergent disinfectant (cetrimide) with the trade name Cereal proteins Proteins found in cereal grains, Cetavlon. which may be classed as biologically active enzymes Cevapcici Highly spiced meat products, tradition- or biologically inactive storage proteins. Storage ally produced in the former Yugoslavia. They are proteins make up approximately 80% of total cereal sometimes considered to be fresh sausages without proteins and are often used for varietal classification. casings. They are made from beef mince and/or Cereals Plants and seeds from monocotyledonous pork mince mixed with fresh herbs; the mixture is plants of the grass family. The edible, starchy seeds are formed into logs. Cevapcici are usually cooked by suitable for food use and are processed to make a wide grilling and served with chutney or hot relish and toast. range of products. Ceviche Product prepared by marinating raw fish Cereal wines Non-distilled alcoholic beverages fillets or raw fish mince in lime juices or lemon made by fermentation of saccharified mashes juices with olive oils, spices, and sometimes on- made from cereals. Examples of cereal wines include ions, green peppers or tomatoes. Citric acid in sake and other rice wines. the juices causes denaturation of the fish proteins, Cerebrosides Glycolipids comprising ceramides increasing flesh firmness. Eaten usually as an appetizer linked to monosaccharides, usually glucose or particularly in Central and South America. Consump- galactose. In animals, these sphingolipids are tion has been associated with outbreaks of food poi- found chiefly in the brain and other nervous tissues of soning or anisakiasis where infected fish or unhy- animals. Also present in plants and fungi. gienic food preparation practices have been used. Al- ternative spellings include seviche and cebiche. Cereulide Emetic toxin produced by Bacillus cereus growing in foods. Structurally, a depsipeptide (cyclic Ceylon spinach Common name for Basella rubra polypeptide). Foods most commonly associated with (syn. B. alba). Leaves and stems contain high levels of B. cereus emetic poisoning are cooked rice, pasta, carotenoids and ascorbic acid and are used as noodles and pastry. Symptoms of this disease in- vegetables in a similar manner to spinach. Can also clude nausea, vomiting and malaise. Induces hepato- be used in thickeners, while fruits are a source of toxicity in animal models at high doses. natural colorants. Also known as Malabar nightshade. Cerulenin One of the antibiotics with antifungal activity. Obtained from Cephalosporium caerulens Chaconine One of the major toxic glycoalkaloids and acts by inhibiting the biosynthesis of sterols and found in potatoes. fatty acids. Inhibits different types of fatty acid Chaetomium Genus of ascomycetous fungi of the synthases. Chaetomiaceae family. Occur in soil, paper and tex- Cervelat Smoked, uncooked, mildly seasoned sau- tiles. Many species are strongly cellulolytic. Some spe- sages made from chopped pork or a mixture of pork cies (e.g. Chaetomium globosum) are used in the in- and beef. There are two kinds, namely: soft cervelat, a dustrial production of enzymes (e.g. cellulases, semi-dry sausage; and dry cervelat, which is dried dextranases and xylan degrading enzymes). slowly to a hard texture. Many countries make cerve- Chai Spiced milky tea drink which originated in India lat. Varieties manufactured include: Goteborg cervelat but is becoming a popular beverage worldwide. Made from Sweden; Gothaer cervelat from Germany; and from black tea to which is added milk, a mixture of Landjaeger cervelat from Switzerland. Cervelat may spices such as cardamom, cinnamon, ginger, also be known as summer sausages. cloves and pepper, and a sweetener such as sugar. Cestodes Parasitic tapeworms of the class Cestoda. Also available are spice mixes for use when preparing Includes species of the genera Diphyllobothrium, chai, and chai mixes to which hot water is added for Echinococcus and Taenia. making the beverage. 85 Chakka Cheddaring Chakka Curd formed during preparation of the Indian Legal in some winemaking countries, prohibited in dessert, shrikhand, made by straining dahi through a others. cloth to remove whey. Char Any of several trout-like fish species belonging Chalcones Class of minor flavonoids, biochemi- to the genus Salvelinus within the family Salmonidae. cally related to flavanones and dihydrochalcones. Char species include S. alpinus (Arctic char) S. fon- Native chalcone glycosides are easily transformed to tinalis (brook trout) and S. namaycush (lake trout). flavanone glycosides, and are rarely extracted from Flesh of most species is highly regarded. Usually mar- foods in the chalcone form per se. Dietary sources of keted fresh or frozen. chalcone compounds include tomato skins, hops Charcoal Amorphous, usually impure, form of carbon and liquorice. produced by heating wood or other organic material in Chalkiness Characteristic of rice kernels which is the absence of air. Can be used in absorbents (acti- determined by the opacity of the endosperm, with vated carbon), as a cooking fuel which produces a opaque rather than translucent kernels often being distinctive flavour, e.g. in barbecued foods, or in characterized as chalky. Undesirable in most instances fermentation technology. as it detracts from overall appearance and can re- Charcuterie products Varieties of cold cooked duce milling recovery since chalky grains tend to meats, especially pork products, which are cured, break more easily. Can also relate to the sensory smoked or processed. They include ham, pates and properties of other foods. sausages. Shops in which these products are pro- Chalva Alternative term for halva. duced or sold are known as charcuteries. Chamomile Herbs obtained from Anthemis nobilis Charlock Early flowering annual weed (Brassica (syn. Chamaemelum nobile). The plants are a source of kaber or Sinapis arvensis) native to Europe and North essential oils used to flavour liqueurs, other bev- America, seeds of which are used to make a poor qual- erages and confectionery. Flowers are used to ity mustard. make herb tea. Wild camomile (Matricaria recutita Charqui Intermediate moisture (water activity = 0.5- syn. M. chamomilla) has similar uses. Also known as 0.7), dried meat products, mainly produced in South camomile. America. In Brazil, most charqui is prepared from Champagne Sparkling wines made by the Meth- beef, but it is also made from mutton and llama ode Champenoise in-bottle secondary fermentation meat. In Peru, it is also made from alpaca meat. Strips process, in a defined area of northeast France. of meat are cut length-wise, salted and then pressed Champagnization The specific winemaking proc- before air drying. In its finished form, charqui is in ess used for manufacture of champagne, involving flat, slightly flaky, thin sheets. Traditional charqui is in-bottle secondary fermentation under defined con- made without addition of nitrites or nitrates; neverthe- ditions. less, microbial counts decrease during processing and storage. When good quality raw materials and appro- Champignons French word for edible fungi. Typi- priate handling conditions are used for charqui produc- cally used to refer to cultivated button mushrooms tion, the final product has low microbial counts. Char- (Agaricus bisporus). qui-type products include jerky. Channel catfish A freshwater catfish species (Icta- Chayote Squashes obtained from the tropical plant lurus punctatus) which occurs in rivers and streams in Sechium edule, also known as mirliton. Similar in North America. Popular in the USA where it is farmed shape to a large pear, usually furrowed, and containing and marketed fresh, smoked and frozen. a single seed. Chayote fruit are used in a variety of sa- Chantarelles Alternative term for Cantharellus. voury and dessert dishes throughout South America Chapattis Flat, unleavened disc-shaped bread origi- and in Creole cooking. They are low in calories and nating from northern India made with wheat flour, sodium and a good source of trace elements. Tu- water and salt, and baked on a griddle. bers, shoots and leaves are also edible. Chaperones Proteins which assist in the correct Cheddar cheese Semi-hard cow milk cheese processing, particularly non-covalent assembly, of originally made in England but now made all over the other proteins. As well as their role in microbial world. Natural colour ranges from white to pale yel- pathogenicity, chaperones and their subclass chap- low, but some cheeses have colorants added to form eronins are of interest in biotechnology for the produc- a more orange colour. Generally matured for 9-24 tion of correctly folded recombinant proteins. months, the flavour getting sharper with time. Chaptalization Addition of sugar to grape musts Cheddaring Process used in manufacture of scalded to increase alcohol content in the resulting wines. cheese. Pressed curd is cut into pieces which are 86 Cheese Chemical oxygen demand covered and left for 6-10 hours at 15-20°C during incorporate a cheese sauce are often known as mornay, which the curd becomes elastic and develops a yellow e.g. eggs mornay or salmon mornay. colour and characteristic flavour. Cheese slices Presliced cheese of various types and Cheese Dairy products made from the milk of thicknesses packaged for retail sale. cows, goats, ewes, buffaloes and other mammals. A combination of rennets or rennet substitutes Cheese spreads Spreadable product made from and acidification by cheese starters is used to cheese to which other milk products and possibly separate the milk into solid curd and liquid whey. emulsifiers have been added. The starters convert milk sugars into lactic acid, Cheese starters Microbial cultures inoculated into and play a role in defining cheese texture and fla- milk to produce acidity by fermentation during vour. An important part of the diet worldwide due to manufacture of cheese. Commercial starter prepara- its calcium, proteins and phosphorus contents. tions are available in liquid form, or as freeze-dried or Cheese analogues Alternative term for cheese deep-frozen powders or granules. Composition of the substitutes. culture is varied according to the type of cheese being Cheeseburgers Beefburgers served in bread made. rolls with a slice of cheese. Cheese substitutes Artificial alternative to natural Cheesecakes Rich desserts, typically made from cheese. curd cheese or cream cheese, additional ingredi- Cheese varieties Specific types of cheese. ents including cream, eggs, sugar or flavourings. Sometimes require to be baked. Usually served cold on Cheese whey By-product of cheesemaking formed a biscuit or pastry base and may be topped with fruits. along with curd during coagulation of milk. Rich in Cheese curd Protein (casein) gel formed by co- milk proteins including Į-lactalbumin and ȕ- agulation of milk, e.g. during cheesemaking. lactoglobulin. Whey is produced in large amounts, Other milk proteins are retained in the liquid portion leading to disposal problems. As well as being utilized (whey). as a food ingredient, whey is used as a fermentation substrate and in animal feeds. Also known as lactose- Cheesemaking Process by which cheese is made rum or serum. from milk. Depending on the type of cheese being made, steps include preparation of the cheese milk, Chelating agents Substances which form a stable coagulation of milk with addition of cheese start- chelate ring with free metal ions and can therefore be ers and rennets, draining of whey, pressing, shaping used in foods to help control the reaction of trace met- of curd, salting and ripening. als with other food components. They act as seques- Cheesemaking milk Alternative term for cheese trants to prevent metal-catalysed oxidation, unwanted milk. crystal formation and loss of nutritional quality in a Cheese manufacture Alternative term for variety of foods, and can also be used for the con- cheesemaking. trolled release of metal ions for nutritional purposes or for controlled gelation in thickeners. Examples of Cheese milk Milk used as the starting material in chelating agents include EDTA (ethylenediamine- cheesemaking. Also called cheesemaking milk. tetraaceticacid) and glucono-į-lactone. Cheese rind The outer surface of moulded, ripened cheese. Depending on the conditions used during Chemesthesis Complex sensation obtained from ripening, a cheese rind may become thickened and foods, regarded as a component of the sensory develop a harder texture than that of the interior of properties flavour and mouthfeel. Examples in- the cheese. Can be coated with waxes or season- clude the burn of capsaicin in chillies, the cooling ings, inoculated with or treated to promote growth of sensation from menthol and the tingle associated with specific microorganisms or, as in smear cheese, carbonated beverages. washed to inhibit microbial growth. Hard, thick cheese Chemical oxygen demand Measure of the quantity rinds, such as Parmigiano Reggiano cheese rind, of chemically oxidizable components present in wa- is not usually eaten although may be used as flavour- ter. Often abbreviated to COD. Generally reflects wa- ings, for example in soups. Softer rinds, such as the ter quality, as COD values increase with increases in rind of Camembert cheese, can be consumed. organic compounds and other pollutants. Measured Cheese sauces Cheese flavoured white sauces during bioremediation of waste water prior to dis- used mainly for coating foods, e.g. macaroni, cauli- charge into the environment to ensure minimal water flowers or fish. Can be made at home, or purchased pollution. Related to biological oxygen demand in ready to use format or as sauce mixes. Dishes that (BOD). 87 Chemiluminescence Chewy candy Chemiluminescence Emission of light during a Cherry juices Fruit juices extracted from cherries chemical reaction; may be used to measure that reac- such as Prunus cerasus. tion. Cherry laurel Common name for Prunus laurocera- Chemisorption Adsorption of a gas by a solid in sus (syn. Laurocerasus officinalis). Similar in appear- which the molecules of the adsorbed gas are held on ance (but unrelated to) bay. Leaves yield essential the surface of the adsorbing solid by the formation of oils, which are used as flavourings in various types chemical bonds. of foods, including desserts and confectionery, Chemistry The science of the properties, structure and and beverages. Leaves contain hydrocyanic acid, composition of elements and their compounds, includ- which has to be removed from the oils prior to food ing the transformations which they can undergo and use. the energy transfer during these reactions. Cherry salmon A Pacific salmon species (On- Chemometrics The application of mathematics or corhynchus masou masou) from the northwest Pacific statistical analysis to maximize the information region; also known as masu salmon or Japanese char. that can be extracted from chemical data. Some forms remain in fresh water throughout their Chemostats Apparatus for maintaining a microbial lives. A valued food fish in Japan, where its market population in the exponential phase of growth by regu- price tends to be considerably higher than that of other lating the input of a rate-limiting nutrient, and removal salmon. Normally marketed fresh or frozen; also sold of medium and cells. The concentration of biomass as a fermented sushi-like product. in the culture vessel remains constant and the culture is Cherry tomatoes Popular small-sized tomatoes char- normally grown at a sub-maximal growth rate. Under acterized by an appealing bright colour and good fla- steady-state conditions, the relationship between vour characteristics. growth rate and concentration of growth-limiting sub- Chervil Common name for Anthriscus cerefolium. A strate can often be predicted using the Monod equa- delicately flavoured herb which is used in a similar tion, while specific growth rate is numerically equal to manner to parsley as a garnish or to flavour salads, the dilution rate. sauces, and meat and fish dishes. Chemotaxis Movement of motile cells, including Chestnuts Edible nuts from trees of the genus Cas- microorganisms, in response to chemical stimuli. tanea, particularly, C. sativa (Spanish or sweet glu- Microorganisms move towards nutrients such as chestnuts), C. mollissima (Chinese chestnuts) and C. cose and away from toxins. Some bacteria, such as crenata (Japanese chestnuts). Consumed as des- Escherichia coli, possess several flagella that aid sert nuts and also available in canned, pureed or motility their . Chemotaxis is also an important viru- ground forms. Used as an ingredient in confection- lence factor for pathogens. ery and as an accompaniment to savoury dishes. May Cherimoya Common name for Annona cherimola, a also refer to water chestnuts (Trapa natans) and member of the custard apples family. Native to Chinese water chestnuts (Eleocharis dulcis). South America, the edible fruits have a green, scaly Chevon Alternative term for goat meat; the term is surface and soft, yellowish white flesh containing a commonly used in India. number of seeds. Fruits have a flavour similar to pineapples and are believed to be one of the finest Chewiness Texture term relating to the extent to tasting of the custard apples. They can be eaten raw or which a product needs chewing, or a measure of the used in flavourings for beverages and foods such as effort needed to chew, i.e. its toughness, rubberiness ice cream. or leatheriness in the mouth. Cherries Reddish coloured stone fruits from trees of Chewing gums Sweetened products made from the Prunus genus. Can be classified into two main chicle (gum-like exudate consisting of coagulated groups, sweet cherries (P. avium) and sour cher- milky juice from the bark of the evergreen sapodilla ries (P. cerasus). Available fresh, dried, canned, fro- tree, Achras zapota) or similar resilient substances zen or brined (e.g. Maraschino cherries). Used as in- (e.g. plasticized rubber or polymers), sugar or similar gredients in many food products including cakes, sweeteners. May also be made using a gum base, pies, cherry brandy, cherry juices and confec- softeners and flavourings. Some chewing gums are tionery. specially formulated to promote dental health. Also Cherry brandy Liqueurs made from cherries, known as chicle gums or gum balls. which may be made with addition of crushed cherry Chewy candy Candy that exhibits the texture prop- stones to impart a characteristic bitter almonds fla- erty of chewiness. The temperature to which dis- vour. solved sugar is heated determines final candy texture. Sugar cooked to a temperature of approximately 115qC 88 Chhana Chicken skin results in a softer product. Examples include cara- tends to have more flavour; however, it is tougher and, mels and nougat. in developed countries, more expensive. Chicken meat Chhana Indian style soft cottage cheese analogue can be roasted, grilled, poached or casseroled. Chick- prepared by heating milk (usually cow milk) to ens are sold whole, or portioned into joints, including nearly boiling, adding acid coagulants while the chicken breasts, wings, drumsticks and thighs. milk is hot and removing whey by filtration. Used as a Chicken mince Meat mince prepared from base for various Indian sweets, such as rasogolla and chicken meat. It may be prepared specifically from sandesh. Also known as channa. light or dark chicken meat. Mince prepared from light Chicha Corn based alcoholic beverages, which coloured chicken meat has a lower content of saturated may be made by a combined alcoholic fermenta- fats than mince prepared from dark chicken meat. Also tion/lactic fermentation process, originating in known as ground chicken. Central and South America. Chicken nuggets Breaded, coarsely comminuted Chicken bones Bones from chicken carcasses. chicken products, usually reconstituted from During cooking, they darken in colour, and this deboned chicken meat. Formulations often include change is increased by freezing and thawing prior to spent hen meat and offal. Quality of the product (often cooking. Chicken bones are commonly used to prepare prime, choice or economy grades) differs with the pro- chicken soups or are processed into animal feeds. portion of lean meat to offal. Economy-type products Hot-water extracts prepared from chicken bones are tend to include higher proportions of offal and show used in many types of products, especially in flavour- higher cooking losses than the other types. ings. Exposure of chicken meat containing bone to Chicken patties Meat patties prepared from chicken a dose of ionizing radiation results in the formation of mince. long-lived free radicals which give rise to characteris- Chicken products Processed foods such as tic electron spin resonance (ESR) signals. The pres- chicken nuggets, patties and sausages that are ence of these signals provides clear evidence that made from chicken meat. chicken meat has been irradiated. Mechanical bon- Chickens Birds of the genus Galus belonging to the ing of chicken meat remains a problem to the meat in- order Galliformes. These common domestic fowl are dustry, as bone fragments often remain in chicken fil- kept virtually worldwide for the production of lets, escaping manual or X-ray machine detection. chicken meat and eggs. Most commercial chicken Chicken drumsticks Lower portions of the legs of farms use intensive systems; however, consumer con- chickens; they consist of the tibiotarsus and fibula cerns relating to animal welfare have led to an in- bones with the surrounding chicken meat, cartilage crease in the use of less intensive systems and free- and skin. Colour of meat from chicken drumsticks is range systems. Different gender and age groups of darker than that of breast meat, primarily because chickens are known as cocks (adult entire males), ca- chicken leg meat contains higher concentrations of pons (adult castrated males), hens (adult females), myoglobin and haemoglobin than breast meat. cockerels and pullets (usually sexually mature young Chicken gizzard pickles Pickles made from males and females, respectively) and chicks (sexually chicken gizzards. Usually prepared from sliced, immature birds with down rather than feathers). cooked chicken gizzards, salt and water, and often Chickens are susceptible to avian flu and infection mustard oil- or vinegar-based. Other ingredients may generally results in extensive culling which can lead to include garlic, ginger, cumin, red chilli, aniseed, marked economic losses. Contact with infected birds caraway, turmeric, black pepper, cinnamon or can result in human illness, but the virus is not thought cloves. to survive thorough cooking. Chicken livers Livers from chickens, part of edi- Chicken sausages Sausages prepared from ble offal. They are commonly cooked by sauteing, chicken meat, often spent hen meat. Commonly they frying or grilling, or are used to prepare pates or are made from mechanically recovered meat or mousses. chicken meat trimmings. They also tend to include Chicken meat Meat from chickens. Different pro- chicken skin and the less preferred components of portions of red and white myofibrils produce light and chicken offal, such as gizzards and hearts. Other in- dark meat in different parts of chicken carcasses. gredients may include water, salt, nitrites, pork fat, Chicken leg meat is darker than chicken breast meat. blood and phosphates. Composition of feeds influences flavour and colour Chicken skin Skin from chickens. Antimicrobial of chicken meat. Compared with chicken meat pro- treatment of chicken skin is commonly used to de- duced in intensive systems, free-range chicken meat crease bacterial contamination (and cross contamina- 89 Chick peas Chinese pears tion) of chicken carcasses during processing. Most Chilled foods Perishable foods that can be stored of the fats in chicken meat are associated with the at chilled (refrigerator) temperature for a specified skin; thus, fat content can be lowered by removing the amount of time. Examples include chilled ready skin. Chicken skin is used as an ingredient in sau- meals, pizzas, sandwiches and many dairy sages, including chicken sausages. Connective products. tissue proteins recovered from chicken skin are used to Chillers Cold cabinets or refrigerators that are capa- manage the added water in comminuted meat prod- ble of rapid cooling/chilling of foods to a few de- ucts. After removal of fat and water soluble proteins grees above their freezing point in order to extend by aqueous washing, chicken skin is potentially useful shelf life. as a low-fat ingredient in emulsified meat products. Chilli Spices obtained from ground chillies. Flavour, Colour of chicken skin is either white or yellow; den- capsaicin content and pungency vary according to sity of the yellow pigment is correlated with the type of pepper used. May also refer to chilli-based amount of xanthophylls in chicken feeds. spice mixtures used for making Mexican dishes such Chick peas Mild-flavoured beans of Cicer arieti- as chilli con carne. num. An important pulse in many regions including the Chillies Hot peppers of any of several cultivated Middle East, Mediterranean and Latin America. Chick varieties of capsicums. Examples include birdseye, peas can be divided into two major types: Desi, which cayenne, habanero, poblano and jalapeno peppers. are relatively small and dark in colour and the larger Red chillies are particularly rich in vitamin A and Kabuli which are of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern vitamin C, and chillies in general are sources of vi- origin. Contain high amounts of good-quality protein tamin E, potassium and folic acid. Used mainly as and are also a good source of folates and other B vi- flavourings. Also known as chilies, chili peppers and tamins. They are used in many foods including sal- chiles. ads, pasta and dips, and are the basis of humous and falafel. Also known as garbanzo beans and Chilling Process of making foods colder to extend Bengal gram. their shelf life, usually undertaken by application of refrigeration. Chicle gums Alternative term for chewing gums. Chilling injury Disorder of fruits and vegetables Chicory Common name for Cichorium intybus. Util- induced by low temperatures. May occur in the field, ized in a number of ways, some cultivars being grown during transit or in retail or domestic refrigerators. for the root, a powder or extract from which is used as Symptoms include surface lesions, water soaking of an additive in coffee, making a more bitter beverage. tissues, water loss, internal discoloration, failure to Other cultivars are grown for the leaves, which are ripen, and decay. Critical temperature for chilling in- used in salads or cooked as a vegetable. Some culti- jury varies with type of crop. Storage life of produce vars, such as witloof, are used to produce blanched susceptible to chilling injury is short, as refrigeration leafy growths called chicons, which are eaten raw or cannot be used to preserve quality. cooked. Similar nutritionally to lettuces and endives. Chinese cabbages Cabbages of the species Bras- Chihuahua cheese Mexican semi-hard cheese sica pekinensis or B. chinensis. The crinkly, thickly made from pasteurized cow milk. The interior is pale veined leaves are thin and crisp, cream in colour with yellow and the flavour varies from mild to sharp and green tips, and have a mild flavour. Rich in vitamin Cheddar-like. Chihuahua is a stringy cheese which A, folic acid and potassium. Eaten raw or cooked melts well, making it suitable for use in toppings and as a vegetable. Many alternative names, including napa fillings. cabbage, celery cabbage, Peking cabbage, wong bok, bok choi, pak choi and Chinese white cabbage. Chilean hazelnuts Nuts of the tree Gevuina avellana, native to Chile and Argentina but grown also in Chinese chives Common name for Allium tubero- other parts of the world. Closely related to and similar sum. Young leaves and flower stalks, with their gar- in quality and size to macadamia nuts, but enclosed lic-like flavour, are used in seasonings. Also known in a thinner and softer shell. Eaten roasted, but also as garlic chives and oriental garlic. used as a source of edible oils. Also known by sev- Chinese dates Alternative term for jujubes. eral other names, including Chilean nuts, Chile nuts, Chinese gooseberries Alternative term for kiwi- gevuina nuts, guevin nuts and neufen nuts. fruit. Chilled beverages Beverages that are subjected to Chinese pears Fruits produced by Pyrus chinensis, chilling before consumption, either to extend their P. ussuriensis, P. bretschneideri or, more generally, P. shelf life or to maximize their palatability. pyrifolia. Originally cultivated in China. P. pyrifolia is the oriental pear, also referred to as Asian pears, 90 Chinese sausages Chlamydomonas Japanese pears and sand pears. Usually round or crustacea and cell walls of fungi, and may be re- oval, firm to touch when ripe, and ready to eat after covered from crustacea shell wastes. One of a num- harvest. Crisp, juicy and slightly sweet with some tart- ber of effective thickeners and stabilizers. May ness, especially near the core. Known to keep well; up also be used in functional foods, water purifica- to a week at room temperature or up to three months in tion, waste treatment and packaging applications. a refrigerator. Chitinases EC 3.2.1.14. Randomly hydrolyse N- Chinese sausages Fairly hard, dry sausages acetyl-ȕ-D-glucosaminide 1,4-ȕ-linkages in chitin and usually made from pork meat and pork fat. They are chitodextrins. Produced by plants, fungi, yeasts and similar in texture to pepperoni. Chinese sausages bacteria, these enzymes exhibit antifungal activ- are smoked, slightly sweet and highly seasoned. Varie- ity and can be used for processing shellfish wastes. ties include the lop chong. Chinese sausages are often Also responsible for haze formation in wines and are added to stir-fry dishes. major allergens of fruits such as avocados, bananas, chestnuts and kiwifruit, causing latex-fruit Chinese water chestnuts Corms produced at the syndrome. ends of horizontal rhizomes of Eleocharis dulcis, a plant cultivated in marshy areas or lakes in Asia. Skin Chitin deacetylases EC 3.5.1.41. Hydrolases is brown-black and similar to that of chestnuts. The which catalyse the hydrolysis of chitin into chitosan white flesh is crunchy and juicy, with a bland flavour. and acetate, via splitting of the N-acetamido groups of Used widely in Asian dishes, raw or cooked. Contain N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residues. Chitosan formed has moderate amounts of starch, sugar, B vitamins, vi- potential uses in functional foods and food pre- tamin C and vitamin E, and relatively high amounts servatives. of potassium and phosphorus. Available fresh or Chitosan Polysaccharide derived from chitin by par- canned; a powdered form is used as a thickener, simi- tial deacetylation with a strong base. Often obtained lar to corn starch. Also known as matai. from shellfish wastes. Used with other fining agents for clarification of beer and wines. Im- Chinook salmon The largest Pacific salmon spe- proves flocculation and thus minimizes haze. Also cies (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) found in coastal wa- used in functional foods, filtration (e.g. for water ter and rivers along the Pacific coast of North America, purification) and packaging. Exhibits antimicro- Japan and in the western Arctic; also known as king bial activity and can extend shelf life. salmon. High fat, soft-textured flesh is usually red, but some forms are white; the red meat commands a higher Chitosanases EC 3.2.1.132. Glycosidases which price. Marketed fresh, smoked, frozen, and canned in hydrolyse ȕ-1,4-linkages between N-acetyl-D- whole (gutted) form, fillets and steaks. glucosamine and D-glucosamine residues in partly acetylated chitosan. Act only on polymers with 30-60% Chipping properties Functional properties relat- acetylation. These enzymes can degrade the cell walls ing to the ability of different cultivars or varieties of of microorganisms that contain glucosamine potatoes to be processed into good quality chips. polymers and can be used for production of chitooligo- The most important processing quality parameters for saccharides, which have a number of potential uses in chips are colour, flavour and texture. the food industry. Chips Small pieces of food prepared by chopping or Chitterlings Term applied to the small intestines, cutting, which are then usually fried. Include potato usually from swine, when prepared for use as food. chips (French fries), corn chips and tortilla May be used as an ingredient of sausages or pies, chips. The term is frequently used to refer specifically or may be eaten raw. Consumption of raw chitterlings to potato chips in the UK and to potato crisps in the has been associated with food poisoning where USA and continental Europe. preparation conditions have not been hygienic. Also Chistorra Semi-cured sausages that are a speciality of called chitlings. the Basque region of Spain. They are long, thin, fla- Chives Common name for Allium schoenoprasum. vourful pork sausages produced in links. Ingredi- Fresh leaves have a mild onion-like flavour and are ents include garlic. Chistorra are lightly cured and chopped and used as a garnishes in soups and sal- dried for only a few days. In the Basque region, they ads. Also available as a dried herb. Chinese chives are usually cooked lightly before eating with eggs or are A. tuberosum. with local bread; however, they are also popular as Chlamydomonas Genus of unicellular green algae flavourings for cooked dishes such as bean, lentil or of the family Chlamydomonadaceae. Occur in fresh- rice casseroles. water habitats and on damp soils. Used as a model for Chitin Homopolysaccharide, consisting of ȕ(1o4)- cell and molecular biology research studies. linked D-N-acetylglucosamine. Occurs in shells of 91 Chloramines Chlorogenic acid Chloramines Antimicrobial compounds that pesticides such as HCH, heptachlor, aldrin, en- decompose slowly to release chlorine. May be used drin, dieldrin, PCB, DDE and DDT. Suspected of in the treatment of water supplies. being carcinogenic, and characterized by accumulation Chloramine T An N-chloro sulfonamide used as an in the food chain and very slow biodegradation. May antiseptic, disinfectant and biocide. Used as an antim- contaminate fish and shellfish when discharged into icrobial agent for control of parasites and disinfec- the sea along with industrial effluents. tion of drinking water. Employed in the food indus- Chlorination Insertion of a chlorine atom into a com- try for disinfection of equipment before processing. pound, or treatment of an item with chlorine gas Chloramphenicol Highly active antibiotic used both (Cl2). For example, chlorine gas can be used in sterili- in treatment and prophylactically in a range of animals, zation of water. including poultry, calves, swine and goats. Also used Chlorine Member of the halogens group, chemical in salmon and trout for the treatment of furunculosis. symbol Cl. Chlorine and its compounds have strong Potentially genotoxic; use is restricted in many coun- microbicidal activity and are used in the food industry tries and banned in food-producing animals within the as disinfectants and sterilizing agents. Chlorine gas EU and USA. Also known as chlormycetin. is toxic. Chlorates Salts of chloric acid commonly used for Chlorine dioxide Gaseous chlorine compound disinfection purposes. May be formed in drinking which is used in oxidizing agents-type disinfec- water as a result of chlorination. Considered to pose tants, used for sterilization of foods and water. a health risk to humans. Chlorites Salts of chlorous acid, used as disinfec- Chlordane Non-systemic organochlorine insecticide tants in the food industry. formerly used for control of a wide range of insect Chlormequat Plant growth regulator used for treat- pests in crops, soil, industrial and domestic envi- ment of fruits, vegetables and cereals to improve ronments, but now subject to the Stockholm Conven- ripening and quality. Can also be used as a herbicide. tion on Persistent Organic Pollutants and used only Also known as CCC, chlorocholine chloride and cyco- rarely. Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous cel. (WHO II). Chlorocholine chloride Alternative term for Chlorella Genus of unicellular green algae of the chlormequat. family Oocystaceae. Occur in fresh water and soils. Chlorococcum Genus of unicellular green microal- Species (e.g. Chlorella pyrenoidosa) may be used in gae of the family Chlorococcaceae, which occur in the production of single cell proteins, or as food damp conditions, e.g. in soil. Produce the pigment additives owing to their nutritional composition (high astaxanthin and other carotenoids which can be protein, vitamin B and iron contents) and beneficial 12 used as colorants for foods. physiological effects. Some species are added to foods (e.g. cakes, cheese, mayonnaise, ice Chloroethylphosphonic acid Alternative term for cream and rice) to improve their flavour. Due to ethephon. their high contents of carotenoids, they are used as (2-Chloroethyl)phosphonic acid Chemical name feed additives for the enhancement of the colour of for the plant growth regulator ethephon. rainbow trout flesh. C. protothecoides produces lu- Chlorofluorocarbons Abbreviated to CFC. Any tein, which is used in food colorants for foods such class of synthetic compound of carbon, hydrogen, as pasta. chlorine and fluorine used as refrigerants and aerosol Chlorfenvinphos Organophosphorus insecticide and propellants. Commercial CFC are nonflammable, non- acaricide which has been used for control of soil-based corrosive, nontoxic and odourless, but are known to be and flying insects in citrus fruits, vegetables, harmful to the ozone layer. The most common com- cereals and sugar cane; also used to control ecto- mercial CFC, marketed as Freons, are trichloro- parasites on animals. Classified by WHO as highly fluoromethane (CFC-11) and dichlorodifluoromethane hazardous (WHO Ib). (CFC-12). Chlorides Salts of hydrochloric acid. Occur widely Chloroform Colourless, heavy, volatile, toxic liquid. in foods and beverages, the most important being Used as a solvent, fumigant and insecticide. Also common salt, NaCl, which is used in food additives known as trichloromethane. such as flavourings, preservatives and bulking Chlorogenic acid Synonym for caffeoylquinic agents. acid. Phenol present in many foods of plant origin. Chlorinated hydrocarbons Organic compounds Plays an important role in enzymic browning of which contain one or more chlorine atoms. Include fruits and vegetables. Has antioxidative activity, 92 Chloromycetin Chocolate fillings and may contribute to possible health-promoting or animal rearing facilities. Classified by WHO as mod- protective actions of dietary phenolic compounds. erately hazardous (WHO II). Also known as dursban. Chloromycetin Alternative term for the antibiotic Chlorpyrifos-methyl Non-systemic organophospho- chloramphenicol. rus insecticide and acaricide used for control of biting and chewing insects in a wide range of fruits, vege- Chlorophenol Organic halogen compound used in tables and cereals; also used for stored cereals. pesticides and wood preservatives. Formed in water Classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard and waste water as a result of chlorination. Chloro- in normal use. phenol contamination may cause taints in foods, beverages or water. Chlortetracycline Broad-spectrum tetracycline antibiotic used for treatment and control of a wide variety Chlorophos Alternative term for the insecticide tri- of bacterial infections in farm animals. Readily dis- chlorfon. perses throughout tissues; rapidly depletes following Chlorophyllases EC 3.1.1.14. Esterases which withdrawal in most cases. catalyse the degradation of chlorophylls to phytol Chocolate A confectionery product made from and chlorophyllide. Involved in desirable colour hulled, fermented and roasted cocoa beans (nibs), changes during ripening of fruits but also in post- blended with sugar, fats (cocoa butter or cocoa harvest quality deterioration of broccoli and other butter substitutes) and lecithins. Milk solids may green vegetables. Of use commercially for enzymic be added to produce milk chocolate. Fat is an impor- decoloration of chlorophyll-containing products, e.g. tant component since its particular melting profile con- vegetable oils, as an alternative to chemical tributes to the mouthfeel of the product. Chocolate bleaching. contains theobromine, an alkaloid with effects simi- Chlorophylls Green photosynthetic pigments of the lar to those of caffeine. porphyrins class which occur in leaves and other Chocolate bars Chocolate products that may or plant tissues. May be used as food colorants, but sta- may not contain added ingredients or fillings, such as bility is poor. nuts, toffee, biscuits and dried fruits, formed into Chloropicrin Soil fumigant which may occur as resi- bars. dues in foods. Also one of the disinfection by- Chocolate beverages Hot or cold beverages in products which may be formed during chlorination which chocolate is a main ingredient. of drinking water. Chocolate chips Small pieces of chocolate used as Chloropropanols Organochlorine compounds ingredients in confectionery and bakery prod- regarded as food contaminants, formed as a result of ucts. food processing and/or storage. In particular, the Chocolate coatings Chocolate preparations used carcinogens 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) and to coat various products such as sugar confection- its precursor 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) ery, bakery products, fruit or ice cream. Formed have been detected in foods, including soy sauces by pre-crystallization of chocolate, coating of the and products containing acid-hydrolysed vegetable food and cooling. Pre-crystallization and cooling affect proteins. the gloss, degree of solidification and coat thickness of Chlorothalonil Non-systemic protectant foliar fungi- the coatings produced. cide used for control of fungal diseases in a wide range Chocolate confectionery Collective term for of crops. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present chocolate and chocolate products. acute hazard in normal use. Also known as daconil and Chocolate couverture Chocolate which contains tetrachloroisophthalonitrile. maximal levels of cocoa butter, used as coatings Chlorpropham Selective systemic carbamate herbi- for high quality chocolate products. cide and plant growth regulator. Used for pre- Chocolate crumb Intermediate material produced emergence control of many annual grasses and some during manufacture of milk chocolate, composed of broad-leaved weeds in a wide range of vegetable dried milk, sugar and cocoa mass. crops; also used in antisprouting agents for pota- Chocolate desserts Desserts containing choco- toes. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute late as a main ingredient, e.g. chocolate flavoured hazard in normal use. Also known as CIPC. milk puddings and chocolate mousses. Chlorpyrifos Non-systemic organophosphorus insec- Chocolate dragees Confectionery products com- ticide and acaricide used for control of biting and posed of hard centres coated with chocolate. chewing insects in a wide range of fruits, vegeta- Chocolate fillings Chocolate products used as bles and cereals; also used for stored cereals and in fillings for various products, including sugar con- 93 Chocolate liquor Choloylglycine hydrolases fectionery, bakery products and snack foods. Cholesterol One of the sterols, and the major sterol May also refer to fillings (e.g. creme fillings) used for found in vertebrate mammals. Present in all plasma chocolates. membranes, but found especially in blood, liver, nerve Chocolate liquor Fermented and roasted cocoa tissue, brain tissue and animal fats. A precursor of beans, which are ground finely to form a paste used many steroids, including the bile acids and steroid in the manufacture of chocolate and cocoa pow- hormones. Not an essential dietary requirement; con- ders. Grinding releases fats (cocoa butter) from the sumption of high levels have been associated with cells of the cocoa beans which helps the chocolate to atherosclerosis and coronary heart diseases. flow. Also called chocolate mass, cocoa mass and co- Several health foods are claimed to reduce serum coa liquor. cholesterol levels; production of cholesterol-reduced Chocolate mass Alternative term for chocolate products, especially dairy products and eggs, is in- liquor, produced by grinding dehusked cocoa creasing. beans, or nibs, to a paste from which chocolate and Cholesterol oxidases EC 1.1.3.6. Catalyse the oxi- chocolate products are made. Also called cocoa mass dation of cholesterol to cholest-4-en-3-one and and cocoa liquor. H2O2. These oxidases may be used in biosensors Chocolate milk Chocolate flavoured milk-based for the determination of cholesterol levels in foods. beverage. Cholesterol oxidation products Oxidized choles- Chocolate powders Manufactured from cocoa terol derivatives, also known as oxysterols, which powders which are agglomerated to form larger par- have been linked to a range of adverse health effects ticle sizes. Used in the manufacture of chocolate including cytotoxicity, atherogenicity and carcino- beverages. genicity. Cholesterol oxidation products have been identified in a range of foods, including eggs, meat, Chocolate products Products such as chocolate dairy products and sea foods. Their formation can bars, drinking chocolate and chocolate des- be influenced by food processing and storage condi- serts that are made from chocolate or have choco- tions. late as a major constituent. Cholesterol oxides Type of cholesterol oxida- Chocolates Sweets made or coated with chocolate. tion products. Chocolate truffles Small, round chocolates with a Choline An amino alcohol and biogenic amine precur- soft and creamy centre, which may be flavoured, often sor with activity similar to that of vitamin B group with fruit flavourings or liqueurs. members. Occurs widely in living organisms as a con- Chokeberries Pea-sized fruits produced in red and stituent of certain types of phospholipids (lecithins black varieties by plants of the genus Aronia. Black and sphingomyelin) and in the neurotransmitter ace- chokeberries, produced by A. melanocarpa, are violet- tylcholine. Choline is synthesized in the body, is a black in colour with a strong sour flavour. They are ubiquitous component of cell membranes and therefore rich in vitamins and minerals and have a high con- occurs in all foods. Rich sources include egg yolks, tent of flavonoids. Fruits are eaten fresh or preserved meat, livers and cereals. by canning or by drying whole or as a pulp. Juices Cholinesterases may be extracted to make jellies. Also used commer- Accepted name for EC 3.1.1.8 and cially as a source of natural colorants. an alternative name for EC 3.1.1.7 (accepted name: acetylcholinesterases). The former enzymes act Cholecalciferol Synonym for vitamin D ; one of the 3 on a variety of choline esters. Both esterases have group of sterols which constitute vitamin D. Fat- been used in biosensors for detection of insecti- soluble vitamin necessary for formation of the skeleton cides and drugs residues in water and foods. and for mineral homeostasis. Produced on exposure to Choloylglycine hydrolases Hy- UV light from the sun from the provitamin 7- EC 3.5.1.24. drolases dehydrocholesterol, which is found in human skin. Al- which catalyse the hydrolysis of trihydroxy- ternative recommended name is calciol. cholanoylglycine and dihydroxy derivative into trihy- droxycholanate and glycine. Also act on choloyl- Cholera Acute infectious human disease characterized taurine. Activity is common in lactic acid bacteria, by profuse diarrhoea leading to extreme dehydration especially Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus spp. that can result in shock, renal failure and death. Caused Have potential applications in probiotic foods due by cholera toxin produced by Vibrio cholerae. to their action in reducing blood cholesterol levels, Spread by the faecal-oral route, usually via faeces- although they may also be associated with negative ef- contaminated water and food. fects such as gallstones. Also known as bile salt hy- Cholera toxin Toxin produced by Vibrio cholerae drolases. that is responsible for cholera. 94 Chondroitin Chrysin Chondroitin One of the glycosaminoglycans and, through a liquid or solid stationary phase under the in- as chondroitin sulfate, a constituent of connective fluence of a gas or liquid mobile phase. Once sepa- tissues, predominantly cartilage and bone. May be rated, individual components can be measured or iden- obtained from fish processing wastes or animal tified by various methods. Types of chromatographic carcasses. Used in functional foods and food techniques include gas chromatography, thin supplements intended for improving joint health. layer chromatography, affinity chromatogra- Chondrus Genus of seaweeds containing the edible phy and ion exchange chromatography, classi- species Chondrus crispus (Irish moss), which has carti- fied according to characteristics of the method. laginous, dark purplish-red fronds. This species pro- Chromium Mineral, chemical symbol Cr, which is vides a source of carrageenans (sulfated polysac- widespread in foods. An essential nutrient at low con- charides) which are used as food emulsifiers. centrations, but toxic in excess. Chopi Common name for the Asian plant, Zanthoxy- Chromobacterium Genus of facultatively anaerobic, lum piperitum. Peel from the dried fruits of this plant is rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family used as a spice and the leaves are also used in flavour- Neisseriaceae. Occur in soil and water. Generally non- ings for foods. The dried fruits have an aromatic pathogenic; however, some species can infect mam- lemon-like aroma, while the leaves have a flavour mals, including humans. For example, Chromobacte- with tones of mint and lime. Extracts of peel and rium violaceum is a pathogen found in water. C. visco- leaves have antimicrobial activity. Also known by a sum also produces lipases of potential commercial variety of other names, including Sichuan pepper and interest. Chinese pepper. Chromoplasts Plastids found in plant cells which Chopping Cutting of foods into bite-sized (or contain pigments such as carotenoids and xan- smaller) pieces with repeated, sharp blows with thophylls. Present especially in flowers and ripe knives or cleavers, usually on chopping boards. A fruits. food processor may also be used to chop foods. Chromosomes Self-replicating structures consisting Chopping boards Boards made from wood, plas- of or containing DNA that carries genetic information tics or glass on which food is placed for cutting essential to the cell. Bacterial chromosomes are usually with knives or cleavers (chopping). For safety rea- circular and present as a single type within a cell, al- sons, it is best to use one board for vegetables and though many copies may be present in each cell. Eu- another (preferably wood) for raw meat. Hot water karyotic chromosomes are complexed with proteins and detergents should always be used in conjunction (chromatin) and located in the nucleus. They are pre- with scrubbing to wash a chopping board after each sent as pairs and each cell may contain a single type or use. Plastics and glass boards may be cleaned in many different types, depending on the organism. dishwashers. Chrysanthemum Genus of flowering plants, the Chorizo Highly spiced, fermented pork sausages, flowers and leaves from some species of which are made from coarsely comminuted meat, which is fla- consumed as vegetables. Commonly used species voured with garlic, paprika and other spices. Three include the garland chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum major types are produced, namely fresh, semi-dried coronarium). and dried. Air dried chorizo is sliced and eaten raw. Chrysene Member of the carcinogenic polycyclic Other types of chorizo are cooked by grilling or frying, aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) group which can or are added to other meat in spicy casseroles, occur as a contaminant in foods. soups and stews. Smoked versions of chorizo are also Chryseobacterium Genus of aerobic Gram nega- produced. Chorizo are used widely in Spanish and tive bacteria of the Flavobacteriaceae family. Many Mexican cookery. Spanish chorizo are made from species from this genus were formerly classified as smoked pork and are sold ready-to-eat, whilst Mexican Flavobacterium. Found widely in foods, such as chorizo are made from fresh pork and require cook- milk, meat and fish. Many species produce ening before eating. zymes of industrial interest, such as metalloen- Christstollen Rich bread/cake originally from Ger- zymes, protein glutaminases and keratinases. many that contains dried fruits and nuts and is tradi- Chrysin Member of the flavones. Synonyms include tionally eaten at Christmas. Alternative term for stol- 5,7-dihydroxy-2-phenyl-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one and len. 5,7-dihydroxyflavone. One of the bioactive com- Chromatography Techniques in which components pounds present in plants, honeys and propolis. of a gaseous or liquid mixture are separated on the ba- Shown to inhibit synthesis of oestrogens in vitro and sis of differences in the rate at which they migrate is classed as one of the phytoestrogens. As with 95 Chrysosporium Ciguatera other plant polyphenols, exhibits antioxidative ac- Found in the fourth stomach of calves although micro- tivity. bially-produced recombinant enzymes are now Chrysosporium Genus of keratinophilic filamentous widely available. Used extensively in cheesemak- fungi of the order Onygenales. Common in soil, plant ing. material and birds. Can cause occasional spoilage Chymotrypsin EC 3.4.21.1. One of the proteinases problems in the food industry. which is produced as an inactive precursor. This serine Chub Freshwater fish species (Leuciscus cephalus) endopeptidase cleaves peptide bonds immediately after of minor commercial importance belonging to the fam- a Tyr, Trp, Phe or Leu residue. ily Cyprinidae (minnows and carps). Found in rivers Chymotrypsin inhibitors Molecules, generally pro- and lakes, and sometimes brackish water, in Europe teins, which inhibit the activity of chymotrypsin and Asia Minor. Popular as a game fish. Eaten fresh or (EC 3.4.21.1, a serine proteinase). These inhibitors oc- smoked. cur naturally in a range of plant foods, particularly Chub mackerel Marine fish species (Scomber ja- seeds, where they play a role in plant defence against ponicus) from the mackerel family; widely distributed pests and pathogens. However, they can also act as in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Commercially cul- antinutritional factors in plant foods, reducing the tured in Japan. Flesh is fatty with a strong flavour. digestibility and nutritional values of these foods Marketed fresh, frozen, smoked, salted and occasion- for humans. Cooking and other processing treatments ally canned. Also known as Pacific mackerel and can reduce levels of chymotrypsin inhibitors in plant Spanish mackerel. foods. Efforts are also being made to breed plants with reduced levels of these compounds. Chufa nuts Stem tubers of Cyperus esculentus, cultivated in West Africa. Eaten raw or roasted, or used to Cider Alcoholic beverages made by fermentation make non-alcoholic beverages. Also known as tiger- of apple musts. In most parts of the world, the term nuts. refers to fermented apple juices, but in the USA and parts of Canada, this alcoholic beverage is termed hard Chukars Partridges which are similar to the red- cider, and the term cider refers to unfermented apple legged partridge, but belonging to the genus Alectoris. juices. To produce cider, apples are washed and There are two species. Chukars are hunted as game mashed, pressed, and fermented in oak vats using natu- birds, but are also farmed successfully. Battery-farmed ral or added yeasts. Taste varies from sweet to dry. chukars slaughtered at 14-20 weeks of age have ready- Appearance ranges from very dark, cloudy and sludgy, to-cook yields (from live weight) of approximately through to crisp, clean and golden yellow. Popular 75%. A large proportion of the boneless cooked meat drink in the UK, especially the south-west, but also yield is breast meat. popular in Brittany and Normandy in France, in Ireland Chum salmon Pacific salmon species (Oncorhyn- and northern Spain. chus keta) found in coastal waters and rivers along the Cider apples Cultivars of apples grown for use in Pacific coasts of North America and Japan. Flesh has cider production. highly regarded flavour and texture; occurs in pink Cider vinegar Fruit-flavoured vinegar made by or white forms. Mainly canned but also sold fresh, refermenting cider or apple wines. Used widely as a dried-salted, smoked, and frozen. Roes are utilized in table vinegar, especially in the USA and apple growing caviar substitutes. regions of Europe. Chungkook-jang Traditional Japanese and Korean Cider yeasts Yeasts used for fermentation of fermented product made from soybeans. Also known apple musts to produce cider. as chunggugjang. Ciguatera Food poisoning caused by consumption Churning Process used in buttermaking. Agitation of tropical marine fish containing a neurotoxin or churning of cream breaks down the milk fat glob- (ciguatoxin) produced by certain dinoflagellates. ule membranes, allowing individual milk fat Symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea and vomit- globules to coalesce into grains which eventually ing and multiple, varied neurological disorders. Cigua- separate from the buttermilk. tera poisoning is the most common nonbacterial, Chutneys Fruit or vegetable pickles, containing in- fishborne poisoning in the USA (mainly Hawaii and gredients including spices and sugar. Originally an Florida) and is a significant health concern in tropical Indian delicacy. areas worldwide. Species of fish most frequently im- Chymosin EC 3.4.23.4. Broad specificity similar to plicated in ciguatera outbreaks include grouper, that of pepsin A. Also known as rennin. Component of amberjack, red snappers, eels, sea bass, barra- rennets, it initiates the clotting of milk by cleavage cuda and Spanish mackerel. of the Phe105-Met106 bond in the ț-chain of casein. 96 Ciguatoxin Citronella essential oils Ciguatoxin Neurotoxin produced by dinoflagellates lysed to give information about the secondary structure associated with coral reefs, which can accumulate in of biological macromolecules such as peptides, pro- fish and cause ciguatera poisoning in consumers. teins and nucleic acids. Gambierdiscus toxicus is the dinoflagellate most nota- Citral Member of the terpene aldehydes class of bly responsible for production of ciguatoxin, although flavour compounds. Occurs in a wide range of other species have been identified recently. At least plant foods, especially coriander, pepper, lemon five types of ciguatoxin have been identified and are peel and ginger. noted to accumulate in larger and older fish higher up the food chain. Citrates Salts of citric acid which occur naturally in many foods, and may be used as acidulants in foods Cimaterol -Adrenergic agonist used to enhance ȕ and beverages. growth rates and improve feed efficiency and lean meat content of animals. Use as a growth-promoting Citrate synthases Includes EC 2.3.3.1 (citrate (Si)- agent in farm animals is not permitted in many coun- synthases; formerly EC 4.1.3.7) and EC 2.3.3.3 (citrate tries. (Re)-synthases; formerly EC 4.1.3.28). These two transferases exhibit opposite stereospecificities and Cineole Member of the terpenes class of flavour are involved in the formation of citric acid from ace- compounds, which occurs in many spices and es- tyl-CoA and oxaloacetic acid. Occur in all living sential oils. organisms, and are involved in energy metabolism. Cinnamaldehyde Member of the phenolic alde- Implicated in meat quality and in acidity of fruits. hydes class of flavour compounds, characteristic of cinnamon but also occurring in other foods. Has Citric acid Commercially important, versatile organic antimicrobial properties. acid, widely used, along with its salts (citrates), in the food and beverage industries. Highly soluble in water Cinnamic acid Member of the phenolic acids class of and used in acidulants, antioxidants, flavour- flavour compounds which occurs in a wide range ings, antimicrobial compounds and chelating of foods. Cinnamic acid esters are also important fla- agents. Usually obtained commercially by fermen- vour compounds. Cinnamic acid and its esters have tation of sugar or fruit processing wastes by As- antimicrobial activity. pergillus niger or Yarrowia lipolytica. Isomer of Cinnamon Widely-used aromatic spice obtained from isocitric acid. the dried inner bark of trees belonging to several spe- Citric fermentation The process by which certain cies of Cinnamomum. True cinnamon (also known as organisms produce citric acid. Aspergillus niger is Ceylon cinnamon) is C. zeylanicum, while much of the the organism mostly used in industrial processes. Sub- cinnamon sold in North America is actually cassia (C. strates include molasses and starch hydrolysates. cassia). Cinnamon is used in stick (quill) or ground form for flavouring both sweet and savoury foods, in- Citrinin Yellow-pigmented mycotoxin produced by cluding confectionery, meat dishes and cola bev- Penicillium citrinum and some Aspergillus spp. erages. Used as an antibacterial agent against Gram positive Cinnamon oils Essential oils obtained from either bacteria. cinnamon bark or cinnamon leaves. Cinnamon leaf Citrobacter Genus of rod-shaped coliform Gram oil has a high eugenol content and is used as an alter- negative bacteria of the family Enterobacteri- native to clove oils in seasoning blends. Cinnamon aceae. Occur as part of the normal flora in the intes- bark oil is characterized by a high cinnamaldehyde tines of humans and other vertebrates, and are not con- content and is used as the source of cinnamon es- sidered to be enteric pathogens. Also occur in water, sences for cooking. sewage and soil. Species may be found in dairy CIPC Alternative term for the herbicide chlorpro- products, raw shellfish, raw poultry meat and pham. fresh, raw vegetables. Ciprofloxacin Fluoroquinolone antibiotic used for Citronella Tropical Asian grass (Cymbopogon nar- treatment and control of gastrointestinal and respira- dus). Lemon-scented leaves are used in flavourings tory infections in farm animals. in cooking and as a tea. Source of essential oils Circular dichroism Phenomenon (usually abbrevi- that are used in commercial flavourings as well as in ated to CD) that is observed when optically active mat- perfumery and insect repellents. ter absorbs left and right hand circular polarized light Citronella essential oils Yellow aromatic oils ob- differently. CD is a function of wavelength and is tained from lemon-scented tropical grasses of the measured using a CD spectropolarimeter. CD spectra Cymbopogon genus (particularly C. nardus). Used in vary according to secondary structure and can be ana- the food industry and as an aromatic/deodorizer in per- 97 Citronellal Clays fumes, cosmetics, soaps and insect repellents. Contains zest) and the white inner pith (also called the albedo or geraniol, citronellol and citronellal. mesocarp). The flavedo is the source of citrus es- Citronellal Member of the terpene aldehydes group sential oils, while the albedo is used as a source of of flavour compounds, which occurs in essential pectins. Peel is also rich in fibre and phytochemi- oils of citrus fruits and a wide range of spices. cals. Often candied and used in baking, or used in Citronellol Member of the terpene alcohols group of making flavourings. flavour compounds. Occurs in a wide range of Citrus red Dye used to improve the colour of orange plant foods, including fruits, essential oils, ginger peel. and wines. CJD Abbreviation for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Citrons Long citrus fruits produced by Citrus Cl Chemical symbol for chlorine. medica, with thick peel and acid flesh. Used in produc- CLA Abbreviation for conjugated linoleic acid. tion of candied peel, preparation of which involves Cladosporium Genus of fungi of the class Hypho- fermenting immature fruits in brines and then soaking mycetes. Occur on fruits and vegetables. Cladospo- in a strong sugar solution. The candied peel is used in rium herbarum may cause spoilage of chilled meat. confectionery products. Other species may be responsible for spoilage of but- Citrulline One of the non-essential amino acids, ter, margarines, stone fruits, eggs and grapes. which does not occur in proteins. Present in high lev- Clams General name given to a wide range of bivalve els in watermelons and serves as a precursor for ar- molluscs; typically marine bivalves with equally ginine. Also formed in wines during malolactic sized valves that burrow in mud or sand. Many clams fermentation, where it can lead to the formation of are valued as sea foods and are eaten in a variety of ethyl carbamate, a carcinogen. ways, including baked, fried, stewed, stuffed, raw on Citrus beverages Beverages based on citrus the half shell, and in chowders and soups. juices and/or whole homogenates of citrus fruits. Clarification Process in which sediment and impuri- Citrus essential oils Essential oils obtained from ties are separated out of a liquid to make it clearer. citrus fruits, e.g. bergamot oils. Typically pro- Rendered fats can be clarified by adding hot water and duced by pressing the oil from citrus peel, although boiling. The mixture is then strained and chilled. The leaves, fruit or juice may also be used as the source. resulting top layer of fat should be almost entirely clear Applications include use as flavourings for soft of residue. Other products to which clarification is ap- drinks, ice cream, chewing gums and pud- plied include fruit juices, wines and beer. dings. Limonene and other terpenes are major Clarifiers Equipment used for the process of clarifi- components. However, these are frequently removed cation, in which sediment and impurities are sepa- prior to use of the oils, due to their susceptibility to off rated out of a liquid to make it clearer. flavour production as a result of oxidation. Also Clarity Optical properties relating to the extent to known as citrus oils. which an item is clear and transparent. Citrus fruits Fleshy and juicy fruits produced on Clary sage essential oils Essential oils extracted trees of the genus Citrus. Include oranges, lemons, from clary sage (Salvia sclarea) by steam distillation. grapefruit, limes, tangerines, satsumas, man- The essential oils are light golden yellow in colour darins and many hybrid varieties. All are rich in vi- and have an earthy, herbaceous aroma with a subtle tamin C. fruity note. The constituents of these oils include lina- Citrus juice concentrates Citrus juices which lyl acetate, linalool, myrcene, phellandrene and have been concentrated. May be diluted to produce pinenes. The oils are important components of fla- normal strength citrus juices or used in manufacture of vourings for Muscat wines. other beverages or foods. Clastogenicity Capability of an agent to cause disrup- Citrus juices Fruit juices extracted from citrus tion or breakages in chromosomes. fruits; important types include orange juices, Clavaria Genus of edible wild club fungi of the class lemon juices, lime juices and grapefruit juices. Hymenomycetes. Citrus oils Alternative term for citrus essential Claviceps Genus of fungi of the order Clavicipitales. oils. Typically parasitic to grasses. Causes plant diseases Citrus pectins Pectins extracted from citrus such as ergot, a disease of rye. fruits. Citrus peel is one of the main commercial Clays Sticky impermeable earth that can be moulded sources of pectins. when mixed with water and baked to make contain- Citrus peel Outer skin of citrus fruits, consisting of ers. Clay is plastic when moist and becomes perma- the outer coloured flavedo (also called the epicarp or nently hard and retains its shape when baked or fired. 98 Cleaning Cloudberries Of widespread importance in industry, clays consist of cloned animal foods include their consistent quality a group of hydrous alumino-silicate minerals. Individ- (e.g. meat tenderness), but their widespread accep- ual mineral grains are microscopic in size and shaped tance in the marketplace may depend on consumer atti- like flakes. This makes their aggregate surface area tudes. much greater than their thickness and allows them to Cloned animals Animals (including cattle, sheep, take up large amounts of water by adhesion, giving goats, swine) obtained via cloning technology them plasticity and causing some varieties to swell. for food production and other purposes, usually by so- Clays are effective filter aids and are used during ad- matic cell nuclear transfer, in which the nucleus is re- sorption bleaching of oils. moved from an oocyte, forming an ooplast, and is re- Cleaning To make a surface free from dirt, pollutants placed with a nucleus from a donor animal with desir- or harmful substances. able traits. The fused donor nucleus and ooplast are Cleaning agents Agents, such as disinfectants, implanted into the uterus of a surrogate animal, leading used in the cleaning process. to generation of a genetic copy of the donor animal. Cleaning in place A process in which processing Cloned animals are not genetically modified; their equipment is cleaned using an in-place cleaning system DNA is identical to that of existing animals. Advan- that is usually computer controlled. Cleaning in place tages associated with rearing of cloned animals in- (CIP) systems are useful for equipment that is not eas- clude improved disease resistance, optimal body type ily accessible to the operator, and when opening the for food production, improved fertility and adaptability equipment would be harmful to the operators or the to particular types of consumer preference. environment, and detrimental to product quality. Cloning technology Use of various genetic tech- Clean in place Alternative term for cleaning in niques for producing copies of single genes or seg- place. ments of DNA by insertion in cloning vectors (e.g. Clean room technology Technology that incorpo- plasmids or viruses). These vectors can then be rates use of a sterile, dust-free environment. Objectives introduced into recipient cells and propagated. The of a clean room are to isolate a controlled area from the term also involves production of genetically identical outside, and to control movement of materials and per- cells (clones) from a single ancestor. In plants, the term sonnel. Parameters requiring control in a clean room refers to natural or artificial vegetative propagation. are temperature, relative humidity, water activity, Cloning vectors Autonomously replicating DNA pressure, noise and lighting. Sources and parameters of molecules (e.g. plasmids, viral genomes and yeast potential contamination include air quality, type and artificial chromosomes) into which foreign DNA geometry of air intake systems, personnel, machinery fragments can be inserted. They can then be inserted and equipment, waste produced and packaging ma- into host cells, propagated and, in the case of expres- terials. sion vectors, used for production of homologous or Clementines Citrus fruit regarded as a cultivar of heterologous proteins. tangerines or a hybrid of tangerines and sweet or- Clostridium Genus of Gram positive, anaerobic rod- anges. Rich in vitamin C. shaped bacteria. Occur in soil and in the intestinal Clenbuterol One of the ȕ-agonist drugs which is tracts of humans and other animals. Some species are used in some countries as a growth promoter in slaugh- pathogens, e.g. Clostridium botulinum, the causal ter animals. There is concern that residues in meat agent of botulism, and C. perfringens. may present a health hazard. Closures Devices or packaging components used Clipping A method for closing bags, sacks or tubes. for closing or sealing of containers. Include caps, Clipping machines are also used for applying clips to corks, crown corks, lids, stoppers and tamper close the ends of sausages. evident closures. Cloned animal foods Meat and milk derived from Clotting The process of coagulation to produce a the offspring of cloned animals, not from the cloned thick mass of cohesive material, e.g. formation of animals themselves. Experimental evidence suggests curd upon coagulation of milk. that the composition of foods from the progeny of cloned cattle, swine and goats is not significantly Cloud Turbidity or haze within a product, usually different from that of foods from their conventionally applied to beverages. bred genetic counterparts, and that such foods are safe Cloudberries Fruits produced by Rubus for human consumption. Insufficient information cur- chamaemorus. Orange-yellow with an appearance rently exists to reach the same conclusion about foods similar to raspberries and a flavour like apples. from cloned sheep and other animals. Advantages of Usually eaten stewed or as jams. 99 Cloudiness Cockles Cloudiness Extent to which an item is turbid, i.e. ments, regardless of source. Also known as aniline hazy in appearance. Usually applied to liquids such as dyes. beverages. Coating Covering food with a layer of coating mate- Clouding agents Substances used to impart the ap- rial. For example, chicken pieces may be dipped or pearance of turbidity to foods and beverages. Soy rolled in seasoned breadcrumbs or flour prior to proteins and citrus fruit processing wastes are fre- cooking. The food can be dipped into beaten eggs, quently used as clouding agents in citrus beverages. milk or beer before being coated with the dry mix- Clove oils Essential oils extracted from the flow- ture, to aid adhesion of the coatings to the food. ers or buds of Eugenia caryophyllata by steam distil- Coating food in this manner usually precedes frying lation. Possess a warm, spicy and fruity aroma, and or baking. Products such as mayonnaise or exhibit antimicrobial activity. The constituents of sauces can also be used to coat food. these oils include eugenol, eugenyl acetate and Coatings Materials which form thin continuous layers caryophyllene. or coverings over the surface of foods. Used to enclose Cloves Pungent, aromatic spices obtained from the and/or protect the food, and may be eaten along with dried, unopened flower buds of the tropical evergreen the food or removed before consumption. Include bat- tree Syzygium aromaticum (syn. Eugenia caryophyl- ters, breadcrumbs, breadings, carnauba wax, lata, E. caryophyllus). Used whole or ground in a chocolate coatings, shellac and wax coatings. range of foods and beverages, including cakes, bis- Cobalamins Term that covers several chemically cuits, sauces, curries and mulled wines. related compounds, members of the vitamin B Clovis Alternative term for carpet shells. group, that are essential for cell division in tissues Cloxacillin Semisynthetic penicillin antibiotic used where this process is rapid, e.g. in formation of red principally to treat staphylococcal mastitis in cattle. blood cells. Deficiency leads to pernicious anaemia Residues in milk are normally undetectable at 5 days when immature red blood cells are released into the following final dose. bloodstream, and there is degeneration of the spinal Cluster beans Seeds of Cyamopsis tetragonoloba. cord. This type of anaemia is the same as seen in Immature pods are eaten as vegetables. Galacto- folates deficiency. mannans are extracted from the seeds to make guar Cobalt Mineral, chemical symbol Co, which is wide- gums, which are used as stabilizers and thicken- spread in foods. An essential nutrient, but toxic in ex- ers in foods. Also known as guar beans. cess. CMC Abbreviation for carboxymethylcellulose. Cobnuts Alternative term for hazelnuts.

CO2 Chemical formula for carbon dioxide. Coca-cola A proprietary brand of cola beverages. Coagulants Substances or agents that cause separa- Cocci Spherical, or near spherical, bacterial cells. tion or precipitation of solids from a solution, a Coccidiosis Infestation of the gastrointestinal process known as coagulation or clotting. Exam- tract with parasitic coccidia protozoa. Affects many ples include rennets, calcium sulfate and acid animals (including cattle, swine, sheep and poultry), whey, which are commonly used to produce cheese, but rarely humans. Typically contracted via the faecal- tofu and chhana, respectively. oral route and may vary from mild to fatal. Character- Coagulation Precipitation of solids from a solution, ized in animals by diarrhoea, tenesmus, anorexia and usually upon addition of specific agents, producing nausea. Usually asymptomatic in humans. material of a solid or semi solid state. Coagulation is a Coccidiostats Drugs used for control of pathogenic process particularly applicable to cheesemaking. protozoa (from class Coccidia) responsible for coc- Also known as clotting. cidiosis and other parasitic diseases. Normally used Coagulum Formed by precipitation of casein by the prophylactically in feeds for poultry, swine, cattle and action of acids or rennets, as in cheese curd. sheep. Examples include dimetridazole, nicarbazin Coalfish Marine fish species (Pollachius virens) and salinomycin. from the cod family (Gadidae) found in the northern Cochineal Water-soluble natural red colorant obtained and western Atlantic and Barents Sea. This species is from the dried bodies of South American insects (Coc- often used in production of fish cakes, but is also cus cacti). The red colour is due to carminic acid, marketed fresh, dried/salted, smoked, canned and fro- whose aluminium lake is known as carmine. zen. Also known as pollock and saithe. Cockles General name used for several species of Coal tar dyes Artificial colorants originally ob- marine bivalve molluscs; characterized by a shell tained from coal tar hydrocarbons. The term is now having convex radial ribs. Commonly eaten species used to refer to any artificial organic dyes or pig- include Cerastodermum edulis (common cockle), Car- 100 Cockroaches Coconuts dium corbis and C. aculeatum (spiny cockle). Mar- The grinding process generates heat which melts the keted in a variety of ways, including fresh, salted, bot- fats, causing them to become liquid. Cocoa liquor is a tled in vinegar and canned in brines. key component of chocolate that is also known as Cockroaches Common name for orthopteran in- chocolate liquor, chocolate mass and cocoa sects of the family Blattidae, which possess flat wide mass. bodies, and long slender segmented antennae. Wide- Cocoa mass Produced by grinding of cocoa nibs spread pests in human dwellings and food factories. (cocoa beans from which the shell or husk has been May be pests of stored foods and act as vectors for removed) to release the cocoa butter from the cells. pathogens. Used in the manufacture of chocolate and chocolate Cocktails Alcoholic beverages generally based on products. Also called cocoa liquor, chocolate liquor a mixture of spirits with flavourings or other ingre- and chocolate mass. dients. Cocoa nibs Cocoa beans that are separated from Cocoa Small tropical American tree (Theobroma ca- their husks and broken into small pieces. Used in the cao) of the family Sterculiaceae (or Byttneriaceae), manufacture of chocolate. seeds of which (cocoa beans) are rich in theobro- Cocoa powders Products obtained by extracting a mine and, after fermentation and roasting, are predetermined amount of cocoa butter from choco- used to make cocoa, chocolate and their products. late liquor using hydraulic presses, and grinding the Sometimes refers to highly concentrated cocoa pow- resulting press cake. Cocoa powders produced are ders made by grinding and removing most of the fats classified according to fat contents. (cocoa butter), or a milk-based beverage made with Cocoa products Products such as cocoa bever- such powders. Also known as cacao. ages and cocoa powders that are made from co- Cocoa beans Seeds or fruits of the cocoa tree (Theo- coa or contain cocoa as a major constituent. broma cacao) that are rich in theobromine. After Cocona Fruits produced by Solanum topiro or S. ses- fermentation and roasting, cocoa beans are used to siliflorum. Orange to maroon in colour, with white to make cocoa, cocoa powders, chocolate and their pale yellow flesh. Rich in iron; good source of vita- products. Also known as cacao beans. min A, vitamin C and niacin. Used in salads, Cocoa beverages Beverages based on cocoa cooked with fish or in meat stews, sweetened in (Theobroma cacao) solids. sauces and pies, pickled, candied or in jams and Cocoa butter Edible vegetable fat obtained by press- jellies. Often processed as a nectars or juices. Leaves ing or solvent extraction of ground, roasted dehulled are also cooked and eaten as a vegetable. cocoa beans (Theobroma cacao). Composed of Coconut butter Alternative term for coconut oils symmetrical disaturated oleic glycerol esters resulting when in its semi-solid state. in brittleness at room temperature and a sharp melting Coconut cream Product similar to coconut milk, point at 31-35°C. Used primarily in the food industry but richer. Relatively high fat content, with level vary- for manufacturing chocolate. ing among commercial brands. For the canned product, Cocoa butter equivalents Vegetable fats with coconut milk is filtered, mixed with emulsifiers and similar triacylglycerols composition and physico- stabilizers, and emulsified to give a creamy consis- chemical properties to cocoa butter. Used for partial tency, before pasteurization and canning. Used in or complete replacement of cocoa butter. the same way as cream in many recipes and also in Cocoa butter extenders Vegetable fats that may beverages. be mixed with cocoa butter to a limited degree Coconut milk Liquid prepared by squeezing freshly without significantly affecting its physicochemical grated coconut endosperm through sieves. Relatively properties. high in fat, level varying among commercial brands. Cocoa butter replacers Alternative term for cocoa Used in products such as curries and confection- butter substitutes. ery. Cocoa butter substitutes Fractionated fats based Coconut oils Semi-solid white fats or pale yellow to on various oils (palm, palm kernel, coconut or hydro- colourless oils extracted from copra, the dried pulp genated soybean) designed to replace cocoa butter of coconuts, Cocos nucifera. Rich in lauric acid in confectionery applications. Also known as cocoa and myristic acid and used extensively in the food butter replacers. industry. Also known as copra oils. Cocoa liquor A suspension of cocoa particles in Coconuts Common name for Cocos nucifera. Fruits cocoa butter that is produced by milling cocoa of the coconut palm consisting of an outer skin, a fi- beans that have undergone dehulling (cocoa nibs). brous region and a hard shell enclosing the commer- 101 Coconut toddy Cofermentation cially used nuts. The white endosperm (meat) found ship of the Commission is open to all Member Nations inside the shell has a cavity in the centre which con- and Associate Members of FAO and WHO. tains a watery liquid (coconut water, a popular Cod liver oils Pale yellow oils derived from the liv- tropical beverage). Endosperm may be eaten fresh, or ers of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and other species dried to make copra, from which coconut oils are of the family Gadidae. Have a typical fish-like flavour extracted, or desiccated coconut. Freshly grated en- which is intensified on exposure to light. Rich in vi- dosperm is squeezed to make coconut milk. tamin A and vitamin D. Contain saturated, monoe- Coconut toddy Alcoholic beverages made by noic and polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as ei- fermentation of the sap of coconut palms (Cocos cosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic nucifera). acid. Coconut water The liquid enclosed within the kernels Cod livers Livers from members of the cod family of coconuts (Cocos nucifera), which may be used in (Gadidae) which are an important source of fish oils. beverages. Cod livers are also used in the production of cod liver Cocos Genus of palms. In some, including the coco- pastes, which contain spices and other flavourings nut palm (Cocos nucifera) and C. yatay, fruits, buds and are marketed canned and in the form of sau- and inflorescences are eaten or used in making foods sages. and beverages. Coeliac disease Life-long intolerance to wheat Cocoyams Starchy corms of Xanthosoma sagitti- gluten, characterized by inflammation of the proximal folium (‘new’ cocoyams, also called tannia or yautia) small intestine. The disease is often manifested as per- or Colocasia esculenta (‘old’ cocoyams, alternative sistent diarrhoea, malabsorption and malnutrition. term for taro) that form part of the staple diet in Afri- Aetiological mechanisms include genetic predisposi- can countries. Eaten roasted, boiled or baked; the flour tion, dietary exposure to wheat and immunological prepared from the corm is used as a food ingredient factors; prevalence of the disease is high in geographi- and for making fufu. cal areas where wheat is a dietary staple. Management of the condition involves consumption of a gluten free Cod Name given to several marine fish species from diet, which has been facilitated by the development of the family Gadidae. The principal cod species is Gadus gluten free foods, especially gluten free bread. morhua (Atlantic cod) which is widely distributed in the North Atlantic and Barents Sea and in commercial Coenzyme Q Member of the quinones family. terms is the most important food fish in northern Various kinds of coenzyme Q are distinguished by Europe. Flesh is lean, firm and white. Other cod spe- their number of isoprenoid side chains. The most cies include G. macrocephalus (Pacific cod), G. ogac common form in human mitochondria is Q10 which (Greenland cod) and Boreogadus saida (Arctic cod). functions as an electron-carrying coenzyme in the mi- Marketed fresh, frozen, smoked. Often processed as a tochondrial electron transport system and as an anti- battered product for frying, grilling or baking. oxidant in mitochondria and lipid membranes. Mar- keted widely as a nutritional supplement. Also known Codex Alimentarius An international food code with as ubiquinone. the main purposes of protecting consumer health, ensuring fair trade practices in the food trade and promot- Coenzymes Low molecular weight non-protein or- ing coordination of all food standards work undertaken ganic molecules, whether freely dissociable or firmly by international governmental and non-governmental bound, necessary for the activity of certain enzymes. organizations. Includes standards, codes of practice, Coertuek Common name for Echinophora tenuifolia guidelines and recommendations covering general top- subsp. sibthorpiana which is used as a spice and ics (such as labelling, hygiene, additives, resi- source of essential oils in Turkey. dues and risks assessment) and detailed requirements relating to a specific food or group of foods, Coextrusion The process of producing continuous while other texts deal with the operation and manage- multilayer products in sheet, film, tubing, filament, or ment of production processes or the operation of gov- other forms, and for production of filled foods. Sepa- ernment regulatory systems for food safety and con- rate polymer or ingredient streams are fed from differ- sumer protection. The Codex Alimentarius Commis- ent extruders to a die feed block, where they are com- sion, established in 1963 by the Food and Agricul- bined in the die, emerging in combined form as a con- ture Organization (FAO) and the World Health tinuous multilayer extrudate. Organization (WHO) as the body responsible for Cofermentation Fermentation of two or more sub- compiling the publications that constitute the Codex strates by a single microorganism or fermentation of a Alimentarius, usually meets every two years. Member- single substrate by two or more microorganisms. 102 Coffee Cold storage Coffee Beverages prepared from ground roasted bohydrates, emulsifiers and stabilizers. Avail- coffee beans (Coffea arabica and C. canephora). able in liquid or powdered (shelf stable) forms. Coffee bags Ground roasted coffee packaged in Cogeneration The simultaneous production of elec- portion-size bags for easy infusion to produce coffee tricity and thermal energy (such as heat or steam), of- beverages. ten for industrial or commercial uses. These products Coffee bars Restaurants serving coffee and light may be generated as by-products of industrial proc- refreshments. essing, e.g. the production of electricity from sugar Coffee beans Seeds of the coffee bush (Coffea ara- cane in a sugar factory. bica or canephora) which are used to prepare coffee Cognac A high quality brandy manufactured in a beverages. As grown, coffee beans are enclosed in defined district in the Charente and Charente Maritime soft fruits; these are fermented, and the seeds (coffee regions of France. beans) are separated from the soft tissue. Raw coffee Cognitive development The process by which the beans are roasted and ground before use in preparation brain develops its ability to think, learn, reason and of beverages. remember. This process starts from infancy and con- Coffee beverages Beverages prepared by infusion tinues through childhood, adolescence and adulthood. of ground roasted coffee beans in hot water by a va- Nutrition can play a role in cognitive development, riety of processes. Optionally consumed with addition e.g. breast feeding can have a positive effect. of other substances, commonly milk, cream or Cognitive performance Behavioural effects sugar. Types of coffee beverages include espresso relating to acquisition and use of knowledge (percep- coffee, cappuccino coffee and cafe latte. tion, attention, memory, speech and language, and rea- Coffee cream In Germany, cream with a minimum soning). Some foods can affect cognitive performance. fat content of 10% marketed also with fat contents of Coho salmon Pacific salmon species (Oncorhyn- 12 and 15%. Also called drinking cream. Whitening chus kisutch) found in rivers and coastal waters along power in coffee is increased by homogenization; western and eastern Pacific coasts. High fat, firm- further processing is performed to increase stability of textured flesh is somewhat lighter in colour than that higher fat products in hot coffee. of other Pacific salmon. Marketed fresh, dried/salted, Coffee essences Concentrated coffee extracts. smoked, canned, cured and frozen. Coffee extracts Liquid extracts from coffee Cohumulone Į-Acids fraction present in hops and beans, containing active ingredients and flavour hop products and contributing to the bittering action of compounds; coffee extracts may be used for prepa- hops in beer. ration of coffee beverages. Cola beverages Soft drinks flavoured with extracts Coffee granules Dried coffee extracts presented in of cola nuts. the form of granules. Cola nuts Nuts produced by Cola nitida and C. acu- Coffee grounds Roasted coffee beans which have minata. Used in manufacture of soft drinks such as been ground ready for use in preparation of coffee cola beverages, or chewed as a stimulant. High caf- beverages. feine content. Also known as kola nuts. Coffee oils Volatile, water soluble substances formed Colby cheese Semi-soft washed-curd cheese from during roasting of coffee beans so that the sugars the USA, made from cow milk. Ripens in 4 months. It and carbohydrates within the bean become caramel- has a sweet and mild flavour and must be eaten soon ized. Contribute to the flavour and aroma of coffee. after purchase to prevent drying out and loss of fla- Coffee powders Dry coffee extracts in the form of vour. powders. Cold boning Cutting of meat (muscle) from animal Coffee products Products such as coffee powders, carcasses that have been refrigerated at 1-2°C for 48 coffee extracts and coffee beverages that are h post mortem. made from coffee or contain coffee as a major con- Cold shock proteins Protein fractions which are stituent. synthesized in various bacteria in response to cold Coffee substitutes Materials for preparation of shock, and which contribute to cold tolerance and psy- beverages with sensory properties resembling chrophilic properties of these bacteria. those of coffee. Commonly based on roasted plant Cold shortening Contraction of muscle fibres in raw materials, e.g. grains or chicory roots. meat at low temperatures. Related to toughness in Coffee whiteners Whiteners used in coffee and the meat once cooked. tea beverages as an inexpensive alternative to milk. Cold storage Storage of foods at refrigeration Typically made from vegetable fats, casein, car- temperature in order to extend shelf life. 103 Cold stores Colorants Cold stores Refrigerated rooms or cabinets used for proteolytic digestion products of collagen are useful as storage of foods at low temperatures, to extend shelf seasonings and ingredients. Have detrimental ef- life. fects on the texture of fish during storage, although Coleslaw Salad of shredded vegetables, principally fish and shellfish processing wastes are a useful cabbages, dressed with mayonnaise or an alterna- source of collagenases for commercial applications. tive creamy dressing. Collagen sausage casings Edible and inedible Colicins Bacteriocins produced by members of the sausage casings, which are regenerated from col- family Enterobacteriaceae (e.g. strains of Es- lagen extracted from animal hides and skins. Edible cherichia coli and Shigella sonnei) which are often le- collagen casings have very uniform physical character- thal to other susceptible bacterial strains within this istics and are much stronger than natural casings; they family. are mainly used to prepare fresh pork sausages and frankfurters. Inedible collagen casings must be re- Coliforms Anaerobic, lactose-fermenting, rod-shaped moved before sausages are eaten; their advantages in- Gram negative bacteria, typically found in the gas- clude strength, uniformity and shrinkage characteris- trointestinal tracts of humans and animals (e.g. species tics. of the genera Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Escherichia Collards Leaves of a smooth-leaved variety of kale. and Klebsiella). May loosely refer to any Gram nega- Used as a vegetable. Good source of vitamin A, vi- tive, rod-shaped, enteric bacteria. Used as indicators of tamin C, calcium and iron. faecal contamination of water. Colletotrichum Genus of mitosporic fungi of the Coliphages Bacteriophages that infect Es- family Phyllachoraceae. Some species are important cherichia coli. plant pathogens. For example, Colletotrichum Colitis Inflammatory disease of unknown cause which gloesporioides causes anthracnose of tropical affects some or all of the colon. Takes various forms, fruits (e.g. mangoes and papayas), and C. musae e.g. ulcerative colitis, mucus colitis or ischaemic coli- causes anthracnose and crown rot of bananas. tis, which differ in symptoms and effects, and tends to Colloidal stability A measure of the longevity of vary in intensity over time. Sensitivity to diet depends colloids; the ability to maintain the suspension of one on the individual, but in general foods and beverages material in another. which act as bowel irritants should be avoided. These Colloids Mixtures containing small particles of one include tea, coffee, alcoholic beverages, vine- material suspended in another, often of a different gar, spicy foods, fried foods, sugars and salty phase. Colloidal particles are generally 1 to 100 nm in foods. size and so are larger than the individual solution Collagen Insoluble animal proteins, with high con- molecules, but smaller than particles found in precipi- tents of the amino acids glycine, hydroxyproline tates, which can be removed by filtration. Examples and proline. Collagen is the main fibrous component of colloids include aerosols, foams, emulsions of skin, tendons, connective tissues and bones. and gels. A colloid containing solid particles sus- Networks of collagen are also present in tissues and pended in a liquid is more accurately called a sol. organs including the muscles. Thermal denaturation of Collybia Edible fungi, some species of which are collagen occurs between 60 and 90°C. When collagen members of the genus Flammulina or Lentinus. is boiled it is converted into soluble gelatin. Collagen Colonization Formation of population groups (colo- is important in relation to meat texture. Collagen nies) of the same types of microorganisms by ad- crosslinks link together molecules and fibrils of colla- herence to cells, surfaces or nutrient media. In gen, increasing its tensile strength; thus, the greater the foodborne diseases, often the first stage of number of crosslinks the tougher the meat. In cooked pathogenesis. meat, the presence of collagen crosslinks contributes to shrinkage and tension development, with a subsequent Colonization factors Virulence factors produced increase in meat toughness. Collagen is used to form by microorganisms that assist in colonization of edible, biodegradable films and coatings for the cells, surfaces or nutrient media. Include adhesins, packaging of foods. fimbriae and pili. Collagenases A group of proteinases which digest Colony counting Enumeration of cell colonies in a collagen. Includes microbial collagenases (EC given sample cultured on a solid medium. 3.4.24.3), which can act as exotoxins in pathogens Colony counts Numbers of cell colonies in a given such as Clostridium spp. Also includes interstitial sample cultured on a solid medium. collagenases (EC 3.4.24.7); these metalloendopepti- Colorants Substances that impart colour, such as dases are useful for tenderization of meat, while dyes or pigments. Added to foods to improve visual 104 Colorectal cancer Composite flours appearance, replace colour lost during processing and for determination of nitrogen and crude protein in a ensure colour consistency. Broadly classified into sample by burning in oxygen and measurement of the natural colorants and artificial colorants, de- nitrogen gas produced. pending on whether they are substances extracted from Comet assay Method for detection of DNA damage natural sources or manufactured for use as a food addi- in eukaryotic cells which involves gel electropho- tive. resis and is used as a measurement of genotoxicity. Colorectal cancer Malignant diseases of the large It involves: embedding cells in agarose gels on mi- intestine. Dietary factors suggested to be associated croscope slides; lysis of cells to remove cellular pro- with reduced risk for this cancer include increased teins; unwinding of DNA content at neutral or alka- intakes of dietary fibre, fruits and vegetables and line pH values; electrophoresis; and visualization of reduced intakes of meat and iron. DNA via staining with a DNA-binding dye, usually an Colorimeters Instruments that measure the contents emitter of fluorescence. The pattern seen resembles of components in a sample solution by comparison of a comet with a greater mass of intact nuclear DNA be- colour with that of standard solutions. ing trailed by a streak of DNA fragments. The size of Colorimetry Analytical technique based on compari- the streak correlates positively with the amount of son of the colour of a solution with that of a standard DNA damage. solution. Comfrey Common name for the herb Symphytum offi- Colostrum Mammary secretion produced during the cinale, a member of the borage family. Leaves and first 4-5 days post partum. Differs from mature milk stems can be eaten, usually boiled or fried, and leaves mainly in the high content of immunoglobulins, and roots can be dried and used to make herb tea. which provide passive immunization of the suckling The plant is also used in flavourings and health infant or animal. Other differences in composition in- foods. Contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which can clude increased contents of milk fats, short chain be toxic. fatty acids, lactoferrin, minerals, most vitamins, Comminution Reduction of a food to minute particles some hormones and some organic acids in colos- or fragments. A number of techniques are available in- trum, and reduced contents of medium-chain fatty ac- cluding crushing, shredding, grinding and minc- ids, lactose, orotic acid, and some vitamins and ing. hormones. Common Agricultural Policy The internal agricul- Colour Optical properties relating to the subjective tural support system of the European Union, in- appearance of the wavelength or wavelengths present tended to provide stable agricultural markets and in- in a beam of light perceived by the eye. Although it is comes for European farmers and food for European actually continuous, the visible spectrum is usually consumers through a system of domestic support, mar- split into seven major colours - red, orange, yellow, ket access protection and export subsidies. Abbreviated green, blue, indigo and violet - in order of decreasing to CAP. wavelength. Colour of foods not only helps to determine quality, but is also an index of ripeness or Common beans Seeds produced by Phaseolus vul- spoilage. Various types of spectrophotometers or garis. Vary in size, shape and colour. Eaten fresh, colorimeters can be used for colour measurement. canned or frozen, and available dried. Also used as in- Column chromatography Chromatography gredients in many dishes. Due to the presence of technique in which a column or tube is used to hold the antinutritional factors, dried seeds must be soaked stationary phase. and cooked well before consumption. Beans produced by this species have been given a variety of names, in- Colupulone ȕ-Acids fraction present in hops and cluding French beans, kidney beans, haricot hop products. beans, snap beans, string beans, cannellino Colza oils Alternative term for rapeseed oils. beans and pinto beans. Comamonas Genus of rod-shaped, motile Gram Common millet Cereals belonging to the genera negative bacteria of the family Comamonadaceae. Panicum and Setaria. Some species accumulate poly-ȕ-hydroxybutyrate and some produce biotechnologically useful enzymes such Complexometry Technique in which a substance is as esterases and quinohaemoprotein alcohol de- measured by the extent to which a complex is formed hydrogenases. with an agent. Used to indicate the end point of a titra- Combustion In general terms, process in which a tion by formation of a coloured complex. substance reacts with oxygen or other oxidant giving Composite flours Products made by blending wheat off heat and light. As an analytical technique, a method flour with flour of other origins. Often used to make 105 Composting Conductivity bakery products that are conventionally made with Concentration The process by which the strength of a wheat flour alone. solution or substance is increased. Achieved by a vari- Composting Controlled decomposition of organic ety of means, including evaporation, filtration and matter, primarily by aerobic microorganisms, that dialysis. may be carried out on a household or industrial scale. Conching The final step in chocolate manufacture, This process generates heat, CO2, water and compost, in which machines with rotating blades slowly blend which may be used in agriculture to enrich soils. Em- heated chocolate liquor, ridding it of residual mois- ployed as a strategy for bioremediation of food ture and volatile acids. Conching continues for 12 to processing wastes. 72 hours (depending on the type and quality of choco- Compotes Fruit products made by stewing fruits late), while small amounts of cocoa butter and with sugar or in syrups; eaten hot or cold. sometimes lecithins are added to give chocolate its smooth texture. Compressibility One of the rheological proper- Condensation The conversion of a vapour or gas to a ties, and a measure of the degree to which matter can liquid. In physics, condensation is the process of re- be squashed or crushed by an externally-applied force. duction of matter into a denser form, as in the liquefac- Indicates the hardness, firmness or sponginess of a tion of vapour or steam. Condensation is the result of material. the reduction of temperature by removal of latent heat Compressimeters Apparatus used for determining of evaporation, the liquid product being known as con- compressibility. densate. Condensation is an important part of the proc- Compression Flattening of an item by pressure. ess of distillation. In chemistry, condensation is a re- Computerized data processing Analysis and or- action involving the union of atoms in the same or dif- ganization of data by the repeated use of one or more ferent molecules. The process often leads to elimina- computer programs. tion of a simple molecule such as water or alcohol to form a new and more complex compound, often of Comte cheese French hard cheese made from greater molecular weight. cow milk. Very creamy, with piquant, yet sweet, flavour. Has eyes that vary in size from that of a pea to Condensed milk Milk thickened by evaporation of that of a cherry. Requires a long ripening period. a considerable amount of its water content. Usually sold in cans and may be sweetened or unsweetened. Conalbumin Iron-binding protein found in egg Unsweetened milk is similar to evaporated milk, i.e. whites. Also known as ovotransferrin. sterilized by heat, sold in a range of fat contents and Conarachin One of the main proteins in peanuts. may be reconstituted by addition of water in amounts Present in two forms (I and II) that differ in size. stated on the packaging. Sweetened condensed milk Along with arachin, these make up 75% of the total contains sugar in amounts high enough to act as a protein in peanuts. preservative, and is used in baking and to make sweet Concanavalin A Lectins fraction extracted from products such as confectionery, puddings and jack beans (Canavalia ensiformis) which binds to pies. glycoproteins with Į-glycoside or Į-mannoside Condiments Distinctly flavoured products used to groups. Agglutinates many cell types, and is mito- season foods. Refers in particular to items that are genic. added to foods at the table immediately prior to con- Concentrated milk Product resulting from removal sumption (e.g. sauces, relishes and mustard), of a considerable proportion of the water from milk. rather than items added during cooking. Can include Includes evaporated milk and condensed milk. A salt, pepper and other spices. vacuum is applied to reduce the boiling point of Conductimetry Technique in which the concentration milk and thus maintain its quality during evapora- of a substance in solution is measured by conductance tion. Evaporated and unsweetened condensed milk are of that solution when an alternating current is applied. sterilized by heat. Usually sold in cans in a range of fat Changes in conductance can be used to indicate the contents. Can be reconstituted by addition of water in end point of a titration. Alternative spelling is con- amounts stated on the packaging. ductometry. Concentrated rectified musts Grape musts Conductivity Alternative term for electrical con- (generally made from winemaking grapes) which ductivity or thermal conductivity. The former is a have been purified (e.g. by ion exchange) and con- measure of the ability of a material to carry an electric centrated. May be used as a source of added sugar in current. The latter is a thermophysical property relating winemaking, to increase alcohol concentration in the to the rate of conduction of heat through a material. wines or to increase sweetness of wines. 106 Confectionery Consommes Confectionery Generic term for sweetened food Conjugated linoleic acid Group of linoleic acid products. Sugar confectionery refers to products isomers with conjugated double bonds, particularly such as sweets, candy and chocolates, while the isomer cis-9,trans-11-octadecadienoic acid. Occurs bakers confectionery refers to bakery products naturally in ruminant fats, especially milk fats. such as cakes and pastries. Thought to have beneficial effects on health, including Confectionery bars Sugar confectionery prod- anticarcinogenicity, antiatherogenic activity, ucts formed into bars. Examples include chocolate immunological effects, and improvement of lipids bars. metabolism and body composition. Commonly ab- Confectionery cream Water-in-oil or oil-in-water breviated to CLA. emulsions used mainly as fillings for bakery prod- Connectin Elastic protein found in muscle foods ucts. (meat and fish), in which it is important for texture Confectionery fillings Products such as fondants and tenderness. Similar to titin. or cremes which may contain nuts, flavourings or Connective tissues Tissues that connect, bind, sup- other ingredients and are used to fill sugar confec- port or separate other organs or tissues. Connective tis- tionery or bakery products. sues include cartilage, ligaments, tendons, adipose Confectionery pastes Products containing ingredi- tissues, the non-muscular structures of blood vessels ents such as glucose syrups, sugar, fats, color- and the matrix of bones. In fish, collagen connective ants and flavourings that are used in the production tissues separate the myotomes (muscle segments). In of extruded sugar confectionery. animals, connective tissues consisting of both collagen Confectionery products A generic term for items and elastin bind muscle fibres into bundles and sup- produced by the confectionery industry. Includes port the blood vessels. Toughness of meat is corre- both sugar confectionery and bakers confec- lated with connective tissue content. On cooking, the tionery. collagen component of connective tissues is converted Confections Sweet food products, particularly sugar into gelatin, thereby making meat more tender; how- confectionery. ever, the elastin component is unchanged on heating. Conger eels Marine eels within the family Congri- Frying or roasting have little effect on meat ten- dae, which includes several species targeted for con- derness, but tough meat is made more tender by sumption. Important species include Conger conger stewing. (from the Eastern Atlantic Ocean around Europe), C. Conophor nuts Common name for seeds produced oceanicus (from the Western Atlantic) and C. verrauxi by Tetracarpidium conophorum. They have a bitter (caught around the coasts of Australia and New Zea- taste when raw, but are palatable when boiled and are a land). Conger eels are often consumed smoked or popular snack in Nigeria. Also used as a source of semi-preserved in jelly. oils. Conglycinin One of the main soy proteins, present Consistency Texture term relating to the degree to as ȕ-conglycinin, which is composed of Į, Dc and ȕ which a product, usually a thick liquid, is viscous or subunits. The 7S ȕ-conglycinin and 11S glycinin to- dense. The simplest method to determine consistency gether account for approximately 70% of the storage is to measure the time it takes for the food to run proteins in soybeans. through a small hole of a known diameter. Another ȕ-Conglycinin One of the main soy proteins, com- popular technique involves measurement of the time it posed of three subunits (Į, Dc and ȕ). A 7S globulin takes for more viscous foods to flow down an inclined which, along with glycinin, makes up approximately plane using Bostwick consistometers. These de- 70% of the storage proteins in soybeans. vices might be used with tomato ketchups, honeys Conjugases Alternative term for Ȗ-glutamyl hy- or sugar syrups. drolases. Consistometers Instruments used to measure the Conjugated fatty acids Positional and geometric uniformity and consistency of a manufactured mate- isomers of polyunsaturated fatty acids, contain- rial, such as a food product. The Bostwick consistome- ing at least 1 pair of double bonds separated by a single ter is widely used to evaluate consistency of food sus- bond. Include conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) iso- pensions. The Bostwick measurement is the length of mers found in meat and dairy products. Other con- flow recorded in a specified time. jugated fatty acids occur in plants, including various Consommes Clear soups made by clarifying isomers of octadecatrienoic acid in vegetable oils broths, usually fish or meat based. May be served hot from pomegranates, marigolds and Catalpa ovata or cold. Sometimes used as bases for sauces. The seeds. term double consomme refers to one which has been 107 Consumer acceptability Controlled atmosphere storage reduced to half its original volume, thereby increasing Consumption As well as being the action or process the flavour. of eating foods, this term also means the using up of Consumer acceptability Extent to which a commer- goods created by production in an economic sense. cial product is considered satisfactory by consumers. Contact Materials Term applied to any material or In the case of foods and beverages, overall acceptabil- article coming into contact with foods or beverages. ity is judged on the basis of a number of factors, in- Includes packaging materials and equipment, cook- cluding sensory properties, physical properties ing utensils, cutlery, preparation surfaces and proc- such as colour, appearance and texture. Evalua- essing equipment. tion of consumer acceptability is important in development and marketing of new products. Containers Receptacles for holding, storing or transporting substances such as foods. Of many different Consumer complaints Expression of dissatisfaction types, and made from a variety of materials. The term made by consumers regarding a commercial product or is also used to describe large, portable, standard-sized service. With respect to foods and beverages, the term metal boxes, which are used in the transportation of covers complaints made at a local level, e.g. regarding cargo on lorries or ships. the acceptability of a meal served in a restaurant, through to those reported to official agencies, e.g. re- Contaminants Agents that contaminate. May be un- garding contamination of products with foreign objects desirable substances (e.g. foreign bodies, or residues of or food poisoning incidents. pesticides, fungicides, herbicides or fertilizers) Consumer education Provision of a variety of forms or undesirable or harmful microorganisms. of training to consumers so as to increase their knowl- Contamination Process of introducing contami- edge of a product or service. nants, or the presence of contaminants. Consumer information Information, such as guide- Continuous processing Automated processing lines and details of use, given to consumers so as to systems which operate in a continuous fashion. Such increase their awareness of products and services. systems allow improved product consistency and re- Consumer panels Groups of consumers employed duced manufacturing costs, and are designed to meet during sensory analysis tests who are not specifi- the demand for high output. cally trained but can provide a good insight into con- Contraction Decrease in volume or length of an ob- sumer preference. ject. Includes muscle contractions generally, and the Consumer preference Extent to which consumers temperature-related cold shortening of muscle fi- like one commercial product more than others. In the bres in meat during chilling. Also used to describe case of foods and beverages, preference is governed by changes in dough volume during proofing, and tem- a range of factors, including sensory properties, perature-related changes in solution volumes. appearance, physical properties, texture, health concerns, price and type of packaging. Evaluation of Controlled atmosphere packaging Packaging consumer preference variables is important in devel- technique in which specified concentrations of gases, opment and marketing of new products. including water vapour, are maintained throughout Consumer research Any form of marketing research storage to achieve the desired atmosphere. Used to ex- undertaken using the final consumers of a product or tend the shelf life of foods, particularly fresh fruits, service from which to gather data. For example, con- vegetables, meat and fish. sumer preference data are obtained and information is Controlled atmosphere storage Storage of fruits gathered on the way in which consumers in a free mar- and vegetables in sealed warehouses where tempera- ket choose to divide their total expenditure in purchas- ture and humidity are closely controlled, and the coming goods and services. position of gases in the atmosphere is altered to mini- Consumer response Behaviour that consumers mize spoilage. Usually, the concentration of oxygen is exhibit when provided with information in areas such reduced, the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) as product purchase, new product development and is increased, and ethylene, a gas naturally produced product labelling. Covers concepts such as consumer by plants that accelerates ripening, is removed from attitudes, consumer awareness, consumer choice, con- the atmosphere. This controlled environment helps sumer complaints, consumer expectations and con- slow the enzymic reactions that eventually lead to de- sumer preference. composition and decay, and may increase the time that Consumer surveys Marketing research tools used to produce can be stored by several months. Ripening gather data on consumer response to a particular prod- rooms, in which ethylene gas is added to the atmos- uct or service. phere, also help produce higher quality fruits and vegetables. This technology enables produce to be picked 108 Control systems Copper before it is ripe, for easier handling, and then ripened chewier texture. In some parts of the UK, the term quickly and uniformly under controlled conditions. refers to sweet buns that are filled with cream or Control systems Systems in which inputs and out- topped with icings. puts are progressively altered in a well-planned way to Cooking Process of preparation of foods by mixing, cause a process or mechanism to conform to some combining and heating the ingredients. Heat- specified behaviour under a set of given constraints. activated cooking methods take five basic forms. Food Computer-based control systems for large industrial may be immersed in liquids such as water, stocks, or plants can involve control of hundreds or thousands of wines (boiling, poaching, stewing); immersed in individual variables. Recent developments in control fats or oils (frying); exposed to vapour (steaming engineering include self-tuning and adaptive control and, to some extent, braising); exposed to dry heat systems, in which controller settings are modified (roasting, baking, broiling); and subjected to con- automatically in response to changing process and/or tact with hot fats (sauteing). disturbance conditions, and the application of neural Cooking fats Fatty substances such as butter, mar- networks and artificial intelligence techniques, which garines and vegetable shortenings which are solid mimic the actions of skilled human operators. at room temperature and are used to moisten, enrich, Convenience foods Processed foods that can be tenderize and flavour foods during cooking. quickly and easily prepared by the consumer. Exam- Cooking loss Quality characteristic relating to the ples include ready to eat meals, cooked sliced extent to which nutrients and water are lost from meat, sauces for pasta and pizzas and micro- foods during cooking. waveable foods. Cooking oils Fatty substances such as sunflower Conveying Process by which items are transported or oils, olive oils and groundnut oils which are liquid carried to a particular place. at room temperature and have usually been refined, Conveyors A continuous moving band used for trans- bleached and deodorized. May be used for deep fry- porting objects from one place to another. Conveyors ing, or in baking, frying and grilling of foods. include simple chutes, unpowered roller conveyors, and a range of powered systems in which materials are Cooking properties Ability of a food product to carried along by belt, bucket, screw, trolley, or other have acceptable properties upon cooking, particularly arrangement. Pneumatic conveyors are tubes in which relating to texture, flavour and colour. goods - usually in a finely divided form are moved Coolers Devices or containers for making or keeping along by blowers. items cool. Convicine Member of the pyrimidine glucoside class Cooling Process by which the temperature of items is of antinutritional factors occurring in faba beans, lowered, usually after some form of cooking. broad beans and other legumes. Causes the Cooperatives Business organizations that are owned haemolytic disease favism in susceptible individuals. and run jointly by their members, with profits or bene- Cook chill foods Foods, particularly ready meals, fits shared among them. For example, farmers have produced by cook chill processing and kept at low formed cooperatives for many purposes, including temperatures (<5°C) from manufacture to point of sale. marketing of produce, purchasing of production and The minimal processing involved results in high- home supplies, and provision of credit. Farm market- quality convenience foods with a short shelf life. ing associations are the most important type of agricul- Generally packaged in plastics trays, as either ready tural cooperative. Farm purchasing cooperatives rank to eat foods or easily reheatable products. second in importance. Cook chill processing A method of catering that Coppas Italian raw, fermented pork sausages. Tra- involves cooking of foods in batches to a just done ditionally prepared from entire swine neck muscles, status followed by immediate, fast chilling (using which are deboned and sliced before curing and ripen- blast chilling or water bath chilling techniques) to just ing in casings. However, some coppa may include in- above freezing point. Products are then stored for gredients such as air-dried neck of pork, swine skin reheating at a later time. The cook chill process offers and cartilage. At least three groups of microorganisms a cost effective means of providing quality food while (lactic acid bacteria, Micrococcaceae and yeasts) are reducing overhead costs. active in the ripening of coppa. Coppas are usually Cookers Appliances for cooking foods, domestic served in slices. cookers typically consisting of an oven, hob and grill. Copper Mineral, chemical symbol Cu, which is an Cookies US term for biscuits. Compared with other essential nutrient, but toxic in excess. Copper and its types of biscuit, cookies tend to be larger, with a softer, alloys (brass, bronze) may be used in construction of 109 Copra Corn dogs food processing equipment. Copper ions are prooxida- tion of liquids. A sensory defect, known as corking, tive, and may cause taints in wines. may occur in wines due to growth of microorgan- Copra Dried white flesh of coconuts (Cocos isms on corks. There is also the risk of release of sub- nucifera) from which coconut oils are extracted. stances such as trichloroanisole, tannins and per- Copra oils Alternative term for coconut oils. oxides from the corks into the food or beverage contained in the bottle or jar. Synthetic closures made Coprinus Edible fungi, commonly consumed spe- from plastics have been developed as an alternative cies including Coprinus comatus and C. cinereus. Also to natural cork closures for wine bottles. Crown known as ink cap mushrooms, some species being used corks are closures made from metal. in manufacture of ink. Cork spots apples Cordials Term which refers to two types of product: Plant disorder affecting and pears. Characterized by large brown spots in the fruit concentrated and sweetened fruit-based beverages; and flesh and fruit deformation, with a pitted appearance. sweet liqueurs. Caused by low levels of calcium in affected fruits due Cordyceps Genus of ascomycete fungi containing to any of a number of factors. approximately 300 species. Used as foods and herbal medicines in Asian countries. Some species (e.g. Cor- Cork taint Aroma and flavour defect of wines dyceps militaris) are used in the production of fer- caused by contamination with 2,4,6-trichloroanisole, mented foods. which may be present in the corks used to close the bottles. Corers Utensils used to remove the tough central part of various fruits and vegetables, particularly apples. Corn Grains, also known as maize, from any of nu- Corers are usually made of stainless steel and come merous varieties of a tall, annual cereal plant (Zea in different shapes for different uses. An all-purpose mays), which are borne on large ears. Low in trypto- corer has a medium-length shaft with a circular cutting phan. Niacin is present in bound form, making de- ring at the end. An apple corer shaped like a spoked velopment of the deficiency disease pellagra a possibil- wheel with handles not only cores the apple, but cuts it ity in those eating corn as a staple. Corn is processed into wedges as well. A corer for pineapples is a tall, into a great many products, including corn oils, corn arch-handled utensil with two serrated, concentric cut- starch, corn syrups, flour and corn masa. It is ting rings at the base. After the top and bottom of the also used in making some kinds of beer, whisky and pineapples are sliced off, the corer is inserted from the gin. Some types of corn have a hard endosperm and top and twisted downward. The tool not only removes kernels that burst on heating; these are used to make the core, but also the outer shell, so producing pineap- popcorn. ple rings. Corn bran Outer protective coating of corn kernels; Coriander Common name for Coriandrum sativum, an removed during milling. umbelliferous plant cultivated for its aromatic seeds Corn bread Bread in which the main cereal compo- and foliage. Seeds are a major component of curry nent is corn flour. May also contain wheat flour or, powders and are also used as a pickling spice and in for gluten free bread, rice flour. Arepas are flat flavourings for meat products and other food corn bread products popular in South America. Gener- products. Seed essential oils are also widely used ally spelt cornbread in the USA, where various sweet for flavouring purposes, as are the fresh leaves, which or savoury flavourings may be added, and shape, are added to foods to impart a delicate, citrus- and texture and thickness of the products are varied ac- parsley-like flavour. Also known as cilantro. cording to taste. Coring Process by which the tough central part of various fruits and vegetables is removed, often us- Corn chips Crisp snack foods made from corn ing corers. meal batters, shaped into flat triangles and fried. Coriolus Genus of fungi of the class Hymenomy- Corn cobs Flowering organs of Zea mays, composed cetes. Species may be used in production of laccases of inner and outer leaf-like organs (glumes) which fold (e.g. Coriolus versicolor and C. hirsutus), or in the around the corn kernels, a woody ring of lignified decoloration of brown food pigments. C. versi- conducting tissue, and an inner pith. Often used as a color may also be used in the bioremediation of source of furfural. Waste corn cobs are used as sub- food factories effluents and food factories strates for production of various fermentation products wastes. including enzymes, ethanol and sugar. Corks Closures for bottles, particularly wine bot- Corn dogs Sausages, especially frankfurters, tles, or jars. Made from cork, as it is a material which coated in a heavy corn flour batter and cooked by can be compressed to a smaller size and resists absorp- frying or baking. Usually served on a stick. 110 Corned beef Cottage cheese Corned beef In the UK, corned beef describes beef followed by enzymic hydrolysis if required. Degree of that is brined, chopped, pressed and sold in tins. In hydrolysis required depends on the final application of North America, corned beef describes beef brisket that the syrup; commonly, 40-60% of glycosidic bonds are is cured in seasoned brine and boiled; it is usually hydrolysed, i.e. the corn syrups have a dextrose served cold. equivalent of between 40 and 60, although corn syrups Cornelian cherries Fruits of the wild dogwood of 24-80 dextrose equivalents are also produced. Corn (Cornus mas). Eaten fresh or made into preserves syrups are approximately half as sweet as sucrose, and marmalades. Also used to make alcoholic and although sweetness increases with increased hy- non-alcoholic beverages. drolysis. In addition to their use as sweeteners, corn Corn fibre oils By-products of the corn processing syrups are used as thickeners, humectants, carbon industry which are rich in cholesterol-lowering phy- sources for microbial fermentation and to provide tosterols and of potential use in the manufacture of body to soft drinks and beer. nutraceutical foods. Produced during wet milling Coronary heart diseases Diseases of the heart of corn. due to narrowing of the coronary arteries resulting in Cornflakes Breakfast cereals made from corn, myocardial ischaemia and/or myocardial infarction. often enriched with vitamins. Narrowing or occlusion of the arteries can be a consequence of atherosclerosis or thrombosis. Risk fac- Corn flour Flour often ground from a variety of corn tors for coronary heart diseases have been identified, with large, soft grains and friable endosperm, from and include dietary, genetic and lifestyle factors. which the germ and outer hull are first removed. Also known as maize meal. Distinct from cornflour, which Corrinoids Group of compounds containing four re- is used as an alternative term for corn starch. duced pyrrole rings joined into a macrocyclic ring (the Cornflour Alternative term for corn starch. corrin nucleus). Includes vitamin B12. Many corrinoids have a cobalt atom in the centre of the macrocyc- Cornish pasties Meat pies traditionally made in lic ring. The B vitamins are found in animal foods Cornwall, United Kingdom. Each pasty consists of a 12 but not plant foods. Corrinoids are also produced by folded pastry case filled with seasoned meat and bacteria. vegetables, especially potatoes. Cortisol Steroid which occurs in animal tissues. May Corn masa Dried corn flour or dough made from be used as an indicator of stress in slaughter animals, this. Produced by cooking and steeping corn grains in and of meat quality. unslaked lime followed by rinsing, grinding and drying. Used in manufacture of tortillas and related Corynebacteriaceae Family of nonmotile, rod- products. shaped, primarily aerobic Gram positive bacteria of the suborder Corynebacterineae and order Actino- Corn oils Pale yellow oils derived from wet grinding mycetales. Contains the genus Corynebacterium. the kernels of corn (Zea mays). Typically bland in flavour and widely used as a cooking oil and salad oil Corynebacterium Genus of aerobic or facultatively and in the manufacture of margarines. Palmitic anaerobic, rod-shaped Gram positive bacteria of acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid are the major the family Corynebacteriaceae. Occur widely in nature, fatty acids. Oxidative stability is high, despite the particularly in soil and vegetable matter, and on human highly unsaturated nature. Also known as maize oils. skin. Can also be present on the surface of smear Corn starch Starch isolated from corn. Common cheese. Some species are involved in the spoilage substrate for manufacture of syrups. of vegetable products and meat products. Cory- nebacterium glutamicum is important industrially, and Corn steep liquor One of the by-products of process- is used in the commercial production of glutamates, ing corn to manufacture corn starch. The brown, glutamic acid and lysine for the food industry. syrupy liquid is rich in lactic acid and phytic acid as well as containing a range of amino acids, pro- Costmary Common name for Balsamita major (syn. teins, peptides, carbohydrates, vitamins and Chrysanthemum balsamita), a perennial herb related to minerals. It is used as a fermentation substrate in tansy. The fragrant mint-flavoured leaves are used for production of substances such as enzymes, poly- seasoning various foods, including salads, cakes, saccharides and antibiotics by microorgan- meat dishes and herb tea. Formerly used to flavour isms. ale. Corn syrups Nutritive sweeteners manufactured by Costus Alternative term for kuth (Saussurea lappa). partial hydrolysis of corn starch. Corn syrups are a Cottage cheese Soft acid curd white cheese made mixture of glucose, maltose and maltodextrins from whole, semi skimmed or skimmed cow milk produced by acid hydrolysis of corn starch at >100°C, without rennets, which is drained, but not pressed, so 111 Cotton candy Coxiella some whey remains. Possesses a slightly lumpy con- (6,7-dihydroxycoumarin), and furocoumarins (fu- sistency and has a mild flavour. Low in fat and carbo- ran-substituted coumarin). Present as flavour com- hydrates, and high in protein. pounds in many plant foods and spices, and may Cotton candy Fluffy mass of spun sugar that is also display biological activity and/or toxicity. formed from thin threads. Often served around a stick. Coumestrol Member of the isoflavonoids class of Also called candy floss in the UK. phytoalexins, present in soybeans and other crops, Cottonseed meal Residue that remains when oils which has phytoestrogens activity; may be have been extracted from cottonseeds. Sometimes genotoxic. used as a speciality ingredient in manufacture of Countercurrent chromatography Form of liquid cookies and frequently in livestock feeds. partition chromatography in which no solid support Cottonseed oils Pale yellow oils derived from cot- is required and two immiscible solvent phases are tonseeds (Gossypium spp.). Used as a salad oil and used. Partition takes place in an open column in which cooking oil and, on hydrogenation, in the manufac- one phase (the stationary phase) is retained and the ture of margarines. Rich in palmitic acid, oleic other (the mobile phase) passes through continuously. acid and linoleic acid; gossypol is a minor con- The stationary phase is retained in the column as a re- stituent. sult of column configuration and gravitational or cen- Cottonseed proteins Proteins derived from cot- trifugal force fields. The technique is used in the food tonseeds (Gossypium spp.). Classified as storage and industry for preparative separation of food constitu- polyphenols tea antho- non-storage proteins, both of which show desirable ents, such as from , and cyanins fruits vegetables functional properties that make them suitable for from and , and for analy- use as food supplements. sis of food components and contaminants. Couplers Devices for connecting or combining items. Cottonseeds Seeds of the cotton plant (Gossypium spp.) which are commercially important for their oils. Courgettes Small, dark green cucumber-shaped vege- Also a source of cottonseed meal and cottonseed table marrows cut from the plant when young. Also proteins. known as zucchini in the USA and Canada. Cough drops Medicated and sweetened lozenges Couscous Granular product originating from North that are taken orally to relieve a cough or sore throat. Africa, made with either semolina from durum wheat or millet flour. Also refers to a North African Coulometry Technique in which the amount of an dish made with this product, which is steamed and tra- analyte in solution is measured by converting it from ditionally served with a stew of lamb, chicken one oxidation state to another, the end point of the re- meat, chick peas and vegetables. action being measured with an indicator also present in the solution. A constant current source is used to de- Cowberries Red, acid berries produced by Vaccin- liver a measured amount of charge. An intermediate ium vitis-idaea; similar to, but smaller than, American reagent, generated electrochemically from a precursor cranberries. Contain high levels of benzoic acid. is often used to cause chemical oxidation. Analyte Used in jams and jellies. Also known as mountain concentration is calculated from the amount of charge cranberries, lingberries or lingonberries. required to cause complete conversion. Cow cheese Cheese made from cow milk. Coumaphos Organophosphorus insecticide and acari- Cow milk Milk produced by dairy cattle. cide. Used for the control of parasitic Varroa mites in Cow milk cheese Cheese made from cow milk. apiculture, and may occur as residues in honeys. Cowpea meal Flour produced from cowpeas. Used Classified by WHO as highly hazardous (WHO Ib). as an ingredient in foods. Coumaric acid Member of the hydroxycinnamic Cowpeas Seeds of Vigna unguiculata, a legume acid class of phenols, which occurs in a wide range from which young pods and leaves are also consumed. of plant foods. Has antioxidative activity and an- Vary in colour, white ones having pigment at the eye timicrobial activity. only, leading to their alternative names, blackeyed Coumarin Constituent of the flavour compounds beans or blackeyed peas. Rich in protein and carbo- of a wide range of foods, including cinnamon. Shows hydrate. cytotoxicity and anticancer activity, and is toxic in Cows Adult female bovine animals belonging to the excess. Also known as 2-hydroxycinnamic acid lactone genus Bos. In farming, the term cows is used to de- and 2H-1-benzopyran-2-one. scribe female cattle which have borne more than one Coumarins Group of aromatic compounds and calf. lactones that are derived from coumarin (2H-1- Coxiella Genus of anaerobic, rod-shaped Gram benzopyran-2-one) by substitution. Include esculetin negative bacteria of the Coxiellaceae family. 112 Coxsackieviruses Creameries Coxiella burnetii, the causal agent of Q fever in hu- Cranberries Red, acid berries produced by Vaccin- mans, may be transmitted from infected animals to ium oxycoccus (large, or American cranberries pro- humans via their milk. Sheep, cattle and goats may duced by V. macrocarpon). Acidity is due to high lev- act as reservoirs for the disease. els of a number of acids, including citric acid, Coxsackieviruses Enteroviruses of the Picor- quinic acid, benzoic acid and malic acid. Be- naviridae family, including 2 groups - Coxsackie A cause of the acidity, consumption of cranberries can be and B viruses. May be transmitted via the faecal-oral beneficial in cases of urinary tract infections and some route, particularly through contaminated water. types of kidney stones. Cranberries are used in a range of products, including sauces, jellies, relishes and Coypu Large semi-aquatic South American rodents beverages. (Myocastor coypus), also known as nutria. Coypu are hunted and farmed for their fur and meat. Coypu meat Cranberry juices Fruit juices prepared from cran- is similar in protein content to poultry meat and berries (Vaccinium oxycoccus or V. macrocarpon). game meat, it has favourable composition of fatty Thought to have a protective action against urinary acids and amino acids, and low contents of fats tract infections. and cholesterol. Crates Re-usable, slatted, wooden or plastics contain- Crab legs Legs from species of large marine crabs, ers used for transportation of goods, including various which are consumed as sea food delicacies. Commer- foods. Crates subdivided into units are used for holding cially important species for crab legs include red king individual items, such as bottles. The term is also crabs (Paralithodes camchatica), blue king crabs, (P. used to describe containers for the transportation of platypus) golden king crabs, (Lithodes aequispinus), live animals, particularly poultry. dungeness crab (Cancer magister) and edible crab (C. Cravings Behavioural term relating to a strong desire pagurus). or longing for a specific item. The most commonly Crab meat Edible flesh from the body and legs of craved food is thought to be chocolate. crabs; in the sea food industry, the term crab meat Crawfish General name used for marine lobsters designates canned white meat from crabs. Usually species within the genera Palinurus and Panulirus white in appearance, although leg meat often has red (also called spiny lobsters) and Jasus (also called coloration. The most important crab species for meat rock lobsters). Marketed in a variety of ways, includ- production are edible crabs (Cancer pagurus), dunge- ing fresh whole, shelled meat, canned and in pastes. ness crabs (C. magister), blue crabs (Callinectes Ground crawfish is often used in soups. sapidus) and king crab species, such as the red king Crayfish General name used for various freshwater crab (Paralithodes camchatica). lobster-like crustacea found in lakes, rivers and Crabs Crustaceans from the order Decapoda, having 5 swamps around the world. Several species are valued pairs of legs with the first pair usually modified as pin- as foods, particularly Cambarus spp. and Astacus spp. cers. Approximately 4500 crab species occur world- from North America and Europe. Usually marketed wide, most inhabiting marine or estuarine waters. live and boiled prior to consumption. Many crab species are commercially valuable sea Cream Fatty product prepared from whole milk by foods. Marketed in a variety of forms, including fresh centrifugation. Marketed in a range of types differing cooked whole crab, cooked leg meat, canned meat and in fat content. In the UK, half cream contains ap- pastes. proximately 12% fat, single cream and extra thick Crackers Thin, crisp wafers or biscuits (e.g. water single cream 18%, whipping cream 34%, double biscuits, cream crackers, wholemeal crackers) made cream and extra thick double cream 48%, and clotted from unsweetened dough made with wheat flour, cream 55%. In the USA, light cream contains 20-25% fat and sodium bicarbonate. fat and heavy cream 40% fat. Cracking Breaking of an item with little or no separa- Cream cheese Soft cheese made from cow milk. tion of the component parts. Can be used to refer to An acid curd cheese, but unlike Cottage cheese, damage to a commodity, e.g. freeze cracking of foods, made using cheese starters. Generally mild and or a processing step, e.g. cracking of eggs to remove velvety, but whey powder can be added to produce a them from their shells. more grainy texture. Eaten as a cheese and also used in Crambe seeds Seeds from plants belonging to certain making cheesecakes and in baking. species of the genus Crambe which belong to the mus- Creameries Premises in which dairy products are tard family. Oils extracted from the seeds are rich in manufactured. Also called dairies or dairy facto- erucic acid and are similar to rapeseed oils. ries. 113 Cream horns Crispness Cream horns Baked hollow puff pastry products, delicate flavour make it especially suitable for top- which are horn-shaped and filled with whipped ping pizzas and vegetable dishes. cream and sometimes jams. Crepes Thin pancakes originating from France Creaminess Consistency term relating to the extent made from batters containing flour, eggs, salt, milk to which a product is creamy, i.e. smooth, glossy and and water. May be served with sweet or savoury fill- uniform. As one of the sensory properties, creami- ings. Crepes suzette, traditional desserts, are made ness has viscous, flavour and taste aspects. by warming crepes in orange-butter sauces, pouring over orange liqueurs and flaming before serving. Creaming Natural formation of a layer of milk fat on the top of milk left to stand for some time. This hap- Crescenza cheese Italian cheese made from cow pens because of the lower specific gravity of milk milk. Texture and flavour can vary from smooth fat and is dependent on the size of the milk fat glob- with fresh, clean acidity to rubbery and mushy with a ules. Clustering of the milk fat globules is also af- sour taste. Best ripened for no longer than 10 days and fected by globulins in the milk fat globule mem- eaten soon after. branes. Creaming can be controlled by homogeni- Cresols Methylphenol flavour compounds found zation of milk and heating to cause denaturation in a range of foods, especially smoked foods. Cresol of the globulins. residues from lacquers applied to cans may occur as contaminants in canned foods. Cresols and cresol Cream liqueurs Liqueurs in which cream is com- derivatives may cause taints in foods and beverages. bined with alcohol to produce a thick and shelf stable blend. Cream is homogenized to break down the milk Cress Pungent leaves of seedlings from numerous fat globules to a size suitable to encase the alcohol plants of the family Cruciferae. Used as a salad vege- molecules, preventing the cream from being curdled table, spice and in soups. Garden cress, or pepper- and the product from separating. The milk fat globules cress, is Lepidium sativum. are made as small as possible to give a smooth taste Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease Abbreviated to CJD. and long shelf life. Cream liqueurs are generally One of the prion diseases, this one affecting hu- packed in dark glass bottles to protect from UV radia- mans. After a long incubation period (not yet defined), tion and are best kept refrigerated after the bottle has it is characterized by progressive degeneration of the been opened. central nervous system. Symptoms include mood swings, aggression, slurred speech, hallucinations, Cream milk Milk from which no fat has been re- problems in swallowing and ataxia. The initial form of moved. Also called full cream milk or whole milk. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease was only observed in sub- Cream puffs Baked puff pastry products, which are jects >40 years of age. In 1996, however, variant hollow, and filled with whipped cream. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), affecting subjects as Creatine One of the nitrogen compounds which young as 12 years of age, was formally identified in play an important role in muscle metabolism. Occurs the UK. The first known vCJD death, identified retro- in muscle foods such as meat, fish and shellfish. spectively, occurred in the UK in 1995. vCJD is be- Concentrations of creatine and its anhydride metabolite lieved to be transmitted to humans in foods (beef, creatinine may be used as indicators of the condition beef products and offal) derived from cattle in- and quality of meat and meat products. fected with BSE. In 1997, experiments in mice pro- Creatinine Anhydride metabolite of creatine. Found vided convincing evidence for the link between BSE in a range of foods. and vCJD. The full extent of vCJD will not be discernible for many years to come because of the long Creep One of the rheological properties, describ- incubation period of the disease; however, many thou- ing a deformation with time of materials under contin- sands of BSE infected cattle are thought to have en- ual stress. An important parameter in a wide range of tered the UK food chain during the late 1980s, before foods, including fruits and vegetables, bakery the first BSE control measures were introduced. products, dairy products and extruded starch- Crispbreads Thin cracker-like products having a based foods, as well as in gels and films, and pack- considerably lower water content than bread. Made aging materials. from rye flour or wheat flour and water. Commonly Cremes Creams or custards used in fillings and eaten as an alternative to bread by those on a wt. loss desserts. For example, creme caramel, creme brulee diet. and confectionery cremes. Crispness Term relating to perception of product Cremoso Argentino cheese Argentinian soft texture in the mouth; the extent to which a product is cheese made from pasteurized milk. Has a particu- brittle when bitten. larly high moisture content. Its elastic texture and 114 Crisps Crucian carp Crisps Popular savoury bagged snack foods com- avium subsp. paratuberculosis, has been suggested. prising very thinly sliced vegetables or extruded cere- Possible routes of transmission of M. avium subsp. als that have been fried and flavoured, e.g. potato paratuberculosis from animals to humans include crisps. Also known as chips in some countries. through infected dairy products and meat. Critical control points Points, steps or procedures at Croissants Rich, crescent-shaped rolls made by which quality control can be applied and a food laminating butter into a fermented dough; often safety hazard prevented, eliminated, or reduced to ac- served at breakfast with butter and jams. Also ceptable levels. The selection of critical control points eaten stuffed with sweet or savoury fillings. (CCP) is aided by the use of a CCP Decision Tree, Crops Plants, including cereals, vegetables and which is designed to help determine what should be fruits, which are cultivated commercially for the pro- used in a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point duce that they yield. (HACCP) plan to control hazards. Crops rotation Practice of growing a sequence of Croakers General name used for marine fish species different crops on a given piece of land to maintain the within the family Sciaenidae, which occur worldwide; fertility of the soil. also widely referred to as drum. Principal food fish Croquant Chopped, roasted almonds which are within the family include Atlantic croaker (Micropo- cooked in caramelized sugar. Also known as krokant. gon undulatus), black croaker (Cheilotrema saturnum) and yellow croaker (Umbrina roncador). Cross-contamination Transfer of contaminants between foods or surfaces. This form of contamina- Crocetin Dicarboxylic carotenoid pigment derived tion can include transfer of pathogens from un- from saffron that is used as a natural food colorant. cooked meat to cooked or ready-to-eat foods, either Forms red rhomboid crystals. Slightly soluble in water directly or indirectly (e.g., via chopping boards). and organic solvents, and soluble in pyridine and dilute sodium hydroxide. Cross-linking A form of chemical modification. Used in foods to alter the functional properties of Crocin Yellow water-soluble carotenoid pigment compounds such as proteins, starch, gelatin and which is found in the fruits of gardenia (Gardenia gluten. Transglutaminases (protein-glutamine Ȗ- jasminoides Ellis) and in the stigmas of saffron. Puri- glutamyltransferases) can be used to modify food fied crocin (purity >99.6%) has antioxidative activ- proteins by cross-linking, whilst glutaraldehyde is ity comparable to that of BHA at some concentrations. commonly used as a cross-linking reagent for immo- Used in colorants for foods, e.g. smoked haddock bilization of enzymes on membranes. and cod, and has potential for use in antioxidants. Cross-reactivity The ability of antibodies to react Crocodile meat Meat from crocodiles, that is often with or bind unrelated antigens. Caused by the anti- considered to be a by-product of crocodile skin pro- gens involved sharing similar, although not necessarily duction. The tail (approximately 63.3% of which is identical, antigenic determinants (epitopes). Of impor- lean meat) is the major carcass component marketed; it tance in the management of food allergies. represents approximately 20% of carcass weight. Col- our varies between meat cuts, with meat from the tail Croutons Cubed or shaped pieces of seasoned toasted and neck appearing white to pink, and leg meat being or fried bread used for garnishing soups or salads. darker. May be flavoured, e.g. with herbs or garlic. Crocodiles The common name given to about 12 Crowberries Small black fruits produced by Em- species of the genus Crocodylus in the family Croco- petrum nigrum. Best eaten cooked, as this enhances the dylidae. Crocodiles are hunted or farmed to produce flavour. Often eaten mixed with other berries. Used crocodile meat and skins. Crocodile (C. niloticus) in pies, soups and jellies, and to make wines. farming is popular in southern African countries, e.g. Crown corks Metal closures for bottles. Comprise Zimbabwe. In the Northern Territory of Australia, preformed caps and a sealing pad. These are placed crocodile (C. porosus and C. johnstoni) farming is a over the mouth of the container to be sealed, and the rapidly growing industry. edges are crimped to secure them to the containers. Crohns disease Inflammatory bowel disease or Commonly used for sealing bottles containing soft set of diseases of the gastrointestinal tract the drinks or beer. cause of which is unclear. Proposed causes include ge- Crucian carp A freshwater fish species (Carassius netic, microbial and environmental factors. Due to the carassius) from the carp family (Cyprinidae) widely similarity of Johne's disease in cows and other animals distributed in lakes and rivers in Europe and northern to Crohn's disease in humans, an association with the and central Asia. Rarely regarded as a high value food causative agent of Johne's disease, Mycobacterium fish, but is an important source of protein in some re- 115 Cruciferae Crystallinity gions of the world. Cultured in parts of Europe and crose, which prevents muscle protein from denatu- Asia. Normally marketed fresh and frozen. ration during frozen storage of surimi, and sorbi- Cruciferae Family of plants in which the flowers have tol, starch and starch hydrolysates, which can be 4 petals arranged in the shape of a cross. Includes bras- used to restrict undesirable changes in the functional sicas, mustards and cress. properties of meat proteins. Glycerol is also com- Cruciferins Globulin seed storage proteins which monly used as a cryoprotectant. are found in rapeseeds. Cryoscopes Instruments used for measuring the boil- Crude fibre The indigestible matter left in foods after ing point and freezing point of liquids. successive digestion with ether, acids and alkalies, and Cryoscopy Technique for determining the molecular subtraction of ash. Commonly determined as part of weight of a substance by measuring the amount by the proximate composition of foods. Values are related which the freezing point of a solvent drops upon ad- to, but not equivalent to, the dietary fibre component dition of a known quantity of that substance. of foods. Cryovac Trade name for a range of systems and Crumbing Process by which foods are coated in equipment for packaging of foods, including vac- crumbs, usually fresh or dried breadcrumbs. Alter- uum packaging and modified atmosphere natively, breaking a food down into crumbs. packaging. Crumbliness Texture term relating to the extent to Cryphonectria parasitica Species of fungi of the which a product is brittle, fragile and liable to break up family Cryphonectriaceae. Part of the Cryphonectria- into fragments (crumbs). Endothia complex. Commonly called the chestnut Crumbling The process by which goods fall apart into blight fungus. Microbial rennets derived from this small fragments, or the process by which foods are species are used in cheesemaking. broken up (usually with the fingers) into small pieces. Crypthecodinium cohnii Species of marine micro- Crumpets Small round bakery products made with algae of the family Crypthecodiniaceae. Used in bio- flour, water and milk with added sodium bicar- technology for the industrial production of doco- bonate. The resulting batters are leavened with sahexaenoic acid. yeasts and baked on a griddle. Usually served toasted Cryptococcus Genus of yeast fungi of the class and spread with butter. Hymenomycetes. Occur on plants and in soil. Crypto- Crunchiness Texture term related to the extent to coccus neoformans is often associated with meat and which a product is crunchy, i.e. hard and crisp. meat products where it may cause spoilage. C. al- Crushing To deform, squash or pulverize an item by bidus may be responsible for the spoilage of certain compressing forcefully. When applied to foods, this fruits. can result in products such as crumbs, pastes or pow- Cryptosporidiosis Enteric disease caused by infec- ders. Crushing is often accomplished with a pestle and tion with Cryptosporidium parvum. Commonly mortar, or with a rolling pin. transmitted through ingestion of food or water con- Crust Crisp, outside portion of bakery products, taminated with animal faeces. Characterized by severe e.g. bread, that has been caramelized or dehydrated diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, fever and headache. May during baking. be asymptomatic. Crustacea A subphylum of invertebrates containing Cryptosporidium Genus of protozoan parasites of the approximately 30,000 species. Most are aquatic; of family Cryptosporidiidae. Occur in the intestinal tracts these, the majority are marine, but some are found in of vertebrates. Some species are pathogenic to humans freshwater. Members of Crustacea include lobsters, and other animals. Cryptosporidium parvum is the crabs, crayfish, shrimps, copepods, barnacles and causative agent of cryptosporidiosis in humans. several other groups of organisms. Cryptoxanthin Garnet-red carotenoid pigment with Cryogenics Branch of physics concerned with the vitamin A activity which occurs naturally in egg production and effects of very low temperatures. yolks, butter, blood serum and in many plants. Cryogenic temperatures are achieved either by the Slightly soluble in ethanol and methanol, and soluble rapid evaporation of volatile liquids or by the expan- in chloroform and benzene. It has many nutritional and sion of gases. medical uses. Cryopreservation Preservation of foods using Crystallinity Physical properties relating to the very low temperatures. degree of structural order in a solid resulting from the Cryoprotectants Compounds used in cryopreser- formation of solid crystals with repeating patterns. vation or regular freezing to protect frozen foods Sugars and fats readily form crystals under favour- from damage caused by ice formation. Include su- able conditions such as appropriate temperature and 116 Crystallization Cuminaldehyde concentration, and the nature of the crystals can impact mostly water, with good levels of vitamin C and on the properties of the product. The presence of crys- sometimes carotenes. tals in foods strongly influences their texture. Cucurbitacins Oxygenated tetracyclic triterpenoids Crystallization Formation of crystals, particularly produced by plants of the family Cucurbitaceae, such used to purify a material or extract it from solution. as gourds and cucumbers. Among the most bitter Extensively used in sugar processes, and also in compounds known to man. Include cucurbitacin A, B the processing of butter and margarines, choco- and C and momordicoside A. Found in all plant parts late and ice cream. Also used to prepare proteins, except the seeds. Accumulation is generally not very including enzymes, for structural analysis by X-ray high in fruits, but varies from season to season and diffraction spectroscopy. according to location. Although perceived as bitter by Crystallography Measurement of the shape and humans, cucurbitacins are attractive to some insects structure of crystals. Modern methods utilize dif- and are used in baits. fraction patterns generated when a sample is targeted Cultivar Commercial or cultivated varieties of given by a beam (e.g. electromagnetic radiation). X-ray species of plants or fungi. Abbreviated to cv. crystallography is commonly used to determine the Cultivation From agriculture, a general term encom- molecular structure of proteins. passing the processes associated with growing of crops Crystals Solid materials formed by crystallization, prior to harvesting. in which the atoms are arranged in a single regular ar- Culture Microbiological techniques for the rangement called a lattice. Sugars and fats readily growth of microorganisms or other types of cells in form crystals under favourable conditions such as tem- various nutrient media. perature and concentration. Starch can also crystal- Cultured buttermilk Commercial product made as a lize, and in bread this retrogradation process is as- substitute for buttermilk produced during churning sociated with staling. The presence of crystals in as a by-product of buttermaking. Made by adding foods strongly influences their texture. lactic acid bacteria to skim milk. The lactic acid Cs Chemical symbol for caesium. produced during fermentation gives the product a tangy flavour similar to that of churned buttermilk, Cu Chemical symbol for copper. but composition of the two products differs. Used as a Cuartirolo argentino cheese Alternative term for beverage and as an ingredient in baking. Argentinean Quartirolo cheese. Cultured cream Alternative term for fermented Cucumber pickles Cucumbers pickled in brines. cream. Alternative term for pickled cucumbers. Cultured dairy products Alternative term for fer- Cucumbers Fruits produced by Cucumis sativus. mented dairy products. Contain approximately 95% water and 2% sugar, Cultured foods Alternative term for fermented with some carotenes in the skin. Usually eaten raw foods. in salads, but also used to make cucumber pickles Cultured milk beverages Alternative term for fer- and added to yoghurt to make raita, commonly eaten mented milk. with curries. Seed kernels may be eaten as a snack Cultured milk products Alternative term for fer- food. Small ridge cucumbers are sometimes referred to mented dairy products. as gherkins. Cultured milks Alternative term for fermented Cucumber seeds Kernels derived from Cucumis milk. sativus which are rich in proteins and oils and may Culture media Alternative term for media. used as a source of these compounds. Cumin Common name for Cuminum cyminum, an Cucumisins EC 3.4.21.25. Serine proteinases oc- umbelliferous herb grown for its aromatic, spicy seeds. curring in the sarcocarp of muskmelons (Cucumis These are used whole or ground as a flavouring ingre- melo). Highly homologous with microbial subtilis- dient in curry powders, and a range of other prod- ins. Catalyse hydrolysis of proteins with broad ucts including chilli, pickles, sausages, bakery specificity. Have potential for use in the food industry, products and liqueurs. Unrelated to black cumin. including as milk clotting enzymes in cheese- Cuminaldehyde Aldehyde which is predominant making. amongst the carbonyl compounds in cumin Cucurbitaceae Family of food plants including cu- (Cuminum cyminum L.) seed essential oils, repre- cumbers, gherkins, gourds, marrows, melons, senting the major flavour compound in cumin. Colour- pumpkins and squashes. Both the fruits and other less liquid, insoluble in water but soluble in ethanol. parts of the plants may be consumed. Fruits contain Has antimicrobial activity, particularly against 117 Cunninghamella Curing fungi and yeasts. Also a potent inhibitor of mush- logical stain and an analytical reagent. Also known as room tyrosinases. turmeric yellow. Cunninghamella Genus of filamentous fungi of the Curcuminoids A group of polyphenols including family Cunninghamellaceae. Occur as saprotrophs on curcumin and 2 of its related demethoxy compounds, decaying vegetable matter, soil and dung, or as para- demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin, sites or pathogens of plants or animals. Species found in turmeric rhizomes, and cassamunin A and have also been recovered from animal foods, cassamunin B, found in tropical ginger (Zingiber cas- cheese and brazil nuts. Cunninghamella echinulata samunar). Brilliant orange/yellow pigments, used as is used in the industrial production of Ȗ-linolenic colorants in a variety of foods, particularly pickles acid. and curries. Demonstrate antitumour activity, antioxidative activity, hypolipaemic activity and Cuphea Genus of plants belonging to the family Ly- neuroprotective effects. thraceae which is being developed as an oilseed crop. Seeds of many species, e.g. Cuphea lanceolata and Curd Protein (casein) gel formed by coagulation of C. viscosissima, contain oils rich in medium chain milk, e.g. during cheesemaking. Other milk pro- saturated fatty acids. Such species are a potential teins are retained in the liquid portion (whey). source of these fatty acids, which have beneficial Curd cheese A semi-soft cheese with a creamy health and nutrition effects in humans and can affect texture and mild flavour. A white cheese used espe- fat quality when fed to animals. cially in cooking. Cupuacu Fruits produced by the cupuacu tree (Theo- Curdlan Extracellular microbial polysaccharide com- broma grandiflorum), which grows in the Amazonian posed entirely of 1o3-ȕ-D-glucosidic linkages which rainforest. The exotic tasting pulp is used in making a is produced by Agrobacterium spp. (formerly Alca- range of products including fruit juices, ice cream, ligenes faecalis subsp. myxogenes). Used as a food ad- jams and candy. The seeds, which constitute ap- ditive, particularly in formulation aids, processing aids, proximately 20% of the fruit, contain a fat resembling fat substitutes, stabilizers, thickeners and tex- cocoa butter and develop a chocolate-like aroma if turizers. Can undergo both thermo-reversible and roasted. They have been used to make a chocolate al- thermo-irreversible gelation. ternative which is free of caffeine. Cured meat Meat preserved with the aid of salt and colour fixing ingredients, e.g. sodium nitrate and/or Curculin High potency, 114 amino acid, sweet-tasting some sodium nitrite. Other curing agents may be homodimeric protein isolated from fruit of the Malay- added to accelerate curing (reducing agents), to mod- sian plant Curcurligo latifolia. On a weight basis, cur- ify flavour (e.g. sweeteners), to modify texture, to culin is 430-2070 times sweeter than sucrose. Exhib- retard development of oxidative rancidity, and to in- its flavour modifying activity which causes organic crease water binding capacity and decrease shrink- and inorganic acids to taste sweet after ingesting the age during subsequent processing. The curing process protein. Susceptible to heat, and at 50qC starts to de- may involve: rubbing dry curing ingredients into the grade and lose its sweet-tasting and taste modifying meat; immersion of meat in curing brines; or injection properties. Studies have investigated production of a of the meat with solutions of curing ingredients. In the recombinant form of the protein using bacteria. past, curing was used primarily to preserve meat, but Curcuma Genus of plants, rhizomes of which are used with increases in the use of refrigeration and freezing, as spices and sources of essential oils and color- the major purpose of curing has changed. Meat curing ants. Commercially important species include Cur- ingredients are now mainly used to impart unique col- cuma longa (turmeric), C. aromatica (wild turmeric) our, flavour, palatability and texture properties to and C. zedoaria (zedoary). The name is also applied cured meat products. During the curing process, ni- to a natural colorant used to colour foods and textiles trates are converted into nitrites. Nitrosomyoglobin, and as an indicator in analytical techniques. This formed from myoglobin and nitric oxide during curing, colorant is sometimes called turmeric, curry or Indian is responsible for the red colour of cured meat. Health saffron, and is commonly used in curries. concerns relating to use of nitrites and NaCl in cured Curcumin Phenolic pigment which exists as a yellow- meat have led to reductions in use of both ingredients. orange powder or needles and is derived from rhi- Curing Preservation of foods such as meat, zomes of plants of the genus Curcuma, e.g. turmeric cheese and fish by salting, drying, pickling or (Curcuma longa L). Insoluble in water but soluble in smoking. Smoking can be carried out by the cold ethanol. Curcumin is a powerful antioxidant, and smoking method (in which the food is smoked at 20- shows antitumour activity in animal studies and an- 30qC) or by the hot smoking method (which partially ticarcinogenicity in vitro. Used as a food dye, a bio- or totally cooks the food at 40-90qC). Pickled foods are 118 Curing agents Cyanobacteria soaked in flavoured, acid-based brines. Cheese curing Custards Cooked or baked sauces made from milk, can be undertaken by methods such as injecting or eggs and sugar and thickened with corn starch. spraying the cheese with specific bacteria or by Cutability The ease with which an item can be divided wrapping the cheese in flavoured materials. into pieces using sharp objects such as knives or Curing agents Ingredients used in the curing of cleavers. foods. Examples include salt (sodium chloride; NaCl), Cutin Waxy water-repellent biopolymer found in epi- nitrates and nitrites, sugar and spices. dermal cell walls, e.g. fruit peel, and in the cuticle of Curing brines Brines used for curing of foods, such plant leaves and stems. Composed of a mixture of oxi- as meat products. Curing brines are often injected into dized and condensed fatty acids, soaps and esters. meat to produce the final cured meat products. A component of dietary fibre and potential source of Currants Term used in two different ways. Firstly, hydroxy fatty acids. applied to dried seedless grapes of Mediterranean Cutinases EC 3.1.1.74. Esterases that hydrolyse origin, similar to raisins and used in cooking, mainly cutin, the insoluble lipid-polyester matrix covering the in bakery products. Alternatively, small acid fruits surface of plants. Also hydrolyse a variety of esters produced by plants of the genus Ribes, including and triacylglycerols, and have interesterification blackcurrants, redcurrants and whitecurrants, and transesterification activities. Produced by plant which are made into jams, jellies, sauces or bever- pathogenic fungi and bacteria. Have a number of po- ages as well as being eaten as desserts. tential uses in the food industry, including production Curries Spicy dishes of Indian origin, usually served of flavour compounds and in assays for pesti- with rice and/or Indian bread. Based on meat, sea cides. foods or vegetables in piquant sauces. Curries Cutlassfish General name used for marine fish can vary in pungency from mild to very hot, depend- species within the family Trichiuridae, but particularly ing on the added spices. Curry powders are blends refers to Trichiurus spp. The most important species of powdered spices specially prepared for making cur- commercially are T. lepturus (Atlantic cutlassfish) and ries. T. nitens (Pacific cutlassfish). Marketed salted/dried Curry leaves Common name for leaves of Murraya and also frozen. Flesh is regarded as having excellent koenigii, which resemble narrow bay leaves, but are flavour when fried or grilled; also used for production more aromatic. Emit a strong warm curry aroma when of sashimi when fresh. rubbed or bruised. Used particularly in Indian and Sri Cutting Process by which an opening or incision is Lankan dishes and sauces to enhance the flavour. made in an item, or by which a slice is taken from an For best results, fresh leaves are removed from the item, using sharp objects such as a knives or cleavers. branches and added to dishes immediately before serv- Cuttlefish Marine squid-like cephalopod molluscs, ing. May be stored in a refrigerator for short lengths of having calcareous internal shells; occur in deeper oce- time, but frozen storage is recommended. anic waters. Commercially important species include Curry powders Blends of powdered spices used for Sepia officinalis (cuttlefish), Sepiola rondeleti (lesser preparing curries. Various spices can be used in order cuttlefish) and Rossia macrosoma (Ross cuttle). Man- to impart a particular flavour and/or pungency. tle flesh from cuttlefish is usually marketed in frozen Popular spice ingredients include cumin, coriander, or canned forms. ginger, cloves, cardamom, fenugreek, chilli and cv Abbreviation for cultivar. turmeric. Cyanazine Selective systemic triazine herbicide used Curvularia Genus of fungi of the Pleosporaceae fam- for general weed control (pre- and post-emergence) in ily. Occur in soil and on plants. Some species (e.g. crops. Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous Curvularia lunata) may cause spoilage of stored (WHO II). grains (e.g. sorghum, corn, rice and wheat). Cyanides Group of compounds containing the -CN Custard apples Fruits of any of several plants of the group which are salts or esters of hydrogen cya- genus Annona. Round to heart-shaped with a white to nide. Can be extremely toxic. yellow edible pulp. Flesh is eaten as a dessert or used as an ingredient in products such as fruit salads, Cyanidin One of the anthocyanidins, a pigment sherbet, ice cream, yoghurt and milkshakes. often present as a glycoside, which is found in many Rich in vitamin C. The name has been applied to a fruits and vegetables. number of species, including cherimoya (A. cheri- Cyanobacteria Oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria mola), sugar apples or sweet sop (A. squamosa), containing chlorophylls and other pigments. In- soursop (A. muricata) and the hybrid atemoya. clude unicellular and colonial species. Capable of fixing both carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Important 119 Cyanocobalamin Cyclomaltodextrin glucanotransferases providers of nitrogen fertilizer in the cultivation of applications, such as low calorie foods. Used syner- rice and beans. Genera include Anabaena, gistically with other artificial sweeteners. Use of cy- Nostoc, Spirulina and Synechococcus. The uni- clamates was banned in the USA, UK and Canada due cellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis is an impor- to concerns about possible carcinogenicity. How- tant model organism in biotechnology. Some ever, later studies have failed to confirm this and use is cyanobacteria produce bioactive compounds and still permitted in many countries. some are sold as foods. For example, Spirulina has Cyclamic acid One of the organic acids, used as long been valued as a food source as it is high in pro- artificial sweeteners in foods, usually in the form tein and can be cultivated easily. Certain cyanobacteria of metal salts (cyclamates). Also known as cyclo- produce cyanotoxins, making them dangerous to ani- hexanesulfamic acid. mals and humans. Cyanobacterial toxins can accumu- Cyclic fatty acids Fatty acids which include a ring late in sea foods and sources of water used for pro- structure within or at the end of the fatty acyl chain. duction of drinking water. Formerly known as blue The ring structure usually comprises between 3 and 7 green algae. carbon atoms. Present in oilseeds and microor- Cyanocobalamin Synonym for vitamin B12. Mem- ganisms, but uncommon in animal fats. Can be ber of the vitamin B group, found in foods of animal formed in oils as a result of thermal processing, origin such as livers, fish and eggs. Vitamin B12 is e.g. frying or physical refining. the coenzyme for methionine synthase (EC 2.1.1.13), Cyclodextrin glucanotransferases Alternative an enzyme important for the metabolism of folic acid, term for cyclomaltodextrin glucanotrans- and methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase (EC 5.4.99.2). ferases. Absorption of this vitamin requires the presence of an intrinsic factor. Failure of absorption, rather than Cyclodextrins Dextrins containing at least six glu- dietary deficiency, is the major cause of pernicious cose units in the form of a ring. Can associate with a anaemia. range of substances and are therefore used as complex- ing agents, particularly in the ȕ-cyclodextrin form. Cyanogenic glycosides Cyanogens which are Used in the food industry as emulsifiers, stabilizers capable of liberating large amounts of toxic cya- and masking agents for off odour and off flavour. nides, which can be metabolized to goitrogens (thiocyanates). Include linamarin, linustatin and neo- Cyclohexanesulfamic acid Alternative term for linustatin. Occur naturally in many plants, including cyclamic acid. cereals, pulses, fruits, root crops, nuts and oil- Cycloheximide Protein synthesis inhibitor obtained seeds, usually in parts that are not eaten or at such from Streptomyces griseus. Has been used in anti- low concentrations that they do not present a health biotics, fungicides and plant growth regulators. risk to consumers. However, in cassava, they occur Generally now only employed in research applications in high levels both in the edible roots and leaves. Read- due to its significant toxicity, including teratogenic- ily detoxified by appropriate processing of plant mate- ity. rials. Cyclohexylamine Toxic amine which exists as a Cyanogens Colourless flammable highly toxic gases liquid with a strong fishy aroma. Major metabolite of with pungent odours. Produced synthetically by oxidiz- the cyclamates which are used as sweeteners. ing hydrogen cyanide, but some (e.g. cyanogenic Miscible with water and common organic solvents. glycosides) occur naturally in plants. Starting mate- Used in organic syntheses and in the manufacture of rials in the manufacture of complex thiocyanates, plasticizers, dyes, emulsifying agents, dry- which are used as insecticides. cleaning soaps, corrosion inhibitors and rubber chemi- Cycad seeds Seeds produced by gymnosperms of cals. the genus Cycas, especially C. circinalis, the false sago Cyclomaltodextrinases EC 3.2.1.54. Glycosi- palm. Contain a toxic principle, cycasin, which causes dases which hydrolyse cyclomaltodextrins to linear a neurological disorder when untreated seeds are con- maltodextrins. Can also hydrolyse linear maltodex- sumed. trins, and may hydrolyse starch, pullulan, amy- Cyclamates Salts of cyclamic acid, prepared by loses and amylopectins. They may also exhibit sulfonation of cyclohexylamine. Also known as sul- transglycosylation activity. famates. Used as non-nutritive artificial sweeteners Cyclomaltodextrin glucanotransferases EC in foods, usually in the form of calcium cyclamate or 2.4.1.19. These glycosyltransferases cyclize part sodium cyclamate. Cyclamates are 30-50 times as of 1,4-Į-D-glucan chains by formation of 1,4-Į-D- sweet as sucrose and display good solubility and glucosidic bonds. Cyclomaltodextrins of 6, 7 or 8 glu- thermal stability characteristics for a variety of food cose molecules, known as Į-, ȕ- and Ȗ-cyclodextrin, 120 Cyclones Cysticercus respectively, are formed reversibly by the action of the Cyhexatin Organotin acaricide used to control plant- enzyme on starch and dextrins. The enzymes will feeding mites infesting almonds, walnuts, hops, also disproportionate linear maltodextrins without ornamentals and some fruits, which have become re- cyclizing. Applications include use as dough condi- sistant to many other acaricides. Classified by WHO tioners and in the production of artificial sweeten- as slightly hazardous (WHO III). ers. Cymene Volatile, combustible, aromatic hydrocarbon Cyclones Processing equipment used for separation of consisting of benzene rings carrying one methyl and solids from air. Consists of a conical chamber into one isopropyl group. Exists as a colourless, transparent which the air and solid, such as a food powder, is liquid with an aromatic aroma. Three isomers are added tangentially at high speed producing a whirl or known, i.e. ortho-, meta- and para-cymene. para- cyclone. Particulate matter is forced to the sides of the Cymene occurs naturally in several essential oils, chamber, decelerates and drops down to the conical e.g. oregano (Origanum vulgare L.). Uses include end of the chamber from which it is removed. The air synthetic resin manufacture, metal polishes, solvents stream remains in the central region of the cyclone. and organic syntheses. para-Cymene can be used to Used for separation of powders, e.g. milk powders, produce pure carvacrol and para-cresol. from air after spray drying. Cypermethrin Non-systemic pyrethroid insecticide used to control a wide range of insects in fruits, Cyclooxygenases Alternative name for pros- vegetables, cereals, rapeseeds and coffee; also taglandin-endoperoxide synthases (EC used in animal rearing facilities. Classified by WHO as 1.14.99.1). These oxidoreductases catalyse forma- moderately hazardous (WHO II). tion of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid and Cyprodinil Pyrimidine fungicide used to treat cere- display both dioxygenase and peroxidase activities. In als, and also applied to the foliage of various other mammals, cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) regulates basal crops, such as almonds, grapes, stone fruits and levels of prostaglandins, while cyclooxygenase-2 pome fruits, to control plant diseases. (COX-2) is responsible for acute increases of prostaglandin production, e.g. during inflammation. Cystatins Proteins which inhibit cysteine pro- Foods containing COX inhibitors can have anti- teinases. These proteinases inhibitors are present inflammatory activity. in many plant seeds, including legumes and cereals, and are also found in animals tissues, including meat, Cyclopiazonic acid Mycotoxin produced by Peni- eggs and fish. Have a potential role in the regulation cillium spp. (e.g. Penicillium verrucosum and P. of proteolysis during meat processing as they can griseofulvum) and Aspergillus spp. (e.g. A. flavus inhibit calpains and cathepsins, and could also be and A. oryzae). Formed during fungal growth on food used to maintain the quality of fresh fish and surimi. such as corn, peanuts and cheese. Toxic to certain Cysteine Crystalline sulfur-containing amino acid. In animals (e.g. chickens), but no definite health risk for the human diet, cysteine is a conditionally essential humans. amino acid; thus, it may be required in the diet unless Cycloserine Broad spectrum antibiotic that is particu- abundant amounts of its precursors, methionine and larly active against Mycobacterium spp. Used to serine, are available for cysteine synthesis at a nutri- treat mycobacterial infections (such as tuberculosis) in tionally significant rate. animals. Cysteine sulfoxides A group of organic sulfur com- Cyclospora Genus of parasitic coccidian protozoa of pounds found predominantly in Allium and Brassica the family Eimeriidae. Cyclospora cayetanensis may spp., where they are important precursors for flavour be transmitted to humans through ingestion of water or compounds produced by lyases such as alliin food contaminated with oocysts. lyases. Cysticercosis Infestation with the larvae (cysticerci) Cyclosporiasis Disease caused by infection with of the tapeworm Taenia solium. May be caused by Cyclospora spp. (especially C. cayetanensis in hu- ingestion of tapeworm eggs in food and water. Nor- mans). It is characterized by watery diarrhoea, loss of mally, the cysticerci develop in the animal host appetite, substantial weight loss, bloating, flatulence, (swine), and humans are infected with the adult form abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, muscle aches, through eating undercooked infected meat. low-grade fever and fatigue. Some infected persons are Cysticercus Larval forms of Taenia spp. of tape- asymptomatic. worm. Cystericercus cellulosae is the larval form of T. Cycocel Alternative term for the plant growth regula- solium found in swine, while C. bovis is the larval tor chlormequat. Classified by WHO as slightly toxic form of T. saginata found in cattle. (WHO III). 121 Cystine Cytotoxins Cystine White crystalline amino acid; oxidized Cytokinins Class of plant growth regulators dimeric form of cysteine. In healthy individuals, it is which occur naturally in plants and are also applied produced from methionine or homocysteine and is exogenously to influence the quality of fruits and not an essential amino acid. vegetables. Particularly active in stimulating growth and cell division. Also, in animal physiology, refers to Cystoseira Genus of seaweeds found in low inter- a class of linear polypeptide hormones, including tidal and subtidal shores of warm and temperate waters bradykinin and angiotensin. Also known as kinins. around the world. Some species are utilized as food or a source of phytochemicals. Cytolethal distending toxin Toxins produced by certain Gram negative bacteria, including the Cytidine Nucleoside composed of one molecule of pathogens Escherichia coli, Campylobacter and cytosine and one molecule of D-ribose. Also known Salmonella. Disrupts the cell cycle in eukaryotes. as cytosine riboside. Comprise 3 subunits designated CdtA, CdtB and CdtC. Subunits CdtA and CdtC are involved in delivery of Cytochalasins Mycotoxins produced by certain the toxins to the host cells, while CdtB is responsible fungal species (e.g. Aspergillus, Helminthospo- for the genotoxicity of the toxins. rium and Phomopsis spp.). Formed during fungal growth on grains and grain products. Cytophaga Genus of anaerobic, gliding, rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family Flexibac- Cytokines Humoral mediators produced by compo- teraceae. Occur in soil, decomposing matter and nents of the immune system including the interferon aquatic habitats. Some species may cause spoilage of and interleukin families and tumour necrosis factor-Į refrigerated foods, especially fish and shellfish. (TNF-Į). Cytokines are involved in regulation of im- Cytosine Pyrimidine base, which is a constituent of mune response and inflammation and aberrant pro- DNA and RNA. duction is associated with certain allergies and inflammatory diseases. Modulation of cytokine status Cytotoxicity Quality or degree of being cytotoxic may been one mechanism by which functional (exerting a toxic effect on cells). foods, such as probiotic foods, may enhance im- Cytotoxins Toxins which exert a toxic effect on munity and health. cells. D

2,4-D Selective systemic herbicide used for post- Dairy-lo Trade name for fat substitutes composed emergence control of annual and perennial broad- of whey protein concentrates which have been leaved weeds in cereals, orchards, some vegetable subjected to controlled thermal denaturation, result- crops and sugar cane. Classified by WHO as moder- ing in functional proteins with fat-like properties. Used ately hazardous (WHO II). Also known as 2,4- mainly in reduced fat dairy products, frozen dairy dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. desserts (such as ice cream), bakery products and Dab Marine flatfish species (Limanda limanda) which salad dressings. Marketed by Cultor Food Science. occurs abundantly around the northeast Atlantic. Flesh Dairy products Products manufactured from milk. has firm texture and a sweet flavour. Marketed Include as major product groups, cheese, yoghurt, fresh, dried/salted, smoked and frozen. butter, cream, fermented milk, ice cream and whey products. Also called milk products. Daconil Alternative term for the fungicide chlorothalonil. Dairy science Division of food science dealing with the characteristics, manufacture and quality of Dahi Fermented milk product popular in India. Dahi dairy products as well as the production, manage- made from buffalo milk is generally preferred to that ment and distribution of dairy animals such as cows, made from cow milk. A sweet variety of dahi, misti goats and sheep. dahi, is prepared by adding cane sugar to milk dur- Dairy spreads Spreads based on milk fats and ing heating, giving a caramelized flavour and brown containing other, sometimes non-dairy, ingredients to colour. give a lower fat content than butter. Daidzein One of the two isoflavones of particular Dairy starters Microbial cultures used in manufacture importance in soybeans, the other being genistein. of fermented dairy products, including fer- Both compounds are structurally similar to oestrogenic mented cream, fermented milk and cheese. steroids and possess both oestrogenic activity and Dalia Types of porridges made from wheat grits. anti-oestrogenic activity, the principal functions re- -Damascenone One of a number of aroma com- sponsible for the health benefits associated with con- ȕ pounds found in plant foods and beverages pro- sumption of soybeans and soy products. duced from them. A member of the ketones class of Dairies Premises in which dairy products are manu- chemicals derived from carotenoids and has the mo- factured. Also called creameries or dairy facto- lecular formula C13H18O. May be added to flavour- ries. ings, but more commonly used in fragrances, being a Dairies effluents Waste water released from dair- characteristic aroma compound in rose oil. Imparts a ies. floral, fruity or woody aroma. Dairies wastes Wastes remaining after processing Daminozide Plant growth regulator (the active com- of dairy products. ponent in Alar) which has been widely used in the cultivation of apples. Concern arose in the 1980s over Dairy beverages Drinks based on milk or other the safety of Alar when it was identified as a possible dairy products, e.g. whey. carcinogen. Daminozide is also known by a number of Dairy desserts Ready to eat desserts based on other names, including N-dimethylaminosuccinamic dairy products, such as cream, milk or yoghurt. acid, kylar and SADH. Available as chilled, frozen and shelf-stable products. Damsons Purple plum-like fruits produced by Include mousses, custards, fromage frais, milk Prunus damascena. Eaten cooked or used to make puddings and ice cream products. jams or damson cheese, a solid preserve of damsons Dairy factories Premises in which dairy products and sugar. are manufactured. Also called creameries or dair- Danbo cheese Danish semi-soft cheese made from ies. cow milk. Has a smooth, dry, yellow rind and is 123 Dandelions Dawadawa sometimes coated with red wax. Ripened for 6 weeks DATEM Anionic oil in water emulsifiers used as to 5 months. improvers in breadmaking. Acronym for diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides. Dandelions Common name for Taraxacum officinale. All parts of the plant are consumed. The root is used to Date marking Marking of food or beverage containers make beverages that smell like coffee but have the with a date that may be the date of manufacture, the flavour of chicory, the leaves are used in salads or sell-by date and/or the use-by date (expiry date). The as vegetables, and the flower heads are used in wine- sell-by date is the date by which the manufacturer rec- making. ommends that a perishable product should be sold. Use-by dates are chiefly used in the UK instead of sell- Danish pastries Sweet bakery products made by dates, and indicate the recommended date by which from laminating yeasts-fermented dough with but- a perishable product should be eaten or used, after ter or margarines and filled with nuts, fruits or which it is no longer deemed to be safe, desirable or custards. Often glazed with thin sugar/water icing. effective. Date marking is often required by law, par- Dark chocolate Chocolate that contains at least ticularly on packs of foods which should be maintained 35% cocoa solids. In the US, both semisweet and bit- at low temperature, e.g. cheese, pates and ready tersweet chocolates may be referred to as dark choco- meals, and on foods in which spoilage organisms late. An equivalent term is plain chocolate. Dark are likely to multiply or cross contaminate other foods, chocolate is a rich source of gallic acid and epi- e.g. fresh meat and fish. Other foods, such as bread catechin. and cakes, which tend to deteriorate in quality rather Dark cutting defect A defect of beef, often associ- than safety do not require date marking by law, but are ated with bull beef. Dark cutting meat, also known as often labelled voluntarily by the manufacturer or re- black beef or dark cutter beef, has a darker colour, tailer. and poorer flavour and texture than normal beef; Dates Fruits of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera). moreover, the high pH value of dark cutting meat en- Vary in colour, shape and size, and may be soft, dry or courages the growth of spoilage bacteria and reduces semi-dry. Contain high levels of sugar, amounts and shelf life. Physiological stress and exhaustion pre- individual types of sugars varying among cultivars, but slaughter deplete muscle glycogen stores, ultimately small amounts of vitamins. Vitamin C content is increasing the pH of meat and leading to the develop- relatively high in fresh fruits, but is reduced to trace ment of dark cutting defect. In young bulls, incidence amounts by drying. Served as dessert fruits and incor- of dark cutting defect can be decreased by low stress porated into many food products, especially cakes handling and prevention of bull behaviour (mounting, and biscuits. In addition, in Arab countries, dates are mock fighting and butting) in abattoir pens prior to also used in preparation of syrups, vinegar and slaughter. sugar substitutes. Darkening Discoloration of a substance by becom- Date shells Marine bivalves (Lithophaga litho- ing dark or darker. Red colour is often used by con- phaga) occurring along shores of the Mediterranean sumers as an indicator of the freshness of meat. Sea and eastern Atlantic, which bore into rocks using a Darkening of the product, which occurs during storage secreted acid. Consumed as a table delicacy in some due to pigment shifts, is perceived as being a negative Mediterranean regions. event, even though this is not a true indicator of whole- Dating Process of marking a product or its outer pack- someness or nutritional value. Because of consumer aging with date information, such as date of manufac- concerns, packaging films are designed to protect ture or date by which the product should be consumed meat colour, largely by controlling diffusion of oxy- to ensure quality. gen. Darkening is also a problem during repeated use Davana Common name for Artemisia pallens, a plant of frying oils. used as the source of aromatic herbs and essential Dark firm dry defect Commonly abbreviated to DFD oils with a characteristic fruity odour. Used in fla- defect, a condition associated with pork in which meat vourings for cakes, pastries and value-added has a high pH value and darker than normal lean col- beverages. our. The defect results from a decreased glycogen Dawadawa Fat- and protein-rich fermented foods content in swine muscles prior to slaughter; it is often from West and Central Africa, traditionally made from associated with pre-slaughter stress. In beef, the term African locust beans. Seeds are cooked, fermented dark cutting defect or dark cutter is used to refer to and formed into balls, which can be used to flavour the same condition. soups and stews. The fermented products can be Databanks Large stores of data held on computers. stored for long periods and are a good source of li- 124 Day lilies Debranning

noleic acid and vitamin B2. Also known as iru in also cause undesirable damage to amino acid side Nigeria. chains on certain food proteins during processing. Day lilies Plants of the genus Hemerocallis that be- Deaminases Includes members of EC 3.5.4. These long to the family Hemerocallidaceae. Some species hydrolases act on carbon-nitrogen bonds other than have edible flowers, which may be used fresh or af- peptide bonds, removing amino groups from com- ter drying, and which exhibit sweetness and a mild pounds. Ammonia is produced in the process. Sub- vegetable-like flavour. The young green leaves and strates include purines, pyrimidines, nucleotides, tubers of some species are also edible. nucleosides, etc., and hence can affect food flavour. DDD Alternative name for TDE. Debaryomyces Genus of yeasts of the family Sac- DDE Persistent non-systemic organochlorine insecti- charomycetaceae and class Saccharomycetes. Debary- cide occurring as a degradation product of DDT. Usage omyces hansenii, which tolerates high concentrations of the parent compound to control insects on crops of salt and is cryotolerant, is the most common spe- has generally been displaced by less persistent insec- cies of yeast found in all types of cheese. Also found ticides. on fish, in salted dairy products and in brines as it DDT Persistent non-systemic organochlorine insecti- is able to grow in the presence of salt at low tempera- cide used to control a wide range of insects. Subject tures, and to metabolize lactic acid and citric acid. to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic D. hansenii also provides proteolytic and lipolytic ac- Pollutants and usage on crops has generally been dis- tivities during cheese ripening. This species is one of placed by less persistent insecticides. Classified by the most frequent yeast species to be associated with WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO II). chilled foods. Used as a starter in the manufacture of fermented sausages, and has been responsible for Deacetylation Form of chemical structure modifica- the spoilage of fruit juice concentrates and yo- tion involving removal of acetyl groups (CH -CO-) 3 ghurt. D. hansenii is able to convert xylose to xyli- from molecules. Used to convert chitin or chitosan tol. into biologically active derivatives and to alter the rheological properties of additives, such as xan- Debittering Removal of bitter compounds from than gums. foods such as citrus fruits, chocolate, soybeans and cruciferous vegetables, and beverages such as Deacidification Neutralization process whereby the wines, fruit juices, cider and beer, to make them acidity of a substance is reduced. Deacidification is of- more palatable. Debittering can be achieved biologi- ten used in conjunction with the processing of apple cally, using enzymes or immobilized bacteria. Lac- juices, cider, vegetable oils, wines and grape tone hydrolases are used commercially for debitter- musts. Deacidification of grape musts is crucial for ing citrus juices by removing triterpenes. Correction the production of well-balanced wines, especially in of excessive naringin bitterness in citrus fruits can colder regions of the world. Malolactic fermenta- be achieved through use of adsorbents or cyclo- tion is widely used to reduce the acidity of grape dextrins to form less bitter inclusion complexes. De- juices. Young wines can also be deacidified with cal- liberate aeration of the pulp during apple juice ex- cium carbonate and potassium hydrogen carbonate. traction for cidermaking promotes the removal of bitter Deacidification of vegetable oils (such as rice bran and astringent flavonoids through their binding to the oils and corn oils) can be carried out using solvent pomace. Fining with gelatin decreases contents fur- extraction and membrane processing. Nanofiltration ther still by coprecipitation. Proline-specific amin- has been used for deacidifying and demineralizing cot- opeptidases can be used for debittering food pro- tage cheese whey, ready for use in ice cream and tein hydrolysates. Enzymic hydrolysis of oleu- other frozen dairy desserts. ropein by ȕ-glucosidase from Lactobacillus planta- Deaeration Removal of air or oxygen from a solution, rum offers an alternative to chemical debittering treat- for example by bubbling with an inert gas. Also known ments for table olives. as degassing. Deboning A process for cutting of meat from the Deamidation Form of chemical structure modifica- bones, which can be done either manually or me- tion in which amide bonds undergo hydrolysis to chanically. remove amide groups from molecules such as pro- Debranching enzymes Alternative term for pullu- teins and amino acids. Enzymic or non-enzymic lanases and isoamylases. deamidation of cereal proteins is often performed to Debranning Process of bran removal from cereals. improve functional properties, such as solubility, May be achieved by milling or by soaking in a solu- foaming capacity and emulsifying capacity. Can tion of an alkali such as sodium hydroxide. Used to 125 Decaffeinated coffee Deep freezing enhance milling performance of cereals as well as to of enzymes (decarboxylases) or other catalysts, provide by-products with potential as food ingredients. or can occur spontaneously. Several aroma com- However, debranning may also affect the nutritional pounds, including diacetyl, are formed by decar- quality and functional properties of the cereal and boxylation reactions. subsequent products. Decenoic acid One of the monounsaturated fatty Decaffeinated coffee Coffee from which caffeine acids, having the chemical formula C10H18O2. Vari- has been removed by a solvent extraction process us- ous isomers exist, some of which are used as fla- ing aqueous, organic or supercritical solvents. vourings, including 4-decenoic acid and 9-decenoic Decaffeinated tea Tea from which caffeine has acid (also known as caproleic acid). Also present as been removed by a solvent extraction process using natural flavour compounds in foods, including aqueous, organic or supercritical solvents. dairy products. The derivative trans-10-hydroxy-2- Decaffeination Removal of caffeine from a sub- decenoic acid occurs in royal jelly and is used as a stance such as coffee or tea. Caffeine is removed marker for this product, while another, 10-oxo-trans-8- from coffee by soaking coffee beans in chemical decenoic acid, is produced by mushrooms and ex- solvents or water. The resulting decaffeinated product hibits antimicrobial activity. contains approximately 3 mg caffeine per 150 ml cup, Dechlorination Process of removing residual chlo- compared with 75-150 mg for normal coffee. rine from a substance. In the food and beverages Ȗ-Decalactone One of the aroma compounds, industries, chlorination usually cannot be considered without the added expense of dechlorination, as resid- with molecular formula C10H18O2. Synonyms include decan-4-olide and 5-hexyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone. ual chlorine must be removed to prevent chemical Has a fruity, peach-like aroma and is naturally present changes affecting flavour, aroma and colour of the in various foods, including fruits and alcoholic final product. Activated carbon is usually used in beverages. Microbially synthesized Ȗ-decalactone is the beverages industry to dechlorinate and remove used in food flavourings. trace levels of outside flavour compounds from Decanal One of the aldehyde flavour compounds, water to be used in producing beer and soft drinks. which occurs naturally in a wide range of foods and A non-chemical means of dechlorination involves use beverages and is used in flavourings for processed of a high energy ultraviolet system. This cost effective products. process reduces free chlorine levels by up to 99%. Decanoic acid Synonym for capric acid. Member Decoction A liquor containing the concentrated es- of the medium chain-length saturated fatty acids sence of a substance, produced as a result of heating with 10 carbon atoms. Found in a range of animal and or boiling. vegetable fats and vegetable oils, and, in its free Decoloration Removal of the colour from an item. form, contributes to the flavour of foods and bever- Also known as decolorization. ages. Decolorization Alternative term for decoloration. Decanol Alcohol with 10 carbon atoms. Along with Decomposition Breakdown of matter, including some of the other higher alcohols, contributes to the foods, into its constituent parts. Leads to recycling of flavour of foods and beverages, especially alco- nutrients and their eventual return to the biosphere. holic beverages, and is also widely used as a sol- Can be mediated by bacteria or fungi. May lead to vent. quality deterioration and food poisoning outbreaks. Decanters Stoppered glass containers into which Can be induced by exposure to airborne microorgan- wines or spirits are decanted. isms, storage at room temperature and wetting of Decarbonation Removal of carbon dioxide from a dried foods. Also induced by exposure to light sample. Required for sample preparation prior to beer (photolysis) or by autolysis. Can be prevented or analyses, such as determination of original gravity delayed by frozen storage, drying, canning, and alcohol content. pickling, vacuum packaging, controlled at- Decarboxylases Lyases belonging to subclass EC mosphere storage, irradiation, pasteurization 4.1.1 that remove carboxyl groups from a molecule, or addition of preservatives. especially amino acids and proteins. When acting on Decortication Removal of the outer layer from single substrates, a molecule of CO2 is eliminated leav- seeds or fruits prior to consumption or further proc- ing an unsaturated residue. essing. Also called husking, dehulling or hulling. Decarboxylation Chemical modification involving Deep freezing A method for preservation of foods by the removal of carboxyl groups from organic com- rapid freezing and storage at -18°C. Freezing pre- pounds, generating CO2. Can be due to the influence serves foods by preventing microorganisms from 126 Deep frying Degreening multiplying. Enzymes in the frozen state remain ac- anaemia, rickets, scurvy, pellagra, beriberi and goi- tive, although at a reduced rate. Commercial freezing tre. Strategies to counteract these disorders and im- is usually undertaken by one of the following methods: prove nutrition often combine direct dietary interven- blast freezing, where air is circulated at -40°C; contact tion (provision of food supplements, food fortifi- freezing, in which refrigerants are circulated through cation, dietary diversification) with agricultural hollow shelves; immersion freezing, where, for exam- measures (development of foods of improved nutri- ple, fruit is frozen in a solution of sugar and glycerol; tional values and bioavailability, development of and cryogenic freezing, using, for example, liquid ni- improved agricultural practices) and economic meas- trogen spray. Rapid freezing avoids structural change ures for improving food security. that would affect flavour or appearance of foods, as Defoaming agents Substances, often silicon-based, in the shrinkage and distortion of cells by formation of used to minimize formation of foams during food enlarged ice crystals in the extracellular spaces. Some processing. These foams would otherwise cause prob- quick frozen foods require thawing before use, and lems for both the processing operation and final prod- cooking must then be prompt. This method of preser- uct quality. Typical applications where foaming prob- vation is widely used for a great variety of foods, in- lems occur include freeze drying, sugar proc- cluding bakery products (both ready to eat, and to esses and manufacture of fruit and dietetic soft be cooked when desired), soups, and precooked drinks. Similar to antifoaming agents. complete meals. Defoliation Removal of leaves from plants. Can affect Deep frying Cooking of foods in an amount of hot fruit growth and quality. fats or oils sufficient to cover them completely during frying. Deformation Persistent change in shape or size of a substance in response to an externally applied force. Deer Common name given to various species of even- Routinely determined for foods during analysis of toed, hoofed, ruminant mammals belonging to the fam- rheological properties, and can include puncture ily Cervidae. The term is used specifically to describe deformation, torsional deformation, breaking deforma- any of the small- or medium-sized species of the Cer- tion and maximal (peak) deformation. vidae family, as being distinct from other large-sized species such as elks or moose. Deer are farmed or Defrosting Thawing of frozen foods, or alterna- hunted for their meat (venison). tively the freeing of an item, e.g. freezers, of accumu- Deer meat Alternative term for venison. lated ice. Defeathering Removal of feathers from the car- Degassing Alternative term for deaeration. casses of meat-producing birds, such as poultry, Degradation A form of decomposition. Usually during processing. If defeathering is not performed refers to breakdown of particular compounds in foods. properly, carcasses can be mechanically damaged or Can have an adverse effect on quality, e.g. Modori microbially contaminated, both of which are of eco- degradation of proteins in fish surimi, or loss of nomic importance to the poultry industry. pigments in fruits during storage. However, can Defecation Removal of impurities, usually applied to also provide benefits, e.g. enzymic degradation of the stage of purification of sugar juices during phytates in plant foods may increase bioavail- sugar manufacture. Defecation involves clarifica- ability of minerals. May also reduce the allergenic- tion of sugar juices by heat and lime. The lime is ity of allergens, such as gluten. added to neutralize the organic acids present, after Degreening Process of ripening or improvement of which the temperature is raised to approximately 95°C. skin or peel colour, usually by application of ethyl- This lime and heat treatment forms a heavy precipitate ene to citrus fruits (such as satsuma mandarins of complex composition, which contains insoluble lime and lemons), bananas, rapeseeds and mustard salts, coagulated albumin, and varying proportions of seeds. Decay tends to be more severe in degreened fats, waxes and gums. The flocculant precipitate fruit because the degreening process itself promotes carries with it most of the finely suspended material of decay, and because packaging line fungicide treat- the juice that has escaped mechanical screening. Sepa- ments have to be delayed until after degreening. Un- ration of this precipitate from the juice is undertaken even degreening of bananas is a ripening disorder using a juice clarifier. Degree of clarification has a characterized by either partial or delayed yellowing or great bearing on the boiling house operations, and on by permanent greenness after treatment with exoge- yield and refining quality of raw sugar. nous ethylene. Green seed is a significant economic Deficiency diseases Conditions arising due to the problem in rapeseeds because the rapeseed oils ex- absence of a dietary nutrient, such as one of the essen- tracted from such seed contains chlorophyll-type pig- tial vitamins or minerals. Include various types of ments. Seed crushers can remove the green colour 127 Degumming Denitrification from rapeseed oil with bleaching clays, but this in- Dehydrogenases Oxidoreductases that oxidize volves an added expense and poses an environmental substrates by transferring hydrogen atoms to an accep- problem. tor that is either NAD/NADP or a flavin enzyme. Degumming The first stage in the purification of Dekkera Genus of yeasts of the family Saccharomy- crude oils, which involves removal of phospholip- cetaceae and class Saccharomycetes. Telomorph of ids and colouring materials. Degumming is necessary Brettanomyces. Important spoilage microorgan- to prevent separation and settling of gums (sticky, vis- isms in several foods and beverages. Dekkera bruxel- cous oil-water emulsions stabilized by phospholip- lensis and D. anomala are responsible for the spoilage ids) during transportation and storage of crude oils, to of beer and wines. However, at low levels, these reduce oil losses in the subsequent phases of refining, yeasts can have a positive effect on the sensory and to avoid excessive darkening of the oils in the properties of specific wines and beers. Typically iso- course of high-temperature deodorization. Degum- lated from barrel aged wines. ming agents, such as phosphoric acid, may be used to- Delicatessen foods Speciality ready to eat foods gether with a flocculation agent such as alumina. purchased from delicatessen shops or departments. Ex- During water degumming, phosphatides in seed oils amples include delicatessen salads, imported are removed by centrifugal separation, after precipita- cooked meat products and speciality cheese. Also tion with water. Acid degumming involves removal of known as deli foods in the USA. gums and impurities via centrifugal separation after Delicatessen salads Ready to eat chilled salads precipitation with acid and water. By-products of the (frequently mayonnaise-coated) obtained from deli- degumming process are known as lecithins. catessen shops or departments. Examples include Degumming agents Processing aids used to remove coleslaw, potato salads and herring salads. phospholipids, trace metals and mucilaginous gums Delphinidin One of the anthocyanidins pigments, during the initial (degumming) stage of oils and often present as a glycoside, and found in many fruits fats refining. Examples include water, phosphoric and vegetables. Displays antioxidative activity. acid and citric acid. Deltamethrin Non-systemic pyrethroid insecticide Dehairing Removal of the hair from hides and fleece used to control insect pests on a wide range of fruits, of animal carcasses, usually by scalding, singeing or vegetables and cereals; also used in stored cereals chemical methods. Carcasses are dehaired as an inter- and as a dip or spray for cattle, sheep and swine. Clas- vention to reduce microbial load and improve visual sified by WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO II). cleanliness prior to dressing. Demineralization Removal of minerals from substances. Includes processing steps in food manufacture, Dehulling Removal of the hulls from fruits or such as for sugar syrups, drinking water, musts seeds prior to consumption. Also called hulling or and whey, and for treatment of food factories ef- husking. This term also relates to removal of the fluents. Processes used to achieve demineralization cluster of leaves from the tops of strawberries prior include electrodialysis, reverse osmosis and to consumption. nanofiltration. Also covers the undesirable removal Dehydrated foods Alternative term for dried of selected minerals from previously healthy tissues foods. such as bone and tooth enamel, which may be caused by a variety of factors including nutritional imbalance Dehydration Alternative term for drying. and excess acidity, respectively. Dehydroacetic acid Organic acid used in preserva- Denaturation Structural change, especially in pro- tives to inhibit microbial growth in foods and bever- teins or nucleic acids, in response to extreme con- ages. ditions of temperature, pH, pressure or salt concentra- Dehydroascorbic acid Oxidized form of vitamin tion, which renders the molecule incapable of perform- C, which together with ascorbic acid (the reduced ing its original biological function. Used in food proc- form), makes up the total vitamin C activity in a sub- essing to inactivate detrimental enzymes, or to alter stance. Present in many food materials, where it has the gelation properties of proteins such as gelatin been implicated in browning or discoloration reac- or whey proteins. However, can also be deleterious, tions in certain matrices, such as citrus juices. In leading to impairment of functional properties such breadmaking, dehydroascorbic acid is formed from as water holding capacity in proteinaceous foods, ascorbic acid (used in bakery additives) and acts as and to reduced product yields in enzyme catalysis. an oxidizing agent, promoting formation of disulfide Denitrification Process of removing nitrogen or bonds (important for dough strength). nitrogen compounds from a substance, or alterna- 128 Densitometry Desalination tively the liberation of elementary nitrogen from ni- Has relatively low oxidative stability and its oxida- trogenous compounds in the soil by bacteria. tion to oxymyoglobin restores a red colour to the Densitometry Technique for measuring the optical meat. Responsible for the purple colour often seen with density of a material by recording transmission of meat subjected to vacuum packaging. light. Deoxynivalenol One of the Type B trichothecenes Density One of the physical properties of a sub- group of mycotoxins, produced by Fusarium spp. stance, defined as the mass contained in a given vol- Also known as vomitoxin. Occurs in Fusarium- ume. Routinely determined for a wide range of foods, infected cereals, primarily those infected with F. including fruits and vegetables (sometimes related graminearum and F. culmorum. Deoxynivalenol has to ripeness and composition), fats and oils, foods been implicated in cases of mycotoxicoses in both hu- produced by extrusion, and cereals. Density deter- mans and animals. However, large amounts of grain minations can also be used as process control steps containing deoynivalenol would have to be consumed in food processing. to pose a risk to human health. Deoxyribonucleases Nucleases, also known as Dental caries Disease in which cavities are formed in DNases, that cleave the phosphodiester bonds between the teeth resulting ultimately in dental pain and tooth nucleotide subunits in single- or double-stranded DNA. loss. Caries formation is associated with the action of Include endodeoxyribonucleases (EC 3.1.21, 3.1.22 oral Streptococcus mutans strains. Cavity formation and 3.1.25) which cleave within DNA molecules and is increased by the consumption of sugar-containing exodeoxyribonucleases which hydrolyse terminal nu- foods, as the sugar is metabolized by the bacteria to cleotides (EC 3.1.11, 3.1.15 and 3.1.16). Endodeoxy- form acids, which destroy the tooth enamel and sub- ribonucleases include the restriction endonucle- sequently the dentine. Increasing oral saliva produc- ases. tion, achieved by various means such as chewing chewing gums, can buffer bacterial acid production Deoxyribonucleic acid One of the nucleic acids. and reduce cavity formation. Sometimes known as car- Commonly abbreviated to DNA. ies. Depolymerization Form of modification in which biopolymers (e.g. proteins and polysaccha- Dental health Measure of the physical condition of an rides) are broken down firstly into smaller fractions individual's teeth and gums, or factors influencing their (peptides and oligosaccharides) and finally into condition. Cariogenic foods, including many with a individual monomers (amino acids and sugars). high sugar content, promote development of dental Occurs in pectins and celluloses during ripening. caries (decay), whilst cariostatic or anticariogenic Depolymerization of polyacrylamides may lead to foods or ingredients reduce these processes. Fluorida- formation of acrylamide in foods during heating. tion of drinking water is undertaken with the aim of improving dental health, and oligosaccharides with Depositors Devices for laying down a body of accu- cariostatic properties are being developed for use as mulated matter. In the food industry, they may be used sweeteners. to place such substances as fillings, toppings, batters and mixes in position. Dentex Genus of marine fish containing several Depuration species of sea bream. To make or become free from impurities using controlled purification systems employing ster- Deodorization Removal or concealment of an un- ilized water. Systems can be flow-through or recircu- pleasant smell in an item. Deodorization is usually the lating types, and water sterilization treatments involve last step in edible oil refining, involving vacuum-steam the use of chlorine, UV light, ozone, membrane filters distillation at elevated temperature, during which free or iodophors. Depuration is usually applied to purifi- fatty acids and odoriferous volatile compounds cation of shellfish, such as oysters and mussels. are removed in order to obtain a bland and colourless Post-harvest depuration in controlled waters can in- product. Deodorization can be conducted under con- crease the safety of shellfish by reducing the number of tinuous, semi-continuous or batch conditions. pathogens present following harvesting from moder- Deoxycholate Salt of deoxycholic acid (one of the ately polluted water. secondary bile acids). Used in surfactants and se- Dermatitis Inflammation of the skin. Atopic dermatitis lective media for cell culture, such as deoxycholate- may be associated with other atopic diseases such as citrate agar. Also known as desoxycholate. asthma and type I allergies, including those in re- Deoxymyoglobin Form of myoglobin in which the sponse to foods. ferric iron in the haem moiety is not bound to O2, but Desalination Removal of salt, e.g. desalination of is commonly bound to water. Formed initially on cut- sea water. ting of meat and imparts a purple colour to the meat. 129 Desalting Deterioration Desalting Removal of salt. health benefits. Foods and components displaying this Desaturases Includes EC 1.3.1.35 and members of property include tea polyphenols, extracts of sea- subclass EC 1.14.99. These oxidoreductases have a weeds, cheese and fermented milk. Some mi- number of uses in the food industry, e.g. fatty acid de- croorganisms used in food fermentations have also saturases introduce double bonds into fatty acyl chains been shown to have desmutagenic activity, including and are useful for production of polyunsaturated Bifidobacterium spp. and some lactic acid bacte- fatty acids. Genetic modification of desaturases in ria. plants and microorganisms can be used to modify Desorption Physical or chemical sorption process contents of fatty acids, and cholesterol desaturase by which a substance (gas, liquid or solid) that has can be used to reduce the cholesterol content of been adsorbed or absorbed by a liquid or solid material foods. is removed from the material. Desorption isotherms of Desaturation Process by which a substance is made foods during drying are commonly studied to quantify less saturated. In the case of organic compounds, reductions in moisture content. An O2 adsorption- e.g. fatty acids, this involves removal of hydrogen desorption process has been observed in dough dur- atoms from adjacent carbon atoms, thereby forming ing breadmaking. A thermal desorption step is used double bonds and increasing the degree of unsatura- in analyte separation during GC analyses. tion. Such reactions are catalysed by desaturases. Desoxycholate Synonym for deoxycholate. In the food industry, introduction of double bonds into Dessert mixes Dried instant foods used to prepare fatty acyl chains in this way is useful for production of desserts, typically by adding water or milk. Also polyunsaturated fatty acids, intake of which can called pudding mixes. have beneficial effects for risk of cardiovascular Desserts Sweet foods usually served as the last course diseases development. of a meal. The term encompasses many different types Descaling Removal of deposits of scale from an item, of food, including dairy- and fruit-based products, particularly removal of limescale from heating ele- cooked or raw. Available frozen, chilled or shelf- ments in kettles and boilers. For removal of fish scales, stable, as well as in the form of dessert mixes. the alternative term scaling maybe used. Popular desserts include cheesecakes, mousses, Desiccated coconut Product prepared from coconut gateaux, fruit products and ice cream products. endosperm by shredding and drying. Used in manufac- Dessert wines Sweet wines of varying alcohol con- ture of sugar confectionery and bakery prod- tent usually drunk in small amounts as an accompani- ucts. ment to the dessert course of a meal. May also refer to Desiccation Alternative term for drying. fortified wines. Designer foods Functional foods targeted towards Desulfitation Removal of salts of sulfurous acid, a certain purpose such as the prevention of certain dis- usually sulfites, and SO2. Microbes can be used for eases, or provision of tailored health benefits. desulfitation of waste water (effluent) from food fac- Desmin One of the animal proteins present in meat tories. Wines for distillation can be desulfited using and fish muscle. It is an intermediate filament protein CaCO3. Musts that are preserved by heavy sulfitation, present in the cytoplasm of skeletal, cardiac and and used for adjustment of sweetness of wines, require smooth muscle cells. In skeletal muscle, it is found desulfitation before use. In the Brimstone winemak- near the Z-line of sarcomeres and is thought to be in- ing system, clarified grape juices are preserved with volved in maintaining alignment of the sarcomeres and high levels of SO2 (1200-2000 mg/l) and then desul- in regulation of the distribution and function of mito- fited just before fermentation. chondria. Post mortem proteolysis of desmin by Desulfovibrio Genus of sulfate reducing, obligately calpains has been demonstrated with effects on meat anaerobic, rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria of tenderness and water holding capacity. the family Desulfovibrionaceae. Occur in aquatic envi- Desmosterol Member of the sterols group, found in ronments, including fresh and salt water sediments, a variety of animal and plant foods including goat and also in the gastrointestinal tracts of animals, and in milk, sea urchins and wild palm oils. It has also faeces. Capable of reducing sulfur compounds to hy- been detected in human milk. drogen sulfide. Desmutagenicity Specific type of antimutagenic- Detergents Surfactants, such as soaps, used for ity relating to the ability of a chemical to counteract cleaning purposes. the mutagenicity of another chemical. This attribute Deterioration Spoilage process involving a decline has been demonstrated for several foods or isolated in food quality. Can occur during storage via the ac- food components, and contributes to their associated tions of microorganisms or chemical reactions. Can 130 Detoxicants Diabetes also be caused by physical processes, such as heating Dextransucrases EC 2.4.1.5. Glycosyltrans- or freezing. ferases which catalyse the synthesis of dextran from Detoxicants Substances which inactivate, neutralize, sucrose. Can also synthesize oligosaccharides, or render harmless toxins or poisons. e.g. leucrose (a sugar substitute) in the presence of ap- Detoxification Process of removing poisons or tox- propriate sugar acceptors, e.g. maltose (a strong ac- ins (e.g. from foods), or process of inactivating, neu- ceptor) and fructose (a weak acceptor). Used in the tralizing or rendering harmless toxins or poisons. Can production of prebiotic oligosaccharides. be effected by the use of solvents, chemical reactions, Dextrinases Previously used as an alternative term for enzyme systems or microbial action. Į-dextrin endo-1,6-Į-glucosidases, which are now re- Detoxification enzymes Enzymes involved in trans- classified as pullulanases (EC 3.2.1.41). Also occa- formation of ingested xenobiotics, including drugs, sionally used in conjunction with limit dextrinases pesticides and some food components, to a form that (EC 3.2.1.142) or with dextrin dextranases (EC can be excreted in urine. Classified as Phase I and 2.4.1.2). Phase II enzymes. Phase I enzymes initiate metabo- Į-Dextrin endo-1,6-Į-glucosidases Alternative lism of xenobiotics and include cytochrome P450 term for pullulanases. monooxygenases, while Phase II enzymes continue Dextrins General term used for a range of water- the process by modification of the products of Phase soluble polysaccharides formed by partial hydroly- I enzyme reactions, and comprise many trans- sis of starch, including maltodextrins and cyclo- ferases, including glutathione transferases. He- dextrins. Used for various applications in the food patic detoxification enzymes have been studied pre- industry, such as prevention of crystallization or as dominantly. The anticarcinogenicity of some plant thickeners. Their sticky consistency also makes them foods, e.g. garlic, has been linked to their stimulation suitable for use as edible adhesives. Cold-water soluble of Phase II enzymes. dextrins are used as carriers for flavourings in prod- Dewatering Process of removing excess water from a ucts such as dry mixes, soups and gravy. substance, e.g. after washing of a food. Used in proc- Dextrose Name given to the dextrorotary stereoisomer essing of foods and in treatment of wastes. In the of glucose (D-glucose). case of foods, water can be removed by various proce- Dextrose equivalent The percentage of hydrolysis dures including passing over vibrating screens, using of glycosidic bonds in products, particularly malto- specially designed rotary screens or centrifugation. dextrins, glucose syrups, corn syrups and other Dewaxing Process in which solvents are used to starch products, calculated as dextrose (D-glucose) dissolve waxes from oil solutions. During the proce- on a dry weight basis; e.g. if 40-60% of the glycosidic dure, the wax solution is chilled and removed by fil- bonds are hydrolysed, the corn syrup will have a dex- tration. trose equivalent of 40-60%. Pure glucose has a dex- Dewberries Blackberry-like fruits produced by a trose equivalent of 100, pure maltose approximately number of Rubus spp., including R. caesius in Europe, 50 and starch effectively zero. Often abbreviated to and R. hispidus or R. canadensis in America. Similar DE. in appearance to blackberries, but smaller, with a DFD defect Abbreviation for dark firm dry defect slight whitish bloom. of pork. Dextran Branched glucans formed by certain lactic Dhal Term used in two ways. In India, it is used to acid bacteria through the fermentation of sugars. denote split pulses of a number of varieties, including Found in dental plaque and as a deterioration product grass peas and lentils. It also refers to a spicy dish in the sugar cane industry. Employed widely, such based on lentils or other pulses that may be pureed and as in aqueous two phase systems and as a model served with curries. Alternative spellings include dal, polysaccharide molecule in carbohydrate research. dahl and dhall. Used therapeutically as a substitute for blood plasma and as a plasma expander under emergency conditions. Dhokla Popular fermented foods of India. Typically Dextranases EC 3.2.1.11. Catalyse the endohydroly- prepared by soaking meal from chick peas or other legumes in water with buttermilk or curds for sev- sis of 1,6-Į-D-glucosidic linkages in dextran, producing isomaltose, isomaltotriose and other isomal- eral hours, seasoning with ginger and chillies, and tooligosaccharides. Useful in the sugar industry for steaming the batter. The steamed cake is cut into degrading any contaminating dextran that may be pre- squares, garnished with grated coconut and coriander sent, which can interfere with filtration and clarifica- and served hot. tion of sugar juices. Diabetes Group of two diseases (diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus) of disparate pathology, both charac- 131 Diabetic diet Diazepam terized by excessive urine production. Diabetes melli- Diallyl disulfide Organic sulfur compound which is a tus, the key feature of which is raised blood sugar lev- major component of garlic and garlic oils and a ma- els or impaired glucose tolerance, is classified into two jor contributor to their aroma. In addition to its sen- types: type 1, juvenile-onset or insulin-dependent dia- sory properties, the compound also possesses health betes; and type 2, maturity-onset or non-insulin de- benefits including antitumour activity and protec- pendent diabetes. Type 1 disease is a result of insulin tion against the risk of cardiovascular diseases. deficiency and type 2 disease is due to insulin resis- Dialysis Separation of particles in a liquid on the basis tance. Control of blood sugar levels can be achieved of differences in their size and thus ability to pass by dietary manipulation in some cases, particularly in through a membrane. Membranes are chosen that mild forms of type 2 disease, by reducing consumption will allow small particles to pass through, but retain of foods with high glycaemic index values. Diabe- larger particles. The process can be used to remove tes insipidus is due, in general, to reduced ability of the unwanted particles and enrich or concentrate a solu- kidney to concentrate urine, possibly caused by an im- tion. pairment in the hypothalamus/antidiuretic hormone Diamine oxidases Alternative term for amine oxi- system. dases. Diabetic diet A diet designed specifically for indi- Diarrhoea Disorder characterized by loose watery viduals with diabetes to help control their symptoms stools which are often evacuated at increased fre- and disease progression. The amount of sugar or read- quency. Diarrhoea may be an indicator of many dis- ily available carbohydrate is usually limited to avoid eases of the gastrointestinal tract, including food- large increases in blood glucose levels. borne diseases, food poisoning, gastroenteri- Diabetic foods Dietetic foods manufactured spe- tis, food intolerance, colitis and colorectal can- cifically for individuals suffering from diabetes. cer. Generally formulated to be low in absorbable carbo- Diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning Food poisoning hydrates, e.g. by replacing sucrose with fructose, resulting from consumption of marine bivalves con- sorbitol or other sweeteners that do not induce a taining certain diarrhoetic shellfish toxins (such large increase in blood glucose level. as okadaic acid) produced by dinoflagellates. Diacetoxyscirpenol Trichothecene produced by Symptoms include nausea, intestinal pain, diarrhoea Fusarium spp. Also known as anguidine. and memory loss. Diacetyl Yellow, flammable liquid with a strong Diarrhoetic shellfish toxins Toxins produced by aroma and buttery flavour derived from fermenta- certain marine dinoflagellates which are responsible tion of glucose. Soluble in water and alcohol. Used for causing diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning. The as an aroma carrier in foods and beverages. most important of these toxins are dinophysistoxin-1, Diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono- and di- okadaic acid and derivatives of these compounds. glycerides Emulsifiers known by the acronym Diastases Alternative term for Į-amylases. DATEM. Diastatic activity Total activity of starch degrading Diacylglycerols Glycerides composed of a mole- enzymes in grain malts. An important quality charac- cule of glycerol bonded to two fatty acids. Possess teristic for malting and brewing. emulsifying capacity and are used as additives in foods, including shortenings. Also known as di- Diatomaceous earths Powdery natural materials glycerides. formed from the microscopic skeletons of diatoms, de- Diafiltration Extension of the ultrafiltration process posited in most cases during the Cenozoic era. Diato- in which water is added back to the extract during the maceous earth is fine in texture and grey or white in concentration process. During diafiltration, both diffu- colour; when pure, diatomaceous earth is composed sive and convective mass transfer take place simulta- almost entirely of silicon dioxide or silica, but it is of- neously as a result of two driving forces: a concentra- ten found mixed with clay or organic matter. The mation gradient and a transmembrane pressure gradient. terial is used in fining agents and filtration materi- This is useful in selectively removing lower molecular als in the food industry, among many other varied and weight materials from a mixture, and offers a useful wider fields of application. alternative process to ion exchange or electrodi- Diatoxanthin One of the carotenoids detected in alysis for removal of anions, cations, sugars, al- several types of fish and shellfish and also in brown cohol or antinutritional factors. Diafiltration is an seaweeds. accepted method for production of alcohol free, low Diazepam Sedative drug that exhibits antihypertensive calorie and low alcohol beer. and myorelaxant properties. Normally used as a feed intake and growth promoting agent. Use to reduce 132 Diazinon Dietary fibre stress in animals during transport to slaughter- Dicloxacillin Semisynthetic penicillin antibiotic used houses is not permitted. Undergoes extensive and to treat a range of bacterial infections in animals, par- complex metabolism in animals. ticularly those caused by staphylococci. Diazinon Non-systemic organophosphorus insecticide Dicofol Non-systemic organochlorine insecticide and and acaricide used for control of sucking and chewing acaricide used for control of mites on a wide range of insects and mites on a wide range of fruits, vege- fruits and vegetables. Classified by WHO as tables, cereals, sugar cane, cocoa, coffee and slightly hazardous (WHO III). Also known as kelthane. tea; also used as a veterinary ectoparasiticide. Classi- Dieldrin Persistent organochlorine insecticide that has fied by WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO II). been used for control of a wide range of insect pests Diazocyclopentadiene One of the plant growth in crops. A breakdown product of aldrin and a potent regulators. A competitive inhibitor of ethylene that neurotoxin. Subject to the Stockholm Convention on can be used to control ethylene-induced developmental Persistent Organic Pollutants and usage on crops has responses in fruits and vegetables. generally been replaced by less persistent insecti- Dicamba Selective systemic herbicide used to control cides. annual and perennial broad-leaved weeds and brush Dielectric constant One of the electrical proper- species in crops, particularly cereals. Often used in ties, describing the ability of a material to store elec- combination with other herbicides. Classified by trostatic energy when a unit voltage is applied. Also WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). Also known as known as relative permittivity. Dielectric constants banvel. have been used to determine changes in foods, such as Dichlofluanid Fungicide used for control of scab, moisture content changes in sugar confectionery, brown rot and other fungal diseases in pome fruits, or degradation of frying oils, and also to monitor stone fruits and various vegetables; also has a processing steps such as the use of microwaves in suppressive effect on spider and rust mites on fruits. thawing and cooking. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard Dielectric heating Heating of electrically non- in normal use. Also known as euparen. conducting materials, such as foods, by subjecting Dichloroacetic acid One of the haloacetic acids them to high frequency electromagnetic fields. The and disinfection by-products found in drinking material to be heated is placed between two electrodes, water treated with chlorine. Chemical formula to which a source of high-frequency energy is connected. In homogeneous materials, the resultant heat- C2H2Cl2O2. Also detected in some foods and beverages washed with chlorinated water. Toxicity, including ing occurs throughout. hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity and carcinogenic- Dielectric properties Electrical properties of ity, has been demonstrated in studies using animal dielectric materials, i.e. non-conducting materials models. which can sustain electric fields and act as insulators. Dichlorobenzene Organochlorine compound used These properties include the dielectric constant, widely, including as an insecticide and acaricide in dielectric relaxation and dielectric loss. Examples of apiculture, a moth repellent and a deodorant. Classi- their use in food analysis include assessment of the fied by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). stability of dough during frozen storage, and comparison of the quality of musts from different culti- 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid Alternative name vars of winemaking grapes. for 2,4-D. Diet Selection by individuals or population groups of Dichlorprop Selective systemic herbicide used for foods and beverages for consumption. Dietary compo- post-emergence control of annual and perennial broad- sition is the major factor affecting nutrition status and leaved weeds in cereals. Also acts as a plant growth can have profound effects on health and risks for a regulator. Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous range of diseases. (WHO III). Dietary fibre Complex mixture of plant cell wall Dichlorvos Organophosphorus insecticide and acari- components including lignin and carbohydrates cide used for control of insect pests and mites in that are resistant to digestion in the small intestine. stored fruits, vegetables and cereals; also used as The carbohydrate components include nonstarch an anthelmintic in animals. Classified by WHO as polysaccharides. Classified into insoluble fibre highly hazardous (WHO Ib). Also known as vapona. and soluble fibre. High-fibre diets can help control Dicing Cutting of materials, such as foods, into small obesity and constipation, reduce the risk of cancer cubes. development and lower blood cholesterol. Fibre-rich 133 Dietary reference values Diffusion foods include wholegrain foods, wholemeal ce- Diethylnitrosamine One of the volatile nitrosa- real products, fruits and vegetables. mines with mutagenic activity, synonym N- Dietary reference values Usually abbreviated to nitrosodiethylamine. Occurs predominantly in DRV. Set of UK standards detailing the amounts of meat, but also detected in other foods, including each nutrient needed to maintain good health. In the cheese and fermented foods. Synthesis has been case of most nutrients, the measured average need associated with addition of nitrates and nitrites to plus 20% is satisfactory for the requirements of the foods during processing. majority of the UK population; this is termed the Ref- Diethylpyrocarbonate Histidine modifying re- erence Nutrient Intake. agent, and hence inhibits the activity of some en- Dietary study techniques Methods for obtaining zymes and proteins. Previously used in preserva- information on the diet or eating habits of individu- tives to prevent the growth of microorganisms in als and population groups. Includes food frequency wines, other alcoholic beverages and soft questionnaires, diet diaries, dietary recalls and drinks. However, has been linked to urethane for- weighed records. mation. Dietary supplements Alternative term for specific Diethylstilboestrol Synthetic, non-steroidal ana- types of food supplements usually taken in tablet or bolic agents based on oestrogens. Currently capsule form as a supplement to the normal diet, with banned worldwide for use in animals produced for the aim of increasing an individual's intake of a spe- food, due to its genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. cific nutrients, e.g. vitamins or minerals. Previously used widely as growth promoters, prin- Diet drinks Beverages that are low in calories. cipally in cattle, but also in poultry, sheep and Usually free-from or low in sugar compared to their swine. regular counterparts and contain added sweeteners. Diet therapy Management of a wide range of condi- Generally marketed towards health-conscious consum- tions and diseases, including diabetes, allergies, ers and those wanting to maintain or lose body wt. obesity, arthritis and cardiovascular diseases, May be consumed as part of a wt. loss diet in order to through modulation of the diet. prevent or reverse overweight and obesity. Differential scanning calorimetry Technique in Dietetic foods Products intended for consumption by which a sample and thermally inert reference material individuals with metabolic disorders or allergies, at the same temperature are heated using a temperature such as diabetic foods or gluten free foods. Also programme and the rate of heat flow is measured inde- used to refer to foods providing specific nutritional pendently for each. The differential heat flow is moni- benefits to healthy individuals with particular dietary tored as a function of temperature. Can be used to requirements, such as infants or athletes. measure heat capacity. Usually abbreviated to DSC. Diethylamine Amine, which exists as a colourless, Differential thermal analysis Technique in which highly flammable, toxic liquid with an aroma of the difference in temperature between the sample and a ammonia. Miscible with water, alcohol and most or- reference is measured as heat is applied to the system. ganic solvents. Uses include in pesticides, resins, polymerization inhibitors, rubber chemicals, pharmaceu- Diffraction Generally used to describe changes in the ticals, electroplating and corrosion inhibitors. direction of waves caused by obstacles. Used specifically in terms of optical properties to describe the Diethylene glycol Glycol, which exists as a colour- bending of light when it passes through an obstruction. less, viscous, combustible, extremely hygroscopic, X-ray diffraction patterns are used to analyse the struc- non-corrosive liquid. Almost odourless, but has a ture of crystals, including proteins, carbohydrates sweetish flavour. Miscible with water, acetone, ether and nucleic acids. Laser diffraction can be used to and ethylene glycol, but does not mix with benzene or analyse the size distribution of particles. White light, toluene. When added to water, it lowers the freezing electron and neutron diffraction patterns have also point while raising the boiling point. Used in the been determined during the analysis of foods. manufacture of corks, polyurethane, unsaturated polyesters, plasticizers, surfactants, dyes, tex- Diffusers Devices assisting in the travel or spread of tiles and paper products. Also used in antifreeze solu- gas or liquid by diffusion. tions and in humectants for casein. Highly toxic Diffusion Spontaneous and random movement of and banned for use in foods, diethylene glycol has molecules or particles in a fluid (gas or liquid) from a been used for the adulteration of wines. There is region of high concentration to a region of low concen- also a risk of migration from food contact materi- tration. Once a uniform concentration (or dynamic als. equilibrium) is achieved, net diffusion ceases and motion is random throughout the fluid. Diffusion rates are 134 Diffusivity Dill widely used in food analyses, and two common exam- on the heart. Used as a reagent in analytical techniques ples include moisture diffusion, which is routinely de- to determine levels of free cholesterol. termined in foods during drying, and salt diffusion, Diglucosides Compounds which include two mole- which will affect the curing rate of foods. cules of glucose. Diffusivity Measure of the ability of a substance to Diglycerides Glycerides composed of a molecule of diffuse. Includes thermal diffusivity, which de- glycerol bonded to two fatty acids. Possess emulsi- scribes the diffusion of heat through a material. fying capacity and are used as additives in foods, Diflubenzuron Selective, non-systemic benzoylurea including shortenings. Also known as diacylglyc- insecticide used for control of a wide range of leaf eat- erols. ing insects and their larvae in fruits and vegeta- Dihydrochalcones Class of minor flavonoids bles; also used as an ectoparasiticide on sheep. Clas- mainly found in apples and apple products such as sified by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in cider. Biochemically related to flavanones and normal use. chalcones. Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone is used as a sweetener. Difructose anhydride Non-digestible fructose disaccharides released from inulin in reactions Dihydroquercetin One of the naturally occurring catalysed by inulin fructotransferases (DFA-III- flavonoids found in a variety of fruits, vegetables forming) or (DFA-I-forming). Present in chicory, and nuts with high antioxidative activity. Used by which is a source of inulin. Difructose anhydride III the food industry as an antioxidant in vegetable oils, animal fats, milk powders and pastry containing (Į-D-fructofuranose ȕ-D-fructofuranose 1,2c:2,3c- dianhydride) enhances absorption of certain miner- fats. Also used in food supplements and health als, including calcium and has potential for use in foods. Synonym for taxifolin. prebiotics. Both DFA III and DFA I (Į-D- Dihydrostreptomycin Aminoglycoside antibiotic fructofuranose ȕ-D-fructofuranose 1,2c:2,1c- active mainly against Gram negative bacteria. dianhydride) have approx. 50% the sweetness of Used for treatment of enteric infections in animals and sucrose and thus have potential as sweeteners in mastitis in cows; also used as a topical treatment. low calorie foods. Dihydroxyacetone Ketone which exists as a colour- Digestibility Nutrition term relating to the proportion less, hygroscopic, crystalline solid. Soluble in water of a food absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and alcohol. Used in emulsifiers, humectants, into the bloodstream. True digestibility is measured as plasticizers and fungicides. the difference between intake and faecal output, with 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine A ȕ-hydroxylated allowance being made for that part of the faeces that is form of phenylalanine, found as an antinutritional not derived from undigested food residues. Apparent factor in faba beans and some other legumes (in- digestibility is an approximate measure, which is the cluding velvet beans and Cassia hirsuta). Acts as a difference between intake and output. substrate for tyrosinases and other phenolases, whose activity can contribute to enzymic browning. Digestion Human physiology term relating to the Abbreviated to DOPA, and the L-isomer is a precursor breakdown of large polymeric molecules into their of the neurotransmitter dopamine. monomeric constituents, achieved chemically or enzymically, in the gastrointestinal tract. In particu- Dika nuts Seeds of Irvingia gaboensis (also called lar, the term is applied to the breakdown by digestive wild mango or African mango). Source of fat (dika enzymes of complex food molecules, e.g. proteins butter), and hydrocolloids that are used as thicken- to amino acids, starch to glucose, fats to glyc- ers in foods. Seeds are ground to a paste and mixed erol and fatty acids, so that they may be absorbed with spices to make dika bread (gaboon chocolate), a through the gut lining. Digestion can include the me- staple food in some African regions. Also known as chanical processes, such as mastication, as well as African mango seeds. the chemical action of digestive enzymes and other Diketones Ketones with two carbonyl groups. substances such as bile. Chemical digestion begins in Diketopiperazines Cyclic organic compounds the mouth with the action of saliva on food, but most formed as a result of combining ketones with takes place in the stomach and small intestine, where piperazines. Can cause bitterness in some foods and the food is subjected to gastric juices, pancreatic juices beverages such as roasted coffee. and succus entericus. Dilatometry Measurement of thermal expansion or Digitonin Saponin derived from foxglove (Digitalis dilation of solids or liquids. purpurea) seeds. Unlike digitoxin, the major glycoside Dill Common name for the umbelliferous aromatic herb obtained from the foxglove, it has no apparent effect Anethum graveolens cultivated for its aromatic seeds 135 Dill ether Dioscorin and leaves (dill weed). Used in flavourings for prod- esses, and manufacture of fruit and dietetic soft ucts such as pickles, bread, dressings. Essential drinks. oils obtained from leaves and seeds can be used to add Dimethyl sulfide Synonym for methyl sulfide. flavour to pickles, confectionery and chewing Organic sulfur compound, in the form of a colourless gums. liquid, which is commonly used as a solvent. Also oc- Dill ether Monoterpene ether ((3R, 4S, 8S)-3,9-epoxy- curs naturally in foods and beverages, generally as an 1-p-menthene) found in essential oils extracted from off odour from bacterial metabolism of sulfur- dill leaves. Organoleptically considered the most im- containing amino acids. portant of the aroma compounds present in dill Dimethyl sulfoxide Commonly abbreviated to oils. DMSO, this organic sulfur compound has the formula Dilution Making a solution less concentrated by add- (CH3)2SO and is liquid at room temp. Widely used as a ing water or another solvent. solvent, alone or in combination with other organic Dimethoate A contact and systemic organophospho- solvents or water for solutes including starch and rus insecticide and acaricide used for control of a wide other biopolymers. range of insects and mites in fruits, vegetables, Dimethyl trisulfide An organic sulfur compound and cereals, tea and coffee; also used for control of one of the flavour compounds that occurs naturally flies in animal rearing facilities. May cause russet- in various foods, including cooked Brassica vegeta- ing in some varieties of apples. Classified by WHO bles, garlic, onions, soy proteins, soy sauces as moderately hazardous (WHO II). and alcoholic beverages. Also added to proc- Dimethylamine Amine, which exists as a flammable, essed foods as a flavouring ingredient. Has a power- anhydrous gas with the aroma of ammonia. Soluble ful aroma similar to that of fresh onions. in alcohol and ether. Uses include the manufacture of Dimetridazole Coccidiostat traditionally used for solvents, antioxidants, dyes, pharmaceuticals, and acid treatment and prevention of histomoniasis in turkeys gas absorbents. and chickens, trichomoniasis in cattle, and dysentry in N-Dimethylaminosuccinamic acid Alternative swine. A suspected carcinogen; use in food animals term for daminozide. has been banned in various countries. Dimethylarsinic acid An arsenical herbicide. Com- Dim sum Traditional Chinese dish consisting of small monly one of the organic arsenic species found con- portions of different foods, including steamed or fried taminating foods, particularly sea foods. Classified dumplings with various fillings. by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). Also a me- Dinners Term usually applied to the main meal of the tabolite generated following dietary intake of inorganic day, served in the evening or at midday. May also refer arsenic, such as from contaminated drinking water, to frozen and chilled convenience foods that com- and excreted in the urine. Also known as cacodylic prise a whole meal, such as TV dinners. acid. Dinoflagellates A group of microscopic, generally Dimethyl disulfide One of the volatile organic sul- single-celled organisms, between 20 and 150 ȝm long. fur compounds, and a characteristic flavour and Commonly regarded as microalgae. Characterized by aroma component of many foods and beverages, in- two flagella that impart a distinctive spiral swimming cluding mussels, fermented soy products, motion. Abundant in both fresh- and marine waters. cheese, whiskey and Brassica spp. such as broc- Some dinoflagellates produce water-soluble or lipid- coli. Also occurs as an off flavour compound in soluble small molecular weight compounds skim milk. (dinoflagellate toxins) toxic to humans and other 2,5-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone Chemi- vertebrates. cal name for the flavour compound furaneol. Dinoflagellate toxins Toxins produced by marine Dimethylnitrosamine One of the volatile nitrosa- dinoflagellates which can accumulate in filter feed- mines, which possesses carcinogenic activity. Has ing bivalves and fish; consumption of sea foods been detected in a range of foods, including cured containing these toxins can cause various types of meat, fried foods, malt and beer. food poisoning. Dimethylpolysiloxane An antifoaming agent added Diols Alcohols which include two hydroxyl groups. to oils and fats to prevent spattering and foaming dur- Dioscorin Major storage protein of yams (Dioscorea ing heating. Also used to prevent formation of batatas Decne and D. cayenensis). Possesses radical foams during other food and beverage processing ap- scavenging activity, indicating health benefits for plications, including winemaking, sugar proc- people consuming yam tubers. 136 Dioxane Disinfectants Dioxane Heterocyclic compound with the formula Diplococcus Obsolete bacterial genus which included C4H8O2; also called 1,4-dioxane. Clear, colourless liq- species currently assigned to various other genera. uid classified as an ether and used as an aprotic solvent Diplodia Genus of fungi of the Botryosphaeriaceae (cannot donate a hydrogen bond). Can occur as a con- family. Diplodia natalensis is responsible for stem end taminant in water supplies, and is a known carcino- rot of citrus fruits. Anaerobic cultivation of D. gos- gen in animals. sypina in a nutrient medium yields jasmonic acid, Dioxins Polychlorinated hydrocarbons which are very methyl jasmonate and isomers of jasmonic acid persistent environmental contaminants. Released into that can be used as food flavourings. the environment as unwanted by-products of manufac- Dipping Process of submerging a food into sauces turing processes (e.g. manufacture of industrial chemi- (e.g. dips) or coatings (e.g. batters). Chemical dips cals and during combustion and incineration proc- or hot water dips are also used to decontaminate esses). Many are carcinogenic, teratogenic and foods. mutagenic. May contaminate food, especially dairy products, meat, fish and shellfish. Dips Sweet or savoury sauces into which accompanying foods (e.g. breadsticks, crisps, vegetable cru- Dioxygenases Members of EC 1.13.11 and EC 1.14. dites) are dipped. Many savoury dips are based on Oxidoreductases that incorporate two oxygen at- sour cream, cream cheese or mayonnaise. The oms from O into the compound(s) oxidized. 2 term may also be applied to chemical and hot water Dipeptidases EC 3.4.13-EC 3.4.15. Peptidases that dips used to decontaminate foods. cleave the peptide bond in dipeptides, either specifically or non-specifically (EC 3.4.13). Dipeptidyl- Dipyridyl Organic nitrogen compound formed from peptidases and tripeptidyl-peptidases (EC 3.4.14) re- pyridine. Exists as two isomers. Chelating agent lease di- and tri-peptides, respectively, from the N- able to bind iron. terminal ends of polypeptide chains, while peptidyl- Diquat Non-selective contact bipyridyl herbicide used dipeptidases (EC 3.4.15) release dipeptides from the C- for control of broad-leaved weeds in a wide range of terminus of polypeptide chains. Certain dipeptidases crops. Also used for pre-harvest desiccation of oil- are important for flavour development in fermented seeds, legumes and cereals and for inhibition of meat and dairy products. tassle formation in sugar cane. Classified by WHO Dipeptides Peptides consisting of two amino acid as moderately hazardous (WHO II). residues. Disaccharides Sugars, e.g. maltose, sucrose or Dipeptide sweeteners Sweeteners based on lactose, which consist of two linked monosaccharide dipeptides or their derivatives. Examples include molecules. Dietary source of carbohydrate. Some indi- neotame and aspartame. Usually more sweet, more viduals show disaccharide intolerance, e.g. lactose stable and lower in calories than conventional sweet- intolerance, and are unable to absorb disaccharides eners. due to an enzyme deficiency. Diphenol oxidases Alternative term for catechol Discoloration Alteration or spoilage of the colour oxidases. of an item. Diphenyl Alternative term for the fungicide biphe- Disease resistance Ability of an organism to resist nyl. infection by particular pathogens. In crops, the or- Diphenylamine Amine fungicide and plant growth ganism may have one or a few specific genes that regulator used as a post-harvest protectant and scald confer a high level of resistance to a specific pathogen, inhibitor on pome fruits. or many genes that are effective against a range of Diphyllobothrium Genus of parasitic tapeworms of pathogens. Plant breeders may specifically breed for the class Cestoda. Occurs in the gastrointestinal tracts high levels of resistance to certain plant diseases. of fish, birds, humans and animals. Infection in hu- Diseases Abnormalities of the structure or physio- mans usually occurs through eating raw or under- logical function of an organism which are regarded as cooked fish which is contaminated with the larvae of being detrimental to its health. Diphyllobothrium latum. Dishwashers Kitchen appliances that automatically Dipicolinic acid Substance that occurs as a calcium wash, rinse and dry crockery, cutlery, pans and other salt in bacterial spores, and that may play a role in utensils. increasing the heat resistance of spores. Disinfectants Chemical agents used for disinfec- Diplazium esculentum Green fern, the young leaves tion, including quaternary ammonium com- of which are eaten as a vegetable mainly in India and pounds, alcohols, phenols, halogens (chlorine and Indonesia. iodine), halogen compounds, and mercury compounds. 137 Disinfection DNA Disinfection Destruction, inactivation or removal of Distillers spent grains Waste product from distill- pathogens or spoilage microorganisms. Com- eries where cereals are used as the raw materials, monly refers to the use of disinfectants for the comprising grain solids remaining after extraction of treatment of inanimate objects and surfaces (e.g. sur- soluble material in the mashing process. faces in food processing plants and kitchens). Distillers yeasts Yeasts (Saccharomyces spp.) Disinfection by-products By-products of the disin- used for fermentation of mashes to be distilled in fection of drinking water. Trihalomethanes are manufacture of spirits. associated with chlorination, while chlorites and Distribution The physical movement of commodities, chlorates are associated with chlorine dioxide dis- including foods, into the channels of trade and indus- infection. Ozonation may cause formation of bro- try. Can involve distributors, wholesalers, retailers, mates. May be responsible for an increased risk of kid- dealers and agents. ney and bladder cancer in humans and other long term Disulfides Sulfides which contain two atoms of sul- health effects. fur. Disinfestation Destruction of insect pests and other Diterpenes Terpenoids which include four isoprene parasites of animals or plants. Generally involves the units and thus contain 20 carbon atoms and 4 use of insecticides, applied either topically or as a branched-methyl groups. Occur in foods, e.g. coffee spray. beans, marjoram and rosemary. Those in rose- Dispensers Devices that supply or release a product, mary, carnosol and carnosic acid, have antioxidative such as foods and beverages, by dispensing. activity in foods. Coffee diterpenes show anticar- Dispensing The process of supply or release of a cinogenicity in animal studies, but may have hyper- product, such as foods and beverages, sometimes cholesterolaemic effects in humans. from special devices (dispensers). Dittany Common name for Origanum dictamnus, a Dispersibility Measure of the ability of materials to herb native to Crete. Also known as dittany of Crete. form dispersions, in which one substance is sus- Used as a substitute for oregano or marjoram and in pended in a second material. Often determined for some Mediterranean dishes. Flowers are used to make dried foods or ingredients such as powders to illus- herb tea. Extracts display high antioxidative activ- trate how well they can be rehydrated. ity, while essential oils have antimicrobial activ- Dispersions Two-phase systems consisting of parti- ity. cles (the disperse phase) suspended in a second sub- Diuron Systemic urea herbicide which inhibits photo- stance (the continuous or bulk phase) which is gener- synthesis. Used for selective control of germinating ally present in relative excess. Includes colloids, grasses and broad-leaved weeds in fruits, cereals emulsions and aerosols. and legumes. Classified by WHO as unlikely to pre- Display cabinets Units in which items, including sent acute hazard in normal use. foods, are displayed in an appealing manner. Food Divercins Bacteriocins produced by the lactic should be displayed such that its quality is maintained acid bacteria Carnobacterium divergens. May be (e.g. lighting and temperature are optimum), and so used as preservatives for meat or fish, particularly that it is protected from contamination and is attrac- for the inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes. tive to potential customers. Diverticulosis Disease of the large intestine, particu- Distillates Spirits or their intermediate products larly the distal portion, which is prevalent in older in- manufactured from ethanol-containing mashes or dividuals. The wall of the colon forms blind out pock- other materials by distillation. ets or diverticulae which can become inflammed (di- Distillation Technique for separation of homogene- verticulitis) resulting in acute abdominal symptoms, ous mixtures based on differences in volatility. Em- such as pain, and potentially in severe complications ployed in the manufacture of spirits, in which the such as peritonitis. Reduced risk for diverticulosis has heating of ethanol-containing mashes in a still lib- been associated with increased consumption of fruits erates vapour (containing ethanol and flavour com- and vegetables and dietary fibre. pounds), and this vapour is then condensed. Djenkol beans Seeds produced by Pithecellobium Distilleries Factories used for manufacture of spirits lobata. Contain djenkolic acid, a toxic sulfur- by distillation. containing amino acid that causes kidney disorders. Distilleries effluents Waste water produced by DM Abbreviation for dry matter. distilleries during processing. DNA Abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid, a nucleic Distillers grains Alternative term for distillers acid consisting of linked deoxyribonucleotides, each of spent grains. which contains one of four nitrogenous bases (ade- 138 DNA-directed DNA polymerases Doenjang nine, thymine, cytosine and guanine), a phosphate from conventional blotting hybridization techniques in group and the pentose sugar deoxyribose. DNA is the terms of the size and number of the probe spots. Mi- genetic material of most organisms and usually exists croarrays may be generated and performed using ro- as a double-stranded molecule in which two antiparal- botics and can contain thousands of probes per strip, lel strands are held together by hydrogen bonds be- thus allowing high sample throughputs. Can be used tween adenine and thymine and between guanine and for qualitative or quantitative analysis of specific nu- cytosine. cleic acid sequences, e.g. for investigation of gene DNA-directed DNA polymerases EC 2.7.7.7. expression, particularly in genomics studies. Also Transferases which catalyse the synthesis of DNA known as DNA chips. from deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates in the pres- DNA polymerases Alternative term for DNA- ence of a nucleic acid primer. Grouped into seven directed DNA polymerases. families (A, B, C, D, X, Y and RT) on the basis of DNA probes DNA or RNA sequences that have been gene sequencing. Required for DNA replication and labelled with radioactive isotopes, dyes or enzymes repair; possess 3c-exonuclease activity. Used in PCR and are used to detect complementary sequences in analysis of genes, which has a number of applications DNA or RNA molecules by hybridization. in food science. Also known as DNA polymerases and DNases Alternative term for deoxyribonucleases. DNA nucleotidyltransferases (DNA-directed). Docosahexaenoic acid DNA-directed RNA polymerases EC 2.7.7.6. One of the Ȧ-3 or n-3 Transferases which utilize ATP, GTP, CTP and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), with 22 car- UTP to synthesize RNA from a DNA or RNA tem- bon atoms and 6 double bonds. Only the (all-Z)- plate. Production of messenger RNA (mRNA) from 4,7,10,13,16,19-isomer occurs naturally, and is found DNA is known as transcription and occurs as the principally in fish oils. Suggested health benefits as- first part of the gene expression process. These en- sociated with docosahexaenoic acid and its related n-3 eicosapentaenoic acid zymes are also known as RNA polymerases. PUFA include reduced risks of coronary heart diseases and cancer, and DNA fingerprinting Genetic techniques which improved immune response and neural develop- allow discrimination between individual organisms ment in infants. within a species on the basis of unique DNA sequences. Current approaches use PCR to amplify Docosapentaenoic acid One of the Ȧ-3 polyun- DNA samples which are then analysed using specific saturated fatty acids, containing 22 carbon atoms DNA probes in order to determine levels of poly- and 5 double bonds. Rich dietary sources include fish morphism and hence the organism's unique DNA oils, especially herring oils, and cattle livers. Im- fingerprint. Can be used to differentiate between dif- portant for the development of the central nervous sys- ferent species, strains or cultivars of microorgan- tem. Consumption also gives protection against coro- isms, animals and plants. Food industry uses in- nary heart diseases. clude testing for authenticity, contamination or in Docosenoic acid Monounsaturated fatty acid, which epidemiology studies. exists as a combustible solid with low toxicity. Insolu- DNA hybridization Formation of double-stranded ble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether. Occurs DNA or DNA/RNA sequences by base-pairing be- naturally as a minor component of many plant seeds tween complementary single-stranded sequences. Can and is obtained from plant seed oils, particularly hy- be carried out in solution or with one component im- drogenated mustard seed oils and rapeseed oils. mobilized on a matrix (e.g. nitrocellulose). The latter is Used for the manufacture of waxes, plasticizers, known as Southern blotting. Hybridization can also water-resistant nylon and stabilizers, and as an addi- be performed in situ using fluorescently-labelled DNA tive in polyethylene films. Also known as erucic molecules to localize genes to specific chromo- acid. somes. Dodecanoic acid Fatty acid which exists as a colour- DNA microarrays Genetic techniques which less, combustible solid. Occurs naturally as a glyceride utilize test strips comprising multiple microscopic in many vegetable fats and as a flavour compound spots of DNA probes of known sequence, e.g. oli- in various foods, including honeys, guavas and gonucleotides, cDNA, or genes, immobilized on a krill. Insoluble in water, but soluble in ether and ben- solid support, commonly glass, silicon or plastics. zene. Uses include in alkyl resins, detergents, food Samples containing target DNA or RNA are added to additives, insecticides and wetting agents. Also each spot, and hybridization of targets to probes is known as lauric acid. then visualized using various means, e.g. fluores- Doenjang Fermented soy pastes, used as a base for cence-labelling and computer image analysis. Differ many Korean dishes. Reported to have antitumour 139 Doenzang Downstream processing activity and antimutagenicity. Also known as Domoic acid Naturally-occurring amino acid found in doenzang or tenjan. some marine algae. Responsible for amnesic shell- Doenzang Alternative term for doenjang. fish poisoning in humans when filter-feeding molluscan shellfish (e.g. clams, mussels, scallops Dog biscuits Dried pet foods used as pet treats and oysters) which feed on the algae are consumed. or as dietary supplements for dogs. May contain Doner kebabs Turkish meat products traditionally added nutrients and provide health/lifestyle benefits, prepared from spiced lamb cooked on a spit. Doner such as keeping fleas away, cleaning teeth, settling up- kebabs may also be prepared from beef, veal, set stomachs and calming nerves. Occur in a variety of chicken meat or turkey meat, or meat mixtures. shapes, including bones, cats and hamburgers. Also Slices of the spiced meat are usually served with slices available are organic and vegetarian dog biscuits, and of onion in pita bread. biscuits that dogs and their owners can share. Dongchimi Fermented radish root product popular in Dogfish General name used for a number of small Korea. sharks belonging to three different families: Squali- DOPA Amino acid produced in the sympathetic nerv- dae (spiny dogfish); Scyliorhinidae (catsharks); and ous system and the adrenal gland by hydroxylation of Triakidae (smooth hounds). Several dogfish species are tyrosine. Occurs in several types of beans, e.g. vel- utilized as food fish, including Squalus acanthius vet beans (Mucuna pruriens L.), and can be made (piked dogfish), S. blainville (northern dogfish) and synthetically. DOPA is a precursor of dopamine and Mustelus manazo (smooth dogfish). an intermediate product in the biosynthesis of adrena- Dog foods Pet foods specifically formulated to meet line and noradrenaline. Abbreviated form of 3,4- the nutritional requirements of dogs. Include com- dihydroxyphenylalanine. plete foods (e.g. canned pet foods containing meat Dopamine Important neurotransmitter in both the as the main ingredient) that can be used as the sole central and peripheral nervous systems, and metabolic source of nutrients, and incomplete or mixer pet precursor in adrenaline and noradrenaline biosynthesis. foods that can be used to complement other foods. 3 Also occurs in bananas where it is largely responsi- main types of dog food exist: moist, semi-moist and ble for enzymic browning. dried. Niche markets are also catered for with Dosa Alternative term for dosai. nutraceutical, organic, vegetarian, raw and hypoaller- Dosai Traditional Indian fermented pancakes made genic products. Home-made or human foods can also with rice and black gram. Also known as dosa. be given to dogs, apart from those containing onions, Dosimeters Instruments used to measure doses of grapes, raisins and chocolate, which can be harm- ionizing radiation such as X-rays. ful. Double cream Cream with a high fat content (ap- Dogs Mammals (Canis lupus familiaris) commonly proximately 48%). kept by humans as pets or working animals. Many Dough A thick, plastic mixture of flour and liquid different breeds exist, varying considerably in size, ap- (e.g. water or milk) that may contain yeasts or bak- pearance and nutritional requirements. Most pet dogs ing powders as leavening agents. May be shaped, eat commercial dog foods. kneaded, rolled and baked to make bakery prod- Dolphinfish Commercially important marine fish ucts. species (Coryphaena hippurus) belonging to the family Dough conditioners Ingredients added to yeast Coryphaenidae. Widely distributed in tropical and sub- dough to improve its processing characteristics and/or tropical water throughout the world, and also produced the quality of the finished bakery products. commercially by aquaculture. Marketed fresh and Doughnuts Rounded bakery products made from frozen. Also known as mahimahi or variations of this rich, sweetened dough leavened with either yeasts name, including mahi-mahi and mahi mahi. or baking powders and deep fried. May be either Dolphins Marine mammals belonging to the order ring-shaped with a hole in the centre or filled with Cetecea; widely distributed around the world. Dolphins jams, whipped cream or sweet pastes. Often are not commercially exploited on a large scale; how- coated with sugar or topped with icings. ever, some species are utilized as a source of meat and Doves Short-necked, stout-bodied birds which, to- oils. gether with pigeons, comprise the family Colum- Domiati cheese Egyptian brine ripened cheese bidae. Dove meat is edible and is one of the kosher made from buffalo milk or cow milk. It is consumed foods permitted for consumption under Jewish law. fresh or after ripening for three to six months. Some- Downstream processing The processing steps in- times called Damiati or Breda cheese. volved in separation and purification of the prod- 140 Doxycycline Dried fruits ucts of fermentation processes and bioconver- Adequate Intake (AI) and Tolerable Upper Intake sions. Can be performed either simultaneously with Level (UL). the process or after its completion. Dried dairy products Dairy products dried to a Doxycycline Semisynthetic tetracycline antibiotic low moisture content, giving powders with a long used to treat a range of bacterial infections in cattle, shelf life. Packaged in materials that are impermeable swine, sheep, goats, poultry and farmed fish. Readily to water vapour, oxygen and light to protect them disperses throughout tissues, but excreted relatively during storage. slowly. Residues in kidneys and livers may remain Dried egg products Powders made by drying eggs for up to 14 days following withdrawal. or egg components. Include dried egg whites, dried Dracunculiasis Infection transmitted through drink- egg yolks and dried whole eggs. Utilized in the ing water containing microcrustaceans of the genus manufacture of foods where fresh eggs would be used, Cyclops, which harbour infective larvae of the nema- such as bakery products, bakery product mixes, tode parasite Dracunculus medinensis (guinea worm). mayonnaise, salad dressings and egg noodles. Infection is initiated with liberation of the larvae in the Their long shelf life and Salmonella-free status stomach where they mature and reproduce. Fertilized make them ideal for use by food manufacturers and female worms then migrate to the subcutaneous tis- caterers. sues, usually the extremities, where they form an ulcer. Dried eggs Eggs which have been dehydrated, usu- This is accompanied by intense pain, fever, nausea and ally by spray drying, to form powders. Also called vomiting. egg powders. May be used in a range of foods, including bakery products, bakery product mixes, Dragees Small hard candy pieces with hard sugar mayonnaise, salad dressings, confectionery, or sugared chocolate coatings. ice cream, pasta and convenience foods. Their Draught beer Beer which is dispensed from bar- long shelf life and Salmonella-free status make rels, kegs or other bulk containers, rather than them ideal for use by food manufacturers and caterers. packaged in bottles or cans. Dried figs Figs (fruits of Ficus carica) from which Dressing Post slaughter process, including the steps of the majority of the water content has been removed, skinning, evisceration, trimming and washing, that usually by sun drying. A rich source of dietary fibre follows the stage in which animals are bled. The head, and iron. Also contain high levels of other minerals, feet, hides (in the case of sheep carcasses and cattle such as calcium, potassium and magnesium, and carcasses), excess fat, viscera and offal (edible and in- polyphenols, but are low in sodium and free of edible) are separated from the bones and meat. With fats and cholesterol. Eaten as snack foods, mixed automated dressing lines, a series of mechanical de- with vegetables or other fruits, or used as ingredients vices stun the animals, remove the pelt (first from the of bakery products, meat dishes or fish dishes. brisket, then completely), eviscerate the carcass and Purees prepared from dried figs are used as fat sub- process the head. Other devices debone the loin and stitutes or sweeteners. thoracic regions. With respect to dressed meat, video Dried fish Fish subjected to drying processes which image analysis can be successfully applied to grad- remove sufficient moisture to inhibit the growth of ing for speedy online determination of the fat/lean ra- microorganisms, resulting in increased storage life. tio, and fibre optic probes permit objective prediction Air drying, sun drying and freeze drying are com- of such textural defects in the meat as excessive pale- mon processes for obtaining dried fish products. Many ness or darkness. The term can also be applied to the fish are marketed in dried form. act of applying coatings to foods, such as fish and Dried foods Foods in which the majority of water salads. present has been removed by drying, resulting in Dressings Condiments used to coat and add fla- lighter weight products of extended shelf life, e.g. vour to foods prior to consumption. Most common dried eggs, dried fruits, dried milk, mixes and types are salad dressings. powders. Sometimes rehydrated before consumption, DRI Used for Dietary Reference Intakes. A set of refer- although some, such as dried fruits, are consumed in ence values that provide guidance on nutrient re- their dried state. Rehydration properties are affected by quirements. DRIs were developed to update and ex- the type of drying process used. Also known as dehy- pand on previously established Recommended Daily drated foods. Allowances (RDA) of the US and Recommended Nu- Dried fruits Fruits preserved by drying (final mois- trient Intakes (RNI) of Canada. The DRI is composed ture usually less than 25%). Sweetness, and flavour of: the RDA, Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), in general, are concentrated by the drying process, but 141 Dried meat Drugs

nutrients, especially vitamins, can be lost. SO2 spray- Dried skim milk Skim milk dried to a low mois- ing can be used before drying to preserve colour and ture content, giving a powder with a long shelf life. nutrients. Eaten out of hand or used in cooking. Can Also called skim milk powders and non-fat dried be used dried or reconstituted in liquids such as water milk. and alcoholic beverages. Dried vegetables Vegetables preserved by drying. Dried meat Meat preserved by drying, a process that Commonly used types include peas, carrots, pep- reduces water activity and so limits bacterial growth pers and onions. Often reconstituted in water before and enzymic activity. Traditional drying methods for use or added to dishes such as soups and stews. meat include solar drying, air drying, oven drying Dried whey Whey dried to a low moisture con- and dry curing. A high surface to volume ratio is tent, giving a powder with a long shelf life. Also needed to allow effective drying of meat. Drying pro- called whey powders. duces changes in nutritional values, particularly the Dried yeasts Active yeasts preserved by drying for vitamin content, and sensory properties of the ease of handling, transport and storage. Used in bak- meat. Only a small proportion of meat is currently pre- ing, brewing and winemaking, and as ingredients served by drying. It is mainly prepared when a light of soups, health foods, sauces and gravy. weight, high protein product with a good shelf life is Driers Machines or devices for drying items such as required. Some speciality products are, however, pre- foods. Alternative spelling is dryers. pared. For example, dried beef prepared by dry curing Drinking chocolate Chocolate preparations which or sweet pickling followed by air drying is an expen- are mixed with hot water or milk to form chocolate sive product, usually prepared from very lean beef. It beverages. In addition to cocoa powders or may be sold by the piece or pre-sliced; it is frequently chocolate, may also contain ingredients such as milk used for hors d'oeuvres. solids, sugar and thickeners. Drinking chocolate is Dried meat products Dried foods produced from consumed throughout the world, but is especially meat. They include: pemmican, produced by sun popular in Europe. Also known as hot chocolate. drying strips of lean meat; and biltong and charqui, Drinking habits Consumer response term relat- both produced by a combination of brining and air drying to the pattern of consumption of beverages by ing. Dried meat products differ considerably from particular population groups. fresh meat and are generally of lower eating quality. Drinking straws Hollow tubes, generally made of plastics or paper, through which beverages or liq- Dried milk Whole milk dried to a low moisture uid foods are sucked into the mouth. content, giving a powder with a long shelf life. Also called milk powders. Drinking water Water that is suitable for drinking, particularly in terms of its purity, and sensory and hy- Dried peas Peas preserved by drying. Reconstituted gienic qualities. in water before cooking as a vegetable, stir-fried or Drinking yoghurt Yoghurt with a viscous consis- added to dishes including soups, stews and sauces. tency rather than a set curd, prepared by stirring dur- Dried pet foods Pet foods containing 6 to 10% ing cooling to 7-8°C before packaging. moisture. Include extruded pet foods and baked Drinks Alternative term for beverages. products, often in the form of kibble or pellets. Main Drip The liquid that is lost when foods, e.g. fish and ingredients are grain, dried vegetables, dried meat, that have been frozen are thawed. fruits, vegetable oils, meat meal, fish meal, vita- Dripping Unprocessed fat originating from lipid-rich mins and minerals. Tend to be cheaper than moist or tissues or bones of sheep or cattle. Also the rendered intermediate moisture pet foods, but contain fat produced from roasted meat. Used in cooking or more filler, so may be less nutritious. Thought to be as a spread. better for dental health than moist foods, because they Dropsy Alternative term for oedema. encourage removal of tartar from teeth during chew- Drugs Chemical substances which affect the function- ing. Commercial products are available for several pet ing of living things and the organisms (such as bacte- species, including dogs, cats, pet rabbits, hamsters, ria, fungi and protozoa) that infect them. Predominant mice, guinea pigs, pet fish, pet birds, reptiles, am- application relevant to the food industry is in animal phibians and pet crabs. husbandry, where they are used to cure or prevent dis- Dried sea foods Sea foods, including fish, shell- eases in animals, to increase feed efficiency and/or fish and seaweeds, that have undergone preserva- growth rate, and to sedate animals in order to minimize tion via drying in order to preserve nutrients and the effects of stress. Major classes include antibiot- extend shelf life. ics, anthelmintics, anabolic agents and barbitu- 142 Drum Dudh churpi rates. Potential presence of drug residues in animal roller drying; solar drying; spray drying; thin foods represents a health hazard to consumers. layer drying; and vacuum drying. Drum Alternative term for croakers. Dry matter Measure of the proportion of a material Drum drying A process in which drying is under- remaining after the removal of water, also referred to taken continuously on the external surface of an inter- as dry weight. Commonly abbreviated to DM. nally steam heated rotating cylinder. A thin film of the Dryness Sensory properties relating to the extent product to be dried is applied at one location and re- to which a product is perceived as being dry. moved at another, usually after less than one complete Dry sausages Sausages which are dried during revolution of the cylinder. These driers may be at- preparation. Often the sausages are hung in a drip mospheric or vacuum types, and are classified as single room for 2-10 days at 21-27°C before they are trans- drum, double drum, or twin drum (in which the two ferred to a dry room, which has lower temperature and drums function almost as single drums). relative humidity levels, for a further 10-120 days. Drums Cylindrical containers used for storage and Natural casings are often used as they shrink and transportation of liquids. thereby remain in close contact with the surface of the DRV Abbreviation for dietary reference values. sausage as it loses moisture. DSC Abbreviation for differential scanning calo- Dry beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus rimetry. vulgaris). Duck eggs Eggs produced by ducks. Consist of Dry cured ham Ham which is cured by rubbing cur- approximately 13% protein and 14.8% lipids, and have ing agents in dry form over the surface. Some are a mean weight of 70 g. Egg shells may be a variety cooked after curing, e.g. York ham, whilst others are of colours (e.g. white, bluish, greenish, cream, light dried and eaten raw, e.g. Parma ham. For large hams, brown) with speckled or mottled patterns. the curing agents must be applied several times during the curing period. Costs of producing dry cured ham Duck livers Livers from ducks; part of edible offal. tend to be high because dry curing is slow and requires Duck livers are cooked by sauteing, frying or grill- large amounts of hand labour. However, dry curing of ing, or are used to make pates or mousses. In France, ham can be accelerated through production techniques the livers of specifically fattened ducks are used to such as tumbling, blade tenderizing, microbial inocula- prepare foie gras. tion, use of nitric oxide, and processing as skinned Duck meat Meat from ducks. Duck carcasses and/or boneless legs. have higher fat contents, thicker skin and contain a Dryers Alternative spelling of driers. lower proportion of meat than other poultry carcasses; however, duck meat has a very rich flavour. It has a Dry ham Raw ham that is dry cured and then dried, higher collagen content and is darker in colour than either by air drying or mechanical means. It is a chicken meat. Compared with farmed duck meat, highly valued speciality product. Some dry ham is wild duck meat has a lower content of fat and a differ- smoked. The ham is soft in texture and when freshly ent fatty acid profile. sliced is pink or red in colour. It has a high content of Ducks The common name given to various domesti- salt. Factors affecting quality of dry ham include: ge- cated and wild, small water fowl of the family Anati- netic type, age, weight, sex, feeding and slaughter of dae; there are many species. Many kinds of ducks are the swine; pH value and water holding capacity of the domesticated and are reared for production of duck raw ham before drying; and composition, particularly meat and/or duck eggs. Wild ducks are hunted for lipid and protein contents, of the raw ham before dry- their meat. Different gender and age groups of ducks ing. Known as prosciutto crudo in Italy and are known as drakes (adult entire males), ducks (adult rohschinken in Germany. Varieties include Corsican, females) and ducklings (in general, sexually immature Bayonne, Parma, Italian country, Serrano and Iberian young birds with down rather than feathers). hams. Dudh churpi Traditional Indian shelf stable dairy Dry Ice Solid CO that sublimes under atmospheric 2 product made from partially defatted yak milk, cow pressure at -78.5qC. Used for the refrigeration of milk or milk from crosses between the two animals. foods, the carbonation of beverages and other liq- Milk is coagulated using acid and heat, and the curd is uids, and the cleaning of processing equipment. cooked to remove moisture, cut into pieces and dried. Drying Removal of moisture or liquid from an item to Partially dried product (prechurpi) is cooked or dipped a level of <5%, a process also known as dehydration. in a milk-sugar solution, and dried. The final product A wide range of drying methods are applied to foods, is chewed. It is a rich source of energy, proteins and including: air drying; drum drying; freeze dry- minerals. ing; impingement drying; osmotic drying; 143 Dulce de leche Dyes Dulce de leche Milk-based confectionery products Durian Fruits produced by Durio zibethinus. Emit a popular in Latin America, particularly Argentina. Pre- characteristic sulfurous odour. Often sold in a ready- pared by condensing a mixture of milk and sugar to a to-eat form, packaged as the whole edible pulp or in syrup that is then slightly caramelized by heating and segments, or preserved by drying, fermentation, flavoured with vanilla. salting or deep freezing. Used as a source of flavour in ice cream and cookies. Rich in sugars and Dulche de leche Alternative term for dulce de vitamin C. leche. Dursban Alternative term for the insecticide chlor- Dulcin One of the non-nutritive artificial sweeten- pyrifos. ers (4-ethoxyphenylurea), which is about 200-250 Durum wheat Species of hard wheat (Triticum du- times sweeter than sucrose. Most countries have rum), the flour of which is glutinous and yellow and banned its use in foods, due to concerns about toxicity used to produce semolina from which pasta is and carcinogenicity. Also called sucrol and valzin. made. Dulcitol Synonym for galactitol. Polyol comprising 6 Dust explosions Explosions caused by clouds of carbon atoms, produced by isomerization of sorbi- flammable particles at an appropriate concentration tol. Has approximately 0.1 times the sweetness of coming into contact with an ignition source. Dust and sucrose. Present in dulcite (Madagascan manna, powders present a potential explosion hazard in Melampyrum nemorosum). processing plants, including those in the food industry. Dulse One of a number of marine red algae or sea- Common processes generating explosible dust include weeds (Palmaria palmata) found along shores of the milling of flour, grinding of sugar, spray drying of North Atlantic and Northwest Pacific. Eaten as a deli- milk and instant coffee, and conveyance/storage of cacy in dried form. Also used in flavourings for whole grains and finely divided materials. Parameters stews and soups, and in food thickeners. influencing explosions include nature of the combustible material, reactivity, particle dimensions, powder Dumplings Small balls of leavened dough, formed concentration, humidity, ignition energy and presence from flour or meal bound with egg, which are boiled, of inflammable gas. Powders can be classified on the steamed or baked. Frequently cooked in and served basis of their explosion hazard, with explosible dusts with soups and stews. Dessert dumplings are made including custard powder, dried milk, flour, instant with sweet dough stuffed with fruits and served with coffee, potato powder, soup powder and sugar. sauces. Methods to control dust explosions include contain- Dunaliella Genus of unicellular halotolerant green ment, suppression, inerting and venting. microalgae of the family Dunaliellaceae. Dunaliella Dyes Natural or synthetic colorants used in foods. In salina and D. bardawil are important natural sources of contrast to pigments, dyes can usually be solubilized ȕ-carotene. using an appropriate solvent or binder. E

Earthworms Segmented, burrowing invertebrates of granulosus may occur after ingestion of water or vege- the class Oligochaeta, especially those of the genus tation contaminated with larval cysts. Lumbricus. Earthworms, such as the red worm Eisenia Echinoderms A group of exclusively marine inverte- foetida, are used as foods in some areas of the world, brates in the phylum Echinodermata, which contains including China and the Philippines. They serve as a five classes: Asteroidea (starfish); Ophiuroidea (brittle readily available source of proteins and minerals. stars); Echinoidea (sea urchins); Crinoidea (feather Eating disorders Psychiatric disorders charac- stars); and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers). Some terized by severe disturbances in eating behaviour, echinoderms are edible, including the sea urchin spe- such as extreme overeating (with or without subse- cies Loxechinus albus, Paracentrotus lividus and sev- quent purging) or extreme reduction of food intake, eral sea cucumber species. and often accompanied by low self-esteem and nega- Echinoids Alternative term for sea urchins. tive feelings about body wt. or shape. Anorexia ner- Echoviruses Highly infectious enteroviruses of vosa and bulimia nervosa are the most common eating the Picornaviridae family. Predominantly transmitted disorders. via the faecal-oral route, and through contaminated Eating habits Consumer response term relating foods and water. to the pattern of consumption of foods by particular Eclairs Finger-shaped bakery products made with population groups. choux pastry which is baked and filled with whipped cream or custards and topped with fondant icing, Eating quality The extent to which a food is assessed usually flavoured with chocolate or coffee. Also a as being edible, i.e. possessing acceptable sensory name given to confectionery products comprising properties. toffees filled with chocolate. Eau de vie French generic term for brandies and Ecology Biological science, involving the study of other spirits. interactions of organisms with their environment, in- EC Abbreviation for European Community. cluding interrelationships between organisms. Echinacea A genus of native North American flower- E-commerce Buying and selling of products and ing plants commonly known as purple coneflowers. services transacted electronically via the Internet. In- Three species have attracted particular interest owing cludes dealings among businesses and between com- to their purported medicinal properties, namely, Echi- panies and consumers. Also called electronic com- nacea purpurea, E. angustifolia and E. pallida. merce. These medicinal plants contain a number of bioac- Edam cheese Dutch semi-hard cheese made from tive compounds, including flavonoids, alkamides, cow skim milk or semi skimmed milk. Usually glycoproteins, caffeic acid derivatives and poly- coated with red wax, but cheese matured for 17 weeks saccharides. Claimed benefits include antioxida- or longer is coated with black wax. Mainly eaten tive activity and immunological effects. young for an elastic and supple texture and a smooth Echinacea purpurea A species of flowering plant of flavour. the genus Echinacea that is claimed to possess me- Edestin One of the vegetable proteins present in dicinal properties, particularly antioxidative activity certain plant seeds, including barley and hemp and immunological effects. Contains a number of seeds. bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, al- Edible containers Holders for foods which are in- kamides, glycoproteins, caffeic acid derivatives tended to be consumed along with the food they con- and polysaccharides. Commonly used in medicinal tain. Mainly made from dough. Examples include ice preparations. cream cones and taco shells. Echinococcus Genus of tapeworm of the class Edible films Flexible films that can be used as coat- Cestoda. Infection in humans with Echinococcus ings on foods. Edible films have many applications, 145 Edible flowers Egg powders including extending the shelf life of foods by reduc- with a rich, sweet flavour. Marketed in a variety of ing moisture loss, respiration and colour change, forms; smoked, jellied and pickled products are espe- preventing oxidation, reducing the need for packag- cially popular. ing, improving product integrity and reducing loss due Efficient consumer response Efficient consumer to damage. They can be made from a range of materi- response (ECR) is about change and continued im- als, such as celluloses, starch, cereal proteins, provement in the grocery supply chain. Four major soy proteins and milk proteins. strategies have been defined within ECR, each of Edible flowers Flowers such as day lilies and which creates value by satisfying consumer needs for marigolds that are suitable for use as foods. May be product, convenience and price: Efficient Store As- used fresh or after drying as ingredients or gar- sortment - addresses how many items to carry in a nishes. Also available in crystallized or candied form. category, what type of items and in what Edible fungi Alternative term for mushrooms. sizes/flavours/packages, and how much space to give to each item; Efficient Replenishment - focuses on re- Edible oils Lipid-rich substances which are liquid at ducing and eliminating costs in the order cycle, starting room temperature and are used in preparing foods. with accurate point-of-sale data; Efficient Promotion - triacylglycerols Usually have a high content of and addresses inefficient promotional practices that tend to those of plant origin can be a source of bioactive phy- inflate inventories and practices; and Efficient New tochemicals col- . Should be of high quality, pale in Product Introduction - addresses improving the entire our off odour off flavour , free from and , and of process of introducing new products, which is subject high nutritional values. Includes vegetable oils to high failure rates, thereby bringing extra costs into marine oils and . the system. Edible packs Packages for foods made from films Effluents Liquid wastes (waste water) discharged and coatings that are suitable for consumption along into a river or the sea, usually from a factory or plant. with the products they enclose. The films and coatings EFTA Abbreviation for European Free Trade Associa- are made from natural ingredients such as proteins, tion. EFTA is a trading bloc that was established in carbohydrates or lipids, or their combinations. 1960 by Austria, Denmark, the UK, Norway, Portugal, EDTA Abbreviation for ethylenediaminetetraacetic Sweden and Switzerland. The aim of EFTA was to acid. Commercially available in the form of sodium work for the removal of trade barriers among its mem- and calcium salts, EDTA is one of the best known se- bers and to promote closer economic cooperation be- questrants and chelating agents, controlling the tween EFTA and the rest of Western Europe. EFTA reaction of trace metals present in foods, and thus pro- membership expanded when Finland became an asso- viding a variety of functions in foods. Applications in- ciate member in 1961 and a full member in 1986. Ice- clude prevention of discoloration in canned corn, land and Liechtenstein joined the organization in 1970 avoidance of crystals formation in canned sea foods and 1991, respectively. However, with the growing and prevention of rancidity and microbial spoilage success of the EU in the 1970s and 1980s, many mem- in mayonnaise and fatty spreads. bers left EFTA to join the EU, and, in late 1993, the Edwardsiella Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod- only remaining EFTA countries were Norway, Liech- shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family En- tenstein, Iceland and Switzerland. By 1994, EFTA terobacteriaceae which occur in the intestines of states were concerned that the success of the EU could mammals, fish and reptiles. Edwardsiella tarda may affect their own economies negatively. The EFTA be an opportunistic pathogen in humans. Infection usu- states negotiated with the EU to establish a broader ally occurs through the ingestion of faecally- common market called the European Economic Area contaminated food or water, resulting in diarrhoea. (EEA). The EEA comprises all the members of the EU EEC Abbreviation for European Economic Com- and EFTA, with the exception of Switzerland, which munity. declined to join. The headquarters of EFTA are in Ge- neva, Switzerland. Eels General name used for a number of unrelated fish species belonging to the order Apodes and the family Egg nog Alcoholic beverage made using sweetened Anguillidae; characterized by elongate serpentine bod- milk, eggs and sherry and/or spirits, e.g. brandy ies lacking scales or pelvic fins. Most species are ma- or rum. rine (including moray, snipe and conger eels) or Egg pasta Pasta which contains eggs as an ingredi- have a marine phase. Species within the genus An- ent. guilla are particularly valued as food fish, including A. Egg plants Alternative term for aubergines. anguilla (European eel), A. rostrata (American eel) Egg powders Alternative term for dried eggs. and A. japonica (Japanese eel). Flesh tends to be firm, 146 Egg products Einkorn Egg products Products such as liquid egg yolks, noid xanthophylls (e.g. lutein, zeaxanthin, caro- meringues, omelettes and egg nog that are made tenes and cryptoxanthin) into the poultry diet. from eggs or contain eggs as a major constituent. Separated egg yolks may be used as emulsifiers in Egg proteins Proteins found in eggs, such as mayonnaise and salad dressings. ovalbumins, ovomucoid and conalbumin. Egusi Type of watermelon (Citrullus lanatus, C. vul- Eggs External reproductive structures produced by the garis or Colocynthis citrullus) cultivated mainly in females of certain animals, such as birds, reptiles and West Africa for its seeds. Dried seeds are rich in oils fish. The term is used without qualification usually to and represent a good source of group B vitamins. They refer to eggs laid by hens, although eggs produced by are commonly added to rice and legume based dishes, other birds, some reptiles (e.g. turtles) and fish (roes) or ground to make a meal. The meal is used as a are also eaten. Generally composed of egg yolks and thickener in soups and stews, also adding flavour egg whites surrounded by hard egg shells. Eaten and increasing protein contents, or used in preparation raw or cooked in a variety of ways, e.g. scrambled, of meat-like patties. fried, poached or boiled. Also incorporated into a range of foods and beverages, and can be used as Eicosanoids Compounds synthesized in the body thickeners, emulsifiers, binding agents and from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Exam- foaming agents. ples are leukotrienes, prostaglandins, prostacyclins and thromboxanes. Act as local hormones and medi- Egg shell membranes Two semi-permeable mem- ate of a wide range of physiological processes, includ- branes located on the inside of egg shells. One ing inflammation, wound healing and blood clotting. membrane adheres to the shell and the other surrounds In general, eicosanoids derived from -6 fatty acids the albumen. These biological membranes are Ȧ have pro-inflammatory effects, while those derived composed of thin layers of protein fibres and, with the from -3 fatty acids have anti-inflammatory ac- egg shell, help protect eggs against attack from bac- Ȧ tivity. teria. Egg shells Exterior hard coverings of eggs, which Eicosapentaenoic acid One of the Ȧ-3 or n-3 are composed mainly of calcium carbonate. Vary in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), with 20 car- colour according to breed and species of bird. Respon- bon atoms and 5 double bonds. The most important sible for permitting gaseous exchange, conserving wa- isomer is the (all-Z)-5,8,11,14,17-isomer, and rich ter, inhibiting microbial penetration and providing me- sources of this important dietary fatty acid include fish chanical protection. oils and marine algae. Suggested health benefits as- Eggs lysozymes Alternative term for egg whites sociated with eicosapentaenoic acid and its related n-3 lysozymes. PUFA docosahexaenoic acid include reduced risks of coronary heart diseases and cancer, and Egg whites Portions of eggs which surround the improved immune response and neural develop- egg yolks. Composed mainly of water and albu- ment in infants. mins. Form foams upon incorporation of air during whipping. Used in this form to make light products Eicosatetraenoic acid One of the Ȧ-3 or n-3 poly- such as meringues and sponge cakes. Also known unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), with 20 carbon as albumen. atoms and 4 double bonds. An important component of Egg whites lysozymes Lysozymes found in egg the human diet and a precursor of a range of physio- whites with good foaming properties and emulsi- logically active compounds such as prostaglandins. fication properties, particularly after modification Occurs in esterified form as a major component of or thermal processing. The antibacterial activ- membrane phospholipids. Intermediate in formation ity of these enzymes makes them useful for prevent- of eicosapentaenoic acid. ing spoilage in foods and beverages (e.g. in meat, Eicosenoic acid One of the monounsaturated dairy products and beer). Also potentially useful as fatty acids with 20 carbon atoms; the major isomers sweeteners along with other sweet proteins. Con- are the 9 (n-11) and 11 (n-9) forms. Found in a tribute to the allergenicity of egg whites. ǻ ǻ range of foods, including fish oils, peanuts, olives Egg yolks Portions of eggs which are surrounded by and Brassica seeds. the egg whites. Usually yellow in colour. Composed mainly of water, protein and fat. Colour may be en- Einkorn Species of wheat (Triticum boeoticum or T. hanced by incorporation of pigmented feeds (e.g. yel- monococcum) grown in arid regions as a livestock feed low corn, alfalfa meal, corn gluten meal, dried algae and one of the first cereals grown for food. Ancestor meal and marigold petal meal) which contain carote- of modern wheat varieties. 147 Eiswein Electrical stimulation Eiswein A German term for ice wines which is em- glycine residues and also contains high levels of ployed as a Praedikat designation in the quality classi- proline, alanine and valine. fication system for German wines. Elderberries Small purple-black berries produced Ekalux Alternative term for the insecticide qui- by the elder, Sambucus nigra, or American elder, S. nalphos. canadensis. Used in wines, fruit juices and other Elaeis Genus of oil palm, the most common species of beverages, and also in pies and jams. Rich in vita- which is Elaeis guineensis. Seeds are the source of oils min C. Contain high levels of anthocyanins, mak- similar to coconut oils that are used in manufacture ing them suitable for use in natural food colorants. of margarines, shortenings and cocoa butter Elderberry juices Juices extracted from elderber- substitutes. ries (Sambucus nigra). Elaeis oils Alternative term for palm oils. Elderflowers Flowers of the elder, Sambucus nigra, Elaidic acid The trans form of an unsaturated fatty or American elder, S. canadensis. Used to make acid, which in its cis form is oleic acid. Exists as a wines and cordials; also used in preserves, syr- combustible, white solid, which is insoluble in water, ups, sorbets, ice cream and fritters. but soluble in alcohol and ether. Hydrogenation of Electrical conductivity Ability of a substance to fats for use in margarines and cooking fats cre- transmit an electric current. One of the electrical ates trans fatty acids, including elaidic acid. Elaidic properties commonly determined in food analyses. It acid occurs in foods, including butter, margarines, can be used, for example, as an indicator of post mor- cereal products and snack foods. As with other tem changes in meat quality and to monitor the com- trans fatty acids, high levels of dietary elaidic acid position of food factories effluents. Electrical con- may have negative lipaemic activity. ductivity values that have been normalized to 25qC are Elands Large antelopes (Tragelaphus oryx or called specific conductivity values. Taurotragus oryx) found widely distributed in scrub, Electrical properties Generalized term for the grasslands and savannah woodland of southern Africa. physical properties of a food relating to its ability Hunted as game. Attempts have also been made to to conduct electricity. Includes capacitance, dielec- farm small herds in South Africa and Ukraine for their tric properties, conductivity/resistance and electro- meat and rich milk. Antelope meat is red, has a low static interactions. fat content, and is tender and juicy when cooked. Pot roasting is the favoured method of cooking eland Electrical resistance One of the electrical proper- meat, but it can also be used in place of beef in many ties commonly determined in food analyses, electrical dishes. resistance is a measure of the extent to which a material withstands passage of an electric current. Inversely Elastase Proteinases of the serine-endopeptidase related to electrical conductivity. Heat is generated class (EC 3.4.21.-) able to catalyse the hydrolysis of as a consequence of resistance and this characteristic is elastin, a protein of mammalian connective tissues. 3 exploited in some cooking or heating methods, an ex- mammalian elastase enzymes have been classified - ample being ohmic heating. pancreatic elastase (EC 3.4.21.36), leukocyte elastase (EC 3.4.21.37) and pancreatic elastase II (EC Electrical stimulation Controlled application of an 3.4.21.71), which differ in the nature of their preferred electrical current to animal carcasses immediately cleavage sites. Microorganisms also produce elas- after slaughter. It is used to increase meat tender- tase which may have potential use in meat tenderness, and also to give meat a lighter, brighter colour. ization. In particular, it is used to achieve accelerated conditioning (ageing) of animal carcasses, and to decrease Elasticity Rheological properties relating to the cold shortening and subsequent toughness, which ability of a substance to return to its original size and accompany very rapid chilling of meat. Electrical shape after being deformed. The deforming force is stimulation of carcasses breaks cross-linkages between known as a stress, and the resulting deformation is the actin and myosin filaments in the muscles, increases strain. A body is elastic only below a certain stress; enzyme activity and causes some tissue damage; all of above this point, known as the elastic limit, the body is these effects increase meat tenderness. It may consid- permanently deformed. The point at which the material erably improve the quality of beef, veal, lamb and begins to give is called the yield point. goat meat, but has negative or negligible effects on Elastin One of the animal proteins present in the quality of pork. Electrical stimulation is well es- mammalian connective tissues, and thus a compo- tablished in lamb slaughtering practice and has also nent in meat and meat products. Particularly rich in been widely used in deer slaughtering. 148 Electrical stunning Electron paramagnetic resonance Electrical stunning A form of stunning, which is the term refers to certain inorganic compounds, used during slaughter to immobilize animals and e.g. those containing sodium, potassium or cal- birds before bleeding. It is widely used during the cium, which dissociate into ions that conduct electri- slaughter of swine, sheep and poultry, but can also be cal currents and play an important role in controlling used effectively during cattle slaughter. Before con- body fluid balance. Electrolytes are a common con- sciousness returns, bleeding can be carried out hu- stituent of sports drinks. manely and effectively. As well as improving animal Electromagnetic fields Fields of force associated welfare during slaughter, the method has beneficial ef- with electric charge in motion, having both electric and fects on meat quality; for example, it reduces the inci- magnetic components and containing a definite amount dence of the PSE defect in pork. There are two basic of electromagnetic energy. The mutual interaction of types, namely high voltage and low voltage. Electrical electric and magnetic fields produces an electromag- stunners include: pillar types; electrically charged netic field, which is considered as having its own exis- knives; stunning tongs; and electrified water baths. tence in space apart from the charges or currents with Electric fields A region of space characterized by the which it may be related. Under certain circumstances, existence of a force generated by electric charge. The this electromagnetic field can be described as a wave magnitude of the electric field around an electric transporting electromagnetic energy. In the food indus- charge depends on how the charge is distributed in try, electromagnetic fields are utilized in dielectric space. Each point in space has an electric property as- heating. sociated with it, the magnitude and direction of which Electron beam irradiation Exposure of foods to a are expressed by the value of the electric field strength. field of electrons generated and accelerated by an elec- The value of the electric field has dimensions of tron beam linear accelerator. The electrons collide with force/unit charge. In the SI system, units are New- unwanted organisms within and on the surface of the tons/Coulomb, equivalent to Volts/Metre. food, and destroy them. Thus, bacteria, fungi, yeasts Electrocution To kill by electric shock. Electrocution and insects responsible for spoilage are controlled by may be used to slaughter chickens or fish. Some the irradiation process, and shelf life is extended. evidence indicates that, in comparison with electrical stunning, electrocution may reduce faecal loads on Electronic noses Apparatus, consisting of arrays of poultry carcasses under commercial slaughtering semiconductor metal sensors coated with polymers, conditions. Electrocution is also used as a method to used for characterization of aroma compounds. efficiently control insects and mites in food industry The polymers in the sensors adsorb volatile com- premises. pounds from aromas, vapours and gases. Each polymer adsorbs a different combination of ingredients, so Electrodes Conductors through which current is ap- that conductivity changes and variations may be proc- plied to or extracted from an electric circuit or system. essed electronically to produce visual fingerprints. Usually made of metal. Used as integral parts of instruments employed in detection of sample compo- Electronic tongues Apparatus, consisting of arrays nents. of lipid/polymer membrane based sensors, which can Electrodialysis Technique in which dialysis is ac- quantify the taste of substances such as amino acid celerated by application of a potential across the com- mixtures, foods and beverages. The lipid/polymer partments of the apparatus. membranes are fitted onto a multichannel electrode, and electric signals from the sensors are fed into a Electrolysed water Salted water which has been computer; voltage differences between the multichan- passed through an oxidizing unit, causing it to undergo nel electrode and a reference electrode are measured. ionic changes. Depending on which electrode the water Output from the sensors varies for chemical substances is passed over, either acidic or alkaline electrolysed with different taste qualities but is similar for sub- water is formed. Acidic water is lethal to foodborne stances with similar tastes. The sensor array detects the microorganisms and is considered more efficient five types of taste quality, i.e. sourness, saltiness, for washing food, especially fruits and vegetables, bitterness, sweetness and umami. during preparation than using chlorine-containing solutions or, in some cases, heat treatment. Its use has little Electron microscopy Microscopy technique effect on food sensory properties. Alkaline water is which utilizes extremely short wave radiation from useful as a sanitizer, as it functions like a soap to re- electrons in a vacuum tube to give high resolution. move substances from food preparation surfaces. Commonly abbreviated to EM. Electrolytes Liquid or solid compounds which, when Electron paramagnetic resonance Spectros- dissolved in or in contact with water, will dissociate copy technique for studying the structure and bonding into ions and conduct electricity. In physiological use, of a paramagnetic substance based on microwave- 149 Electron spin resonance EM induced transitions between the energy levels of un- Elicitation Use of a stimulus to induce a response. paired electrons. Synonym for electron spin resonance. Used particularly in plant biochemistry in experiments where plants or a plant cell culture are pro- Electron spin resonance Alternative term for elec- vided with a chemical stimulus or subjected to stress tron paramagnetic resonance. and the biochemical effects of the stimulus, e.g. Electrophoresis Technique in which charged electri- changes in phytochemicals content or composition cal species are separated by migration in an electrolyte may be measured. through which a current is passed, with cations moving ELISA Abbreviation for enzyme linked immunosorbent towards the cathode and anions to the anode. Separated assay, a very sensitive immunological technique which species are identified by staining or radioactive label- can be used to detect and measure the presence of an- ling. Usually conducted on paper or in a gel (gel elec- tigens or antibodies in a wide variety of biological trophoresis), although faster methods using capillary samples. In the assay, protein antigens or antibodies columns (capillary electrophoresis) have been de- are labelled with enzymes, after which one of the re- veloped that have other advantages, such as the possi- actants is immobilized onto a support material. As bility of on-line detection of separated species. soon as the immunochemical reaction has taken place, Electroporation Method for transformation of DNA unbound substances are washed out and the bound ma- into host cells in which high voltage pulses of electric- terial is quantified by measuring the activity of the en- ity are used transiently to permeabilize cell mem- zyme by spectroscopy. The immobilization is pref- branes. erentially performed in the wells of polyvinylchloride or polystyrene microtitre plates, and the colour form- Electrospray ionization MS Type of MS that can ing enzymes used are normally peroxidases, alka- directly analyse liquid samples. The electrospray ioni- line phosphatases or glucose oxidases. zation unit converts a solution, comprising analyte(s) Elk meat Meat from elks. Forequarter to hindquarter and solvent, to an aerosol of charged droplets via pas- ratio in elk carcasses is similar to that for beef cattle sage through a charged, fine-bored capillary. The sol- carcasses. Elk carcasses include a high percentage of vent is subsequently removed through evaporation, lean and a low percentage of fat. Amino acid composi- aided by addition of N gas and heat, and/or Coulomb 2 tion is similar to that of beef; however, the physico- fission. Single particles of charged analyte(s) remain, chemical properties of elk meat are generally infe- are separated according to their mass to charge (m/z) ratio and detected using a mass analyser. Particularly rior to those of beef. Compared with elk bull meat, elk cow meat requires less ageing (conditioning) to attain used in LC-MS applications since LC uses a liquid acceptable tenderness. mobile phase. Widely used for determination of the mass of biopolymers, for food compositional analy- Elks Large northern deer (Alces alces) belonging to the ses, and detection of drugs and pesticides. Com- Cervidae family. Wild elks are hunted for their meat. monly abbreviated to ESI-MS. In some countries, e.g. the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, elks have been domesticated and are used to Elements Fundamental chemical units of which all produce elk meat and elk milk. Elk meat is some- matter is composed. Cannot be broken down into sim- times referred to as venison. In popular use, the term pler substances by ordinary chemical means. For a is also used to describe North American moose. given element, all atoms have the same number of pro- Ellagic acid Phenolic organic acid, which in pure tons and electrons; however, atomic weight may differ form exists as yellow crystals. Only very slightly solu- because the number of neutrons in the nucleus differs ble in water and alcohol. Can be isolated from tan- between isotopes. nins in plant materials, e.g. oak galls, tea and some Eleostearic acid One of the unsaturated fatty fruits and nuts. Occurs also in wood aged alcoholic acids, this C18, crystalline compound has 3 double beverages. In vitro, it shows antioxidative activ- bonds at C9, 11 and 13. Isomeric with linolenic acid ity, whilst in animal studies, it has antitumour activ- and can be converted to CLA. Found in some seed oils ity and anticarcinogenicity. and accounts for approximately 60% of the oil from Ellagitannins Naturally occurring water-soluble tan- bitter gourds. Also known as Į-eleostearic acid. nins found in many plant foods (including grapes, Elephant yams Plants of the genus Amorphophallus raspberries, strawberries, blackberries, blue- grown for their edible roots. Roots of A. rivieri or A. berries and some nuts) and in oak-aged red wines. konjac, also known as konjac, konjaku or konnyaku, Anticarcinogenicity of ellagitannins, and their me- are the source of konjac glucomannans which are tabolite ellagic acid has been shown along with in- used as a gum. A. campanulatus is the Asian elephant duction of apoptosis in some cancer cells. yam. EM Abbreviation for electron microscopy. 150 Emamectin Endives Emamectin Insecticide belonging to the avermec- Emu meat Meat from emus. Emus have a lower tins group used to control a range of insects includ- percentage of hot carcass weight and total fat to body ing mites, leaf miners, aphids, moths and bees. weight, but a higher proportion of lean meat to carcass Also used as a parasiticide, effective against sea lice in weight than ostriches or rheas. The meat is generally fish. taken from the underbelly and thighs as there is not Emmental cheese Swiss hard cheese made from much meat on the breast. Meat cuts commonly pre- unpasteurized cow milk. A difficult cheese to produce pared from emu carcasses include the side, fore- due to intricacies of the fermentation process re- quarter, strip loin, neck, hindquarter, thigh, drum, fore quired to form the characteristic walnut-sized holes. saddle and hind saddle. Fat content of emu meat is low Emmer Species of awned wheat (Triticum dicoccon) and colour is an intense red (pigment content increases that exhibits good breadmaking properties. Also with increasing age). Collagen content, colour and known as farro in Italy, where the whole grain is used tenderness vary between muscles; some muscles are in soups. sufficiently tender for roasting or grilling. Emodin Naturally occurring anthraquinone present in Emus Large, flightless, swift-running Australian birds the roots and bark of numerous plants of the genus (Dromaius novaehollandiae), which are farmed for the Rhamnus. Extracts from the roots, bark, and/or dried production of emu meat, emu eggs, feathers, hides leaves of some of these plants, e.g. buckthorn, senna, and emu oils. cascara, aloe, frangula and rhubarb, are widely used Enamels Semi-transparent or opaque ceramics sub- in the preparation of herbal laxative preparations. stances applied as protective or decorative coatings Emu eggs Eggs produced by emus. Consist of ap- to the surface of metals, pottery or glass. Often applied proximately 11.9% protein and 16.0% lipids, and have to the surfaces of food containers, e.g. cans and a mean weight of 610 g. Egg shells are dark green in cooking pots. Enamelled objects that come into contact colour. with food or beverages may release lead or cadmium, Emulsification Process for forming fine dispersions posing a health risk. Also used to describe paints or (emulsions) of minute droplets of one liquid in an- varnishes which become smooth and hard when dried. other in which it does not dissolve or form a homoge- Enantiomers Stereoisomers of a compound which neous mixture. are mirror images of each other. The left- and right- Emulsification properties Functional properties handed forms of these chiral isomers are optically ac- relating to the ability of food components to form tive and generate a racemate when mixed in equal pro- emulsions, suspensions of small globules of one liq- portions. Chirality may affect the biological activity uid in a second liquid with which it will not mix. and functional properties of the compound; for example, D-amino acids but not L-amino acids are use- Emulsifiers Substances which aid the uniform disper- ful as sweeteners. sal (emulsification) of one immiscible liquid in another and thereby help in formation of emulsions. Enantioselectivity Preferential formation of one Widely used in the food industry, where applications enantiomer over another in a chemical reaction, ex- include manufacture of bakery products, confec- pressed quantitatively as enantiomer excess. Enanti- tionery, ice cream, mayonnaise and marga- omers formed may affect the biological activity rines. Types of emulsifiers used in foods include car- and functional properties of the product, e.g. D- rageenans, lecithins and glycerides. amino acids but not L-amino acids are useful as sweeteners. Emulsifying agents Alternative term for emulsifiers. Encapsulation A technology that allows sensitive ingredients to be physically enveloped in a protective Emulsifying capacity Functional properties matrix or wall material in order to protect these ingre- relating to the extent to which food components can dients or core materials from adverse reactions, loss of form emulsions. volatile compounds, or nutritional deterioration. Emulsions Types of colloids or dispersions com- Spray drying is a microencapsulation technique posed of a mixture of immiscible liquids in which one readily used in the food industry. Carbohydrates, forms droplets suspended in the other. Processed such as maltodextrins, starch and corn syrup sol- foods based upon emulsions include sauces, salad ids, and acacia gums are widely used examples of en- dressings, soups, spreads, coatings, mayon- capsulating agents. naise, sausages and some dairy products. Emul- Endives Common name for Cichorium endivia. sions display variable stability, and most require the Leaves are used fresh in salads or blanched to reduce addition of emulsifiers to maintain emulsion struc- bitterness. Common form used is the curled endive; ture. other type is the escarole group, which has broad flat 151 Endocrine disrupters Endrin leaves. May have red pigmentation. Similar nutrition- and RNA. Includes restriction endonucleases and ally to lettuces. homing endonucleases. Endocrine disrupters Exogenous chemicals, both Endopeptidases EC 3.4.21-EC 3.4.25 and EC natural and synthetic, that interfere with the function of 3.4.99. Proteinases that hydrolyse proteins by cleav- the endocrine system. These substances may dis- ing specific peptide bonds within protein molecules. rupt the production, release, transport, metabolism, These enzymes are classified on the basis of their cata- binding, action or elimination of natural hormones in lytic mechanism and can be serine (EC 3.4.21), cys- the body that are responsible for the regulation of teine (EC 3.4.22), aspartic (EC 3.4.23) metalloen- many physiological activities. Known human endo- dopeptidases (EC 3.4.24) or threonine endopeptidases crine disruptors include contaminants such as (EC 3.4.25). Examples include chymotrypsin, elas- bisphenol A, dioxins, polychlorinated biphen- tase, pepsins, thermolysins and trypsin. These yls, DDT and some other pesticides. Naturally oc- enzymes have numerous applications in food process- curring phytoestrogens present in some plant ing. foods (e.g. isoflavones in soybeans) also have the Endopolygalacturonases Alternative term for po- potential to act as endocrine disruptors due to their lygalacturonases. oestrogenic activity. Endosulfan Non-systemic organochlorine insecticide Endocrine system A complex system of the body and acaricide used to control a variety of sucking, comprised of specialized glands that release carefully- chewing and boring insects and mites on a wide monitored amounts of a wide variety of hormones range of crops. Classified by WHO as moderately into the bloodstream where they are transported to tar- hazardous (WHO II). Also known as thiodan. get cells having hormone-specific receptors. These Endothia Genus of fungi of the family Cryphonectri- hormones act as chemical messengers controlling and aceae. Part of the Cryphonectria-Endothia complex. coordinating many physiological functions. Endocrine Endotoxins Lipopolysaccharide toxins of Gram glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, negative bacteria, or any microbial toxins which are adrenals, pancreas, ovaries and testes. Chemicals re- released only upon cell lysis. ferred to as endocrine disrupters, which may be Endo-1,3-ȕ-xylanases Alternative term for xylan contaminants of foods, are known to interfere with endo-1,3-ȕ-xylosidases. the endocrine system, disrupting the normal physio- Endo-1,4-ȕ-xylanases EC 3.2.1.8. Glycosidases logical activity of hormones. that catalyse the endohydrolysis of 1,4-ȕ-D-xylosidic Endo-1,3(4)-ȕ-glucanases EC 3.2.1.6. Glycosi- linkages in xylans, yielding xylose and xylooligo- dases that hydrolyse the 1,3- and 1,4-ȕ-D-glucosidic saccharides. Produced by a number of bacteria and bonds in ȕ-glucans, which are typically found in fungi, these enzymes can be used for improving the oats, barley, some fruits and certain microorgan- handling and stability of dough, degradation of ligno- isms. Also known as laminarinases, these enzymes cellulosic materials and production of novel oligo- are useful in the brewing industry where ȕ-glucans can saccharides. cause difficulties during clarification of worts and Endpoint temp. Temperature to which a food prod- filtration of beer. Also useful in the winemaking uct, particularly meat, needs to be heated to ensure industry where Botrytis contamination is a problem. destruction of pathogens. Endomyces Genus of fungi of the family Endomyce- Endpoint temp. indicators Indicators showing the taceae. Occur in soil and plant debris. Some species are adequacy of heating of foods, particularly meat and plant pathogens. Endomyces fibuliger may be respon- meat products, in relation to destruction of patho- sible for the spoilage of bread and other bakery gens. The bovine catalase test and tests based on pro- products, and is also used in the commercial produc- tein solubility, enzymes activity, colour, electro- tion of ȕ-glucosidases. phoresis patterns of proteins, differential scan- Endomycopsis Obsolete name for a fungal genus ning calorimetry (DSC) of muscle proteins, near in- whose species have been reclassified into other genera, frared spectroscopy (NIR spectroscopy) and en- including Hyphopichia, Trichosporon and Guiller- zyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) can be mondella. used for this purpose. Endrin Persistent organochlorine insecticide used to Endonucleases EC 3.1.21-EC 3.1.31. Nucleases control a wide range of insects. Subject to the Stock- that cleave nucleic acids at positions within their holm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and chains, producing poly- or oligo-nucleotides. Most use on crops has generally been displaced by less per- act specifically on either DNA or RNA, while some sistent insecticides. (e.g. Aspergillus nuclease S1) can act on both DNA 152 Energy conservation Enterocins Energy conservation Planned management of en- transports them underneath a flow of chocolate. Below ergy supplies by various means. One type of energy the belt is a bottoming trough that retains the chocolate conservation is curtailment (doing without). A second that falls through the chain belt and recirculates it, type is overhaul (for example, using less energy- forming a layer of chocolate on the undersides of the intensive materials in production processes, and de- centres. Sometimes two chocolate streams are used in creasing the amount of energy consumed by certain enrobers; this is particularly useful when the product to products). Another type involves the more efficient use be enrobed has an uneven surface. The first coating of energy and adjusting to higher energy costs (for ex- flows into all the crevices and provides a good mois- ample, capturing waste heat in factories and reusing it). ture barrier to the product. The second coating gives Energy density The amount of energy per unit of the chocolate a more rugged appearance. Products fi- weight or volume. In nutrition terms, it relates to the nally pass through a cooling tunnel to set the choco- number of calories contained in a given amount of late. food. Excess consumption of energy dense foods is a Enrofloxacin Broad-spectrum semisynthetic fluoro- risk factor for overweight and obesity. Low energy quinolone antibiotic used to treat local and systemic density foods, such as fruits and vegetables, form a infections in animals and poultry. Active against a large part of many weight loss diets. wide range of Gram negative bacteria and also Energy drinks Soft drinks containing ingredients some Gram positive bacteria. Metabolized in the intended to enhance or maintain the physical energy of liver, the main product being ciprofloxacin, which is the consumer. Commonly include high levels of detected along with the parent compound in tissues, sugar and caffeine, and may also contain ingredients milk and eggs of treated animals and poultry. Resi- such as guarana, taurine, ginseng, vitamins, dues persist longest in poultry skin, and livers and carnitine, creatine and Ginkgo biloba. kidneys of animals and birds. Energy foods Health foods designed for people, Entamoeba Genus of protozoan parasites of the fam- such as sportsmen and sportswomen, requiring a ily Entamoebidae. Infects humans and other verte- source of high energy. Energy foods are frequently brates. Entamoeba histolytica may be responsible for available in the form of carbohydrate-rich energy food amoebiasis. bars. Energy drinks and isotonic drinks are Enteric viruses Viruses that live in the gastroin- popular for the same purpose. testinal tract. Human enteric viruses may exist as Energy values Alternative term for calorific val- commensals or may be pathogens which can cause ues. gastroenteritis (particularly members of the families Adenoviridae, Astroviridae, Caliciviridae and Reoviri- English muffins Thick, round bread products which dae). Usually transmitted via the faecal-oral route. are rapidly fermented using yeasts and are well aer- Enterobacter Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod- ated. Baked on a hot plate or griddle and often split shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family En- and toasted before being eaten, sometimes with sweet terobacteriaceae. Occur in soil, water, gastrointes- or savoury fillings, such as jams, bacon or cheese. tinal tracts of humans and animals, and foods (e.g. Enniatins Like beauvericin, these are cyclohexa- dairy products, raw shellfish and raw vegeta- depsipeptide mycotoxins produced by certain Fusa- bles). Some species may cause opportunistic infec- rium spp. Their potential presence as contaminants tions in humans (e.g. Enterobacter cloacae). of Fusarium-infected cereals has food safety impli- Enterobacteria Bacteria of the family Enterobac- cations. teriaceae. Enokitake Alternative term for the edible fungi Enterobacteriaceae Family of facultatively anaero- Flammulina velutipes. bic, rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria of the or- Enrichment Improvement of the quality or nutritional der Enterobacteriales. Members occur in soil, water, value of a food, usually by addition of nutrients. plants and the gastrointestinal tract of humans and Enrichment techniques Procedures which specifi- animals. May occur as pathogens in vertebrates (e.g. cally promote the growth of a particular microorgan- species of Escherichia, Edwardsiella, Klebsiella, ism, thereby increasing its proportion in a mixed popu- Citrobacter, Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia, lation. Providencia and Enterobacter) or as food spoil- Enrobing Coating of a centre material, for example age bacteria (e.g. species of Hafnia, Serratia, Pro- nougat, biscuits, fondants or caramel, in teus and Erwinia). chocolate. It is necessary to use tempered chocolate Enterocins Bacteriocins produced by Enterococ- for enrobing processes. The centres for coating are cus spp. placed on a continuous moving wire chain belt, which 153 Enterococci Epicatechin gallate Enterococci Term which can be used in two ways. It Enzyme electrodes Type of ion selective elec- is used to refer to members of the bacterial genus En- trodes in which the electrodes are coated with a layer terococcus. Alternatively, it can be used loosely containing an enzyme that reacts with the analyte to with reference to any streptococcal bacteria found in form a product to which the electrodes respond. Com- the human gastrointestinal tract, including species monly used examples include glucose sensitive elec- of Enterococcus and Streptococcus. trodes, which are coated with glucose oxidases. Enterococcus Genus of Gram positive, facultatively Enzyme immunoassay Immunoassay (often anaerobic, coccoid lactic acid bacteria of the family abbreviated to EIA) in which antibodies used to bind Enterococcaceae. Occur in the gastrointestinal tracts of to the antigens to be measured are attached to an en- humans and animals. Enterococcus faecalis may be an zyme as a marker. Antibody-antigen complexes opportunisitc pathogen in humans. formed are measured on the basis of catalytic activity Enterotoxicity Quality or degree of being capable of of the enzyme. ELISA is a type of enzyme immunoas- exerting a toxic effect on the gastrointestinal tract. say. Enterotoxins Bacterial toxins (e.g. cholera toxin) Enzyme inhibitors Substances which reduce the which, upon ingestion or production by microorgan- activity of enzymes and, when present in foods, may isms within the gastrointestinal tract, cause dis- act as antinutritional factors. Certain proteinases turbances of the gastrointestinal tract. Diarrhoea is a inhibitors such as calpastatins and cystatins play common symptom. a role in development of meat tenderness and also may be useful for maintaining the quality of fish and Enteroviruses Viruses of the genus Enterovirus surimi by inhibiting proteolysis. However, trypsin (e.g. coxsackieviruses, polioviruses and echo- inhibitors and chymotrypsin inhibitors present in viruses) which may be pathogenic in humans. Com- plant foods, particularly legumes, can reduce the di- monly transmitted via contaminated food and water. gestibility and nutritional values of these foods. Enthalpy Measure of energy (heat) commonly used to Enzymes Proteins that act as highly efficient and study the thermodynamics of chemical reactions. specific biological catalysts. Increase the rate of re- Changes in the structure of food macromolecules, such actions by decreasing the activation energy but do as denaturation, gelatinization and crystalliza- not alter the equilibrium constant. Divided into six tion, are often associated with changes in enthalpy. main groups: oxidoreductases, transferases, hy- Entoleters Machines used in disinfestation of ce- drolases, lyases, isomerases and ligases. En- reals and other foods. Food is fed to the centre of a zymes are named by the Nomenclature Committee of high-speed rotating disc which bears studs. The impact the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular of the food being thrown against the studs kills in- Biology (NC-IUBMB) and all enzymes can be recog- sects and destroys their eggs. nized by their recommended names and Enzyme Entrees In Europe, a term applied to dishes served Commission (EC) numbers. before the meat (main) course. In the USA, the term is Enzymic browning Formation of brown coloration of usually applied to main meals. cut fruits and vegetables due to the action of cate- Entropy One of the thermodynamic properties chol oxidases (polyphenol oxidases). In the pres- that measures disorder in a system. High entropy levels ence of oxygen, the enzymes break phenols down indicate disordered states. into quinones, which polymerize to form brown col- Environmental protection Ecology term describ- oured melanins. ing measures taken to limit the impact to the environ- Enzymic techniques Analytical techniques in ment of human activities. Examples within the food which enzyme reactions form a major part. industry include bioremediation processes which Epicatechin One of the catechols found in green decrease the chemical and biological value of efflu- tea and black tea. Present in lower amounts than ents and other wastes released into the environment, epigallocatechin. Also found in other plant sources. and the use of readily degradable packaging mate- Displays antioxidative activity and, along with rials. other catechols, is associated with the health benefits Environment friendly packaging materials Ma- attributed to green tea consumption, e.g. anticar- terials developed for packaging of products including cinogenicity and antimutagenicity. foods and beverages, with special consideration given Epicatechin gallate One of the catechols found in to biodegradability and recycling. green tea and black tea. Present in lower amounts Environment friendly processes Processing than epigallocatechin gallate. Also found in other procedures that are not harmful to the environment. plant sources. Displays antioxidative activity and, 154 Epichlorohydrin Erucic acid along with other catechols, is associated with the Epoxides Organic compounds containing a cyclic health benefits attributed to green tea consumption, ether (epoxy) substituent comprising an oxygen atom e.g. anticarcinogenicity and antimutagenicity. directly attached via single covalent bonds to two car- Epichlorohydrin This organochlorine epoxide is a bon atoms, which may be adjacent or non-adjacent and colourless, water-insoluble liquid which is used to cyclic or linear. A number of plastics used in food make plastics, including packaging materials and packaging materials contain an epoxide group. other food contact materials. Due to its carcino- Epuration Form of purification. Sometimes applied genicity, levels are regulated to limit migration into to processing of water, fruit juices and cane sugar foods. Also used as a cross-linking agent in immo- juices. bilization of enzymes and other biopolymers and Equol One of the isoflavones, this non-steroidal in insect fumigants. phytoestrogen is a metabolite of daidzein produced Epidemiology Study of the incidence, distribution by intestinal bacteria upon consumption of soy and causative factors of diseases that are associated products. May have a variety of health benefits in- with a particular environment or way of life, and of cluding reducing the incidence of prostate cancer their control and prevention. Epidemiology is funda- and physiological changes following the menopause. mental to preventive medicine and public health. Eremothecium Genus of fungi of the family Sac- Epidermal growth factors Polypeptide hormones charomycetaceae. Eremothecium ashbyii is used in the which stimulate and sustain epidermal cell prolifera- commercial production of riboflavin. tion. Synthesized by several glands and organs in the Ergocalciferol Synonym for calciferol and vitamin human body. Have numerous beneficial physiological D ; one of the group of sterols which constitute vi- effects on the intestinal mucosa and marked effects on 2 tamin D. Synthesized by irradiation of the plant epithelial turnover and microvillous ultrastructure. provitamin ergosterol. Alternative recommended Epidermal growth factors present in human milk af- name is ercalciol. fect gastrointestinal tract development in infants. In vitro and animal studies indicate a role in protection Ergosterol Sterol which occurs naturally in algae, of the gastrointestinal tract against colonization with bacteria, fungi, yeasts, higher plants and animals. pathogenic bacteria, but epidermal growth factor and When exposed to UV radiation it is converted into its receptors are also involved in many aspects of the vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol), a potent antirachitic development of carcinomas. substance. Used in synthesis of oestradiol. Epidermin One of the lantibiotics group of polypep- Ergot Ascomycetous fungi (Claviceps purpurea of the tide antibiotics. Epidermin is synthesized by family Clavicipitaceae) that attack mainly rye, but also Staphylococcus epidermidis and displays inhibitory other cereals, replacing one or more of the kernels in activity towards many Gram positive bacteria. the mature grain head with a mass called a sclerotium. Epigallocatechin One of the major catechols found Sclerotia contain several toxic alkaloids, one of in green tea and black tea. Also found in other which is ergotamine. As well as reducing crop plant sources. Displays antioxidative activity and, yields, ergot contamination is a health hazard for man along with other catechols, is associated with the and animals. Ergotism affects humans and animals that health benefits attributed to green tea consumption, have ingested foods containing ergot alkaloids. e.g. anticarcinogenicity and antimutagenicity. Ergotamine One of the alkaloids produced by the Epigallocatechin gallate Member of the cate- ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea, which attacks ce- chols, and a characteristic component of green tea reals, predominantly rye. Also a secondary metabo- and black tea. Also found in seaweeds and other lite of some strains of Penicillium, Aspergillus and plant foods. Has antioxidative activity and, along Rhizopus. Can cause poisoning (ergotism) if con- with other catechols, is associated with several health taminated grain is used for food, but modern grain benefits attributed to green tea consumption. cleaning and milling procedures remove most of the Epimerases Isomerases that include members of ergot, leaving low levels of ergotamine in flour. Bak- EC 5.1. Catalyse the reversible conversion of an ing and cooking usually cause destruction of remain- epimer into its counterpart form. Can act on amino ing alkaloid. Ergotamine is commonly used, in combi- acids, hydroxy acids, carbohydrates and deriva- nation with caffeine, for treatment of migraine. tives of these compounds. Useful for preparation of Erucic acid Monounsaturated fatty acid, which exists rare sugars, and for altering the physical and immu- as a combustible solid with low toxicity. Insoluble in nological properties of polymers such as alginates. water, but soluble in alcohol and ether. Occurs natu- Epinephrine Alternative term for adrenaline. rally as a minor component of many plant seeds and is obtained from plant seed oils, particularly hydrogen- 155 Erwinia Esterification ated mustard seed oils and rapeseed oils. Uses terobacteriaceae. Most are motile by peritrichous include manufacture of waxes, plasticizers, water- flagella. Escherichia colonize the gastrointestinal resistant nylon and stabilizers and as an additive in tract of humans and animals, and may be present in polyethylene films. Alternative term for soil and water (as a result of faecal contamination). docosenoic acid. Most are opportunistic normal flora, but some are po- Erwinia Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped tent pathogens. Virulent strains of Escherichia coli Gram negative bacteria of the family Enterobac- can cause gastroenteritis, and are transmitted to teriaceae. Occur on plants. Species (e.g. Erwinia humans via contaminated food or water. Transmission amylovora and E. carotovora) may be responsible for often occurs via the faecal-oral route. Serotype plant diseases (dry necroses, vascular wilts and soft O157:H7 can cause serious food poisoning. Four rots) and storage rots of fruits and vegetables (e.g. general categories of pathogenic Escherichia coli are potatoes and carrots). recognized: enterotoxigenic (ETEC); enteroinvasive (EIEC); enteropathogenic (EPEC); and enterohaemor- Erysipelothrix Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod- rhagic (EHEC). Food products associated with E. coli shaped Gram positive bacteria of the Erysipelotri- outbreaks include raw beef mince, raw seed chaceae family. Widely distributed in nature, and occur sprouts, spinach, raw milk and unpasteurized fruit as parasites in humans, mammals, birds and fish. juices. The ability of E. coli to survive for short peri- Infection with Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae in humans ods outside the body makes them ideal indicator organ- is rare, and usually occurs through the handling of con- isms for detection of faecal contamination in environ- taminated fish and meat, resulting in the occupation- mental samples, including water. Escherichia is con- ally related infection called erysipeloid. sidered a very versatile host for production of het- Erythorbic acid Alternative term for the antioxidant erologous proteins in biotechnology applications. isoascorbic acid. Esculetin Metabolite of coumarin found in a range Erythritol Tetrahydric polyol with approximately 70% of plants. Displays a variety of properties including of the sweetness of sucrose, but which is non- anticarcinogenicity, antioxidative activity and cariogenic and low in calories. Used in bulk sweet- inhibition of lipoxygenases. Also known as 6,7- eners for foods and beverages, and is a common dihydroxycoumarin. component in hard coatings for sugar confection- Espresso coffee Coffee beverages made by a ery. Produced during fermentation of glucose by process based on steam extraction of ground coffee microorganisms, including Candida spp., and is in a special apparatus. Usually very dark in colour found in fermented foods and beverages including and strong. wines and sake. Soluble in water, but only slightly soluble in alcohol. Has low hygroscopicity, high endo- Essences Extracts which contain at least 1 constitu- thermic reaction and easy crystallization. Also ent that defines the quality of the source material, par- known as erythrol. ticularly in terms of flavour. Extracts may be of natural origin (e.g. essential oils) or may be synthetic. Erythrocytes Blood cells containing the pigment Essential oils Volatile aromatic oils of complex haemoglobin which is responsible for carrying oxy- composition extracted from plant material, usually by gen from the lungs to the tissues and for transporting distillation, although supercritical CO extraction and carbon dioxide back to the lungs. In anaemia, the size 2 cold pressing may also be used. Widely used as fla- or number of erythrocytes and/or the quantity of hae- vourings, either by adding their characteristic fla- moglobin are reduced. Also known as red blood cells. vour to an end product or in the creation of natural Erythromycin Macrolide antibiotic used to treat bac- flavouring blends. Some of the most widely used es- terial infections (particularly those caused by staphylo- sential oils are citrus essential oils, peppermint cocci) in cattle, swine, sheep and poultry. Readily essential oils and cinnamon oils. disperses throughout tissues. Residues remain for rela- Esterases EC 3.1. Enzymes that hydrolyse esters tively long periods of time after administration. forming acids, alcohols or thiols. Sub-divided into Erythrosine Artificial red colorant used for colouring carboxylic ester hydrolases, thioester hydrolases, cherries, meat products, candy and confec- phosphoric monoester, diester and triester hydrolases, tionery. Also known as FDC red 3. triphosphoric monoester hydrolases, diphosphoric Escarole Group of cultivars of endives with broad, monoester hydrolases and sulfuric ester hydrolases. flat leaves that may have red pigmentation due to the These subgroups include phosphatases, lipases, presence of anthocyanins. exonucleases and endonucleases. Escherichia Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod- Esterification The reversible process by which acids shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family En- and alcohols react to form esters. Can be catalysed 156 Esters Ethyl carbamate enzymically by esterases. Includes transesterifi- and other applications. For example, hydroxypropy- cation, interesterification, acidolysis and alco- lation of starch with propylene oxide disrupts inter- holysis reactions. Employed in the modification of and intra-molecular H bonds, weakening the granular fats and oils, and in the synthesis of structured lip- structure and improving the solubility and reconstitu- ids and flavour compounds. tion properties of formulated products. Carboxymethy- Esters Organic compounds which are formed by com- lated food polysaccharides (e.g. carboxymethyl- bination of an acid with an alcohol. Some esters have a cellulose) can be generated by etherification with pleasant, generally fruity, aroma and occur in plant chloroacetic acid. Can be combined with cross- essential oils. Uses vary widely according to type of linking to improve stability during processing and ester, but include synthesis of flavourings and per- storage. fumes. Ethion Non-systemic organophosphorus acaricide and Estragole Phenol (1-allyl-4-methoxybenzene) which insecticide used to control a range of pests (especially occurs widely in essential oils of herbs and mites and aphids) on crops. Classified by WHO as spices. Used in flavourings for a wide range of moderately hazardous (WHO II). foods, and displays antioxidative activity. Con- Ethiopian mustard Common name for Brassica cerns exist over possible hepatotoxicity and car- carinata. Eaten as a green leafy vegetable in Africa. Its cinogenicity associated with chronic consumption. potential as an oilseed crop is decreased by the high Also known as methylchavicol. levels of glucosinolates in the seeds and of eru- Ethanal Aldehyde (systematic name for acetalde- cic acid in the oil. hyde) which in pure form exists as a volatile, colour- Ethnic foods Foods belonging to the traditional cui- less liquid with a pungent, fruity aroma. Produced by sine of other ethnic groups. For example, Chinese, In- oxidation of ethanol and soluble in water and alcohol. dian and Mexican foods are all popular ethnic foods in Fruits and vegetables produce ethanal during rip- the UK and USA. There is an increasing tendency for ening. It is also produced during fermentation, and consumers to try foods from other countries as cultural is present in foods such as fermented dairy prod- diversity increases. This is reflected in the continuing ucts and alcoholic beverages. Used in food fla- increase in international sales of ethnic foods, includ- vourings and in the manufacture of acetic acid. ing ethnic ready meals, flavourings and take Also known as acetic aldehyde. away foods. Ethanol Alcohol which constitutes a major compo- Ethoxyquin Used as an antioxidant to prevent pig- nent of alcoholic beverages. Formed by fermen- ment discoloration in paprika and chilli powder. tation of sugars by yeasts. Synonym for alcohol. Also used as a herbicide and to prevent superficial scald in fruits. Alternative term for santoquin. Ethanolamine Amine which in pure form exists as a colourless, combustible, hygroscopic liquid with an Ethrel Alternative term for ethephon. aroma of ammonia. A member of the biogenic Ethyl acetate Ester which in pure form exists as a amines group, which occurs in various foods, includ- flammable, colourless, volatile liquid with a fruity ing wines and cheese. Synonym for aminoethanol. aroma. Slightly soluble in water and soluble in alco- Ethanolic fermentation The process by which cer- hol. Used as a solvent, and in flavourings and per- tain yeasts, fungi and bacteria metabolize sugars fumes. anaerobically to produce ethanol. In this process, Ethyl alcohol Alternative term for ethanol. glucose is converted to pyruvic acid, which is de- Ethylamine Amine which in pure form exists as carboxylated to acetaldehyde. The acetaldehyde is flammable, colourless, volatile liquid with a strong subsequently reduced to ethanol. Synonymous with aroma of ammonia. Soluble in water and alcohol. alcoholic fermentation. Ethyl butyrate Ester which in pure form exists as a Ethephon White, solid plant growth regulator which flammable, colourless liquid with a pineapple-like is highly soluble in water. By promoting the release of aroma. Virtually insoluble in water, but soluble in al- ethylene, it promotes the flowering of plants and cohol. Occurs as one of the flavour compounds in increases the rate of ripening. Uses include as a flow- many fruits, e.g. apples. Used in flavourings and ering agent in pineapples and as a ripening agent in perfumes. sugar cane. Also known as chloroethylphosphonic Ethyl caproate Synonym for ethyl hexanoate. acid, (2-chloroethyl)phosphonic acid or ethrel. Ethyl carbamate Organic nitrogen compound derived Etherification A modification process resulting in from urea, which in pure form is a white or colourless the formation of ether bonds. Used to improve the crystalline solid. Soluble in water, alcohol and ether, physicochemical properties of starch for food and slightly soluble in oils. A possible carcinogen that 157 Ethylcarbamate Eucheuma is used in pesticides and fungicides. Formed in used as a component of artificial lemon, strawberry wines, other alcoholic beverages and fermented and rum flavourings. foods during processing or storage. Synonym for Ethyl hexanoate One of the fatty acid esters, this urethane. colourless to light-yellow liquid has a characteristic Ethylcarbamate Alternative spelling of ethyl car- aroma and is used as a flavour compound. Insoluble bamate. in water, but soluble in alcohol. Occurs naturally in Ethyl decanoate A fatty acid ester also known as apples, cherries, peaches and mangoes, and is ethyl caprate. One of the aroma compounds that also found in brandies and wines. Also known as occurs naturally in alcoholic beverages (e.g. ethyl caproate. wines, whiskey, beer, brandies) and fruits (e.g. Ethyl octanoate A fatty acid ester also known as apples, pears). Can be a source of off flavour in ethyl caprylate. One of the volatile compounds re- milk. Also a colourless, transparent liquid with a sponsible for wine aroma, but can cause bitterness fruity, brandy-like aroma used in food flavourings. when present in large amounts. Colourless liquid with Ethylene Highly flammable, colourless hydrocarbon a wine, brandy, fruity and floral aroma used as an in- gas with a sweetish aroma and flavour. Slightly gredient of food flavouring essences. soluble in water and alcohol. Occurs in natural gas and Ethyl oleate One of the fatty acid esters, this col- coal gas, and is produced by fruits and vegetables ourless to light-yellow liquid is insoluble in water. during ripening. Removal of ethylene from food Used in dips for drying fruits, and is one of the food packages is used to delay ripening of fruits. As a plant additives regulated by the FDA. Also used as a sol- growth regulator, ethylene has many horticultural uses, vent, plasticizer and lubricant, and occurs as a minor e.g. as a fruit ripening accelerator. aroma compound in cuttlefish. Synonym is oleic acid Ethylenediamine Amine which exists as a toxic, ethyl ester. colourless, alkaline gas or liquid with an aroma of Ethyl vanillin Artificial flavouring, approximately 2 ammonia. Soluble in water and alcohol, and readily to 4 times stronger than vanillin. Synthesized from absorbs CO2 from air. Uses include in the manufacture eugenol, isoeugenol or safrole. Used to enhance of chelating agents, such as EDTA, and in emulsi- fruit and chocolate flavour notes in ice cream, bev- fying agents. erages and bakery products. Ethylene dibromide Colourless, non-flammable EU Abbreviation for European Union. liquid with a sweetish aroma. Toxic and carcinogenic. Slightly soluble in water and miscible with most or- Eubacteria Former name for a superkingdom of pro- ganic solvents and thinners. Used in fumigants for karyotes, now known as Bacteria. grain and tree crops, as a general solvent and as a wa- Eucalyptol Monocyclic terpene distributed widely in ter-proofing preparation. plants. Occurs as a colourless liquid with a characteris- Ethylene glycol One of the glycols or polyols. A tic aroma and pungent flavour. Major food sources colourless, viscous, hygroscopic liquid commonly used include eucalyptus oils, spices including sage, as a solvent, osmotic solute, antifreeze or plasticizer. rosemary and basil, and essential oils extracted Has been used as an additive in edible films. from herbs and spices. It is used in flavourings for foods and beverages. Cough candy contains particu- Ethylene oxide Highly flammable, colourless gas larly high levels of eucalyptol due to a high content of which liquefies at temperatures below 12qC. Soluble in eucalyptus oil. organic solvents and miscible with water and alcohol. It has sporicidal and viricidal activities, and is probably Eucalyptus Genus of trees found mainly in Australia. carcinogenic. Sometimes used in fumigation of Leaves of some species are the source of essential spices. Also known as epoxyethane or oxirane. oils that are used mainly for medicinal purposes, but Ethylenethiourea Primary degradation product of can in some cases be used as food flavourings. Major ethylene-bisdithiocarbamate fungicides (such as floral source for honeys in Australia. maneb and zineb), which are used on a wide range Eucaryotes Alternative spelling for eukaryotes. of crops. A suspected carcinogen. Eucheuma Genus of red seaweeds occurring abun- Ethyl formate An ester also known as ethyl dantly along shores in the southwest Pacific and Indian methanoate. One of the fumigants used to control in- Ocean. Several species, such as Eucheuma cottonii and sect infestation in crops (e.g. grain, legumes and E. spinosum, are a commercially important source of fruits) during storage. Effectiveness is often improved carrageenans used by the food industry. The Philip- when combined with carbon dioxide. Naturally oc- pines, Indonesia and Malaysia are the largest producers curring volatile compound with GRAS status. Also of these seaweeds. 158 Eugenol Evaporated milk Eugenol Combustible, colourless or pale yellow phe- European Union The European Union (EU) is an nol with a spicy aroma and flavour which is derived organization representing European countries dedi- from oil of cloves and cinnamon oils. Only very cated to increasing economic integration and strength- slightly soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether ening cooperation among its members. The EU was and volatile oils. Used in flavourings, perfumes, es- formally established on 1 November 1993, and its sential oil preparations, as a dental analgesic and local headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium. The EU is the anaesthetic, and in the manufacture of isoeugenol for most recent in a series of European cooperative or- production of vanillin. ganizations that originated with the European Coal and Euglena gracilis Species of microalgae of the fam- Steel Community (ECSC) of 1951, which became the ily Euglenaceae. Used in biotechnology for the pro- European Community (EC) in 1967. The members duction of vitamins such as tocopherols. of the EC were Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Eukaryotes Organisms in which the cells have a dis- Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the tinct nucleus containing the genetic material (DNA) in Netherlands, Portugal and Spain. In 1991, governments contrast with prokaryotes. Includes all organisms of the 12 member states signed the Treaty on European except bacteria and archaea. Alternative spelling is Union (commonly called the Maastricht Treaty), which eucaryotes. was then ratified by the national legislatures of all the Euparen Alternative term for the fungicide di- member countries. The Maastricht Treaty transformed chlofluanid. the EC into the EU. In 1995, Austria, Finland and Sweden joined the EU. These were followed in 2004 Euphorbia Plant genus characterized by its members by Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, producing a milky juice. Its seeds are of potential use Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slove- as oilseeds, being a rich source of oil which contains nia. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007, bringing the high levels of vernolic acid. total membership to 27 nations. The EU primarily European Community In July 1967, three organiza- works to promote and expand cooperation among its tions (the European Economic Community members in areas such as economics and trade, social (EEC), the European Coal and Steel Community issues, foreign policy, security and judicial matters. (ECSC), and Euratom) fully merged as the European Another goal was to implement Economic and Mone- Community (EC). The basic economic features of the tary Union (EMU), which established a single currency EEC treaty were gradually implemented, and, in 1968, for EU members. all tariffs between member states were eliminated. A meeting of leaders of the member states in December Eurotium Genus of xerophilic fungi (order Eurotia- 1969 paved the way for creation of a permanent fi- les) commonly found in soil and concentrated or dried nancing arrangement for the EC based on contributions foods. Have anamorphic states in the form genus As- from the member states, development of a framework pergillus. Cause spoilage in some foods and bever- for foreign policy cooperation among the member na- ages, including stored grain, fruit juices and bakery tions, and the opening of membership negotiations products. with Britain, Ireland, Denmark and Norway. In 1972, it was agreed that the four applicant countries would be Eurygaster Genus of insects of the order Hemiptera admitted on 1 January 1973. Britain, Ireland and Den- that are serious pests of grain, particularly wheat, in mark joined as scheduled; however, in a national refer- Europe, central and western Asia, and the former endum, the people of Norway voted against member- USSR. Eurygaster species inject enzymes into the ship. grain which destroys the natural gluten and thereby reduces milling quality. Economically important spe- European Economic Community In 1957, the cies include Eurygaster integriceps (Sunn pest) and E. participants in the European Coal and Steel Commu- maura (wheat bug). nity (ECSC) signed two more treaties in Rome, one of which created the European Economic Community Evaporated milk Milk concentrated by partial re- (EEC, often referred to as the Common Market). The moval of water with the aid of a vacuum to reduce EEC treaty allowed for gradual elimination of import the boiling point and thus maintain the quality of the duties and quotas on all trade between member nations milk during the process. May have a range of fat con- and for the institution of a common external tariff. tents depending on the concentration ratio used. Af- Member nations agreed to implement common policies ter evaporation, the product is homogenized, mixed regarding transportation, agriculture, and social insur- with stabilizers and sterilized in cans, or is UHT (ul- ance, and to permit the free movement of people and tra high temperature) treated combined with aseptic funds within the boundaries of the community. packaging in cartons. May be reconstituted by addition of water. 159 Evaporation Expresso coffee Evaporation Gradual change of state from liquid to and sports supplements are available which claim gas that occurs at a liquid's surface. The average speed to enhance physical performance during exercise. of particles within a liquid depends on the liquid's tem- Exopolysaccharides Extracellular polysaccha- perature. Fast-moving particles striking other particles rides synthesized and secreted by microorganisms. near the liquid's surface may impart enough speed, and Includes polysaccharides produced during fermenta- therefore enough kinetic energy (energy of motion), to tion of foods, and which influence the viscosity of cause the surface particle to leave the liquid and be- the finished product, such as those produced by lactic come gas atoms or molecules. As particles with the acid bacteria in yoghurt or fermented milk, and most kinetic energy evaporate, the average kinetic en- also isolated microbial polysaccharides such as gellan ergy of the remaining liquid decreases. Because a liq- which have food applications. uid's temperature is directly related to the average ki- Exotic fruits Fruits from another part of the world or netic energy of its molecules, the liquid cools as it introduced from another country. evaporates. Exotic vegetables Vegetables from another part of Evaporators Equipment used in turning a liquid into a the world or introduced from another country. vapour by evaporation. Exotoxins Potent extracellular toxins secreted by Evening primrose oils Plant oils, extracted from certain species of bacteria (e.g. Clostridium seeds of members of the genus Oenothera, which are botulinum and Staphylococcus aureus). rich in Ȗ-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Used Exo-1,4-ȕ-xylosidases Alternative term for xylan mainly in dietary supplements. 1,4-ȕ-xylosidases. Evening primrose seeds Oilseeds produced by Expansins Plant proteins found in cell walls. Į- plants of the genus Oenothera. Used in the food indus- Expansins are believed to influence cell wall disas- try as a source of evening primrose oils. sembly during ripening, by reversible disruption of H Evisceration The process of disembowelment, the bonds between cellulose microfibrils and matrix poly- cutting open and removal of the inner organs or en- saccharides, leading to softening of plant tissues. trails of animal carcasses. Similar to gutting of Some ȕ-expansins, previously known as group-1 grass fish. pollen antigens, are thought to facilitate pollina- Ewe cheese Cheese made from ewe milk. Well- tion. Transgenic plants (e.g. tomatoes) over- known examples include Manchego cheese, Pe- expressing expansins could be used to generate crops corino cheese and Roquefort cheese. Also with improved processing properties. known as ewe milk cheese, sheep milk cheese or sheep Expansion One of the physical properties com- cheese. prising an increase in size or volume. Can result when Ewedu Common name for Corchorus olitorius. Leaves a food is processed, such as through the application of are used as a pot-herb in West Africa, and eaten as a pressure or high temperature, extrusion or by spinach substitute in other parts of the world. Also soaking. Cereals are often expanded by puffing to known as moroheiya, Jew's mallow, Egyptian mallow produce breakfast cereals such as puffed rice and and bush okra. puffed wheat, and for making snack foods and Ewe milk Milk produced by dairy ewes. Differs from puffed rice cakes. cow milk in having significantly higher protein and Expert systems Computer application programs that fat contents. Most minerals and vitamins are also make decisions or solve problems in a particular field present in higher amounts in ewe milk than in cow by using knowledge and analytical rules defined by milk, the notable exception being carotenes, contents experts in the field. In an expert system, a knowledge of which are much lower in ewe milk. Often used in base provides specific facts and rules about the subject, cheesemaking. Also known as sheep milk. and an inference engine provides the reasoning ability Ewe milk cheese Alternative term for ewe cheese. that enables the expert system to form conclusions. Ewes Mature female sheep. The term may also be Exports Goods or services that are domestically pro- used to describe adult females of various related ani- duced but are sold abroad. mals including goats and the smaller antelopes. Expression vectors Vectors, generally constructed plasmids genes Ewe yoghurt Yoghurt made by fermenting ewe from , carrying structural encoding a milk. protein whose expression in host cells is desired. Usu- ally incorporate genetic elements that regulate expres- Exercise performance Performance (including en- sion of these genes, e.g. promoters. durance, stamina, speed, strength) during physical Expresso coffee Alternative term for espresso activity. A wide variety of products including per- coffee. formance drinks, sports foods, sports drinks 160 Extensibility Eye disorders Extensibility Extent to which a material can be dis- After cooling, the pellets are enrobed with other ingre- torted or stretched without breaking. It is often ex- dients that may interfere with the extrusion process, pressed as a proportion of the material's original size. such as oils and preservatives. Extrusion increases A decrease in extensibility resulting from shortening of starch digestibility, reducing risk of diarrhoea. muscles has traditionally been used to define rigor Many dog foods and cat foods are extruded. High mortis. Also commonly measured during assessment fibre versions are available for pet rabbits and guinea of the rheological properties of dough. pigs. Extensographs Instruments used to investigate the Extruders Die equipment that is used to shape items physical properties of dough. Similar to al- during extrusion. veographs. Extrusion A processing technique which involves Extractive fermentation Simultaneous extraction of forcing materials through a die. Widely applied in the fermentation products during fermentation food industry for shaping and texturization, par- processes. Organic solvents are frequently used for ex- ticularly with a view to modifying the sensory traction, and the process often results in higher yields properties and quality of the resultant extruded since it eliminates the problem of product inhibition. foods. Extracts Term usually applied to concentrated fla- Extrusion cooking A processing method for vourings obtained by solvent extraction or supercriti- cooking foods which involves heating materials un- cal extraction of substances such as herbs, meat, der pressure combined with extrusion through a yeasts or fruits. May also more generally apply to die. Employed widely in food manufacture, particu- any product obtained by extraction. larly in the production of snack foods and cereal Extrudates Items which have been shaped by forcing products. them through a die (extrusion). Eye disorders Any of a wide range of disorders or Extruded foods Products such as breakfast cere- diseases of the eye. Some are minor and easily treat- als, snack foods and textured vegetable pro- able, while others may lead to a permanent loss of vi- teins that have undergone shaping and texturiza- sion. Examples include age-related macular degeneration by way of extrusion. tion, cataracts, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy and con- Extruded pet foods Dried pet foods subjected to junctivitis. Several dietary components, especially the extrusion. Usually in the form of kibble or pellets. A carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin, as well as dry mix is preconditioned with water and steam prior some vitamins and minerals, play an important role to extrusion, during which the mix is propelled down a in eye health and may offer protection against some of barrel, where it generates its own heat and is cooked. these conditions. F

Faba beans Seeds produced by Vicia faba. Vary in tance include Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout, shape, colour and size. Immature seeds are eaten carp, channel catfish, tilapia and yellowtail. cooked, canned or frozen, while mature seeds are Farmed shellfish Shellfish produced for food pur- dried. Immature pods are also eaten. Types of faba poses by aquaculture. A wide range of shellfish spe- beans include broad beans, horse beans, field beans, cies are produced by this process worldwide. These tick beans and Windsor beans. Also known as fava include mussels, clams, oysters, scallops, beans. In individuals with glucose-6-phosphate dehy- shrimps and lobsters. drogenase deficiency, an X-linked recessive hereditary Farm milk Milk collected directly from the producer. disease, intake of faba beans and certain other leg- Farnesene One of the sesquiterpenoid volatile aroma umes can provoke sudden destruction of red blood compounds. Isomers include Į-farnesene, which is cells and lead to favism, a type of haemolytic anae- synthesized in apples and is related to the develop- mia. ment of scald, and ȕ-farnesene which, along with Į- ı Factors Alternative term for sigma factors. farnesene, is a constituent of essential oils in several Faecal contamination Contamination, e.g. of plants including hops and citrus species. foods or drinking water, with faeces. Farnesol Terpenoid alcohol which exists as a combus- Fagara seeds Seeds produced by plants of the ge- tible, colourless liquid with a delicate floral aroma; it nus Fagara or Zanthoxylum, some of which are used has low toxicity. Occurs naturally in many essential as the source of oils used in cooking. oils and flowers. Used in flavourings and perfumes. Fasciola Genus of parasitic flatworms of the class Fair trade A trading partnership which seeks greater Trematoda. Fasciola hepatica is the causative agent of equity in international trade to ensure that farmers re- fascioliasis, which is of great economic importance in ceive fair prices for their products. Fair trade foods cattle and sheep. Human fascioliasis may result from range from bananas to coffee to chocolate. The eating raw or improperly cooked watercress. International Fairtrade Certification Mark is a logo that appears on products as an independent guarantee that Fast foods Prepared foods obtained from restau- disadvantaged producers, such as in developing coun- rants and other catering establishments, where the tries, have been treated fairly. aim is to provide a fast service and rapid customer turnover at reasonable prices. Examples of fast foods Falafel Fried croquettes of ground chick peas and include burgers, pizzas, sandwiches and French faba beans seasoned with sesame seeds. fries. Falling number Indicator used to measure the activity Fat mimetics Alternative term for fat substitutes. of Į-amylases in cereal flours. In wheat, a low Fatness A measure of the excess portion of fats falling number may signal reduced grain quality and found on animal carcasses. Fatness affects the poor breadmaking properties. quality and economic value of carcasses, with lower FAO Abbreviation for Food and Agriculture Or- levels often being preferred. As animals grow, fatness ganization. tends to increase, so selecting animals that are less ma- Farina A fine flour or meal which is prepared from ture can yield carcasses with lower fatness levels. cereals, particularly wheat, or other plant foods with Fat replacers Alternative term for fat substitutes. a high starch content. Can be used in the manufacture Fats Non-volatile, water insoluble substances that are of foods such as pasta. usually solid at room temperature and are greasy to the Farinographs Instruments used to investigate the touch. Composed of esters synthesized by reaction of physical properties of dough. fatty acids with glycerol in a ratio of 3 to 1 to form Farmed fish Fish produced by fish farming for triacylglycerols or triglycerides. Arrangement and food purposes. A wide range of fish species are farmed type of the fatty acids in the glycerol molecule affect worldwide. Major farmed fish of commercial impor- the physical properties of the fat. 162 Fat substitutes Fenitrothion Fat substitutes Substances of various types and ori- FDC blue Artificial colorants certified under the US gins that show similar properties to triacylglycerols Food Drug and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act. FDC blue 1 in that they have a creamy and fat-like texture but have (also known as Brilliant Blue FCF) and FDC blue 2 low calorific values. Used in the complete or partial (indigotine) are currently permitted for food use in replacement of fats in foods, e.g. low fat foods. the USA. Also known as fat mimetics or fat replacers. FDC colours Artificial colorants certified under Fattening Feeding of domesticated animals to produce the US Food, Drug and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act. FDC a desirable body weight and body composition for colours currently permitted for food use in the USA slaughter. include FDC red 3, red 40, FDC blue 1, blue 2, FDC yellow 5, yellow 6 and FDC green 3. Fatty acid esters Esters formed between fatty FDC red Artificial colorants acids and a range of other compounds including certified under the US sugars, alcohols, polyols, carotenoids and Food Drug and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act. Red colorants sterols. Fatty acid methyl esters are commonly pre- currently certified for food use in the USA are FDC erythrosine Allura red pared from triglycerides for GC analysis of fatty red 3 ( ) and FDC red 40 ( acid composition. AC). FDC yellow Artificial colorants certified under the Fatty acids Organic acids consisting of a chain of US Food, Drug and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act. FDC yel- alkyl groups containing between 4 and 22 or more car- low 5 (tartrazine) and FDC yellow 6 (sunset yel- bon atoms with a terminal carboxyl group. In satu- low FCF) are currently permitted for food use in the rated fatty acids, e.g. butyric acid, palmitic acid USA. and stearic acid, the carbon atoms of the alkyl chains are connected by single bonds. Unsaturated fatty Fe Chemical symbol for iron. acids, e.g. oleic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic Feathers Flat appendages growing from the skin of acid, contain at least one double bond. Fatty acids oc- birds, consisting of a partly hollow horny shaft fringed cur naturally and are derived from animal fats, fish with vanes of barbs. Poultry feather wastes accumu- oils and vegetable fats. Some, e.g. linoleic, lino- late during poultry processing; they represent an un- lenic and arachidonic acid, are essential nutrients derutilized protein resource, and their disposal carries (essential fatty acids) that are not synthesized in the pollution concerns. Bacillus licheniformis secretes human body and must be obtained from the diet. keratinase, a proteolytic enzyme which is active on whole feathers, with the ability to hydrolyse collagen, Ȧ-3 Fatty acids Polyunsaturated fatty acids elastin and feather keratin; this enzyme has potential in having double bonds in the Ȧ-3 position; found in oily the bioremediation and management of poultry fish and certain vegetable oils. May have beneficial wastes. Feather lysate is a digestible protein source that effects on health, in particular hypolipaemic activ- can be used in animal feeds. ity and anti-inflammatory activity, and may provide resistance against cardiovascular diseases. Feeds Materials available for feeding domestic ani- Examples include eicosapentaenoic acid, doco- mals, which may be classified loosely into four major groups, namely: green forages; succulent feeds, roots sahexaenoic acid and Į-linolenic acid. and tubers (e.g. turnips); coarse fodder (e.g. hay) de- Ȧ-6 Fatty acids Polyunsaturated fatty acids rived from grasses; and concentrates (e.g. cereal having double bonds in the Ȧ-6 position. Found in grains, oilseeds and various animal by-products). vegetable oils. May have beneficial effects for Feijoa Dark green tropical fruits with white flesh, health, especially reducing the risks for cancer, which are produced by Feijoa sellowiana. Used mainly stroke and coronary heart diseases. Include in jellies and preserves. Also known as pineapple arachidonic acid, linoleic acid and -linolenic Ȗ guavas and guavasteens. acid. Fenbendazole Anthelmintic used for treatment and Fatty acid synthases EC 2.3.1.85. Acyltrans- control of gastrointestinal roundworms, lung worms ferases which catalyse the synthesis of long chain and tapeworms in cattle, sheep, pigs and goats. Nor- fatty acids. Studies have shown that dietary poly- mally undetectable 7 days after final treatment in all unsaturated fatty acids can reduce the activity of animal tissues except livers, where residues may re- this enzyme in animal models. Also thought to be in- main for longer periods. volved in the biosynthesis of aflatoxins in Aspergil- Fenitrothion Non-systemic organophosphorus insec- lus. ticide with cholinesterase inhibitory activity, used for FDA Abbreviation commonly used for the US Food control of chewing, sucking and boring insects in and Drug Administration. fruits, vegetables and cereals. Also used for con- 163 Fennel Fermented sausages trol of insects in animal rearing facilities and in stored sour cream, ripened cream and smetana. Used cereals. Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous in cooking and baking, and in dips. (WHO II). Fermented dairy products Produced by fermenta- Fennel Common name for the plant Foeniculum vul- tion of liquid dairy products by lactic acid bac- gare. Florence or Florentine fennel is eaten as a vege- teria (starters). During fermentation, lactose is table. The edible part, eaten raw or cooked, is a false converted into lactic acid and sometimes flavour bulb formed by the leaf bases. Has an aniseed flavour, compounds such as diacetyl, depending on the or- and is a good source of potassium and selected vita- ganisms used and fermentation conditions. Fermenta- mins and minerals. Fennel seeds are also har- tion is allowed to proceed until the required acidity is vested for use as a spice and for their essential oils. achieved. In some cases, where yeasts are also pre- Fennel seeds Liquorice-flavoured seeds from Foe- sent, alcohol is formed in the final product, e.g. kefir, niculum vulgare. Used for seasoning bakery prod- koumiss. Fermented dairy products include fer- ucts, cheese, and a number of meat and vegetable mented cream, some types of butter, cheese, cul- dishes. Seed oils are used in liqueurs and fragrances. tured buttermilk, and fermented milk, a popular type of which is yoghurt. Many traditional fermented Fenthion Organophosphorus avicide and insecticide. dairy products exist throughout the world. Consump- Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO tion of fermented dairy products, especially those con- II). Also known as baytex, lebaycid and mercaptophos. taining specific organisms or probiotic bacteria, can Fenugreek Common name for the leguminous plant enhance intestinal health. Trigonella foenum-graecum. Fenugreek seeds are Fermented foods Foods subjected to fermentation used as spices in curry powders, chutneys and by beneficial microorganisms in order to bring imitation maple syrups. The plant itself is rich in about desirable changes. These changes are mainly carotenes and is consumed as a vegetable. concerned with preservation (e.g. manufacture of Fenvalerate Non-systemic pyrethroid insecticide and cheese and yoghurt from milk), enhancement of acaricide used on crops for control of a wide range of nutritional value (e.g. removal of antinutritional fac- insects, including those resistant to organochlorine, tors from legumes), or alteration of flavour and organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides. Clas- texture (e.g. manufacture of soy sauces from soy- sified by WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO II). beans). Many different types of fermented foods and Fermentation Energy-yielding process in which or- fermented beverages are available, and play a ma- ganic compounds are metabolized, usually under jor part in the human diet. Fermentation is favoured as anaerobic or microaerobic conditions, to simpler com- an inexpensive method of preservation in developing pounds without the involvement of an exogenous elec- countries and many items, such as fermented dairy tron acceptor. Commonly refers to processes carried products, are attracting increasing attention as func- out by microorganisms, regardless of whether fer- tional foods due to the beneficial actions of the mi- mentative or respiratory metabolism is involved. Used croorganisms and/or enzymes involved in fermenta- frequently in the food industry, e.g. for production of tion. Also known as fermented products or cultured alcohols, bread, vinegar, flavour compounds, foods. and a wide variety of fermented foods and fer- Fermented milk Produced by fermentation of milk mented beverages. (of various species) by lactic acid bacteria (starters). During fermentation, lactose is converted into Fermentation products Products of microbial fer- lactic acid, aroma compounds are formed and mentation processes, e.g. alcohols, flavour com- milk proteins are partly decomposed to peptides pounds, food additives, surfactants and or- and free amino acids, improving digestibility of ganic acids. the milk. If yeasts are included in the starter mixture, Fermentation technology Technologies and meth- alcohol is also present in the final product. Consump- ods used for production of specific products by means tion of fermented milk may have many health benefits of microbial fermentation. including alleviation of the symptoms of gastrointesti- Fermented beverages Beverages whose manufac- nal disorders. Many types of fermented milk are pro- ture involves a fermentation process, generally al- duced throughout the world, including yoghurt, kefir, coholic fermentation and/or lactic fermentation. dahi, shubat and shrikhand. Fermented cream Cream acidified naturally or Fermented products Alternative term for fer- artificially by the action of lactic acid bacteria. mented foods. Lactose in the cream is converted to lactic acid by Fermented sausages Traditionally produced by fermentation. Types of fermented cream include chance contamination of sausages with local mi- 164 Fermenters Ficins croorganisms. In modern practice, however, start- ganisms may be used for biodegradation of plant ers are usually added to sausage emulsions in or- material, including agricultural and food industry der to produce a more uniform product. Lactic start- wastes, e.g. cereal processing by-products. ers are often included, but other microorganisms, par- Feta cheese Greek soft cheese made originally ticularly those with good nitrate reducing abilities, are from ewe milk or a mixture of ewe and goat milks. also used. As well as affecting sausage colour and Pure white, with a crumbly texture and high salt con- consistency, fermentation has major effects on tent. Saltiness can be reduced by soaking in cold water flavour. Raw fermented sausages are prepared from or milk for a few minutes before consumption. unheated raw meat, which is fermented and then held FIA Abbreviation for flow injection analysis. at a controlled temperature and relative humidity until Fibre In general, a class of materials of elongated the desired degree of dryness is obtained. In contrast, structure or comprising continuous filaments. Some- heat-treated fermented sausages are pasteurized after times used to refer to dietary fibre and crude fibre, fermentation and then dried, usually for a brief period. but also to thread-like structures, such as muscle, glass, Fermenters Vessels in which aerobic or anaerobic nylon and nerve fibres. fermentation processes can be carried out, in either Fibreboard Strong material made from wood or other batch culture or continuous culture. Typically vertical, plant fibres which are compressed, with or without closed, cylindrical steel vessels that can range in vol- binders, into boards. Used to make containers, such as ume from less than one litre to several thousand litres. crates, and panelling. May be corrugated to improve Usually have means for ensuring adequate heat cushioning characteristics. Compared with plastics, fi- transfer, mixing and aeration. breboard has both cost advantages and environmental Ferns Non-flowering plants often used as a food. benefits, particularly as it may be made from recycled Young shoots (fiddleheads) and rootstocks of wild fibres. and cultivated species are consumed in a number of Fibre concentrates Concentrates prepared from countries. fibre that may be used for food enrichment. Ob- Ferritin Globular protein complex consisting of 24 tained from fruit, vegetable and cereal processing protein subunits, and is the main intracellular iron wastes such as apple pomaces and citrus peel. storage protein in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Fibre optics Application of superfine glass fibres as Regularly measured as an indicator of iron status in light conduits in sensors where measurement is based diet studies, or following iron fortification of foods. on light transmission. Used in analytical procedures Fertilizers Natural or synthetic substances supplied to and also in monitoring food processing operations. plants via the soil or in water to enhance their growth Fibrin Insoluble animal protein which is produced on or yield of produce. Commonly contain nitrogen, hydrolysis of fibrinogen by thrombin. Forms a net- phosphorus and/or potassium. Concerns about envi- work of fibres during blood clotting. ronmental and health hazards associated with their use Fibrinogen Soluble animal protein which is secreted have led to increasing popularity of organic foods into blood plasma by the liver. Converted into fibrin that are cultivated without the use of artificial fertiliz- by the action of thrombin during blood clotting. ers. Fibrinolysin Alternative term for plasmin. Ferulic acid A phenol which in pure form exists as Fibrobacter Genus of obligately anaerobic, rod- colourless needles and is soluble in water and alcohol. shaped or coccoid Gram negative bacteria of the Occurs naturally in plant cell walls and is an in vivo family Fibrobacteraceae. Occur in the rumen of rumi- substrate for plant peroxidases. Displays antioxi- nants and gastrointestinal tract of humans. Fibro- dative activity and is used in food preservatives. bacter succinogenes is a cellulolytic bacterium present Microbial and enzymic transformations of ferulic acid in the rumen of cattle that converts -glucans to can be used to produce useful aromatic com- ȕ formates, acetates and succinates. Also produces es- pounds, including flavour compounds, such as terases, endo-1,3(4)- -glucanases and xylan vanillin. ȕ degrading enzymes. Feruloyl esterases EC 3.1.1.73. Carboxylic acid Ficains EC 3.4.22.3. Also known as ficins, these pro- hydrolases which catalyse the hydrolysis of ester teinases are found in fig latex. They are classified as bonds linking 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamoyl (feru- cysteine endopeptidases, cleave preferentially at loyl) groups to sugars in feruloylated polysaccha- tyrosine and phenylalanine residues, and can act rides to release ferulic acid, a preservative and va- on a wide variety of protein substrates. Used as milk nillin precursor. Substrates include arabinoxylans clotting enzymes and for tenderization of meat. and xylan present in the hemicelluloses fraction of plant cell walls. Feruloyl esterases from microor- Ficins Alternative term for ficains. 165 Fiddleheads Fish Fiddleheads Edible tightly-curled tips of young fern Filth Food contaminants such as hairs, rodent and fronds taking their name from their resemblance to the bird faeces, and insect and feather fragments. end of a violin, or fiddle. Deep green in colour with a Filth tests Microscopic examinations of food for the chewy texture. Eaten cooked as a starter or side dish, presence of contaminants (e.g. hairs, rodent and bird or raw in salads. Rich in vitamin A and vitamin C. faeces, insect and feather fragments). Used as an index Field beans Type of faba beans. of hygienic food processing and handling. Field peas Variety of peas grown specifically for Filtration Process of removing suspended solids from drying, usually not requiring soaking before cook- a liquid by straining it through a porous medium that ing. Called split peas when split along the natural can be penetrated easily by liquids. seam. Can be yellow or green. Fimbriae Short, thin, hair-like appendages, composed Fig juices Fruit juices prepared from figs (Ficus mainly of the protein pilin, which extend from the sur- carica). face of certain bacterial cells, mainly Gram negative Figs Fruits produced by Ficus carica. Consumed bacteria. May be involved in a variety of functions, fresh or preserved by canning or drying. Used as in- including bacterial adherence to other cells and sub- gredients in bakery products. During the process of strates. Can act as important virulence factors. Also drying, sugar content of figs increases to about 50%, known as pili. potassium content increases approximately 5-fold, but Finfish A term used to separate true fish from other the already low vitamin C level is halved. sea foods, such as shellfish, crayfish and jelly- Filbertone Principal flavour compound in hazelnuts. fish. This ketone has the chemical formula (E)-5- Finger millet Edible cereal from Eleusine coracana of methylhept-2-en-4-one, and occurs as R- and S- importance in India and Africa. Used in porridges enantiomers. and gruel, and to make beer. Also known as kurak- Filberts Alternative term for hazelnuts. kan and ragi. Filefish Marine fish from the family Balistidae, Fining Clarification of beer or wines by removal of chiefly found in tropical ocean waters. Generally char- the minute floating particles that prevent these prod- acterized by a flat body and rough spiny scales. Some ucts from being clear. species are caught as food fish, including Alutera monoceros (unicorn filefish) and A. schoepfi (orange Fining agents Substances used for clarification of filefish). Usually sold fresh with skin removed. wines or beer, including gelatin, isinglass and diatomaceous earths. Fillers Devices used to transfer products into containers or casings for storage or retail. These are Finometers Instruments used to measure the tender- alternatively referred to as filling equipment. Also ness of foods, especially peas and beans, by de- refers to substances, e.g. buttermilk powders, whey termining mechanical resistance. protein concentrates or corn starch, used to ex- Fior di Latte cheese Italian fresh cheese similar tend meat batters or emulsions to add bulk or func- to mozzarella cheese. tional properties. Fiore Sardo cheese Sardinian hard cheese made Filleting Removal of the bones from a piece of meat from ewe milk coagulated with rennets from lambs or fish, so creating a fillet. or young goats. The curd undergoes moulding, Filling Process of transferring products, e.g. foods and brining, scalding and light smoking before it is left beverages, into containers or casings for storage or to ripen. During ripening, olive oils and animal retail. Also refers to the developmental stage in cere- fats are applied to the cheese to aid moisture retention. als in which kernel dry matter increases. The final product is a cylindrical cheese with a rind Filling equipment Devices used to transfer products that ranges in colour from golden yellow to dark into containers or casings for storage or retail. brown. The interior of the cheese is white to straw yel- Also sometimes called fillers. low, rich in flavour and grainy in texture. Fillings Sweet or savoury ingredients used to fill a Firmness Texture term relating to the extent to cavity within or between layers of a food, e.g. confec- which a product is dense and firm. tionery fillings, pie fillings and stuffings. Fisetin One of the flavonols found in vegetables, Filter aids Materials such as bentonite, clays, dia- fruits and wines. Has antioxidative activity. tomaceous earths and kieselguhr employed to Fish Any of a variety of cold-blooded vertebrate ani- facilitate the course of filtration. mals found in the fresh and salt waters of the world, Filters Porous devices for removing solid particles ranging from the primitive, jawless lamprey, through from a liquid or gas passed through them. the cartilaginous sharks, skate and ray, to the abun- 166 Fish balls Fish noodles dant and diverse bony fishes, which include the major- include frozen pet foods for tropical or marine ity of food fish. fish, live worms and insects for tropical fish and Fish balls Fish products consisting of flesh from newly hatched shrimps, protozoa and microworms white fish (such as cod or haddock) mixed with for young fish and larvae. milk, fish stock, flour or other binding ingredients, Fish hydrolysates Products formed from minced or and seasonings, which are then shaped into balls comminuted fish (often processing wastes) after and cooked. Marketed as semi-preserved, canned or treatment with hydrolytic enzymes, filtration and frozen products. Alternatively known as fish dump- drying. Average product consists of 85% hydrolysed lings. protein (mainly small peptides and free amino ac- Fish bones Bones from fish. Commonly used to ids), 10% inorganic material and 5% water. Mainly prepare fish stocks which can be used as a base for used as flavourings in soups and in animal feeds. soups and accompaniments such as gravy and Fish in juices Fish stored in their own juices. sauces. As wastes of the industrial filleting proc- Fish in marinades Fish, especially herring, soaked ess, they can be employed in both food and non-food in marinades (seasoned liquids containing acetic applications. acid, vinegar, olive oils, or brines, with or without Fishburgers Fish products consisting of minced spices) to retard the action of bacteria and en- fish flesh, seasonings and preservatives. Often zymes. Have a characteristic flavour and an ex- coated with batters, and sold in pre-cooked, frozen tended, but limited, shelf life. form. Fish in oils Fish (e.g. tuna, mackerel) stored in Fish cakes Cooked fish products made from fresh edible oils, especially vegetable oils such as soy- fish or salted fish, mixed with potatoes and sea- bean oils or sunflower oils. Usually sold as canned sonings; sometimes eggs, butter and onions are products. added. Fish content may range from 35 to 50% by weight. A variety of fish are used, including cod, Fish in sauces Fish (e.g. sardine) stored in haddock, coalfish and salmon. sauces, such as tomato sauces. Usually sold as canned products. Fish crackers Fish products popular as snack foods in some Asian countries (known as keropok in Fish liver oils Lipid extracts from fish livers, which Malaysia). Commonly made by mixing minced fish are rich in Ȧ-3 fatty acids, vitamin A and vitamin flesh with sago flour, tapioca flour, salt and D. Include shark, dogfish, halibut and cod liver oils. monosodium glutamate. The mixture is then Fish livers Livers from some fish species which are moulded into cylinders, steamed, cooled, sliced and utilized as foods. Fish valued for their livers include sun-dried. cod, halibut, tuna, certain sharks and mackerel. Fish farming Production of fish (usually referring to Marketed in fresh, frozen, salted and canned forms; finfish) under controlled or semi-controlled conditions also mixed with fish oils and spices to make for food or industrial purposes. Major farmed fish in pastes. commercial terms include Atlantic salmon, rain- Fish meal Dried, powdered or granular product ob- bow trout, carp, channel catfish, tilapia and yel- tained from cooked whole fish or fish processing lowtail. wastes; fish species frequently used for its production Fish fillets Strips of fish flesh cut parallel to the include anchoveta, capelin, sand eel, herring and backbone, starting just behind the head of the fish; fins, mackerel. Constitutes a valuable ingredient of animal bones and discoloured flesh are normally removed, but feeds. Sold on the basis of its protein content and rated skin may remain. according to the percentage of protein contained in the Fish fingers Fish products consisting of rectilinear product. portions cut from a block of frozen fish flesh; typi- Fish mince Fish flesh finely cut or crushed into small cally the length is about three times the breadth and particles. Often used to make a variety of fish prod- product weight is approximately 18 g. Often coated ucts such as kamaboko, fish fingers and surimi. with batters or breadcrumbs and fried in oil. Fish noodles Fish products consisting of minced Fish foods Pet foods specially formulated to meet fish flesh mixed with wheat flour (or other cereal the nutritional requirements of pet fish in aquariums flour), cassava starch and various additives; the and ponds. Dried pet foods for fish include flakes, mixture is extruded through tubular holes to form long pellets, tablets, sticks and blocks, with fish meal, strands which are dried in hot air. Products are boiled shrimps, soy meal, squid, insects, worms, prior to consumption. A popular meal accompaniment spirulina and seaweeds as major ingredients. Also is some parts of South East Asia. 167 Fish nuggets Flat bread Fish nuggets Fish products comprising pieces of fats, seasonings and sometimes cereal products. fish flesh (not minced) formed into small irregular The mixture may be cooked or smoked before being shapes. May be formed from fillets, fillet pieces or fish packed in sausage casings. Marketed in skinless or blocks; normally occurs in breaded form. Marketed skinned forms, semi-preserved or canned. frozen. Fish skin Skin from fish. A source of collagen that Fish oils Oils obtained from muscle, livers or other may be used to produce gelatin. organs of fish, particularly herring, menhaden, Fish soups Soups made from fish or other marine anchovy, sardine and cod. Contain n-3 polyun- animals; usually contain seasonings and may con- saturated fatty acids, the principal ones being ei- tain pieces of fish flesh. Marketed in canned, dried or cosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic bottled forms. acid, which are reported to protect against heart dis- Five fingers Fruits produced by Averrhoa caram- ease. Used in manufacture of margarines and cook- bola. The waxy fruits are yellow and juicy, and star- ing oils. shaped in cross-section. Rich in vitamin C, with mod- Fish pastes Fish products consisting of minced erate amounts of sugar. Eaten raw or preserved, and fish flesh mixed with salt, with or without spices used in beverages. Also known as carambolas and and flavourings, and ground to a fine consistency star fruit. with reduced moisture content and often added fat. Flagella Helical and hollow tubular filaments com- Frequently marketed as a sandwich spread. posed of flagellins that project from the cell mem- Fish pates Fish products consisting of finely branes of some bacteria, which rotate to provide mo- ground fish flesh (having reduced moisture content), tility. Important virulence factors. Different species with added seasonings and flavourings. Available of bacteria have different numbers and arrangements of in spreadable or sliceable forms. flagella. Flagellar antigens, or H antigens, are used in Fish preserves Fish products consisting of fish the serotyping of bacteria. (whole, headed or filleted) preserved in oils, brines, Flagellins Protein subunits that make up the filaments sauces or pickling solutions and stored in cans or of bacterial flagella. sealed glass containers. Fish with high fat content in the flesh (such as mackerel, sardine and tuna) are Flaking Process of breaking an item up into small, flat, often used to make preserves. very thin pieces. Fish products Products such as fish cakes, surimi Flame photometry Spectroscopy in which a solu- and sushi that are made from fish or contain fish as a tion of the substance to be analysed is vaporized by in- major constituent. troduction into a flame. Spectral lines resulting from a light source going through the vapours are analysed for Fish protein concentrates Dried fish products pre- characteristic bands, the intensity of which are related pared from ground whole fish, which contain en- to the quantity of analyte present in the sample. hanced protein content (around 80%) and are marketed in powdered and granular forms; used as food ingredi- Flaming A method of food presentation. Warmed ents. Commonly abbreviated to FPC. Occur in two spirits, such as brandy or rum, are sprinkled over forms, A and B; type A is odourless and colourless, foods and ignited just before the product is served. while type B has an odour and flavour associated with Flammulina Genus of edible fungi, the most com- its higher fat content. monly consumed species being Flammulina velutipes Fish proteins Proteins extracted from fish bodies, (winter mushroom), an alternative term for Collybia often from processing wastes such as fish heads and velutipes. offal. Some fish proteins form useful food ingredients Flan cases Bases made of shortcrust pastry or due to their functional properties. Fish proteins are sponge cakes which are frequently baked blind (i.e. major components of fish protein concentrates without any fillings) and then filled with sweet fill- and fish hydrolysates. ings, such as fruits, custards or cream, or savoury Fish sauces Sauces prepared by fermenting salted mixes of meat, vegetables or savoury custard, after fish with endogenous enzymes for long periods at baking. elevated temperatures until solubilization is Flans Open tarts containing sweet or savoury fillings achieved. A rich source of certain amino acids, es- such as custards, fruits or cheese. pecially lysine and methionine. Popular in South Flat bread Bread that is flat in appearance. It is East Asia. typically, but not always, made from dough that has Fish sausages Fish products consisting of ground not undergone leavening. Several varieties exist, in- fish flesh, often tuna, mixed with small amounts of cluding chapattis, pita bread, roti and nan. 168 Flatfish Flavour enhancers Flatfish Any fish belonging to the order Pleuronecti- Flavomycin Aminoglycoside antibiotic used primarily formes, e.g. halibut, turbot, sole, plaice or floun- as a growth-promoting agent in cattle, swine and poul- ders. Most are marine species and many are commer- try. Rarely absorbed in the gut of animals and normally cially important food fish. excreted rapidly. No withdrawal period is required. Flatulence The presence of excess gas (‘flatus’) in the Flavones Flavonoid pigments which in pure form gastrointestinal tract which is expelled from the exist as colourless, crystalline solids. Insoluble in wa- anus. This flatus consists of a number of gases, inter. Occur in higher plants, including fruits and vege- cluding methane, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon tables, and are responsible for ivory and yellow col- dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. Flatus is generated ours in plants and flowers. Some plants contain high by swallowed air, digestion, high fibre foods and the levels of flavones, e.g. parsley (Petroselinum cris- by-products of intestinal bacteria. Some digestive pum) contains high levels of apigenin. Dietary fla- system disorders, such as irritable bowel syn- vones are believed to have various health benefits, e.g. drome, can also produce excess gas. Several foods are flavones in tea and red wines may protect against associated with flatulence due to the presence of flatu- cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Flavones lence factors, including legumes, cabbages, on- are used to derive various yellow dyes. ions, Brussels sprouts and prunes. Foods rich in Flavonoids Large group of aromatic, oxygen- sulfur, such as eggs and meat, are more likely to containing, heterocyclic pigments. Include various make the gas have a more intense smell. subgroups of compounds, such as catechins, fla- Flatulence factors Dietary components that can vanols, flavanones, flavones, flavonols, antho- cause flatulence. Raffinose, stachyose and ver- cyanins and leucoanthocyanidins. Occur widely bascose have been identified as flatulence factors in in higher plants and are responsible for the majority of legumes. The Į-galactosidases required for diges- yellow, red and blue colours in fruits, vegetables tion of these oligosaccharides are absent in humans and flowers (with the exception of colours produced and other mammals and so they pass into the intestine by carotenoids). Major dietary sources are apples, where they are fermented by bacteria. This can result onions, red wines and tea. Believed to protect in the accumulation of gas. Certain processing against cancer and cardiovascular diseases. methods may reduce or eliminate flatulence factors in Mechanisms of these inhibitory effects are not fully foods. understood, but they are thought to involve inhibition Flavanols Flavonoids which contain a hydroxyl of low density lipoprotein oxidation. group. In pure form they exist as yellow, needle-like Flavonols Flavonoids, distinct from flavanols, crystals. They include the hydroxyflavones, chrysin, which contain a hydroxyl group. Include kaempferol fisetin and quercitrin. Occur in many plant foods and quercitrin. Occur naturally in plants and are re- and wines, and are associated with bitterness and sponsible for the ivory and yellow colours of many astringency. They may be used to reduce the per- flowers. Dietary sources include fruits, vegetables, ceived sweetness of foods and beverages. red wines, green tea and black tea. Believed to Flavanones One of the major groups of flavonoids protect against cardiovascular diseases and can- derived from flavone. In pure form they are colourless, cer. crystalline solids. Found in the tissues of higher plants, Flavour Sensory properties of foods. The tongue including fruits, particularly citrus fruits and ap- can distinguish five separate tastes (sweet, salt, sour, ples, and vegetables, either in free form or as gluco- bitter and savoury/umami) due to the stimulation of sides. Flavanones occurring in foods include hes- the taste buds. The overall flavour of foods is a combi- peridin, naringenin and eriodictyol. nation of these components, together with astrin- Flavins Naturally occurring yellow pigments which gency in the mouth, texture, and aroma. have a tricyclic aromatic molecular structure. Soluble Flavour compounds Compounds present in sub- in water. Include riboflavin and its products, e.g. fla- stances that give foods their characteristic flavour; vin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinu- components capable of stimulating the sense of taste. cleotide (FAD). Flavoured beverages Beverages with added natu- Flavobacterium Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram ral or synthetic flavourings. negative bacteria of the family Flavobacteriaceae. Occur in soil, water, raw meat and milk. Species may Flavoured milk Milk containing flavourings. be responsible for spoilage of meat, fish, milk and Flavoured yoghurt Yoghurt containing flavour- dairy products. Some species are opportunistic ings, usually fruit-based. pathogens of humans. Some species from this genus Flavour enhancers Flavourings used to enhance have been reclassified as Chryseobacterium. the original flavour and/or aroma of a food, without 169 Flavourings Flow injection analysis imparting a characteristic taste or aroma of their own. Florentines Chewy, thin biscuits, often chocolate- Include monosodium glutamate and ribonucleo- coated on one side, containing nuts and dried fruits tides. Similar to flavour modifiers. or candied fruits. Flavourings Substances whose primary purpose as Florfenicol Broad spectrum bacteriostatic antibiotic food additives is to impart flavour and/or aroma which is a fluorinated analogue of thiamphenicol. when added to foods. Include natural flavourings, Similar range of activity to that of chloramphenicol, such as essential oils and spices, artificial fla- including many Gram negative bacteria and Gram vourings, seasonings, condiments and ex- positive bacteria. Used mainly in treatment of cat- tracts. Also known as aromatizing agents or flavours. tle and salmon. Not labelled for use in lactating cattle Flavour modifiers Flavourings used to modify the or veal calves in some countries. original flavour and/or aroma of a food. Similar to Flotation Technique in which different types of solid flavour enhancers. particles in a liquid are separated out, the principle be- Flavours Alternative term for flavourings. ing that some particles will absorb water while others Flavour thresholds Term used in sensory analy- will not. sis relating to the levels at which perception of in- Flounders General name used for a number of marine creasing concentrations of flavour compounds be- flatfish species, especially those in the order Pleu- gins. ronectidae; many species are highly valued food fish, Flax seed oils Amber to yellow coloured oils de- having fine-textured flesh with a delicate flavour. rived from the cotyledons of flax seeds (Linum usita- Commercially important flounders include Platichthys tissimum). Use of hydraulic pressure extraction results flesus (European flounder) and Limanda ferruginea in pale coloured oils which are bland in flavour, while (yellowtail flounder). heat and pressure extraction produces darker oils with Flour Powders made from finely ground, sifted cereal a bitter flavour and off odour. Rich in Į-linolenic grains. Used as a basic ingredient for bakery prod- acid and often used as a food oil. Also known as lin- ucts and many other products. Unless specified oth- seed oils. erwise, the term usually refers to the product of wheat Flax seeds Seeds from plants belonging to the spe- grains. cies Linum usitatissimum which are used principally in Flour improvers Substances added to milled flour to the production of flax seed oils. The flax seed meal improve its colour and/or baking properties. These which remains when the oil has been extracted from include oxidizing agents to accelerate flour ageing flax seeds is used as a livestock feed. Dried flax seeds (e.g. potassium bromate, ascorbic acid) and are also sometimes used in medicinal preparations. bleaching agents such as chlorine dioxide. Fleischwurst Ring-shaped German sausages which Flour mills Machines or devices for milling grain into are a type of bruehwurst and have a high percentage flour and other cereal products. smoking and scald- fat content. Preparation involves Flow Rheological property concerned with the charac- ing. teristics of movement of a substance. Flow behaviour Flexible packs Packs which are capable of bending affects processing properties of a substance and tex- easily and repeatedly without breaking. ture of the final product. It is affected by properties Flies Common name for species of insects of the such as cohesion and internal friction. order Diptera (e.g. blowflies, fruit flies and midges) Flow cytometry Technique for sorting, selecting or characterized by one pair of wings and another pair of counting individual cells in a suspension as they pass modified wings used for equilibrium (balancers). May individually through a small hole or tube in a flow cy- specifically refer to the common housefly, Musca do- tometer. May refer specifically to such a technique mestica, which can carry bacteria, inside its body or which involves the detection of a cell-bound fluores- on its body hair, that can contaminate foods and cent or fluorochrome label. thereby spread diseases. Flowers Part of a plant where the fruit or seed devel- Floc A small clump or mass of colloidal particles ops. Usually brightly coloured to attract insects. Not all formed in a fluid by the process of flocculation. flowers are edible, but those that are may be used as a Flocculants Substances that induce the formation of a garnish or integral part of a dish. Edible types include mass of colloidal particles (floc) in a dispersion of sol- nasturtiums, pansies, violas, roses, chrysanthemums ids in a liquid. and marigolds. Flowers may also be candied or crys- Flocculation Formation of a mass of colloidal parti- tallized and used to decorate desserts or cakes. cles (floc) in a dispersion of solids in a liquid, or alter- Flow injection analysis Automated technique in natively, removal of suspended solids by coalescence. which liquid samples are injected into a stream in 170 Flow meters Fluorodensitometry which they are mixed with reagents and carried to a Fluorene Polycyclic (tricyclic) aromatic hydrocarbon sensor or detector for measurement. Compatible with which in pure form exists as small white crystalline many detection systems, including spectroscopy, plates. A mutagen which is insoluble in water, but electrochemical apparatus and immunoassay. soluble in alcohol or ether. May occur in foods as a re- Commonly abbreviated to FIA. sult of certain food processing practices, e.g. can be Flow meters Devices for measuring the flow of a gas formed in wood smoked cheese or barbecued meat. or liquid through pipes or other types of equipment. Contamination of foods may also result from pollution. Fludioxonil Short-lived pyrrole contact fungicide used Fluorescence Absorption of radiation to produce to control plant diseases in a variety of crops. radiation of a longer wavelength, a phenomenon ex- Fluidization Process in which finely divided solids ploited in fluorescence microscopy. (e.g. catalysts) are made to behave in the same way Fluorescence in situ hybridization One of the as fluids by suspending them in moving gases or liq- genetic techniques, used to visualize DNA or RNA uids. The principle is used in fluidized beds. in cells or chromosomes. It involves hybridiza- Fluidized beds Novel class of heat transfer media. A tion to a target DNA or mRNA sequence of a DNA fluidized bed is produced by passing a stream of gas or probe which shows complementary base-pairing with liquid upwards through a bed of particles at sufficient the target and includes nucleotides labelled with velocity to suspend the particles (fluidization). In this fluorescent molecules. The target-probe hybrid can be state, the mixture of particles and fluid behave like a visualized in situ using fluorescence microscopy. liquid having density equal to the bulk density of the In the field of food science it has been used for de- particles. Circulation of particles in the bed, particu- tection and enumeration of microorganisms. larly by the vigorous mixing action of bubbles rising Fluorescence microscopy Microscopy in which through the bed, results in large heat transfer rates samples are illuminated with UV or blue light causing between the bed and immersed surfaces. In some in- them to emit light of longer wavelengths. stances, the heat transfer rate may be orders of magni- Fluorescent light Visible light produced by fluo- tude greater than achieved using the same fluid flow rescence, especially that from a discharge tube in conditions in the absence of particles. Fluidized beds which a phosphor on the inside of the tube is made to are used in many chemical engineering processes fluoresce by ultraviolet light from mercury vapour. where small solid particles must be brought into inti- Fluorescent light can accelerate oxidative deterioration mate contact with a gas stream. Examples are drying of foods such as oils, nuts and milk during storage. of finely divided solids, adsorption of solvent va- Fluoridation Addition of traces of fluorides, particu- pours from air, and heterogeneous catalytic reactions. larly to water supplies and toothpastes as a means of Fluids Substances that have no fixed shape and which preventing tooth decay. Fluoridation of water supplies flow when external pressure is applied to them. In- is a controversial issue due to possible health hazards cludes liquids and gases. associated with long-term ingestion of high levels of fluorides. Flukes Common name for parasitic flatworms belonging to the class Trematoda. Fluorides Salts which contain fluorine. Often added to toothpastes or drinking water in order to reduce Flumequine A quinolizine carboxylic acid derivative the incidence of dental caries. Fluoridation of water belonging to the quinolones group of synthetic an- supplies is a controversial issue due to possible tibiotics. Used for treatment of enteric infections in health hazards associated with long-term ingestion of food animals, and is effective against Gram negative high levels of fluorides. bacteria. Residues may occur in the meat or milk of Fluorimetry Alternative term for fluorometry. treated animals. Questions have been raised over its Fluorine Non-metallic element. Member of the halo- potential genotoxicity. Alternative names are R-802 gens family, of which it is the most electronegative and Apurone. and the strongest oxidizing agent. Has the chemical Fluoranthene Polycyclic (tetracyclic) aromatic hy- symbol F and atomic number 9. Exists as a pungent, drocarbon which in pure form exists as coloured, nee- pale yellow gas or liquid. Normally present in bone; dle-like crystals. It is moderately toxic and carcino- both deficiency and excess can lead to skeletal disease. genic, insoluble in water, but soluble in organic sol- Used to manufacture fluorides. vents. Found in coal tar and petroleum. It may occur in Fluorodensitometry Technique, often combined foods as a result of contamination, migration from with TLC or HPLC, in which concentration of an ana- packaging or certain food processing practices, e.g. lyte is determined on the basis of its fluorescence. traditional wood smoking of fish or cheese. 171 Fluorometry Folic acid Fluorometry Technique used to identify a substance whipping or frothing. Foams are unstable, requiring from the wavelength of the light that it emits during the presence of stabilizers to form the gas bubble fluorescence. Also called fluorimetry. membranes. Egg whites have good foaming ca- Fluorosis Diseases typified by damage to teeth pacity and are used to produce foamed foods such as (dental fluorosis; characterized by brown mottling of meringues and souffles. Gelatin and modified the enamel) and bones, caused by an excessive intake milk proteins are also widely used to produce foams, of fluorides. Incidence of dental fluorosis increases e.g. in manufacture of foamed confectionery. when the level of fluoride in the water supply is above Foamed plastics are useful for food packaging. a certain limit. The mottled enamel is resistant to den- Foie gras A smooth rich paste prepared from fatted tal caries. When the level of fluorides rises still further, goose livers or duck livers. It is traditionally made systemic fluorosis may occur, with calcification of in France, where it is a speciality of the Alsace and ligaments. Perigord regions. It is valued highly for its silky, melt- Flushing Cleansing by passing large quantities of ing texture. Ideally, it has a delicate rose colour with water through an object. beige mottlings. When aged, it develops a rich fla- Fluted pumpkins Common name for Telfairia occi- vour. Foie gras prepared from goose livers has a dentalis, a plant cultivated for its leaves, which are richer flavour and is more expensive than foie gras used as a vegetable, and its seeds, which are eaten or prepared from duck livers. Ducks and geese reared used as a source of oils. for foie gras production are force-fed and prevented Fluvalinate Pyrethroid insecticide and acaricide used from exercising, so that they develop hugely enlarged, for control of a wide range of insects on fruits, fat-infiltrated livers. This force feeding raises animal vegetables and cereals. Also used for control of welfare concerns and is banned in many countries. After the fattened birds are killed, their livers are re- mites in beehives. Ĳ-Fluvalinate is classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. moved and often soaked overnight in milk, port or water, before draining and marination in Armagnac, Flying fish Any of several marine fish species in the Madeira or port with a mixture of seasonings. The family Exocoetidae; very fast swimming fish that can livers are then cooked in their own fat and pressed to propel themselves out of the water with the aid of spe- prepare foie gras. In contrast, pate de foie gras is pre- cially developed caudal and pectoral fins. Widely dis- pared from a high proportion of pureed goose or duck tributed in warmer oceanic regions. Species utilized as livers, but usually contains other ingredients such as food fish include Exocoetus volitans, Cypselurus spp. swine livers. and Prognichthys spp. Marketed fresh or dried; particularly popular in Japan. Foils Thin, flexible metallic sheets or strips. Com- monly, thickness is specified as being less than a given Foamed plastics Lightweight plastics made by amount. Used widely as packaging materials, e.g. solidifying plastic foams. Plastic foams are produced aluminium foils. from liquid plastics, and contain many small bubbles. Useful for food packaging. Folacin Obsolete term for folic acid or any derivative Foam fractionation A method for the separation of exhibiting the vitamin activity of folic acid. the components of a liquid or sol. Bubbles are passed Folate conjugases Alternative term for Ȗ-glutamyl through the bulk liquid in a specialised column and hydrolases. soluble, surface-active substances are selectively ad- Folates Synonym for pteroylglutamates. Compounds sorbed at the gas-liquid interface. The bubbles form a exhibiting the vitamin activity of folic acid. stable foam, which overflows to remove the adsorbed Foliar sprays Used to apply fertilizers or plant components. Foam fractionation may be used for the growth regulators to the leaves of plants. separation and purification of proteins. Foaming Formation of a mass of small bubbles on or Folic acid Water soluble member of the vitamin B in a liquid (foams). group. In its active form, tetrahydrofolate, it is a coenzyme in various reactions involved in the metabo- Foaming agents Substances that promote foaming. lism of amino acids, purines and pyrimidines. Foaming capacity Functional properties relating Synthesized by intestinal bacteria and widespread in to the extent to which an item is able to form foams. food, especially green leafy vegetables. Deficiency Foaming properties Functional properties relat- causes poor growth and nutritional anaemia. Daily ing to the ability of food components to be formed into intake should be increased prior to conception and dur- foams. ing early pregnancy to prevent neural tube defects Foams Light textured colloidal dispersions of a gas, (NTD, e.g. spina bifida) and other congenital mal- such as air, in a liquid or solid, typically achieved by formations (e.g. cleft lip and cleft palate) in the fetus. 172 Folpet Food composition tables Foods such as breakfast cereals are commonly for- ductivity, and to better the conditions of rural popula- tified with folic acid, but the mandatory fortification tions. Today, FAO is the largest autonomous agency of certain cereal products has been introduced in within the United Nations (UN) system, with 189 countries such as the US, Canada and Chile, as an ap- Member Nations plus the EC (Member Organization) proach to reducing the incidence of NTD. and more than 3600 staff members around the world. Folpet One of the fungicides used for control of FAO works to alleviate poverty and hunger by pro- plant diseases (including powdery mildew, leaf spot moting agricultural development, improved nutrition disease and scab) in a range of fruits and vegeta- and the pursuit of food security. The Organization is bles. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute active in land and water development, plant and animal hazard in normal use. Also known as phaltan. production, forestry, fisheries, economic and social policy, investment, nutrition, food standards, and Fomes Genus of fungi of the class Hymenomycetes. commodities and trade; it also plays a major role in Occur on trees and on wood. Some species may be re- dealing with food and agricultural emergencies. FAO sponsible for plant diseases. Fomes fomentarius pro- aims to meet the needs of both present and future gen- duces enzymes which are capable of degrading cel- erations through programmes that do not degrade the luloses, xylan and lignin. environment and are technically appropriate, economi- Fondants Low moisture sugar syrups which are cally viable and socially acceptable. FAO offers direct made by boiling concentrated sugar solution, adding development assistance, collects, analyses and dis- glucose syrups or inverting agents, and cooling rap- seminates information, provides policy and planning idly while mixing, to produce fine sugar crystals in a advice to governments, and acts as an international fo- saturated sugar solution. Used to make fondant rum for debate on food and agriculture issues. sweets, as fillings in chocolates and biscuits, Food and Drug Administration US agency within and as toppings for cakes. the Department of Health & Human Services which Fondues Traditional Swiss dishes made using blends was formed in 1927 by division of the Bureau of of cheese types, such as Gruyere, Emmental and Ra- Chemistry (established 1862) into the Food, Drug and clette, which are melted together with white wines, Insecticide Administration (name shortened in 1930) flour and seasonings. The mixture is kept hot by and the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. The name is placing it in a pot over a burner and is eaten on cubes commonly abbreviated to the FDA. It is a scientific, of bread which are dipped into the pot. The term is regulatory and public health agency including under its also applied to a meat dish in which cubes of raw jurisdiction most foods, animal and human drugs, meat are dipped into a pot of oil which is kept hot over therapeutic agents of biological origin, medical de- a burner, and consumed once cooking is complete. vices, radiation emitting devices, cosmetics and animal Fonio Type of millet (Digitaria exilis or D. iburua) feeds. The FDA evaluates applications for new drugs, grown in Africa. Utilization is hampered by difficulties foods, food additives, infant formulas and medi- in removing the husks from the grain. Also known as cal devices, as well as monitoring manufacture, import, hungry rice. transport, storage and sale of these products. Its mis- Fontina cheese Italian soft cheese made from sion is to promote public health by helping safe and cow milk. Dense and smooth in texture with small effective products to reach the market in a timely man- round holes. Ripens in about 3 months. Genuine Fon- ner, and monitoring products for continued safety once tina comes from the Val d'Aosta region of Italy in the in use. With respect to foods, the agency aims to en- Alps near the French and Swiss borders. The primary sure that they are safe, wholesome, sanitary and prop- ingredient of Italian fonduta. erly labelled. Food additives Additives used specifically in foods. Food antioxidants Antioxidants used specifically in foods. Food aid Provision of food and related assistance to relieve hunger and improve food security. Various Food bars Hand-held snack foods, usually in the types include: relief aid, typically for emergency situa- shape of a rectangular block, e.g. cereal bars, tions; aid delivered as part of a specific project promot- chocolate bars, ice cream bars and meal- ing agricultural or economic development; and gov- replacement bars. ernment-to-government aid in which food is grown in Foodborne diseases Diseases whose causative the donor country for sale or distribution abroad. agents are transmitted through food. Food and Agriculture Organization The Food and Food colorants Colorants used specifically in Agriculture Organization (FAO) was founded in Octo- foods. ber 1945 with a mandate to raise levels of nutrition Food composition tables Tabulated data on the and standards of living, to improve agricultural pro- nutritional composition of a wide range of foods and 173 Food emulsifiers Food security beverages, often including their calorific values and Food intolerance Group of diseases in which there contents of various nutrients, such as proteins, is inability to digest a particular food or food constitu- fats, carbohydrates, fibre, vitamins and miner- ent properly, often resulting in malabsorption syn- als. Nutrient levels are generally given per 100 gram dromes. Examples include lactose intolerance, re- or per serving portion of the food or beverage item. sulting from lack of a gastrointestinal tract brush Data on the composition of foods are important for nu- border enzyme, and coeliac disease, in which an trition research, product development, nutrition educa- immunological response to wheat gluten results in tion and development of nutrition policies. histopathological changes to the intestinal mucosa. Ex- Food emulsifiers Emulsifiers used specifically in clusion of the appropriate food from the diet can result foods. in elimination of the symptoms of the disease, and Food emulsions Colloidal suspensions in which a also, in cases such as coeliac disease, reversal of intes- substance is dispersed in another, e.g. oil in water tinal pathology. emulsions. Emulsions can be formed from immis- Food poisoning Human disease that results from cible water and oil phases with the aid of emulsifiers; ingesting food contaminated with toxins or patho- stabilizers are used to maintain structure. Examples gens. May range in severity from mild to life- of food emulsions include milk, cream, margarines threatening. and mayonnaise. Food policy A broad term used to encompass those Food enrichment Historically referred to the addition programmes, usually governmental, that most directly of nutrients, e.g. vitamins and minerals, to proc- affect the food chain. Issues encompassed by this term essed foods, such as cereal products, to correct include the role of food in international trade, agricul- for losses occurring during processes such as milling. tural pricing policies, food security, food aid, nutrition Now generally expanded to cover fortification in planning and food control. which nutrients that are not necessarily naturally pre- Food portions Individual portions or servings of sent in the foods are added to increase nutritional foods. Portion size is an important component of many value. Also included are agricultural and breeding ap- weight loss diets. proaches to manipulate the nutritional values of plant and animal foods. Food powders Alternative term for dried foods or Food factories effluents Liquid wastes (waste powders made for use as foods. water) often discharged into a river or the sea from Food preservatives Preservatives used specifi- food factories. cally in foods. Food factories wastes Solid wastes generated in Food reference materials Reference samples com- food factories during food processing operations. prising food materials of certified composition (e.g. Food flavourings Flavourings used specifically in bovine liver and skim milk powder) that are used as foods. standards in analytical procedures. Food frequency questionnaires One of a variety Foods Substances intended to be ingested by humans of dietary study techniques used to gather infor- that are composed primarily of carbohydrates, fats, mation on the eating habits of individuals or popula- water and proteins, and also vitamins and miner- tion groups, particularly the frequency of consumption als. These nutrients are metabolized in the body to of certain foods and beverages. Commonly used in nu- produce energy, and sustain life and growth. The study tritional epidemiology to examine the role of diet in of foods is called food science. Almost all foods are health and diseases. of plant or animal origin, but other sources exist (e.g. Food guide pyramids Graphically-represented, edible fungi). Food is obtained through farming, food-based guidance tools designed to help people fishing, hunting, foraging and other methods of subsis- make healthful food choices. They have a characteris- tence. Food is traded and marketed on a global basis. tic triangular shape, and comprise a number of layers Food safety Encompasses activities and policies that represent the major food groups. The tip of the which are essential for ensuring that food will not pyramid represents foods which should be limited in cause injury or illness upon consumption. the diet (such as fats, oils and sweets), while the Food science The scientific discipline examining all lower levels represent the foods that should form the aspects of foods, from harvesting and manufacture basis of a healthy diet (such as cereals, vegetables through to ingestion by the consumer. and fruits). Food handlers Personnel involved in the preparation, Food security Access (both physical and economic) processing or handling of foods. by all people at all times to sufficient food for an active, healthy life. 174 Foods service Fouling Foods service Catering systems, which supply Formaldehyde Simplest of the aldehydes, has the prepared foods to large groups of consumers. Food is formula CH2O and is also known as methanal. Exists typically prepared and packaged in a central location as a highly reactive, colourless gas, is soluble in water and then transported and served to the consumer. Ex- and alcohol, and can cause toxicity and carcino- amples include school meals, airline meals, fast genicity. Occurs naturally in most organisms as a by- foods operations and vending machines services. product of metabolism; increasing postharvest levels Food stabilizers Stabilizers used specifically in in some fish and other sea foods can cause denatu- foods. ration of proteins, thereby accelerating spoilage. Has been linked to metabolism of aspartame. Used Food Standards Agency An independent UK Gov- in disinfectants and germicides, and, when in so- ernment department established in 2000 to protect the lution, as a preservative for biological specimens. interests of consumers in relation to foods, and, in par- Commercially available as a 37-50% aqueous solution, ticular, to guard against public health risks arising formalin. from consumption of foods. Provides advice and in- Formalin Solution of formaldehyde in water. Also formation to the public and Government on food known as formol. safety, nutrition and diet. Aims to ensure that imported foods meet required UK standards. Formic acid Organic acid which exists as a combustible, colourless, fuming liquid with a penetrating Food supplements Substances consumed as extra aroma. Soluble in water, alcohol, ether, acetone and sources of specific nutrients in the diet with a view benzene. Occurs naturally in pine needles, stinging to improving nutritional status or health. May be nettles and certain insects. Used in preservatives, added to foods during processing, e.g. calcium or animal feeds, fumigants, insecticides, refriger- iron fortification of cereal products, as a form of ants and in vinyl resin plasticizers. Also known as food enrichment. Alternatively, taken separately methanoic acid. from foods in the form of tablets, capsules, liquids or oils, depending upon the nature of the dietary constitu- Formol Solution of formaldehyde in water. Alterna- ent. Such preparations may be single or multi- tive term for formalin. component. Dietary components commonly consumed Fortification Increasing the nutritional quality of a in this form include vitamins, minerals, proteins, food by addition of nutrients such as vitamins and oils (e.g. fish oils and evening primrose oils), minerals. phytochemicals and plant extracts, such as those Fortified foods Foods that have had nutrients such from garlic. as vitamins and minerals added to them for the pur- Food technology Application of a diversity of scien- pose of enrichment. Common foods that may un- tific and practical disciplines, including chemistry, bi- dergo fortification include breakfast cereals, ology, physics and engineering, to the development of flour, sugar and margarines. food products and to their worldwide distribution. Fortified wines Wines to which ethanol has been Food thickeners Thickeners used specifically in added, as spirits or neutral alcohol. Important types foods. include sherry and port. Fossa cheese Italian hard cheese made from raw Foot and mouth disease Highly infectious viral or pasteurized ewe milk, cow milk or a mixture of infection affecting a wide range of animals, including both. The name derives from the practice of ageing cattle, swine, sheep, goats and buffaloes. Endemic in ripened cheese for up to 3 months in underground some parts of the world. Outbreaks in countries previ- pits dug into tuffaceous rock. During this period, an- ously free of the disease can have serious economic aerobic fermentation takes place, and the cheese de- implications due to restrictions on movement of live- velops a unique flavour and aroma. The final prod- stock and the widespread slaughter of infected and at- uct is white to straw in colour, with an irregular risk susceptible animals. The virus may be present in shape. After removal from the pit, the cheese can be milk of an infected animal before clinical signs of dis- stored under vacuum for up to a year without loss of its ease appear and is capable of surviving milk pas- characteristic properties. teurization. In meat products, the virus is inactivated by cooking. Fouling Accumulation of unwanted materials on the surfaces of processing equipment, such as heat Forcemeat Stuffings made from a seasoned mixture exchangers and membranes employed in filtra- of finely chopped or minced ingredients, such as meat tion systems. The fouling layer has a low thermal mince, onions, breadcrumbs and herbs. conductivity, so increasing resistance to heat Foreign bodies Alternative term for contaminants. transfer and reducing the effectiveness of heat ex- 175 Fourier transform IR spectroscopy Freeze concentration changers. In membrane systems, the fouling layer de- a share of the profits, the franchiser provides the prod- creases productivity through a decline in permeate uct, the name, and sometimes the plant and advertising. flux. Chemical reaction fouling involves deposits that Francisella Genus of Gram negative bacteria of are formed as the result of chemical reactions at the the family Francisellaceae that act as human and ani- surface. This kind of fouling is a common problem in mal pathogens. Includes Francisella tularensis, the chemical process industries, oil refineries and dairy causative agent of tularemia, a disease that predomi- plants. Biological fouling is the development and nantly affects wild rodents, rabbits and hares. This deposition of organic films consisting of microor- disease is one of the zoonoses, and potential routes ganisms and their products. Effective fouling control for transmission to humans include blood-contact with methods involve: prevention of foulant formation; pre- infected animals or carcasses, or via consumption of vention of foulants from adhering to themselves and to infected meat. Other species, namely F. philomiragia surfaces; and removal of deposits from the surfaces. and F. piscicida act as fish pathogens. Fourier transform IR spectroscopy Type of IR Frangipans Pastry products or flans made with a spectroscopy that utilizes the Fourier transform pastry similar to choux pastry often filled with force- mathematical technique, in which samples are irradi- meat. Also, an almond flavoured cream or paste that is ated with polychromatic radiation and the entire range used as toppings or fillings for cakes and pas- of frequencies is recorded at the same time, giving an tries. interferogram. Fourier transformation then sorts the Frankfurters Mild flavoured, smoked, cooked sau- interferogram into its components, which can be repre- sages originally produced in Frankfurt, Germany. sented as a traditional spectrum. Advantages over con- Varieties include hot dogs and wieners. They can ventional IR spectroscopy include increased speed and be made from beef, chicken meat, pork, turkey sensitivity. Usually abbreviated to FTIR spectroscopy. meat or veal; typically, they are prepared from a Fowl Any birds kept for production of meat and/or blend of 40% pork and 60% beef. Frankfurter sea- eggs, particularly domesticated birds such as chick- sonings include coriander, garlic, mustard, ens, turkeys and ducks. In most commercial pro- nutmeg, salt, sugar and white pepper. They tend duction of fowl, hybrids have largely replaced pure- to have high contents of fat and salt. Some are retailed and crossbred fowl. The term may also be used in the in natural sausage casings, but most are prepared names of birds that resemble domestic fowl, e.g. spur- in cellulose casings, which are later removed. Most fowl; additionally, it may be used for birds collec- commonly, frankfurters are about 15 cm long, but they tively, particularly those which are hunted. are produced in a wide range of sizes. When traditionally made, frankfurters are smoked over hardwood, in Foxtail millet Cereal plant belonging to the species order to improve colour and flavour; however, now Setaria italica. This millet is an important food crop smoke flavourings are mostly applied as a paint. in China and other Asian countries. Despite being precooked, frankfurters taste better after f.p. Abbreviation for freezing point. reheating; usually, they are boiled, fried, grilled or steamed immediately before serving. FPC Abbreviation for fish protein concentrates. Frappe Sugar confectionery products made by Fractionation Separation of the components of a dissolving egg whites in water, adding sugar syr- mixture into fractions, using techniques such as gel ups, and whipping to form an aerated foam. Used in filtration and electrophoresis. This term also re- nougat and fondants. lates to precipitation and phase-separation methods Free radicals Highly reactive molecular entities, con- used to determine the molecular weight distribution of taining one or more unpaired electrons, that are usually polymers; these techniques are based on the tendency short-lived and capable of initiating or mediating a of polymers of high molecular weight to be less solu- wide variety of chemical reactions. Often formed by ble than those of low molecular weight. the splitting of a molecular bond. Fracture properties Mechanical properties gov- Freeze concentration Concentration of a liquid erning the way in which, and conditions under which, a by freezing out pure ice, leaving a more concentrated structure will break down when an external force is solution. This process requires less input of energy and applied. causes less loss of flavour than concentration by Franchising Authorization granted by a government evaporation; it is used primarily in the concentration or company to an individual or group enabling them to of fruit juices, vinegar and beer. Limitations of carry out specified commercial activities, for example freeze concentration are its high cost, the difficulty in to market a company's goods or services, in a desig- separation of ice from solid, and the degree of concen- nated territory. In return for a specified fee and usually tration that can be achieved. 176 Freeze dried foods Friabilimeters Freeze dried foods Foods dehydrated by freeze causes minimal changes in quality of food in terms of drying. Used to make various types of products, in- size, shape, texture, colour, flavour and microbial cluding instant soups, dried herbs, instant cof- load. fee granules and meat products. Dried foods ob- Freezing point Temperature at which the liquid and tained in this manner are light, porous, easy to rehy- solid forms of a substance exist together in equilib- drate and tend to have better shape and colour retention rium. Value varies according to pressure and is af- than foods obtained by other drying processes. fected by purity of the substance. Also known as the Freeze driers Apparatus for preservation of foods melting point. Freezing point measurement can be by applying rapid freezing followed by a high vac- used to detect the adulteration of milk with water, uum which removes ice by sublimation (freeze dry- since the value increases when water has been added. ing). French beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus Freeze drying Preservation of foods by rapid vulgaris). Both the pods and seeds are eaten. freezing followed by subjection to a high vacuum, French bread A European style of white bread with which removes ice by sublimation. Adequate control a crisp crust and bread crumb that exhibits both of the processing conditions contributes to satisfactory coarseness and chewiness. It is typically shaped into subsequent rehydration, with substantial retention of long thin loaves or baguettes and contains no fats, nutrients, and colour, flavour and texture charac- so is susceptible to rapid staling. teristics. French dressing Popular salad dressing made from Freezers Refrigerated cabinets or rooms for preserv- vinegar, oils and seasonings. Also known as vin- ing frozen foods at very low temperatures. Foods are aigrette. usually frozen to an internal temperature of -18°C in French fries Potato products made by cutting pota- freezers; the food must be maintained at this tempera- toes into thick or thin strips, soaking in cold water, ture or slightly lower during transport and storage. drying and deep frying in oil. Also called chips Commercial freezers include the following types: blast (UK), pommes frites (France), fries or French-fried freezers, where air is circulated at -40°C; contact potatoes. freezers, in which refrigerants are circulated through Freons Series of nonflammable, nonexplosive fluoro- hollow shelves; immersion freezers, where, for exam- carbons (FC) or chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) once ple, fruit is frozen in a solution of sugar and glyc- widely used as refrigerants. The manufacture and erol; and cryogenic freezers, which use, for example, use of freons is now restricted due to the detrimental liquid nitrogen spray. effects of CFC upon the ozone layer. Freeze-thaw stability One of the physical proper- Fresh cheese Low-fat cheese high in moisture and ties of a substance relating to its ability to undergo mild in flavour. freezing and subsequent thawing without damage to Freshness Extent to which a product is fresh and of its structure or properties. Important quality for ingre- good eating quality. dients of frozen foods. Fresh produce A generic term for goods, particularly Freezing Method of preservation in which micro- fruits and vegetables, that are produced on farms organisms are prevented from multiplying by appli- and are sold without preservation. cation of freezing temperatures. Foods are usually fro- Freshwater clams Any of a number of bivalves zen to an internal temperature of -18 C in freezers; q inhabiting rivers and lakes. the food must be maintained at this temperature or Freshwater fish Fish that inhabit inland waters slightly lower during transport and storage. During (lakes and rivers). Some fish species, e.g. salmon, oc- freezing, a proportion of the water in the food changes cur in both freshwater and marine phases at different from liquid to solid to form ice crystals, so lowering its stages during their life history. water activity. Because the process does not kill all types of bacteria, those that survive reanimate in Friabilimeters Devices used in assessment of malt thawing food and often grow more rapidly than before quality on the basis of friability, a measure of the freezing. Enzymes in the frozen state remain active, breakdown of malt endosperm cell wall components. although at a reduced rate. Freezing does, however, Malt samples are subjected to an abrasive action for cause the water in foods to expand, and tends to disrupt separation of hard and ripe constituents which are then the cell structure by forming ice crystals. With quick- weighed. The presence of hard and glassy components, freezing, however, the ice crystals are smaller, produc- which will cause problems with brewing, is detected ing less cell damage than with slowly frozen products. in this way. May be used in quality control of the Freezing has been a key technology in bringing con- malting process or to determine malt quality in venience foods to homes and restaurants; it breweries. 177 Friabilins Fructans Friabilins Water-soluble proteins which control May be served and consumed in a soft-frozen (slush) wheat kernel hardness and are located on the surface state. of wheat starch granules. Frozen confectionery Confectionery products Fricadelles Flattened, round meat products pre- such as ice cream bars that are served frozen. pared from meat mince. They include a high per- Frozen desserts Desserts preserved by freezing centage of meat, often beef and pork in equal quanti- and requiring frozen storage. These are often premium ties, and also binders, such as bread, spices and on- quality products, such as ice cream products, gateaux ions. Varieties include boulettes, bratklopse and brat- and cheesecakes. Some require cooking before con- linge. They are often served in sauces or gravy. sumption, but others can be eaten immediately after Friction One of the rheological properties which thawing or while still frozen. Unlike many other fro- describes the resistance that an object or surface en- zen foods, texture is not usually compromised by counters when it moves in contact with another. freezing. Fried foods Foods fried in fats or oils, e.g. French Frozen dough Dough prepared at a lower tempera- fries, fritters and doughnuts. Often coated in bat- ture than conventional dough (in order to minimize ters or breadings prior to frying. fermentation activity of yeasts), followed by im- Frigate mackerel Name applied to two species of mediate freezing to extend its shelf life. Used for marine fish (Auxis rochei rochei, also called bullet production of bakery products in in-store bakeries. tuna, and A. thazard thazard, also called frigate tuna). Frozen foods Foods preserved by freezing, and Both species are popular game fish of high commercial requiring frozen storage. Usually of higher quality importance and belong to the family Scombridae than canned foods or dried foods, with any losses (mackerels, tunas, bonitos). Widely distributed in the in quality being due to texture deterioration. A wide Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, where they are variety of foods can be frozen, either cooked (ready highly migratory. Marketed fresh, frozen, dried-salted, meals and some desserts) or uncooked (vegeta- smoked and canned. bles, fish fillets and poultry meat). Some products Fritters Pieces of food (e.g. fruits, meat, fish) that are thawed before use, while others can be have been dipped in batters and deep fried. cooked/reheated directly from the freezer. Frogs Insectivorous amphibians of the family Ranidae Frozen meals Frozen foods in the form of com- with a short tailless body, smooth moist skin and long plete dishes. Usually reheated directly from frozen hind legs designed for hopping. The species normally form prior to consumption. Common types include consumed is Rana esculenta, a large type of frog, but pizzas, ready meals, entrees, vegetarian foods sometimes other species are used as food. Usually, and savoury pies. only the hind legs are eaten. Frogs legs are particu- Frozen pet foods Pet foods stored by freezing, larly popular in France, but are also eaten in many for dogs, cats, ferrets, reptiles, some pet birds and other parts of the world. pet fish. Include frozen whole animals (e.g. mice, Frogs legs Tender, white meat from the hind legs of rats, hamsters and day-old chicks) for reptiles, and raw frogs. The meat has a very low fat content and a deli- meat products containing bones, meat mince, cate sweet flavour; it is particularly popular in France. offal and meat pieces (e.g chicken wings, necks, meat Ideally, frogs legs are cooked briefly with very little chunks). Tend to be more natural than dried pet foods. seasoning. Organic versions exist. Fromage frais French soft cheese of variable fat Frozen storage Storage of foods at freezing tem- content, traditionally made from a mixture of ewe and peratures (below 0oC). goat milks and eaten soon after production. Moist, Frozen yoghurt Fermented low-fat dairy desserts creamy and white, the cheese is unripened and made served in a similar manner to ice cream. from milk coagulated by lactic fermentation; lactic Fructans Group of oligosaccharides and poly- acid bacteria are active in the cheese when sold. saccharides which consist of fructose residues at- Frostings Alternative term for icings, used particu- tached to a single glucose molecule. Depending on larly in the USA and Canada. Used more specifically the source, chain lengths can range from 3 to 50 resi- in the UK to refer to soft icings made with sugar and dues. In cereals, shorter fructans predominate, while egg whites. Jerusalem artichokes contain high levels of inu- Frothing Process of forming a mass of small, light lin, a fructan of about 35 residues. Onions, garlic bubbles in a liquid by agitation or fermentation. and asparagus are other dietary sources of fructans. Frozen beverages Beverages, generally soft In the stomach and small intestine, hydrolysis of fruc- drinks or fruit beverages, which have been frozen. tans is negligible; any trisaccharides which are ab- 178 ȕ-Fructofuranosidases Fruit jellies sorbed directly are usually excreted in urine. The ma- duced using gel filtration chromatography to jority of dietary fructans reach the large intestine separate fructose from glucose and other sugars pre- where fermentation occurs. sent. Applications for these syrups include soft ȕ-Fructofuranosidases EC 3.2.1.26. Glycosi- drinks, marmalades, jams, canned fruits, fruit dases which hydrolyse terminal non-reducing ȕ-D- juices, dairy products and bakery products. fructofuranoside residues in ȕ-D-fructofuranosides. Fructose syrups Aqueous solutions, containing pre- Substrates include sucrose, which is hydrolysed to a dominantly fructose, which are used as sweeten- mixture of glucose and fructose. Also catalyse ers. transglycosylation reactions, e.g. to form fructoo- Fructosyltransferases Group of glycosyltrans- ligosaccharides. Found in microorganisms, plants ferases (all within EC 2.4.1) which catalyse the trans- and animals. Involved in sucrose metabolism in plants, fer of fructosyl groups to various substrates, commonly e.g. in ripening fruits and in sink tissues in pota- sucrose. Include inulosucrases, levansucrases and toes, carrots and sugar beets. Used industrially to sucrose:sucrose fructosyltransferases. Present in many hydrolyse sucrose to invert sugar and in the produc- microorganisms and plants and are used commer- tion of marzipan, soft-centred chocolate confec- cially in the synthesis of fructooligosaccharides. tionery and artificial honeys. Also known as inver- Fruit beverages Beverages derived from fruit tases and saccharases. juices, fruit extracts or fruit homogenates. Fructokinases EC 2.7.1.4. Kinases which phos- Fruit brandies Spirits manufactured by distillation phorylate D-fructose in the presence of ATP to form D- of fermented fruit mashes. fructose 6-phosphate and ADP. Involved in the me- Fruit bread Bread made by adding up to 50% (flour tabolism of carbohydrates, particularly fructose, basis) raisins to the dough mixture. May also con- in many food plants, including tomatoes, rice, po- tain other dried fruits such as currants, dates or tatoes and sugar beets. Can influence sweetness bananas. in fruits during ripening. Fruit compotes Desserts made from fruits stewed Fructooligosaccharides Oligosaccharides com- in sugar or cooked in syrups. Eaten hot or cold. posed of fructose monomers used as functional in- Fruit concentrates Products made by concentra- gredients in prebiotic foods. Fructooligosaccharides tion of fruit pulps using techniques such as ultrafil- are found particularly in chicory roots as inulin tration and evaporation. Used in a variety of foods polymers and also in Allium spp. Individual fructooli- and beverages, often to provide flavour. gosaccharides include kestose and nystose. Fruit cordials Term referring to fruit juice bever- Fructose Monosaccharide ketose sugar comprising six ages, often presented as concentrates for dilution, or carbon atoms. Constituent of sucrose which occurs to sweet fruit-based liqueurs. naturally in fruits and honeys. Commercially produced from glucose by isomerization, a reaction Fruit desserts Desserts based on fruits. Include catalysed by glucose isomerases. May be crystal- fruit salads, fruit cocktails, fruit compotes, lized from fructose syrups by addition of an organic mousses, flans and sorbets. solvent, such as ethanol. Fructose is the sweetest Fruit extracts Preparations obtained from fruits by a natural saccharide and is approximately 1-1.5u as variety of means that can be used as flavourings in sweet as sucrose. It is also known as laevulose and foods and beverages. fruit sugar. Fruit flies Common name for species of insects of Fructose-bisphosphate aldolases EC 4.1.2.13. the family Tephritidae, especially those of the genus Lyases that catalyse the conversion of D-fructose 1,6- Drosophila. Serious plant pests whose larvae feed on bisphosphate to glycerone phosphate and D- fruit or decaying vegetable matter. glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Involved in the ripening Fruit gums Sugar confectionery products made of strawberries and the development of corn. Also with sucrose, glucose, fruit flavourings and gum known as aldolases. arabic either alone (to produce hard gums) or mixed Fructose high corn syrups Syrups containing with gelatin (to produce soft gums). between 40 and 90% fructose that are produced from Fruitiness Extent to which a product has the aroma glucose syrups which have been manufactured by or flavour of fruits. hydrolysis of corn starch using Į-amylases and Fruit jellies Semi-solid foods with an elastic consis- glucan 1,4-Į-glucosidases. The resulting glucose tency, made either by setting of fruit juices contain- syrups are enzymically converted, using glucose ing pectins or gelatin, or by addition of gelatin to isomerases, to syrups containing both glucose and fruit juices. fructose. Higher purity fructose syrups are pro- 179 Fruit juice beverages Fucoidans Fruit juice beverages Beverages containing fruit types of product, including beverages, parfaits, ice juices, together with other ingredients such as water, cream, mousses and souffles. sugar or flavourings. Fruits Seed-bearing parts of plants, formed from the Fruit juice concentrates Fruit juices which have ovary after flowering. May be dry or fleshy. The term been concentrated by evaporation, membrane proc- is commonly restricted to fleshy fruits, which are of esses or freezing. May be diluted to make reconsti- economic importance to humans. When other parts of tuted juices, or used as ingredients in a wide range of the flower contribute to the structure, they are called foods and beverages. false fruits. Fruit juices Juices extracted from fruits consumed as Fruit salads Desserts comprising a mixture of drinks or used as ingredients in a wide range of foods fruits cut into pieces and covered with syrups or and beverages. fruit juices. Eaten fresh or available canned. Fruit leathers Fruit products made from fruit pu- Fruit syrups Syrups produced by concentration rees, sometimes sweetened with sugar or honeys, of fruit juices. Used as flavourings and sweeten- that are spread in a thin layer and dried. The dried ers. sheets may be cut into strips or rolled into cylinders. Fruit tea Tea-type infusion beverages made by hot Fruit liqueurs Liqueurs made from or flavoured water extraction of soluble constituents from materials with fruits. derived from dried fruits. Fruit nectars Beverages manufactured from fruit Fruit wines Wine-like alcoholic beverages made juices by addition of water and/or sugar, optionally by fermentation of fruit musts or mashes. with addition of other ingredients. Fruit yoghurt Yoghurt containing pieces of fruit, Fruit pastes Pastes prepared using fruits as the fruit pulps or fruit purees, either as a separate layer base ingredient. These fruit products may be eaten or stirred in to give a homogeneous product. alone or used in various food or beverage product for- Frying Cooking of foods in hot fats or oils over a mulations, such as yoghurt, bakery products and moderate to high heat. In deep frying, the foods to be confectionery products. cooked are immersed in the fats or oils. Fruit peel Rind or skin of fruits. May be removed Frying fats Fats which are usually solid at room tem- before consumption of the fruits or eaten at the same perature and used as a medium in which to cook foods time. Rich in fibre. Some types are removed and used by frying. Heating of the fat results in it acting as a in garnishes or as ingredients of various dishes. Peel thermal transfer agent, with some of it remaining in the most commonly used in cooking is that from citrus fried foods. Repeated use of the fat for frying may fruits. result in its degradation by means of autoxidation, cy- Fruit pies Dishes, usually served as desserts, having clization or polymerization. one or more crusts and fruit-based fillings. Crusts, Frying oils Oils which are usually liquid at room generally made from pastry, can be on the bottom or temperature and used as a medium in which to cook top of the dish only, or on both the bottom and top. foods by frying. Heating of the oil results in it acting The fruit fillings can be prepared from a single fruit or as a thermal transfer agent, with some of it remaining a combination of several fruits. in the fried foods. During frying, the heated oil may Fruit preserves Prepared by cooking pieces of fruits undergo several degradative changes. with sugar and sometimes pectins. Similar to jams, Frying properties Ability of foods to maintain or except that the fruit pieces tend to be larger in pre- develop acceptable properties upon application of fry- serves. ing procedures. Fruit products Products such as compotes, fruit FTIR spectroscopy Abbreviation for Fourier pies and fruit extracts that are made from fruits or transform IR spectroscopy. contain fruits as a major constituent. F2 toxin Mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminea- Fruit pulps The soft, succulent part of fruits or a rum, F. culmorum and other Fusarium spp. May be preparation made from them by mashing and concen- formed when the fungus grows on damp cereal grain tration. Used in the manufacture of a range of foods (e.g. wheat, barley and corn) used as animal feeds. Has and beverages, including syrups, milkshakes, fruit oestrogenic activity and can cause hyperoestrogen- juice beverages and ice cream. ism in swine, cattle and poultry. Also known as Fruit purees Fruit flesh that is mashed to a smooth, zearalenone. thick consistency by various means, such as forcing Fucoidans Sulfated fucose-containing polysac- through sieves or blending in food processors. Used as charides produced by brown seaweeds. Exhibit garnishes and side dishes or as the base of many health benefits, including anticarcinogenicity and 180 Fucose Functional properties anti-inflammatory activity, and have applications mixes. Can improve dough machineability and in functional foods. functional properties of tortillas. Also ubiquitous Fucose One of the reducing sugars found in plant in nature, as one of the organic acids synthesized foods and animal foods. Both D- and L- forms occur during the TCA cycle. Commonly determined as a naturally. Synonym 6-deoxygalactose. component of fruits and mushrooms. Fucosylation A form of glycosylation involving Fumigants Gaseous pesticides used for fumiga- fucose residues. Final stage in the in vivo synthesis of tion. several biologically important side chains of glyco- Fumigation Use of gaseous pesticides to rid an area proteins and glycolipids. Catalysed by fucosyl- of insect pests.

transferases. Levels of fucosylated glycoproteins in the Fumonisin B1 One of the mycotoxins. Produced by gastrointestinal tract increase considerably during Fusarium moniliforme (syn. F. verticilloides), a fun- weaning; their formation is thought to be influenced gus prevalent on corn and other cereals. Weather by components present in weaning foods. conditions that favour Fusarium kernel rot cause sig- Fucoxanthin One of the xanthophyll carotenoids nificant accumulation of fumonisin B1. The mycotoxin present as accessory pigments in edible brown alis stable to several processing techniques. Hepato- gae, giving them a brown or olive-green colour. Also toxic and nephrotoxic in animals. An inhibitor of ce- found in other edible seaweeds. Anticarcino- ramide synthase. Consumption of infected corn can genicity has been demonstrated. lead to outbreaks of poisoning in humans. Although Fucus Genus of seaweeds found in lower intertidal acute toxicity in humans is believed to be low, some zones along rocky shores. Some species, e.g. Fucus reports indicate an association between exposure and vesiculosus and F. spiralis, are utilized for foods and development of cancer. animal feeds, usually in dried form. Alginates are of- Fumonisin B2 Analogue of fumonisin B1 with a ten extracted chemically from dried Fucus spp. for use similar toxicological profile, though it is not as toxic.

as bulking agents, gelling agents or stabilizers Fumonisin B3 Analogue of fumonisin B1 with a in foods such as cheese and ice cream. similar toxicological profile, though it is not as toxic as Fudges Toffee-like sugar confectionery products fumonisin B1 or fumonisin B2. made with sugar, butter and milk, and formed either Fumonisins Mycotoxins produced by Fusarium by rapid agitation or addition of a small quantity of spp. (e.g. F. moniliforme and F. proliferatum) growing fondants, causing sugar crystallization. on corn and other cereals. Fufu Unfermented or fermented product usually made Functional beverages Beverages that contain from cassava, but also from other tubers and corms, biologically active components, such as phyto- such as taro, yams or cocoyams. The unfermented chemicals and bioactive peptides, at levels that form is prepared by boiling or steaming and pounding induce beneficial physiological effects and may the vegetables, either individually or in combination. improve health. Fermented fufu is prepared from roots which have Functional foods Term originally introduced in Ja- been soaked for 3-4 days before being formed into pan to mean foods with a physiological function or ac- pastes. In some areas, fufu is sold as a convenience tivity. Used for products containing biologically active food. Usually served as an accompaniment to dishes components (such as nutrients, bioactive peptides with sauce, such as stews. or phytochemicals) at levels that may confer spe- Fumarases Alternative term for fumarate hydrata- cific health benefits. Examples include bifidus yo- ses. ghurt, eggs incorporating Ȧ-3 fatty acids and fi- Fumarate hydratases EC 4.2.1.2. TCA cycle bre-enriched breakfast cereals. Also known as lyases which catalyse the reversible conversion of nutraceutical foods. Similar terms include de- fumaric acid to L-malic acid. Since organic ac- signer foods, medical foods and probiotic ids are essential flavour compounds in alcoholic foods. beverages and fermented foods, modification of Functional properties Characteristics of a substance fumarate hydratase levels in yeasts and bacteria can that affect its behaviour and that of products to which potentially be used for development of fermented it is added. Influence potential applications of a sub- foods and beverages with distinctive flavour. stance in the food industry, as a particular functional Fumaric acid Trans isomer of maleic acid, used in property may be especially useful for the manufacture acidulants and flavourings in the food industry. Its and stability of specific types of foods. Include a wide lack of solubility and nonhygroscopic nature make it range of characteristics, such as buffering capacity, particularly suitable for powdered food and beverage emulsification properties, foaming properties, 181 Fungal decay Fusel oils gelling capacity, water binding capacity and Furcellaran Gums produced from the red alga Fur- whipping properties. cellaria lumbricalis, also known as Danish agar. Used Fungal decay Decay caused by the action of fungi. as thickeners and gelling agents. Some similarities to carrageenans. Fungal proteins Fungal mycelia which are used as foods or food ingredients, e.g. Quorn (produced by Furcellaria Genus of seaweeds widely distributed the continuous fermentation of Fusarium along rocky shores at lower intertidal zones. Some graminearum). Also know as mycoprotein. species, e.g. Furcellaria lumbricalis, are utilized as a source of furcellaran in the food industry. Fungal spores Spores produced by fungi, e.g. Furfural Viscous, colourless volatile liquid aldehyde, ascospores, basidiospores, chlamydospores, sporangio- which has a distinct aroma and is unstable in air, ex- spores and zygospores. posure to which results in polymerization to a reddish Fungi Eukaryotic microorganisms of the kingdom brown colour. Composed of a furan ring and aldehyde Fungi, that possess cell walls and lack chlorophyll. side chain, it is derived from the thermal breakdown of Some species are pathogens of humans, animals and pentoses from cornstalks, corn cobs and bran plants. Certain fungi are used commercially (e.g. in the distillation. Often used as a solvent. Alternative production of enzymes and fermented foods). terms include fural and furaldehyde. Species such as Penicillium and Aspergillus are Furocoumarins Organic compounds containing important agents of food spoilage, while other spe- coumarin and a furan ring. Also known as furano- cies (e.g. Penicillium camemberti and P. roqueforti) coumarins. Produced in plants as chemical defence are desirable and essential in the ripening of certain agents. Levels in some plant foods notably pars- types of cheese. nips, celery, parsley, citrus fruits and grapefruit Fungicides Chemical substances with antifungal juices, can cause concern due to toxicity problems. activity. Used to kill or inhibit the growth of fungi May cause dermatitis and can affect the bioavail- that cause diseases of plants and animals. Most ability of some drugs. are applied as sprays or dusts and either have a sys- Furosine Amino sugar generated during acid hydroly- temic or protectant effect. Residues in foods and the sis of fructosyl-lysine. May be a useful indicator of the environment can represent a health hazard. Also extent of damage that occurs during the early stages of known as antimycotics. the Maillard reaction. Fural Alternative term for furfural. Furylfuramide Mutagenic nitrofuran compound (2-(2- Furaldehyde Alternative term for furfural. furyl)-3-(5-nitro-2-furyl)acrylamide). Historically Furaneol Synonym for 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy- widely used as a food additive in Japan, but was with- 3(2H)-furanone. One of the main flavour com- drawn after carcinogenicity testing led to concerns pounds in strawberries, and also present in pine- over its safety. Also known as AF-2. apples and roasted foods such as coffee. May be Fusaproliferin Mycotoxin produced by Fusarium used in food flavourings. spp., especially F. subglutinans and F. proliferatum. Furanones Important flavour compounds of May be produced, often in association with fu- strawberries, pineapples and various other fruits; monisin B1 and beauvericin, in Fusarium-infected also present in roasted foods such as roasted cof- cereals. fee, roasted almonds and popcorn. Include 2,5- Fusarenon X Trichothecene produced by Fusarium dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone (furaneol). spp. during growth on foods. Furans Any of a group of unsaturated heterocyclic Fusarin C Mycotoxin produced by Fusarium spp. compounds that occur as colourless, volatile liquids during growth on foods. Strongly mutagenic and pos- and are composed of a ring of four carbon atoms and sibly carcinogenic in humans. one oxygen atom. May also refer to the simplest of Fusarium Genus of fungi which occur in soil and these compounds, C4H4O, which is used as an organic decaying organic matter. Some species may cause intermediate. plant diseases, and the spoilage of stored fruits and Furazolidone Synthetic antibiotic once widely used vegetables. May also cause diseases in humans and for the treatment of Salmonella infections in cattle, animals through the production of mycotoxins on swine, sheep, poultry and farmed fish, and added to foods and feeds. feeds as a growth promoter. Now banned for use in Fusel oils Colourless viscous liquids with an unpleas- animals reared for food purposes in many countries ant aroma and flavour. Composed of a mixture of due to the potential for residues exhibiting carcino- amyl alcohol with higher alcohols and traces of other genicity to occur in foods derived from them. components. Present in distilled spirits as by-products 182 Fusidium Fynbo cheese of alcoholic fermentation. More toxic than etha- purification, while fusion with signal peptides can be nol. used to facilitate secretion of proteins from cells. Fuzzy control Control processes based on the theory Fusidium Obsolete name for a genus of fungi whose of fuzzy logic, an artificial intelligence concept used in species have been reclassified into other genera, in- expert systems for estimating the degree of cer- cluding Cylindrocarpon. tainty of conclusions. Fusion proteins Proteins containing amino acids Fuzzy logic process control A form of logic used sequences from two distinct proteins, formed by ex- in process control in which statements can be given pression of a recombinant gene in which two coding fractional values rather than simply true or false. sequences have been joined together in-frame. Fusion Fynbo cheese Danish semi-hard cheese made from of proteins with affinity tags can be used to facilitate pasteurized cow milk. G

Galactanases Common term for arabinogalactan mately 40% the sweetness of sucrose and is used endo-1,4-ȕ-galactosidases (EC 3.2.1.89), enzymes in sweeteners. that catalyse the endohydrolysis of 1,4-D-galactosidic Galactosidases Glycosidases in EC 3.2.1 com- linkages in arabinogalactans. Can be used for pro- prising Į-galactosidases, ȕ-galactosidases and duction of galactooligosaccharides by virtue of galactanases. their transglycosylation activity. Į-Galactosidases EC 3.2.1.22. Glycosidases Galactans Galactose polymers found in agar, car- which hydrolyse terminal, non-reducing Į-D-galactose rageenans, pectins and hemicelluloses. Com- residues in Į-D-galactosides, including galactose plete hydrolysis of galactans results in the production oligosaccharides, galactomannans and galac- of galactose only, whilst incomplete hydrolysis gener- tolipids. Can also hydrolyse Į-D-fucosides. Useful for ates galactooligosaccharides. hydrolysis of raffinose oligosaccharides which are Galactitol Polyol comprising six carbon atoms, pro- flatulence factors in legumes and their processed duced by isomerization of sorbitol. Has approxi- products, including soymilk. Also known as melibi- mately 10% the sweetness of sucrose. Also known ases. as dulcitol due to its presence in dulcite (Madagascan ȕ-Galactosidases EC 3.2.1.23. Glycosidases manna, Melampyrum nemorosum). which hydrolyse terminal non-reducing ȕ-D-galactose Galactolipids Glycolipids which contain galac- residues in ȕ-D-galactosides. Also catalyse transgly- tose residues and/or N-acetylgalactosamine. Found in cosylation reactions yielding galactooligosac- nervous tissue and plant membrane lipids. Include cer- charides. Used for production of low lactose tain cerebrosides. foods, where they hydrolyse lactose to glucose Galactomannans Polymers of D-galactose and D- and galactose. These modified foods, mainly dairy mannose found in bacteria, yeasts and legumes, products, are suitable for individuals who suffer possibly as storage polysaccharides. from lactose intolerance. Lactose hydrolysates are readily soluble and can be used as syrups for the Galactooligosaccharides Oligosaccharides that manufacture of baked goods and other foods. These consist mainly of galactose residues. Produced by enzymes are also useful for utilization of whey- action of ȕ-galactosidases on lactose. Present containing wastes. Also known as lactases. naturally in human milk and thought to be the main carbon source for Bifidobacterium in the neonatal Galactosides Glycosides formed from mixing ga- gastrointestinal tract. Added as prebiotics to in- lactose with an alcohol; on hydrolysis, galactose is fant formulas and probiotic foods, e.g. fer- produced. mented milk and yoghurt. Have approximately 0.2 Galacturonic acid Member of the uronic acids times the sweetness of sucrose and are useful in derived from D-galactose by oxidation of the alcohol food processing as they have greater thermal stabil- group of the carbon-6 atom to form a carboxyl group. ity and acid resistance than sucrose. For this reason, Found in pectins, plant gums and bacterial cell they have been included in jams and bread. walls. Galactosamine Derivative of galactose in which Galangal Rhizomes from the zingiberaceous plant, the hydroxyl group of the carbon-2 atom is replaced by Alpinia galanga or A. officinarum (lesser galangal). an amino group. Found in glycolipids, mucopoly- Similar to ginger, and used as a spice in South East saccharides and chondroitin sulfate. Asia and some other regions in flavourings for prod- Galactose Monosaccharide with six carbon atoms ucts such as curries, vinegar and wines. Also re- which occurs naturally as a component of many com- ported to have medicinal properties. plex plant-derived polysaccharides, such as Galgals Type of lemons produced by Citrus pseu- pectins and gums. Constituent of lactose, from dolimon, which are indigenous to and cultivated on a which it may be produced by hydrolysis. Has approxi- commercial scale in India. Used in manufacture of 184 Gallic acid Garlic pickles and as a source of fruit juices, peel, Gamma irradiation Exposure of foods to gamma pectins and essential oils. rays, generated by radioactive decay of cobalt-60 60 137 Gallic acid Also known as 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic ( Co) or caesium-137 ( Cs). Used for sterilization acid. This organic acid has antioxidative activity, or preservation purposes. Irradiation delays ripen- and is commonly used as a standard when measuring ing of fruits and vegetables, inhibits sprouting in levels of phenols in foods and beverages. Occurs bulbs and tubers, causes disinfestation of grain, naturally as a component of tannins, e.g. in tea. Gal- cereal products, fresh and dried fruits and vegeta- lic acid esters, such as octyl gallate and propyl bles, and destroys bacteria in fresh meat. Despite gallate, are used as antioxidants in the food indus- initial concerns among consumers over the safety of try. irradiation and irradiated foods, over 40 countries Gallocatechin gallate One of the catechols formed have approved the process for food use. by epimerization of epigallocatechin gallate, dur- Gamma rays Penetrating electromagnetic radiation of ing heating, pasteurization or autoclaving of shorter wavelength than X-rays. For food irradia- green tea or black tea. Found in relatively high tion, sources used for generation of gamma rays in- amounts in bottled or canned tea beverages. Dem- clude cobalt-60 (60Co) and caesium-137 (137Cs). onstrates hypocholesterolaemic activity. Gammon The thigh and adjacent parts, including the Gallstones Solid masses or stones that occur in the hind leg, of a side of bacon, usually cured while still gallbladder or bile ducts. They form when components part of the swine carcass. Preparation involves brin- of the bile precipitate out of solution and form crystals. ing of the meat as if it were to become bacon and then The most common type is composed mainly of cho- draining for about one week. Some gammon is cold- lesterol. Diet is believed to have a role in gallstone smoked before being sold, whilst other gammon is un- formation. smoked and is also known as pickled pork. Gammon is Game The collective name for birds and animals usually sold uncooked, but cut into small portions or which normally live in the wild and are hunted for sliced as gammon steaks. It is commonly cooked by sport or game meat. In many countries, game may baking or pan frying, or is cooked in a casserole with only be killed by people possessing a Game Licence vegetables or pulses. and a licence is also needed to sell game. Legislation Gangliosides Glycolipids composed of a fatty acid may also specify close seasons when game must not be (most often stearic acid) and an oligosaccharide, shot or open seasons when particular types of game containing hexose and sialic acid residues, attached may be shot. Game is regarded as a valuable asset on to a sphingosine. High concentrations are found in many farms. If wild game is managed carefully, it is central nervous system tissues. possible to produce a regular crop of game birds and animals which can be culled to provide game meat. A Ganoderma Edible fungi used in health foods and high level of consumer demand for game meat has led medicines, especially in China and Japan. Most com- to farming, including ranch-raising, of wild game; for mon example is Ganoderma lucidum. example, red deer have been farmed successfully in Garbanzo beans Alternative name for chick peas. Scotland, elands in Zimbabwe and reindeer in the north of Scandinavia. The majority of commercially Gardenia Genus of flowering plants. Fruits of Garde- available game meat is from farmed game. nia jasminoides are used as a source of food colorants. The colorants are primarily composed of yellow Game birds Heavy bodied, ground-nesting birds carotenoids, crocin and its congeners, and iridoid which are farmed or hunted for their meat. They be- glycosides such as geniposide. long to the order Galliformes and include grouse, guinea fowl, partridges, pheasants and quails. Gari Meal produced by roasting and drying fermented Game meat The meat of wild or farmed game cassava mash. Major food source in West Africa. (game birds or game animals). Game meat has a Protein content is low. May contain potentially toxic characteristic flavour and dark red colour. The fla- levels of residual cyanogens, depending on the proc- vour and aroma of game meat may be very strong; to essing techniques used. decrease these characteristics, game meat is often Garlic Pungent, edible bulbs of Allium sativum. One of marinated before cooking. Game meat tends to have a the world's most widely used spices, used to flavour low fat content, which is attractive to consumers, but many different dishes. Each bulb comprises a number can make it difficult to cook. Meat from game animals, of cloves, which release a characteristic aroma when such as wild boars and bears, may be infested with peeled and crushed. This aroma is due to the presence Trichinella spiralis larvae; such meat must be cooked of allicin, which is believed to play a key role in the thoroughly to avoid the risk of trichinosis. beneficial health effects reported for garlic. As well as 185 Garlic oils Geese being used fresh, much of the crop is further processed as alcoholic beverages) and infection with to yield garlic powder, garlic salt or garlic oils. Helicobacter pylori. Garlic oils Highly pungent essential oils obtained Gastroenteritis Inflammation of the mucous mem- from garlic. Used in spice mixes and other flavour- branes of the stomach and intestines. Major causes in- ings. Major constituent is allyl sulfide. clude a range of pathogens that may be ingested via Garnishes Decorative and edible accompaniments to contaminated foods and water supplies. These in- sweet or savoury dishes, usually added just before clude species of Salmonella, Shigella, Campylo- serving. May be placed on the plate beside the dish or bacter and Vibrio, and Escherichia coli, rotavi- applied to the surface of the food. Vary greatly in size ruses and small round structured viruses. and content, including sprigs of parsley or other Gastrointestinal tract The organ commencing at the herbs, salad vegetables, croutons, slices of fruit, mouth and finishing at the anus, including the stomach whole fruits and chocolate shapes. Garnishes often and intestines, into which foods are taken and digested, indicate the main ingredient or flavour of a dish. and from which nutrients and non-nutrients are absorbed into the body, and waste is excreted. Gas chromatography Chromatography technique, usually abbreviated to GC, in which the sample Gastropods Common name for molluscs within the is vaporized and injected into a carrier gas (mobile class Gastropoda; characterized by a single muscular phase) that moves through a column, the inner surface foot. Includes snails (aquatic and marine), limpets of which is coated with a stationary phase. Sample and sea slugs. components are separated on the basis of their affinity Gateaux French word for cakes. Can refer to plain or for the stationary phase, and identified by the time they fancy cakes, e.g. made from layers of sponge cakes are retained by the stationary phase. A range of detec- filled and topped with fruits, jelly or cream. tion techniques can be used in combination with gas GATT Abbreviation for General Agreement on chromatography, including mass spectroscopy Trade and Tariffs. (GC-MS). Gauges Instruments that measure and give a visual Gases Substances which have no fixed shape, low display of amounts, levels or contents. density and viscosity and no fixed volume, but which Gayal meat Meat from gayals, which are a type of will adopt the volume of the space available, irrespec- semi-domesticated oxen. tive of the amount present. Composed of widely sepa- Gayals Large, semi-domesticated oxen found in In- rated molecules which may be easily compressed and dia. Semi-domesticated form of the gaur (Bos gaurus) has the ability to diffuse readily. Distinct from the that is sometimes classified as Bos frontalis. Raised for solid and liquid states. their meat and milk. Bulls are crossed with English Gas liquid chromatography Chromatography cattle breeds to produce good quality beef cattle. technique in which the mobile phase is a gas and the Gazelle meat Meat from gazelles, which include stationary phase is a liquid adsorbed on a porous solid several species of small, slender antelope, many of in a tube or on the inner surface of a capillary column. which belong to the genera Gazella of the family Bo- Usually abbreviated to GLC. Components of the sam- vidae. The meat is usually obtained from wild game ple are partitioned between the gas and liquid phases, animals and is appreciated for its tenderness. the rate at which they are eluted from the column de- Gazelles Any of several species of small, slender an- pending on their partition coefficients. They are identi- telopes, many of which belong to the genus Gazella fied by the time taken to reach the detector for the sys- of the family Bovidae. Found wild in Africa, the Mid- tem. dle East and Asia. Source of gazelle meat. Gassericins Bacteriocins produced by Lactoba- Gbure Common name for Talinum triangulare, a leafy cillus gasseri. vegetable consumed in West and Central Africa. High Gastric cancer A form of cancer involving the un- in fibre and rich in essential amino acids. controlled growth of abnormal cells in the stomach. GC Abbreviation for gas chromatography. Several lifestyle factors have been associated with in- GC-MS Abbreviation for gas chromatography creased gastric cancer risk, including high intakes of combined with mass spectroscopy. salt and smoked foods, low intakes of fruits and Geese The common name for any of numerous do- vegetables, cigarette smoking and overweight and mesticated or wild waterfowl belonging to the family obesity. Infection with Helicobacter pylori is also a Anatidae, in which they comprise several genera (e.g. major risk factor for gastric cancer development. Anser and Branta). Most domesticated geese are kept Gastritis Inflammation of the stomach. Causes can in small flocks under free-range conditions for produc- include consumption of corrosives and irritants (such tion of goose eggs and goose meat. A male goose 186 Gelatin Gene-nutrient interactions is called a gander, whilst the female is a goose and the Gellan gums Gums containing gellan, a microbial sexually immature young (with down rather than polysaccharide produced by Sphingomonas pauci- feathers) is a gosling. mobilis ATCC 31461 (formerly Pseudomonas elodea), Gelatin Soluble protein extracted from animal colla- which form transparent and heat- or acid-resistant gen, bones or connective tissues using hot water gels. Widely used as thickeners and gelling and acid or alkaline treatment. Widely used in the food agents in foods. industry in gelling agents, e.g. in aspic, jellies, Gelling Alternative term for gelation. ice cream, yoghurt and canned meat, and can also Gelling agents Additives used to promote gela- act as emulsifiers or stabilizers, e.g. in marsh- tion. Used in manufacture of jellies and other food mallows and confectionery fillings. Lacks the es- gels. Commonly used gelling agents include pectins, sential amino acid tryptophan, but is a source of sev- agar, guar gums and gellan gums. eral other amino acids. Alternatively spelled gela- Gelling capacity One of the functional properties tine. of a substance concerned with its ability to form a gel. Gelatinization Process involving disruption of mo- Gel permeation chromatography Size exclu- lecular order within starch granules as a result of sion chromatography technique in which separa- heating in water. Occurs over a temperature range and tion is based on the hydrodynamic volume of mole- is also affected by granule size. Alterations caused in- cules. Samples are applied to a column of gel, e.g. clude irreversible swelling, loss of birefringence, polyacrylamides, cross-linked dextrans or large poly- leaching of amylose and reduced crystallinity. Pro- saccharides, and components are separated on the basis longed heating of the starch granules will eventually of their ability to penetrate the pores of the gel beads lead to total disruption. while being washed through with an organic mobile Gelation Process of gels formation by coagulation phase. May be used to analyse the molecular weight of sols or aggregation of particles. Formed in a vari- distribution and polydispersity index of organic- ety of ways according to the type of material con- soluble polymers. cerned. In the case of polymer molecules, gelation is Gels Solid or semi-solid jelly-like colloids, such as caused by formation of intermolecular crosslinks dur- those formed when gelatin is mixed with hot water ing heating or cooling. Aggregation of particles may be and allowed to cool. Products such as pectins and induced by a variety of stimuli including changes in agar are well known for their gel-forming ability. pH or ionic strength. Also called gelling. Gels, including agar gels, are widely used as food Gel electrophoresis Electrophoresis technique in stabilizers and thickeners. which separation is performed in a gel, usually comprising agarose or polyacrylamide. Gene cloning Insertion of DNA sequences containing genes into vectors (e.g. plasmids or viruses) that Gel filtration Size exclusion chromatography can then be propagated in a host organism, thus pro- technique in which separation is based on the hydro- ducing multiple copies of the gene of interest. dynamic volume of molecules. Samples are applied to a column of gel, e.g. polyacrylamides, cross-linked Gene disruption Use of both in vitro and in vivo dextrans or large polysaccharides, and components are recombination to replace wild type genes or DNA se- separated on the basis of their ability to penetrate the quences with a mutant version. pores of the gel beads while being washed through Gene expression The process by which proteins with an aqueous mobile phase. May be used for the are produced from their coding genes by means of fractionation of proteins and other water-soluble transcription followed by translation. polymers, and determination of molecular weight. Gene libraries Collections of cloned DNA fragments Gelidium Genus of red seaweeds known as in which the inserted sequences together represent en- onigusa in Japan. Eaten in some Asian countries, also tire genomes of organisms (genomic libraries). Al- a source of agar. ternatively, the cloned DNA may be composed of Gellan Exopolysaccharide produced by Sphingomo- cDNA molecules formed from an mRNA template nas paucimobilis ATCC 31461 (formerly Pseudomo- (cDNA libraries), thus representing only the expressed nas elodea) which is composed of a tetrasaccharide re- portions of genomes. peating unit comprising glucose, rhamnose and Gene-nutrient interactions Relationships between glucuronic acid in the ratio 2:1:1, and with acyl sub- nutritional status and genotype and their impact stitution of one of the glucose residues. Forms gels in on human physiology and health, e.g. certain nu- the presence of cations and used as gelling agents trients may affect carcinogenesis but only in indi- and thickeners in foods. viduals with a genetic predisposition to cancer or a certain genetic polymorphism may impact on car- 187 Gene probes Gene transfer cinogenesis, but only in individuals having a particular Genetically modified foods Commonly abbreviated nutritional status. Also describes the molecular effects to GM foods, but also referred to as genetically en- of nutrients on DNA and gene expression. gineered foods. Foods and beverages that have been Gene probes Molecules that have been labelled with genetically modified or that have been prepared with radioactive isotopes, fluorescent dyes or enzymes that agents (e.g. enzymes) or ingredients that have been bind selectively to specific genes, thus allowing iden- modified using genetic techniques. Used to confer tification or isolation. Also know as oligonucleotide new properties such as resistance to herbicides or probes. pests, enhanced nutritional values or extended shelf life. Regulations governing the cultivation and General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs The labelling of GM foods and feeds still varies widely General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) was between individual countries. Consumer accept- a treaty and international trade organization in exis- ability of these products is also highly variable. tence from 1948 to 1995. GATT members worked to Genetically modified microorganisms Microor- minimize tariffs, quotas, preferential trade agreements ganisms that have been modified by genetic tech- between countries, and other barriers to international niques to enhance their properties or confer upon trade. In 1995, GATT's functions were taken over by them new properties. Abbreviated to GM microorgan- the World Trade Organization (WTO), an interna- isms. tional body that administers trade laws and provides a forum for settling trade disputes among nations. GATT Genetically modified organisms Organisms that members sponsored eight specially organized rounds have been modified by genetic techniques to en- of trade negotiations. The last round of negotiations, hance their properties or confer upon them new proper- called the Uruguay Round, began in 1986 and ended in ties. Abbreviated to GM organisms or GMO. 1994. At the end of the negotiations, the members of Genetic disorders Deleterious effects caused by GATT, as well as representatives from seven other na- alterations in the genetic material of organisms that tions, signed a trade pact that will eventually cut tariffs may or may not be inherited in a Mendelian fashion. overall by about one-third and reduce or eliminate Genetic engineering General term covering various other obstacles to trade. The pact also took steps to- genetic techniques for in vitro manipulation of ge- ward opening trade in investments and services among netic material. Can be used for construction of new member nations and strengthening protection for intel- genes or novel combinations of genes, usually for in- lectual property. Throughout 1995, GATT and the sertion into host cells, placing genes under the control WTO coexisted while GATT members sought their of different regulatory systems or introducing specific governments' approval for WTO membership. After mutations into DNA molecules. the transition period, GATT ceased to exist. All of the 128 nations that were contracting parties to the 1994 Genetic fingerprinting Process by which different GATT agreement eventually transferred membership DNA samples are compared to determine if they are to the WTO. from the same individual, strain or species. Usually uses PCR to compare the characteristic polymorphic Genes Units of inheritance that occupy specific loci patterns of highly variable regions of genomic DNA, within nucleic acid molecules (e.g. chromosomes, although a combination of RFLP and Southern blot- plasmids). Consist of specific DNA sequences that ting may also be used. Also known as DNA finger- code for functional polypeptides or RNA molecules printing. (e.g. rRNA, tRNA). Eukaryotic genes often consist of coding units (exons) separated by one or more non- Genetic mapping Process by which the relative posi- coding unit (introns). tions of genes on DNA molecules (usually chromosomes) and the distances between them are deter- Gene silencing Various genetic techniques used mined. to suppress gene expression. Includes antisense Genetics The study of heredity and variation, i.e. the technology and RNA interference technology. patterns of inheritance of specific traits. May also be induced by viral infection. Genetic techniques Methods used in the study of Genetically engineered foods Foods that have genetics and for the manipulation of genetic material. been modified or that have been prepared with agents, e.g. enzymes, or contain ingredients that have been Genetic variants Organisms and cells that differ in modified using genetic techniques. Used to confer phenotype due to differences in genotype, rather new properties such as enhanced nutritional values than to environmental factors. and prolonged shelf life. More commonly referred to Gene transfer General term for insertion of foreign as genetically modified foods or GM foods. genes into cells or organisms. 188 Geniposide Germination Geniposide Iridoid glucoside which is found in the Geographical origin The specific geographical loca- fruits of Gardenia jasminoides and is a constituent of tion (e.g. town, region, country) from which foods or gardenia yellow, a natural colorant used in a range of beverages originate. Can be used to establish the au- foods. Can be transformed into a blue pigment, which thenticity and quality of a product. Certain foods and is also of potential use as a food colorant, by enzymic beverages can only be produced in a defined geo- hydrolysis to genipin and reaction with amino acids. graphical area, and labelling schemes and regulations Genistein Yellow isoflavone which occurs in free or have been implemented to indicate their authenticity, glucosidic form and has a weak oestrogenic effect. such as the Protected Designation of Origin scheme Found in soybeans, chick peas, lucerne and clo- and other geographical indications established in EU ver. legislation. Geosmin Heterocyclic volatile compound which natu- Genomes The genetic material of an organism or cell, rally occurs in fresh water and imparts musty and comprising the complete set of genes. earthy flavour and aroma taints to beverages Genomics The study of genomes. such as drinking water and wines, as well as to Genotoxicity Quality or degree of being capable of freshwater fish. exerting a damaging effect on the DNA that forms Geotrichum Genus of fungi of the family Dipodasca- genes. ceae. Occur in soil, water, dairy products and Genotype The genetic constitution of an organism or grains. Species may be involved in the production of cell that determines the expression of specific traits. fermented foods, or may cause food spoilage. Geotrichum candidum imparts flavour and aroma to Genotyping Genetic techniques (e.g. repetitive many types of cheese, and plays an important role in DNA sequence analysis, RAPD, gene sequence analy- ripening of soft cheese; it also assists in the fer- sis, PCR, PFGE and RFLP) used to determine and mentation of cocoa. However, it can also cause compare the genetic constitution of organisms and spoilage of cream and butter, sour rot of citrus cells. May be used in strain identification of mi- fruits, peaches and tomatoes, and watery soft rot croorganisms to determine pathogenicity or to of vegetables. G. citri-aurantii also causes sour rot trace the source of outbreaks. of citrus fruits. G. klebahnii produces polygalactu- Gentamicin One of the aminoglycoside antibiotics ronases with pectin-releasing activity. used to treat a range of bacterial infections in farm Geranial Structural trans isomer of citral derived animals. Used especially in swine for treatment of from oxidation of geraniol and present in lemon- colibacillosis and swine dysentry; also used for treat- grass oils. ment of mastitis in cattle. Depletes relatively slowly Geraniol Colourless or pale yellow unsaturated from tissues, particularly kidneys. Relatively long monoterpene alcohol which has a rose-like aroma and withdrawal periods are required for animals intended occurs in geranium and rose essential oils. Used in for consumption. flavourings. Gentians Plants of the genus Gentiana. Bitter Geranyl acetate Volatile compound occurring as one compounds extracted from rhizomes and roots of of the natural flavour compounds in the essential these species are used in beverages, foods and medi- oils of many herbs and spices. Extracted as a col- cines. ourless liquid by fractional distillation of selected es- Gentiobiose Disaccharide reducing sugar produced sential oils or prepared by acetylation of geraniol. by reaction of two molecules of glucose in the pres- Used in flavourings for foods and beverages. ence of ȕ-glucosidases. Systematic name is 6-O-ȕ- Germ Germinating portion or embryo of a cereal grain D-glucopyranosyl-D-glucose. which is extracted and discarded when the grain is Geobacillus Genus of rod shaped, aerobic, thermo- milled to make white flour. High in fats and several philic Gram positive bacteria of the family Bacil- vitamins. laceae. Widely distributed in nature. Species produce a Germicides Antimicrobial chemical agents used for range of thermostable enzymes. For example, Geo- disinfection, antisepsis or sterilization. bacillus stearothermophilus produces arabinose Germination Sprouting of a seed, spore or other re- isomerases and xylan degrading enzymes, G. productive body. Influenced by a number of factors, thermoleovorans produces pullulanases, esterases including temperature, light and oxygen supply. Used and lipases, G. thermodenitrificans produces Į- commercially in preparation of cereals for manufac- amylases, G. caldoxylolyticus produces Į-N- ture of alcoholic beverages, and in production of arabinofuranosidases and G. pallidus produces mushrooms. xylan 1,4-ȕ-xylosidases. 189 Germination capacity Ginsenosides Germination capacity Ability of a seed to germi- exception of livers, are often used to make gravy, nate. stocks or soups. Gesatop Alternative term for the herbicide simazine. Gigartina Genus of seaweeds found on rocky shores Gestagens Steroid hormones which induce proges- around the world. Some species are used as a source of tational effects in the uterus. carrageenans and nutraceuticals in the food indus- Ghee Product made from butter; originally produced try. in India but now more widespread. Butter is melted at Gin Spirits made by flavouring rectified ethanol with a high temperature, during which moisture is evapo- juniper and other plant ingredients, usually by re- rated. Proteins are then removed from the melted but- distillation of the spirits with the flavourings. ter by centrifugation. Gingelly oils Alternative term for sesame oils. Gherkins West Indian gherkins are fruits produced by Gingelly seeds Alternative term for sesame Cucumis anguria. Usually 4-5 cm long, and used seeds. mainly in pickles. In Europe, the term gherkins usu- Ginger Rhizomes from Zingiber officinale. Used fresh ally refers to small ridge cucumbers. or dried as spices in a number of foods and bever- Ghrelin A peptide hormone produced by cells lining ages, including gingerbread and ginger beer. the stomach which stimulates appetite. Plasma levels Pungency is due to the presence of gingerols. May increase prior to a meal and decrease afterwards. Ghre- also refer to related Curcuma spp. such as C. xanthor- lin also encourages the secretion of growth hormone rhiza. (somatotropin) from the anterior pituitary gland. Ginger ale Ginger-flavoured sweetened carbon- Giardia Genus of flagellate protozoan parasites of ated beverages, often added to spirits such as the family Hexamitidae. Alternates between two dif- whisky or brandy prior to consumption. ferent forms: a hardy, dormant cyst that contaminates water and food; and an active, disease-causing form Ginger beer Effervescent ginger-flavoured bever- that emerges after the parasite has been ingested. Infec- ages. Traditionally, these are slightly alcoholic and tion can occur through ingestion of dormant cysts in made by fermentation of a sugar medium contain- contaminated food and water, or by the faecal-oral ing ginger and other flavourings. Industrial produc- route (through poor hygiene practices). Cysts can tion often does not involve fermentation, and the resul- survive for weeks to months in cold water, and can tant product is usually alcohol-free and marketed as a therefore be present in contaminated wells, well wa- soft drink. ter and water systems; the cysts are resistant to con- Gingerbread Dark molasses-based cakes or bis- ventional treatments such as chlorination and cuits flavoured with ground ginger and other ozonation. Giardia lamblia, the causative agent of spices. Often cut into shapes, decorated and glazed. giardiasis in humans, attaches itself to the intestinal Gingerols Phenolic ketones which are the major mucosa and feeds on mucous secretions. pungent principles of fresh ginger. Giardiasis Disease caused by infection with Giardia Ginjoshu Type of sake. lamblia. Commonly transmitted through ingestion of Ginkgo nuts Seeds produced by Ginkgo biloba food or water contaminated with cysts. Characterized (maidenhair tree), a plant grown in Asia. Fresh nuts by watery diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, nausea and are soaked in hot water to loosen the skin. Also avail- flatulence. Infection may be asymptomatic. able dried and canned in brines. Used widely in Japa- Gibberellic acid Plant growth regulator belonging to nese cooking and in Chinese medicines. the gibberellins group which may be obtained commercially by culture filtration of the fungus Gibberella Ginseng Root of the plant Panax ginseng, used for fujikuroi. preparation of ginseng beverages. Widely considered to have health-promoting properties, possibly re- Gibberellins plant growth regu- Any of a group of lated to the presence of saponins (ginsenosides). lators originally produced by Gibberella fujikuroi. Promotes processes such as stem elongation, germi- Ginseng beverages Beverages that contain gin- nation and flowering. Often used to stimulate germi- seng as a major ingredient. Considered by some to be nation of dormant grain such as barley during health beverages. malting. Ginseng saponins Alternative term for ginse- Giblets Edible offal from the carcasses of poultry nosides. and game birds. Giblets include the livers, hearts, Ginsenosides Complex mixture of saponins which gizzards and necks of the birds; they are usually re- are believed to be the active components of ginseng, moved before the birds are cooked. Giblets, with the Panax ginseng, and are thought to be responsible for 190 Girdling Glucanases the reported health benefits associated with this plant. shiny coating after setting. For example, milk or beaten Also known as ginseng saponins. eggs can be brushed onto pastry before baking to Girdling Removal of a strip of bark from the circum- add colour and shine. ference of a tree, with the intention of improving GLC Abbreviation for gas liquid chromatography. growth or quality of fruits. Gliadins Cereal proteins from the endosperm of Gizzards Muscular, thick-walled stomachs of birds, wheat or rye. The elastic constituent of gluten. which lie between the proventriculus and the upper Gliocladium Genus of mitosporic filamentous fungi limit of the small intestine; poultry gizzards form a part of the order Hypocreales and class Sordariomycetes. of edible offal. In birds, the function of the gizzard is Occur in soil and decaying plant material. Causes pink to grind food, typically with swallowed grit and small rot of plants, including palms, particularly in winter. stones. Telomorphs of Gliocladium include Nectria, Hypocrea Glass Brittle, usually transparent or translucent mate- and Nectriopsis. Certain Gliocladium spp. can be used rial used widely to make bottles and other contain- to control various fungal diseases in food crops. ers. Manufactured by fusing sand (silica and silicates) Gliotoxin Mycotoxin produced by Trichoderma with soda and lime. Also refers to individual drinking viride and species of Aspergillus, Gliocladium and vessels made from glass. Penicillium. Inhibits replication of certain viruses Glass bottles Bottles made from glass which are (e.g. polioviruses) and also exhibits antibacterial commonly used as containers for beverages and activity, antifungal activity and antitumour ac- other liquids. Available in a range of shapes, capacities tivity. and colour. Globe artichokes Common name for Cynara scoly- Glass containers Containers made from glass mus. Plant has a large, thistle-like flower head with which may be used to store or package a range of edible fleshy leaves and heart. Generally eaten cooked, foods. Include glass bottles, beakers, jars and pots. either hot or cold, and can be canned. Small, immature Glassine Smooth, thin, glossy transparent or semi- flower heads may also be consumed, cooked and pre- transparent paper made primarily from chemical served in olive oils. Globe artichokes are high in fi- wood pulps. Has a high resistance to transmission of bre, low in fat and calories, and rich in vitamin A and air and is grease resistant. To make it impervious to vitamin C. water vapour, some glassine is lacquered, laminated or Globins Animal proteins that contain some arginine waxed. Used for wrapping food. and tryptophan, are rich in histidine and are deficient Glassiness Optical properties relating to the ex- in isoleucine. They often form the protein portion of tent to which a product appears to have the surface conjugated proteins, e.g. the globins in haemoglobin properties of glass, i.e. smoothness, uniformity, shini- or myoglobin. ness and glossiness. Globulins Any of a class of spherical or globular Glass transition Reversible sudden transition of an shaped high molecular weight proteins which are amorphous polymer from a glassy condition to a flexi- relatively insoluble in water and soluble in dilute salt ble condition when it is heated to a specific tempera- solutions. Found widely throughout nature; they in- ture range (glass transition temp.). Due to a clude lactoglobulins, serum globulins and immu- change in the arrangement of the polymer molecules noglobulins. Subdivided into Į-, ȕ- and Ȗ-globulins. from a coiled and motionless state to one where they Ȗ-Globulins A fraction of globulins obtained follow- are free to move. ing separation of plasma globulins by SDS-PAGE. Glass transition temp. Temperature range at which Occur in animal tissues and products derived from the glass transition (change from a glassy to a them, and include immunoglobulins. flexible condition) of polymers takes place. Value var- Gloss Optical properties relating to the surface ies according to the polymer and the range is relatively lustre or sheen on a product. Gloss is important to the small. attractiveness of specific products such as gelatin Glazes Substances, such as milk, beaten eggs or thin desserts and buttered vegetables. jams, which are used to create a shiny appearance or Glucagon Polypeptide hormone secreted by pancre- provide protective coatings on foods. Also, smooth, atic cells in response to a decrease in serum glucose. glossy, glass-like materials fused onto the surface of Acts by promoting the conversion of liver glycogen pottery, where they form hard, impervious decorative into glucose, thereby increasing the level of blood coatings. sugar, and has an opposite effect to that of insulin. Glazing Application of a liquid, such as milk or Glucanases General term for enzymes that hydro- beaten eggs, to hot or cold foods to produce a smooth, lyse glucans. Include glucan endo-1,3-ȕ-D- 191 ȕ-Glucanases Glucono-į-lactone glucosidases, endo-1,3(4)-ȕ-glucanases and Glucitol Alternative term for sorbitol. licheninases. Glucoamylases Alternative term for glucan 1,4-Į- ȕ-Glucanases Alternative term for endo-1,3(4)-ȕ- glucosidases. glucanases. Glucobrassicin Alternative term for 3-indolylmethyl 1,4-Į-Glucan branching enzymes EC 2.4.1.18. glucosinolate, one of the major glucosinolates Glycosyltransferases which transfer a segment of a found in vegetables of the genera Brassica and 1,4-Į-D-glucan chain to a primary hydroxyl group in a Raphanus. similar glucan chain. Convert amyloses into amy- Glucocorticoids Any of a group of corticosteroids lopectins in plants and produce glycogen in bac- secreted by the adrenal cortex that controls carbohy- teria. Commonly referred to in plants as starch drate and protein metabolism by promoting glycogen branching enzymes, and their activity is important for deposition in the liver. Glucocorticoids have anti- starch structure. inflammatory activity. Glucan endo-1,3-ȕ-D-glucosidases EC 3.2.1.39. Glucokinases EC 2.7.1.2. Kinases which, along Glycosidases which hydrolyse 1,3-ȕ-D-glucosidic with hexokinases, catalyse the transfer of a phos- linkages in 1,3- -D-glucans. Also known as laminari- ȕ phate group from ATP to D-glucose to form D- nases. Important in the malting and brewing indus- glucose 6-phosphate, the first reaction of glycolysis. tries, and potentially useful for production of func- Often measured to assess metabolism of carbohy- tional oligosaccharides. May be involved in the drates. Also used as an alternative name for ripening/softening of fruits and in plant defence. hexokinases (EC 2.7.1.1). Glucan 1,4- -glucosidases EC 3.2.1.3. Also Į Glucomannans Viscous polysaccharides com- known as glucoamylases, these enzymes hydrolyse prising glucose and mannose which occur naturally terminal 1,4-linked -D-glucose residues successively Į in the food reserves of some plants, such as konjac from non-reducing ends of chains, releasing -D- ȕ (elephant yams). Like galactomannans they glucose. Can also hydrolyse -D-1,6-glucosidic link- Į form thermally reversible gels with xanthan. ages, although at a slower rate. Useful for degradation of starch (saccharification) for production of Gluconacetobacter Genus of acetic acid bacteria sugar syrups and for conversion of residual dex- of the family Acetobacteraceae, containing species trins to fermentable sugars during production of low previously included in the genus Acetobacter. Found calorie beer. in a wide variety of fruits and fruit nectars, where they can cause spoilage. Some species (e.g. Glu- 4-Į-Glucanotransferases EC 2.4.1.25. Glycosyl- conacetobacter europaeus) are used in the manufac- transferases which transfer a segment of a 1,4-Į-D- ture of vinegar. glucan to a new position in an acceptor, which may be Gluconates Salts of gluconic acid. Used as acidu- glucose or another 1,4-Į-D-glucan. Involved in starch metabolism in plants. Applications include the lants or chelating agents in foods, beverages, synthesis of cycloamylose and modified starches, food supplements, pharmaceuticals, etc. Also used and, together with maltogenic amylases, these en- as carriers for minerals in food fortification. Ob- zymes may also be useful for the synthesis of isomal- tained by the fermentation of glucose. tooligosaccharides, useful as low calorie sweet- Gluconic acid Organic acid which is soluble in water eners and prebiotics. Also known as dispropor- and alcohol and is formed by oxidation of glucose in tionating enzymes, dextrin glycosyltransferases, amy- which the CHO group has been converted to COOH. lomaltases and D-enzymes. Predominant acid found in honeys. Glucans Soluble, indigestible polysaccharides Gluconobacter Genus of Gram negative, aerobic, composed predominantly of D-glucose residues and rod-shaped acetic acid bacteria of the family Ace- found in cereals such as oats, barley and rye. tobacteraceae. Occur in soil, plants, fruits, cider, ȕ-Glucans Polysaccharides composed of D- beer, wines and flowers. Species are used in the pro- glucose in either straight or branched chains with ȕ- duction of vinegar, and may cause spoilage of beer. glycosidic linkages. Present in the bran of most cere- An important industrial microbial strain. Frequently als, particularly barley and oats, and in yeasts and used in biotechnological applications such as biocon- mushrooms. Certain ȕ-glucans exhibit potentially versions, biotransformations and technology in- beneficial biological activities and are used as sources volving biosensors. Most of these processes make of soluble fibre in dietary supplements and use of membrane-bound polyol dehydrogenases functional foods. and dextran dextrinases. Glucides Subclass of saccharides. Glucono-į-lactone Lactone that forms gluconic acid when dissolved in water. Used as an acidulant 192 Glucooligosaccharides Glucosides and hence to induce gelation in a range of foods, and packaging, thus protecting against oxidative deterio- as a leavening agent in bakery products. Also fre- ration. quently used as an additive in cheese, meat and Glucose-6-phosphate Primary metabolite of glu- sausages. cose in living cells. Formation of glucose-6- Glucooligosaccharides Oligosaccharides with a phosphate from glucose is the first reaction in glyco- range of structures based on glucose. Many are partly lysis and is catalysed by hexokinases. or totally resistant to digestive enzymes in the human Glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferases EC gastrointestinal tract, but can be fermented by 2.7.7.27. Also known as ADP-glucose pyrophosphory- colonic microflora to produce short chain fatty lases, these enzymes transfer a phosphate group from acids. Used as dietary prebiotics either alone or in ATP to Į-D-glucose 1-phosphate to form pyrophos- conjunction with probiotic bacteria to regulate gas- phate and ADP-glucose. They are key enzymes in the trointestinal transit, improve the composition of the starch biosynthetic pathway in plants. colonic microflora and provide various other health Glucose syrups Syrups consisting predominantly benefits, such as reduced risk of colorectal cancer. of glucose. Produced commercially by hydrolysis Dextransucrases from bacteria such as Leu- of starch; corn starch is the most commonly used conostoc mesenteroides can be used to prepare glu- substrate. Included in a variety of foods to adjust fla- cooligosaccharides. vour, colour, texture and stability. Glucoraphanin One of the naturally occurring glucosinolates found in Cruciferae, e.g. broccoli, Glucose tolerance Ability of the body to metabolize cabbages and cauliflowers. Metabolized to sul- glucose in the bloodstream. Impaired glucose toler- foraphane which has been attributed with antim- ance is a pre-diabetic state of dysglycaemia that is as- icrobial activity and anticarcinogenicity. Young sociated with insulin resistance, the metabolic sprouts of broccoli and cauliflowers are particularly syndrome and increased risk of cardiovascular rich in glucoraphanin. Also called sulforaphane glu- diseases. Glucose tolerance tests are one of the tools cosinolate. used to diagnose diabetes. Glucosamine Crystalline amino derivative of glu- Glucosidases General term for glycosidases cose and the principal component of chitin, muco- which act on glucose residues specifically. Histori- proteins and mucopolysaccharides. cally, a more general term for glycosidases. Glucose Monosaccharide with six carbon atoms. Free Į-Glucosidases EC 3.2.1.20. Glycosidases which glucose is present naturally in fruits and honeys and hydrolyse terminal, non-reducing 1,4-linked Į-D- it is the monomer unit from which starch and cellu- glucose residues of oligosaccharides and Į-D- loses are synthesized; commercial manufacture of glucosides. Polysaccharides are hydrolysed rela- glucose is by hydrolysis of starch. It is the main energy tively slowly. Hydrolyse carbohydrates including source for living cells. Glucose is a constituent of su- maltose, sucrose and starch and catalyse a variety crose and is used in sweeteners. Free glucose has of transglycosylation reactions, e.g. for the synthe- 0.7-0.8 times the sweetness of sucrose. The D- sis of prebiotics. Į-Glucosidase inhibitors in foods stereoisomer of glucose is known as dextrose. may be useful in controlling postprandial hypergly- Glucose isomerases EC entry for these enzymes caemia for type 2 diabetes management. Also known has been deleted. Activity now attributed to xylose as maltases and glucoinvertases. isomerases (EC 5.3.1.5) or, in the presence of arse- ȕ-Glucosidases EC 3.2.1.21. Glycosidases which nate, to glucose-6-phosphate isomerases (EC 5.3.1.9). hydrolyse terminal non-reducing ȕ-D-glucose residues The term glucose isomerases is still used widely, how- with the release of ȕ-D-glucose. Substrates include ever. Catalyse the isomerization of glucose to cellobiose, cellooligosaccharides and aryl-ȕ- fructose and used for large scale production of fruc- glucosides. These enzymes have a number of uses tose high corn syrups and dextrins for use in a in the food industry, including debittering of table variety of foods and beverages. olives, increasing the aroma of wines, enrichment Glucose oxidases EC 1.1.3.4. Flavoenzymes that of genistein in soy protein concentrates and release of phenols from phenolic glycosides in plant oxidize ȕ-D-glucose to ȕ-D-gluconic acid and H2O2. Used for stabilizing foods and beverages by removing tissues. glucose and O2, and preventing deterioration of col- Glucosides A range of glycosides found mainly in our and flavour (e.g. liquid egg whites, fruit plants, the sugar component of which is glucose. juices, beer, wines, mayonnaise, bread dough These compounds may be useful as aroma precursors, and cheese). Also used in biosensors for determi- pigments and surfactants, and may exhibit anti- nation of glucose levels and for removal of O2 in food oxidative activity. However, cyanogenic glucosides 193 Glucosinolases Glutathione found in several plants are a potential source of cya- Glutamate dehydrogenases Dehydrogenases nides and are therefore potentially toxic. which catalyse the conversion of glutamate to 2- oxoglutarate ( -ketoglutarate) and ammonia, using Glucosinolases Alternative term for thioglucosi- Į NAD+ (EC 1.4.1.2), NAD(P)+ (EC 1.4.1.3) or NADP+ dases. (EC 1.4.1.4) as acceptors. Useful for determination of Glucosinolates Class of glucosides which are glutamic acid contents of foods. Production of these found in Brassica spp. (e.g. broccoli, cabbages, enzymes by lactic acid bacteria may be important radishes). Degraded by thioglucosidases to pro- for flavour development in certain dairy products, duce mustard oils, accounting for the pungent flavour including cheese. of these compounds. Thought to be anticarcino- Glutamate oxidases Alternative term for L- gens, which may increase the rate at which potential glutamate oxidases. carcinogens are excreted and enhance apoptosis L-Glutamate oxidases EC 1.4.3.11. Flavoprotein of cancerous cells. At high doses, may cause goitre in oxidases which convert L-glutamate to 2- combination with a diet low in iodine. oxoglutarate and ammonia. Used in biosensors for Glucosyltransferases Members of subclass EC determination of L-glutamic acid levels in foods and, 2.4.1, the hexosyltransferase group of glycosyltrans- in combination with other enzymes, for detection of ferases. Catalyse the transfer of glucosyl groups from aspartame and aspartic acid. Have also been used a donor molecule to an acceptor. Can also be referred for detection of the neurotoxin ȕ-N-oxalyl-Į,ȕ- to as transglucosylases. diaminopropionic acid in grass peas. Glucuronic acid Uronic acid derived by oxidation of Glutamates Salts of glutamic acid used as flavour- the carbon-6 atom to a carboxyl group. Potential tox- ings, e.g. the flavour enhancer monosodium glu- ins are conjugated with glucuronic acid in the liver to tamate. form glucuronides before being excreted. Glucuronic Glutamic acid Amino acid which is believed to play a acid is also found in mucopolysaccharides. part in the high-quality flavour of young fresh vege- Į-Glucuronidases EC 3.2.1.139. Glycosidases tables and in the enhancement of other flavours in gen- which hydrolyse Į-1,2-glycosidic bonds of the 4-O- eral. Salts of glutamic acid (glutamates) are widely methyl-D-glucuronic acid side chain of xylan. Act as used as flavourings. part of an array of xylan degrading enzymes pro- Glutaminases EC 3.5.1.2. Hydrolases which con- duced by a range of microorganisms. Such enzymes vert L-glutamine to L-glutamate and ammonia. Can be are useful in food processing procedures involving used to increase the glutamic acid content, and degradation of plant cell walls, e.g. extraction of juices hence the sensory properties, of foods, e.g. soy and essential oils, or clarification of wines, and sauces, protein hydrolysates used as flavour- in production of modified xylans for use as bulking ings and certain meat products. agents. Glutamine Non-essential amino acid which is a ȕ-Glucuronidases EC 3.2.1.31. Glycosidases monoamide of glutamic acid. Abundant in plants present in intestinal bacteria and associated with the such as beets, carrots and radishes and important production of toxic aglycones and carcinogens. in cell metabolism. This process may be ameliorated by prebiotics or Ȗ-Glutamyl hydrolases EC 3.4.19.9. Proteinases probiotic bacteria. Determination of ȕ- that hydrolyse Ȗ-glutamyl bonds. Used in the analysis glucuronidase activity may therefore be useful for of folates in foods and beverages. Also known as evaluating dietary-mediated colorectal cancer risk. conjugases and folate conjugases. Also used analytically to identify some strains of Es- Ȗ-Glutamyltransferases EC 2.3.2.2. Also known as cherichia coli, and ȕ-glucuronidase genes are com- glutamyl transpeptidases, these acyltransferases monly used as marker genes in transgenic catalyse the hydrolysis and transpeptidation of Ȗ- plants. glutamyl compounds, such as glutathione. They can Glutamate decarboxylases EC 4.1.1.15. Decar- be used to increase levels of flavour compounds in boxylases which are involved in synthesis of Ȗ- foods, and have also been used as markers for the pas- aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is reported to teurization of milk. Serum levels of this enzyme are have antihypertensive activity and is found in high used as biomarkers for diabetes and excessive con- amounts in foods such as red mould rice and tea. sumption of alcoholic beverages. These enzymes are involved in acids resistance in Glutathione Tripeptide widely distributed in cells and bacteria and are produced by cheese starters dur- composed of glutamic acid, cysteine and glycine ing ripening of cheese. residues. Functions as a redox agent and a coenzyme 194 Glutathione transferases Glycerol monostearate for some enzymes. Also shows antioxidative ac- duction of the risk of cardiovascular diseases and tivity in the protection of sulfhydryl groups in en- improved control of diabetes. Used in the calculation zymes and other proteins. of glycaemic load. Glutathione transferases EC 2.5.1.18. Commonly Glycaemic load An extension of the glycaemic index known as glutathione-S-transferases. Phase II detoxi- concept that also takes into consideration the amount fication enzymes with broad substrate specificity of carbohydrates in a serving of food. It is based on which catalyse the transfer to glutathione of any ali- the idea that a small quantity of foods with high gly- phatic, aromatic or heterocyclic group from an organic caemic index values will have the same effect on sulfate, nitrile or halide compound. Other donor groups blood glucose and insulin levels as a larger quantity include aliphatic epoxides and arene oxides. Can also of foods with low glycaemic index values. The concept catalyse some isomerization and reduction reac- is gaining credibility in the dietary management of a tions. Induction of these enzymes by certain phyto- number of diseases, including diabetes, obesity chemicals, e.g. by green tea extracts and isothio- and other conditions involving insulin resistance. cyanates from broccoli sprouts, has been demon- Glycans Alternative term for glucans. strated. Glycation Modification involving nonenzymic reac- Glutelins Group of globulins present in the seeds of tion of sugars with proteins (or sometimes lipids), wheat, rice and barley. Soluble in dilute acids or al- as in the Maillard reaction. Results in alterations in kalies and insoluble in water, they are a constituent of physicochemical, biological and functional properties, gluten. such as foaming properties, emulsification Gluten Water insoluble protein complex found in the properties or antioxidative activity, of proteins. endosperm of wheat and rye and composed predomi- Glycerides Synonym for acylglycerols. Fatty acid nantly of gliadins and glutenin. When mixed with esters of glycerol, such as monoglycerides, di- water, forms cohesive, elastic, cross-linked molecules. glycerides and triglycerides. Major components of These confer elasticity to bread dough, allowing the natural fats and oils (particularly as triglycerides); dough to trap carbon dioxide during breadmaking also used as emulsifiers. and causing the bread to rise. Glycerin Synonym for glycerol; alternative spelling Gluten free bread Bread formulated to contain no glycerine. gluten by excluding wheat and rye proteins to make Glycerine Synonym for glycerol; alternative spelling it suitable for consumption by people suffering from glycerin. coeliac disease. Glycerol One of the polyols, this clear, sweet-tasting, Gluten free foods Foods formulated to contain no viscous, hygroscopic liquid can be produced by fat gluten by excluding wheat and rye proteins to make saponification and as a by-product of biodiesel pro- them suitable for consumption by people suffering duction. Used in humectants to prevent sugar con- from coeliac disease. fectionery and other foods from drying out, as a sol- Glutenin Glutelin found in the endosperm of wheat vent for flavourings and colorants, and as an emul- and one of the major components of gluten. sifier or a plasticizer. Also used to control crystalliza- Gluten low bread Bread made using low levels of tion and in the formulation of fat substitutes. wheat and rye proteins so that it is suitable for con- Synonym for glycerin and glycerine. Glycerol occurs sumption by people with intolerance to gluten. naturally as a metabolic intermediate, serving as a pre- Gluten low foods Foods formulated to contain low cursor for triglycerides and phospholipids and as levels of wheat and rye proteins so that they are suit- an energy source during glycolysis. It is also utilized able for consumption by people with intolerance to as a low-cost carbon source for microorganisms gluten. cultivated for the production of higher-value fermentation products. Glycaemic index values Commonly abbreviated to GI values, these nutritional values provide a meas- Glycerolipids Alternative term for glycolipids. ure of the ability of dietary carbohydrates to raise Glycerol monolaurate Alternative term for blood glucose levels in comparison to a reference monolaurin. food (usually glucose or white bread). Carbohydrates Glycerol monostearate Synonym for glyceryl that are rapidly digested and quickly release glucose monostearate, an ester formed by reaction of into the bloodstream have high GI values, whereas low stearic acid with glycerol. Used in food emulsifi- GI products release glucose more slowly and steadily. ers, and in the manufacture of products such as cof- Health benefits have been attributed to consumption of fee whiteners and ice cream. Included as bakery a low GI diet, including body wt. management, re- additives in the manufacture of bread and other 195 Glycerolysis Glycosidases bakery products due to the anti-staling properties residues attached. Include Į-solanine and Į- of the glyceride component. chaconine. Glycerolysis A form of alcoholysis or trans- Glycogen High molecular weight branched polysac- esterification involving esters and glycerol. In- charide comprising D-glucopyranose residues (glu- cludes the breakdown of triglycerides to form cose in the ring conformation). Formed predomi- monoglycerides. Catalysed by lipases or chemical nantly in muscle and liver tissues and is the main store catalysts. Can be used to improve the health promot- of energy in animals and humans. ing properties of fats (e.g. glycerolysis of tuna oils Glycolic acid Colourless, hygroscopic chemical in- to generate monoacylglycerols rich in PUFA). termediate of the conversion of glycine to ethanolamine. Constituent of cane sugar juices and Glyceryl monostearate Ester formed by reaction of unripe grapes. stearic acid with glycerol. Used in food emulsifiers, and in the manufacture of products such as cof- Glycolipids Compounds consisting of lipid moieties fee whiteners and ice cream. Included as bakery which are glycosidically linked to one or more mono- additives in the manufacture of bread and other saccharide residues. Includes cerebrosides and bakery products due to the anti-staling properties gangliosides. Also known as glycerolipids. of the glyceride component. Also called glycerol Glycols General term for diols, organic com- monostearate. pounds with two alcohol groups. Include ethylene glycol and 1,2-propanediol (propylene glycol). Glycine Non-essential achiral amino acid, structurally the simplest of the amino acids. Used to retard the Glycolysis Series of reactions which take place in onset of rancidity in fats and as an ingredient in most living cells by which glucose is converted into sweeteners, as well as being a nutrient. Gelatin is a pyruvic acid and then to lactic acid. particularly rich source of glycine. Glycomacropeptides Low molecular weight whey proteins produced during cheesemaking when ț- Glycine betaine One of the soluble nitrogen com- casein is treated with chymosin. Show biological pounds and a derivative of betaine occurring in a activity and are potential ingredients for functional range of foods, especially sugar beets, spinach and foods. molasses; also found in some shellfish, where it is important for flavour. An effective osmoprotectant, Glycopeptides Compounds in which a carbohydrate glycine betaine is also synthesized by microorgan- is covalently linked to an oligopeptide composed of D- isms living at very high osmotic pressures. Accumu- and/or L-amino acid residues. lation of glycine betaine in some pathogens, e.g. Lis- Glycoproteins Conjugated proteins composed of teria monocytogenes, allows them to survive under polypeptide backbones to which carbohydrates are conditions of extreme temperature, leading to food covalently attached. Present in ovalbumins, mucins safety problems. The compound may also be added to and fish antifreeze proteins. increase thermal tolerance and osmotolerance in bac- Glycosaminoglycans Long unbranched polysac- teria used in food manufacture. charides containing a repeating diasaccharide unit Glycinin One of the main soy proteins. An 11S consisting of an N-acetyl-hexosamine, such as gluco- storage protein that, along with ȕ-conglycinin (7S samine and a hexose or hexuronic acid, either or both globulin), makes up approximately 70% of storage of which may be sulfated. Can have gel-like properties, proteins in soybeans. since their structure allows significant water sorption. Examples include hyaluronic acid and chondro- Glycitein One of the isoflavones found in soy- itin. Important components of connective tissues beans. According to some studies, demonstrates an- such as cartilage from meat and fish. An integral tiatherogenic activity, anticarcinogenicity and component of proteoglycans. Synthesized by certain cholesterol lowering activity, but may also act as a microorganisms and can affect the viscosity of phytoestrogen with weak oestrogenic activity. fermented foods. Also known as mucopolysaccha- Claimed to offer some protection against osteoporo- rides. sis and various menopausal symptoms. Available as Glycosidases EC 3.2.1 Enzymes that hydrolyse O- an ingredient of functional foods and in supple- or S-glycosyl compounds in carbohydrates such as ments. Bioavailability may vary between individuals starch, celluloses and pectins. Able to cleave and between men and women. short-chain oligosaccharides as well as polysac- Glycoalkaloids Natural toxins which are synthe- charides with various structures. They are used in all sized by plants of the family Solanaceae, including po- areas of the food industry, but their major application tatoes. Consist of alkaloids with one or more sugar is in starch processing. Some can also transfer glycosyl 196 Glycosides Goat milk residues to oligosaccharides, polysaccharides and other GM foods Abbreviation for genetically modified alcoholic receptors. foods. Glycosides Compounds occurring abundantly in GM microorganisms Abbreviation for genetically plants in which a sugar is combined with a non-sugar modified microorganisms. entity (aglycone); this may be an alcohol, phenol or GMO Abbreviation for genetically modified or- sterol, and replaces the hydroxyl group on the carbon-1 ganisms. atom. Often found in fruit pigments, e.g. antho- GM organisms Abbreviation for genetically modi- cyanins. fied organisms. Glycosylation Form of modification in which sac- GMP Abbreviation for guanosine monophos- charides are added to compounds such as proteins phate. and lipids, in this case forming glycoproteins and Gnathostoma Genus of parasitic nematodes of the glycolipids, respectively. Nonenzymic glycosylation family Gnathostomatidae. Occur in the gastrointes- (glycation) of proteins takes place during the Mail- tinal tract of dogs, cats and wild animals, and are also lard reaction, leading to formation of Maillard re- found in fish, shellfish, meat and water. Ingestion action products that contribute to food flavour and of uncooked fish can cause infection in humans. Gna- colour. Other chemicals such as phenols, terpe- thostoma spinigerum is the causal agent of gna- noids and flavonoids also undergo glycosylation, thostomiasis in humans. and this can affect their aroma and other physico- Gnathostomiasis Disease in humans caused by in- chemical properties, such as solubility. fection with Gnathostoma spinigerum. Commonly Glycosyltransferases EC 2.4. Enzymes that cata- transmitted by consuming raw or undercooked con- lyse the transfer of glycosyl groups to an acceptor. taminated fish, shellfish or meat, or drinking con- Usually, other carbohydrates act as acceptors, al- taminated water. Characterized by a skin condition though inorganic phosphate can also be an acceptor, (creeping eruption) in which migrating larvae create such as in the case of phosphorylases. Some of the tunnels under the skin that develop into abscesses. The enzymes in this group also catalyse hydrolysis, which larvae may also migrate through the eye or brain caus- can be regarded as the transfer of a glycosyl group to ing severe damage. water. The subclass is subdivided further, according to Gnocchi Small dumplings made from a dough of the nature of the sugar residue being transferred, into potatoes and flour. Cooked in boiling water and hexosyltransferases (EC 2.4.1), pentosyltransferases served as a side dish or main course with a savoury (EC 2.4.2) and those transferring other glycosyl groups sauce. Eggs, cheese or chopped spinach may also (EC 2.4.99). be added to the dough. Glycyrrhizic acid Glycoside extracted from liquo- Goa beans Seeds produced by Psophocarpus tetra- rice (Glycyrrhiza) which has an intensely sweet fla- gonolobus. Rich in protein. As well as the seeds, im- vour. mature green pods, leaves and root tubers are eaten. Also known as winged beans and asparagus Glycyrrhizin Sweet-tasting glycoside derived from peas. liquorice root. Used in high-intensity sweeteners Goat cheese Cheese made from goat milk. Usu- for foods. Exhibits sweetness many times greater ally has a slightly harsh and piquant flavour and than that of sugar and maintains this sweetness under aroma. heating. Use in certain products is limited by its distinct liquorice flavour. Goat meat Meat from goats; also known as chevon, particularly in India. It resembles mutton, Glyoxal Dicarbonyl compound found as an aroma but includes very little intermuscular fat. During the precursor/compound in wines. Also one of the Mail- dressing process, goat carcasses nearly always be- lard reaction products in nonenzymic brown- come tainted with the typical aroma of goat, which ing. transfers from the goat skin. The most tender meat Glyphosate One of the most widely employed non- comes from young goats, also known as kids, capretto selective systemic herbicides. Used for control of or cabrito; meat from older goats is tougher. Goat meat deep-rooted perennial plants, annual and biennial is widely consumed in North Africa and the Middle grasses and broad-leaved weeds in a wide range of East. It is often produced from goats managed tradi- crops. Also used for pre-harvest drying of cereals tionally, as free-foraging herds; consequently, goat and legumes and for control of sucking insects on meat tends to be fairly lean. fruit trees. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present Goat milk Milk produced by dairy goats. Similar in acute hazard in normal use. composition to cow milk, but with slightly higher 197 Goat milk cheese Gorgonzola cheese contents of calcium, niacin and vitamin A, and sig- dinoflagellates. Responsible for paralytic shell- nificantly lower concentrations of folic acid and vi- fish poisoning in humans due to consumption of tamin B12. Goat milk contains almost no carotenes. molluscan shellfish (clams, mussels, oysters and Often used in cheesemaking. scallops) which filter feed on these dinoflagellates. Goat milk cheese Cheese made from goat milk. Good Manufacturing Practice Part of quality Usually has a slightly harsh and piquant flavour and assurance which ensures that products, including aroma. foods, are consistently produced to the quality stan- Goats The common name given to a number of hardy, dards appropriate to their intended use and as required mainly domesticated ruminant mammals in the genus by the marketing authorization or product specifica- Capra. Goats are related closely to sheep. They are tion. Often abbreviated to GMP. Concerned with both reared world wide as a source of goat milk, goat production and quality control. It contains the fol- meat, hair and hides. Different gender and age groups lowing ten principles: writing procedures; following of goats are known as bucks or billys (adult entire written procedures; documenting for traceability; de- males), does or ewes (adult females), goatlings (gener- signing facilities and equipment; maintaining facilities ally, sexually mature females to the end of their first and equipment; validating work; job competence; pregnancy) and kids (generally, sexually immature cleanliness; component control; and auditing for com- animals which are less than one year old). pliance. Goat yoghurt Yoghurt made by fermenting goat Gooseberries Green, yellow or red fruits produced milk. by Ribes grossularia or R. uva-crispa. Consumed fresh Godulbaegi Common name for Ixeris sonchifolia, or cooked. Also used in jams, jellies, juices, syrups used as a vegetable and component of kimchies in and as the base of flavourings. Korea. Also known as Korean lettuce. Goose eggs Eggs produced by geese. Consist of Gofio Powdery cereal product made by milling of approximately 13.9% proteins and 13.3% fats, and toasted grain, including wheat, corn, barley, rye weigh approximately 144 g. Have a high cholesterol and mixtures of these cereals. Consumed widely in content (more than 1200 mg/egg) and larger egg the Canary Islands, being served with milk at break- yolks than eggs produced by chickens. The richness fast, mixed with soups, as an ingredient of main of goose eggs means they are particularly well suited course dishes or in desserts, combined with honeys to use in desserts. and almonds. Goose livers Livers from geese; part of edible Goitre An enlargement of the thyroid gland. A com- offal. May be cooked using a variety of techniques in- mon cause of endemic goitre is iodine deficiency. Io- cluding sauteing, grilling and frying. Also used to dine is required for the synthesis of the thyroid hor- make pates or mousses. In France, the livers of geese mones triiodothyonine and thyroxine, so when it is that have undergone fattening by gavage are used to not available in the diet these hormones are not pro- prepare foie gras. This has a richer flavour than that duced. In response, the pituitary gland releases thyroid produced using duck livers. stimulating hormone which causes hyperplasia of thy- Goose meat Meat from geese. Goose meat is dark roid tissues. Prophylactic strategies include the use of in colour and has a high fat content. Meat from young iodized salt. May also be caused by other factors, in- geese (goslings) is more tender and more expensive cluding dietary goitrogens, hyperthyroidism, hypo- than meat from older birds. Wild goose meat has a thyroidism or cancer. much stronger flavour and is tougher than domesti- Goitrogens Compounds found in foods (especially cated goose meat. In many European countries, goose Brassica spp., peanuts, cassava and soybeans) meat is particularly popular at Christmas. that can cause goitre, particularly when dietary intake Gorgon nuts Seeds produced by Euryale ferox, an of iodine is low. Examples include certain glucosi- aquatic plant grown in Asia. Rich in carbohydrates, nolates which inhibit the synthesis of thyroid hor- proteins and minerals. Popped or fried kernels may be mones and thiocyanates which inhibit uptake of io- eaten as snack foods. Also used in milk-based dide into the thyroid gland. preparations in India, where they are known as mak- Goldenberries Alternative term for cape goose- hana. berries. Gorgonzola cheese Italian soft blue cheese made Gonyautoxins Paralytic shellfish toxins which from cow milk. Mould is added to the cheese milk are sulfonated derivatives of saxitoxin and neosaxi- and after about 4 weeks of ripening spread of the toxin. Produced by Gonyaulax species (e.g. Gonyaulax mould is encouraged by piercing with thick needles. catenella and G. tamarensis) and other red tide Ripening lasts 3 to 6 months and the finished cheese is 198 Gossypol Granulated sugar wrapped in foil to keep it moist. Flavour ranges from Grading Establishing the degree or rank of an item mild to sharp, depending on age. within a scale. In the food industry, grading is the clas- Gossypol Yellow, potentially toxic phenolic sub- sification of a food by variables such as quality, size stance composed of four benzene rings attaching to and colour. isopropyl, hydroxyl, aldehyde or ketone side chains. Grain Collective name for seeds of cereals such as Occurs in some varieties of cottonseeds from which wheat, oats and corn. it is removed during the refining process for cotton- Grain alcohols Spirits, commonly with a neutral seed oils. flavour and aroma, made by distillation of fermented mashes derived from grain (commonly un- Gouda cheese Dutch semi-hard cheese made from malted). cow milk. Usually coated with yellow wax, mature cheese ripened for 18 months or more is coated with Grain amaranth Seeds produced by Amaranthus black wax. varieties cultivated as pseudocereal plants (also amaranth grain). Goulash A rich stew from Hungary. Usually made Grain borers Beetles regarded as pests of stored with meat and vegetables and highly seasoned with cereals and cereal products. Adult and larval paprika. forms of these insects are capable of boring holes in Gourds Fruits of the family Cucurbitaceae containing intact cereal grains and feeding on cereals and flour, mainly water, but a relatively good source of vitamin while the larvae develop inside the grain. There are 2 C and, in some cases, carotenes. Types include bal- major types, the lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha do- sam pears or bitter gourds, snake gourds, bottle minica) and the larger grain borer (Prostephanus trun- gourds (grown mainly for the outer shell which is used cates), which differ in size. as a container), wax gourds or ash gourds, and fig leaf Graininess Consistency term relating to the extent or Malabar gourds. Eaten as a vegetable or used in to which a product is grainy, i.e. granular, sandy and pickles and curries. gritty. Gourd seeds Seeds produced by plants belonging to Gram negative bacteria Bacteria that, following certain members of the family Cucurbitaceae, which staining with crystal violet, are decolorized by organic bear fruits that have a hard rind. Contain high quanti- solvents (e.g. ethanol or acetone) but stain red with the ties of oils and proteins. Potential sources of edible counterstain (safranin) in the Gram stain procedure. oils. Their cell walls are composed of a thin layer of pepti- Gout A type of arthritis characterized by abnormally doglycans covered by an outer membrane of lipopro- high levels of uric acid in the body as a result of teins and lipopolysaccharides. overproduction or inadequate excretion by the kidneys. Gram positive bacteria Bacteria that resist decol- Over time, the uric acid forms crystals which are de- orization by organic solvents (e.g. ethanol or acetone) posited in the joints, causing inflammation; this leads to retain their original purple crystal violet stain in the to characteristic symptoms including pain, swelling, Gram stain procedure. Their cell walls are composed redness and stiffness. While gout often affects the big of a thick layer of peptidoglycans with attached toe, many other joints can be involved. A diet ther- teichoic acids. apy approach may offer some benefit. Since uric acid Grams Alternative term for legumes. is formed from the breakdown of purines, it may be Grana cheese Italian hard grating cheese made advisable to limit foods rich in these compounds, such from cow milk. Various types are made, including as offal, sea foods, beans, peas, etc. Alcoholic Grana Padano cheese. Most are aged for up to 4 beverages are also thought to increase the risk of de- years. veloping gout. Granadillas Alternative term for passion fruits. Gouter Light meal eaten in the afternoon in France, Grana Padano cheese Italian hard cheese made traditionally at the end of the school day. Usually in- from unpasteurized cow milk. Similar to Parmesan cludes some kind of bread with a sweet or savoury cheese, with a hard, thick rind and a grainy, crumbly spread, and sometimes cake. Also called the fourth interior. Ripening lasts 12 to 48 months. meal. Granola Breakfast cereals composed of rolled Gracilaria Genus of red seaweeds containing sev- oats mixed with dried fruits, brown sugar and eral species of high commercial importance, particu- nuts. larly as a source of agar, which has many uses in the Granulated sugar Crystalline solid comprising at food industry. Commercially cultivated in parts of least 99.8% sucrose. Granulated sugar is produced Asia, South America and southern Africa. by crystallization or graining of concentrated sugar 199 Granulation Gravimetry syrups and is the most pure form of sugar manufac- taric acid and malic acid, but little vitamin C. The tured from sugar beets and sugar cane. skins of red and black varieties contain antho- Granulation Processing of a food into small compact cyanins. Table grapes tend to have firmer flesh and particles (granules). Granulators are often used in cane lower acidity than winemaking grapes. and beet sugar manufacture to remove unbound mois- Grape seed oils Unsaturated oils extracted from ture from the sugar by driers and coolers. Moisture is grape seeds, large quantities of which are produced removed in driers by blowing hot air through a stream as by-products in winemaking, and the manufacture of cascading sugar or through a bed of wet sugar. of grape juices and seedless raisins. Rich in Granules Small particles or grains. Starch exists as palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid and li- granules which are insoluble in cold water but form a noleic acid. Used in cooking. viscous solution when heated. Some food ingredients Grape seeds Seeds or pips found in the centre of and instant foods are provided in the form of dried some types of grapes. Produced in large amounts as granules, which are reconstituted with water before use by-products of winemaking. Contain up to approxi- or consumption. mately 17% oil and 15% protein. Used as a source of Granulometry Technique for measuring particle or grape seed oils and full-fat or defatted flour. granule size distribution. Grape skins Outer peel of grapes. Contain a num- Grapefruit Citrus fruits (Citrus paradisi) formed as ber of flavonoids and phenols. Sometimes fer- a hybrid of pomelos and sweet oranges. Cultivars mented along with the grape juices and grape may be white, pink or red fleshed and seedless or seeds during winemaking to influence the flavour seeded. Contain less total sugar and vitamin C than and colour of the finished product. Source of antho- some other citrus fruits and approximately 1% citric cyanins, which may be extracted and used as food acid. Also contain the bitter compound naringin. colorants. Grapefruit juices Fruit juices prepared from Grape spirits Spirits, such as brandy, derived from grapefruit (Citrus paradisi). Good source of vitamin fermented mashes based on grapes. C. Widely consumed as beverages, sometimes Grappa spirits sweetened, due to their bitterness. Italian distilled from fermented mashes of grape marc. Grapefruit peel Outer skin of grapefruit. Used to make candied peel, as a garnish, or as an ingredient in Grass carp Freshwater fish species (Ctenopharyn- bakery products and a range of dishes. Also used as godon idella) distributed across eastern Europe and a source of essential oils and pectins. Asia. Flesh is not highly prized for flavour, but grass carp is extensively cultured as a food fish in some parts Grape jams Jams made from grapes, usually of of Asia. Also known as white amur. specific varieties, e.g. Concord or Catawba. Grape juice concentrates Grape juices which Grass peas Seeds produced by Lathyrus sativus. have been concentrated. May be diluted to produce re- Eaten after boiling in water or used to make dhal. constituted grape juices, or used in winemaking. Flour is used to make chapattis, paste balls and curries. Rich in proteins and carbohydrates, but pro- Grape juices Fruit juices extracted from grapes longed consumption can cause lathyrism, a neurologi- (Vitis spp., especially V. vinifera). May be drunk as cal disease resulting in weakness or paralysis of the beverages, or fermented to produce wines. legs. Also known as chickling vetch. Grape marc By-products from wineries, comprising the pomaces remaining after grapes have been GRAS status Designation awarded to food addi- pressed and the musts separated. tives by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to indicate that they are not considered to be a health Grape musts Grape juices, especially those to be risk for consumers. GRAS is an acronym for generally fermented in winemaking. recognized/regarded as safe. Grape pomaces Residue, including grape skins and grape seeds, remaining after separation of GRAS substances Food additives which have musts from pressed grapes. been granted GRAS status. Grapes Seeded or seedless fruits produced by the ge- Grating Reduction of a piece of firm food, e.g. nus Vitis, the most important species of which is V. vi- cheese or vegetables, to small shreds by rubbing nifera. The majority are cultivated for production of on a coarse, serrated surface, usually a kitchen utensil wines, significant amounts also being grown as table called a grater. grapes or for preparation of dried fruits (raisins, Gravimetry Technique based on weighing of the sam- currants, sultanas); some are used to prepare ple. Examples of its use include weighing of a sample grape juices. Contain 15-25% sugar as well as tar- before and after heating to indicate the content of vola- 200 Gravity Groats tile compounds and quantitative analysis of a substance keted dried-salted or frozen and usually cooked by following precipitation. steaming or frying. Gravity In a broad sense, the gravitational force which Green-lipped mussels Alternative term for green acts on any object within the earth's gravitational field. mussels. Also, the attraction between two massive bodies. The Green mussels Common name for mussels of the force of gravity acting on a body is the weight of the species Perna canaliculus or P. viridis. Also known as body, and this is directly proportional to its mass. The green-lipped mussels. centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the total weight acts. Specific gravity is a number equal Green peas Immature seeds of Pisum sativum. Con- to the ratio of a substance's weight to that of an equal tain more moisture, but less proteins, fats and carbohy- volume of water. drates, than mature seeds. Source of vitamin A, vitamin C, niacin and iron. Eaten fresh, canned or fro- Gravy Sauces produced using fats and juices that zen. In some cultivars, e.g. mangetout, sugar peas and exude from meat during cooking. A roux is pro- snow peas, the seeds and pods can both be eaten. Also duced from the meat fats and flour, then liquid (e.g. called English peas and garden peas. Tiny, young wines, cider, stocks) is added and the mixture is green peas are known as petit pois. thickened by heating. Browning agents may also be added to colour the sauce if required. Green peppers Sweet peppers or bell peppers (Capsicum annuum) picked while young and un- Gravy granules Instant foods in the form of free ripe; if left on the vine, they become red peppers. flowing granules that produce a ready to serve gravy Vary in size and shape. Mildly flavoured, and rich in when reconstituted with boiling water. vitamin C. Eaten raw, in salads or as crudites, or Gravy powders Instant foods in the form of a cooked, sometimes stuffed with meat or other vegeta- powder from which a ready to serve gravy is pro- bles. duced on addition of boiling water. Green tea Tea made from tea leaves which have Greasiness Sensory properties relating to the not undergone fermentation before drying. extent to which a product is greasy, i.e. smeared or Green vegetables Plants with edible green leaves. covered with grease, slippery or fatty, or is perceived to have a greasy quality in the mouth. Good sources of a range of vitamins and minerals. Include lettuces, cabbages, spinach and kale. Great sturgeon Alternative name for beluga. Grenadier General name used for deepwater marine Green beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus fish species in the family Macrouridae, having a dis- vulgaris). Both pods and seeds are eaten. Also known tinct body shape (long slender body with large head). as string beans, French beans and snap beans. The most important commercial species are Macrourus Green coffee Coffee beans which have been fer- berglax (rough head grenadier), Coryphaenoides mented but not roasted. rupestris (roundnose grenadier) and C. acrolepis (Pa- Green fluorescent protein Protein, commonly ab- cific grenadier). Marketed fresh and frozen. breviated to GFP. Originally isolated from jellyfish Grifola frondosa Edible fungi, also known as mai- (Aequorea victoria), GFP produces green fluores- take, with medicinal properties. Used in health foods cence with emission at approx. 509 nm when exposed and beverages. to UV light of wavelength 395 nm. GFP or, more Grilling Cooking of food on a grill, using radiated commonly, recombinant GFP, is used as a marker of heat. Considered by some consumers a healthier way cells, proteins and translation, which often involves of cooking than frying, as no fats or oils are needed. transformation of cells with DNA encoding GFP or with DNA encoding fusion proteins comprising a Grinding Reduction of a food to small particles or protein of interest and GFP. powders by crushing in grinders. Grinding can be undertaken to varying degrees, producing food that is Greengages Green plum-like fruits produced by fine, medium or coarse in texture, as desired. Prunus italica or P. domestica. Eaten raw or cooked and used in jams and jellies. Relatively low content of Grits Hulled, de-germinated and coarsely ground grain, vitamin C. especially corn. Often boiled and served at breakfast Green gram Alternative term for mung beans. or as a side dish. Also called hominy grits. Greenland halibut Marine fish species (Reinhard- Grittiness Mouthfeel term relating to the extent to tius hippoglossoides) of high commercial importance which a product is perceived to be grainy or sandy. belonging to the family Pleuronectidae. Found in the Groats Husked but unflattened grain, especially oats, Arctic, North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans. Mar- used to make gruel and porridge. 201 Grocery stores Guar beans Grocery stores Shops or businesses, including su- Growth stimulators Alternative term for growth permarkets, that sell groceries, i.e. merchandise in- promoters. cluding foods and household goods. Gruel Thin, watery oatmeal porridge made by soak- Groundbeans Seeds of Macrotyloma geocarpa, a ing oatmeal in water or milk before cooking. The plant native to Africa. Used to prepare protein enriched solids can be removed before consumption. weaning foods and tempeh. Also known as Kerst- Gruyere cheese Swiss hard cheese made from ing's groundnuts. unpasteurized cow milk. Rind is hard and dry with Ground beef Alternative term for beef mince. tiny holes. Texture is more dense and compact than Ground chicken Alternative term for chicken that of Emmental cheese. Salted in brines for 8 mince. days and usually ripened for 2 months at room tem- Ground coffee Coffee beans which have been perature. Curing lasts for 3 to 10 months. ground ready for use to prepare coffee beverages. Guacamole Dish made from mashed avocados Groundfish General name used for marine fish mixed with lemon juices or lime juices (to prevent species which normally occur on or close to the sea discoloration) and seasonings. Finely chopped bed, such as cod, flatfish, haddock, hake and pol- vegetables are sometimes added. Eaten as side lack. dishes, dips or sauces. Ground meat Alternative term for meat mince. Guaiacol Member of the phenols group. Guaiacol Groundnut oils Pale yellow oils extracted from pea- has an antiseptic or medicinal-type aroma and is pre- nuts (Arachis hypogaea). Rich in palmitic acid, sent as one of the aroma compounds in beer, oleic acid and linoleic acid with good oxidative wines and whisky. Also occurs as a taint in fruit stability. Due to the desirable flavour, often used in juices caused by bacterial spoilage, and is used as a cooking and as a substitute for olive oils and other substrate for analysis of peroxidases. edible oils. Also known as arachis oils or peanut oils. Guanidine Strongly alkaline member of the organic Groundnuts Alternative term for peanuts. nitrogen compounds, commonly used in the hy- Ground pork Alternative term for pork mince. drochloride form for the denaturation of proteins. Ground turkey Alternative term for turkey mince. Synonyms include imino-urea and aminomethana- Groundwater Water held in the soil or crevices in midine. rocks, especially below the water table. May be treated Guanosine Member of the nucleosides group, and used as drinking water. formed from guanine linked to a ribose molecule. Oc- Grouper Group of marine fish species of the genus curs as a component of nucleotides and nucleic ac- Epinephilus belonging to the family Serranidae, some ids. Often found as a mono- di- or tri-phosphate. of which are of commercial importance. Widely dis- Guanosine monophosphate Member of the nu- tributed in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Marketed cleotides group, commonly abbreviated to GMP. and consumed in a variety of ways. Several chemical forms of GMP exist, including a cy- Growth factors Proteins involved in control of clic form (cGMP) with a role in animal cell metabo- growth and differentiation of cells or organisms. Ex- lism. Guanosine monophosphates, especially amples include epidermal growth factor, nerve growth guanosine 5c-monophosphate, are used in foods, par- factor, insulin-like growth factors and fibroblast ticularly savoury foods, as flavour enhancers. GMP growth factor. Levels of growth factors in serum can can be purified from yeast extracts or produced by be affected by intake of specific foods such as soy fermentation of microorganisms. Also known as products, with consequent effects on neoplastic trans- guanylic acid. formation and bone metabolism. Guanylic acid Alternative term for guanosine mo- Growth hormone Alternative term for somatotro- nophosphate. pin. Growth promoters Organic compounds of plant and Guarana Paste made from seeds of the Brazilian plant animal origin which stimulate growth. Plant growth Paullinia cupana. Contains methylxanthine alka- promoters include a variety of plant growth regula- loids, and is used in flavourings and as a stimulant tors, such as auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins. in soft drinks. Animal growth promoters include hormones, anti- Guar beans Seeds of Cyamopsis tetragonoloba. biotics and ȕ-adrenergic agonists. Use of some Immature pods are eaten as vegetables. Galacto- animal growth promoters is banned in certain coun- mannans are extracted from the seeds to make guar tries. gums, which are used as stabilizers and thickeners in foods. Also known as cluster beans. 202 Guar gums Gurdani Guar gums High viscosity gums isolated from Gum ghatti Moderate viscosity gums obtained as ground endosperms of the legume Cyamopsis tetra- stem exudates from Anogeissus latifolia. Major com- gonoloba, also known as guar beans or cluster ponents are arabinose, galactose, mannose, xy- beans. Composed of repeating (1ĺ4)-ȕ-D- lose and glucuronic acid in a ratio of 10:6:2:1:2. mannopyranosyl units with branches of Į-D- Used for the stabilization, emulsification, thick- galactopyranosyl units linked via (1ĺ6) linkages. ening and coating of foods and beverages. Mannose:galactose ratio is 2:1. These gums are used as Gum guaiac Alcohol soluble gums obtained as a thickeners (thickening capacity is approximately 8- resin from Guajacum officinale or G. sanctum wood. fold that of starch), stabilizers and emulsifiers in Predominantly composed of Į- and ȕ-guaiaconic acids foods, e.g. in low fat foods and ice cream. with guaiacic acid and vanillin. Primarily used as an- Guava juices Fruit juices prepared from guavas. tioxidants. Guava pulps Soft mass prepared from the flesh of Gum kondagogu Exudates of Cochlospermum gos- guavas. Used in a range of products including bev- sypium, a tree native to India. Classified as a variety of erages, ice cream, yoghurt, bakery products, karaya gums, although the gums do differ in com- jams and jellies. position, functional properties and physical Guava purees Smooth creamy preparation made properties. Used as a food additive and as a substi- from the flesh of guavas by sieving or reducing in a tute for gum tragacanth. blender or liquidizer. Used as sauces or in prepara- Gums High molecular weight polysaccharides that tion of products such as fruit juices, fruit nectars, form viscous solutions or gels when dissolved or dis- bakery products, ice cream, yoghurt and jams. persed in a solvent, usually water. Obtained from plant Guavas Fruits produced by Psidium guajava. Vari- exudates and seaweeds or produced as exopoly- able in shape, with a yellow-green skin, and white to saccharides by bacteria. Gums have many applica- red flesh containing a great number of seeds. Good tions in the food industry: low viscosity gums, e.g. source of vitamin A and vitamin C (content of latter gum arabic, are used as water binding agents for depends on cultivar and environment), and contains prevention of syneresis and as encapsulating agents relatively high amounts of niacin and carotenes. for flavourings; medium viscosity gums, e.g. gum Eaten fresh (sprinkled with lime juices) or canned; tragacanth and alginates, provide body and are also used in various products, including preserves, useful emulsifying agents, e.g. in salad dress- jams and jellies, or made into guava juices or nec- ings; and high viscosity gums, e.g. guar gums and tars. locust bean gums, are good thickeners and sta- Guinea fowl The common name given to medium- bilizers and improve mouthfeel in reduced fat or sized, ground-dwelling African game birds of the low fat foods. Gel forming gums, e.g. carrageenan sub-family Numidinae. Wild guinea fowl are hunted and gellan gums, are employed as gelling agents for their meat. In captivity, they are reared world wide to produce semi-solid structures, e.g. in jellies or fruit to produce guinea fowl meat and guinea fowl eggs. fillings. They also improve freeze-thaw stability Guizotia Genus of plants cultivated as an oilseed crop. and thus are included as ingredients of ice cream and The clear, edible oils produced from the seeds may be frozen desserts. used in foods and are often used as substitutes for Gum talha Product similar to gum arabic or gum olive oils. acacia, but exudates are obtained from different spe- Gulabjamans Popular Indian sweet prepared by addi- cies of the genus Acacia, including Acacia seyal and A. tion of sugar or jaggery to khoa. Also called gulab- sieberana. Food uses include as emulsifiers, stabi- jamun. lizers and thickeners. Gum acacia Dried exudates from African species of Gum tragacanth Gums of medium viscosity ob- the genus Acacia, particularly varieties of A. senegal. tained as exudates from Asiatic Astragalus spp. Used Forms low viscosity aqueous solutions that are used as generally as thickeners, emulsifiers, stabilizers emulsifiers, thickeners, coatings for products and texturizers in foods, and more specifically in such as jellies and chewing gums, and stabilizers sugarcraft to produce pastes from which floral deco- for beer foams and flavourings. Synonym for gum rations can be created for cakes. arabic. Gur Unrefined brown coloured sugar produced Gum arabic Synonym for gum acacia. mainly in India by evaporation of sugar cane Gum balls Alternative term for chewing gums. juices. Also known as jaggery. Gum confectionery Collective terms for chewing Gurdani Traditional Indian confectionery products gums and bubble gums and their products. made with Bengal gram meal which is deep fried 203 Gurnard Gyros and coated with syrups produced by boiling sugar hibits cariostatic activity and an inhibitory action on cane (jaggery). sweet taste perception. Gurnard Any of a number of widely distributed ma- Gyromitra Genus of fungi, one species of which (Gy- rine fish species within the family Triglidae; also romitra esculenta; false morel) was once considered known as sea robins. Characterized by broad wing-like safe for consumption when cooked. However, due to pectoral fins and long feelers under the front of the the toxicity of a constituent, gyromitrin, and its me- body. Generally, not highly valued as food fish, but tabolites, eating the mushrooms cooked or raw can many species are consumed, including Chelidonichthys cause severe illness or death. gurnardus (grey gurnard), C. cuculus (red gurnard) and Trigla lucerna (yellow gurnard). Gyromitrin Protoplasmic poison produced by certain Gushing Phenomenon occurring in beer in which species of false morel (Gyromitra esculenta and G. there is violent foaming when the bottles or barrels gigas). Ingestion causes a sudden onset of abdominal are opened. Associated with formation of calcium ox- discomfort, severe headache, vomiting and sometimes alate crystals in the beer and contamination of diarrhoea. The liver is primarily affected, with distur- malting barley with Fusarium graminearum. bances to blood cells and the central nervous system. Guthion Alternative term for azinphos-methyl. Gyros A Greek meat product, consisting of spiced Gutting Removal of the internal organs of fish before pork slices grilled on a vertically rotating spit, with a cooking. heat source at the side. Thin strips of cooked gyros are Gymnemic acid Member of the glycosides group peeled from the continuously rotating spit. Often con- which is present in the plant Gymnema sylvestre. Ex- sumed in pita bread with salads and sauces. H

H2 Chemical symbol for elemental hydrogen gas. volved in the development of blackspot in prawns. HACCP Acronym for hazard analysis critical Keyhole limpet haemocyanin is widely used as a car- control point. rier protein in the production of antibodies. Haddock Marine fish species (Melanogrammus ae- Haemoglobin Oxygen-carrying protein which is glefinus) from the cod family (Gadidae), distributed found in the blood of animals. Haem groups within across the northeast Atlantic Ocean; an important the protein bind oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin, commercial food fish. Has firm, white flesh with a which is carried to oxygen-depleted cells where the mild flavour. Sold fresh, chilled as fillets, frozen, oxygen is released. Other inorganic compounds, in- smoked (often called yellow fish) and canned. Also cluding carbon dioxide, can also be bound by the utilized for fish meal and animal feeds. haem groups. Alternative spelling hemoglobin. Haem Iron-containing compounds in which the iron is Haemolysins Substances that destroy erythrocytes complexed in a porphyrin ring. Component of pig- through damage or rupture of the cell membranes. ments such as haemoglobin, myoglobin and cy- Haemolysis The lysis of erythrocytes, resulting in tochromes. The iron atoms can bind oxygen in a re- the release of haemoglobin into the surrounding versible fashion or conduct electrons. Alternative spell- fluid. May be caused by various haemolysins, such ing heme. as toxins, antibodies or other immune factors, or by Haemagglutination Agglutination of erythro- defects in the biological membranes of erythrocytes by a variety of agents including haemaggluti- cytes. Can lead to haemolytic anaemia. nins, lectins and viruses. The reaction is used as Haemoproteins General term for haem-containing the basis for tests such as serological examinations and proteins, including haemoglobin, myoglobin, cy- viral titration. tochromes, catalases and peroxidases. Haemagglutinins Substances that cause agglutina- Hafnia Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped tion of erythrocytes (haemagglutination). Gram negative bacteria of the family Enterobac- Haematin Member of the porphyrins group of pig- teriaceae. Occur in the gastrointestinal tract and ments, containing an iron (III) ion and hydroxide faeces of humans and animals, and in water, dairy counterion. Synonyms include ferriprotoporphyrin hy- products, soil and sewage. Hafnia alvei may cause droxide and ferriprotoporphyrin IX hydroxide. Occurs spoilage of refrigerated meat (especially vacuum as a precursor and breakdown product of haem in packaged meat) and vegetable products, and can be meat and meat products. an opportunistic pathogen of man. Haematococcus Genus of unicellular green micro- Hagfish Marine fish species (Myxine glutinosa) of algae of the family Haematococcaceae. Occur in rain the family Myxinidae, similar in appearance to eels. water and freshwater rock pools. Haematococcus plu- Distributed worldwide in cold and temperate waters. vialis is used in the commercial production of astax- Utilized primarily for its skin since the texture of its anthin, which is used as an additive in feeds for sal- flesh is considered unacceptable by many people. monid fish and poultry to enhance their flesh col- However, the fish is eaten widely in Korea. our. Haggis Scottish meat products, traditionally pre- Haemin Chlorinated form of haem derived from pared by stuffing sheep stomachs with a mixture of haemoglobin and related pigments. Present in raw seasoned sheep or calf offal (hearts, lungs and liv- and processed meat. Formation has been linked to in- ers), suet, oatmeal, onions and seasonings. It is creased lipid oxidation, and hence decreases in qual- usually cooked by boiling or steaming. ity of fresh fish. Used in microbiological media as an Hairtail Marine fish species (Trichiurus lepturus) of iron source and to stimulate metabolism. high commercial importance belonging to the family Haemocyanin Large oxygen carrier/storage protein Trichiuridae (cutlassfishes). Widely distributed in tem- found in the blood of molluscs and crustacea. In- perate and tropical waters throughout the world. Mar- 205 Hake Halva keted salted-dried or frozen and cooked by frying or Halogens Group 17 (formerly group VII) minerals, grilling for the best flavour. Also used to make sa- including fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and shimi when fresh. astatine. All halogens readily form salts. Hake Any of a number of cod-like marine fish spe- Halomonas Genus of aerobic, facultatively anaerobic, cies within the genera Merluccius and Urophycis that moderately halophilic, rod-shaped or pleomorphic occur in Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Commercially Gram negative bacteria of the family Halomo- important species include Merluccius merluccius nadaceae. Occur in salt water environments and have (European hake), M. hubbsi (Atlantic hake) and Uro- been isolated from curing brines of meat prod- phycis tenuis (white hake). Low fat white flesh has a ucts. Of biotechnological interest due to their use in delicate flavour. Marketed fresh, frozen, smoked and bioconversions, and their production of enzymes in dried, salted and canned forms. (e.g. proteinases), aroma compounds and Halal foods Foods permitted under Islamic dietary exopolysaccharides of potential use in acidic law, particularly meat from animals that have been foods. Some species are capable of denitrification, slaughtered according to accepted Islamic procedures. and have been used to remove nitrates from vegeta- For foods to be certificated as halal (lawful), they must bles and vegetable juices during processing. be free from haram (unlawful, prohibited) substances, Halophiles Organisms, especially plants and mi- such as pork and swine by-products, carrion and in- croorganisms, requiring an electrolyte, usually salt, toxicants such as alcohol. for optimal growth, growing poorly or not at all in the N-Halamines Organic compounds with nitrogen absence or at low concentrations of the electrolyte. and halogen substituents; of interest as bactericides. Characterized on the basis of amount of electrolyte required for growth as slight, moderate or extreme halo- Halawa Alternative term for halva. philes. Halophilic bacteria are found in marine and Half butter Butter product with a low fat content of salty environments, and as contaminants of sea approximately 39-41%. foods, sometimes causing outbreaks of food poi- Half cream Cream product with a fat content of ap- soning. They include Vibrio, some Halomonas proximately 12%. spp. and some lactic acid bacteria. Halibut A large marine flatfish species (Hippoglossus Halophilic bacteria Species of bacteria which are hippoglossus), which occurs in the northern Atlantic halophiles. and Arctic Oceans. A highly valued food fish, which is Halothane General anaesthetic used to sedate or re- marketed fresh, frozen, dried and smoked; livers are an duce stress symptoms in farm animals prior to han- important source of fish oils. Has low fat, firm white dling or transport. Use in swine is discouraged, be- flesh with a mild flavour. A Pacific halibut species cause genetically predisposed animals develop a poten- (Hippoglossus stenolepis) also occurs. Cultured on a tially fatal condition known as malignant hyper- small-scale basis in some parts of north Europe. thermia in response to the drug; often used specifi- Halides Salts containing a halogen anion. Common cally for assessing halothane sensitivity in swine. examples include sodium chloride (NaCl, salt) and Halothane sensitivity Swine that react to halothane potassium iodide (KI, added to table salt to form io- inhalation with malignant hyperthermia also show dized salt and to certain foods to increase iodine in- enhanced sensitivity to stress. Pork from these ani- take). mals is likely to be affected by the pale soft exuda- Halloumi cheese Cypriot hard stretched curd tive defect (PSE defect). Halothane sensitivity is one cheese made from ewe, goat or cow milk. Similar to of many genetic disorders; halothane genotype mozzarella cheese, and used in cooking. Chopped (also known as porcine stress syndrome genotype) of mint is sometimes added to the curd to enhance the swine may be nn (homozygous carrier), Nn (heterozy- flavour. gous carrier) or NN (homozygous normal). Assessment Haloacetic acids Organic halogen compounds of halothane sensitivity has been used by the swine in- such as trichloroacetic acid and dibromoacetic acid. dustry to rapidly and non-destructively identify stress Colourless, with low volatility, dissolve easily in water susceptible animals; these animals are then excluded and are fairly stable. Found in drinking water as dis- from breeding programmes with the aim of preventing infection by-products. May be harmful to human further propagation of porcine stress syndrome and the health, and levels in water are therefore regulated. PSE defect in breeding herds. Halogenated compounds Compounds containing Halva Aerated confectionery product made with substituent halogens, includes organic halogen crushed sesame seeds and honeys. Also refers to compounds. a sweetened and flavoured traditional Indian sweet- 206 Halvarine Harman meat prepared from carrots, pumpkins or ba- Happoshu Japanese beer-like alcoholic beverage nanas. Also known as chalva or halawa. with a low malt content, typically <25%. Happoshu has a similar alcohol content to conventional beer, but Halvarine Low fat spreads which contain less than the low malt content means a reduced price since the the normal level of fats found in margarines. tax is governed by the amount of malt in the beverage. Ham Meat from the upper part (between the hip and Hard cheese Cheese with a high dry matter con- hock) of swine hind-legs; usually it is cured. It may tent. Usually aged for a number of years and pressed be cooked, raw, smoked or unsmoked, dried by me- with weights during ripening to extract whey. An chanical means or by air drying, or stored in vacuum example is Parmigiano Reggiano cheese. packaging. Common types include: whole leg ham on Hardening Making or becoming solid, firm and rigid. the bone; single-muscle ham; boiled ham; and baked May be problematic or necessary e.g. common ham. Some highly valued speciality hams are dry beans are susceptible to hardening during storage, cured, including prosciutto crudo, jambon de Bayonne giving problems for cooking, while the hardening and serrano. However, more commonly, ham is cured stage is important in the manufacture of good quality by brining and then hung to dry before it is smoked, if ice cream. Hardening is also a stage in fats and oils applicable. There are many different styles of ham, of- processing, e.g. manufacture of margarines, usually ten particular countries and regions within countries referred to as hydrogenation and involving treat- are well known for a particular style. Traditionally, the ment with hydrogen. names of hams, for example Parma or Bayonne, refer Hardness One of the mechanical properties; de- to geographic localities and techniques developed scribes the ability of solids to resist deformation. Re- there. Lean ham has a fairly low fat content, but even lates to parameters such as strength, firmness, solid- low salt ham has a high content of sodium. ity, impenetrability, resistance, density, toughness, Hamanatto Soy products prepared by fermenting stiffness and rigidity. May also relate to water whole soybeans with Aspergillus oryzae. hardness, the extent to which water is perceived as Hamburgers Round, flat patties of meat mince, being hard, i.e. containing high levels of minerals. cooked by grilling or frying. Hamburgers are typi- Hard to cook defect Irreversible condition that de- cally prepared from meat mince with a 15-20% fat velops in legumes during storage at high temperature content. They are commonly eaten in bread rolls, and under high humidity. Affected legumes absorb served with lettuce, slices of tomatoes and onions, water during cooking but do not soften within a rea- and tomato ketchups. sonable time. Hare meat Meat from hares. Hare meat has a low Handling Broad term referring to manipulation of content of fat, but domesticated hare meat has a higher goods during manufacture, distribution and stor- fat content than wild hare meat. Collagen content is age, as well as control of live animals. Proper han- higher in wild hare meat. A simple visual test of fresh- dling of sensitive foods, such as fruits and vegeta- ness of whole hare carcasses is examination for bles, frozen foods and refrigerated foods, is im- green discoloration of the abdomen. Major factors af- portant from economic and hygienic perspectives. Ro- fecting the quality of hare meat are pH, bacterial load, botic systems may be used for bulk handling of foods. content of ammonia, and possible presence of con- Correct pre-slaughter handling of animals is important, taminants (heavy metals or pesticides). as stress prior to slaughter can decrease meat quality. Hares The common name given to a number of lago- Hanseniaspora Genus of fungi of the family Sac- morphs in the family Leporidae. Hares resemble and charomycodaceae whose anamorphs are Kloeckera are closely related to rabbits. Wild hares are hunted spp. Occur on fruits and vegetables (e.g. grapes, and domesticated hares are farmed for their skins and tomatoes, strawberries and citrus fruits). A hare meat. common genus of wild yeasts found in winemak- Haricot beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus ing. Such wild yeasts can produce high quality, unique vulgaris). Mature haricot beans are used to prepare flavoured wines. However, certain species (e.g. Han- canned baked beans in tomato sauce. seniaspora uvarum and H. guilliermondii) may be re- Harman Harman (1-methyl- -carboline) and the responsible for spoilage of wines, grape juices and ȕ lated compound norharman are pyridoindole deriva- other fruit juices. Growth of Hanseniaspora in tives formed during heating of tryptophan and tryp- musts may be linked to the presence of sluggish fer- tophan-rich proteins. Harman has been identified in mentations. cooked foods including fried and grilled meat and Hansenula Obsolete genus of yeasts, the species of fish, and is known to display mutagenicity. which have been reclassified into the Pichia genus. 207 Harvesting Heat distribution Harvesting Gathering of agricultural crops, aqua- HCl Chemical formula for hydrochloric acid. culture products or cultured cells. Agricultural pro- HDPE Commonly used abbreviation for high density duce may be harvested manually or using special ma- polyethylene. chinery (mechanical harvesting). Headspace analysis Technique for analysis of Haugh score Estimation of the freshness of eggs, volatile compounds in samples not suitable for di- as proposed by Raymond Haugh, by measuring the rect injection into a gas chromatograph. Samples are thickness of the egg whites in relation to that of heated in a closed chamber and the surrounding at- the egg yolks when eggs are broken onto a flat, mosphere is swept with a stream of inert gas, compo- smooth surface. Higher scores denote fresher eggs, nents of the sample being collected for analysis by since the thickness of the egg white decreases with GC-MS. age. Health beverages Beverages formulated with in- Havarti cheese Danish semi-soft cheese made from gredients claimed to enhance the health of the con- cow milk. A washed-rind cheese with irregular holes sumer and/or protect against diseases. throughout. Health claims Claims made by manufacturers about Hawthorn fruits Fruits produced by plants of the the health benefits of their products. They form a part genus Crataegus. Frequently used in preserves and jel- of the consumer information, which is provided on lies. Fruits of some species have medicinal properties. food labelling. Due to consumer concerns about Also used in manufacture of juices. health, addition of health claims to labelling provides Hawthorn juices Fruit juices prepared from haw- manufacturers with a powerful tool for marketing thorn fruits (Crataegus spp.). foods. Increasingly, regulations and legislation are be- Hazard analysis critical control point Compre- ing introduced to ensure that health claims are the re- hensive systematic approach to identifying and mini- sult of appropriate scientific trials and are clear, meas- mizing the occurrence of microbiological, physical and urable and distinct from nutrition claims. chemical hazards, which can affect food safety and Health foods Loosely defined term usually taken to quality during all stages of the food chain, including encompass foods perceived as healthy by the con- processing operations and during subsequent stor- sumer, such as organic foods, natural foods, age, distribution and retailing. Commonly abbrevi- whole grain cereal products, royal jelly and energy ated to HACCP. foods. Hazards analysis Identification of areas within an Health hazards Microbial, chemical or physical ele- HACCP flow diagram, for the production of a food, ments which may cause injury to health. where unacceptable microbial, chemical or physical Healthy eating Consumption of a well-balanced diet health risks may occur. that includes a wide variety of foods and provides an Haze Decreased visibility in the air or clarity of solu- optimal supply of nutrients. Can promote health and tions caused by suspended particles. In beer, haze can wellbeing and protect against the development of a develop as a result of chilling, when proteins are range of diseases. precipitated. This can be prevented by chill proofing, Hearts Hollow muscular organs composed of cardiac in which the proteins are absorbed or broken down by muscle; animal hearts are a part of edible offal. They enzymes. are often inexpensive because they lack popularity, al- Hazelnut oils Clear nut oils extracted from hazel- though in some cultures they are considered to be deli- nuts, which are rich in oleic acid and have very little cacies. Lamb and calf hearts are tender and have a very aroma or flavour. delicate flavour. They are generally cooked by saute- Hazelnuts Nuts of the trees Corylus avellana and C. ing or grilling until they are medium rare, or are maxima. Rich source of copper and vitamin E. Ker- cooked slowly using moist heat. Cattle and swine nels are eaten as dessert nuts and used in confection- hearts are generally too tough to be cooked by sauteing ery and other products. Also called cobnuts and fil- or grilling, but become very tender if cooked slowly berts. using moist heat. HCB Abbreviation for hexachlorobenzene. Heat distribution The extent to which heat energy is HCH Insecticide used for control of a wide range of transmitted throughout an item during thermal proc- plant-eating and soil-dwelling insects on crops. essing. Non-uniform distribution of heat during proc- Also used for control of insect pests in food storage essing can lead to non-uniform destruction of target facilities and as an ectoparasiticide in farm animals. microorganisms, which could compromise product Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO safety. Heat distribution studies are therefore crucial to II). Also known as BHC, hexachloran and lindane. ensuring effective heat treatment of the product. 208 Heaters Hemicelluloses Heaters Devices used for raising the temperature by chromium, lead, nickel and arsenic. Common pollut- heating. ants of land and water, generally as a result of indus- Heat exchangers Devices that transfer heat between trial activity, and are consequently present as contami- fluids on either side of a barrier without bringing them nants in plant and animal foods, where, if present in into direct contact. In many engineering applications, excess, they may cause toxicity problems. Maximum heat exchangers are used to increase the temperature of permitted levels have been defined for heavy metals in one fluid while cooling the other. Boilers, evapora- specified food groups to ensure food safety. tors, superheaters, condensers and coolers may all Heifers Young, usually sexually mature female cattle, be considered heat exchangers. Heat exchangers are especially those that have not borne a calf, or have manufactured with various flow arrangements and de- borne only one calf. The term is generally used until signs. The simplest is the concentric tube or double- the end of an animal's first lactation. pipe heat exchanger, in which one pipe is placed inside Helianthinin Multi-subunit 11S protein which is the another; the fluids run in parallel flow and heat is major storage protein in sunflower seeds (Helian- transferred through the wall of the inner tube. A heat thus annuus). Dissociates to its monomer (2S) form via exchanger can also be operated in counterflow. The a trimeric (7S) intermediate. most common type is the shell-and-tube design, which utilizes a bundle of tubes through which one of the flu- Helicobacter Genus of motile, microaerophilic, spi- ids flows; the tubes are enclosed in a shell in which the ral-shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family other fluid flows. Here, the free fluid flows approxi- Helicobacteraceae. Can be found in the intestinal tract mately perpendicular to the tubes containing the other of mammals, including humans. Able to thrive in the fluid, in a cross-flow exchange. acidic mammalian stomach by production of large quantities of urease. Helicobacter pylori is a human Heating Treatment of an item to make it hot or warm, gastric pathogen, and is suspected of being the causa- most commonly by conduction, convection or radia- tive agent of surface gastritis and peptic ulcers in the tion. Used to modify the properties of a material. duodenum, and of being associated with some forms of Heat resistance Thermophysical properties stomach cancer. Believed to be transmitted orally, relating to the ability of materials, especially microor- either by ingestion of faecally contaminated food or ganisms, to withstand various temperatures of applied water, or by oral-oral contact. heat. Acquired heat resistance of bacteria such as Helminthosporium Genus of filamentous fungi of Listeria can cause food safety problems. the phylum Ascomycota. Species include both sapro- Heat shock proteins Proteins that are synthesized phytes and those parasitic to cereal crops (e.g. rice, by an organism in response to the stress of a sudden oats, barley and corn) and fruits (e.g. apples and rise in temperature. May be necessary for survival of pears). the organism at high temperatures. May be produced in Helminths Parasitic worms which include flukes, response to other stresses, e.g. exposure to UV radia- tapeworms and nematodes, especially those found tion. Also called stress proteins and heat stress in the intestines of vertebrates. proteins. Hemicellulases Glycosidases that hydrolyse the Heat stability Thermophysical properties relat- hemicelluloses ing to the ability of materials to maintain stability of plants (which include polymers of glucose rhamnose mannose when subjected to various temperatures of applied hexoses ( , or ) and pentoses (xylose and arabinose), as well as plant heat. If food ingredients or additives are heat stable, mucins it is possible for them to be used successfully in prod- ). These enzymes have numerous applications fruit ucts which have to be thermally processed. Synony- in the food industry, including processing of juices, fruits and vegetables, winemaking, mous with thermal stability. brewing, breadmaking and extraction of vegeta- Heat stress proteins Alternative term for heat ble oils. shock proteins. Hemicelluloses Polysaccharides tightly associ- Heat transfer Exchange of heat energy between a ated with lignin in cell walls of all plants and some system and its surrounding environment, resulting seaweeds. Composition of hemicelluloses differs be- from a temperature difference between the two. The tween plants and is influenced by environmental fac- energy exchange occurs by thermal conduction, me- tors, and plant growth and maturation. Predominant chanical convection, or electromagnetic radiation. sugars present are: D-xylose, D-glucose, D- Heat treatment Alternative term for heating. galactose, D-mannose, L-arabinose, D- Heavy metals Collective term for metals of high glucuronic acid, D-galacturonic acid, L- atomic mass. Includes the minerals mercury, cadmium, rhamnose, L-fucose and 4-O-methyl-D-glucuronic 209 Hemp Herpesviruses acid. Hemicelluloses are produced as waste from proc- Heptachlor Non-systemic organochlorine insecticide essing of cereals and other crops. Hemicelluloses or used for control of termites, ants and soil-dwelling hemicellulose hydrolysates (mixtures of oligosac- insects in a wide range of crops. Classified by charides and saccharides produced by enzymic, acid WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO II). or alkali hydrolysis) are used as substrates for mi- Heptachlor epoxide Primary degradation product of crobial fermentations. They are also a source of die- the insecticide heptachlor. Occurs more commonly tary fibre. in animal tissues than does the parent compound. Hemp Common name for Cannabis sativa, parts of Heptadecanoic acid Carboxylic acid with 17 carbon which are used in the food industry. Hemp seeds are atoms, member of the saturated fatty acids, with a used as the source of edible oils, and in the same way melting point of 59-61°C. Synonyms include marga- as cereals in foods, while flowers and inflorescences ric acid, margarinic acid and n-heptadecylic acid. Oc- are used in making beer-type beverages. curs as a free fatty acid and lipid component of ani- Hemp seeds Seeds from the plant Cannabis sativa mal fats and vegetable fats. which contain approximately 30% oils. These edible Heptanoic acid Member of the saturated fatty oils may be of potential use in functional foods. acids with seven carbon atoms. Important in the fla- Seeds are often used in food supplements and in vour and aroma of many foods and beverages, in- the same way as cereals in foods, and are a source of cluding beer, wines, tea, fruits and cereal prod- thiamin. ucts. Hen meat Meat from female chickens. Often, hen 2-Heptanone A methyl ketone and one of the impor- meat is derived from spent hens, which have com- tant flavour compounds in foods, especially pleted a period of egg laying. Spent hen meat is com- cheese and other dairy products. monly used as an ingredient in chicken sausages Heptenal Aldehyde identified in a variety of foods. and in restructured meat products, such as Several isomers exist and have been associated with chicken nuggets. fishy or boiled potato-like aroma. Hens The common name given to mature female birds Herbal beverages Beverages in which herbal ma- of several species, particularly to chickens and other terial is a significant source of flavour and/or active domestic fowl (usually >18 months old, having com- ingredients. pleted their first laying period). Herbal tea Alternative term for herb tea. Hepatitis Inflammation of the liver which can be a Herbicides Chemical substances used to kill or inhibit result of infections or non-infectious pathology. Cer- growth of unwanted plants, such as around crops. tain causes of infection, such as hepatitis A viruses, Most are applied as sprays and have either a systemic can be borne in foods and water supplies. or contact effect. Examples of herbicides commonly applied to crops include atrazine, diuron, gly- Hepatitis A viruses Hepatitis viruses transmitted phosate and propham. Residues remaining in foods through contaminated foods and water and by person- and the environment can represent a health hazard. to-person contact. Common vehicles include untreated Herbs General term for flowering plants, parts of drinking water and ice, and ready to eat foods. which are used predominantly as flavourings rather Food- and waterborne transmission is most common in than as foods. developing countries. Herb tea Tea-type infusion beverages prepared from Hepatitis E viruses Hepatitis viruses mainly dry plant material other than tea leaves (Camellia transmitted through contaminated drinking water, sinensis). although foodborne transmission can also occur. Out- Hericium erinaceus Species of edible fungi used breaks often occur after contamination of water sup- for medicinal purposes in China. Thought to have an- plies by sewage, e.g. after heavy rainfall. tioxidative activity, hypolipaemic activity and Hepatitis viruses Viruses labelled A to E, of the hypoglycaemic activity. Hepatovirus genus and Picornaviridae family, that Heritability The capacity to be transmitted from one cause inflammation of the liver (hepatitis). Hepatitis generation to another. The hereditary or genotypic A and E viruses can be transmitted through faecal con- variance expressed as a percentage of the total variance tamination of food or water. in the feature examined. Hepatotoxicity Quality or property of having a poi- Herpesviruses Enveloped DNA viruses of the fam- sonous or destructive effect on liver cells. ily Herpesviridae. Occur in humans and cold-blooded Hepatotoxins Toxins that act specifically or primar- vertebrates and invertebrates. Usually transmitted ily on the liver. through contact. 210 Herrgard cheese Hexokinases Herrgard cheese Swedish semi-hard cheese made poses, including manufacture of capacitors, transform- from pasteurized cow milk. Similar to Gruyere ers, plasticizers, adhesives, pesticide extenders, cheese, but more supple and softer. The natural pale paints and water-proofing compounds. Although use rind is often covered with yellow wax. The cheese has been discontinued since 1977, it is very persistent melts easily and has a mild nutty flavour. As well as in the environment. Associated with the yusho food the full-fat version (45% fat), a low-fat type (30% fat) poisoning incident (caused by ingestion of rice oils is made using skim milk. contaminated with PCB on the Japanese island of Kyu- Herring Generally refers to the marine fish species shu in 1968). Clupea harengus, an abundant fish caught in huge Hexachlorophene Organochlorine compound, 2,2ƍ- numbers in the North Atlantic and North Pacific methylenebis(3,4,6-trichlorophenol), with disinfectant Oceans. May also be used as a general name for sev- activity. eral small pelagic marine fish species within the family Hexadecanoic acid Straight chain, C16 member of Clupeidae. A wide range of herring products are mar- the saturated fatty acids, synonym, palmitic acid. keted, including kippers (smoked herring) and salted, A major component of animal fats and vegetable cured, dried and canned herring. fats. Synthetic precursor of several unsaturated Hesperetin One of the flavanones. Abundant in fatty acids. citrus fruits and citrus juices as the glycoside form Hexadecenoic acid A C16, straight chain member of hesperidin. Has antioxidative activity and anti- the monounsaturated fatty acids containing one dou- inflammatory activity. ble bond. Most common forms include the 9Z-isomer Hesperidin Flavanone glucoside found in citrus (synonym, palmitoleic acid) and the 11Z-isomer, but fruits, the aglycone component being hesperetin. 3E-, 6E-, 6Z- and 9E-isomers are also found. Occurs as Heterocyclic amines Amines with a cyclic molecu- a component of animal fats and vegetable fats. lar structure containing atoms of at least two different Hexanal Member of the aldehydes group of aroma elements in the ring or rings. Formed particularly in compounds, synonym caproaldehyde. Imparts a meat and fish during grilling or frying. Some are of green, fruity aroma in many foods, but also occurs as concern because of their mutagenicity or carcino- a fatty acid oxidation product in lipid-containing foods genicity. where it is associated with rancidity. Heterocyclic aromatic amines Heterocyclic Hexane Non-polar alkane hydrocarbon with the mo- amines containing ring structures with conjugated lecular formula CH (CH ) CH . Widely used for ex- double bonds and delocalized electrons. Formed par- 3 4 2 3 traction of fats and oils, and also used analytically as ticularly in meat and fish during grilling or frying. an inert solvent. Some are of concern because of their mutagenicity or carcinogenicity. Hexanoic acid Synonym for caproic acid or capro- Heterocyclic compounds Organic compounds nic acid. A C6 member of the carboxylic acids having a closed chain or ring which contains more than (fatty acids) family of aliphatic compounds. Contrib- one type of atom. Commonly include nitrogen, sulfur utes to the flavour and aroma of many foods, includ- or oxygen atoms in place of carbon atoms. Examples ing cheese. include aniline, heterocyclic amines, lactones Hexanol A C6 alcohol which occurs as a flavour and and pyrazines. aroma component in many foods and beverages. Hexachloran Alternative term for the insecticide Hexenal A C6 aldehyde with one double bond. Several HCH. isomers are found in foods, including trans-2-hexenal Hexachlorobenzene Selective organochlorine fungi- and cis-3-hexanal. Associated with green, fresh cide which has been used in fumigants for control of aroma characters and occurs in many fruits and other common bunt and dwarf bunt in wheat. A persistent foods and beverages. organic pollutant which has been subject to the Stock- Hexokinases EC 2.7.1.1. Kinases that catalyse the holm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to D-hexoses banned in various countries. Risk of bioaccumula- to form D-hexose 6-phosphates. Glucose, mannose, tion and toxicity are particularly high in aquatic spe- fructose, sorbitol and glucosamine can act as ac- cies. A suspected carcinogen and classified by WHO ceptors. Hexokinases are ubiquitous in nature, catalys- as extremely hazardous (WHO Ia). Commonly abbre- ing the first step of glycolysis. Used in a variety of viated to HCB. analytical applications including measurement of glu- Hexachlorobiphenyl One of the polychlorinated cose, fructose, mannose, ATP and creatine kinases. biphenyls (PCB) used for a variety of industrial pur- Since they allow for measurement of glucose in the 211 Hexosamines Hilsa presence of fructose, hexokinases have been used for diovascular diseases since they accelerate the detection of adulteration in wines and fruit juices. clearance of cholesterol from the blood, thus reducing Hexosamines Amino sugars comprising six carbon the risk of cholesterol deposition in arterial walls atoms. Examples include glucosamine and galac- which leads to atherosclerosis. Conversely, low tosamine. levels are associated with increased risk of cardiovas- Hexoses General term for sugars comprising six cular diseases. Often abbreviated to HDL. carbon atoms, e.g. glucose, mannose, galactose, High density polyethylene Polyethylene of high- fructose, sorbose and tagatose. density grade. Used as a packaging material in many Hexyl acetate One of the aroma compounds. This food and beverage applications. Commonly abbrevi- ester makes a major contribution to the flavour of ated to HDPE. various fruits, particularly pears, apples and High fat diet A diet that has a high content of fats in strawberries, as well as cider and wines. Widely comparison to a standard or typical diet. The type of used in flavourings, providing fruity and green notes. fat consumed is of particular importance for health ow- Demonstrates antibacterial activity against food ing to the different roles fats play in the body. In gen- pathogens such as Salmonella Enteritidis, suggest- eral, a diet high in saturated fats is associated with ing a potential application in natural preservatives. an increased risk of developing cardiovascular dis- Hexylamine One of the biogenic amines, identified eases, while a diet high in Ȧ-3 fatty acids is asso- in milk, cheese and sake. ciated with a reduced risk. 4-Hexylresorcinol One of the phenols, this inhibi- High gravity brewing Brewing process in which tor of catechol oxidases is used to control en- worts of higher than normal concentration are fer- zymic browning of fruits, and melanosis in mented, and the resulting high-concentration beer is shrimps and other crustacea. diluted to normal beer strength. Hg Chemical symbol for mercury. High performance liquid chromatography Col- Hickory nuts Nuts produced by trees of the genus umn chromatography technique with a liquid mo- Carya, the most popular of which are pecan nuts, bile phase in which high column inlet pressure, narrow produced by C. pecan. Common hickory nuts are small bore columns and small particle size stationary phases with a very hard shell and are produced by the shag- are used to achieve rapid separation. Usually abbrevi- bark hickory tree (C. ovata); these are used in bakery ated to HPLC. Can be applied to separation of a wider products, often as a substitute for pecan nuts. range of compounds than is possible with gas chromatography. Also called high pressure liquid chro- Hickory smoke Natural flavourings produced by matography. extraction of condensed smoke produced by burning of wood from hickory trees (Carya spp.). High pressure liquid chromatography Alterna- High amylose corn starch Starch manufactured tive term for high performance liquid chroma- from hybrid corn plants that have been selected for tography. the high amyloses:amylopectins ratio of their High pressure processing Nonthermal preserva- starch. Amylose content in high amylose corn starch is tion technique used to inactivate vegetative microor- usually t55%. Due to the high amylose content, the ganisms in foods by isostatic pressure pasteuriza- starch produces firm gels on heating. tion (1000-9000 atmospheres). High pressure process- High calorie foods Any foods that have a high calo- ing affects only noncovalent bonds, enabling phase rie content in relation to bulk, such as peanut butter transitions, permeabilization of biological mem- or chocolate syrup. Also includes dietetic foods and branes, denaturation of proteins, gelatinization energy foods which have been specifically manufac- of proteins and starch, increasing reaction rates, and tured to have increased calorific values. These are compacting of materials. Bacterial spores are con- designed for weight gain and may be targeted at indi- siderably more resistant to high pressure processing viduals with specific nutritional requirements, e.g. ath- than vegetative or germinating cells. letes, invalids, low birth-weight infants. Lightweight, High protein diet A diet that has a high content of calorie-dense foods are also used as space flight proteins in comparison to a standard or typical diet. foods and military rations. An example is the Atkins diet, which is one diet High density lipoproteins Plasma lipoproteins therapy approach for body wt. loss or maintenance that transport cholesterol from body tissues (includ- that is based on the principle of severely restricting ing arterial walls) to the liver where it can be metabo- carbohydrates intake. lized and eventually excreted. High concentrations are Hilsa Fish species (Tenualosa ilisha) from the herring thought to be associated with decreased risk of car- family that is distributed around the northern part of 212 Hilsah Honeycombs the Indian Ocean. Migrates into river systems during Hogs Castrated male swine (also known as barrows) part of its life cycle. Popular food fish in India. Mar- reared for pork production. keted fresh or as a dried/salted product. Sometimes Hoki Marine fish species (Macruronus novaezelan- spelt hilsah. diae) from the hake family. Distributed in the south- Hilsah Alternative spelling for hilsa. west Pacific Ocean around South Australia and New Himegai Japanese name given to mussels. Zealand. A commercially important food fish marketed Hiochi bacteria Japanese term for Lactobacillus fresh or frozen as fillets; often processed into fish spp. which can grow at alcohol concentrations greater blocks for reprocessing into fish fingers or other than 15% and cause spoilage, particularly of sake. ready-to-cook fish products. Hippuric acid Member of the organic acids, syno- Hollandaise sauces Smooth, creamy sauces nyms include N-benzoyl glycine, benzoylamino acetic formed by emulsification of melted butter and acid and benzamido acetic acid. Contributes to the fla- vinegar or lemon juices with egg yolks. These vour of several dairy products, including cheese, sauces are traditionally served with steamed vegeta- yoghurt and kefir. Often converted to benzoic acid bles or fish, and are a key component of the dish eggs during microbial fermentation. Benedict. They are rich and buttery in flavour with a Hispanico cheese Spanish semi-hard cheese made mild tang. from raw or pasteurized cow milk, or a mixture of Hominy Hulled, de-germinated and dried coarsely cow and ewe milk. ground corn kernels used to prepare various foods, Histamine One of the biogenic amines, synonym including puddings and bread. More finely ground 2-(4-imidazolyl)ethyl amine. Formed by decarboxyla- kernels are referred to as hominy grits. tion of histidine. Present naturally in a wide range of Homocysteine One of the sulfur-containing amino foods, including yeast extracts, cheese, red acids. Precursor of methionine. Plasma homocys- wines and fish. Histamine poisoning (scombroid teine levels are frequently determined as an independ- poisoning) has occurred after consumption of fish ent risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, and (commonly mackerel, tuna and bonito) due to the have been studied in relation to coffee and alcohol presence of high levels of histamine as a result of mi- drinking habits and intake of folates and other crobial spoilage. Histamine is potentially toxic at members of the vitamin B group. high levels, and is not destroyed during cooking. Homogenization Creation of emulsions by reduc- Symptoms of histamine toxicity include violent heading all the particles to the same size. For example, in aches, flushing, rashes, sweating, cramps and diar- homogenized milk, the milk fat globules are rhoea. emulsified, preventing the cream from separating out. Histidine One of the non-essential amino acids, Commercial salad dressings are also often ho- occurring in animal and plant proteins. Precursor of mogenized. histamine. Homogenized milk Milk treated in a homogenizer to Histidine decarboxylases EC 4.1.1.22. Decar- break up the milk fat globules and reduce cream- boxylases which convert L-histidine to histamine. ing, thus increasing shelf life. Modifications to ca- Production of histamine in foods and beverages by sein structure improve digestibility of the milk; bacteria can result in spoilage and may represent a smaller milk fat globules and increased surface area serious health problem. increase contact with the taste buds, giving a fuller Histochemistry Study of chemical components of flavour. Homogenized milk has a greater whitening cells and their distribution by means of chemical reac- power in coffee. It is more sensitive to light-induced tions. Methods used include microscopy, radiogra- off flavour but less sensitive to development of fla- phy and chromatography. vour defects caused by oxidation. Histology Study of the microstructure of cells. Homogenizers Apparatus used in homogenization Histones Group of low molecular weight, basic nu- of foods, such as milk. clear proteins found in eukaryotes, which are involved Honey beverages Beverages in which honeys in packaging of nuclear DNA into chromatin. Histones are major constituents, as sweeteners, flavourings are commonly rich in lysine or arginine residues. or sources of fermentable material. Hizikia Genus of seaweeds including the edible spe- Honeybush tea Herb tea prepared from fermented cies Hizikia fusiforme; a dried form of this seaweed is leaves of South African plants of the genus Cyclopia. used as a food ingredient in Japan and other parts of Honeycombs Storage units of beehives constructed Asia. from beeswax by worker honeybees. Honeycombs H2O2 Chemical formula for hydrogen peroxide. are formed from a framework of hexagonal shaped 213 Honeydew honey Horse meat cells. The cells are used to store honeys, and insect produce lager. Materials which have been used suc- eggs and larvae. cessfully as hop substitutes include seeds from Gar- Honeydew honey Honeys produced from honey- cinia kola and extracts from bitter leaf (Vernonia dew, a sweet substance secreted by plant lice usually amygdalina). onto trees, e.g. beech honeydew, which is gathered by Horchata Spanish beverages made from aqueous honeybees. Honeydew honeys are considered to be of extracts of chufa nuts (Cyperus esculentus tubers). inferior quality to honeys produced from nectar. Hordein Prolamin found in barley. Honeydew melons Melons (Cucumis melo) which Hordenine One of the biogenic amines. Found in when ripe have a creamy skin colour and pale green, germinated barley, sorghum and millet, and in juicy, sweet flesh. Tend to be large and have a long malt and beer. shelf life. A source of vitamin C, potassium and Hordeumin High molecular weight complex of an- some trace minerals. thocyanins and polyphenols formed during etha- Honeys Natural syrups produced by honeybees pre- nolic fermentation of uncooked barley bran. Exist dominantly from nectar but also from honeydew and as purple pigments at low pH values. fruit juices. Honey consists of approximately 20% Hordothionins Antifungal proteins which occur in (w/w) water and 80% sugars, mostly fructose and barley kernels. glucose. Honeys also contain the flavour com- Hormones Organic compounds which, in higher pounds and aroma compounds present in the nec- animals, are synthesized in minute quantities by the tar or fruit juices collected, composition of which is organs of the endocrine system and transported in dependent on its botanical origin, and it is these mi- the bloodstream to their target tissues which they nor components that give honeys their individual fla- stimulate. In plants, production is limited to specific vour. Honeys are collected from honeycombs, locations and the compounds elicit their effects locally. where they are stored, and may be used directly as both The term also refers to regulatory compounds in lower foods and sweeteners. animals and to synthetic growth promoters. Feed- Hop essential oils Essential oils prepared from ing hormones to animals can increase their productiv- hops (Humulus lupulus). Major components present ity, but may lead to the accumulation of residues in are the bitter acids humulones and lupulones, foods obtained from them. This practice is therefore and a terpenoid, humulene. The highest concentra- banned in some countries. tions of flavour compounds are contained in the Horse beans Type of faba beans (Vicia faba). lupulin glands of hop leaves, thus lupulin essential oil is used as a concentrated source of hop flavour for Horse gram Seeds produced by Dolichos biflorus, beer brewing. used as a pulse crop in India, where it is also known as kulthi. In Burma, dry seeds are processed in a similar Hop extracts Extracts of the active ingredients (Į- way to soybeans to make fermented sauces. acids, ȕ-acids, resins, essential oils) of hops. Used in brewing. Horse mackerel Name given to a number of marine fish species from the mackerel family (Carangidae) Hop pellets Hops which have been comminuted and within the genera Trachurus and Decapterus. Impor- compressed into pellets. Used in brewing. tant species include Trachurus trachurus (Atlantic Hoppers Large containers for grain, typically those horse mackerel), T. japonicus (Pacific horse mackerel) that taper downwards and discharge their contents and Decapterus macarellus. Marketed fresh and fro- through valve-like openings at the base. In general, zen, dried-salted, smoked and canned. Also known as used as temporary receptacles for grain. jack mackerel and scad. Hopping Process used in brewing. It is the addition Horse meat Meat from horses. Horse carcasses of hops to fermenting worts to impart flavour and have a high dressing out percentage. Other benefits of bitterness. Hops may also be added to the finished horse meat include rapid ageing post-slaughter, good beer (dry hopping) to enhance hop flavour. tenderness, low contents of fats (with high propor- Hops Dry cones of the hop plant (Humulus lupulus). tion of unsaturated fatty acids) and cholesterol, Used as flavourings and bittering agents in beer. and high contents of proteins and iron. When freshly Hop substitutes Substances used in place of hops to cut, horse meat is dark red or bluish in colour, but, impart flavour and bitterness in beer. Required after several hours, it develops a rusty colour. Aroma particularly in situations where climatic and economic of the meat is sweet. It is not marbled with fat. Often, considerations prohibit the use of conventional brew- the intermuscular fat resembles beef fat, but some ing materials, e.g. in Nigeria where malted or unmalted horse meat has yellow, soft and greasy fat. Large sorghum has been used instead of malted barley to amounts of horse meat are eaten in continental Europe, 214 Horse milk Huckleberries Japan and Russia. Horse meat is processed into a wide HPLC Abbreviation for high performance liquid range of meat products including brined horse meat, chromatography. horse sausages and cured smoked ham-type prod- HPTLC Abbreviation for high performance thin layer ucts. In some countries, horse meat is eaten raw (e.g. chromatography. Separation procedure with several as steak tartare in France) and consumption may be as- advantages over conventional thin layer chroma- sociated with foodborne diseases, such as trichi- tography, including rapid analysis time, reduced nosis. costs per unit sample, simpler sample preparation, Horse milk Milk produced by horses. Also called greater resolving power per unit distance, ability to run mare milk. several samples in a single analysis, and, in some Horseradish Common name for Armoracia rusticana, cases, the ability to view the same chromatograms with vegetables of the Brassicaceae family. Spices of several wavelengths of light to give more complete horseradish root have a pungent flavour and are used profiles. Frequently used to analyse components of as flavourings, e.g. of horseradish sauce, a traditional plant foods, such as herbs, spices, essential oils accompaniment to roast beef in the UK. Distillates and coffee beans. Also used to detect acrylamide from horseradish root possess antimicrobial activ- in drinking water. ity. Source of horseradish peroxidases. H2S Chemical formula for hydrogen sulfide. Horses Herbivorous, solid-hoofed, quadruped mam- Hsian-tsao Common name for Mesona procumbens, a mals belonging to the Equidae family; there are several perennial plant that grows in the foothills of Taiwan. species, including Equus caballus. Both domesticated Used in Taiwan to prepare certain foods and bever- and wild horses are used for the production of horse ages. Alkali extraction of the leaves yields a gum meat. (ionic heteroglycan) which is used in making des- Horticultural products Products of horticulture, serts, e.g. starch jelly. Sun dried leaves are also used such as fruits, vegetables and flowers. to prepare traditional beverages, e.g. hsian tsao tea. Leaf extracts exhibit antioxidative activity and an- Horticulture Cultivation of fruits and vegetables timutagenicity. for human consumption, and of flowers and other plants for ornamental purposes. Practiced on a small H2SO4 Chemical formula for sulfuric acid. scale as a pastime (gardening) or on a larger, commer- HTST pasteurization High temperature, short time cial scale (also market gardening). (HTST) pasteurization treatment used widely in the Hospital meals Meals that are served to patients in food industry, but particularly applied to liquid foods hospitals. They are formulated to provide the nutri- such as raw milk and fruit juices to reduce substan- ents that patients need for recovery. tially the total bacterial count for improved shelf life and to eliminate any pathogens. For milk, heat Hot boning Cutting of meat (muscle) from animal treatment is accomplished using plate heat ex- carcasses that have first been conditioned at 16qC changers. Cold raw milk held in a cool storage tank for varying time periods post mortem. is pumped into pasteurizers, where it is heated to a Hot dogs Hot frankfurters served in long, soft temperature of at least 72qC. The milk, at pasteuriza- bread rolls, with added mustard, tomato ketch- tion temperature and under pressure, flows through the ups or other condiments. Hot dogs are particularly holding tube where it is held for at least 16 seconds. At popular in the USA. the end of the tube is an accurate temperature-sensing Hot peppers Fruits produced by various members of device that checks if any of the heated milk has not the Capsicum genus. Vary in size, shape and colour, reached the pasteurization temp. If any milk has not, a but always with numerous seeds. Very pungent, due to diversion device is activated, and the product is made the presence of capsaicin in the seeds and veins. In- to flow back through the heat exchanger. Properly clude chillies. Rich in vitamin A and vitamin C; heated milk continues to flow through the system and good source of vitamin E, potassium and folic is cooled to 4qC or less. Cold, pasteurized milk passes acid. Used as a dried powder in many dishes, such as through a vacuum breaker then on to a storage tank stews, and to make hot sauces. filler for packaging. Hotrienol Member of the terpenoids, synonym 3,7- HTST processing Alternative term for HTST pas- dimethyl-1,5,7-octatrien-3-ol. Aroma constituent pre- teurization. sent in several plants, including elderflowers. Huckleberries Berries produced by plants of the Hot water dips Treatment used to protect fruits and genus Gaylusacia, commonly G. baccata. Resemble vegetables from conditions such as chilling injury, blueberries in appearance, but have harder seeds in- pests infestation and decay during cold storage. side, a thicker skin and slightly more astringent fla- 215 Huitlacoche Humulones vour. Eaten raw or in bakery products such as also differ. Contents of lactose, oligosaccharides pies. and some vitamins, and activities of some enzymes Huitlacoche Parasitic fungus (Ustilago maydis) that are higher in human than in cow milk, while human infects ears of corn, causing kernels to swell and milk contains a lower amount of minerals in total. darken. It is an edible fungus and was originally con- Also called breast milk or mothers' milk. sumed only in Mexico, though huitlacoche is now con- Human milk substitutes Preparations for feeding to sidered as a delicacy internationally. Flavour is a infants and young children as a replacement for hu- cross between those of corn and mushrooms. Sold man milk, designed to meet their specific nutritional canned and frozen, it may be used in any dish which requirements. Also called infant milk formulas. calls for cooked mushrooms. Also known as corn May be based on cow milk or soymilk. smut, maize mushroom and cuitlacoche. Human physiology The science of the physical, Hulling Removal of the hulls from fruits or seeds biochemical and mechanical functions of the human prior to consumption. Also called dehulling or husk- body, its organ systems and its individual cells. ing. Also, removal of leaves from the tops of straw- Humectants Ingredients added to increase or maintain berries prior to consumption. the water activity of foods. Examples of humectants Hulls The outer (usually fibrous) coverings of some include, gums, which possess water binding activity, fruits or seeds, that are removed by hulling prior to and NaCl, glycerol and sucrose, which increase consumption. Also known as husks or shells. water activity by altering the osmotic pressure of foods. Hulupones Oxidation products of ȕ-acids found in hops and hop products. Humic acids Complex organic acids of polypheno- lic structure formed in soils and peat which can form Human genetic disorders Genetic disorders that adsorption complexes with minerals. Present in many occur in the human population. Includes diseases natural water sources, requiring removal during purifi- caused by gross chromosomal abnormalities or muta- cation for drinking water production. tions in individual chromosomal genes or mitochondrial DNA. Also includes more complicated Humicola Genus of fungi of the class Hyphomycetes. disorders such as cardiovascular diseases, can- Species may produce various enzymes, e.g. cellu- cer, obesity and diabetes which can result from in- lases (Humicola insolens), lipases (H. lanuginosa) teractions between mutations in a number of genes and and acid proteinases (H. lutea). environmental factors, including diet. Humidification Process whereby the level of moisture in the air is increased. By circulating air of higher hu- Human immunodeficiency viruses Retroviruses midity, the moisture content of hygroscopic products also known as HIV which are responsible for the dis- can be increased. This process, known as conditioning, ease acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in is applied to some grain prior to milling or other proc- humans. There is concern over the risk of virus trans- essing. mission to infants from infected mothers during breast feeding. Humidity Moisture content of the atmosphere. Rela- tive humidity (abbreviated to RH) is the moisture Humanized milk Milk in which the nutrients com- content of the air at a given temperature as a percent- position is adjusted to that of human milk as far as age of the level required to cause saturation at that possible, making it suitable for feeding to infants. temperature. Human metabolism Chemical reactions that occur in Humous Dish made from chick peas pureed with the cells of humans by which nutrients (e.g. from garlic, lemon juices and olive oils or sesame foods) are used for energy production or tissue growth. oils. It may also contain tahini. Served as dips, often It involves two major processes: catabolism and anabo- accompanied by pita bread, or sauces. Alternative lism. Catabolism involves the breakdown of nutrients spellings include hummus, hoummos and houmous. into smaller units, with the release of energy. Anabo- Humulene Sesquiterpene aroma compounds pre- lism is concerned with the construction of larger, more sent in essential oils of hops. complex molecules from smaller units to create cellular material and tissues; this process requires energy. Humulinic acid Intermediate product in isomerization of humulones to isohumulones during boil- Human milk Milk produced by women during human ing of hopped worts or manufacture of isomerized lactation. Composition differs considerably from that hop extracts. of cow milk. Although fat contents of human and cow Humulones Fractions of the -acids group of bitter milks are similar, fatty acids composition varies. Į compounds in hops and hop products. Important Human milk contains less protein than cow milk; pro- bitter compounds in hops and beer. portions of individual proteins and amino acids 216 Hunger Hydrocooling Hunger A physiological need to eat. Hunger is also an Hybrids The offspring of two parents differing in at extreme form of appetite that occurs as a conse- least one genetic characteristic (trait). Also, heterodu- quence of food deprivation. plex DNA or DNA-RNA molecules. Hurdle technology Food processing technique em- Hydnocarpus Genus of tree, the seeds of which are ploying a combination of preservation procedures or used to obtain an oil which contains palmitic acid hurdles to inhibit growth of microorganisms in the and small quantities of phytosterols. product. These include manipulation of factors such as Hydnum Edible fungi, the most commonly con- temperature, water activity and acidity, as well as sumed species being Hydnum repandum (Dentinum processes such as gas packaging and high pressure repandum). Best eaten cooked as it is bitter when raw. processing. The aim is to interfere with several dif- Hydration The degree to which a food contains water ferent mechanisms within microorganisms simultane- or the process by which water is added to a food to in- ously. This multi-targeted approach allows effective crease its moisture content. Addition of water in use of mild techniques. this way to dried foods, in order to restore them to Hurum Expanded waxy rice product consumed espe- their original state, is called rehydration or recon- cially in India. Preparation involves soaking, par- stitution. boiling and flaking of waxy rice, addition of fat and Hydration status Level of hydration (relating to the expansion in sand. balance of fluid and electrolytes) in the body. Ap- proximately 50-70% of body wt. is made up of wa- Husbandry The breeding, care and cultivation of ter, which varies depending on age and gender. Fluid crops and animals. It may also include the manage- balance is affected by the amount of water obtained ment and conservation of plant or animal resources. from foods, beverages and metabolism, and the amount Husking Removal of the husks from fruits or lost in the urine, faeces, skin and lungs. Insufficient seeds prior to consumption. Also called dehulling intake or excessive loss (e.g. due to diarrhoea, vomit- or hulling. Also relates to the removal of husks from ing, burns or increased physical activity) of fluids the tops of strawberries prior to consumption. can lead to dehydration. Proper hydration is particularly important for athletes and is associated with en- Husks The outer (usually fibrous) coverings of some hanced exercise performance. A variety of sports fruits or seeds, that are removed by husking prior drinks are available which aim to restore fluid and to consumption. Alternatively, the circle of leaves on electrolyte balance during increased physical activity. the tops of strawberries where they were attached to the plants. Also known as hulls or shells. Hydrocarbons Any organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen. Hyacinth beans Alternative term for lablab beans. Hydrochloric acid Solution of hydrogen chloride gas Hyaluronic acid Non-sulfated polysaccharide and in water, chemical formula HCl. Strong mineral acid one of the glycosaminoglycans. Present in micro- widely used in the food industry as a processing aid. organisms and in animals, where it is distributed Hydrochlorofluorocarbons Organic com- widely throughout connective, epithelial and neural pounds (abbreviated to HCFC) consisting of carbon, tissues. Obtained from microbial sources and meat hydrogen, chlorine and fluorine. HCFC are effective processing wastes. Used in health foods, particu- refrigerants and are less destructive to the ozone larly those for skin and joint health, and also in medi- layer than chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). They re- cines and cosmetics. Synonyms include hyaluronate or placed CFC when they were banned, but are now being hyaluronan. phased out themselves, as specified by the amended Montreal Protocol. Hybridization Formation of double-stranded nucleic acid molecules by base-pairing between complemen- Hydrocolloids High molecular weight polymers of tary single-stranded molecules. Used to detect specific animal, plant or microbial origin that form viscous so- sequences and for determining the degree of sequence lutions or gels on addition of water, e.g. gums and identity, and can be carried out in solution or with one gelatin. component immobilized on a suitable matrix (e.g. ni- Hydrocooling Precooling method for heat sensitive trocellulose). Hybrids can be detected by EM or by la- products, such as certain fruits and vegetables. Dur- belling one of the components, e.g. fluorescently or ing hydrocooling, fruits and vegetables are cooled by radioactively. Hybridization can also be performed in direct contact with flowing cold water, which absorbs situ using fluorescently-labelled DNA molecules heat directly from the produce. Hydrocooling allows (fluorescence in situ hybridization) to localize the grower to harvest produce at optimum maturity genes to specific chromosomes. with greater assurance that it will reach the consumer 217 Hydrocyanic acid Hydrolysis at maximum quality. Hydrocooling benefits the pro- is HCN and synonym is hydrocyanic acid (particu- duce by slowing the natural deterioration that starts larly when applied to solutions in water). Occurs as a shortly after harvest, slowing the growth of decay or- hydrolysis product of cyanogenic glycosides in a ganisms and reducing wilt by retarding water loss. range of foods, especially cassava, but also including Hydrocyanic acid Toxic, colourless gas with a boil- some edible fungi, legumes and alcoholic bev- ing point of 26qC. Synonym hydrogen cyanide and erages. Used in fumigants to control pests in chemical formula HCN. Occurs as a hydrolysis prod- stored foods. uct of cyanogenic glycosides in a range of foods, Hydrogenomonas Obsolete genus of rod-shaped especially cassava, but also including edible fungi, bacteria, the species of which have been reclassified flax seeds and wines. Used as a fumigant in grain into other genera (including Aquaspirillium and silos, flour mills and soil. Pseudomonas). Hydrocyclones Cyclones used for clarification of Hydrogen peroxide Strong oxidizing agent and an- liquids, such as for removal of dust and soil particles timicrobial compound with chemical formula H2O2. from thin sugar juices and extraction of casein par- Used in foods at low concentrations (e.g. maximum ticles from whey. Liquid is added tangentially at high limit is 0.05% in milk) as preservatives, dough speed to a conical chamber to produce a spinning mo- conditioners, bleaching agents, and for artificial tion (the cyclone). Particulate matter is forced to the ageing of wines and spirits, and refining of fats sides, decelerates and falls to the bottom of the cham- and oils. Employed in disinfectants at concentra- ber from which it is collected. A liquid column is tions greater than those used in foods and beverages. formed in the centre of the cyclone and rises to an out- Hydrogen sulfide Toxic, colourless gas, chemical let at the top of the chamber. formula H2S, with a distinctive odour of rotten eggs. Hydrofluorocarbons Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) are Formed by reduction of organic sulfur com- organic compounds that contain hydrogen, carbon and pounds or proteins during microbial fermenta- fluorine. HFC, which do not contain chlorine, are not tion, and can occur in musts and worts as an unde- harmful to the ozone layer, and so are suitable re- sirable by-product of alcoholic fermentation by placements for chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) in re- yeasts giving rise to sulfide taints in the resulting frigeration. wines and beer. Also produced by spoilage bacte- Hydrogen One of the elements, with atomic number ria during decomposition of high-protein foods such as 1, and which exists as an odourless, colourless, dia- meat or fish. Dietary protein from meat is an important substrate for H S generation by bacteria in the tomic gas (H2) at room temperature. Combines readily 2 with other elements and inorganic or organic com- human large intestine. H2S has been postulated to play pounds. Extremely abundant, being present in water a role in the pathogenesis of ulcerative colitis. and hydrocarbons. There are 3 hydrogen isotopes Hydrolases EC 3. Enzymes which catalyse the hy- including deuterium and tritium, a radioelement. Used drolysis of various bonds, including esters, gly- in hydrogenation reactions, e.g. to increase levels of cosides, ethers, peptides and amides. saturated fatty acids in oils and fats. Hydrolysed lactose syrups Syrups manufactured Hydrogenated fats Oils from an animal or vegetable by acid or enzymic hydrolysis (treatment with ȕ- source that have been subjected to hydrogenation, galactosidases) of lactose syrups or whey. which hardens and stabilizes the oil by reducing un- Consist of an aqueous solution of glucose and ga- saturated double bonds in the fatty acids. lactose; whey-derived hydrolysed lactose syrups also Hydrogenation Chemical reaction in which molecu- contain salts and oligosaccharides. lar hydrogen reacts with hydrocarbons or unsatu- Hydrolysed starches Alternative term for starch rated fatty acids, usually in the presence of cata- hydrolysates. lysts. Often used to harden oils, which also improves Hydrolysed starch syrups Syrups manufactured their oxidative stability. In this hardening process, by acid and/or enzymic hydrolysis of starch slurries. hydrogen reduces carbon atoms linked by a double The starch may be derived from any source, although bond, decreasing the level of saturation of the fatty commonly corn starch is used due to advantages of acids. Often used in the manufacture of margarines. cost and availability. Examples of hydrolysed starch Hydrogen azide Colourless liquid, chemical formula syrups include corn syrups, glucose syrups and HN3, with strong reducing activity. One of a range of maltose syrups. disinfectants used in the food industry. Hydrolysis Reaction in which a substance is split into Hydrogen cyanide A highly toxic, colourless liquid two or more component parts by the action of water in or gas with a boiling point of 26qC. Chemical formula the presence of catalysts such as enzymes, acids 218 Hydrometry Hydroxymethylfurfural or alkalies, acting at specific points within the mole- Hydroxybenzoic acid esters Esters of alcohols cules. Types of hydrolysis include proteolysis, in (usually methanol, ethanol or propanol) and p- which proteins are broken down to component pep- hydroxybenzoic acid. Uses include as preserva- tides or amino acids, lipolysis, in which lipids tives in foods and cosmetics. Also known as para- are broken down into constituent fatty acids, and bens, e.g. methylparaben and ethylparaben. In saponification, in which lipids are hydrolysed in the 2004, propylparaben was excluded from the list of presence of alkalies to form soaps. permitted food additives in the EU, due to concerns Hydrometry Measurement of specific gravity of a over possible oestrogenic activity. liquid or strength of alcoholic beverages. Usually 3-Hydroxy-2-butanone Chemical name for the fla- performed using a sealed graduated tube weighted at vour compound acetoin. one end, which sinks in the liquid to a depth that indi- Hydroxybutyric acid One of the short chain fatty cates the specific gravity. acids, with four carbon atoms. Synonym, hydroxybu- Hydroperoxide lyases Lyases involved in produc- tanoic acid. Not widely identified as a lipid component tion of flavour compounds in higher plants. Cleave of foods, but does occur in an esterified form as an 9- and 13-hydroperoxides of linoleic acid and lino- aroma compound in sake and cheese. 3- lenic acid into volatile C6- or C9-aldehydes and C12- Hydroxybutyric acid has been used as a marker for fer- or C9-oxoacids, respectively. The C6- and C9-volatile tile incubated eggs in which the embryo has died, and compounds are useful for production of natural food which are not permitted to be used in foods. flavourings. Hydroxycinnamic acid One of the aromatic phe- Hydroperoxides Organic compounds in which nols widely distributed in plant foods including fruits one hydrogen atom of a hydrocarbon is replaced by an and cereals, and plant-derived beverages including -O-OH group. Lipid hydroperoxides are formed by li- fruit juices, wines, whisky and sake. Three iso- poxygenases during oxidation of lipids and these mers exist, including 4-hydroxycinammic acid (syno- are further degraded enzymically or thermally to pro- nym coumaric acid). Also more widely used as a duce acids and aldehydes which can be associated ei- general term to describe hydroxy-substituted forms of ther with flavour and aroma development or with cinnamic acid, including ferulic acid (4-hydroxy- decreases in lipid quality in fats and oils. 3-methoxycinnamic acid) and caffeic acid (3,4- Hydrophobicity State in which a substance has low dihydroxycinnamic acid). affinity for water. Extent to which molecules are in- Hydroxycitric acid A tricarboxylic acid, molecular soluble in water. formula C H O . Found mainly in fruits belonging to Hydroponics Cultivation of plants in a nutrient solu- 6 8 8 the genus Garcinia. Putative antiobesity agent and tion rather than soil. therefore used in health foods targeting obesity. Hydroquinone Member of the phenols group of Hydroxylation A form of modification in which aromatic compounds with antioxidative activ- hydroxyl (OH-) groups are added to molecules. Can be ity. Synonyms include 1,4-benzenediol, p- used to alter or improve the functional properties dihydroxybenzene and quinol. Occurs naturally in sev- of food proteins and to convert aroma com- eral foods and beverages, including fruits, vegeta- pounds into different variants. bles, grain, coffee, tea and beer. Can also include any member of the aromatic p-diols derivable from p- 5-(Hydroxymethyl)-2-furaldehyde Synonym for quinones or any compound with a quinol nucleus. hydroxymethylfurfural. Member of the heterocyclic Hydrothermal processing Application of heat and organic compounds composed of a furan ring with moisture treatments, such as steam infusion processes aldehyde and hydroxymethyl substituents. Found as a used for cooking, puffing or flaking of foods. natural component in honeys and as a thermal break- - down product of sugars in heat-treated products such Hydroxides Compounds containing hydroxyl (OH ) as UHT milk and pasteurized fruit juices. Often de- groups. Examples include the salts sodium hydrox- termined chemically as a marker of nonenzymic ide and calcium hydroxide, which are also known browning. as alkalies. Widely used in the food industry in processing and cleaning applications. Hydroxymethylfurfural Member of the heterocyclic Hydroxybenzoic acid Crystalline derivative of ben- organic compounds composed of a furan ring with zoic acid containing one hydroxyl group per mole- aldehyde and hydroxymethyl substituents. Synonyms cule. Esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid (parabens) include 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furaldehyde and 5- are used as food preservatives and artificial fla- (hydroxymethyl)furfural. Found as a natural compo- vourings. nent in honeys and as a thermal breakdown product of sugars in heat-treated products such as UHT milk 219 Hydroxyproline Hypoallergenic foods and pasteurized fruit juices. Often determined gromycin B is used to control parasitic worm infec- chemically as a marker of nonenzymic browning. tions in swine and poultry. It also kills bacteria, Hydroxyproline Member of the amino acids with fungi and higher eukaryotic cells by inhibiting protein eight possible structural isomers, of which only the L- synthesis. Exhibits relatively poor antibacterial ac- isomers are known to occur naturally. Found in several tivity, but is effective as one of the anthelmintics. animal proteins including collagen and gelatin, Hygroscopic properties Extent to which a sub- and in extensin, a plant protein. stance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere without 3-Hydroxypropionaldehyde Member of the alde- dissolving in the moisture. Highly hygroscopic sub- hydes and has the chemical formula C3H6O2. Pro- stances, e.g. silica gels, can be used as desiccants. duced by Lactobacillus reuteri and is also known as Hyperactivity Abnormally heightened excitability. A reuterin. Exhibits antimicrobial activity against symptom of a range of conditions including ADHD Gram positive bacteria, Gram negative bacte- (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), a psychiatric ria, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other micro- disorder characterized by inattention, restlessness and organisms. Can be used as a preservative of fer- impulsiveness. Links have been proposed between mented foods inoculated with L. reuteri. Precursor ADHD and consumption of refined sugar and food of acrolein. additives, particularly colorants. The UK Food Hydroxypropylation A form of modification often Standards Agency has suggested that parents may used to alter the structure, rheological properties choose to avoid giving foods and beverages containing and functional properties of food starch. sunset yellow FCF, quinoline yellow, carmoisine, Hydroxypropylcellulose Non-ionic ether of cellu- allura red, tartrazine and ponceau 4R to children lose that forms a viscous liquid when solubilized in showing signs of ADHD. water. Uses in foods include as emulsifiers, stabi- Hypercholesterolaemia Condition in which abnor- lizers, encapsulating agents and thickeners. mally high levels of cholesterol are present in the Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose One of the cellu- blood. A high cholesterol level is a known risk factor loses used as food additives (E464). Can be added for coronary heart diseases and stroke. Blood to foods as thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers cholesterol levels may be controlled by diet or func- and as a dietary fibre. Compared to cellulose, shows tional foods containing cholesterol-lowering con- improved solubility in water. stituents, such as stanol esters. Hydroxystearic acid A C18 member of the fatty Hyperlipaemia Group of diseases characterized by acids family of aliphatic compounds, synonym hy- elevated levels of plasma lipids, such as cholesterol droxyoctadecanoic acid. Produced in microbial bio- or triacylglycerols. Dietary factors that have been conversions of oleic acid as an intermediate in the proposed to reduce hyperlipaemia include a favourable formation of lactones. dietary profile of fatty acids, increased dietary fi- 5-Hydroxytryptamine Chemical name for sero- bre content, consumption of soy proteins and tonin. A biogenic amine which may occur in foods. In isoflavones, and use of functional foods, such as the body, functions as a neurotransmitter, and is toxic spreads enriched with phytosterols, and probi- at excessive concentrations. otic foods. Hydroxytyrosol One of the phenols with high an- Hypermarkets Very large self-service shops selling tioxidative activity and attributed with health bene- foods and household goods, and sometimes clothing. fits including a cardioprotective effect. Synonym 3,4- Hypertension Prevalent disease in which blood dihydroxyphenylethanol, and molecular formula pressure is elevated. In the majority of cases the C8H10O3. Found mainly in olives and can be recov- cause is unknown; a rare cause is excessive consump- ered from wastes and effluents generated during tion of liquorice rich in glycyrrhizic acid. High extraction of olive oils. blood pressure is a risk factor for other diseases such Hygiene Science of health and its preservation, or a as cardiovascular diseases and has been shown to practice or condition that is conducive to the preserva- be improved by reduction in body mass index. The as- tion of health. sociation between hypertension and consumption of Hygienic quality Extent to which something is clean salt is controversial. and sanitary (i.e. free from pathogens and filth). Hyphaene Genus of palms. Fruits of some species Hygrometers Instruments used to measure the hu- are eaten or made into beverages. midity of the atmosphere. Hypoallergenic foods Foods that exhibit reduced or Hygromycins A group of aminoglycoside antibiot- no allergenic activity, which makes them particularly ics produced by Streptomyces hygroscopicus. Hy- suitable for consumption by individuals with aller- 220 Hypochlorites Hyssop gies to certain food components. Several methods ing hypoglycaemic activity may have use for preven- show potential for the preparation of hypoallergenic tion, management or treatment of certain conditions foods, including selective breeding of crops that con- that are characterized by elevated blood glucose levels, tain a reduced quantity of certain allergenic proteins, such as diabetes mellitus. genetic engineering of crops to remove allergenic components, and degradation or denaturation of Hypolipaemic activity Ability of a food, nutrient or allergens through enzymic proteolysis or thermal diet to reduce the fasting and/or postprandial levels of processing. Hypoallergenic foods may also be pro- plasma lipids, including cholesterol and triacyl- duced by substituting allergenic ingredients with non- glycerols. Reductions in certain plasma lipid parame- allergenic ingredients. Examples include gluten free ters, such as fasting levels of total cholesterol and cho- foods and low lactose foods. lesterol within low density lipoproteins (LDL), and postprandial triacylglycerol concentrations, are as- Hypochlorites Salts of hypochlorous acid (HClO), sociated with reduced risk for cardiovascular dis- such as sodium hypochlorite. Widely used as disin- eases. Dietary components demonstrating hypoli- fectants. paemic activity include certain fatty acids, phytos- Hypocholesterolaemic activity Ability of a food, terols and phytosterol-enriched margarines, probi- nutrient or diet to produce hypocholesterolaemia, a otic bacteria and dietary fibre fractions. state wherein blood cholesterol level is abnormally low, or to lower high cholesterol levels (as in hyper- Hypoxanthine Member of the purines group, syno- cholesterolaemia) to within the normal range. Re- nym 6-hydroxypurine. Combines with ribose to form duction of blood cholesterol levels are associated with inosine, one of the ribonucleosides. Produced as a reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases. Dietary breakdown product from adenine nucleotides, and is components possessing hypocholesterolaemic activity often determined as a marker of freshness in fish. include dietary fibre, some plant proteins, some Used in combination with xanthine oxidases in a fatty acids, phytosterols and probiotic bacteria. chemical assay for free radical scavenging activ- Included as a specific type of hypolipaemic activity. ity. Alternative spelling hypocholesterolemic activity. Hyssop Spices from Hyssopus officinalis. Hyssop Hypoglycaemic activity Ability to reduce blood has a warm, camphor-like aroma and a warm, sweet glucose levels. Foods and food components possess- and slightly burning flavour. I

IAA Abbreviation for indol-3-ylacetic acid. Ice cream wafers Thin, slightly sweetened, waffle- Iberian ham A variety of high-quality, dry cured textured wafers that are usually triangular or rectan- ham, traditionally produced in the Iberian peninsula gular and served as an accompaniment to ice cream (Spain and Portugal). These hams are usually produced or used to make an ice cream sandwich. from Iberian or Iberian x Duroc swine. Traditionally Iced coffee Chilled coffee beverages. the hams are subjected to long periods of ageing, dur- Iced tea Chilled tea beverages. ing which intense enzymic action helps to develop their distinctive flavour. Increasingly, however, Ice lollies Portions of ice cream, flavoured water shorter curing periods are being used to reduce costs; ices or coated ice cream products. Generally served this practice results in reduced flavour intensity of the on a stick. product. Iberian ham of a superior quality is produced Ice milk Low-fat ice cream. from swine fed on acorn-based feeds. Ice nucleation activity Promotion of the formation Ice Solid form of water, used for numerous food proc- of ice crystals. Agents displaying ice nucleation ac- essing applications, including chilling and glazing of tivity include small particles, such as food particles, foods (e.g. fish). Small pieces of ice, e.g. ice cubes or and large molecules, such as ice nucleating proteins. crushed ice, may be added to beverages to cool them, while flavoured ice is consumed in the form of Ices Term sometimes used for ice cream. ice lollies and water ices. Ice crystal characteristics Ice wines Sweet dessert wines prepared from play an important role in determining the quality of winemaking grapes which have been allowed to frozen foods. freeze, traditionally on the vine. The grapes are hand Ice cream Frozen dairy product with creamy, smooth picked and pressed while still frozen, producing highly and crystalline consistency. In addition to milk and concentrated grape musts which are rich in acids, dairy products (such as cream, milk powders, sugars and aroma compounds. Produced mainly butter and sweetened condensed milk), also con- in Germany (where this wine is known as eiswein) tains sugar, flavourings and additives (such as and Canada, but also in a range of other countries. emulsifiers and stabilizers). The ingredient mix is Icings Toppings, usually for cakes and biscuits. processed in an ice cream freezer where it is frozen by Basic formulations for icings consist of icing sugar contact with the refrigerated wall, blades scraping the mixed with water. Other ingredients that may be used mixture from the walls while whipping air into the ice include butter/margarines, egg whites and col- cream. The soft-serve ice cream produced can be hard- orants. ened further by placing in a suitable freezing apparatus. Icing sugar Powdered granulated sugar used as an ingredient of fondants and icings that require Ice cream bars Confectionery snack products con- sweetness and a smooth texture. Anticaking taining ice cream covered with chocolate or other agents, usually starch or tricalcium phosphate, are coatings. May be stick novelties, wafer products or commonly added to icing sugar. cone products. Ice cream cones Thin, slightly sweetened wafers ICP-AES Abbreviation for inductively coupled baked on a waffle iron and curled before cooling to plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. form a cone shape. Used to hold one or more scoops of ICP-MS Abbreviation for inductively coupled ice cream. plasma mass spectroscopy. Ice cream mixes Commercial products used in ICP-OES Abbreviation for inductively coupled manufacture of ice cream. Contain all the main com- plasma optical emission spectroscopy. ponents of the final product, including milk, cream, sugar, flavourings and emulsifiers. IDF Abbreviation for International Dairy Federa- tion. 222 Idiazabal cheese Immobilization Idiazabal cheese Spanish hard cheese made from fruits and vegetables. Classified by WHO as mod- unpasteurized ewe milk. Has a compact but not erately hazardous (WHO II). crumbly texture and characteristic smoky flavour. Imidan Alternative term for the insecticide phosmet. L-Iditol 2-dehydrogenases EC 1.1.1.14. Dehydro- Imidazoles Heterocyclic compounds containing a genases which catalyse the interconversion of L- 5-membered imidazole ring with two nitrogen atoms. iditol and L-sorbose, although they can also act on D- These organic nitrogen compounds are present in glucitol (giving D-fructose) and other closely related histidine, histamine and imidazole alkaloids, and sugar alcohols. Useful in the analysis of sorbitol. imidazole, a weak base, has been used in the extraction Also known as sorbitol dehydrogenases. of fats, proteins and polysaccharides for chemi- Idli A steamed, naturally fermented cake-type product cal analysis. widely consumed as a breakfast food or snack in India. Imitation cheese Product with the appearance and Prepared by fermenting a slurry of ground rice and sensory properties of cheese, but which is differ- legumes (usually black gram dhal) and steaming ent from genuine cheese in composition. May be based the resulting batters to give products with a soft, on soybeans rather than milk. sponge-like texture and good digestibility. Imitation crab meat Product resembling flesh from Ika shiokara Traditional Japanese sea foods, con- crab legs which is actually derived from flesh of ma- sisting of squid flesh fermented with squid liver con- rine fish (usually a mild-flavoured fish such as pol- tents and salt. lock). The fish is processed by rolling ‘sheets’ of fish Illipe butter Naturally occurring vegetable fat derived and adding colorants to give it the required appear- from nuts of various species of the genus Shorea (il- ance; crab sticks or flaked imitation crab meat are lipe nuts). Shows similar fatty acids composition commonly produced. The resulting product is lower in and melting profile to cocoa butter and is thus used cholesterol than real crab meat. in cocoa butter substitutes. Imitation cream Product with the appearance and Illipe nuts Nuts produced by various species of the sensory properties of cream, but which differs genus Shorea, which yield fats (illipe butter) with from genuine cream in composition. Usually prepared similar properties to cocoa butter. with vegetable proteins and vegetable fats as Image analysis Analysis of a sample on the basis of substitutes for milk-based components. Also called its structure, as determined by non-destructive tech- non-dairy cream. niques such as microscopy. Parameters of interest in Imitation dairy products Substitutes for dairy the image can be both classified and quantified using products, with vegetable-based components (often the human eye or computer programs. soy products) usually replacing all or part of the milk constituents. Products have the appearance and sen- Image processing Technique that can be used with sory properties of dairy products, but differ in com- image analysis in which the image of the sample is position. Nutritional properties of the imitation prod- processed in some way to make it easier to perform ucts may not match those of the dairy products they are further interpretation. Thus, the image quality is im- intended to replace. Commonly produced types include proved but no analysis or quantification is performed. imitation cheese, imitation milk and imitation Imaging Analytical techniques used to produce cream. images of objects or substances which will allow their Imitation foods Alternative term for simulated structure to be studied. Includes magnetic reso- foods. nance imaging and thermal imaging. Immersion freezing The preservation of foods by Imazalil Systemic fungicide which inhibits ergos- immersion in very cold liquids such as liquid nitro- terol biosynthesis. Used to control a wide range of gen. This process is particularly useful for cooked fungal diseases on fruits and vegetables. Particu- foods such as meats; their surface temperature is larly active against fungal strains resistant to ben- rapidly reduced to slow or stop cooking, which zimidazole. Also used as a seed dressing for control causes steam emission to cease and moisture to be re- of fungal diseases affecting cereals. Classified by tained. WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO II). Immobilization Process by which microbial, plant and Imbibition Process of absorption, by soaking up a animal cells, and macromolecules (e.g. enzymes) are liquid. attached to solid surfaces or entrapped within gels. Imidacloprid Widely employed systemic insecticide. They can then be used in applications such as bio- A chlorinated analogue of nicotine used for control of conversions and biotransformations, affinity chewing and sucking insects (e.g. aphids, thrips, chromatography and biosensors. some beetles and soil-dwelling insects) in cereals, 223 Immobilized cells Immunological techniques Immobilized cells Microbial, plant and animal cells Immunofluorescence Immunological tech- that have been attached to solid surfaces or entrapped niques in which antibodies labelled with a fluores- within gels. Can be used in bioconversions not pos- cent dye are used to detect antigens in the samples. sible with isolated enzymes and in biosensors. En- Immunogenicity Extent to which a substance can trapment is the most commonly used method for im- cause an immune response. Affected by a number mobilization; gels used include agar, alginates, car- of factors, including nature of the substance, dose and rageenans, polyacrylamides and polyurethane. previous exposure of the host. Immobilized enzymes Enzymes that have been at- Immunoglobulin A One of the 5 major classes of tached to solid surfaces or entrapped within gels. Im- immunoglobulins, commonly abbreviated to IgA. mobilization methods include covalent attachment or Produced predominantly against ingested antigens, ionic binding to solid carriers or supports (e.g. cellu- and found in external secretions of mammals, such as loses, synthetic polymers and DEAE-cellulose), saliva, sweat and tears. Also present in colostrum, pro- cross-linking with bifunctional reagents, encapsula- viding a valuable source of immunity for suckling tion (e.g. in liposomes) and entrapment within gels. animals and infants. Provides local immunity against Immobilized enzymes often offer a number of advan- infection in the gut or respiratory tract, preventing at- tages over free enzymes, such as ease of reuse and in- tachment of microorganisms to epithelial cells. creased stability. Immunoglobulin E One of the five major classes of Immune response Reaction of the body to foreign immunoglobulins; commonly abbreviated to IgE. substances (antigens). Antibodies produced by Helps to protect against parasitic infections. On bind- lymphocytes in response to the antigens can destroy ing antigens, IgE molecules trigger histamine re- the antigens directly or label them in a way that makes lease from circulating leukocytes. Following sensiti- them susceptible to attack by white blood cells. White zation, however, these antibodies can also be in- blood cells specific to the antigens (T-cells) may also volved in the pathogenesis of certain food aller- be produced. Synonymous with immunological re- gies, known as type I hypersensitivity reactions, sponse. which include anaphylaxis. Immunoaffinity chromatography Chromatogra- Immunoglobulin G The most abundant of the major phy technique in which the stationary phase (immu- classes of immunoglobulins in the bloodstream; nosorbent) is prepared by immobilizing antibodies commonly abbreviated to IgG. Produced by B lym- specific to the analytes of interest onto the surface of a phocytes following previous exposure to a given anti- rigid or semi-rigid support. Used as a clean up or gen. preconcentration step in an analytical procedure as Immunoglobulins Proteins (commonly abbreviated well as a separation technique. to Ig) also known as antibodies, which are produced by white blood cells in response to foreign antigens. Immunoassay Analytical techniques in which Capable of binding the antigens as part of the body's substances are measured using specific antibodies immune response. There are 5 main classes of im- that bind to the corresponding antigens. Binding is munoglobulins (IgG, IgE, IgM, IgA and IgD), each of measured by use of antibodies labelled with radioac- which has distinct roles in the immune system. tive isotopes, enzymes (enzyme immunoassay) or fluorescent dyes. Immunoglobulin Y One of the biologically active substances found in hen egg yolks. This class of Immunochemical analysis Analytical tech- immunoglobulins exhibits antibacterial activity niques in which specific immune reactions are em- against a wide range of bacteria. Uses include as a ployed in the investigation. therapeutic agent, in immunological techniques and potentially in food preservatives. Immunodiffusion Immunological techniques in which antigens are detected by precipitation reaction Immunological effects Influence of exposure to a with specific antibodies in agar gel. Antigens diffuse substance on a body's immune system. out from wells cut into the gel to react either with anti- Immunological response Alternative term for im- bodies diffusing from a central well or antibodies in- mune response. corporated in the gel. Immunological techniques Analytical tech- Immunoelectrophoresis Technique combining niques in which antigens are detected using anti- separation of sample components by electrophore- bodies. Include agglutination tests, ELISA, ra- sis with immunological identification of the separated dioimmunoassay, immunoelectrophoresis and substances using specific antibodies. immunodiffusion. 224 Immunology Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy Immunology Science concerned with the way in Indian mackerel Marine fish species (Rastrelliger which the body reacts to foreign substances. Includes kanagurta) from the mackerel family (Scombridae) immunity, components of the immune system and di- which is mainly found in the Indo-west Pacific region. agnosis of disease. Marketed fresh, frozen, canned, dried-salted and Immunomagnetic separation Immunological smoked; also made into fish sauces. techniques in which a substance is separated from a Indian mustard Annual plant (Brassica juncea), re- sample using magnetic beads coated with specific an- lated to rapeseed, grown for its seeds which are a tibodies. After allowing interaction of the beads with source of vegetable oils. the analyte of interest, they are removed from the sam- Indian shad Marine fish species (Tenualosa ilisha) ple using a magnetic particle separator. Often used as of the family Clupeidae and of minor commercial im- an enrichment stage in isolation and detection of mi- portance. Found in the Indian Ocean. Marketed fresh croorganisms. or dried-salted. Also known as hilsa shad. Immunomodulation Process of influencing the func- Indigo carmine Disodium salt of 5,5c-ingotin disulfo- tioning of a body's immune system. nic acid. One of a number of artificial colorants Immunotherapy A form of therapy that may be used in foods, this one providing deep blue colour. It used to treat allergies, such as those to foods, pollen has low solubility in water but is heat stable. Added and mites. The idea is to stimulate the immune system to foods including bakery products, snack foods with gradually increasing doses of the allergens to and confectionery. Banned in Norway. Also known which the person is allergic. This will have the effect as indigotine. of reducing the immune response to these sub- Indigotine Alternative term for indigo carmine. stances when encountered in the future (hyposensitiza- Indole acetic acid Alternative term for indol-3- tion). ylacetic acid. IMP Abbreviation for inosine monophosphate. Indole-3-carbinol One of the organic nitrogen Impala Swift-running, medium-sized, graceful ante- compounds found in Brassica vegetables, such as lopes (Aepyceros melampus). Impala are hunted for cabbages, Brussels sprouts, kale, broccoli and their meat. pak choi. Produced by breakdown of glucobrassi- Impedance Opposition to the flow of current in an cin, one of the glucosinolates. Demonstrates anti- electrical circuit. tumour activity, anticarcinogenicity and cardio- Impellers Devices for driving an item forwards, em- protective effects in animal studies, but human studies ployed in food processing. are inconclusive. Its major metabolite is 3,3c- Impingement drying Drying technique originally diindolylmethane, which also demonstrates anticar- used for paper and textiles but more recently applied to cinogenicity and anti-inflammatory activity. foods. Gas jets are arranged in such a way that the gas, Commercially available as a food supplement. e.g. superheated steam or hot air, impinges perpendicu- Indoles Group of nitrogen-containing heterocyclic larly on the food to be dried. The gas is directed at high compounds based on the 2,3-benzopyrrole (indole) velocity, removing moisture from the surface of the skeleton. Indole-containing organic compounds food. Processing time is reduced compared with that include tryptophan, skatole, indole alkaloids, in- required for other types of drying. dol-3-ylacetic acid and indole-3-carbinol, a gluco- Imports Goods or services that are produced abroad brassicin derivative isolated from cruciferous vege- but purchased for use in the domestic economy. tables with possible anticarcinogenicity. Indole has Improvers Additives that improve the quality of the an animal-like aroma and has been identified as a final product. Used predominantly in the bakery indus- volatile constituent in several foods and beverages. try. Includes flour improvers which enhance the Indol-3-ylacetic acid One of the auxins group of breadmaking properties of flour. plant growth regulators, with the synonym indole Incaparina Low cost protein-rich food supple- acetic acid and the abbreviation IAA. Controls plant ments introduced by the Institute of Nutrition of Cen- growth and differentiation, thereby affecting the yield tral America and Panama (INCAP) to combat protein and quality of fruits and vegetables. deficiency diseases in infants and others at risk Induction heating Heating, e.g. of foods, by produc- from malnutrition. The original formulation is based tion of an electric or magnetic state by the proximity on cottonseed meal and corn and has a nutritional (without contact) of an electrified or magnetized body. value similar to that of milk. Other formulations have Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission been developed based on soybeans and low-cost lo- spectroscopy An inductively coupled plasma cal vegetables. spectroscopy technique that can be used to detect 225 Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Injection very small amounts of most elements in solid or Infectivity Ability of pathogens to become estab- aqueous samples. Usually abbreviated to ICP-AES. lished within or on the tissues of a host, or the capabil- Samples are nebulized and passed through a tube in an ity of pathogens to be transferred from one organism to inert gas (e.g. argon) atmosphere. The tube is heated another. by radiofrequency radiation to produce a plasma Infestation Condition in which a host is occupied or with an extremely high temperature. When the sample invaded by parasites, e.g. ticks, lice or mites which flows into the plasma, atoms are excited and emit en- may live on the surface of a host, or worms which may ergy at characteristic wavelengths, which is usually de- live within the organs of a host. tected by photographic emulsion detectors or photo- Inflammation A protective local response to injury, electric transducers. disease or irritation of the tissues that is characterized Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy by swelling, redness, pain and a feeling of heat in the Mass spectroscopy technique utilizing inductively area affected. Can also be inappropriate and/or chronic. coupled plasma. Usually abbreviated to ICP-MS. Sam- Associated with many diseases including arthritis, ples are nebulized and passed through a tube in an inert inflammatory bowel disease, dermatitis, gas atmosphere. The tube is heated by radiofrequency asthma and allergies. Certain foods and food com- radiation to produce a plasma with an extremely high ponents are thought to possess anti-inflammatory temperature, which is then analysed by mass spectros- activity. copy. Inflammatory bowel disease A term that refers to Inductively coupled plasma optical emission two distinct disorders, Crohns disease and ulcera- spectroscopy A type of spectroscopy used for tive colitis, both of which involve inflammation of analysis of minerals. Usually abbreviated to ICP- the intestines. Diet therapy may be one approach OES. Samples (dissolved solids or liquids) are nebu- used to relieve or manage symptoms of these dis- lized then superheated to degrade the sample into its eases. constituent elements and generate a plasma (i.e. a Information processing Evaluation of data using a gaseous mixture of the mineral atoms in an excited computer, to generate usable information. state). Atoms in the plasma emit radiation at a wave- Infrared Section of the electromagnetic spectrum of length characteristic to a particular mineral. Radiation which the radiation has lower energy than the visible in the optical range, i.e. ultraviolet, visible or infra- spectrum and wavelengths ranging from 750 nm to 1 red is detected. For quantitative analysis, the intensity mm. Abbreviated to IR. of the radiation of a particular wavelength is measured Infrared irradiation Application of infrared radia- since it is proportional to the amount of the mineral in tion (IR radiation) to products such as foods. Uses in- the sample. clude in microbial decontamination, thermal proc- Infant foods Foods designed to meet the nutritional essing and drying procedures, and for extending needs of infants, such as infant formulas and wean- shelf life. Alternatively known as IR irradiation. ing foods. A wide range of processed infant foods is Infrared radiation Electromagnetic infrared radia- available in industrialized countries, including rusks, tion having a wavelength in the range 750 nm to 1 mm pureed ready meals, fruit drinks and cereal-based which is just greater than that of red light but less than dishes. Foods are typically fortified with minerals that of microwaves. Emitted particularly by heated and vitamins, and designed to be low in sugar and objects. Alternatively known as IR radiation. salt. Infrared spectrophotometry Alternative term for Infant formulas Liquid foods for infants used as a IR spectroscopy. substitute for human milk. Usually take the form of Infusions Extracts produced by soaking a sub- modified cow milk products (milk infant formu- stance, usually of plant origin, e.g. spices, teas or las), which aim to mimic the composition of human fruits, in a solvent, usually water. Solvent-soluble milk. Formulas may also be based on milk from other components, including flavour compounds and species, soymilk or other products in order to meet aroma compounds, leach out from the material into the nutritional needs of infants suffering from intoler- the solvent. ance to cow milk. Inheritance Transmission of a trait from a parent to its Infant milk formulas Preparations for feeding to offspring. infants and young children, intended to satisfy their Injection The introduction of liquid or gas into an item specific nutritional requirements. May be based on using a needle and syringe or similar. Meat may be cow milk or soymilk. Also called human milk injected with brines as part of the curing process or substitutes. with various enhancement solutions for quality im- 226 Injera Insoluble fibre provement. Gas injection may be used for the aera- Insect foods Insects that are eaten as foods in many tion of foods and also has packaging applications. parts of the world, including China, Japan and rural Injera Flexible, spongy, pancake-like, unleavened flat areas of Africa and South America, where they can bread prepared from spontaneously fermented millet serve as a valuable and readily available source of flour dough. proteins and minerals. Types of insect consumed Ink jet printers Non-impact printers in which the include grasshoppers, crickets, locusts, bees and print image is formed by minute jets of ink. The jets of ants. Most species are roasted, fried or boiled prior to ink pass through an electrical field and this directs consumption, although a few are eaten live. Insect droplets of ink precisely onto the surface. Uses include foods are generally regarded as taboo in the western production of high quality print food labels. world, although some insect products are available as Ink jet technology Printing technology that involves novelty foods. spraying droplets of ink through computer-controlled Insecticides Chemical substances used to kill in- nozzles. Ink jet printers are usually employed for sects. Used primarily to control pests that infest production of high quality print food labels. crops or to eliminate potential disease-carrying in- Inn breweries Small-scale breweries, integrated sects in specific areas. Classified into several groups, with pubs, inns or restaurants where the beer is the most important of which are carbamate insecti- served. cides, fumigant insecticides, organochlorine insec- Inorganic acids Acids which do not contain the ticides, organophosphorus insecticides and carboxylic acid moiety common to organic acids. pyrethroid insecticides. Residues persisting in Includes the mineral acids hydrochloric acid, nitric foods and the environment can represent health haz- acid, phosphoric acid and sulfuric acid. ards. Inorganic compounds Chemical compounds that do not contain C-H bonds. Insects Members of the class Insecta, such as flies, ants and beetles. May generally refer to any other Inosine Ribonucleoside formed from hypoxanthine arthropods which resemble insects, such as spiders. (6-hydroxypurine) linked to a ribose molecule. Typically have a segmented body with an external Unlike other ribonucleosides, does not occur as a chitinous covering, three pairs of legs, and, in most component of nucleic acids, but is used in synthetic groups, two pairs of wings. Some species may be con- oligonucleotide probes. Often found in foods as sumed as insect foods, while others may act as the ribonucleotide inosine monophosphate (IMP), pests of crops and stored foods. which is associated with umami flavour. Inosine levels can be used as indicators of fish freshness. Insertion sequences Small, simple transposons Inosine monophosphate Member of the ribonu- (mobile units of DNA) usually ranging in size from cleotides, commonly abbreviated to IMP. Occurs as a 700 to 1500 base pairs. Possess short repeated nucleo- flavour compound in foods and is particularly associ- tide sequences at either end and carry no genetic in- ated with umami flavour. Content in meat and fish formation other than that required for their transposi- is used as a freshness indicator. tion. When inserted into bacterial DNA, insertion se- Inositol Common name for the cyclitol myo-inositol. quences (often abbreviated to IS) inactivate the gene, Polyols which occur widely in foods as the free form, but activity is restored upon removal. IS transfer events as inositol phosphates or as a component of are important mediators of genetic polymorphisms in phosphatidylinositol. Participates in cell signalling both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and have been as a part of a membrane secondary messenger system widely studied in both pathogens and beneficial mi- and can also act as antinutritional factors. croorganisms within the food industry. Inositol phosphates Antinutritional factors Insoluble fibre Dietary fibre that does not dissolve found in foods, especially cereals and legumes, in water and so passes through the gastrointestinal which can compromise the absorption of minerals tract largely intact. Includes celluloses, hemicellu- from the gastrointestinal tract. May be present in a loses and lignin. Insoluble fibre absorbs water in the range of forms, from bisphosphates up to hexaphos- colon, resulting in a larger and softer stool. This helps phates (also known as phytates). To improve the nu- to promote regular bowel movement and, in turn, pre- tritional values of foods, both exogenous and en- vent constipation and reduce the risk of diverticulo- dogenous phytases can be utilized to hydrolyse the sis. It may also reduce the risk of colorectal can- higher inositol phosphates into lower phosphates, cer, possibly by speeding up the movement of poten- which generally have lower capacities to bind miner- tial carcinogens through the intestine. Good sources als. include cereals, vegetables and beans. 227 Instant beverages Interfacial tension Instant beverages Dried beverages formulated fort to increase absorption into the cells and control and processed in a manner giving rapid solubility in blood glucose levels. When the cells do not respond water or other liquids. appropriately to the high insulin levels, glucose builds Instant cocoa Beverage mixes containing cocoa up in the blood (hyperglycaemia). Insulin resistance powders that are usually reconstituted with hot milk may precede the development of type 2 diabetes and or water to make cocoa beverages. is often a factor in obesity and the metabolic syn- Instant coffee Dried (generally freeze dried) coffee drome. extracts processed to a form which dissolves rapidly Integrated pest management Approach to control in water. of pests on crops that uses a combination of physi- Instant foods Processed foods that have under- cal, chemical and biological pest control tactics in an gone instantization, so that they can be easily and attempt to reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, rapidly reconstituted by bringing them into contact and hence minimize harmful residues in crops and with a liquid such as milk or water. Common instant pollution of the environment. Pest control tactics em- foods include gravy granules, instant noodles, ployed include biological control, use of conventional milk powders, instant coffee and tea powders. plant breeding or genetic engineering to improve Instantization Processing of dried foods in a way crop resistance to pests, use of agricultural practices that facilitates preparation or reconstitution of the final that lessen the degree of pest damage (e.g. mixed crop- product. Common techniques used in instantization in- ping, time of planting), and selective use of insecti- clude agglomeration of particles and lecithination. cides or other chemical agents (e.g. insect growth regulators). Instant noodles Noodles that have been pre-cooked and reconstitute rapidly when hot water is added to Integrins Mammalian cell surface proteins that play them. a role in signal transduction and binding between cells Instant soups Dried soup mixes that are designed and the extracellular matrix, e.g. in the epithelial cells to rehydrate rapidly upon addition of water. Often pre- of the gastrointestinal tract. Consist of 2 trans- pared by freeze drying. Typically sold as conven- membrane glycoprotein subunits. Some food patho- ience snack foods/beverages in single serving sa- gens (e.g. rotaviruses) bind to integrins during the chets. infection process, promoting their infectivity. In- Instant tea Dried (generally freeze dried) tea extracts tegrins may also be involved in the development of processed to a form which dissolves rapidly in water. food allergies in susceptible individuals. Integrin degradation in pork tissue is believed to contribute Insulin One of the mammalian endocrine hormones. to post-mortem drip loss, and integrins may influence This polypeptide is synthesized in the pancreas in re- meat toughness. sponse to elevated blood glucose levels. Deficiencies in secretion of insulin or physiological responses to in- Intelligent packaging Packaging that senses sulin occur in type I (insulin-dependent) and type II changing external or internal conditions, and can then (non-insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus, respec- communicate these to the customer or end user. The tively. Diet can be used to control type II diabetes, and packaging can potentially carry out different intelligent information regarding postprandial blood insulin and functions (e.g. tracing, sensing, recording, detecting, glucose responses to foods (their insulinaemic and communicating and applying scientific logic) then fa- glycaemic index values) is useful in dietary control cilitate decision making to achieve specific effects (e.g. of this disease. enhancing food safety or quality, extending shelf Insulin-like growth factors Polypeptides that are life, providing information or warning of potential structurally similar to insulin. Two such polypeptides problems). have been isolated: insulin-like growth factors (IGF) 1 Interesterification The process by which fatty acyl and 2. IGF-1 is mainly secreted by the liver and is im- residues are interchanged between triglycerides in a portant for the regulation of normal physiology, me- mixture of lipids. Can be catalysed by lipases, and diating the effects of somatotropin. IGF-2 is almost may be used to modify the composition and properties exclusively expressed in embryonic and neonatal tis- of fats and oils. sues and is essential for the development and function of organs such as the brain, liver and kidney. Interfacial properties Physical properties relating to the interaction between molecules at an inter- Insulin resistance Condition in which fat, muscle face. and liver cells fail to respond correctly to insulin, resulting in reduced entry of glucose into the cells. The Interfacial tension Attractive force between mole- pancreas responds by producing more insulin in an ef- cules at an interface. 228 Interferometry Inulin Interferometry Analytical techniques based on tutes of some 157 countries, with a central office in differences in refractive index between the sample Geneva, Switzerland, that coordinates the system and under investigation and a standard. Measurements are publishes finished standards. Commonly abbreviated made on an interferometer, an optical instrument in to ISO. which a beam of light is split and subsequently re- Intestines The portion of the gastrointestinal tract united after traversing different paths, producing inter- which extends from the lower opening of the stomach ference. to the cloaca or anus. Intestines of slaughtered animals Intermediate moisture foods Semi-moist foods, form a part of edible offal; after cleaning they may be which do not require refrigeration and can be eaten used as casings for the production of meat products, without further preparation. Foods are preserved by e.g. sausages. limiting water activity to a level unable to support Intimins Virulence factors (adhesins) produced microbial growth, e.g. by addition of humectants. by enteropathogenic and enterohaemorrhagic Es- Examples include dried fruits, beef jerky and semi- cherichia coli species, which assist in the adher- dried sausages. ence of bacteria to intestinal cells. This mediation Intermediate moisture pet foods Pet foods with molecule is secreted by the type III system along with a moisture content intermediate between those of the host receptor for intimin (Tir - translocated intimin dried pet foods and canned pet foods. Include receptor). Tir is embedded in the target cell's plasma soft-moist foods (moisture content 23 to 40%), which membrane, so facilitating bacterial attachment to the are soft in texture, easy to chew, contain similar in- host. The translocated Tir triggers additional host sig- gredients to dried pet foods and are often made from nalling events and actin nucleation, which are essential extruded kibble or pellets. Also include specialized, for lesion formation. usually meat-based products, with a moisture content Intolerance Group of diseases in which there is inabil- of 45 to 55%, which are similar to canned pet foods in ity to digest a particular dietary constituent properly, many ways, but are shelf-stable. often resulting in malabsorption syndromes. Exam- Intermittent warming Warming of commodities, ples include lactose intolerance, resulting from such as fruits and vegetables, to room temperature lack of a gastrointestinal tract brush border en- at intervals during storage to prevent chilling injury zyme, and coeliac disease, in which an immune symptoms from developing. Chilling injury is a prob- response to wheat gluten results in histopathologi- lem in most crops of tropical or subtropical origin. cal changes to the intestinal mucosa. Exclusion of the Symptoms of chilling injury, such as pitting, discol- relevant component from the diet can result in elimi- oration, internal breakdown and decay, can result in nation of the symptoms of the disease, and also, in large postharvest losses during marketing. Intermittent cases such as coeliac disease, reversal of intestinal pa- warming may, however, cause undesirable softening, thology. increase decay, and cause condensation to form on the Intramuscular fat Fat bound between muscle fibre product. bundles in meat. Important factor influencing meat International Dairy Federation Organization com- quality. Responsible for marbling of meats such as prising 53 member countries throughout the world beef and pork. Enhances flavour, tenderness, which aims to form a centre for collection and dis- juiciness and palatability. Amounts present are semination of information for the dairy sector, and to strongly influenced by genotype. Animal feeding reserve as a link between the dairy sector and organiza- gimes can be used to alter its fatty acids composition. tions representing other sectors. Each member country Introns Sequences of nucleotides interrupting the has a national International Dairy Federation (IDF) coding sequences of genes . These are transcribed committee representing the dairy sector in that country, into RNA but are removed by splicing before transla- covering the full range of dairy activities. As well as tion of the RNA into the protein product. The remain- organizing events at which experts can report progress ing sequences, which together code for the product, are in various areas of research, the IDF also publishes called exons. technical and scientific findings and works closely with the Codex Alimentarius in many areas, includ- Inulases Alternative term for inulinases. ing the provision of draft standards for milk and dairy Inulases II Alternative term for inulin fructotrans- products. ferases (DFA-III-forming). International Organization for Standardization Inulin Polysaccharide composed mainly of fructofu- The world's largest developer and publisher of Interna- ranose residues (fructose in the ring conformation) tional Standards. A non-governmental organization although it also contains a glucopyranose residue. Inu- comprising a network of the national standards insti- lin occurs naturally in some plants, e.g. Jerusalem 229 Inulinases Ion chromatography artichokes and chicory, where it replaces starch as sugars are prepared as different mixtures of sucrose an energy store. and invert sugar, and are used to retard the crystalli- Inulinases EC 3.2.1.7. Glycosidases which cata- zation of sugar and to retain moisture in packaged lyse the endohydrolysis of 2,1-ȕ-D-fructosidic linkages foods, particularly bakery products.

in inulin, a linear, ȕ-2,1-linked polymer of fructose Iodates Salts containing an IO3 anion. Include potas- which serves as an energy reserve in some plants. In- sium iodate oxidizing agents, which are added to termediary products are fructooligosaccharides wheat dough during breadmaking. Iodates are and the end product is fructose. Fructose has a high also added to table salt (NaCl; sodium chloride) degree of sweetness and is important in dietetic and infant formulas for iodine fortification of the foods and beverages. Fructooligosaccharides are diet. useful functional ingredients in prebiotic foods. En- Iodides Salts that contain an I anion or other com- zymic hydrolysis of inulin using inulinases offers an pounds containing iodine with an oxidation state of alternative to the standard procedure for production of -1. Potassium iodide (KI) is added to table salt (NaCl; fructose which uses starch as the source material. sodium chloride) and infant formulas for iodine for- Inulin fructotransferases (depolymerizing) For- tification of the diet. mer accepted name for inulin fructotransferases Iodine One of the halogens, chemical symbol I. Oc- (DFA-III-forming). curs naturally in the diatomic form I2, and is a bluish- Inulin fructotransferases (DFA-III-forming) EC black solid which sublimes to form a bluish irritant 4.2.2.18 (formerly EC 2.4.1.93; inulin fructotrans- gas. An essential dietary mineral which is accumulated ferases (depolymerizing)). Lyases which remove in the thyroid gland and used to synthesize the thyroid the terminal disaccharide from inulin resulting in for- hormones, including thyroxine, which are important mation of a shorter inulin chain and Į-D-fructofuranose for normal growth and development. Foods particu- ȕ-D-fructofuranose 1,2c:2,3c-dianhydride (DFA III), a larly rich in iodine include seaweeds and marine non-digestible saccharide shown to enhance absorption fish. Low dietary intakes of iodine can cause hypothy- of certain minerals, including calcium. EC 4.2.2.17, roidism and associated iodine deficiency diseases inulin fructotransferase (DFA-I-forming), catalyses a such as goitre. Fortification of the diet with iodine similar reaction but produces Į-D-fructofuranose ȕ-D- in the form of iodates or iodides is common. fructofuranose 1,2c:2,1c-dianhydride (DFA I). Both Iodine values Measure of the unsaturation of fats or DFA I and DFA III are non-digestible and have ap- oils, based on the amount of iodine absorbed in a proximately 50% the sweetness of sucrose, thus, given time. Also known as iodine number. they have been suggested to have potential as low- calorie sweeteners. Iodized salt Ordinary salt (NaCl) fortified with inorganic iodides or iodates, commonly potassium io- Invasins Virulence factors produced by some bac- dide. Iodate is preferred in humid regions, owing to its teria which aid invasion of intestinal epithelial cells. greater stability. Used to prevent iodine deficiency Entry of invasin into cells is mediated by binding sev- diseases, such as goitre. Although these disorders eral ȕ-1 chain integrins. Interaction of invasin with are preventable by use of iodized salt, they continue to multiple integrins establishes tight adherence and occur due to socioeconomic, cultural and political limi- receptor clustering, thus providing a signal for inter- tations of adequate iodine supplementation pro- nalization. Producers include Yersinia entercolitica, grammes. Y. pseudotuberculosis and some Aeromonas spp. Invertases Alternative term for ȕ- Iodometry Redox analysis technique based on reac- fructofuranosidases. tion with iodine/iodides. Strong reducing agents are determined by titration with iodine while strong Invert sugar Syrups with a fine crystal structure that oxidizing agents react with iodide to form iodine. contain equal amounts of glucose and fructose. Iodine is titrated with a standard solution of thiosulfate, Manufactured from sucrose by acid hydrolysis or the using a starch solution as an indicator. reaction of ȕ-fructofuranosidases (invertases), a process called inversion. Inversion can be full or par- Iodophors Complexes of iodine and certain high tial. Known as ‘invert’ as the mixture of glucose and molecular weight surfactants (e.g. polyvinylpyr- fructose inverts the plane of polarized light compared rolidone and quaternary ammonium com- to pure sucrose. The fine crystal structure allows pounds). Used in the food industry as disinfectants manufacture of smoother products, such as fondants. and detergents. Invert sugar is sweeter than white sugar, and has a Ion chromatography Chromatography technique lower water activity, which imparts more powerful allowing simultaneous determination of anions and preservation qualities. Commercial liquid invert cations in a sample by using a sequence of a cation 230 Ion exchange IR radiation exchange resin column, a detector, an anion exchange dip or as a seed treatment. Classified by WHO as column and another detector. unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. Also Ion exchange Reversible process in which substitu- known as rovral. tion of ions for others of the same charge occurs. So- IR Abbreviation for infrared. lution containing ions is passed through a molecular IR analysis Alternative term for IR spectroscopy. network containing groups that can be ionized. Ions in the solution attach to the network, releasing free or IR drying A drying technique that uses infrared mobile ions from the network. The reaction is classi- radiation (IR radiation) to bring about heat trans- fied according to the nature of the substituent groups in fer. Process time is shorter than when convective the network, i.e. cation exchange or anion ex- heating is used, energy costs are lower and the impact change. Substances acting as ion exchangers or ion upon the structure of the product is reduced. IR drying exchange resins include aluminosilicates, cross- may be used for the preservation of various foods, linked polymers and celluloses. This process is the particularly fruits, vegetables and grain. basis of separation by ion exchange chromatog- Iridaea Genus of red seaweeds occurring on rocky raphy. shores around many parts of the world. Commercially Ion exchange chromatography Chromatogra- important source of carrageenans used to make phy technique in which separation is carried out on thickeners, gels and stabilizers for the food indus- ion exchange resins. Ions from the sample solu- try. Some species are cultivated commercially. tion that pass into the exchangers are displaced by IR irradiation Application of infrared radiation (IR varying the pH, concentration or ionic strength of radiation) to products such as foods. Uses include in the eluting liquid, usually using a gradient. Separa- microbial decontamination, thermal processing and tion is based on anion exchange or cation exchange drying procedures, and for extending shelf life. Al- depending on the type of resin used. ternative term for infrared irradiation. Ionic strength Parameter which is a function of the Iron Group 8 metal, chemical symbol Fe. Forms salts charge and concentration of ions in a solution. in either the ferric (iron(II)) or ferrous (iron(III)) oxi- Ionization Process by which a neutral substance be- dation states. One of the essential minerals, iron is comes charged, forming ions. The conversion is due required to synthesize ferritin, lactoferrin, haemo- to the addition or removal of electrons induced by globin, cytochromes and other haemoproteins. various means, including heating, chemical reaction, Good dietary sources of iron include meat and meat exposure to ionizing radiation or passage of an electric products, cereals and green vegetables. current. Bioavailability of iron in the diet is influenced by Ionol Alternative term for the antioxidant butylated the presence of other chemicals such as calcium and hydroxytoluene. phytates. Iron deficiency in the diet can lead to Ionones Volatile aroma compounds found particu- anaemia, and to prevent this, compounds such as fer- larly in fruits, wines and tea. One of the major io- rous sulfate, ferrous glycinate and sodium iron EDTA nones, ȕ-ionone, has a violet-like aroma. are used for fortification purposes. Ions Electrically charged atoms or groups of atoms. Irpex Genus of fungi of the class Agaricomycetes. Positively charged cations result from the loss of Occur on felled timber and living trees. Used in the electrons and negatively charged anions from their production of a variety of enzymes, such as lac- acquisition. cases and cellulases. Proteinases produced by Ion selective electrodes Electrodes used to de- Irpex lacteus are used as milk clotting enzymes in termine concentrations of specific ions, including cheesemaking. metal ions and salts, e.g. nitrates, in aqueous solu- Irradiated foods Foods subjected to irradiation to tions. delay ripening or sprouting, improve shelf life and Ioobai Fruits produced by Myrica nagi. Kernels are eliminate harmful bacteria, insects and other eaten traditionally in China and the surrounding area. pests. Types of food that can be successfully irradi- Ipomeamarone One of the toxic phytoalexins ated include poultry meat and red meat, fruits, formed in sweet potatoes as a result of mechanical vegetables and cereals. Regulations vary between injury or fungal infection. countries as to which (if any) foods may be irradiated. Iprodione Contact dicarboximide fungicide with pro- Irradiated spices and herbs are currently the only tective and curative action; used for control of a wide irradiated foods licensed for sale in the UK. range of fungal diseases on fruits, vegetables, ce- IR radiation Electromagnetic infrared radiation reals and oilseeds. Sometimes used as a postharvest having a wavelength just greater than that of red light 231 Irradiation Isobutyric acid but less than that of microwaves, emitted particularly ISO Abbreviation for International Organization by heated objects. for Standardization. Irradiation Application of various forms of radiation. Iso-Į-acids Bitter compounds formed from hops- In food processing, this can be exposure of items to derived Į-acids during boiling of worts or prepara- low doses of high-frequency energy from gamma tion of isomerized hop extracts. Important bitter rays, X-rays or accelerated electrons with the aim of compounds in beer. delaying ripening or sprouting, extending shelf Isoamyl acetate Esters with banana-like aroma. life, destroying microorganisms or eliminating One of the natural aroma compounds found as a pests. These rays contain sufficient energy to break result of yeast fermentation in beer, sake and chemical bonds and ionize molecules that lie in their wines, and also occurs naturally in fruits such as path. The two most common sources of high-energy apples and bananas. Widely used as added flavour radiation used in the food industry are cobalt-60 60 137 compounds in processed foods. Can be pro- ( Co) and caesium-137 ( Cs). For the same level of duced in microbial fermentations and also enzyme energy, gamma rays have a greater penetrating power bioconversions. into foods than high-speed electrons. The unit of absorbed dose of radiation by a material is denoted as the Isoamyl alcohol One of the aliphatic alcohols, with gray (Gy), one gray being equal to absorption of one a characteristic aroma and pungent flavour. Syno- joule of energy by one kilogram of food. nyms include isopentanol, methyl butanol and isopentyl alcohol. Used as an esterification sub- Irrigation Artificial supply of water to land by such strate for production of isoamyl esters. Also identi- means as ditches and pipes for the purpose of nourish- fied as one of the aroma compounds present in ing plants. wines, cider and beer as a result of yeast fermenta- Irritable bowel syndrome One of a range of dis- tion. eases affecting the gastrointestinal tract. Charac- Isoamylases EC 3.2.1.68. Amylases which hydro- terized most commonly by bloating, abdominal pain, lyse 1,6-Į-D-glucosidic branch linkages in glycogen, cramping, constipation and/or diarrhoea. Possible amylopectins and their ȕ-limit dextrins. 1,6- contributory factors include infection, stress and Linkages are hydrolysed only if at branch points. Al- diet. In the latter case, identification and elimination though both are also known as debranching enzymes, of foods contributing to disease symptoms may offer a isoamylases are distinguished from pullulanases diet therapy approach to managing the condition. (EC 3.2.1.41) by their inability to attack pullulan and IR spectra Absorption patterns resulting from IR their limited action on Į-limit dextrins. Isoamylases are spectroscopy analysis of samples. Serve to analyse widely distributed in nature, and used industrially to the composition of samples, and identify impurities. produce modified starches.

IR spectroscopy Spectroscopy technique in which Isoascorbic acid Isomer of L-ascorbic acid. Ex- samples are identified on the basis of absorption of hibits antioxidative activity and antimicrobial ac- light of infrared (IR) wavelength. tivity and thus has uses in food preservatives. Iru Traditional Nigerian fat- and protein-rich fer- Added to processed fruits to prevent browning and mented foods made from African locust beans. to meat and meat products to stabilize colour and Seeds are cooked, fermented and formed into balls, flavour. Also called erythorbic acid and Ȗ-lactone. which can be used to flavour soups and stews. The Isobutanol One of the aliphatic alcohols, with a fermented products can be stored for long periods and mild alcoholic, sweet odour. Synonyms include iso- are a good source of linoleic acid and vitamin B2. butyl alcohol and methyl propanol. One of the Similar to dawadawa, a product made in West and aroma compounds produced during fermentation Central Africa. in alcoholic beverages including wines, beer and Ishiru Traditional Japanese fish sauces usually made cider. from squid livers (ika-ishiru) or sardine (iwashi- Isobutyl alcohol One of the aliphatic alcohols, with ishiru). Production involves a long natural fermenta- a mild alcoholic, sweet aroma. Synonyms include tion period. Used as seasonings in a range of isobutanol and methyl propanol. One of the dishes. aroma compounds produced during fermentation Isinglass A type of gelatin made from the inner lin- in alcoholic beverages including wines, beer and ing of swim bladders of fish, originally sturgeon, cider. but also cod, hake and others. Used for the clarifica- Isobutyric acid One of the short-chain fatty acids, tion of wines and beer. Also termed fish glue. with four carbon atoms. Has a pungent aroma and has 232 Isocaproic acid Isomaltulose been identified in carob, wines and beer. Synony- including daidzein and genistein, which display ac- mous with 2-methylpropanoic acid. tivity as phytoestrogens. Isocaproic acid Member of the short-chain fatty Isoflavonoids A subclass of the flavonoids which acids. Identified as one of the aroma compounds includes isoflavones. present in meat and fish. Synonymous with 4- Isoglucose Fructose sweetener prepared from methylvaleric acid and 4-methylpentanoic acid. starch. Starch is dispersed in water and hydrolysed to Isochlorogenic acid One of the phenols present in produce glucose syrups, and the glucose is then fruits and vegetables. Synthesized in response to isomerized to fructose via a reaction catalysed by glu- damage or wounding. cose isomerases. When produced from corn Isocitrate dehydrogenases Dehydrogenases starch, isoglucose preparations are known as fruc- which catalyse the conversion of isocitrate to 2- tose high corn syrups. oxoglutarate and carbon dioxide, using either NAD+ + Isohumulones Components of the hops-derived (EC 1.1.1.41) or NADP (EC 1.1.1.42) as the acceptor iso-Į-acids fraction in worts and beer. Formed by molecule. Isozyme profiles of isocitrate dehydro- isomerization of humulones during boiling of genases can be used in species identification in worts or preparation of isomerized hop extracts. meat and cultivar differentiation in fruits and vege- Important bitter compounds in beer. tables. Other applications of the enzyme include determination of isocitrate levels in fruit juices and Isoleucine One of the essential amino acids. A vegetable juices. common protein constituent and free amino acid in many foods. Isocitric acid One of the organic acids, produced as an intermediate in the tricarboxylic acid and glyoxy- Į-Isolupanine Cis,cis-lupanine. Alkaloid occurring in late cycles. Found in many fruits and fruit products, lupin seeds (Lupinus spp.). including fruit juices. Also formed as a by-product Isomalt Trade name (of BENEO-Palatinit) for a range during microbial fermentation to produce its isomer, of sugar substitutes consisting of disaccharide al- citric acid. cohols derived from sucrose. Has approximately half Isoelectric focusing Electrophoresis in which a the sweetness and calorific value of sucrose, a low pH gradient is incorporated into the gel diffusion me- glycaemic index value, low hygroscopicity, good solu- dium. Sample components migrate through the gel un- bility and high heat resistance. It is also noncariogenic. til they reach the point where the pH is equal to their Used in manufacture of hard sugar confectionery, isoelectric points. Commonly abbreviated to IEF. chewing gums, chocolate products, ice cream, Isoelectric points The pH at which the net charge on preserves and bakers confectionery. a molecule is zero. At their isoelectric points, pro- Isomaltooligosaccharides Oligosaccharides teins will not migrate in an electric field. produced via hydrolysis of starch or dextran or Isoenzymes Multiple forms of enzymes that cata- synthesized from sucrose. Used in the form of syr- lyse the same reaction but which differ in characteris- ups as low calorie sweeteners. Effective in stimu- tics such as primary structure, kinetics, electrophoretic lating the growth of Bifidobacterium spp. and also mobility and immunological properties. beneficial in preventing dental caries, improving intestinal function and enhancing immune response Isoeugenol One of the phenols, synonym 2- in humans. Used as ingredients in some functional methoxy-4-propenylphenol. Present in spices such as foods. cloves and cinnamon, and in their essential oils. Also found in some oak-aged wines and spirits. Isomaltose Isomer of maltose with 2 molecules of Some microorganisms can catalyse the biotrans- glucose linked by an Į-1,6-glycosidic bond rather formation of isoeugenol to vanillin. than an Į-1,4- bond as in maltose. Isoflavones Subclass of the flavonoids, sharing a Isomaltulose Disaccharide with the systematic name basic structure of two benzyl rings joined by a three 6-O-Į-D-glucopyranosyl-D-fructofuranose (hydroly- carbon bridge which may or may not be closed into a sis produces glucose and fructose). It occurs natu- pyran ring. Isoflavones differ from flavones in that rally and is present in honeys and cane sugar the benzyl B ring is joined at position 3 instead of posi- juices. Manufactured by bacterial transglucosylation tion 2. These phytochemicals are more restricted in of sucrose and marketed under the trade name occurrence than other flavonoids, but can be found in Palatinose. Has approximately half the sweetness several legumes, including soybeans, lentils, of sucrose but is more resistant to hydrolysis, diges- peas and mung beans. Soybeans and soy prod- tion and microbial degradation, thus it is thought to ucts provide a major dietary source of isoflavones, have potential as a sweetener for low calorie foods. 233 Isomerases Izvara Isomerases EC 5. Enzymes that catalyse geometric nal disease that may occur due to ingestion of food or or structural changes within a molecule to form a sin- water contaminated with Isospora belli. gle product. Reactions do not involve a net change in Isosyrups Fructose syrups prepared by hydroly- the concentrations of compounds other than the subsis of corn starch followed by treatment with glu- strate and product. Subdivided into racemases and cose isomerases to convert the glucose in the hy- epimerases (EC 5.1), cis-trans-isomerases (EC 5.2), drolysate to fructose. intramolecular oxidoreductases (EC 5.3), intramolecular transferases (mutases; EC 5.4), intramolecular Isotachophoresis Electrophoresis technique in lyases (EC 5.5) and other isomerases (EC 5.99). which separation of sample components is based on their ionic mobility. The ions separated are sand- Isomerization Reaction in which the structure of a wiched between an electrolyte of higher mobility and molecule is altered so that it is converted into one of its one of lower mobility. isomers. Isomers Series of compounds that have the same mo- Isothiocyanates Organic compounds containing lecular formula but which differ in structure (structural a nitrogen-carbon-sulfur unit. Structural isomers of isomers) or orientation (stereoisomers). thiocyanates. Many isothiocyanates are pungent volatile compounds released upon damage to tissues, for Isoniazid Common name for isonicotinic acid hy- example in Brassica spp. Allyl isothiocyanate, drazide, one of the antibiotics used for treatment of which has antimicrobial activity, contributes to the tuberculosis in humans and animals. Administered pungency of mustard, watercress, horseradish in combination with other antimicrobial com- and wasabi. pounds as antibiotics resistance develops readily in bacteria. Use in food animals is prohibited as resi- Isotonic drinks Beverages which are isotonic with dues in animal foods have the potential to com- normal human body fluids, and contain components promise human health. such as electrolytes and sugars. Claimed to en- Isopentyl alcohol Synonym for isoamyl alcohol. hance exercise performance and recovery from Flammable, colourless liquid. Contributes to the char- physical activity. acteristic alcoholic aroma of yeast-fermented alco- Isovaleraldehyde Aldehyde; synonym 3- holic beverages. methylbutanal. Volatile flavour compounds Isoprene Branched five-carbon chain hydrocarbon identified in vinegar, coffee and tomatoes, and that forms a recognizable structural component of also as an off flavour in sake and chlorinated drink- isoprenoids, terpenoids and other compounds de- ing water. rived from isopentenylpyrophosphate, the biosynthetic Isovaleric acid One of the short, branched-chain isoprene unit. Synonym 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene. fatty acids. Volatile aroma compounds in Isoprenoids Organic compounds based on the Cheddar cheese and Swiss cheese; also identi- isoprene hydrocarbon structural unit. Include a large fied in whisky, wines and beer, and as an off range of chemicals, such as carotenoids, steroids, odour in natto. Synonymous with 3-methylbutanoic terpenoids and tocopherols. Many substances con- acid. tain both isoprenoid and non-isoprenoid components. Isozymes Alternative term for isoenzymes. Isorhamnetin One of the flavonoids. Metabolite of Itaconic acid Alternative term for 2- quercetin. Also known as 3-methyl-quercetin. Food methylenebutanedioic acid or methyl succinic acid. An sources include onions, Brassica vegetables, organic acid produced commonly during fermenta- Ginkgo biloba and sea buckthorn fruits. Demon- tion of sugars such as glucose or molasses by strates antitumour activity, antihypertensive ac- Aspergillus terreus. Also a pyrolysis product of tivity and antioxidative activity. Isorhamnetin glu- citric acid. Used in resins and plasticizers. cosides offer protection against chemically induced hepatotoxicity in animal studies. Ivermectin One of the avermectins family of Isospora Genus of protozoan parasites of the family anthelmintics. Used widely for treatment of infec- Eimeriidae and class Coccidia. Occur in the intestines tions with nematodes and arthropod parasites in of birds, amphibians, reptiles and mammals, including cattle, sheep, swine and small animals. man. Can cause intestinal disease in humans after in- Izvara Bulgarian product made from cow milk coagu- gestion of contaminated water or foods, such as under- lated with rennets and fermented with 1-5% butter cooked beef or pork. Isosporiasis is a human intesti- starters. J

Jaboticaba Purple, grape-like fruits produced by Japanese apricots Small yellow fruits produced by trees of the genus Myrciaria, particularly M. cauli- the ornamental tree Armeniaca mume (Prunus mume). flora, but also M. jaboticaba, M. tenella and M. trun- Eaten raw or used to make fruit juices and pickles. ciflora. Eaten fresh or used to make fruit juices, Also known as ume or mei. jams and alcoholic beverages. Japanese chestnuts Large fruits produced by Cas- Jackals Nocturnal, wolf-like mammals of the family tanea crenata. The flesh is creamy and sweet, but the Canidae that are native to Africa, Asia and south east outer peel is difficult to remove. Europe. There are three species: the golden jackal Japanese flounders Marine flatfish species (Canis aureus); the side-striped jackal (C. adustus); (Paralicthys olivaceus) from the flounder family and the black-backed jackal (C. mesomelas). Jackals (Paralicthyidae), which occurs in the western Pacific are known as scavengers, but also hunt and may prey Ocean. Highly prized as a food fish in Japan. Usually upon poultry and other livestock. They are killed in marketed fresh. Also known as hirame and bastard some regions for their meat. halibut. Jack beans Seeds of Canavalia ensiformis. Mature Japanese pears Oriental pears produced by Pyrus seeds must be boiled in water before consumption be- serotina or P. pyrifolia. Also referred to by many other cause of the presence of toxic constituents. Immature names, including Asian pears, Chinese pears and seeds and pods are also eaten. When roasted, seeds are sand pears. used as coffee substitutes. The source of conca- Japanese pepper Common name for Xanthoxylum navalin A. piperitum or sansho. The leaves are used in season- Jack fruits Alternative term for jak fruits. ings or as spicy vegetables in Japanese cooking. Jack mackerel Alternative term for horse mack- Japanese plums Large, yellow to red fruits pro- erel. duced by Prunus salicina. Alternatively, another name Jaggery Unrefined brown coloured sugar produced for loquats, small yellow fruits produced by Eriobo- mainly in India by evaporation of sugar cane tyra japonica. juices. Also known as gur. Japanese radishes Oriental type of Raphanus sati- Jak fruits Fruits produced by Artocarpus heterophyl- vus with long, mild flavoured roots of up to 20 kg in lus (A. integrifolia) and related to breadfruit and weight. Traditionally used in soups and sauces or figs. One of the largest cultivated fruits, weighing cooked with meat. Sold in the UK as mouli or rettich. usually up to 20 kg. When ripe, jak fruits are eaten Also known as daikon. raw, while flesh and seeds of green fruits are eaten Jarlsberg cheese Norwegian hard cheese made cooked, commonly in curries. Also known as jack from cow milk. It has a similar consistency, tex- fruits. ture and hole formation to Emmental cheese, but a Jalapeno peppers Small smooth-skinned chillies more nut-like and sweeter flavour. The cheese is originating in Mexico. Usually about 5 cm long and golden yellow in colour, and contains holes of various 1.5 cm in diameter. Colour varies from dark green to sizes. It is used as a table, dessert or sandwich cheese. bright red when ripe. Range in spiciness from hot to Jasmine Natural flavourings with warm, spicy char- very hot, but the extremely hot veins and seeds are acteristics derived from flowers and leaves of jasmine easy to remove. Available fresh, canned or dried. Used (Jasminus spp.). Predominant flavour compounds to add spiciness to Mexican dishes, sauces and other and aroma compounds include jasmonates, jas- dishes, or served stuffed and deep fried. Smoked jala- mones, benzyl acetate, indol and eugenol. penos are known as chipotles. Also used in jalapeno Jasmonic acid Jasmonic acid and methyl jas- cornbread. monate, collectively referred to as jasmonates, are Jams Conserves made by boiling whole fruits with naturally occurring plant growth regulators in- sugar to form fruit pulps. Called jelly in the USA. volved in various aspects of plant development and re- 235 Jellied milk Juniper sponses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Used to regulate Jerusalem artichokes Stem tubers of Helianthus the yield and quality of fruits and vegetables. tuberosus. White to yellow or red to blue in colour; Jellied milk Milk to which is added sugar, flavour- irregular and knobbly in shape. Consumed boiled or ings, thickening agents and gelling agents. Also baked. Rich source of inulin. known as jellified milk. Jessenia Genus of palms, the most common species Jellies Small, soft sweets, usually fruit flavoured, of being Jessenia bataua. Seeds are a source of palm gelatinous texture, made in various shapes and often oils; the sweet pericarp is also eaten. coated with sugar. The singular term, jelly, is used to Jicama Common name for the tropical legume refer to jam-like products, usually clear, that are made Pachyrrhizus erosus or P. tuberosus. Young pods are from strained fruits containing pectins which are eaten as vegetables, but the mature seeds are poi- boiled with sugar. Also refers to soft, semi- sonous. Large, turnip-like tubers are thinly sliced and transparent foods prepared from gelatin which are eaten raw, cooked in stews and soups or pickled. Tu- sweetened, flavoured, cooled in a mould and eaten as bers are used as substitutes for water chestnuts or desserts. yams. Source of a starch similar to arrowroot. Also known as yam beans and Mexican potatoes. Jelly In the UK, a term applied to fruit-flavoured sweetened desserts set with gelatin (table jellies) Jobs tears Edible seed kernel from the wild grass and also to clear jams made from boiled, sweetened Coix lacryma-jobi used as cereals in parts of East fruit juices. In the USA and Canada, the term is syn- Asia and the Philippines. Also known as adlay. onymous with any type of jam. Also used for savoury Jointing Cutting of animal carcasses into joints. products with a jelly like consistency and set with gela- Jojoba oils Liquid wax esters of long chain fatty tin, e.g. calf's foot jelly. acids (e.g. eicosenoic acid and erucic acid) with Jelly babies Jelly confectionery products formed long chain alcohols (e.g. eiconsanol and docosanol) into stylized shapes resembling babies. derived from jojoba seeds (Simmondsia chinensis). Show high oxidative stability. Scarcely digestible, Jelly confectionery Collective term for confec- they are mainly employed in non-food applications, tionery products made with jelly. such as cosmetic and hair care products, but also have Jelly figs Fruits produced by Ficus awkeotsang. been used as food additives and in coatings for Seeds are used in Taiwan to make jelly cakes and fruits. jelly desserts. Also used in manufacture of soft Jojoba seeds Seeds produced by the plant Simmond- drinks. sia chinensis, native to south western USA and north- Jellyfish Common name used for any free-swimming ern Mexico, which are the source of jojoba oils. marine and freshwater invertebrates from the phylum Similar in colour and shape to coffee beans, and Cnidaria. Some species are consumed in dried form. rich in tocopherols. Contain simmondsin, a cya- Jelly rolls US term for swiss rolls, thin sponge nide-containing glycoside produced as a by-product in cakes which are covered on one side with jams and the manufacture of jojoba oils which has potential as rolled into cylinders. an appetite suppressant. Jeotgal Traditional Korean salted and fermented sea Jowar Indian name for sorghum (Sorghum vulgare). food sauces prepared from waste tissues of fish or Also known as great millet, kaffir corn and guinea shellfish, such as the internal organs of whelks, a corn. by-product of their processing. Juiciness Sensory properties relating to the extent Jerky Meat products prepared by drying long, nar- to which products, such as fruits, vegetables and row strips of meat, commonly beef. Also known as meat, are juicy or succulent. In fruits and vegetables jerked meat. Worldwide, various types of jerky are this property is dependent upon the amount of sap reproduced. For example, in South Africa, a spicy ver- leased during cell fracture. In meat it is dependent sion of jerky, known as biltong, is produced, often upon lipids content and moisture retention. using game meat, and in the Caribbean, strips of Jujubes Fruits produced by Zizyphus jujuba or Z. meat are soaked in a spicy marinade and then dried to mauritiana. Similar to dates in appearance and produce a version of jerky known as tasajo. The chewy flavour. Relatively high sugar content. Eaten in a strips of dried meat do not require refrigeration and, number of ways, including fresh, dried, boiled with thus, are popular snacks. The major disadvantage of rice, smoked, pickled, stewed and baked. Also called jerky prepared from red meat is that it has high con- ber fruits and Chinese dates. tents of salt and fat; in comparison, turkey jerky is a Juniper Berries from the common juniper tree, Juni- healthier alternative. perus communis, that are used when ripe as spices. 236 Junket Jute seeds Their pungent, bitter flavour is released by crush- fibre is used to make jute board, a strong flexible ing. Also used to flavour gin. cardboard often used to make shipping cartons. Also woven into sacking, and used for making wrap- Junket Desserts prepared from sweetened and fla- ping paper and twine. voured curd. Jute Rough fibre made from the inner bark of tropical Jute seeds Seeds from either of two Asian plants, plants belonging to the genus Corchorus, especially C. Corchorus capsularis or C. olitorius which may be olitorius (in India) and C. capsularis (in China). Jute used as oilseeds. K

Kachkaval cheese Hard cheese popular in the infectious conditions in food animals including cattle, Balkan countries, sometimes made from raw ewe sheep, swine, chickens and rabbits. maximum resi- milk. Kachkaval has a smooth dry rind and an amber- due limits (MRL) are specified for meat, livers, coloured interior with a moderately firm texture and kidneys, fats and milk from treated livestock. no holes. Flavour is piquant and slightly salty. Alter- Kangaroo meat Meat from kangaroos, herbivo- native spelling is Kashkaval cheese. rous marsupials belonging to the genus Macropus. Kaempferol Member of the flavonoids group. Pre- Kangaroo carcasses have high lean and low fat sent in a range of foods including many fruits and contents; the proportion of high-value meat in kanga- vegetables. Displays antioxidative activity. Syn- roo carcasses is greater than in sheep carcasses. The onymous with 3,5,7,4ƍ-tetrahydroxyflavone. usual meat cuts available are fillet, loin and rump (the Kafirins Prolamins found in sorghum. prime roasting and grilling cuts), topside, tail and Kahweol Member of the terpenoids. One of the chopped meat. As kangaroo meat oxidizes rapidly on diterpenes found in coffee which, along with contact with air, the majority is sold sealed, either vac- cafestol, is associated with increases in blood cho- uum packed or under plastic film. Kangaroo meat is lesterol levels. Kahweol has also been found to dis- dark in colour, has a distinctive texture and flavour, play anticarcinogenicity in animal models. and contains predominantly polyunsaturated fats. In addition to its nutritional benefits, kangaroo meat is Kajmak cheese Yugoslav fresh cream cheese associated with a low incidence of pathogens and a made from cow milk, ewe milk or goat milk. low potential for transmission of zoonoses. Kakdugi Radish kimchies. Kangaroos Large, herbivorous marsupials belonging Kaki figs Alternative term for persimmons. to the genus Macropus of the Macropodidae family; Kaki fruits Alternative term for persimmons. there are several species. In Australia, three species of Kalakand Sweetened dairy products that are popu- kangaroo are harvested commercially for kangaroo lar in India. Made by evaporating acidified buffalo meat production, namely the red kangaroo (M. rufus), milk. the eastern grey kangaroo (M. giganteus) and the west- Kalamansi juices Fruit juices extracted from ern grey kangaroo (M. fuliginosus). fruits of Citrus microcarpa. Kanjan Alternative spelling for kanjang. Kale Non-heading cabbages with large leaves that Kanjang Korean style soy sauces produced by have a mild, cabbage-like flavour. Leaves vary in fermentation of meju (soy pastes). Alternative colour and form according to variety, and are a good spelling is kanjan. source of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, folic acid and iron. Used in salads and soups, or as a Kanji Traditional Indian beverage made from black side vegetable. Varieties with curled and crimped carrots. Peculiar to the northern plains of India, black leaves (curly kale) are most popular for human con- carrots are black on the outside but a rich red colour sumption. Also known as borecoles and collards. under the skin. The carrots are parboiled in water with Kamaboko Japanese name for fish products con- salt and other flavourings such as ground mustard sisting of processed, stabilized fish mince having a seeds and chilli powder. The mixture is then left to firm, elastic or rubbery texture; often used as a gen- ferment in the sun, resulting in a sour and spiced red eral name for all surimi products made in Japan. drink which is consumed as an accompaniment to Various types of kamaboko are produced and classified meals. into several categories according to heating method, Kapok oils Yellow-green oils obtained from seeds shape or ingredients used. of the kapok tree (family Malvaceae) which contain Kanamycin Aminoglycoside antibiotic active against cyclopropene acids. These oils have a mild flavour many pathogens. Used for treatment of a variety of and aroma, but quickly develop rancidity upon air 238 Kapok seeds Kefir grains exposure. Used as edible oils and for soap manufac- ness, drying of the skin and liver damage, if consumed ture. over a long period of time or in high amounts. Kapok seeds By-products of kapok fibre production; Kawal Strong-smelling pastes prepared by fermen- used for extraction of kapok oils. tation of leaves of the legume Cassia obtusifolia. Karaya gums Exudates of Sterculia urens, a tree that Rich in proteins. Used as meat substitutes in is native to India; hence, the gums are also known as soups and stews. Indian tragacanth. Used as food thickeners, stabi- KCl Chemical formula for potassium chloride. One of lizers, emulsifiers and texturizing agents. the chlorides widely used in food processing at varying levels to replace salt (NaCl), for example in Kareish cheese Egyptian brine-ripened cheese brines, in order to reduce Na levels in foods, and spe- made from cow or buffalo raw milk. Slightly acidic cifically to produce low sodium foods and salt and salty flavour. substitutes. Generally used in blends with NaCl to Kashar cheese Turkish semi hard or hard cheese balance perceptions of saltiness and bitterness. ewe milk generally made from raw , alone or mixed Kebabs Pieces of meat, fish and/or vegetables goat milk Kachkaval cheese with raw . Similar to grilled or roasted on skewers or spits. which is popular throughout Balkan countries. Kecap Indonesian soy sauces prepared by fermen- Kasseler Cured pork products prepared from the tation of black soybeans in a 2-stage process in- loin of swine. Kasseler is cured and drained, and is volving a solid state fermentation and a brine fer- then smoked and cooked again in a process similar to mentation. that used in ham production. It is a more delicate Keeping quality Alternative term for shelf life. product than ham, and cannot tolerate being tumbled or massaged in order to increase take up of additional wa- Kefalograviera cheese Greek hard cheese made ter. usually from ewe milk. Kasseri cheese Greek pasta filata type cheese made Kefalotyri cheese Greek hard cheese made from from ewe milk or a mixture of ewe milk and goat whole raw ewe milk or a mixture of ewe and goat milk. The colour varies from white to yellow and it milk. Traditionally made from raw milk, as processing procedures are considered to inhibit harmful has a tangy flavour and sharp aroma. It ripens in 2-3 microorganisms. Rindless, but with a white crust. months and is generally served grated over cooked dishes. Also produced in Romania. Interior is pale yellow in colour with a springy texture. Flavour is salty and buttery, with an underlying Kefir Alcoholic fermented milk product made tradi- sweetness. Kasseri cheese is used as an alternative tionally by addition of kefir grains to milk. The tra- to mozzarella cheese in local dishes. ditional product contains alcohol and CO2 in addition to lactic acid, making it foaming and viscous. Since Katemfe Common name for the West African shrub this can cause blowing of packs, starters with few or Thaumatococcus daniellii which produces intensely no yeasts and lactobacilli are used in industrial pro- sweet fruits. These fruits are the source of the protein duction of kefir. Commercial kefir tends to contain sweetener thaumatin. Also know as sweet prayer. much lower amounts of alcohol than traditionally pre- Katsuobushi Japanese name for fish products con- pared products. Kefir is generally more digestible than sisting of dried flesh of skipjack tuna (bonito) milk and more easily tolerated by lactose-intolerant which has been fermented and smoked, and then individuals. It is marketed with various fat contents. shaped into a stick-like form. Shavings from the dried Kefiran One of the exopolysaccharides produced block arey used as condiments and form the basis of by Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens and found in kefir dashi stock (a broth that forms the basis of many Japa- grains. Potentially useful as a food additive due to its nese soups). gelation properties. Also displays antitumour ac- Katyk Fermented product prepared from cream of ewe tivity. milk. Kefir grains Traditionally used in the culture of milk Kava A plant (Piper methysticum; kava kava) and the during manufacture of kefir. An irregularly shaped, beverage made by aqueous extraction of powders pre- elastic mass of microbial polysaccharides (e.g. ke- pared from the rhizomes of this plant. The beverage is firan), proteins (e.g. casein) and microorgan- consumed in the south Pacific region as a nar- isms. The microflora of the grains is highly variable, cotic/stimulant. Also used in treatment of anxiety and a but tends to include lactic acid bacteria (e.g. strep- range of disorders. The pharmacologically active com- tococci, leuconostocs, lactobacilli, lactococci), acetic ponents are lactones. Non-addictive, but there have acid bacteria and yeasts. Fungi such as been reports of adverse effects, such as muscle weak- Geotrichum candidum may also be present. Kefir 239 Kegs Killer yeasts grains are recovered from the finished product and can microorganisms present. Synonyms are 2- be re-used several times. However, this process is la- oxoglutaric acid and 2-oxopentanedioic acid. borious on a large scale, so kefir grains are not used for Ketones Types of carbonyl compounds in which industrial manufacture of kefir. Kefir starters that the carbonyl substituent is bound to two carbon atoms. produce no grains are used instead. Many ketones are important volatile aroma com- Kegs Small barrels, often used for transportation or pounds in foods and beverages. storage of alcoholic beverages, especially beer. Ketoses Nonreducing sugars containing a ketone May be made from wood, but are commonly made substituent - as opposed to aldoses which contain an from plastics or metals. aldehyde group. Ketoses are monosaccharides and Kelp Alternative term for seaweeds of the genus many of these sugars have the suffix ‘-ulose’. Exam- Laminaria. ples include xylulose, arabino-2-hexulose (fructose) Kelthane Alternative term for the acaricide dicofol. and lyxo-2-hexulose (tagatose). Kenaf seeds Seeds produced by Hibiscus cannabinus Kettles Metal or plastic containers with a lid, spout which are used as a source of edible oils. and handle for boiling water. Also metal containers Kenkey Corn-based product from Ghana that is made for heating any liquids. Fish kettles are long pans by boiling fermented dough. specially designed for cooking fish. Keratin One of the structural fibrous animal pro- Khoa Heat-concentrated dairy products usually teins, found in vertebrate skin and specialized epi- prepared from buffalo milk and popular in India. dermal structures, including feathers, nails, hair, Used as the base material for a number of Indian hooves, horns and quills. Keratin-degrading microor- sweets, such as burfi, peda and gulabjamans. ganisms and serine proteinases (keratinases) are Khurchan Concentrated milk product popular in of interest for bioremediation of wastes from India. Prepared by simmering whole milk and adding slaughterhouses and food factories processing sugar. meat and carcasses. Kicap Alternative term for kecap. Keratinases Proteinases which catalyse the hy- Kidney beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus drolysis of keratin. Microbial keratinases have been vulgaris) with kidney-shaped seeds. Red kidney used for degradation of poultry feathers and other beans form an integral part of the Mexican dish chilli wastes from slaughterhouses. con carne. Due to the presence of antinutritional Kesari dhal Alternative term for grass peas. factors, such as lectins, beans must be well soaked Kestose Fructooligosaccharides comprising two in water and cooked prior to consumption. fructose residues and a glucose residue. Produced Kidneys Paired abdominal excretory organs, which by hydrolysis of inulin or via the action of fructo- form a part of edible offal. Kidneys from young ani- syltransferases using sucrose as substrate. mals, particularly lambs and veal calves, are more ten- Keta salmon Pacific salmon species (Oncorhyn- der than those of older animals; those from milk-fed chus keta) found in seawater and rivers along north Pa- animals are palest in colour. Lamb and calf kidneys cific coasts. Mostly marketed as a canned product but have the most delicate flavour, whilst cattle and swine also sold fresh, dried-salted, smoked, and frozen. kidneys have a stronger flavour. Ketchups Synonym for catsups. Originally, a spicy Kieselguhr Soft, crumbly sedimentary material used pickled fish condiment, nowadays the term refers to as filter aids and in other industrial applications. various thick piquant sauces containing sugar, Kilka Brackish and freshwater fish species (Clupe- spices, vinegar, and other ingredients such as to- onella cultriventris) from the herring family (Clupei- matoes, mushrooms, nuts or fruits. Tomato dae), found in the Black Sea (northwestern parts), Sea ketchups are one of the most well known types of of Azov and Caspian Sea; also occurs in lakes in Tur- ketchup and are a popular accompaniment for French key and Bulgaria. Often marketed as a dried, salted fries, burgers and many other foods. product. Also known as black sea sprat. Ketjap Alternative term for kecap. Killer toxins Exotoxins secreted as either proteins Į-Ketoglutaric acid One of the keto acids (molecular or glycoproteins by killer yeasts, such as Pichia formula C5H6O5) and an intermediate of the Krebs cy- and Saccharomyces spp., that are fatal to other sus- cle. Also involved in amino acids metabolism, it ceptible yeasts. Can be used as a viable control for forms glutamic acid on reaction with ammonia and contaminant wild yeasts in fermented beverages. may be used to accelerate ripening of fermented Killer yeasts Yeasts (including brewers yeasts, foods, e.g. cheese or fermented sausages, by wine yeasts and sake yeasts) which secrete pro- increasing production of aroma compounds by the tein or glycoprotein toxins able to kill sensitive yeast 240 Kilning Kjeldahl nitrogen strains. This may be disadvantageous, if desirable yeast coloured. Marketed chilled, frozen or canned; ground strains are killed, or beneficial if wild yeasts or con- flesh is made into kipper paste. taminating yeasts are eliminated. Kirsch Fruit brandies distilled from cherries, Kilning Final stage of malting, in which steeped ger- commonly in the presence of the cherry stones. minated malting barley is heated and dried to a Kishk Dried mixture of fermented milk and cereals specified moisture content. This halts metabolism originating from the Middle East. Typically, made and enzyme activity in the malt. Kilning temperature from bulgur wheat fermented with yoghurt and then and duration may be selected to give malts with a dried and ground to a powder. Easy to store and can be range of colour and flavour. reconstituted with water to make soups. Known as Kilns Furnaces or ovens for burning, baking or dry- tarhana in Turkey or trahanas in Greece. ing. An oast is a kiln used to dry products such as Kisra Fermented thin pancake-like leavened bread hops and malt. made from whole sorghum flour. Kimchies Fermented vegetable products, made Kissel Russian jelly-type desserts made from sweet- mainly from cabbages or radishes, eaten widely in ened fruit purees. Typically made with cranberries Korea. Prepared vegetables are soaked in brines for and thickened with arrowroot, corn starch or po- several hours before mixing with flavourings and tato meal. Served hot or cold. fermentation by microorganisms present in the Kitten foods Pet foods specifically designed for raw materials. Rich in vitamin C. kittens. Contain extra nutrients to encourage growth Ki-mikan Common name for citrus fruits produced and development of strong teeth, bones and muscles. by Citrus flaviculpus, which are eaten in Japan. Also Easier to digest than cat foods. Main ingredients in- known locally as ogon-kan. clude meat, fish, cereals, fruits, yeast extracts, Kinases Enzymes that transfer a phosphate group taurine, vitamins and minerals. May also contain from one compound, such as adenosine triphos- probiotic bacteria. Available dried, in cans or in phate (ATP), to another. The acceptor may be an al- pouches. Dried kitten foods may contain smaller, cohol group (EC 2.7.1), a carboxyl group (EC 2.7.2), a specially shaped kibbles and may need to be moistened nitrogenous group (EC 2.7.3) or a phosphate group for newly weaned kittens. (EC 2.7.4). The pyrophosphokinases are in subclass Kitten milks Commercially available milk for kittens, EC 2.7.6. The dikinases (EC 2.7.9) transfer 2 phos- formulated to closely match the protein, fat and carbo- phate groups from a donor such as ATP to two differ- hydrate composition of queen's milk. May contain ent acceptors. added vitamins and taurine, and is either lactose Kinema Traditional Indian product made by fermen- free or contains very low levels. Available in liquid or tation of cooked soybeans, usually with Bacillus powder form. Their composition differs from that of subtilis. Rich source of protein, with a stringy texture cat milks. and characteristic flavour. Consumed as meat sub- Kiwano Fruits produced by Cucumis metuliferus. A stitutes, usually in a side dish with cooked rice. spiky cross between cucumbers and melons con- Kinetin Member of the cytokinins group of plant taining white seeds in a bright green, jelly-textured growth regulators. Kinetin (6-furfurylaminopurine) pulp. Also known as horned melons. occurs naturally in plants and is an important determi- Kiwifruit Fruits produced by Actinidia deliciosa nant of growth and development. Employed in plant (green kiwifruit) or A. chinensis (golden kiwifruit). tissue culture to induce cell division, and also added Rich in vitamin C; also contain a range of minerals exogenously to fruits and vegetables during cultiva- and B vitamins. The flesh of A. deliciosa is bright tion. green near the surface, with a ring of black seeds near Kingklip Eel-like marine fish species (Genypterus the centre and a core of lighter green flesh, while A. capensis) primarily caught off the coast of southern chinensis has yellow flesh with a sweeter, less acidic Africa. Normally marketed in frozen form, but also flavour. Eaten fresh, often in fruit salads, or used to sold fresh. top desserts and in garnishes. Also known as Chi- King salmon Alternative term for Chinook salmon. nese gooseberries. Kinins Alternative term for the cytokinins. Kiwifruit juices Fruit juices extracted from kiwi- Kinnow mandarins Variety of mandarins with fruit. very sweet flesh and numerous seeds. Kjeldahl nitrogen Total nitrogen in a substance, Kippers Fish products consisting of boned and determined by digesting the sample with sulfuric acid gutted herring which are split open along the back, and a catalyst. Kjeldahl nitrogen is used extensively for lightly brined and cold smoked; sometimes artificially determination of proteins levels in foods. In these 241 Klebsiella Kojic acid cases, the nitrogen measured is converted to the Knives Sturdy and well balanced cutting instruments equivalent protein content by use of an appropriate consisting of a blade fixed into a handle, or blades on a numerical factor. machine for cutting, peeling, slicing or spreading. Klebsiella Genus of Gram negative, facultatively an- Most knife blades are made of steel or ceramic zirco- aerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacteria of the family nia, a hard material that doesn't rust, corrode or interact Enterobacteriaceae. Occur in the gastrointestinal with food. Knife handles are usually made of wood, and respiratory tracts of humans and animals, soil, plastics, horn or metal. Preferably, the end of the dairy products, raw shellfish and fresh raw vege- blade should extend to the far end of the handle, where tables. Klebsiella pneumoniae may be responsible for it should be anchored by several rivets. Knives are tai- gastroenteritis in humans due to consumption of lored for specific applications. For example, a chef's contaminated food. K. aerogenes is responsible for knife has a broad, tapered shape and fine edge, which early blowing in cheese. is ideal for chopping vegetables, while a slicing knife with its long, thin blade cuts cleanly through Kloeckera Genus of mitosporic yeasts of the phylum cooked meat. Knives with serrated edges are good for Ascomycota which are anamorphs of Hansenias- slicing softer foods such as bread, tomatoes and pora spp. Occur on fruits and in soil. Kloeckera api- cakes. The easy-to-handle, pointed, short-bladed par- culata is used in winemaking. ing knife is ideal for peeling and coring fruits. Kluyveromyces Genus of ascomycetous yeasts of Kocho Traditional Ethiopian product made by lactic the family Saccharomycetaceae. Occur in foods, bev- acid bacteria fermentation of ensete (Ensete ven- erages, plants, soil, insects and sea water. Kluyveromy- tricosum; Abyssinian banana), a crop related to ba- ces marxianus var. marxianus is used in the production nanas and plantains. The pseudostem, corm and in- of fermented milk (e.g. koumiss and kefir), K. ner leaf sheaths are the plant parts which are fer- marxianus var. bulgaricus is used in the production of mented. Fermentation lasts for a month to a year, de- yoghurt and K. lactis is used in the production of pending on the ambient temperature. The fermented buttermilk, Italian cheese and fermented milks. product is then baked. Kluyveromyces spp. may be responsible for the spoil- Kochujang Korean name for chilli bean pastes, age of yoghurt and cheese. Biotechnological applica- pastes or sauces made from fermented soybeans, tions of K. marxianus include production of enzymes or sometimes fermented black beans, chillies, gar- (ȕ-galactosidases, ȕ-glucosidases, inulinases, lic and seasonings. Popular also in Chinese dishes. polygalacturonases), single cell proteins, Also known as kochu chang. aroma compounds and ethanol. Kochwurst German sausages made from pre- Knackwurst Cooked, smoked sausages, tradition- cooked ingredients. The major types include: liver ally made in Germany. Knackwurst are prepared from sausages, brawn sausages, blood sausages, similar ingredients to bologna and frankfurters, in- spreadable sausages and aspic sausages. cluding coarsely textured pork, beef and veal; how- Kocuria varians Species of bacteria of the family ever, knackwurst additionally include garlic, which Micrococcaceae used in the production of fer- gives them a stronger flavour. They may also be mented sausages. Former name Micrococcus known as garlic sausages or knoblouch. Some are pre- varians. pared in wide diameter edible natural casings, whilst in other types, casings are removed before retail. Al- KOH Chemical formula for potassium hydroxide. though they are cooked sausages, they are recooked Kohlrabi Variety of Brassica oleracea. Available in before eating; commonly, they are simmered with white, green and purple types. Rich in vitamin C and sauerkraut, served like frankfurters, or added to potassium. Leaves are used in salads or cooked as stews and soups. a vegetable; the swollen, turnip-like stem is eaten raw or cooked. Also known as cabbage turnips. Kneading Working of dough, usually with the hands or by machine, in order to form a cohesive, smooth and Koji Cereals or beans inoculated with Aspergillus elastic mass. The network of gluten strands stretches or other fungi and used as starters for a wide range and expands during kneading, so enabling dough to of Oriental fermented foods and fermented bev- retain gas bubbles formed by the actions of the leav- erages, including miso, sake and soy sauces. ening agent. When done by hand, kneading is per- Acts as a supplier of various enzymes, such as li- formed by pressing down into the dough with the heels pases, which contribute to the quality and func- of both hands, then pushing away from the body. The tional properties of the products. dough is then folded in half, given a quarter turn, and Kojic acid Metabolite produced by various fungi, the pressing and pushing action is repeated. particularly Aspergillus oryzae. Exhibits antibacte- 242 Kokja Kuruma prawns rial activity and inhibits the activity of certain en- non-Jewish consumers who use kosher certification as zymes, including catechol oxidases and tyrosi- an indication of quality. nases. Used primarily as browning inhibitors in Kostroma cheese Russian cheese made from cow foods. milk. Kokja Starters containing fungi and bacteria used Koumiss Fermented milk usually made from mare in manufacture of Korean takju rice wines. milk. Produced using a 2-stage fermentation in Koko Thin, fermented porridge made from corn, which lactic acid bacteria are added, followed by sorghum or cassava flour, either singly or in mix- yeasts on completion of lactic fermentation. In tures. Often consumed as infant foods in Ghana and addition to lactic acid, it contains ethanol and CO2, Kenya. Also known as uji. giving a light effervescence. Kokum Common name for the tropical tree, Garcinia Krill Small, shrimp-like marine crustacea occurring indica, fruits of which are used in preparation of a abundantly in cooler waters. Commercial species in- spice. The dark purple fruits are picked when ripe, clude Euphausia superba and E. pacifica. They are dried and the peel removed for use in foods, where it mainly used in aquaculture feeds and fish foods, adds colour and a sour, slightly astringent flavour. but are also fed to livestock and consumed by humans Used especially in curries, vegetable dishes, chut- in Japan where they are called okiami. Krill are a rich neys and pickles. Fats prepared from kokum source of proteins, lipids and vitamins, and their seeds have been used in cocoa butter extenders oils contain Ȧ-3 fatty acids. Krill exhibit saltiness suitable for use in chocolate and sugar confec- and are stronger in flavour than shrimps. Peeling is tionery. Kokum is also known by a variety of other necessary before commercial use as the exoskeleton names, including cocum, kokam and Goa butter. contains fluorides. Komatsuna Leafy vegetables (Brassica campestris Krokant Alternative term for croquant. or B. rapa) that are types of turnips developed for Kudzu Legumes of the genus Pueraria. Leaves are their leaves. Rich in vitamin C with a relatively high used in salads and the tubers are eaten cooked. The content of carotenes. Young shoots are used in sal- large tubers are also used as a source of starch (Japa- ads, while leaves are cooked as vegetables or used nese arrowroot) that is used in thickeners. in soups. Also known as mustard spinach or spinach Kulfi Concentrated frozen milk product similar to ice mustard. cream popular in India and Pakistan. Kombu Japanese name for seaweeds of the genus Kumquats Orange or golden-yellow fruits of trees of Laminaria. the Fortunella species, belonging to the same family as Kombucha Beverages made by fermentation of Citrus species. Rich in vitamin C. Eaten fresh, tea infusion with a mixed bacteria/fungi culture. cooked, candied or preserved in syrups. Used in marmalades, chutneys and jellies. Koningklip Alternative term for kingklip. Kunun zaki Traditional Nigerian non-alcoholic fer- Konjac Alternative term for some elephant yams. mented beverage which is one of a group of bever- Konjac glucomannans Gums composed of glu- ages called kunu. Commonly made from millet, cose and mannose obtained from elephant yams. sorghum, rice, acha or corn, singly or in mixtures, Used primarily in Japan as gelling agents. a combination of sorghum and millet being preferred. Konnyaku Alternative term for some elephant Cereal grains are steeped in water and dry or wet yams. milled with spices such as ginger, red peppers, Korn Spirits, produced mainly in Germany and the black pepper, cloves and garlic to impart flavour. Netherlands, made by distillation of fermented grain Saccharifying agents, including malted rice, sweet mashes. potatoes, soybeans and malted sorghum, may also be added. The finished product is sweet with a potato- Kosher foods Foods permitted under Jewish biblical like flavour. law and prepared in accordance with Jewish dietary code. Laws relate not only to the types of foods permit- Kurakkan Alternative term for finger millet. ted (e.g. pork and rabbit meat products are non ko- Kurthia Genus of obligately aerobic, coccoid or rod- sher) but also to the methods of slaugh- shaped Gram positive bacteria of the family Plano- ter/preparation, and to food combinations (e.g. meat coccaceae. Occur in manure and stagnant water. products and dairy products may not be mixed). Kurthia zopfii is responsible for the spoilage of meat Kosher foods are perceived by many as having been and meat products. prepared to high standards of wholesomeness and hy- Kuruma prawns Species of prawns (Marsupenaeus giene, and are currently attracting a new market of japonicus) highly valued for its flavour and texture, 243 Kusaya Kylar particularly in Japan. Occurs in the Indian Ocean and Kuth Common name for Saussurea costus or Saus- the Southwestern Pacific Ocean from Japan to Austra- surea lappa. Medicinal plants which have been used lia; cultured in Japan and Australia. as spices. Also known as costus. Kusaya Traditional Japanese fish products consist- Kvass Alcoholic beverages originating in Russia, ing of dried, brined mackerel. made by fermentation of mashes based on mixed Kusum Oilseeds from the kernels of the tree Schlei- cereals and bread. chera oleosa (Macassar oil tree). Extracted oils are rich in arachidic acid and used in hair preparations Kwoka Non-fermented corn product popular in Nige- and soap manufacture. Culinary use is rare due to their ria. toxicity, but application in the adulteration of edible oils has been reported. Kylar Alternative term for the plant growth regulator daminozide. L

Laban Alternative term for leben. Lactacin A is produced by L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis. Labban Alternative term for leben. It has a narrow host range and is heat labile. Lactacin B is produced by L. acidophilus, and its synthesis is Labelling Process of attaching labels to items to chromosomally linked. This protein forms aggregates make them identifiable, or the information included on of molecular weight 100,000 Da; however, the ac- the labels. For foods, information may include bar tual molecular weight of lactacin B is 6000-6500 Da. codes, brand names, trademarks, illustrative matter, Lactacin F is produced by L. acidophilus, and its syn- and compositional and nutritional details. thesis is plasmid linked. It has a broader activity range Labels Pieces of paper, plastics or fabric which are than lactacin B, and forms aggregates of molecular attached to, and provide information about, an item. weight 180,000 Da; however, the actual molecular For foods, this information may include branding or weight of lactacin F is 25,000 Da. the trademarks of a food company, the geographical origin, date marking, compositional details, Į-Lactalbumin One of the major whey proteins, health claims, nutritional values and warnings accounting for approximately 20% of total whey pro- relating to specific ingredients, e.g. nuts. The content teins in cow milk. Rich in tryptophan and cystine. of information on food labels is often governed by leg- Found in genetic variants A, B and C that differ in islation. amino acids composition and have a bearing on the properties and yield of milk. Lablab beans Seeds of Lablab niger or Dolichos lablab. Rich in proteins and carbohydrates. Lactalbumins Albumins present in milk. The main Young and mature seeds as well as young pods are protein is Į-lactalbumin. consumed. Also known as hyacinth beans and bonavist ȕ-Lactam antibiotics Large group of antibiotics beans. comprising naturally occurring and semisynthetic Labneh Strained concentrated yoghurt product popu- penicillins; the most widely used antimicrobial drugs lar in the Middle East. Also called yoghurt cheese and in veterinary practice. Commonly classified into 4 labaneh. groups according to antimicrobial activity: amino- cillins; cephalosporins; carbapenems; and mono- Laccases EC 1.10.3.2. Ligninolytic multicopper- bactams. containing enzymes that catalyse the oxidation of phenols and non-phenols with concomitant reduction ȕ-Lactamases EC 3.5.2.6. Hydrolases that act on of molecular oxygen. Can be used for removing phe- ȕ-lactam antibiotics. Those that act on penicillins nols from fruit juices, as well as olive oil waste water are sometime known as penicillinases. Associated with and other effluents, detoxification of lignocellulosic antibiotics resistance traits in pathogenic bacte- hydrolysates and gelation of sugar beet pectins for ria. Widely used analytically for the detection of bac- use in foods. Can cause oxidative spoilage of wines. terial resistance to ȕ-lactam antibiotics, and have also Lacon Traditional Spanish dry cured pork foreleg been used for detection of antibiotic residues in product made by a process similar to that used in pro- foods. duction of dry cured ham. The specific designation Lactarius Edible fungi also known as milk cap Lacon Gallego is used to indicate its geographical ori- mushrooms. Commonly consumed species include gin, the Galicia region. Lactarius deliciosus, L. helvus, L. trivialis and L. san- Lacquers Liquids consisting of resins, cellulose guifluus. While most edible types are eaten cooked, esters, shellac or similar synthetic substances dis- some species are dried and used in condiments, and solved in a solvent, such as ethanol. Dry to form others are pickled or salted. shiny, hard, protective or decorative coatings for Lactases Alternative term for ȕ-galactosidases. plastics, wood, metals and other products. Lactate dehydrogenases EC 1.1.1.27 (L-lactate Lactacins Bacteriocins synthesized by Lactoba- dehydrogenases) and EC 1.1.1.28 (D-lactate dehydro- cillus spp. that are inhibitory only to other lactobacilli. genases). These enzymes catalyse the conversion of 245 Lactate 2-monooxygenases Lactobacillaceae pyruvic acid into (S)- and (R)-lactic acid, respec- cheese, yoghurt and other acidic fermented dairy tively. Involved in lactic acid biosynthesis and useful products. Also used for acidulating worts in brew- for determination of D- and L-lactic acid levels in bev- ing and in preservation of meat products, such as erages, and for detection of lactic acid spoilage bac- salami and pepperoni. teria in beer. Lactic acid bacteria Gram positive bacteria (e.g. Lactate 2-monooxygenases EC 1.13.12.4. Flavo- Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, proteins that convert (S)-lactate to acetate. Have been Pediococcus and Streptococcus spp.) that are caused to construct lactic acid biosensors and for pable of lactic fermentation of sugar substrates. production of D-lactate from a racemic mixture. Also Used extensively in the food industry as starters to known as lactate oxidases. initiate lactic acid fermentation in the production of Lactate oxidases Alternative term for lactate 2- fermented dairy products (e.g. yoghurt and monooxygenases. cheese), fermented meat products (e.g. salami), and fermented plant products (e.g. sauerkraut and sour- Lactates Salts or esters of lactic acid. Lactates such dough). as sodium lactate are widely used in foods as preservatives, whilst calcium or iron lactates can be Lactic beverages Beverages, manufacture of used in food fortification. Lactate concentrations are which includes lactic fermentation. frequently determined in foods as a measure of lactic Lactic fermentation Process by which certain bac- acid levels. teria, such as lactic acid bacteria, convert sugars Lactation Physiological process involving secretion of entirely, or almost entirely, to lactic acid (homolactic milk from the mammary gland, usually beginning at fermentation) or to a mixture of lactic acid and other the end of pregnancy and controlled by the hor- products (heterolactic fermentation). Lactic acid bacte- mones prolactin and oxytocin. At the beginning of ria produce either L(+)- or D(-)-lactic acid or both, de- lactation, colostrum is produced, mature milk being pending on the specificity of the NAD-dependent lac- secreted later. In cows, milk yield as well as composi- tate dehydrogenases present. tion varies during lactation. Yield increases up to the Lacticins Bacteriocins synthesized by Lactococ- 2nd month of lactation and decreases thereafter. Milk cus lactis subsp. lactis. Classed as lantibiotics and protein and fat contents are lowest during the 2nd contain the unusual amino acid lanthionine. Lacticin month, then increase. Free fatty acids contents and 481 (also known as lactococcin DR) is a broad spec- proportions of stearic acid, oleic acid and lino- trum bacteriocin that is inhibitory towards strains of lenic acid in milk fat increase as lactation progresses, Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc and while proportions of short- and medium-chain fatty ac- Clostridium tyrobutyricum. Lacticins 3147 A1 and ids and linoleic acid decrease. Lactose content of 3147 A2 are active against Enterococcus, Lactoba- milk decreases as lactation proceeds. Contents of im- cillus, Lactococcus and Leuconostoc strains. munoglobulins, minerals and trace elements, Lactic starters Starters containing lactic acid and activities of some enzymes increase towards the bacteria. end of lactation. Lactic streptococci Bacteria of the genus Strep- Lactation number Value defining the number of tococcus capable of lactic fermentation, and lactations undergone by an animal. Can affect phys- therefore often used as starters in the production of icochemical properties and functional proper- fermented foods. S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus ties of milk. is used in starters for production of yoghurt. Lactation stage Measure of the number of weeks of Lactitol Polyol, with the systematic name 4-O-ȕ- lactation that have passed since parturition. Lactation galactopyranosyl-ȕ-D-sorbitol, present in milk. May be is generally divided into three stages during which isolated from whey or manufactured by hydrogena- three distinct secretions are produced: colostrum; tion of lactose. Has approximately 40% of the transient milk; and mature milk. Colostrum is pro- sweetness of sucrose and is used in sweeteners duced for approximately the 1st week, transient milk and bulking agents for sugar confectionery, ice for the following 2-3 weeks and mature milk is pro- cream and jams. Lactitol is not readily absorbed by duced thereafter. the gastrointestinal tract and thus may be used in Lactic acid Į-Hydroxypropionic acid. One of the low calorie foods and diabetic foods. organic acids present in sour milk, molasses, Lactobacillaceae Family of anaerobic or faculta- fruits, beer and wines. Produced via lactic fer- tively anaerobic, rod-shaped or coccoid, Gram positive mentation of sugars by lactic acid bacteria, a lactic acid bacteria of the order Lactobacillales. process that is an important step in manufacture of Occur in the mouth and gastrointestinal tract of 246 Lactobacillus Lactoperoxidase systems humans and animals, in food (e.g. dairy products) lactis subsp. lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris and in fermenting vegetable juices. Includes the strains) in the manufacture of fermented dairy genera Lactobacillus and Pediococcus. products (e.g. cheese and fermented milk). Lactobacillus Genus of Gram positive, anaerobic or Lactoferricin Cationic peptides that can be gener- facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped lactic acid bac- ated by the digestion of lactoferrin by pepsins. teria of the family Lactobacillaceae. Occur in Possess antimicrobial activity against several mi- foods and beverages (e.g. wines, beer, fruits, meat croorganisms, including viruses, fungi and bac- products, dairy products), and in the mouth and teria. Lactoferricin B is a 25-residue antimicrobial gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals. Used peptide derived from bovine lactoferrin. as starters in the manufacture of fermented foods Lactoferrin Transferrin found in the milk of most and fermented beverages (e.g. Lactobacillus aci- mammals. Also found in other mucosal secretions such dophilus in the manufacture of kefir, L. plantarum in as tears and saliva. Sometimes called lactotransferrin. the manufacture of sauerkraut and L. delbrueckii In common with other transferrins, it binds iron, subsp. bulgaricus in the manufacture of cheese). giving it a red tinge. Characteristics of lactoferrin are Some species may be responsible for spoilage of similar in human and cow milks, but amounts are beer, meat, milk and wines. much higher in human milk, where lactoferrin ac- Lactobionic acid Organic acid, synonym 4-(ȕ-D- counts for up to 20% of total protein. Exhibits antim- galactosido)-D-gluconic acid, produced by oxidation icrobial activity which is attributed to its ability to of lactose. Can be produced microbially from whey bind iron, making the nutrient unavailable for micro- substrates. Has prebiotic activity, and has been used in bial growth. Gram negative bacteria are particu- a number of fermented dairy products, as well as larly inhibited due to high iron requirements. This an- pharmaceuticals, dietary supplements and cosmet- tibacterial action is particularly valuable in preventing ics. gastrointestinal infections in the newborn. Additional Lactocins Bacteriocins produced by Lactobacil- physiological functions suggested for lactoferrin in- lus spp. Lactocin 27 is produced by L. helveticus LP27 clude regulation of iron transport and absorption, and and is a 12,400 Da glycoprotein inhibitor with a nar- participation along with other proteins, e.g. immu- row spectrum of activity (restricted to L. helveticus and noglobulins and lysozymes, in local immunity. L. acidophilus). Lactocin 27 exerts a bacteriostatic ef- Can be purified from milk or obtained as a recombi- fect rather than being bactericidal in activity, and is nant protein by genetic techniques, and has various very heat stable. Lactocin S is produced by L. sake L45 potential applications in functional foods and bev- and is one of the lantibiotics. It has antimicrobial ac- erages. tivity against other lactobacilli, Leuconostoc, Car- ȕ-Lactoglobulin One of the major whey proteins, nobacterium spp., Listeria spp. and Pediococcus accounting for approximately 50% of total whey pro- spp., and is moderately heat stable. Lactocin S has an teins in cow milk. Small globular protein rich in me- estimated molecular weight of <13,700 Da. Lactocin thionine. Exists as a dimer at neutral pH, with one 705 is produced by L. paracasei. It is effective against free thiol group and two disulfide bridges. Several ge- lactic acid bacteria, Listeria and streptococci, and is netic variants that affect milk properties and yield have a good candidate for biopreservation of fermented been identified in cow milk, but variants A and B are meat. most common. Often used as a surfactant in food dis- Lactococcins Plasmid encoded bacteriocins pro- persions such as emulsions to stabilize polyphasic duced by Lactococcus spp. that are small and heat systems. stable. Examples include lactococcins A and B, which Lactoglobulins Globulins found in milk. The main are produced by L. lactis subsp. cremoris and have a protein is ȕ-lactoglobulin which accounts for ap- narrow host range, against lactococcal strains only. proximately 50% of the total content of whey pro- Their mechanism of action is on the bacterial mem- teins. brane of susceptible organisms. Lactococcin MMFII is Lactones Heterocyclic compounds containing produced by L. lactis subsp. lactis and is active against intramolecular cyclic esters formed by a condensa- Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus and tion reaction between two hydroxy carboxylic acid Listeria spp. Lactococcin G is a two-peptide bacterio- substituents. Examples include the acidulant glu- cin. cono-į-lactone and the aroma compounds Ȗ- Lactococcus Genus of Gram positive, facultatively decalactone and coumarin. anaerobic, coccoid lactic acid bacteria of the family Lactoperoxidase systems Antimicrobial systems Streptococcaceae. Occur in milk and dairy prod- that occur naturally in raw milk, consisting of lactop- ucts. Used extensively as starters (e.g. Lactococcus eroxidases, thiocyanate (the major antimicrobial agent) 247 Lactose Laminaria

and H2O2. The systems can be activated by addition of Lactylates Salts or esters of lactyl lactate. Include exogenous thiocyanate and H2O2 in order to increase stearoyl lactylates, which are used in the food in- the storage time of raw milk. They may also be useful dustry as emulsifiers. for extending the shelf life of other foods. Laevulose Alternative term for fructose. Lactose Also known as milk sugar, this disaccharide Lager Type of beer, originating in Central Europe but comprises glucose and galactose monomer units. now popular worldwide. Made by fermentation with Exhibits a low level of sweetness, approximately bottom fermenting yeasts. 16-20% that of sucrose, is the predominant sugar in Lairage Temporary housing for animals whilst they milk, and can be recovered from whey by removal of are awaiting slaughter or transportation. whey proteins and minerals, followed by crystallization. Used in infant formulas and a variety of Lake water Water derived from lakes. After treatment, processed foods, although lactose crystallization it may be used as drinking water. can cause problems with product stability and sen- Lamb Meat derived from young sheep (lambs). sory properties. Some individuals suffer from lac- Lamb is pink in colour and has creamy-white fat, tose intolerance due to an inability to digest this which has a firm, dry texture. The older the sheep, the sugar, and this has prompted the development of a coarser the texture and stronger the flavour of lamb. range of low lactose foods. Lactose can be con- In many cultures, consumption of lamb is associated verted to value-added products including lactulose, with festivals and religious ceremonies. lactitol, galactooligosaccharides, lactobionic Lambanog Spirits made in the Philippines from fer- acid and tagatose. mented sap of coconut palms. Lactose intolerance Impaired ability to digest the Lamb chops Thick slices of lamb, usually including disaccharide lactose due to lack of lactases (ȕ- an ‘eye’ of meat, a rib and a layer of subcutaneous fat. galactosidases) in the small intestinal mucosa. Un- Lamb cutlets Portions of lamb, particularly lamb digested lactose remains in the intestinal contents, and chops from just behind the neck. Lamb cutlets are usu- is fermented by bacteria in the colon, resulting in ex- ally cooked by grilling or frying. plosive and watery diarrhoea. Treatment is to omit lac- Lambic Belgian beer, made by a slow spontaneous tose from the diet. fermentation process. Frequently flavoured with Lactose synthases EC 2.4.1.22. Glycosyltrans- fruits such as cherries, raspberries or peaches. ferases which catalyse the transfer of galactose Lamb kidneys Paired abdominal excretory organs, from UDP-galactose to D-glucose, forming lactose. which form part of the edible offal from lamb car- These enzymes are complexes of N- casses. Kidneys from young animals, particularly acetlyllactosamine synthases (EC 2.4.1.90) and Į- lambs, are more tender than those of older animals. lactalbumin. In the absence of Į-lactalbumin, the en- Lamb kidneys, along with those from calves, have a zymes catalyse the transfer of galactose from UDP- more delicate flavour, whilst cattle kidneys and galactose to N-acetylglucosamine. swine kidneys have a stronger flavour. Lactose syrups Syrups consisting predominantly of lactose. Manufactured from whey by removal of Lamb livers Livers from lambs; part of edible of- whey proteins and minerals using ultrafiltration fal. Usually cooked by frying or grilling, but may and ion exchange chromatography, respectively. also be used to prepare pates. Milder and sweeter in Used as sweeteners in dairy products, infant flavour than swine livers or cattle livers. formulas and sugar confectionery. Lamb mince Meat mince prepared from lamb. Also Lactosucrose Oligosaccharide with the systematic known as ground lamb or minced lamb. name 4(G)-ȕ-D-galactosylsucrose, which promotes the Lambs Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) that are typically growth of Bifidobacterium in the human gastroin- aged 12 months or less, particularly those that have yet testinal tract. It also inhibits growth of harmful bac- to be weaned. Rearing lambs is an important aspect of teria. Made commercially from sucrose and lac- the meat industry in many countries. The flesh ob- tose in a reaction catalysed by ȕ- tained is called lamb. fructofuranosidases. Used as a low-calorie sweet- Lamb sausages Sausages made from lamb or ener in foods and beverages, including soft drinks, mutton. Fresh lamb sausages may be seasoned with bakery products and sugar confectionery, and rosemary or mint. Dry fermented lamb sausages are as a component of functional foods. often prepared using lean meat from older sheep. Lactulose Nutritive sweetener produced by isomeri- Laminaria Genus containing several species of large zation of lactose which has 1.5 times the sweet- brown seaweeds, many of which are utilized for ness of lactose. food purposes. Rich source of minerals, including 248 Laminarin Laser light scattering calcium, potassium, magnesium and iron, and have similar physical and chemical properties. Used trace elements such as iodine, manganese, widely in industry, e.g. in alloys and magnets and as copper and zinc. Popular in Japan, where some spe- catalysts; used in fertilizers for food crops in some cies are used to flavour dashi, a soup stock. Used as a countries. Due to their widespread use, lanthanides can source of alginates for the food industry. Usually enter the food chain as pollutants, wild mushrooms sold dried, in strips or sheets, but may also be con- being particularly susceptible to accumulation, al- sumed fresh. Also known as kelp, kombu and tangle. though trace amounts are found in many foods. Also Laminarin ȕ-1,3-Glucan which acts as a reserve poly- known as rare earth elements. saccharide in Laminaria spp. Located in membrane- Lanthionine Di(Į-amino acid) formed from the bound vesicles. Possesses hypolipaemic activity amino acids alanine and cysteine. Synonyms in- and anticoagulant properties. Used as a substrate for clude S-(alanin-3-yl)-L-cysteine and 2,2c-diamino-3,3c- detecting ȕ-1,3-glucanase activity. thiobis(propionic acid). The lanthionine skeleton oc- Laminarinases Alternative term for endo-1,3(4)-ȕ- curs in lantibiotics, a group of polypeptide bacte- glucanases and glucan endo-1,3-ȕ-D- riocins synthesized by Gram positive bacteria. glucosidases. Lantibiotics Plasmid encoded bacteriocins pro- Laminates Materials made up of several layers of duced by Lactococcus lactis, consisting of small reinforcing fibres produced by placing layer on layer membrane active peptides (<5 kDa) containing the and bonding the sheets together, usually with heating amino acids lanthionine, ȕ-methyl lanthionine and or pressure. Laminates include fibreglass, plywood other dehydro residues. Heat sensitive at pH 9.4, and and reinforced plastics. act on a wide host range of Gram positive bacteria. Lamprey Fish species (Lampetra fluviatilis) of minor Include nisin and lacticin 481. commercial importance. Found in coastal waters and Lanzones Alternative term for langsat. rivers and as a freshwater inhabitant of lakes in Lao-chao Traditional fermented rice product. Europe. Since mucus and serum are poisonous, flesh Lard Soft, white, solid fat traditionally obtained by must be washed thoroughly before consumption. Fresh rendering or melting the internal fats from swine. and smoked fish are eaten fried. Rich in a number of fatty acids, including sn-2 Land snails A large group of creeping terrestrial gas- palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acids; contains tropod molluscs. Several species are harvested from cholesterol. Has a bland flavour and aroma. Used the wild or farmed as a source of snail meat. in cooking and baking. Langoustines French name for Norway lobsters Lasagne Rectangular sheets of pasta. Usually eaten (Nephrops norvegicus). Caught along the Atlantic layered with meat or vegetables and cheese coast, including Scotland, as well as the western Medi- sauces and baked. terranean and the Adriatic. Have pink, narrow, smooth- Lasalocids Polyether ionophore antibiotics used shelled bodies, with long claws; the meat in the tail widely as coccidiostats in the control of coccidio- and claws can be eaten. Mostly cooked and frozen at sis in poultry; also used as growth promoters in sea. Generally, the colder the waters in which langous- cattle. Rapidly metabolized in animals and residues tine are fished, the better the flavour. Tail meat is are normally absent from all tissues except livers generally sold under the Italian name of scampi in within 7 days post-treatment. Residues may accumu- Europe; however, the term scampi can also encom- late to relatively high levels in eggs, and conse- passes other products such as battered or coated lan- quently, lasalocids are banned by the EU from being goustine meat or large penaeid shrimps. added to feeds that are given to laying hens. Langsat Fruits produced by Lansium domesticum. La Serena cheese Spanish cheese made from raw White flesh is juicy and aromatic. Usually eaten out of ewe milk using vegetable rennets prepared from hand, but can also be used in cooking. Also known as thistles. Has a semi-hard rind, a soft to semi-hard curd lanzones, lanzons and ayer-ayer. and a minimum fat content of 50%. Lannate Alternative term for the insecticide metho- Laser light scattering One of the analytical tech- myl. niques used for measuring the concentration or mo- Lanternfish Any of a number of relatively small lecular weight of substances, including proteins, deepwater marine fish species from the family Mic- carbohydrates, etc., in solution. The amount of light tophidae. Widely distributed around the oceans of the scattered by a solution is directly proportional to the world. Some species are utilized as food fish. concentration and weight average molecular weight of Lanthanides Group of elements with atomic num- the solute(s). For larger molecules, measurement of bers 57-71, of which cerium is the most abundant. All light scattered at different angles to the laser beam is 249 Lasers Leccinum required, and is termed multi-angle laser light scatter- include sauces, dressings, cookies and herb tea. ing, often abbreviated to MALLS. Dynamic light scat- Lavender flowers are the botanical source of popular tering measures fluctuations in the light scattered at a monofloral honeys. particular angle, to obtain molecular diffusion meas- Laver Name given to dried, edible seaweeds of the urements which are transformed to provide data on genera Porphyra and Ulva. molecular size, e.g. diameter. Used for characterization Laverbread Product made from red seaweeds of the of biomolecules, their aggregation, depolymeriza- genus Porphyra. Prepared by boiling in brines, cool- tion, etc. ing and chopping; often fried prior to consumption. Lasers Any apparatus in which light amplification by Lben Alternative term for leben. the stimulated emission of radiation (acronym: laser) LC Abbreviation for liquid chromatography. occurs. Lasers require a lasing medium, which on exci- LDPE Abbreviation for low density polyethylene. tation emits light, and mirrors which reflect the radiation emitted through the medium. Lasers emit non- Lead One of the heavy metals, chemical symbol Pb. diffuse (directional) light of a narrow wavelength The main source of lead for humans is dietary; lead range. Have many applications including in various can be present as a contaminant in both foods and bev- analytical techniques, e.g. confocal laser scanning erages, including water. Following consumption, lead microscopy and MALDI-TOF-MS, and for marking, is accumulated predominantly in bones and teeth. In e.g. laser printing and cutting. excess, lead causes a range of toxicity problems including anaemia, encephalopathy, neuropathy and Lasoda fruit Fruits produced by Cordia myxa. Har- renal dysfunction. Current research indicates that there vested green and used in making pickles. is no safe level of lead exposure. Lassi Sweetened fermented milk beverage popular Leaf beet Common name for Beta vulgaris. Leaves, in India. Prepared by stirring sugar, water and fla- including the stalk, are eaten as a green vegetable in a vourings into dahi, giving a viscous, white, mild to similar way to spinach. Used raw in salads, boiled highly acidic drink. as a vegetable and in savoury dishes. Also known as Laurel Common name for the bay laurel plant Laurus Swiss chard, chard, white beet, spinach beet and sil- nobilis, leaves (bay leaves) of which are used as ver beet. Good source of vitamin A, vitamin C and flavourings in sauces, pickles and seasonings. iron. Imparts a sweet, spicy flavour. Also termed bay or Leaf proteins Proteins contained in plant leaves, a sweet bay. very good source of protein in the diet. Laurencia Genus of red seaweeds found on rocky Leaf vegetables Plants in which the edible parts are shores around the world. Some species have a pungent, the leaves. peppery flavour and are used as condiments. Pep- Leafy vegetables Leafy plants, the stems and per dulse is an alternative name for Laurencia pinnati- leaves of which are used as vegetables. fida, which is used in this way. Lean The part of meat which contains very little fat. Lauric acid One of the medium-chain saturated Leavening The process by which dough is made to fatty acids. Contains 12 carbon atoms and has a rise due to fermentation by yeasts. melting point of 44qC. Synonymous with dode- Leaves Organs that grow from the stems of plants. canoic acid. Slight odour of bay oil. Occurs as a tri- Often green, flattened and lateral structures that spe- acylglycerol component of milk fats and vegetable cialise in photosynthesis and, in many plants, are the oils including rapeseed oils and palm oils, and is sites where respiration and transpiration take place. a component of several cocoa butter substitutes. Play a prominent role in the diet as leafy vegetables. Identified as an aroma component in cheese. Leban Alternative term for leben. Lautering Separation of worts from insoluble mate- Lebaycid Alternative term for the insecticide fen- rial in brewing mashes by running off the worts thion. through the perforated bottom of lauter tuns, in which the insoluble solids are retained. Leben A fermented milk similar to yoghurt produced in North Africa and the Middle East. Since the Lauter tuns Circular vessels equipped with a perfo- starters used include yeasts, the product contains rated or wire mesh base and rotating stirrer arms, used some ethanol. Also known as laban, labban, lben, for the lautering process. leban and lebben. Lavender Common name for plants of the genus La- Leccinum Genus of fungi of the family Boletaceae vandula. Used mainly as a source of essential oils which is native to Europe and North America. Most which are used medicinally and in aromatherapy, but species are thought to be edible. also as a flavouring ingredient in foods. Applications 250 Lecithinases Lemon peel Lecithinases Lecithinases A, C and D, alternative generally low in fat (exceptions include peanuts, names for phospholipases A2, C and D, respec- soybeans and chick peas). Also good sources of die- tively; lecithinase B, alternative term for lysophos- tary fibre and some B vitamins. Carotenes, vita- pholipases. min C and vitamin E can be obtained from immature Lecithins Products comprising phospholipids. seeds, pods, leaves and sprouts. Some seeds also con- Composed of phosphate esters of diglycerides tain antinutritional factors or toxins that can cause (mostly oleic acid, palmitic acid and/or stearic diseases. These can usually be destroyed by careful acid) esterified to choline via the phosphate group. processing of the seeds. Due to the presence of both polar and non-polar moie- Legume sprouts Produced by germination of leg- ties, the molecule forms micelles and has uses as food ume seeds, commonly mung beans, alfalfa, len- emulsifiers. Prevalent in soybeans and egg tils, soybeans and black gram. Rich in proteins, yolks; by-products in manufacture of soybean oils. vitamins and minerals. Fresh sprouts are crisp and Lecithin is also called phosphatidylcholine. tender, and are often eaten raw. In dishes, they are Lectins Carbohydrate-binding proteins or glyco- cooked for a short period only to avoid wilting. Also proteins, synonyms include phytohaemaggluti- available canned. nins and agglutinins. Lectins are of non-immune ori- Legume starch Types of starch found in legumes, gin and agglutinate cells and/or precipitate glyco- such as peas, chick peas and various beans. Tend conjugates. Found in many plant foods and can have to have lower digestibility than cereal starches and detrimental properties as antinutritional factors and are used as ingredients of foods with low glycaemic toxins, or possible beneficial properties including an- index values. Also used as texturizing agents and titumour activity. Lectins are widely used analyti- fat substitutes, sometimes in pregelatinized form. cally as specific binding and separating agents. Legumin One of the storage proteins formed in Leeks Common name for Allium ampeloprasum var. seeds of legumes. porrum or A. porrum. Lower part is eaten as a vegeta- Lemonade Effervescent or still beverages made ble or used as an ingredient in soups and stews. from lemon juices, or, more generally, carbonated Lees Sediments of yeasts and other insoluble mate- beverages with a lemon flavour. May be added to rial formed at the bottom of containers of wines. spirits before consumption. Legionella Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram Lemon balm Spices also called bee balm, melissa, negative bacteria of the family Legionellaceae. Oc- bee herb, balm mint and balm gentle. Lemon balm cur in aquatic habitats, including domestic water sys- leaves possess a citrus-like aroma and can be added tems (e.g. air-conditioning cooling towers, showers directly to foods without further processing. and nebulizers), surface waters, moist soils and ther- Lemon essential oils Distillates of lemon peel mally polluted streams. Legionella pneumophila is the used as flavourings. The active component of lemon causative agent of legionellosis in humans. oils is citral, a mixture of the terpene aldehydes Legionellosis Medical name for Legionnaires dis- neral and geranial. ease. Lemon grass Alternative term for lemongrass. Legionnaires disease Severe contagious disease Lemongrass Spices made from the grasses Cym- caused by Legionella pneumonophila, characterized bopogon flexosus or Andropogon nardus (East Indian by influenza-like symptoms, high fever, chills, head- lemongrass) or Cymbopogon citratus (West Indian ache, pleurisy, pneumonia and sometimes death. Infec- lemongrass). Used as flavourings in Asian cuisine tion occurs through inhalation of contaminated aero- and particularly in Thai dishes. The characteristic fla- sols (e.g. from air-conditioning cooling towers, show- vour compound of lemongrass is citral. ers and nebulizers). Lemon grass oils Alternative term for lemongrass Legume meal Flour made from seeds of legume oils. plants. Lemongrass oils Essential oils produced by steam Legume proteins Proteins formed in legume distillation of fresh lemongrass, comprising ap- seeds, a very good dietary source of protein. proximately 65-75% citral. Lemon juices Fruit juices prepared from lemons Legumes Vegetables of the family Leguminosae (Citrus limon). Used in beverages and as a flavour- (Fabaceae). The seeds or beans are contained in ing ingredient in cooking. pods. Edible products include dry seeds (beans or pulses), immature green seeds, oilseeds (such as Lemon peel Outer skin of lemons. Used to make soybeans), green pods, spices, shoots, leaves and candied peel, as a garnish and to add flavour to a sprouts. Rich sources of good quality proteins, and range of sweet and savoury dishes. 251 Lemons Leukocytes Lemons Yellow citrus fruits (Citrus limon) that are Lettuces Common name for Lactuca sativa. Generally extremely rich in vitamin C. Total sugar content is used as a salad plant, but sometimes eaten as a vegeta- relatively low for a citrus fruit. Its citric acid content of ble. Good source of fibre, potassium, ȕ-carotene, approximately 5% makes it too acidic for eating as a vitamin E and vitamin C. Some cultivars have red dessert. However, lemon juices are widely used as pigmentation. food and beverage flavourings, and lemon peel is Leucaena Genus of legumes. Seeds of some spe- also used in foods. cies, mainly Leucaena leucocephala and L. glauca, are Lemon tea Tea beverages with the flavour of used as food and as a source of gums; leaves and lemons. pods are also eaten. However, proteins in leaves, Lenacil One of the uracil herbicides used particu- pods and seeds contain the toxic amino acid mimosine, larly on crops such as beets. Classified by WHO as which can be destroyed by heating. unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. Leucine One of the essential amino acids. A com- Lentils Seeds of the legumes Lens culinaris or L. mon protein constituent and free amino acid in many esculenta, rich in proteins and carbohydrates. foods. Leucine is also a precursor of several aroma Used to make dhal, in soups or in snack foods. compounds and participates in the Maillard reac- Flour made from the seeds can be used as an ingredi- tion. Produced industrially by fermentation of Cory- ent in cakes and infant foods. Young pods of the nebacterium glutamicum or other microorgan- plant are eaten as vegetables. isms. Lentinula edodes Species of edible fungi of the Leucoanthocyanidins Anthocyanidins found in a family Tricholomataceae, commonly known as shii- range of plant foods. take, which is native to China. Former name Lentinus Leucoanthocyanins Anthocyanins found in a edodes. range of plant foods, and also in wines. In a polymer- Lentinus Edible fungi, the most commonly con- ized form, constituents of polyphenols and consumed example being shiitake or Japanese black forest densed tannins. mushrooms (Lentinus edodes, renamed Lentinula Leucocins Bacteriocins produced by Leu- edodes). conostoc spp. Used as preservatives in meat Lepiota Genus of fungi including a number of edible products to inhibit the growth of Listeria monocy- species. togenes. Leptin This 16 kDa peptide is secreted from adipo- Leucocyanidin Anthocyanidin found in plant foods cytes and is one of the hormones which regulate and derived products including beer. Present in a po- energy balance and appetite. Serum levels are often lymerized form in polyphenols and condensed tan- measured during diet and body wt. studies in hu- nins. mans. Also studied for its effects on the composition of Leucocytes Alternative spelling of leukocytes. milk and animal carcasses. Leptospira Genus of obligately aerobic, spiral-shaped Leuconostoc Genus of Gram positive, facultatively Gram negative bacteria of the family Lepto- anaerobic, coccoid lactic acid bacteria of the family spiraceae. Occur in fresh water, salt water and soil, and Leuconostocaceae. Presence of a fermentable carbohy- as parasites in domestic and wild animals, and hu- drate is essential for growth. Occur in dairy prod- mans. Serotypes of Leptospira interrogans are the ucts and in fermenting vegetables and fermented causative agents of leptospirosis in humans. Trans- beverages. Species may be used as starters in the mission to humans is usually via direct contact with production of fermented foods. Leuconostoc mes- animals or animal carcasses, or via exposure to wa- enteroides subsp. cremoris strains are used as starter ter contaminated with the urine of infected animals. cultures in the production of fermented dairy prod- People at risk of infection include those whose work ucts (e.g. fermented cream, cheese, kefir, but- brings them into contact with animals (e.g. farmers, termilk). meat handlers, veterinarians), and those exposed to Leukocytes White, nucleated blood cells that lack urine-contaminated streams, rivers and standing water. haemoglobin, which are found in blood and lymph. Leptospirosis Disease affecting animals and humans Formed in lymph nodes and bone marrow. Can pro- caused by infection with various serotypes of Lepto- duce antibodies and move through the walls of ves- spira interrogans. Carried by a wide range of animals, sels to migrate to the sites of injuries, where they sur- infection in humans being caused by contact with the round and isolate dead tissue, foreign bodies and bac- animals, carcasses, fluids such as milk or water teria. There are two major types: those with granular contaminated with animal urine. cytoplasm (granulocytes), which include basophils and neutrophils; and those without granular cytoplasm, 252 Levanases Lima beans such as lymphocytes and monocytes. Alternative spell- Light Source of illumination that makes objects visible; ing is leucocytes. electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range 390- Levanases EC 3.2.1.65. Catalyse the random hy- 740 nm. drolysis of 2,6-ȕ-D-fructofuranosidic linkages in 2,6-ȕ- Lignans Cinnamic acid dimers in which the phenyl- D-fructans (levans) containing more than 3 fructose propane units are linked tail-to-tail. These phenols units. Useful for production of fructooligosaccha- are present in many plant foods. Flax seeds are a rides. particularly good source of lignans, but they are also present in cereals, vegetables, fruits and leg- Levans Fructose-based polysaccharides which umes. Lignans are of interest as phytoestrogens, are synthesized by bacteria, commonly Zymomo- and may play a role in the prevention of oestrogen- nas mobilis. These ȕ(2o6) fructans have potential dependent cancer. applications in foods, and have been attributed with health-promoting properties, such as prebiotic effects, Lignin Random phenylpropanoid polymer component hypolipaemic activity and immunomodulation; of plants, where it confers strength, rigidity and resis- they are also used in the production of fructooligo- tance to degradation. Lignin is one of the most abun- saccharides, including kestose. dant biopolymers, and a major component of insoluble dietary fibre in plant foods. Levansucrases EC 2.4.1.10. Glycosyltrans- ferases which transfer a fructosyl group from su- Ligninases Term formerly used for enzymes involved in the degradation of lignin, particularly lig- crose to 2,6-ȕ-D-fructans (levans), increasing the chain length by one fructosyl unit. Useful for produc- nin peroxidases. tion of fructooligosaccharides. Lignin peroxidases EC 1.11.1.14. Lignin-degrading enzymes potentially useful for lignin depolymeriza- Lichenases Alternative term for licheninases. tion, degradation of toxic pollutants and catalysis of Licheninases EC 3.2.1.73. Glycosidases which difficult chemical transformations (e.g. during the pro- hydrolyse 1,4-ȕ-D-glucosidic linkages in ȕ-D-glucans duction of vanillin). Thought to be required for the containing both 1,3- and 1,4-bonds. Act on ȕ-glucans decoloration of olive oil mills effluents by white in cereals and on lichenin, but not on ȕ-D-glucans rot fungi. containing only 1,3- or 1,4-bonds. Used in the brew- Lignocelluloses Complexes of lignin and cellu- ing industry to hydrolyse mixed ȕ-glucans during loses found in the cell walls of plants, and compo- malting and brewing, and potentially useful for pro- nents of dietary fibre in plant foods. Plant-derived duction of oligosaccharides for use in prebiotic wastes such as pomaces and bagasse contain lig- foods. Also known as lichenases. nocelluloses, and these wastes can be hydrolysed Lichens Composite, plant-like organisms of the divi- chemically or enzymically to release sugars which sion Lichenes formed by the symbiotic association of can be used as microbial fermentation substrates, for fungi and algae. Form crusty patches or bushy example for ethanol synthesis. growths on areas such as tree trunks and rocks. Used Lignoceric acid One of the saturated fatty acids, mainly as a source of dyes, but some species, such as synonym tetracosanoic acid, molecular formula Parmelia nepalensis, Ramalina farinacea and Gyro- C24H48O2. Occurs as a minor lipid in plants and some phora esculenta, are eaten. vegetable oils, and has been used as an indicator of Life cycle assessment Assessment of the impacts cocoa shell contamination of cocoa products. Also associated with a system, function, product or service present in animals, especially in brains and other over its entire life cycle. Sometimes considered to in- central nervous system tissues, and has been clude four stages: initiation; inventory; impact analy- used as a marker of meat contamination with these sis; and improvement. tissues. Ligases EC 6. Enzymes that catalyse the joining of 2 Lily bulbs Bulbs from plants of the genus Lilium that molecules with concomitant hydrolysis of the di- may be consumed as vegetables and undergo culti- phosphate bond in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) vation in Japan and China for this purpose. They re- or a similar triphosphate. Important in the synthesis or semble onions in appearance, but are more starchy repair of many biological molecules, such as DNA. and less pungent. They are often subjected to vacuum Subdivided into enzymes that form carbon-oxygen packaging before sale and may be cooked by bak- bonds (EC 6.1), carbon-sulfur bonds (EC 6.2), carbon- ing or frying. Parboiling effectively reduces any nitrogen bonds (EC 6.3), carbon-carbon bonds (EC bitterness. 6.4), phosphoric ester bonds (EC 6.5) and nitrogen- Lima beans Seeds produced by Phaseolus lunatus. metal bonds (EC 6.6). Variable in size, shape and colour. Rich in proteins 253 Limburg cheese Linamarases and a good source of vitamin A, vitamin C, some of Limit dextrinases EC 3.2.1.142. Glycosidases the vitamin B group, fibre and potassium. As which hydrolyse (1,6)-Į-D-glucosidic linkages in amy- well as dried beans and immature beans (often canned lopectins and pullulan, and in Į-and ȕ-limit dex- or frozen), pods and leaves are also eaten. Mature trins of amylopectin and glycogen. The smallest seeds can contain toxic hydrocyanic acid, which is sugar released as a result of this reaction is maltose. destroyed by soaking and boiling in water before Also used erroneously as an alternative term for pullu- consumption. Also known as butter beans, sieva beans lanases and oligo-1,6-glucosidases. and Madagascar beans. Limoncello Lemon liqueurs traditionally made in Limburg cheese Belgian soft cheese made from Italy by soaking zest of lemon peel in alcohol, such cow milk. Sometimes called Limburger cheese. The as vodka, and adding sugar syrup. Commonly con- washed rind is reddish-brown and the slightly sticky sumed on its own, cold or iced, as an ingredient of smear interior is yellow. It has a spicy and aromatic longer drinks or poured over ice cream or fruits. flavour, and a characteristic aroma caused by en- Limonene One of the monoterpenoid aroma com- zymes breaking down proteins on the cheese sur- pounds, with lemon-like aroma. Found in citrus face. Unripened cheese contains some holes, but rip- fruits and their products, including citrus juices and ened cheese has only a few, if any, small holes. The citrus essential oils. Also found in dill and cara- cheese ripens in 6-12 weeks and its fat content can be way seeds. between 20 and 50%. Lime berries Reddish, edible fruits (10-15 mm di- Limonin One of the main bitter compounds found ameter) produced by Triphasia trifolia or T. auran- in citrus fruits. Limonin and other limonoids are tiola, native to southeastern Asia. Fully ripe fruits have highly oxygenated triterpenoids of interest as anti- a sweet, aromatic flavour. They can also be pickled, carcinogenic phytochemicals. or cooked to make jams or preserves. Limonoid glucosides Limonoids with carbohy- Lime essential oils Essential oils from limes drate (glucose) substituents; in contrast to limonoids, produced by compression of peel or distillation of the glucosides are generally non-bitter. Over 17 dif- mashed lime pulps or juices. Used as flavourings, ferent limonoid glucosides have been isolated from particularly in carbonated beverages, such as cola citrus fruits, and limonoids are mainly accumulated beverages. The predominant flavour compound pre- as glucoside derivatives in mature citrus fruit tissues. sent is terpineol which is produced from citral dur- Along with limonoid aglycones, the glucosides show ing distillation. possible anticarcinogenicity. Lime juices Fruit juices prepared from limes (Cit- Limonoids Highly oxygenated triterpenoids found rus aurantifolia). Used in beverages and as a fla- predominantly in citrus fruits. Over 35 limonoids vouring ingredient in cooking. have been identified in citrus species, and many are Limes Greenish-yellow citrus fruits (Citrus auranti- bitter compounds. Limonoids demonstrate anti- folia) which are rich in vitamin C. Total sugar con- carcinogenicity and also antifeedant activity against tent is relatively low for a citrus fruit and they are very insects and termites. acidic. Used in marmalades and as flavourings in Limpets Any of a number of marine gastropod mol- products such as sauces, pickles and chutneys. luscs having compressed conical shells. Found at- Lime juices are used in beverages and the peel is a tached to substrates on rocky shores worldwide. Lim- source of essential oils. Cultivated mainly in pet meat is valued for its flavour, but generally has a warmer climates, as the plant is very sensitive to frost. tough texture. Consumed raw or lightly sauteed; meat Liming One of several sugar processes used for is often tenderized prior to consumption. purification of sugar juices. Involves addition of Lin Alternative term for tench. some form of lime, e.g. calcium oxide, milk of lime (a Linalool One of the monoterpenoid aroma com- slurry of calcium hydroxide) or calcium saccharate, to pounds, with floral/sweet/citrus aroma characteris- sugar juices and heating. The lime neutralizes organic tics. Linalool is found naturally in many foods and acids present and forms insoluble lime salts with the beverages, and is also added as a flavour compound to impurities. Suspended particles from the sugar cane processed foods. or sugar beets that remain after filtration associate with the precipitate formed. Forms of liming include Linalyl acetate Ester with sweet/floral aroma char- cold liming, hot liming and intermittent liming; these acteristics. This flavour compound is found in several differ with respect to the order in which addition of plant essential oils, including bergamot oils, sage lime and heating are carried out. oils and citrus oils. Linamarases Alternative term for ȕ-glucosidases. 254 Linamarin Lipolytic enzymes Linamarin One of the cyanogenic glycosides, lina- oils, and is also found at low levels in animal lipids, marin is found in cassava roots. This toxin has to be including those of human milk. Ȗ-Linolenic acid is a removed by processing, generally fermentation, precursor for arachidonic acid and the pros- before cassava can be eaten safely. taglandins. Lincomycin Lincosamide bacteriostatic antibiotics Linseed oils Yellow to amber viscous vegetable produced by Streptomyces lincolnensis. Primarily oils obtained from flax seeds, Linum usitatissimum. active against Gram positive bacteria. Used to treat Rich in iodine and Į-linolenic acid. Polymerize on a variety of infections (e.g. staphylococcal infections) exposure to air, resulting in thickening. Used as a food in farm animals, but mainly used for swine in control oil. Also known as flax seed oils. of nechrotic dysentery and mycoplasma infections. Linseeds Seeds derived from flax, Linum usitatis- Swine producing meat for human consumption should simum, used as the source of linseed oils. not be slaughtered within 48 hours of treatment with Linuron Selective systemic urea herbicide used for lincomycin. In turkeys, lincomycin is used for treat- pre- and post-emergence control of annual grasses and ment of arthritis caused by bacteria and/or my- broad-leaved weeds around a range of plants, including coplasma. Also used as growth promoters. vegetables and cereals. Classified by WHO as Lindane Alternative term for the insecticide HCH. unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. Also Ling Marine fish species (Molva molva) of high known as afalon. commercial importance belonging to the Lotidae Lipaemic activity Human physiology term relat- (hakes and burbots) family. Widely distributed in the ing to the ability of certain compounds to either in- Atlantic Ocean. Marketed fresh, frozen and dried- crease or decrease levels of lipids in the blood. salted. Cooked in a variety of ways, including steam- Lipases Enzymes that hydrolyse tri-, di- or mono- ing, frying, broiling and baking. acylglycerols at a lipid-water interface to form free Ling cod Marine fish species (Ophisdon elongatus) fatty acids and either di- or mono-glycerides, or of commercial importance belonging to the Hexa- free glycerol. The term usually refers to triacyl- grammidae (greenlings) family. Also prized as a game glycerol lipases (EC 3.1.1.3), which act on triglyc- fish. Found mainly in the northeast Pacific Ocean. erides. Can cleave various natural lipids and oils, Marketed fresh and frozen. Cooked in a variety of such as olive oils, soybean oils, coconut oils, ways, including steaming, frying, broiling, boil- butterfat, and pork and beef fats, and can show posi- ing, baking and by microwaves. Ling cod livers tional-, fatty acid- or stereo-specificity. Useful for en- are particularly rich in vitamin A. hancing of flavour during cheese ripening and, due to their esterification, interesterification and Lingonberries Red, acid berries produced by Vac- transesterification activities, for production of cinium vitis-idaea. Contain high levels of benzoic modified esters and lipids, speciality fats and cocoa acid. Used in jams and jellies. Also known as cow- butter substitutes. Lipases are also active in or- berries or lingberries. ganic solvents. Linoleates Salts or fatty acid esters of linoleic Lipids Naturally occurring organic chemicals that are acid. Also anionic form of linoleic acid. Often used in characteristically poorly soluble in water but are solu- model systems to assess oxidation of lipids or anti- ble in organic solvents. Lipids constitute one of the oxidative activity of selected chemicals. four main classes of compounds found in living tis- Linoleic acid One of the polyunsaturated fatty sues, and also one of the major nutrient types, and as a acids, synonym octadecadienoic acid. Member of the class include oils, fats, fatty acids, long-chain (or Ȧ-6 fatty acids group containing 18 carbon atoms fatty) alcohols, triglycerides, phospholipids, and 2 double bonds at positions 9 and 12. Linoleic acid waxes, steroids, terpenoids and some hormones is an essential nutrient in mammals, and is present in and vitamins. many plant and animal foods, being particularly abun- Į-Lipoic acid Sulfur-containing organic acid with dant in certain vegetable oils. antioxidative activity used in food supplements Linolenic acid One of the polyunsaturated fatty and functional foods. Found in spinach, broc- acids, synonym octadecatrienoic acid. Contains 18 coli, potatoes and offal. Cofactor for enzymes in- carbon atoms and 3 double bonds at positions 9, 12 and volved in aerobic metabolism. 15 (Į-linolenic acid) or at positions 6, 9 and 12 (Ȗ- Lipolysis Hydrolysis (splitting) of lipids by lipases linolenic acid). Į-Linolenic acid is an essential nutrient to yield glycerol and fatty acids. in mammals, and is found in many plant oils, espe- Lipolytic enzymes Encompasses lipases, lipopro- cially linseed oils. Ȗ-Linolenic acid is found in sev- tein lipases and phospholipases. eral plant oils, particularly in evening primrose 255 Lipopolysaccharides Liquid phase microextraction Lipopolysaccharides Complexes formed between droperoxide. The preferred substrates are linoleic polysaccharides and lipids. Lipopolysaccharides acid, arachidonic acid and linolenic acid. Plant are an important component of the outer membrane of lipoxygenases (EC 1.13.11.12) are important for the Gram negative bacteria and are key determinants synthesis of flavour compounds, e.g. in tomatoes of antigenicity and toxicity. and olive oils, and can be used to introduce new fla- Lipoprotein lipases EC 3.1.1.34. Also known as vours into foods, but can also contribute to food diacylglycerol lipases, these enzymes hydrolyse spoilage by production of a rancid off flavour, e.g. triacylglycerols to form diacylglycerols and free in soybeans and soy products. fatty acids. Can also hydrolyse diacylglycerols and Liqueurs Alcoholic beverages made from spirits exhibit esterification activity. Affect deposition of or neutral alcohol with addition of other ingredients fats in carcasses and composition of milk fats, and such as sugar and flavourings. are measured as an indicator of lipaemic activity in Liquid chromatography A form of chromatogra- nutritional studies. phy that utilizes a liquid mobile phase; usually abbre- Lipoproteins Conjugated molecules containing pro- viated to LC. May be performed in a column or on a teins and lipids. The lipid may be a phospholipid, plane. The modern method is often referred to as high triglyceride or cholesterol, or a mixture of these. Se- performance liquid chromatography. rum lipoprotein and lipoprotein-cholesterol profiles are Liquid egg Pasteurized egg whites, egg yolks or frequently measured as biomarkers of cardiovas- whole eggs in liquid form. The long shelf life and cular diseases (CVD) and used to examine the rela- Salmonella-free status of such products make them tionship between diet and health. Oxidation of serum suitable for use by food manufacturers and caterers. low density lipoproteins (LDL) is implicated in the Liquid egg whites Pasteurized egg whites in liquid aetiology of CVD, and certain functional food conform. Processing conditions confer a long shelf life stituents such as flavonoids from green tea and red and ensure that they are free of Salmonella con- wines have the ability to inhibit LDL oxidation due to tamination. Usually packaged in pourable contain- their antioxidative activity. Lipoproteins are also ers. May be used in the manufacture of meringues present in foods, e.g. lipovitellins in egg yolks. and cakes. Due to the pasteurization process, the Liposcelis Genus of insects of the family Psocidae beating time necessary for meringues may be 3 to 5 common as pests in cereal stores in hot, humid areas. times longer than that required when using unpasteur- Can feed on grain, oilseeds and pulses. In large ized egg whites. numbers, they may cause heating of grain with conse- Liquid egg yolks Pasteurized egg yolks in liquid quent damage to its quality and value. Also found in form. Processing conditions confer a long shelf life food manufacturing premises and domestic situations and ensure that they are free of Salmonella con- where conditions are favourable. tamination. Usually packaged in pourable contain- Liposomes Microscopic vesicles comprising a bilayer ers. May be used in the manufacture of mayonnaise composed of phospholipids, particularly lecithins, and salad dressings. and cholesterol surrounding an aqueous core. May Liquid membranes Thin layers of liquid, separating also be prepared using synthetic surfactants. Formed two phases: a process stream and a stripping phase. by sonication of the lipids component in an aqueous Impurities, e.g. metal ions, can be extracted almost medium or by rapid mixing of the lipids in an aqueous completely by a carrier that is dissolved in the liquid solution of ethanol. Tool for delivery of hydrophilic membrane. On the other side of the membrane, strip- substances, e.g. enzymes or drugs into cells, or for ping takes place. While the carrier is stripped continu- encapsulation to allow controlled-release of sub- ously, the driving force for the extraction remains high. stances, e.g. active ingredients of functional foods, Types of liquid membranes in use include: bulk liquid or protection of ingredients during food processing. membranes; emulsion liquid membranes; thin sheet Lipovitellins Lipoproteins present in egg yolks. supported liquid membranes; hollow fibre supported Lipoxidases Alternative term for lipoxygenases. liquid membranes; two module hollow fibre supported liquid membranes; and spiral wound membranes. Lipoxygenases Term used specifically for EC 1.13.11.12 and also as a general collective term for Liquid nitrogen Nitrogen gas (N2) that has been other oxygenases including EC 1.13.11.31, EC cooled to a temperature less than or equal to 77.4 K, 1.13.11.33, EC 1.13.11.34, EC 1.13.11.40 and EC thus existing in a liquefied state. 1.13.11.45. All of these enzymes catalyse the oxida- Liquid phase microextraction One of various ana- tion of unsaturated fatty acids containing a cis-cis lytical techniques used for extraction and concen- penta-1,4-diene unit to the corresponding monohy- tration of an analyte from a sample prior to its analysis. 256 Liquids Liver sausages The analyte is extracted into a very small volume of potes. Also known as lychees, lechees, lichees and solvent, commonly a drop suspended from the tip of a litchees. microsyringe, or a volume impregnated into the pores Lite beverages Beverages with a low content of of a hollow fibre membrane. Applications include the alcohol and/or sugar compared with conventional analysis of residues in foods and water, or in migra- beverages of the same general type. tion studies. Lite foods Foods that are low (light) in calories, Liquids Fluids that flow freely but have constant fats, cholesterol, sugar and/or salt. volume at a given temperature and pressure. Their Litesse Trade name for a family of polydextrose shape is usually determined by the containers they ingredients that act as bulking agents and fat sub- fill. stitutes. Approved for use in over 50 countries. Liquid smoke Oil or water extracts of smoke pro- Available in a range of forms and grades for different duced from burning woods, often maple, oak or mes- food applications. A low calorie, sugar free, low gly- quite. Imparts a smoky flavour to foods. caemic index, speciality carbohydrate that is prebiotic Liquid whole egg Pasteurized blend of egg whites and recognized as fibre. Used in production of low and egg yolks in liquid form. Processing conditions calorie foods, including bakery products, dairy confer a long shelf life and ensure that the product is products, salad dressings, chocolate and con- free of Salmonella contamination. Usually pack- fectionery products. Marketed by Danisco. aged in pourable containers. May be used in the Lithium Chemical symbol Li. A group 1 alkali metal manufacture of doughnuts, cookies, mayon- element that may be one of the essential minerals, naise, salad dressings and egg noodles. although lithium-dependent enzymes, hormones or other essential functions are not recognized. Animal Liquorice Sugar confectionery product made from studies suggest that lithium is essential for normal the dried root extract of the Mediterranean plant Gly- growth and reproduction. Lithium is found in a wide cyrrhiza glabra. Contain the triterpenoid glycoside range of animal and plant foods, and is particularly glycyrrhizin. rich in eggs and milk. Listeria Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped or coccoid Liver flukes Parasitic flatworms of the class Trema- Gram positive bacteria of the Listeriaceae family. toda that invade and cause damage to the livers of ver- Occur in soil, fresh and salt water, sewage sludge and tebrates, e.g. Fasciola hepatica. decaying vegetation. Listeria monocytogenes, the causative agent of listeriosis in humans, has been as- Liver pates Meat products based on finely com- sociated with foods such as soft cheese, milk, ice minuted or mashed livers, often swine livers or poul- cream, raw vegetables, prepared salads, cakes, try livers. Pre-scalding of the liver tends to increase fermented sausages, sliced cold meat, and raw redness of the pates. Commonly, liver pates are pre- and smoked fish. pared from ingredients including scalded fat and have a spreadable texture; in contrast, when prepared using Listeriolysins Toxins produced by Listeria mono- non-scalded fat they tend to have a sliceable texture. cytogenes which lyse cells. Livers Large, vascular, abdominal organs. Livers of Listeriosis Infection in humans caused by Listeria slaughtered animals and poultry form a part of edible monocytogenes. Usually transmitted by contaminated offal. They can be cooked by grilling or sauteing, foods. Pregnant women, babies, the elderly and the but become tough if overcooked. Livers are often immunocompromized are particularly susceptible to processed to produce liver products including foie infection. Symptoms vary from a mild influenza-like gras and fish liver oils. Fish livers are particularly illness with high fever and dizziness to meningitis and rich sources of vitamins A and D. Animal livers are meningoencephalitis. In pregnant women, intrauterine good nutritional sources of iron, vitamin A, vitamin or cervical infections may result in spontaneous abor- B1, vitamin B2, niacin and vitamin B12. Retinols tion, stillbirth or premature birth. Gastrointestinal are stored in the liver and very high concentrations oc- symptoms such as nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea may cur in the livers of animals fed on retinol- precede more serious forms of listeriosis or may be the supplemented feeds and among wild animals which eat only symptoms exhibited. fatty fish. Because of the teratogenicity of high con- Litchis Fruits produced by Litchi chinensis. A rough, centrations of retinols, pregnant women are often ad- pink-red rind covers the white edible aril that encloses vised not to eat liver products. a single seed. The aril is a good source of vitamins Liver sausages Cooked, ready-to-eat sausages (B, C, D and E). Available fresh, canned and frozen. prepared from finely minced swine livers and other Eaten alone or as a component of sauces and com- meat, and seasoned with onions and spices. Liver 257 Liverwurst Low alcohol beer sausages may be prepared using smoked meat, such as good cooking sausages, fillings for omelettes or bacon, or may be smoked after cooking. Their tex- tapas. ture ranges from firm and sliceable to smooth and Longans Fruits produced by Dimocarpus longan, spreadable. Plastic bags or tubes are often used as cas- Euphoria longana or Nephelium longana. The thin, ings for liver sausages, but other liver sausages are brown rind contains the soft, white edible pulp that shaped into loaves. Usually, they are used to prepare surrounds a single seed. Eaten raw, preserved or dried; snack foods or sandwiches. They are also known also available canned. Consumed as snack foods or as liverwurst or leberwurst. used in soups, some savoury dishes and desserts. Liverwurst The German term for liver sausages, Also known as dragon's eyes. including the famous braunschweiger. Long life foods Foods that have a prolonged shelf Livestock Domesticated animals reared for production life, usually under ambient conditions. Includes ultra of food (meat, eggs or milk), other animal products high temperature (UHT) treated and sterilized prod- (wool, skins or fur) or for other commercial purposes. ucts, such as UHT milk, and shelf stable bakery Lizardfish Any of a number of marine fish species products. in the family Synodontidae. Widely distributed in Loquats Fruits produced by Eriobotrya japonica. warmer oceanic waters. Some species are fished com- Pale yellow to deep orange in colour, they are rich in mercially, principally off the coast of Japan. Marketed carotenes but contain little vitamin C. Eaten fresh fresh and also used to make kamaboko products. or used to make jams, jellies, desserts and pies. Loaf vol. Space occupied by bread as it rises during Also known as Japanese medlars, Japanese plums, baking. Often measured in cubic centimetres. Used as Chinese medlars and Chinese loquats. a measure of breadmaking quality of cereals, flour Lorries Large motor vehicles designed to transport and dough. heavy loads. Used in a wide range of applications, in- Lobsters Common name for several large marine cluding transport of animals to slaughterhouses, crustacea belonging to the families Homaridae (in- carriage of cereals and other raw materials to proc- cluding the large north Atlantic lobsters of the genus essing facilities, and transfer of processed foods Hommarus) and Palinuridae (including rock lobsters from factories to retail premises. Also known as and spiny lobsters). Many species are of high com- trucks, especially in Canada and the USA. mercial value as they are prized for their flesh. Los Pedroches cheese Spanish semi-hard cheese Locust bean gums Gums extracted from carob made from raw or pasteurized ewe milk, usually from beans (Ceratonia siliqua). Used as thickeners, Merino ewes. Rind is yellow and shiny. The ivory emulsifiers and stabilizers in foods, such as white interior is compact, with small holes distributed cream cheese, bakery products, salad dress- throughout. ings and ice cream. Exhibit good water binding Lotus roots Underground stems, or rhizomes, of the capacity, protect against freeze/thaw damage and im- lotus plant (Nelumbo nucifera), commonly used in part a creamy mouthfeel. Heating is required for Asian cooking. Rich in sodium, the vitamin B maximum solubility. group, vitamin C and vitamin E. Eaten as a vegeta- Locust beans Alternative term for carob beans. ble and also in sweet dishes. Lotus root flesh is Loganberries Red, acid berries produced by Rubus creamy-white, with the texture of raw potatoes. loganobaccus, generally thought to be a hybrid be- Flavour is similar to that of fresh coconuts. Seeds tween raspberries and blackberries or dewber- and leaves of the lotus plant are also consumed. ries. Contain high amounts of citric acid and vita- Loukanka Raw dry sausages, traditionally pro- min C. Can be eaten fresh, though often considered duced in Bulgaria. They are made from pork, or pork too acid, and also can be canned or used in jams or and beef mixtures. Loukanka may be eaten smoked or wines. unsmoked. Lokum Alternative term for Turkish delight. Lovage Common name for Levisticum officinale Lollipops Large sugar confectionery products on Koch, fruits of which are used as spices. Imparts a wooden or plastic sticks. warm, maple-like flavour during cooking similar to Longaniza Dry, cured pork sausages, traditionally that of celery; however, unlike celery, lovage main- produced in Spain. Ingredients for these highly sea- tains its flavour after cooking. Lovage leaves and es- soned, light-coloured sausages include lean pork, sential oils are often included in sweet sauces, belly pork, pimiento peppers, additives and con- gravy, pickles and seasonings. diments. In Spain, they are often served as an entree Low alcohol beer Beer in which the alcohol con- with potatoes and other vegetables, but also make tent is lower than that considered to be normal for the 258 Low alcohol beverages Low sugar confectionery specific type; legal definitions covering the limit differ ceive them to be a healthy option. Sensory proper- between countries. Low alcohol beers are made by two ties of these foods have also improved due to devel- general classes of process: formation of lower than opments of new sugar substitutes and fat substi- normal amounts of alcohol by interrupted fermenta- tutes. Many of these foods can also be classed as low tion or restricted fermentation (using immobilized fat foods. yeasts or low fermentation temperatures); or removal Low calorie spreads Spreads with a reduced con- of alcohol from normally-fermented beer (by tech- tent of calories. niques such as vacuum evaporation or dialysis). Low density lipoproteins Plasma lipoproteins Sensory properties of low alcohol beer frequently that carry cholesterol in the blood and release it at differ from those of normal beer; defects include a sites in the body where it can be used. High concentra- worts-like flavour, and lack of typical beer aroma tions in the blood may result in excess cholesterol be- notes formed during fermentation. ing deposited in the walls of blood vessels, and are Low alcohol beverages Beverages in which the thus associated with atherosclerosis and an in- alcohol content is lower than that considered to be creased risk of cardiovascular diseases. A healthy normal for the beverage type; legal definitions of the diet and regular physical activity may help reduce limit differ between countries. Low alcohol beverages low density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. Often ab- are made by two general classes of process: formation breviated to LDL. of lower than normal amounts of alcohol (by restricted Low density polyethylene Polyethylene of low- or interrupted fermentation processes); or removal of density grade. Less rigid and with better resistance to most of the alcohol from normally-fermented bever- impact than high density polyethylene (HDPE). ages (generally by evaporation or membrane proc- Commonly abbreviated to LDPE. esses). Low alcohol beverages commonly have sensory properties which differ, to a greater or lesser Low fat diet A diet that provides comparatively fewer extent, from those of normal beverages of the same calories from fats than a standard or typical diet. type. Adoption of a low fat diet is one diet therapy approach used to achieve weight loss and manage over- Low alcohol wines Wines in which the alcohol weight and obesity. content is lower than that considered to be normal for the specific type; legal definitions for limits differ be- Low fat foods Foods that are low in fats, either natu- tween countries. Low alcohol wines are made by two rally or because they have been formulated to contain a general classes of process: formation of lower than reduced fat content compared with a given reference normal amounts of alcohol (by use of glucose oxidase amount. Some of the most popular foods in this sector treated musts, early arrest of fermentation, aerobic are low fat dairy products, low fat spreads and fermentation or use of special yeasts); or removal of low fat bakery products, many of which contain fat alcohol from normally-fermented wines (by distilla- substitutes as a means of reducing fat content while tion processes, membrane processes, adsorption or maintaining acceptable sensory properties. Much extraction). Low alcohol wines commonly have sen- of the growth in this sector is attributed to consumer sory properties which differ from those of conven- perception of these foods as a healthy option. Also tional wines of the same type. classed as low calorie foods. Low calorie beverages Beverages that are low in Low fat spreads Spreads with a reduced content of calories. May be consumed by health-conscious con- fats. sumers who want to maintain their body wt. or as part Low lactose foods Foods that are free from or have of a wt. loss diet to reverse overweight and obesity. a minimum amount of lactose. Particularly suitable Low calorie diet A diet that has comparatively fewer for people who have a lactose intolerance. Many calories than a standard or typical diet. Calorie re- low lactose dietetic foods are available on the mar- striction forms the basis of many weight loss diets for ket, including lactose-free infant formulas, dairy the management of overweight and obesity. products and chocolate. Low calorie foods Any foods that are low in calo- Low sodium foods Foods containing relatively low ries, i.e. those that are naturally low in calories such as levels of sodium, and therefore deemed suitable for lettuces, and processed foods that have been consumption by those suffering from hypertension manufactured to give a reduced calorie content for a and certain other diseases. Reduced sodium levels may given reference amount, such as low calorie be achieved by replacement of NaCl with salt sub- spreads. Although originally developed for those stitutes. with specific health or weight problems, low calorie Low sugar confectionery Confectionery in processed foods are now consumed by many who per- which sucrose is partially replaced with sweeten- 259 Low sugar foods Lupin seeds ers (e.g. polyols). Such low sugar foods may proof products such as margarines, and hampers the vide a reduction in dietary calories and also be bene- formation of a smooth surface of the spread film. ficial for dental health. Luncheon meat A cooked meat product prepared Low sugar foods Foods manufactured in such a way from chopped pork, ham and/or beef. Luncheon that they are low in sugar, such as low sugar con- meat is available canned or sliced, and is sold in vac- fectionery. Commonly contain sweeteners and uum packaging. bulking agents as sugar substitutes. Such foods Lunches One of the main meals of the day, served at may also provide a reduction in calories (low calorie around midday. foods) and are regarded as a healthy option by the Lung cancer cancer consumer. The reduced sugar contents may also be A form of involving the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in lung tissue. Inci- beneficial for dental health. dence is strongly correlated with cigarette smoking. Lozenges Small, flat sweets made from icing Some foods and food components may offer protective sugar, glucose syrups, gum arabic/gelatin and effects against this and other forms of cancer, includ- flavourings. Sometimes medicated, as in the case of ing some fruits and vegetables. cough drops. Lungs Paired organs within the rib cage into which air LTLT pasteurization Low temperature, long time is inhaled during breathing. The lungs of slaughtered batch pasteurization treatment (also known as the animals form a part of edible offal and lung mince holder method) that is applied to liquid foods, particu- may be included in cooked sausages (e.g. frank- larly milk. A quantity of milk is placed in an open vat, furters and pepperoni). Some mechanical stun- heated to 63°C, held at that temperature for 30 min- ning techniques used in cattle slaughter may result utes, and then pumped over a plate-type cooler prior to in brain emboli in the lungs. This is of particular con- bottling or cartoning. In addition to destroying cern in relation to bovine spongiform encephalo- common pathogens, this heat treatment also inacti- pathy (BSE) and the transmission of prions in foods, vates lipases, which might otherwise quickly cause and, as a result, high risk techniques are prohibited in the milk to become rancid. certain countries. Lubricants Substances, e.g. oil or grease, applied to Lupanine One of the toxic alkaloids present in lu- equipment components to minimize friction. pins. Lucerne Alternative term for alfalfa. Lupin meal Flours prepared from lupin seeds by Lukum Alternative term for Turkish delight. crushing. Seeds may have been subjected to hull- Lulo Alternative term for naranjilla and quito oranges ing prior to crushing. The crushed seeds may undergo (Solanum quitoense or S. angulatum). Orange fruits subsequent extraction for removal of lupin seed oils with green-yellow juicy flesh. Rich in vitamin A and and/or further grinding to produce finer flour. Rich vitamin C. Most commonly used in beverages, but source of vegetable proteins. also eaten out of hand, as ingredients in desserts, or Lupin proteins Vegetable proteins extracted from in jellies and marmalades. lupin seeds. Luminescence The emission of light from a sub- Lupins Species of Lupinus, some of which are used as stance or organism, and which occurs at temperatures food. Seeds are rich sources of proteins and oils. below those required for incandescence. Includes pho- High levels of alkaloids make some seeds too bitter toluminescence, chemiluminescence, electrolumi- for consumption, but contents may be reduced by nescence, fluorescence and phosphorescence. washing in water. Varieties selected as grain crops are Lumpfish Marine fish species (Cyclopterus lumpus) low in alkaloids (sweet lupins). Seeds have been used belonging to the lumpfishes and snailfishes family as coffee substitutes and seed flour has been sug- (Cyclopteridae). Widely distributed in the western and gested as a substitute for soy meal. eastern Atlantic Ocean. Eaten fresh or smoked, espe- Lupin seed oils Vegetable oils derived from seeds cially in Nordic countries. Eggs are used as inexpen- from plants of the genus Lupinus which have low to sive caviar substitutes; roes are also sold fresh. intermediate levels of unsaturated fatty acids. Also known as lumpsucker. Lupin seeds Seeds from species of the genus Lu- Lumpiness Texture term relating to product con- pinus, annual or perennial herbs or shrubs of the family sistency and the extent to which an item contains Leguminosae. Rich in proteins, with low to interme- lumps. Lumpy products contain inhomogeneities in diate levels of unsaturated fats; may be used as structure, which can be present as invisible defects. oilseeds or are roasted, boiled and salted and used as Lumpiness has a negative effect on the spreadability snack foods. 260 Lupulin Lysozymes Lupulin A fine yellow powder or resin containing high Lymeswold cheese British mould-ripened cheese concentrations of the bitter compounds and essen- made from cow milk. tial oils present in hops. Occurs in lupulin glands Lyophilization Alternative term for freeze drying. found predominantly on hop cones. Lysine One of the essential dietary amino acids. Lupulones Alternative term for the ȕ-acids found in Present as a free amino acid and protein constituent in hops and beer. Compared to other bitter com- a wide range of foods. Cereals such as rice and some pounds, these poorly soluble resin constituents have wheat varieties contain low lysine levels, and both little bittering capacity in beer. conventional plant breeding and genetic engineer- Lutein One of the most widespread naturally occurring ing techniques have been used in attempts to increase carotenoids. Found in many foods, and particularly lysine contents of these dietary staples. fruits and vegetables. Lysinoalanine Dipeptide formed from lysine and Luteolin Member of the flavonoids, found in a range alanine. One of the cross-linked peptides formed in of plant foods, including sage, olives, lettuces, food proteins during thermal processing, espe- endives and citrus fruits. Has also been found in cially in alkaline conditions, and can be released upon honeys. subsequent protein hydrolysis. Can be used as an in- Lyases EC 4. Enzymes that cleave C-C, C-O, C-N dicator of milk quality after thermal processing. and other bonds by means other than hydrolysis or Lysins Members of EC 3.4.24. A group of metalloen- oxidation. Two substrates are involved in one reaction dopeptidases that includes collagenases, thermo- direction, but only one in the other. When acting on the lysins and autolysins. single substrate, a molecule is eliminated leaving an Lysolecithin Monoglyceride phosphate ester conju- unsaturated residue. gated to choline via esterification with the phos- Lycadex Trade name (Roquette) for a range of very phate moiety. Produced by hydrolysis of lecithins. low dextrose equivalent fat substitutes based on Also called lysophosphatidylcholine. maltodextrins derived from corn starch. Use in a Lysophospholipases EC 3.1.1.5. Hydrolyse single range of low fat foods, including spreads, salad fatty acid ester bonds in lysoglycerophosphatidates dressings, sauces and cakes. with the formation of glyceryl phosphatidates and free Lycasin Trade name (Roquette) for maltitol syrups fatty acids. Also known as lecithinases B and manufactured by hydrogenation of starch hydro- phospholipases B, these lipases are potentially lysates. Consist of approximately 50% maltitol, 16% useful for improving the quality of wheat starch hy- maltotriitol and 7% sorbitol. Used as sweeteners in a drolysates. range of sugar free products, such as boiled sweets, Lysophospholipids Phospholipids deacylated at pastilles, chewy candy, fudges and toffees, where position 1 or 2. they possess noncariogenic properties. May be used in Lysozymes EC 3.2.1.17. Glycosidases which hy- combination with other sugar alcohols as a substi- drolyse 1,4-ȕ-linkages between N-acetylmuramic acid tute for glucose syrups. and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residues in peptidogly- Lychees Alternative term for litchis. cans, and between N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residues in Lycopene One of the carotenoids, particularly chitodextrins. Found in milk, particularly human characteristic of tomatoes. milk, and egg whites (egg whites lysozymes; Lycoperdon Edible fungi commonly known as puff eggs lysozymes). Important antimicrobial pre- balls. servatives since they are able to break down the cell Lyes Aqueous solutions of alkalies, generally so- wall of many Gram positive bacteria. Used in the dium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, of use production of certain types of cheese to kill harmful in food processing treatments such as peeling or bacteria, and for cold sterilization of certain foods sugar processes. and beverages. M

Mabinlin Sweet proteins isolated from seeds of voury flavour. Marketed fresh, frozen, smoked, the Chinese plant Capparis masaikai. Four homo- salted, dried and canned. Roes of some species are logues of mabinlin have been isolated - mabinlin I to also consumed, often marketed as canned products. IV. A recombinant mabinlin has been produced that is Macrococcus caseolyticus Species of aerobic 400 times sweeter than sucrose for potential use in Gram positive bacteria of the family Staphylococ- sweeteners for low calorie foods and beverages. caceae, found in fermented sausages and raw Maca Common name for Lepidium meyenii, an Andean milk. crop grown for the roots or tubers which are eaten as Macrocystis Genus of large brown seaweeds vegetables. (kelp) found on rocky coastal substrates in many parts Macadamia nuts Nuts produced by the Australian of the world. Some species, such as Macrocystis pyrif- species Macadamia integrifolia or M. tetraphylla, with era, are an important source of alginates used by the smooth or rough shells, respectively. Considered food industry. among the finest gourmet nuts, they are eaten roasted and salted, or as ingredients in bakery products, ice Madeira Fortified wines produced in the island of cream and sugar confectionery. Also known as Madeira, characterized by being aged for several Queensland nuts. months at high temperature in special rooms called estufas. Types include Sercial (the driest), Verdelho, Macaroni Hollow tubes of pasta which are usually and Bual (the sweetest). short and curved. Macaroons Small chewy cakes or cookies made Madeirization In the context of Madeira wines, the from ground almonds/almond paste or coconut, process of development of the characteristic flavour sugar and egg whites. Often baked on rice paper. as a result of controlled heat treatment. For other wines, a flavour defect due to excessive heating and Mace One of the spices, along with nutmeg, derived oxidation. from seeds of Myristica fragrans. Mace is produced from the arillodes of M. fragrans. These are red- Madhuca seeds Seeds from plants of the genus coloured structures, situated on top of the nuts of this Madhuca, often used as oilseeds. plant, that resemble a cockerel's comb. Magnesium One of the essential mineral nutrients, Maceration Softening or breaking up of foods by chemical symbol Mg. Widely distributed in plant and soaking in a liquid, or the soaking of foods (usually animal foods, good sources including fruits, vegeta- fruits) in a liquid in order to absorb the flavour of the bles and dairy products. Standard Western diets liquid. Spirits or liqueurs are often used as the mac- generally contain adequate levels of magnesium, so erating liquid. fortification is largely unnecessary. Absorption of Machine vision Inspection systems in which samples dietary magnesium may be affected by other dietary are examined using a camera, the image from which is nutrients such as calcium, phosphates and vitamin analysed by computer using image processing al- D, and also by some clinical conditions, including al- gorithms. Operations which can be performed include coholism and diabetes. Magnesium is an important defect detection, dimensions measurement, orientation bone constituent and intracellular inorganic cation act- detection, grading, sorting and counting. ing as an essential co-factor in many enzymic reac- Mackerel Any of a number of marine fish species in tions. Magnesium deficiency can cause calcification of the family Scombridae, many of which are commer- soft tissues, electrolyte imbalances, gastrointestinal cially important food fish. Found in temperate and symptoms and personality changes. If taken in excess, tropical seas around the world. Commercially impor- magnesium toxicity symptoms can include nausea, tant species include Scomber scombrus (Atlantic vomiting, hypotension and neurological changes. mackerel) and Scomber japonicus (Pacific mack- Magnetic fields Regions around a magnet within erel). Flesh is firm and fatty, with a distinctive sa- which the force of magnetism acts. Various applica- 262 Magnetic resonance imaging MALDI-TOF-MS tions in the food industry include non-thermal pres- Malabar nightshade Alternative term for Ceylon ervation techniques. spinach. Magnetic resonance imaging Non-destructive Malabsorption Impaired absorption of nutrients analytical technique based on nuclear magnetic across the gastrointestinal tract. Depending on the resonance which is used widely in the food industry. abnormality, absorption of a single nutrient or multiple Applications include assessment of meat quality, de- nutrients may be impaired. Malabsorption may be a termination of components in foods and measurement feature of several diseases, including coeliac dis- of thermophysical properties. ease, food intolerance, Whipple's disease and cys- Mahewu African lactic fermented, non-alcoholic bev- tic fibrosis. Impaired nutrient absorption can lead to erages made from corn, sorghum or millet. malnutrition and anaemia. Malachite green Chemical dye which shows anti- Mahimahi Alternative term for the common dolphin- bacterial activity, antifungal activity and also fish (Coryphaena hippurus), a marine fish species of properties of anthelmintics. Used primarily in high commercial importance. Widely distributed in aquaculture for treatment and control of a range of tropical and sub-tropical waters throughout the world, parasitic and fungal infections in fish and shellfish. and also produced commercially by aquaculture. Residues may persist in aquaculture products. Marketed fresh and frozen. Other forms of the name Suspected mutagen, and banned from use in various are mahi mahi and mahi-mahi. countries in products for human consumption. Mahon cheese Spanish hard cheese made from Malate dehydrogenases Generic term for a group cow milk, produced on the Balearic Island of Mi- of dehydrogenases including: EC 1.1.1.37 which norca. During manufacture, curd is piled in the centre converts (S)-malic acid and NAD+ to oxaloacetic of a piece of cheesecloth, the corners of which are acid and NADH; EC 1.1.1.38 and EC 1.1.1.39 which knotted and twisted together. The cheese is then convert (S)-malic acid and NAD+ to pyruvic acid, pressed and twisted for a few days, resulting in the CO2 and NADH; and EC 1.1.1.40 which converts (S)- typical ‘cushion’ shape of this cheese. The hard, or- + malic acid and NADP to pyruvic acid, CO2 and ange rind carries the imprint of the cheesecloth. Al- NADPH. The latter three enzymes are also known as though sold at various stages of maturity, Mahon is malic enzymes. Involved in malic acid metabolism, usually sold young, when it has a smooth and supple the ripening of certain fruits, and can be used for de- texture combined with a sweet and fruity aroma. termination of the malic acid content of foods and bev- Maida Indian refined white flour made from wheat. erages. Maillard reaction Chemical reaction that occurs be- Malathion Non-systemic organophosphorus insecti- tween reducing sugars and the amino groups of cide and acaricide used for control of biting, chewing proteins or amino acids present in foods, and, and sucking insects in a wide range of crops, in- along with caramelization, is responsible for cluding fruits, vegetables and rice. Also used to nonenzymic browning. Maillard reaction prod- control pests during storage of cereals. Classified by ucts cause a darkening of colour, reduced solubility WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). Also known as of proteins, development of bitter flavour, and re- carbofos. duced nutritional availability of certain amino acids, Malay apples Bright red fruits produced by Syzy- such as lysine. Rate of Maillard reaction is influenced gium malaccense, a tree native to Malaysia and India. by many factors, including water activity, tempera- The white flesh is slightly sweet and juicy. Eaten raw ture and pH of foods. or used to make preserves and wines. Also known Maillard reaction products Soluble and insoluble as mountain apples or pomerac. polymers produced via the Maillard reaction when MALDI-TOF-MS Commonly used abbreviation for reducing sugars and amino groups of amino ac- matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of ids and proteins are heated together. Contribute to flight mass spectroscopy. Technique used to de- the colour and flavour of foods such as soy termine biomolecular structure of substances such as sauces, caramels and toffees, milk chocolate proteins, sugars and oligonucleotides, including and bread. Important functional components of those of food origin. Molecules are embedded in a ma- caramel colorants. trix on a metal surface, desorbed into a gas phase by Maize Alternative term for corn. the force of a laser beam, accelerated by an electric field and fly through a drift tube at high vacuum. They Maize meal Alternative term for corn flour. are characterized according to molecular weight, which Maize oils Alternative term for corn oils. is indicated by the time taken to pass through the drift Makhana Alternative term for gorgon nuts. tube. 263 Maleic acid Maltol Maleic acid Carboxylic acid which occurs as a colour- Malondialdehyde One of the aldehydes produced less, crystalline solid and is used in making synthetic as a result of oxidation of lipids. Traditionally used resins. The term maleic acid refers to cis-butenedioic in the determination of thiobarbituric acid values acid, while the more stable trans isomer is known as (TBA values), a measure of lipid rancidity or oxida- fumaric acid. On heating, water is eliminated from tion. Synonymous with malonaldehyde. maleic acid to form maleic anhydride, which can be Malt Cereal grains which have been steeped, partially used in modification of proteins, particularly en- germinated, then kilned to terminate germination. zymes, and in preparation of copolymers used in The malting process includes starch saccharifica- plastics packaging materials. tion and partial breakdown of proteins present in the Maleic hydrazide One of the plant growth regula- grain to yield fermentable material; activity of en- tors. Used particularly to control sprouting in pota- zymes is also increased. Malt is used mainly in toes and onions during storage. brewing; small quantities are used in making bakery Malic acid Aliphatic dicarboxylic acid, an important products. Malt is most commonly made from bar- metabolic intermediate in the glyoxylate and tricar- ley, but other cereals such as wheat and sorghum boxylic acid cycles, and also commonly accumulated may also be malted. in some fruits and vegetables including apples and Maltases Alternative term for Į-glucosidases. grapes. This organic acid is the substrate for Malt beverages Beverages based on malt. May malolactic fermentation by bacteria which pro- resemble beer, but do not comply with national regu- duces lactic acid and carbon dioxide and reduces lations for beer. the overall acidity of the fermented products, generally wines, thereby increasing product quality. Malthouses Industrial premises used for malting of Malic enzymes Alternative term for certain malate barley. dehydrogenases. Malting Process of conversion of cereals (especially Malignant hyperthermia Progressive hyperthermia, barley) into malt by controlled steeping, germina- severe muscular rigidity and acidosis, which occurs in tion and kilning to terminate germination. some swine in response to stress. It is associated with Malting barley Barley (Hordeum vulgare) cultivars porcine stress syndrome, pronounced halothane which have composition and germination properties sensitivity and the PSE defect in pork. making them suitable for malting and brewing. Mallards Wild ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) belong- Malting properties Properties of barley or other ing to the Anatidae family, which are hunted for pro- cereals which determine suitability for malting and duction of duck meat. quality of the malt produced. These include germina- Mallow seeds Seeds produced by plants belonging tion characteristics, composition, proteins and to the family Malvaceae, often used as oilseeds. starch modification properties, and activity of en- Malnutrition Condition resulting from inappropriate zymes. nutrition. Includes both inadequate and excessive die- Maltitol Polyol, systematic name 4-O-Į- tary intakes of nutrients and/or calories. Insufficient glucopyranosyl-D-sorbitol, manufactured by hydro- intake of proteins causes kwashiorkor in children, genation of maltose syrups. Has 0.6-0.9 times the and a diet deficient in all nutrients causes marasmus. sweetness of sucrose and is used in sweeteners. Lack of vitamins causes a wide variety of defi- Maltodextrins Dextrins of varying, but generally ciency diseases, including scurvy, rickets, beriberi intermediate, length (degree of polymerization), and pellagra. Malnutrition may result from eating containing D-glucopyranose residues with Į1o4 link- disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia ner- ages, as in maltose. Synonym for maltooligosac- vosa. Overnutrition can lead to toxicity and obesity. charides. Malolactic fermentation A type of fermentation Maltohexaose Oligosaccharide consisting of six mal- carried out by species of bacteria such as Lactoba- tose residues linked via -1,4-glycosidic bonds. Pro- cillus, Leuconostoc and Pediococcus, in which Į duced by hydrolysis (treatment with acids or Į- L-malic acid is converted to L-lactic acid and CO . In 2 starch sweetness certain fermented products (e.g. wines and soy amylases) of . Has low compared sucrose viscos- sauces), it has the effect of reducing the acidity, with (0.1 times as sweet) but higher ity bulking agents since lactic acid is a weaker acid than malic acid, and , thus making it useful in . can be used, therefore, to impart desirable acidity on Maltol Pyrone with the systematic name 3-hydroxy-2- these products. methyl-4H-pyran-4-one. Used as flavourings with Malonaldehyde Synonym for malondialdehyde. caramel-like aroma that impart a freshly baked flavour and aroma to bread and cakes. 264 Maltooligosaccharides Mango jams Maltooligosaccharides Oligosaccharides con- ening, it is described as curado (cured), and, after taining D-glucopyranose residues with Į1ĺ4 linkages, more than 3 months of age, it is referred to as viejo as in maltose. Synonym for maltodextrins. (aged). Maltose Disaccharide comprising two molecules of Mancozeb Dithiocarbamate fungicide used for control glucose linked by a Į-1,4-glycosidic bond which is of many fungal diseases (e.g. blights, leaf spot, rusts manufactured by hydrolysis of starch. Has 0.4-0.5 and downy mildew) in a range of fruits, vegetables times the sweetness of sucrose and is used in and cereals. Classified by WHO as unlikely to pre- sweeteners and as a fermentation substrate in sent acute hazard in normal use. brewing. Also known as malt sugar. Mandarin juices Fruit juices prepared from man- Maltose syrups Syrups in which the predominant darins (Citrus reticulata). sugar present is maltose. Manufactured by hy- Mandarins Small, loose skinned citrus fruits (Citrus drolysis of starch and may contain up to 90% mal- reticulata). Eaten as a dessert, commonly as canned tose. segments. Relatively high vitamin C content. Varie- Maltotetraose Maltooligosaccharide consisting of ties include tangerines and satsumas, but the four glucose residues linked by Į-1,4-glycosidic names tend to be used indiscriminately. Used in sev- bonds which is produced by hydrolysis of starch. eral citrus hybrids. Has approximately 0.2 times the sweetness of su- Mandoo Korean dumplings which are stuffed with a crose. Maltotetraose syrups have many applications, spicy mixture of vegetables and/or meat. Fast including as sweeteners, bulking agents, humec- foods eaten as a snack or main dish. Cooked by tants and in glazes. steaming, frying or boiling. Also used in making Maltotriose Oligosaccharide consisting of three mal- dumpling soups. tose residues linked by Į-1,4-glycosidic bonds which is produced by hydrolysis of starch. Has approxi- Maneb One of the dithiocarbamate fungicides. Used mately 0.3 times the sweetness of sucrose. for control of a range of fungal diseases on crops. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard Malt vinegar Vinegar produced by fermentation of in normal use. barley malt. Starch is hydrolysed during malting and the sugars in the resulting hydrolysate are fer- Manganese A mineral, with chemical symbol Mn. mented to produce acetic acid. Malt also imparts Limited evidence for its role as an essential nutrient in flavour to the vinegar. Malt vinegar is often used for humans, although it is required as a cofactor for sev- pickling and as a condiment, most commonly in the eral enzymes. However, deficiency diseases have UK. been reported in other animals. Widely distributed in foods and beverages. Toxicity in humans is generally Malvidin One of the anthocyanidins, a pigment associated with mining, although manganese levels in commonly found in grapes and wines, sometimes as foods are often determined along with those of other a glycoside. Also found in other berries. heavy metals. Mamey Fruits produced by Mammea americana, also Manganese peroxidases EC 1.11.1.13. Oxidize known as mamey apple. Round and green with a Mn(II) to Mn(III). Major ligninolytic enzymes pro- rough, leathery skin and pale yellow flesh. Eaten fresh fungi or in jams, preserves or sauces. Pulps are used to duced by a number of white rot that are important in the potential use of these organisms for lignin make wines. Mature fruits contain high levels of degradation, degradation of toxic pollutants and de- pectins. May also refer to the fruits of Pouteria coloration olive oil mills effluents sapota (mamey sapote) which have brown peel and of . creamy, sweet flesh that can be eaten fresh or proc- Mangoes Tropical fruits produced by Mangifera essed into products such as desserts and beverages. indica. Vary in shape, size and colour, but the flesh Manchego cheese Spanish hard cheese made surrounding the large stone is always yellow to orange. from pasteurized ewe milk, the name indicating that it Rich in vitamin C and carotenes, with approxi- is made in the La Mancha region of Spain. The cheese mately 14% sugar. Eaten fresh as a dessert; also sold has a black, grey or buff rind, and a white to yellow canned or dried. Used in a range of products, including interior, depending on age. The interior contains a jams, pickles and chutneys, or as a source of fruit number of holes and has a mild, nutty and slightly juices. The seeds (kernels) inside the stone can also briny flavour which can have a peppery bite in older be used as a food or as a source of flour, fats and cheeses. The finished cheese is usually smeared with oils. olive oil and surface mould is removed. Manchego is Mango jams Jams made from mangoes, some- sold at various stages of maturity; at 13 weeks of rip- times combined with other fruits. 265 Mango juices Marbling Mango juices Fruit juices prepared from mangoes tree, from which it has been isolated. Also called (Mangifera indica). manna sugar. Mango kernels Edible seeds found within the stone Mannoproteins Glycoproteins. Yeast mannopro- of mangoes. Good source of nutrients for humans teins are used in winemaking to prevent haze forma- in times of food shortages. Fats and oils extracted tion. from the kernels have been used in foods, e.g. as co- Mannose Monosaccharide consisting of six carbon coa butter substitutes. Meal prepared from the atoms (hexoses). Has approximately 0.6 times the kernels can be used as a substitute for wheat flour in sweetness of sucrose. baking. Mannosidases Glycosidases that act on mannosi- Mango nectars Fruit juice beverages made by dic linkages in polysaccharides containing man- addition of water, sugar and optionally other ingredi- nose residues. Include the enzymes EC 3.2.1.24 ( - ents to mango juices. Į mannosidases) and EC 3.2.1.25 (ȕ- Mango pickles Products made by pickling pieces of mannosidases), which act on mannosides, and EC mangoes with spices, salt and oils. 3.2.1.78 (mannan endo-1,4-ȕ-mannosidases), Mango pulps Soft mass prepared from the flesh of which act on mannans. mangoes. Used in a range of products including Į-Mannosidases EC 3.2.1.24. Hydrolyse terminal, beverages, ice cream, yoghurt, bakery prod- non-reducing Į-D-mannose residues in Į-D- ucts, jams and jellies. mannosides. Involved in the ripening of fruits and Mango purees Smooth, creamy preparation made can be used for synthesis of novel cyclodextrins. from the flesh of mangoes by sieving or reducing in a blender or liquidizer. Used as sauces or in prepara- ȕ-Mannosidases EC 3.2.1.25. Glycosidases which tion of products such as fruit juices, fruit nectars, hydrolyse terminal, non-reducing ȕ-D-mannose resi- bakery products, ice cream, yoghurt and jams. dues in ȕ-D-mannosides. In plants, these enzymes are involved in ripening processes. Microbial ȕ- Mangosteens Tropical fruits produced by Garcinia mannosidases have several industrial uses such as in mangostana with a dark purple, hard rind and juicy food and feed processing, viscosity reduction in white flesh. Sugar content is relatively high, but vi- gums and also for the synthesis of mannooligosaccha- tamin C level is low. rides. Also known as mannases and mannanases. Manioc Alternative term for cassava. Manometers Instruments used for measuring the Mannanases Alternative term for ȕ- pressure of liquids or gases. mannosidases. Manometry Measurement of the pressure or tension Mannan endo-1,4-ȕ-mannosidases EC 3.2.1.78. of gases or liquids. Catalyse the random hydrolysis of 1,4-ȕ-D- mannosidic linkages in mannans, galactoman- Maple saps Sweet, viscous fluids produced by, and nans and glucomannans. Useful for production of tapped from, maple trees (Acer), which are native to food additives, extraction of vegetable oils from North America. Those obtained from the sugar maple legumes and reduction of the viscosity of coffee or the black maple have high contents of sugars and extracts during the manufacture of instant coffee. are used for the manufacture of maple syrups. Mannans Polysaccharides containing a high pro- Maple syrups Concentrated sugar solution produced portion of mannose. Mannans that also contain glu- by evaporation of maple saps. Sucrose is the cose or galactose residues are known as gluco- predominant sweet substance, comprising approxi- mannans and galactomannans, respectively. mately 60% of the syrup by weight; hexoses are also Mannans are produced by plants, e.g. konjac gluco- present. Maple syrups also contain flavour com- mannans, bacteria and fungi, including yeasts. pounds, e.g. syringaldehyde, and natural color- Uses include in thickeners and texturizers. ants, which provide the characteristic maple syrup Mannases Alternative term for ȕ-mannosidases. flavour and amber colour. Mannitol Polyol consisting of six carbon atoms that Marbling Streaks of intramuscular animal fats in occurs naturally in plants, plant exudates and sea- meat from mammals. Marbling is one of the factors weeds. Manufactured by reduction of mannose or used to assess quality of meat, particularly beef. For reduction and isomerization of glucose. Has ap- example, good quality beef is marbled with fine proximately 0.6 times the sweetness of sucrose. strands of fat; this fat bastes the meat as it cooks, thus Uses include as nutritive sweeteners, anticaking affecting juiciness and tenderness. Lower quality agents, stabilizers and thickeners. The name is beef has either no marbling or thicker marbling; it derived from manna, the sweet exudate from the ash tends to be tougher after cooking. 266 Marc Marrows Marc Spirits made by distillation of fermented Marine oils Lipids derived from marine animals. mashes based on grape marc. Include fish oils, squid oils, seal oils and whale Mare milk Milk obtained from horses. Differs from oils. cow milk by its lower fat and protein contents (1.5 Marjoram Common name for Origanum majorana, and 2.4%, respectively) and higher lactose content the leaves and seeds of which are used as spices. (approximately 6.2%). Levels of most minerals are Also called sweet marjoram. Leaves of the plant have a also lower than in cow milk, but contents of iron and warm wood-like aroma similar to that of nutmeg. copper are higher. Vitamin A and most B vitamins Leaf essential oils are also used as flavourings. are present in lower concentrations in mare milk than Marker genes Genes that confer a readily detectable in cow milk, but contents of carotenes and niacin phenotype on cells, either in culture, or in transgenic are higher than in cow milk. Ascorbic acid is present or chimeric organisms. They may encode reporter en- in a similar amount to that in cow milk. zymes or markers conferring antibiotics resis- Margaric acid Carboxylic acid with 17 carbon atoms, tance. member of the saturated fatty acids, with a melting Marker proteins Proteins specific to a substance, point of 59-61°C. Synonyms include heptadecanoic cell, tissue or organism whose detection infers the acid, margarinic acid and n-heptadecylic acid. Occurs presence of the source, e.g. of use in studies of au- as a free fatty acid and lipid component of animal thenticity or contamination. In genetics, their fats and vegetable fats. detection can infer the presence of vectors incorporating genes encoding marker proteins and expression Margarines Water-in-oil emulsions usually com- of the gene, i.e. they act as markers of transforma- posed of approximately 80% animal fats or hydro- tion and gene expression, with green fluores- genated vegetable fats and 20% water, together with cent protein being a common marker used for this emulsifiers, colorants, vitamin A, vitamin D and purpose. flavourings. Usually solid at room temperature. Used as spreads, butter substitutes, in baking or as Market research The activity of gathering informa- cooking fats. Low fat products may contain as little tion about customers' needs and preferences. Market as 20% fat. research uses surveys, tests and statistical studies to analyse consumer trends and to forecast the quantity Maribo cheese Danish semi hard cheese made and locale of markets favourable to the profitable from cow milk. Similar in appearance to Gouda sale of products or services. The social sciences, for cheese, with a yellow wax coating and a firm interior example psychology and sociology, are increasingly containing many eyes. Sometimes flavoured with utilized to provide clues to people's activities, circum- caraway seeds. stances, wants, desires and general motivation. Marigolds Bright yellow edible flowers of the ge- Markets As well as conveying the offering of goods nus Tagetes used to add flavour and colour to dishes for sale or promotion of products, this term can also including soups and salads. A source of lutein, the cover the regular gatherings for the purchase and sale petals are dried and the powder used as colorants for of food, livestock and other commodities, the outdoor foods. Dried preparations are also added to chicken spaces or large halls where vendors sell their goods, or feeds to enhance pigmentation of egg yolks. particular areas of commercial or competitive activity. Marinades Seasoned liquids used for marination Marlins Any of a number of large, fast swimming mainly of meat or fish. Usually contain oils mixed marine fish species belonging to the family Istio- with wines, vinegar or lemon juices, and herbs phoridae. Commercially important species include or spices. Makaira indica (black marlin), M. nigricans (blue mar- Marination Soaking of foods in marinades, mix- lin) and Tetrapturus audax (striped marlin). Marketed tures of ingredients such as oils, vinegar and herbs, fresh or frozen and occasionally smoked; also used in before cooking, in order to add flavour or promote manufacture of fish sausages in Japan. tenderization. Because most marinades contain Marmalades Preserves, often clear, produced from acidic ingredients (lemon juices, vinegar or wines), the pulps and rind of fruits, mainly citrus fruits. marination should be conducted in glass, ceramic or Marrons glaces Chestnuts cooked in syrups and stainless steel, but not in aluminium, contain- glazed. ers. Marrows Vegetables produced by plants of the ge- Marine fish Any fish which exist in sea water envi- nus Cucurbita, which also includes squashes and ronments. The majority of commercially important pumpkins. Vegetable marrows are varieties of C. food fish are found in sea water. pepo. Large cylindrical or round vegetables of various 267 Marsala Matjes colours, with greenish-white or yellow flesh. Contain Mashing Preparation of aqueous extracts of malt (op- mainly water (usually at least 90%), with small tionally together with brewing adjuncts) by heating amounts of starch, sugar, fats, proteins, caro- them in water under a time/temperature regime which tenes and vitamin B, and moderate amounts of vita- will optimize enzymic solubilization and extraction min C. Eaten boiled or stuffed with meat or other of carbohydrates, soluble nitrogen compounds and vegetables. Marrows harvested when young are cour- other constituents of importance for fermentation gettes or zucchini. and beer quality. Brewing enzyme preparations may Marsala Fortified wines produced in the Marsala be used to enhance the enzymic solubilization process, region, Sicily. Traditionally served as aperitifs, but especially when non-malted adjuncts are used. also used in cooking and popular as dessert wines. Mashua Alternative term for anu. Classified as Fine, Superiore, Superiore Riserva, Massecuites Mixture of crystallized sugar and Vergine, and Vergine Stravecchio or Vergine Riserva, sugar syrups which is produced during manufacture according to their age (up to 1 year and at least 2, 4, 5 of sugar. Centrifuged to separate the sugar crystals and 10 years, respectively). Available in both sweet (which are dried and stored) from the syrup, which un- (dolce) and dry (secco) varieties. dergoes further crystallization to improve sugar Marshmallows Soft aerated confectionery prod- yield. ucts made from corn syrups, glucose, gelatin and egg whites. Originally manufactured from the root Mass spectrometry Alternative term for mass sap of the marshmallow plant (Althaea officinalis). spectroscopy. Marula Plum-size fruits produced by Sclerocarya Mass spectroscopy Spectroscopy technique in caffra or S. birrea subsp. caffra, a tree native to Africa. which separation is based on atomic and molecular Rich in vitamin C and several minerals. Beneath a mass. Samples are bombarded with electron beams strong, leathery skin are a layer of white flesh similar which fragment the molecules. The fragments are ac- to mangoes and a pit containing a small, tasty kernel. celerated through magnetic fields and sorted on the ba- Eaten out of hand or made into jams, jellies and a sis of charge to mass ratio. Usually abbreviated to MS. range of beverages, including fruit juices, wines, Mass transfer Movement of matter from one place to beer and schnapps-like spirits. another, usually considered with reference to a defined Marzipan Malleable confection made with crushed boundary, as in the transfer of water within or from a almonds or almond pastes, together with powdered wet product during drying. sugar and egg whites. Often used to decorate Mastication First stage in the digestion of foods, cakes or as fillings in pastries and candy. whereby food taken into the mouth is processed into a Mascarpone cheese Italian high-fat soft cheese form suitable for swallowing. During mastication, made from cow milk. Although not strictly a true foods are chewed, ground and torn with the teeth, and cheese, it is described as a curd cheese. Mascarpone mixed with saliva. Small food particles result which is made by adding a culture to the cream skimmed have a large surface area on which saliva can act. Mas- from milk used in manufacture of Parmesan cheese. tication also releases food flavour and aroma. In Tartaric acid is also used in its production. After ad- conjunction with the action of the tongue, a cohesive dition of the culture, the cream is gently heated and al- food bolus is formed of the correct size to pass through lowed to mature and thicken, after which it takes only the oesophagus. a few days to ripen. The white to yellow cheese is Mastitis Inflammation of the mammary gland caused spreadable and frequently used in dishes and sauces. by pathogenic microorganisms. In cows, can cause Mashed potatoes Potato products typically reductions in milk yield and alterations in the compo- served as a carbohydrate component of meals. Pre- sition of milk from infected quarters. pared by pulping of potatoes following peeling Masu salmon Alternative term for cherry salmon. and boiling. Seasonings, butter, milk and/or other dairy products are commonly added to the boiled Mate Infusion beverages prepared from dry leaves potatoes before pulping to improve creaminess of and twigs of the plant yerba mate (Ilex paraguarien- the product. sis). Mashes Mixtures of ground malt, optionally with Matjes Traditional Dutch product of lightly cured her- other brewing adjuncts, with hot water. Heated un- ring. Herring used for matjes production must have no der controlled conditions to solubilize and extract fer- development of the reproductive system, giving them a mentable constituents and other materials of impor- high fat content. They are prepared in a special way, tance for the brewing process and beer quality. cutting into the gills and leaving the pancreas in the fish after gutting so that the pancreatic enzymes 268 Matrix solid-phase dispersion Meat promote maturation of the product. As well as having a Meadowfoam Flowering plant, Limnanthes alba, high fat content, matjes are rich in Ȧ-3 fatty acids. which yields high quality oils from its seeds. 95% of Matrix solid-phase dispersion One of the ana- the oil is composed of 20 and 22 carbon fatty acids. lytical techniques, it is used as a pre-treatment for It shows high oxidative stability and may be used as viscous, semi-solid or solid samples prior to extraction a substitute for whale oils or jojoba oils. and analysis of the target analyte(s). Sample is blended Meadowfoam oils Oils extracted from meadowfoam with a bonded-phase solid support, e.g. silica, which (Limnanthes alba), which contain high proportions of acts as an abrasive to disrupt the sample. Compounds long-chain fatty acids of >20 carbon atoms, includ- adsorbed to the bonded phase can be selectively eluted ing some which are unique to this oil. Display high for analysis. Used for studying composition or con- oxidative stability and can improve the stability of tamination of foods, in particular agricultural other vegetable oils. Used in cosmetics and personal products. care products, and applicable to specialty industrial Matsutake Wild Japanese mushrooms (Tricholoma products such as lubricants, detergents and plasticizers. matsutake) which are usually exported either in canned Development of low erucic acid lines has enabled or dried form. potential food application. Have been used as plasti- Maturation Alternative term for ageing and ripen- cizers in chewing gums. ing. Meal Flour prepared from non-cereal plants. Maturity Alternative term for ripeness. Mealiness Sensory properties relating to the ex- Mauritia Genus of palm trees that grow in South tent to which products (usually fruits such as apples, America. Fruits are used in preparation of beverages peaches and nectarines) are perceived as being and in some cases as the source of oils. Pulps of the mealy, i.e. soft, powdery and floury. Mealiness is the fruits from Mauritia vinifera are used as a food. result of breakdown of flesh into small pieces that tend Wines and sago are produced from stems of M. to be dry in the mouth; it is related to an increase in the flexuosa. levels of water-soluble pectins and decreases in in- Mawa Type of condensed milk made by heating soluble pectins during ageing. Thus, when eaten, the milk until boiling and then stirring continuously cells separate easily without the release of cell sap, and over a low heat until it thickens to the consistency the mouth perceives the outside surfaces of the cells of cream cheese. Used in preparation of Indian rather than the cleaved cells leaking sap. desserts and sweetmeats. Also known as khoya. Meal replacers Products designed for consumption in Mawe Porridge made from dehulled and partially place of conventional meals for a specific dietary germinated white corn. purpose, e.g. weight management. Maximum residue limits Maximum concentrations Meals Processed foods eaten at mealtimes and/or of pesticide residues, resulting from the registered designed to be one of the main dishes of the day, e.g. use of agricultural or veterinary pesticides, that are lunches, pub meals, ready meals, school meals. recommended to be legally permitted or recognized as acceptable in or on a food, agricultural commodity or Meat Animal tissues which are used as food, including animal feed. Commonly abbreviated to MRL. those of domestic mammals, poultry, game birds and game animals. Meat is composed of lean muscles, Mayonnaise Condiments prepared from vegeta- connective tissues, fats, skin, nerves, blood ves- ble oils, egg yolks, vinegar or other acidifying sels and water. It can be classified as red or white, agents (e.g. lemon juices) and flavourings (e.g. based on its colour intensity, which results from the mustard). For manufacture of commercial mayon- proportion of red and white muscle fibres that it con- naise, oil content must be t65% (by weight). Com- tains. Red fibres have a higher myoglobin content monly 70-80% (by weight) oil is used to give a thicker than white fibres. Composition of meat differs between product that has been shown to be more acceptable to species and between retail cuts; it depends greatly on consumers. the fat to lean ratio, which determines energy value MCPA Selective systemic herbicide used for post- and concentrations of most nutrients. Water content emergence control of annual and perennial broad- of meat tends to decrease with increasing fat content. leaved weeds in crops, particularly cereals. Classi- Lean meat includes substantial amounts of high bio- fied by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). logical value proteins; however, meat is also an impor- Mead Alcoholic beverages made by fermentation tant dietary source of fat, high bioavailability inor- of a medium in which honeys are the main source of ganic nutrients (including Fe, Zn, Cu and Se) and the fermentable sugars. vitamin B group. 269 Meat alternatives Mechanical boning Meat alternatives Alternative term for meat substi- mixed before cooking, usually in a loaf tin; however, tutes. meat loaf may also be prepared in casings. Some Meat analogues Simulated foods, comparable in meat loaf is prepared with colour contrasts or pat- structural and mechanical properties to natural terns; preparation of these products tends to involve meat. They can be produced from various high protein traditional, high-cost, labour-intensive methods. Once content raw materials including beans, fish and cold, meat loaf can be cut into firm slices. Generally, it grain, and also from protein recovered from offal. is served cold. Examples include textured vegetable proteins and Meat mince Meat cut up or shredded (minced) into mycoprotein. Ingredients such as protein fibres, pro- very small pieces by the process of mincing. Quality duced by spinning, may be incorporated into meat depends on the part of the animal carcass that the meat analogue mixtures as texture imparting materials. originated from; in particular, it varies with fat and Meat balls Meat products prepared from chopped connective tissue contents. Also known as ground meat meat, which is formed into balls and then cooked. In- or minced meat. gredients may also include onions, breadcrumbs, Meat pastes Comminuted meat products similar to eggs and seasonings. pates, and of intermediate texture, commonly with a Meat emulsions Meat products which include meat content of approximately 70%. The non meat sausage emulsions and emulsions used in the prepara- portion consists of rusk and water, or other suitable tion of comminuted meat products. They are composed filler such as soy protein concentrates or sodium of a continuous phase (protein and water) and a dis- caseinate. The product is usually heat sterilized after persed phase (fat particles). They are prepared from filling into jars or cans. meat, such as mechanically recovered meat and offal, and other ingredients, such as non-meat proteins Meat patties Round, flat cakes of comminuted meat. (e.g. sodium caseinate and soy protein isolates). Although they may be prepared from meat mince, Enzymes may be added to improve the functional they may also be reconstituted, e.g. from mechani- properties of meat and non-meat proteins in the cally recovered meat. Some may include meat ex- emulsions. Mechanical treatment during comminu- tenders. Varieties include beef patties, chicken tion has major effects on properties of products pre- patties and turkey patties. pared from meat emulsions. Meat pies Meat products in which chopped meat or Meat extenders Non-meat ingredients used to im- meat mince is encased in pastry and baked. Meat prove flavour, texture, appearance and nutri- pies often contain offal and low value meat, such as tional values of meat emulsions. In general, they mechanically recovered meat. They may be pre- cost less per kilogram than meat, and include: dairy pared in pie dishes that are lined and sealed with pas- products, such as dried skim milk, sodium ca- try, e.g. steak and kidney pie. Pasties are a type of seinate, milk coprecipitates, whey and whey prod- meat pie prepared in a folded pastry case, e.g. Cor- ucts, and other milk derivatives; soy protein isolates nish pasties. and concentrates; oilseeds; cereal products; and Meat products Products such as burgers, gravy, pea meal, chick pea meal and textured navy bean pro- ham, patties and sausages that are made from tein concentrate. meat or contain meat as a major constituent. Meat extracts Water-soluble extracts of meat which Meat sauces Any sauces that contain meat as the are used as flavourings. Meat mince is immersed in main ingredient. Meat sauces are usually used as an boiling water to leach out the water-soluble extracts; accompaniment to pasta and rice, for example meat extract (no. 1 extract) is produced by concentrat- bolognese sauces or meat curry sauces. ing these extracts. Exhaustive extraction of meat produces a direct extract, which contains a high concentra- Meat substitutes Simulated foods used as direct tion of gelatin. Meat extracts are rich nutritional substitutes for meat. They may be included in meat sources of the vitamin B group, particularly vita- products or may provide vegetarian alternatives to min B2, vitamin B12 and nicotinic acid. meat. Meat substitutes include textured vegetable Meat loaf Meat products commonly prepared from proteins (TVP), texturized milk proteins, quorn and comminuted meat, such as meat mince, poultry tofu. Aroma compounds, stabilizers and color- mince or fish mince. Meat loaf may include offal, ants may be included. Also known as meat alterna- blood and low value meat, such as mechanically re- tives. covered meat. Other ingredients may include bind- Mechanical boning Removal of bones from meat or ers, onions, tomato purees, garlic, white bread, fish, usually before cooking, using specially de- milk, herbs and seasonings. The ingredients are signed boning equipment. 270 Mechanical harvesting Melanins Mechanical harvesting Gathering (harvesting) of rines) in the diet. The diet also includes daily con- crops by mechanical means. sumption of low to moderate amounts of cheese and Mechanically recovered meat Meat recovered yoghurt, and weekly consumption of low to moderate from bone using separation machinery. Mechanical amounts of fish and poultry meat, and from zero to recovery increases the efficiency of separation and four eggs per week (including those used in cooking thereby allows the recovery of extra meat per carcass; and baking). Fresh fruit is used as the typical daily des- it is also less time consuming than hand boning of sert; sweets with a significant amount of sugar (of- meat. In many systems, meat and bone are forced ten in the form of honeys) and saturated fats are con- against perforated plates or cylinders; the meat passes sumed not more than a few times per week. Red meat through, leaving the bone to be removed as waste. is consumed only a few times per month. There is also Composition of the meat recovered varies between the moderate consumption of wines, normally with methods used, but in general consists of comminuted meals. meat, bone marrow, collagen, bone and fat. Bone Medlars Fruits produced by Mespilus germanica. content is very important and must be minimized. Ini- Rich in sugar and potassium, but not a good source tial raw materials need to have low bacterial counts; of vitamin C. Palatable only when partially rotten or they should be handled at low temperature and treated after exposure to frost, when they become soft. Con- as promptly as possible. Advanced meat recovery sumed along with port or used in making jams and (AMR) systems produce a product which is similar in wines. appearance, texture and composition to meat trim- Megasphaera Genus of anaerobic, spheroid Gram mings and similar hand deboned meat products. negative bacteria of the family Acidoaminococca- Other systems produce a paste- or batter-like meat ceae. Found in the rumen of sheep and cattle, and also product, or liquid meat extracts. Mechanically recov- in humans. Some species, especially Megasphaera ered meat is widely used in meat products. It is also cerevisiae, are responsible for spoilage of beer. known as mechanically separated meat or mechanically deboned meat. Megrim Marine fish species (Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis or L. boscii) of high commercial value be- Mechanical properties In relation to foods, physi- longing to the family Scophthalmidea. Found in the cal properties associated with the reaction of foods north east Atlantic Ocean and western Mediterranean to stress. Include parameters such as hardness, Sea. Flesh tends to be dry and is best eaten fried in fat. viscosity, elasticity and adhesiveness. Skin is used as a source of collagen and gelatin. Media Liquid or solid substances used for the culture of microorganisms, containing all the nutrients Meitauza Traditional Chinese food made by fermen- required for growth. Some types of media contain in- tation of okara. gredients which select for the growth of specific mi- Meju Product made traditionally from soybeans that croorganisms. are malted, formed into blocks and dried. Fermented to Medical foods Foods specially formulated to be con- produce soy sauces and bean pastes as by- sumed by individuals who suffer from disease or products. health conditions that require special dietary manage- Melamine A heterocyclic organic nitrogen compound, ment, because of distinctive nutritional requirements molecular formula C3H6N6. Due to its relatively high N associated with the conditions. content, melamine has been used for adulteration of Medicinal plants Plants with healing properties that foods to increase their apparent protein content. Can are often used to promote health in traditional systems also occur in foods as a metabolite of the pesticide of medicine such as Ayurveda. A source of plant ex- cryomazine. Previously considered to have low toxic- tracts and other material that may be used in func- ity, infant deaths in China in 2008 due to acute renal tional foods or functional beverages. failure have been linked to melamine-contaminated in- Mediterranean diet Diet eaten in certain Mediterra- fant formulas, and cat and dog deaths in the US in nean countries, in which the populations enjoy low re- 2007 have been linked to melamine-contaminated corded rates of chronic diseases and high adult life wheat gluten in pet foods. Melamine is also used expectancy. Contains an abundance of foods from to make melamine resins, which are widely used food plant sources, including fruits and vegetables, po- contact materials, particularly in kitchen and table tatoes, bread and grains, beans, nuts and seeds. wares. Some concerns exist about migration of Emphasis is placed on eating a variety of minimally monomers (melamine and formaldehyde) from these processed foods and, wherever possible, seasonally plastics. fresh and locally grown foods. Olive oils replace Melanins High molecular weight pigments with other fats and oils (including butter and marga- reddish-brown to black colour, formed by the action 271 Melanoidins Memory of oxidases on phenols, as in enzymic brown- sugar and vitamin C and, in cases where there is a ing. Widely distributed in animals and plants, gener- pink or orange colour, high levels of carotenes. ally bound to proteins. Although a normal constituent Melon seeds Seeds found in the centre of melons. of certain foods and beverages, including black tea, Rich in protein and fat. Used in the manufacture of melanins can sometimes produce an undesirable dis- bakery products and confectionery, as well as in coloration of foods, such as mushrooms, several the preparation of beverages. Also roasted and con- fruits and shrimps. sumed as snack foods. Melanoidins Pigments with yellow to brown col- Melting Conversion of solid foods (such as butter or our and malt-like aroma formed by reactions be- chocolate) into a liquid or semi-liquid state by appli- tween reducing sugars and amino acids in foods cation of heat. during heating. Formation of these Maillard reac- Melting point Temperature at which a solid changes tion products is important during food processing into a liquid, i.e. the solid and liquid forms exist to- procedures such as baking and roasting. gether in equilibrium. A pure substance at a pressure of Melanosis Darkening in shrimps between the shell 1 atmosphere has a single reproducible melting point. and tail muscle, which develops as the product deterio- The melting point is a characteristic of a pure sub- rates. Produced by an enzymic reaction affecting natu- stance; the presence of impurities lowers the melting rally occurring amino acids when exposed to point. sunlight. While they may not be as attractive, affected Membrane bioreactors Bioreactors in which reac- shrimps are safe to eat, unless spoilage characteris- tion products are removed through membranes by, tics are present. Sulfitation agents are used to prevent for example, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis and melanosis. dialysis, thus allowing continuous operation. Can be Melatonin Hormone produced by the pineal gland in used in processes such as bioremediation of waste animals where it stimulates colour change in lower water, purification of drinking water, biocon- vertebrates and plays a role in circadian rhythms of versions and biotransformations. The membranes humans. Also present in insects, bacteria and can also be used as supports for immobilization of plants. Its activities as a broad-spectrum, free radical enzymes or cells. scavenger and indirect antioxidant suggest health bene- Membrane distillation Separation of aqueous fits of ingestion. solutions using hydrophobic, microporous membranes. Vapour molecules pass from a liquid feed Melengestrol Progesterone-like steroid used as an phase on one side of the membrane to a condensing additive in cattle feeds for its growth promoting ef- permeate phase on the other due to a difference in par- fects and suppression of oestrus. tial pressure across the membrane. Membrane distil- Melezitose Trisaccharide formed from two molecules lation can be used for water purification, the con- of glucose and one molecule of fructose. Occurs centration of fruit juices and waste water treat- naturally in honeys and tree exudates. ment. Melibiases Alternative term for Į-galactosidases. Membranes Solid matrices used for separation of Melibiose Disaccharide formed from a molecule of molecules in processes such as dialysis, filtration galactose and a molecule of glucose linked by a and reverse osmosis, as supports for immobiliza- 1,6-glucosidic bond. The dihydrate of melibiose has tion of cells and enzymes, and in techniques such as approximately one third the sweetness of sucrose blotting and hybridization. by weight. Memory Ability to retain and recover learned informa- Melomel Type of mead made from honeys, water tion and knowledge of past events. Short-term memory and any fruits other than grapes or apples. is concerned with recalling memories of recent events, while long-term memory recovers memories from the Melon juices Fruit juices extracted from melons more distant past. The elderly are particularly prone to (Cucumis melo). a decline in memory. Some neurodegenerative Melons Widely grown fruits produced by Cucumis diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, can also melo. Available in a number of types, including hon- affect memory and other indices of cognitive per- eydew melons, cantaloupes, muskmelons, win- formance. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. ter melons and ogen melons, which differ in surface Some foods and food components may have beneficial and flesh characteristics. Commonly consumed as a effects on memory, such as antioxidant com- dessert, sometimes sprinkled with ginger or lemon pounds, Ȧ-3 fatty acids and some vitamins and juices, or as an appetizer with Parma ham. Flesh minerals. contains at least 90% water, relatively high amounts of 272 Menadione Mesquite pods

Menadione Synonym for vitamin K3. Synthetic market and a common trade policy for South America. compound with vitamin K activity, used in prevention Venzuela became the fifth full member in July 2006, and treatment of hypoprothrombinaemia, secondary to and associate members include Bolivia, Chile, Colom- factors that limit absorption or synthesis of vitamin K. bia, Ecuador and Peru. Two to three times more potent than naturally occur- Mercury A heavy metal, chemical symbol Hg, for- ring vitamin K. merly known as quicksilver. Liquid at room tempera- Menaquinones Synonym for vitamin K2 series. A ture, and exhibiting two valencies - mercury(I) and variety of metabolites with vitamin K activity synthe- mercury(II). Present in the environment naturally as sized mainly by intestinal bacteria. Found in meat, mercury sulfide, but also as an industrial pollutant, for livers, eggs and cheese. Formerly called farno- example as methylmercury, and occurs as a con- quinone. taminant in foods. Accumulation of mercury in fish Menhaden Any of several species of herring-like and other sea foods is of particular concern. Toxic- marine fish from the genus Brevoortia. Found off the ity symptoms include chronic muscular problems and east coast of the USA, in the Atlantic and in the Gulf reduced fertility. of Mexico. Marketed fresh, salted, canned or smoked; Merguez Highly seasoned fresh sausages which are mainly used for production of oils, fertilizers and popular in France. They are prepared from beef, pork fish meal. or mutton. Usually, they are grilled or fried before Menhaden oils Important commercial fish oils eating. which are rich in Ȧ-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Extracted from fish belonging to the genus Brevoortia. Meringues Confectionery products made by whipping egg whites to a foam, incorporating Mental health State of emotional and psychological sugar and drying to a crisp finish. The term may re- well-being. Those in good mental health are able to fer to small cakes or shells made of this material which adapt to environmental stresses, function in society and have been decorated or filled, e.g. with whipped meet the ordinary demands of daily living. A break- cream, ice cream or fruits. Also used as toppings down of mental health is associated with a wide range added to flans or pies, as in lemon meringue pies. of psychiatric disorders that are characterized by alterations in thinking, mood and behaviour, such as Merissa Type of sorghum beer made and consumed depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and anxiety in Africa. disorders. Research indicates that diet can have a sig- Mesentericins Bacteriocins produced by Leu- nificant impact on mental health. conostoc mesenteroides. Mesentericin Y105, a 37- Menthol One of the monoterpenoid aroma com- residue peptide, is active against species of the genera pounds and a secondary alcohol. Characteristic com- Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Carnobacterium ponent of mint oils. Widely used in mint flavour- and Listeria, including L. monocytogenes, and has po- ings. tential for use in food preservation. Menthone Member of the monoterpenoid aroma Mesophiles Organisms, especially microorgan- compounds, with a ketone functional group. Present isms, that grow best at intermediate temperatures. in mint and mint oils, and used in mint flavour- Their optimum growth temperature lies within the gen- ings. erally accepted range of 20 to 45°C. Menus A list of culinary dishes and beverages avail- Mesquite pods Pods produced by the mesquite tree able for selection by diners. Used in many catering (Prosopis species, including P. velutina and P. glandu- establishments, such as restaurants and hotels, as losa), a plant that grows well in semi-arid climates. well as in hospitals and other institutions serving The sweet pods are a good source of minerals, in- meals. cluding calcium, manganese, iron and zinc, and Mercaptans Organic compounds, synonym are sometimes made into syrups, wines or jelly. thiols, containing the thiol (-SH) group, also called a Mesquite meal, made by grinding whole pods, is rich mercapto group or a sulfhydryl group. Sulfur ana- in proteins and can stabilize blood sugar levels in logues of alcohols in which the oxygen atom has persons with diabetes due to its high contents of been replaced by a sulfur atom. fructose, which is processed by the body without in- Mercaptophos Alternative term for the insecticide sulin, and soluble fibre, which is absorbed slowly. fenthion. It is used in flavour enhancers, as an ingredient in Mercosur A regional trade organization formed in bakery products, and to flavour meat, fish and 1991 by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay un- other foods. Seeds inside the pods are the source of der the Treaty of Asuncion to establish a common mesquite seed gums. 273 Mesquite seed gums Methane Mesquite seed gums Gums obtained from seeds ger, more complex molecules from smaller units; this of trees of the genus Prosopis. Physical and chemical process requires energy. properties of mesquite seed gums resemble those of Metabolomics Study of the molecules generated in gum arabic, for which they can be used as substi- the process of metabolism (metabolites), which rep- tutes. resent the final products of gene expression. Meta- Metabisulfites Disulfurous acids, the disodium salts bolic profiling provides information about the bio- of which are used as preservatives and antioxi- chemical status or phenotype of a cell or organism. A dants. key aim of metabolomics is to identify the effects of diet and nutrition on metabolic profiles. Metabisulphites Alternative spelling of metabisul- Metacercariae Mature infectious forms of parasitic fites. trematode larvae. Metabolic disorders Generic term for diseases Metalaxyl Systemic, benzenoid fungicide used for caused by an abnormal metabolic process. They can be control of a wide range of fungal diseases in food congenital, due to inherited enzyme abnormality (in- crops, including fruits and vegetables. Classified born errors of metabolism), or acquired due to disease by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). of an endocrine organ or failure of a metabolically im- Metal detectors Electronic devices that give an audi- portant organ such as the liver. ble signal when close to metal; used to detect metal Metabolic engineering Genetic engineering foreign bodies or contaminants during food proc- strategy for the targeted and purposeful modification of essing. existing metabolic pathways or the introduction of en- Metalloenzymes Enzymes that contain a bound tirely new ones in living organisms. Widely applied to metal ion as part of their structure. This ion may be re- the production of desirable substances of industrial and quired for enzymic activity, either participating di- commercial use (such as nutrients, flavour com- rectly in catalysis or stabilizing the active conforma- pounds and antibiotics) in microorganisms and tions of the proteins. in transgenic plants and animals. Metallothioneins Cysteine-rich proteins which bind Metabolic rate The rate at which the body burns divalent heavy metal ions. Widely distributed in ani- calories. It is influenced by many factors, including mals and microorganisms. Metallothionein-like age, gender, physical activity, muscle-to-fat ratio proteins have been identified in plants. and hormone function. Some foods and beverages are Metals Metals are generally solid, have a metallic lus- claimed to raise metabolic rate, such as hot, spicy tre, are malleable and ductile, and conduct both heat foods and beverages containing caffeine. Metabolic and electricity. Approximately 75% of known miner- rate plays a role in weight gain and loss. als are metals. Metal ions can replace the hydrogen in acids to form salts; they also form alloys with each Metabolic syndrome A collection of disorders that other. increase the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Various diagnostic crite- Metanil yellow Azo dyes not permitted for use in ria are employed, such as a cluster of at least three of foods, drugs or cosmetics. Also called CI Acid Yellow the following risk factors: increased blood glucose 36. levels; increased levels of triglycerides; decreased Metaphos Alternative term for the insecticide para- levels of high density lipoproteins; elevated thion-methyl. blood pressure; and abdominal obesity. Insulin Methallyls Short-chain aliphatic compounds with resistance is thought to be an underlying cause of alcohol, chloride or cyanide substituents. Have been metabolic syndrome. A healthy diet and physical used as fumigants to control pests in stored grain. activity may assist in reducing the risk or severity of Methamidophos Systemic organophosphorus insecti- the syndrome. Weight loss should be a priority for in- cide and acaricide used to control chewing and sucking dividuals with this condition. insects and spider mites on a range of crops. Re- Metabolism The sum of the chemical and physical stricted or banned in various countries. Classified by processes that occur in cells or living organisms, in- WHO as extremely hazardous (WHO Ib). Also known cluding the pathways by which nutrients are used for as monitor. energy production or cell growth and reproduction. It Methanal Simplest of the aldehydes, synonym for- involves two major processes, catabolism and anabo- maldehyde. lism. Catabolism involves the breakdown of com- Methane Simplest of the alkanes (molecular formula, pounds into smaller units, with the release of energy. CH4) and principal component of natural gas and bio- Anabolism is concerned with the construction of lar- gas. Large amounts are produced anaerobically by 274 Methanearsonic acid N-Methylcarbamate insecticides methanogenesis. Highly flammable and may form ex- Methoxychlor Organochlorine insecticide used for plosive mixtures with air. control of a wide range of insects (particularly chew- Methanearsonic acid Alternative term for the herbi- ing insects) in fruits, vegetables and cereals. Also cide methylarsonic acid. has been used for insect control in animal houses, Methanethiol Smallest of the thiols, synonym dairies and food factories. Classified by WHO as methyl mercaptan. One of the volatile aroma unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. Also compounds found in cheese and other foods. known as DMDT. Methanol One of the alcohols, methanol contains a Methyl alcohol Alternative term for methanol. single carbon atom, and is a light, volatile flammable, Methylamine Amine present in a wide range of foods poisonous, sweet-smelling liquid at room temperature. and beverages, often detected in food analyses of bio- Widely used as a solvent, antifreeze or fuel. Can occur genic amines. as a fermentation by-product in alcoholic bever- Methylarsonic acid Organoarsenic compound and ages and vinegar. Synonym for methyl alcohol. selective contact herbicide used for control of grass Methanolysis A form of alcoholysis or trans- weeds. Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous esterification involving esters and methanol. (WHO III). Also known as methanearsonic acid. Used to prepare fatty acid esters from vegetable oils. Catalysed by lipases or chemical catalysts. Methylation Chemical modification involving at- Also used as a tool for the structural analysis of food tachment of methyl (CH3-) groups to molecules, usu- compounds, such as pectins, monosaccharides ally replacing H atoms. Excessive methylation (hy- and hydrocolloids. permethylation) of DNA is thought to play a role in carcinogenesis. May be triggered or prevented by Methidathion Non-systemic insecticide and acaricide components of the diet. Aberrant DNA methylation is used for control of a wide range of chewing and suck- associated with low dietary folates and high alcohol ing insects (especially scale insects) and spider intakes. Also used as a tool in the structural analysis of mites in a wide range of fruits, vegetables and ce- food compounds, such as proteins. reals. Classified by WHO as highly hazardous (WHO Ib). Also known as supracide. Methyl benzoate An ester with the molecular for- Methional Aldehyde with a boiled-potato like aroma. mula C8H8O2. One of the aroma compounds pre- Important aroma compounds in wines; also identi- sent in fruits such as mangoes, guavas, kiwifruit fied in many other foods, including sea foods, cof- and grapes), and in the aroma of wines. fee, beer and yeast extracts. Synonymous with 3- Methyl bromide Colourless, poisonous gas, synonym (methylthio)propionaldehyde. bromomethane. Employed in the fumigation of Methionine One of the essential dietary amino ac- fruits and vegetables to control pests. Use is now ids, this thiol-containing amino acid is a common pro- curtailed in many countries under the Montreal Proto- tein constituent in foods. Also a precursor of several col on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, and it organic sulfur compounds which are important in is largely being replaced with other fumigants. food flavour. 3-Methylbutanal Chemical name for isovaleralde- Methionol A thiol alcohol, synonym 3-(methylthio)-1- hyde. May be one of the flavour compounds or propanol. One of the important sulfur flavour com- cause taints in various foods, beverages and water. pounds found in wines and fermented soy prod- Methyl butanol One of the aliphatic alcohols, with a ucts. characteristic odour and pungent taste. Synonyms in- Methomyl Systemic N-methylcarbamate insecticide clude isoamyl alcohol, isopentanol and isopentyl and acaricide used to control a wide range of insects alcohol. Used as an esterification substrate for pro- and spider mites on fruits and vegetables. Also duction of isoamyl esters. Also identified as one of the used for control of flies in animal houses and dairies. aroma compounds present in wines, cider and Classified by WHO as extremely hazardous (WHO Ib). beer as a result of yeast fermentation. Also known as lannate. Methyl carbamate Carcinogen that may occur, along Methoprene Hormonal insecticide (pheromone ana- with ethyl carbamate, in some fermented foods logue) with insect growth regulating activity. Used for and alcoholic beverages. control of a range of insects in food storage areas N-Methylcarbamate insecticides Class of insec- and processing and handling establishments. Also ticides sharing carbamic acid as a common base used in cultivation of mushrooms. Classified by structure. Widely used for control of insect pests on WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in normal crops and in food storage and preparation areas. use. Generally biodegradable and of low soil persistence. 275 N-Methylcarbamate pesticides Methyl sulfide Commonly used examples include aldicarb, car- Methylmercury Organomercury compound produced baryl, methomyl and propoxur. as a result of industrial activity and present environ- N-Methylcarbamate pesticides Major class of mentally as a pollutant of soils and water, and hence pesticides which includes N-methylcarbamate plants and animals. Often measured as an indicator of insecticides. Members share carbamic acid as a mercury contamination of foods, especially sea common base structure. foods and water. Methylcellulose Methyl ester of cellulose. Prepared S-Methylmethionine Synonym for vitamin U. A by alkali treatment of celluloses followed by me- compound found in raw cabbages, other green thylation of the alkali cellulose with chloromethane. vegetables, beer and citrus juices. A precursor of Due to its ability to absorb water and form viscous col- the off flavour compound dimethyl sulfide. Used loidal aqueous solutions, methylcellulose can be used in treatment of ulcers. as a substitute for gums. Also used in thickeners, Methylobacillus Genus of obligately methanol- stabilizers, emulsifiers, bulking agents and assimilating, rod shaped Gram negative bacteria of binders for foods including bakery products, the family Methylophilaceae. Of particular interest as desserts, sauces and dressings. Suitable as a sources of biomass and exopolysaccharides. substitute for gluten in gluten free foods. Methylococcus Genus of aerobic, coccoid Gram 1-Methylcyclopropene Volatile unsaturated cyclic negative bacteria of the family Methylococcaceae. hydrocarbon which acts as an inhibitor of ethylene Occur in mud, soil and water. Capable of oxidizing activity by binding to ethylene receptors. Inhibits post- methane, and able to grow on sugars and sulfur. Me- harvest ripening and softening in fruits and vege- thylococcus capsulatus is a methylotrophic Gram tables, thus extending shelf life. negative bacterium used in the production of single Methylglyoxal Aldehyde present in many foods, but cell proteins. most commonly determined along with other dicar- Methylomonas Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram bonyl compounds as a natural component in beer and negative bacteria of the family Methylococcaceae. wines, and as an ozonation by-product in water pu- Obligately methylotrophic (able to metabolize single- rification. Synonyms include pyruvic aldehyde and carbon compounds as the sole source of both carbon pyruvaldehyde. Can be formed as one of the Mail- and energy). Some species, e.g. Methylomonas lard reaction products in nonenzymic brown- methanica, are used in the production of single cell ing, but is toxic at high levels. proteins. Carotenoids have also been produced by Methylhistidine Histidine derivative which is fre- genetically engineered Methylomonas strains. quently determined in meat and meat products to Methylparaben Common name for 4-hydroxybenzoic indicate levels of connective tissues or breakdown acid methyl esters used as preservatives for foods of myofibrillar proteins. and beverages. Methyl iodide Organic halogen compound, synonym Methylparathion Alternative term for the insecticide iodomethane. Used in some disinfectants and in parathion-methyl. fumigation of fruits. Also used in several analytical Methylpentoses General term for sugars containing techniques, including methylation treatments. six carbon atoms but only five hydroxyl groups. Ex- 2-Methylisoborneol Member of the terpenoids amples include rhamnose and fucose. group, formed by soil microorganisms. Along with geosmin, causes mouldy, musty taints in a variety 2-Methylpropanal One of the volatile compounds of foods and beverages, but especially in drinking present in foods, beverages and spices which imparts water and freshwater fish. a sharp, pungent aroma and is used in flavourings. Has a molecular formula of C H O, and is a member of Methyl jasmonate One of the group of plant 4 8 the aldehydes. Synonyms include isobutanal and growth regulators which control growth and devel- isobutyraldehyde. opment. Particularly involved in plant defence responses. Can be applied exogenously to control fruit Methyl propanol One of the aliphatic alcohols, with development and abscission. a mild alcoholic, sweet odour. Synonyms include isobutyl alcohol and isobutanol. Several isomers ex- Methyl linoleate Methyl ester of linoleic acid. Used ist, including 2-methyl-1-propanol and 2-methyl-2- widely as a substrate in studies of lipid oxidation and propanol. One of the aroma compounds produced antioxidative activity. during fermentation of alcoholic beverages, in- Methyl mercaptan Smallest of the thiols, synonym cluding wines, beer and cider. methanethiol. One of the volatile aroma com- Methyl sulfide Colourless liquid, synonym dimethyl pounds found in cheese and other foods. sulfide, commonly used as a solvent. Also occurs 276 Methylthiophanate Microbacterium naturally in foods and beverages, generally as an off shoots of the plants (palm hearts) are consumed as odour resulting from bacterial metabolism of sulfur- vegetables. containing amino acids. Metschnikowa Genus of fungi of the Metschniko- Methylthiophanate Alternative term for the fungi- wiaceae family. Often isolated from the flowers of cide thiophanate-methyl. plants, and from grapes, grape musts and wines. Methyltransferases EC 2.1.1.-. Family of trans- Some species are effective biocontrol agents for stor- ferases which catalyse transfer of methyl groups age rot fungi of fruits. from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. In- Mettwurst Fermented sausages made from clude those involved in DNA methylation, and O- minced, cured pork and beef; they are a type of Ger- methyltransferases involved in formation of plant and man-style salami. They are seasoned using ingredi- fungal secondary metabolites, including caffeine, ents such as allspice, coriander, ginger and mus- flavour compounds, e.g. vanillin, and aroma tard. Mettwurst are smoked and air dried. There are compounds. two major types, fresh (raw) and cooked. They are Methylxanthines Group of alkaloids including made using starter cultures. Recipes vary widely, and caffeine, theobromine and theophylline, which accordingly the characteristics of mettwurst are very are commonly found in tea, coffee, cola bever- diverse. For example, consistency ranges from very ages, cocoa and chocolate. finely minced to coarsely chopped, and from spreadable to elastic and sliceable. Metmyoglobin A brown pigment, formed by oxidation of myoglobin, in which water is bound to the Mevalonic acid One of the organic acids, synonym ligand, and the haem group of myoglobin is in the fer- 3,5-dihydroxy-3-methyl-valeric acid. Important inter- ric (Fe3+) state. In meat, metmyoglobin produces a mediate in the synthesis of isoprenoids. brown/grey coloration, which is unattractive to con- Mezcal Spirits made in Mexico by distillation of the sumers; thus, metmyoglobin formation is a major prob- fermented sap of the agave plant. lem in maintaining a stable display of retail meat. Sev- Mg Chemical symbol for magnesium.

eral approaches may be taken to delay the formation of MgCl2 One of the chlorides used in foods and food metmyoglobin in meat, including: production of meat processing. Deliquescent white crystals, soluble in from animals fed on antioxidant supplemented feeds; water and alcohol. Used in the coagulation of soy- use of modified atmosphere packaging for meat; milk during the preparation of tofu. and treatment of the meat surface with antioxidants, Micellar electrokinetic chromatography Capil- such as vitamin C. lary electrophoresis technique in which neutral Metolachlor Selective chloroacetanilide herbicide compounds are separated using surfactant micelles. used for pre-emergent control of annual grasses and Usually abbreviated to MEKC. some broad-leaved weeds around cereals and vegeta- Microalgae Microscopic algae. Particularly unicellu- ble crops. Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous lar algae such as Chlamydomonas and Chlorella. (WHO III). Microarrays Devices used in analytical tech- Metribuzin Selective, systemic triazinone herbicide niques which comprise a solid support, commonly of used for pre- and post-emergent control of many glass, silicon or plastics, on which multiple micro- grasses and broad-leaved weeds around crops, nota- scopic spots of a chemical or biological probe, e.g. an- bly potatoes and legumes. Classified by WHO as tibodies, nucleic acids, receptors or proteins, are moderately hazardous (WHO II). Also known as sen- immobilized. Sample is introduced to the microarray cor. and target analytes in the sample selectively bind to the Metronidazole One of the nitroimidazole antibiotics probes. Binding of target to probe is then detected. As- used to treat a variety of human infections caused by says using a microarray format are characterized by a pathogens, particularly anaerobes and protozoa. high sample throughput, generally automated. Known Included in therapy for Helicobacter pylori infec- as DNA microarrays when the probe comprises tion (which causes inflammation and ulcers in the DNA. upper gastrointestinal tract), amoebic dysentery Microbacterium Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram and various anaerobic bacterial infections. Classified positive bacteria of the family Microbacteriaceae. as a prodrug. Not approved by the FAO for use in Occur in soil. Some species occur in dairy products food-producing animals. (e.g. spray dried milk, cheese) due to improper Metroxylon Genus of palms, the trunks of which are cleaning of dairy equipment and cause spoilage. a source of sago. Main species is Metroxylon sagu, Other species may cause spoilage of vacuum-packaged but M. rumphii is also a sago producer. Young apical meat and meat products. Xylan degrading en- 277 Microbial biomass Microfluidization zymes and chitosanases are produced by certain fiers, bulking agents, anticaking agents, foam- species. Others are found on the surface of smear ing agents and fat substitutes in foods such as cheese (Microbacterium gubbeenense). salad dressings, dairy products, cereal prod- Microbial biomass Quantitative estimate of the en- ucts, dried foods and bakery products. Also tire assemblage of microorganisms in a given habi- known as cellulose gel. tat in terms of mass, volume or energy. Microcystins Hepatotoxins produced by some Microbial counts Numbers of microorganisms in strains of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aerugi- a given sample. nosa. Exert hepatotoxic effects in humans and animals Microbial proteins Proteins produced by micro- upon ingestion of contaminated water. organisms. Microcystis Genus of Gram negative, photosynthetic Microbial rennets Enzymes sourced from micro- cyanobacteria that occur in aquatic environments. organisms, commonly fungi, that are used as substi- Species are planktonic in fresh water, and often form tutes for animal rennets in coagulation of milk blooms in water (e.g. reservoirs). Mycrocystis aerogi- for cheesemaking. nosa produces microcystins which are hepatotoxic in humans and animals upon ingestion of contaminated Microbial spoilage Spoilage caused by the activity water. of microorganisms. Microbial spores Spores of bacteria or fungi. Microemulsions Emulsions having a droplet diameter that is too small to be seen by the naked eye, Microbicidal compounds Compounds used for typically 10-100 nm. Applications include edible killing microorganisms. films, coatings and delivery systems for nutrients Microbiological quality Extent to which a substance and flavourings. (e.g. a food) is contaminated with microorganisms. Microencapsulation Encapsulation process in Microbiological techniques Techniques used in which thin films or polymer coatings are applied to microbiology, including those used to detect or small solid particles, droplets of liquids or gases. quantitate microorganisms in substances such as Can be used to encapsulate enzymes, microorgan- foods and beverages. isms, flavour compounds, sweeteners and other Microbiology Scientific study of microorganisms food ingredients. Useful for controlled flavour release and their interactions with other organisms and the en- and enhancing the stability of sensitive ingredients. vironment. Methods for microencapsulation include spray dry- Microbreweries Small breweries making speciality ing, spray chilling and spray cooling, extrusion, air beer in small quantities (generally under 15,000 bar- suspension coating, liposome entrapment, co- rels annually). Frequently, the products are sold on the crystallization, molecular inclusion and interfacial po- premises. lymerization. Microchip technology Technology that uses elec- Microfiltration A method of sterile filtration that tronic equipment consisting of small pieces of semi- removes particles of approximately 0.1-10.0 ȝm in conductor, usually made of silicon, that can carry size, such as large fat globules, large proteins and electronic circuits. suspended particles such as microbial cells. Microfil- Micrococcaceae Family of aerobic or facultatively tration is generally used in the clarification and sepa- anaerobic, coccoid Gram positive bacteria of the ration of beer, wines and soft drinks, and in the suborder Micrococcineae and order Actinomycetales. dairy industry for processing of low heat sterile Range from free living and saprophytic to parasitic and milk. pathogenic forms. Includes the genera Arthrobacter, Microflora In a microbiological context, refers to all Kocuria and Micrococcus. the microorganisms present in a particular habitat. Micrococcus Genus of obligately aerobic, coccoid May refer to all the microscopic plants, bacteria, Gram positive bacteria of the family Micrococ- fungi and algae present in a particular habitat in a caceae. Occur in soil, water, raw milk, dairy broader biological context. Also, can be used to de- products and beer, and on mammalian skin. Micro- scribe the plants, bacteria, fungi and algae that are pre- coccus varians is used as a starter in the ripening of sent in a particular microhabitat. dry fermented sausages. Other species may cause Microfluidization High pressure homogenization spoilage of meat and eggs. technique for the deagglomeration and dispersion of Microcrystalline celluloses Highly crystalline par- uniform submicron particles and creation of stable ticulate material produced by acid hydrolysis of cel- emulsions and dispersions. Microfluidizers gener- luloses. Used as stabilizers, thickeners, emulsi- ate product streams under pressure, and cause them 278 Micrometers Microwave susceptors to collide at high velocity so that they are subjected to ited by problems such as lack of browning in foods combined forces of shear and impact. cooked in microwave ovens, and arcing during micro- Micrometers Instruments used in conjunction with wave cooking of foods packaged in foils. However microscopes or telescopes for measuring small dis- considerable advances have been made in development tances. of microwave susceptors and other devices for Micromonospora Genus of aerobic, filamentous promoting browning and crisping during microwave Gram positive bacteria of the family Micromono- heating and cooking. sporaceae. Occur in soil, decaying vegetation and wa- Microwaveable packaging Packs or wrappings ter. Some species, e.g. Micromonospora chalcea and that may remain on foods during microwave cook- M. cellulolyticum, produce cellulases and ȕ- ing or reheating without causing damage to micro- glucosidases. Various species are sources of ami- wave ovens or causing contamination of the noglycoside antibiotics. products with undesirable components. Micronization Indirect infrared (IR) heating Microwave cooking A method for cooking foods method that relies on heat that is generated externally using microwave ovens. Microwaves are passed being applied to the surface of a food mostly by radia- through the foods at a frequency of 2.45 GHz and en- tion, but also by convection, and, to a lesser extent, ergy from them is absorbed by molecules of water, conduction. IR heating is mostly used to alter eating fats and sugars, which vibrate and collide, generat- quality of foods by changing the surface colour, fla- ing heat. The microwaves only penetrate a few centi- vour and aroma. The main commercial application of metres into the food, so the centre of many products radiant energy is in drying of low moisture foods and cooks by heat conduction. Microwave cooking does in baking and roasting ovens. not cause browning as the temperature range does not Microorganisms Microscopic organisms which in- support the Maillard reaction. clude algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, archaea Microwave ovens Ovens, ranging in power from and viruses. approximately 500 to 1000 W, that use microwaves to cook, heat or defrost foods. The high-frequency Microsatellite markers Highly polymorphic DNA markers comprising mono-, di-, tri- or tetra-nucleotides electromagnetic waves cause the food molecules to vi- friction repeated in tandem arrays and distributed throughout brate, so creating that heats the food. Micro- waves penetrate only a few centimeters into the food, genomes. Used as genetic markers in genetic mapping studies. so the centre of most products is cooked by heat conduction. Non-metal containers (such as glass and Microsatellites Repetitive stretches of short se- ceramics) need to be used, as microwaves can pass quences of DNA distributed throughout genomes. through them (unlike metal) and cook the food from all Microscopes Apparatus used to make a magnified angles at once. As the microwaves pass through the image of a small sample. Include light microscopes containers, they are able to stay relatively cool them- and more complex instruments such as electron micro- selves while the food becomes hot. However, during scopes that measure transmission, reflection or emis- longer cooking periods, the containers can become hot sion of electrons from the sample. due to heat conduction from the food. To assist in ad- Microscopy Analysis of samples using microscopes ministration of an even distribution of microwaves, which produce magnified images. Includes basic light some ovens have turntables while others have revolv- microscopy and more complex techniques such as ing antennae. As browning does not occur in the electron microscopy. normal manner when foods are cooked in microwave Microstructure Structure of organic materials or ob- ovens, microwave susceptors are often used to jects that can be observed using microscopy. promote browning. Microwaveable containers Containers that may be Microwave popcorn Popcorn made with popping used safely for microwave cooking or reheating of corn which has been specially formulated for prepara- foods. Must be made of materials that will not cause tion in microwave ovens. damage to microwave ovens during operation or Microwaves Electromagnetic waves with a wave- allow migration of undesirable components into the length in the range 0.001 to 0.3 m, shorter than that of foods being heated. normal radio waves, but longer than those of infrared Microwaveable foods Foods suitable for heating in radiation. Microwaves are used in microwave ov- microwave ovens. Ready meals that can be rap- ens for cooking, heating and defrosting of foods. idly reheated in this manner and microwave pop- Microwave susceptors Devices used in the form of corn are some of the most popular types of micro- active packaging that cause browning and crisping waveable products. Further applications have been lim- of foods that are prepared in microwave ovens. A 279 Migraine Milkfish microwave active metal is lightly deposited on a ther- Milk chocolate Type of chocolate made by incorpo- mally stable substrate (such as PET) and this sheet is rating milk powders with sugar, chocolate liquor laminated onto a back stock that provides rigidity. and cocoa butter. More widely eaten than dark Once placed in the microwave, these packages will chocolate and white chocolate. Compared with reach temperatures in excess of 170°C almost instanta- dark chocolate, milk chocolate has a creamier texture neously. The high temperatures allow the food to cook and taste, and tends to be softer. quickly, and promote the Maillard reaction, thus en- Milk clotting Process in which milk is separated into hancing browning characteristics. curd and whey by the action of milk clotting en- Migraine Condition characterized by severe, usually zymes, e.g. rennets, lactic acid produced by bac- unilateral, vascular headache. Sometimes combined teria, or a combination of both. Used in cheesemak- with any of a range of other symptoms such as nausea, ing. During clotting (or coagulation), ț-casein, vomiting and heightened sensitivity to light or sound. which resides on the surface of casein micelles and In some cases, attacks are triggered by ingestion of confers stability, is removed by the action of the en- specific foods, food additives or beverages. Com- zymes, causing the destabilized casein to precipitate; monly suspected dietary triggers include alcoholic acid acts by destroying linkages between components beverages, beverages containing caffeine, cheese, of the micelle. Curd produced by using enzymes gen- some beans, cured meat and chocolate based erally has a higher calcium content than that formed products. by acids. Milk clotting enzymes Enzymes used in the clot- Migration Movement of undesirable compounds (e.g. ting or coagulation of milk during cheesemak- plasticizers from packaging materials) into ing. Most commonly, rennets extracted from the foods. stomach of young ruminants have been used tradition- Military rations Foods for those serving in the armed ally in this process, but other sources of enzyme have forces. Various categories are available for use in dif- been developed in the light of shortages of animal ferent situations. The foods are packaged so that they rennets and the increasing popularity of vegetarian are compact and light with a long shelf life (at least 6 products. Alternatives include microbial rennets, months at 38qC, 3 years or more at 27qC). Canned produced by a range of microorganisms, and en- foods and dried foods are common. All rations, zymes produced by plants, e.g. cardoons. with the exception of restricted rations, which are in- Milk fat globule membranes Membranes surround- tended only for short term use, must meet military ing milk fat globules, comprising approximately RDA for nutrients. 60% lipid and 40% protein. Enzymes and trace Milk Secretion of the mammary gland of mammals. elements are associated with these membranes. Composition varies among species, and is affected by When broken down, e.g. during churning of cream many factors, including feeds and season. When used in buttermaking, fat globules are released and may without further clarification, the term milk is generally coalesce. accepted to mean cow milk. Cow milk is sold in vari- Milk fat globules Emulsified form in which milk ous forms that differ in fat content (whole milk, semi fats exist in milk. Surrounded by milk fat globule skimmed milk and skim milk). Whole milk con- membranes. Fat globules have a diameter of 2-6 ȝm tains approximately 87% water, 4% fat, 3% protein and a large surface area. and 5% lactose. It is rich in calcium (approximately Milk fats Lipids present in milk mainly in the form of 1.2 g/l), riboflavin (2 mg/l), vitamin B12 and io- emulsified milk fat globules. Mainly triglycerides, dine. A good source of vitamin A and vitamin B1. with small amounts of monoglycerides, diglyc- Also contains folates and other vitamins and min- erides, cerebrosides and free fatty acids. Milk erals. Due to risk of contamination with patho- fat globule membranes also contain phospholip- gens and spoilage organisms, milk for drinking is ids and sterols. Fat content of milk varies greatly generally sold pasteurized, sterilized or UHT (ultra among species and among animal breeds. Fatty acid high temperature) treated, although raw milk is some- composition of milk fats is governed by many factors, times used to make dairy products such as cheese. including feed, lactation stage and fat content of milk. Milk beverages Drinks in which milk is a major Cow milk fat contains a great number of fatty acids, constituent. Include milkshakes, flavoured milk, principal ones including palmitic acid, oleic acid, carbonated milk beverages, milk mixed with fruit or myristic acid, stearic acid, linolenic acid and vegetable juices or pulps, and products enriched with linoleic acid. specific nutrients, e.g. fibre or calcium. Alternative Milkfish Marine fish species (Chanos chanos) widely term for milk drinks. distributed in the Indo-Pacific; a commercially impor- 280 Milk ice Miltone tant food fish in south east Asian countries. Flesh is Milk puddings Puddings made by baking milk with white and tender. Marketed fresh or frozen; often used a grain, such as rice, semolina or tapioca, sugar to make fish cakes and surimi. and sometimes flavourings. Milk ice Product similar to ice cream but generally Milkshakes Beverages made by addition of fla- containing less milk fat. vourings, often fruits-based, to milk and agitation Milk infant formulas Preparations for feeding to by beating or shaking, sometimes with the addition of infants and young children intended to satisfy their ice cream. specific nutritional requirements. Made from cow Milk substitutes Multipurpose term covering re- milk with the nutrient composition adjusted to mirror placements for mothers' milk, e.g. human milk, used that of human milk. Composition is varied according in infant feeding (infant formulas) or young animal to the age of the infant to be fed. feeding, as well as products prepared for use by indi- Milking Drawing of milk from the udders of female viduals unable to tolerate milk or not wishing to con- mammals. Extraction is performed manually or, where sume it for other reasons, e.g. vegans. Depending on large numbers of animals are to be milked, using the intended consumers, the latter category may or may equipment specifically designed for the purpose (milk- not contain dairy components, e.g. whey. Non dairy ing machines). foods used as the basis of milk substitutes include soybeans and oats. Milking frequency Number of times an animal is Millet Small seeds from any of a number of cereal milked during a given period. Dairy cattle are gener- grasses, including common millet (Panicum mili- ally milked twice daily. Alteration of milking fre- aceum), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), foxtail quency can have effects on milk composition and millet (Setaria italica), pearl millet (Pennisetum ty- quality. phoideum) and teff (Eragrostis tef). Good sources of Milking interval Time elapsing between consecutive many minerals and with good storage properties. milkings. Affects milk composition and quality. Forms the staple diet of much of the world population, Milking machines Devices used to extract milk from especially in Asia and Africa. Consumed like rice or the udders of female mammals. Modern machines op- made into various products such as porridge, gruel erate by suction, utilizing a partial vacuum and a pul- and bread. sating action to simulate hand milking. Millet flour Flour produced by grinding of millet Milk powders Products prepared by drying whole after hulling. These cereal flours are used most milk to a low moisture content, giving a powder commonly in Africa and Asia, being a major ingredient with a long shelf life. Also called dried milk. of porridges and bread. Milk products Alternative term for dairy products. Millet oils Vegetable oils extracted from millet grains. Milk protein concentrates Preparations made by concentration of milk, usually skim milk, by ul- Millet starch Starch isolated from millet. trafiltration, during which milk proteins are sepa- Milling Grinding in mills. For example, grinding of rated from other milk constituents, followed by dry- grain to produce flour. ing. Milk protein content varies according to manufac- Milling properties Ability of solid materials, such as turing procedures. Products with high protein contents grain, to be ground into powders. often have low lactose contents and are suitable for Mills Machinery for grinding solid substances, or use in low carbohydrate foods. Additionally used in a buildings equipped with such machinery. Include similar way to skim milk powders in foods such as equipment used for grinding grain into flour. processed cheese, infant formulas, beverages, fermented dairy products and diet products. Milo Drought resistant grain sorghum, especially Sorghum bicolor, which is similar to millet and is Milk proteins Proteins found in milk, comprising grown in Africa, Asia and the USA. casein (approximately 80% of total protein) and the whey proteins, including Į-lactalbumin, ȕ- Milt Gonads from male fish, particularly herring and lactoglobulin, serum albumin and immunoglobu- mackerel. Often called soft roe. Marketed as fresh or lins. Used as ingredients in various foods, including canned products. bakery products, coffee whiteners, nutritional Miltone Vegetable-toned milk product developed in beverages and imitation cheese, to modify func- India to overcome problems of milk shortages. Pre- tional properties and sensory properties. In pared using a protein isolate from peanuts which is some food allergies, cow milk proteins act as aller- added to cow milk or buffalo milk along with gens. sugar and vitamins. Suitable for drinking on its 281 Minas cheese Miso own, in tea or coffee, or for processing into yo- ing and dicing. Because a number of minimal proc- ghurt. essing technologies result in wounding of plant tissues Minas cheese Brazilian cheese made from cow milk and subsequent acceleration of deteriorative processes, that is available in fresh (Frescal), semi-mature (Meia- controlled environmental conditions are critical re- Cura) and mature (Curado) varieties. These range in quirements in the transportation, distribution, stor- colour from white to yellow-white and in flavour age and retail display of these products. Modified from mild to strong and slightly bitter. Minas cheese atmosphere packaging has become an integral part becomes more suitable for cooking as it matures. of minimal processing. Minas Frescal cheese Brazilian fresh cheese Mint Plants of the genus Mentha, leaves of which are made from cow milk. White with a mild flavour. used as spices. Mint leaves are often added directly Usually eaten within 4-10 days of production. to foods and beverages or during cooking of dishes Minced beef Alternative term for beef mince. and impart a cool, fresh flavour. The predominant Minced meat Alternative term for meat mince. flavour compound of mint is menthol. Species with Mincers Devices used to cut up or shred foods, par- food industry applications include peppermint (M. ticularly meat, into very small pieces. piperita), spearmint (M. spicata) and Japanese mint (M. arvensis). Mincing Shredding or cutting up of food, particularly meat, into very small pieces, usually using de- Mint oils Essential oils distilled from mint. The vices called mincers. characteristic fresh, cool flavour and aroma of mint Mineral oils Oils derived from hydrocarbon sources, oils is due to the presence of the terpenoid, menthol. some of which may be of food grade and may be used Mint oils are used as flavourings for sugar confec- as food additives. Other mineral oils are not of food tionery, such as mints and chewing gums, and in grade and may act as food contaminants. beverages, e.g. cordials. Minerals Solid inorganic elements, including metals Mints Sweets or lozenges which may be hard, soft and non-metals. Also compounds occurring naturally or covered in chocolate and are flavoured with either in the earth's crust. Minerals are not normally volatil- peppermint or spearmint. ized when their organic matrix is ashed to remove car- Miraculin Flavourless glycoproteins extracted from bonaceous materials. Many minerals are essential nu- berries of the African miracle fruit plant (Richardella trients in that they are necessary in the diet of hu- dulcifica), which act as flavour modifiers. After ex- mans or animals to allow completion of the life cycle. posure to miraculin, the human tongue perceives sour Mineral waters Natural spring waters or similar foods and drinks subsequently ingested to be sweeter waters, which are produced and bottled under condi- than they actually are. The effect lasts for up to an tions specified under national regulations. In the UK, hour. Miraculin loses its flavour modifying properties mineral waters may also be used as a general term for when heated to temperatures above 100qC. carbonated soft drinks. Minimally processed foods Foods that are proc- Mirex Systemic organochlorine insecticide used for essed using technologies that do not significantly alter control of ants and chewing insects in some crops. their fresh-like attributes, but achieve reliable preserva- Subject to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Or- tion and control over enzyme activity and microbial ganic Pollutants and use for pest control purposes has growth. Most commonly applied to fruits and vege- been banned in most parts of the world, although high tables. Examples of such processing for fruits and persistence means residues may still occur in the en- vegetables include washing, sorting, cutting, trim- vironment and in animals. ming, slicing and dicing. Other methods of minimal Mirin Condiments prepared by fermentation of processing include various high temperature short time steamed rice, koji and ethanol by Aspergillus spp. (HTST) thermal processes in combination with Used predominantly in Japanese cuisine. minimal processes such as hermetic packaging and refrigeration. In order for minimally processed foods Mirliton Alternative term for chayote. to have a reasonable shelf life, modified atmos- Miso Pastes made by fermenting usually cooked phere packaging has become an integral part of soybeans, but sometimes barley or rice, and salt. many minimal processing procedures. Aged in cedar vats for 1-3 years. Ingredients and Minimal processing Limited processing of products length of ageing are varied to produce products differ- to a level where they maintain the characteristics of ing in sensory properties. Used as the base for fresh foods. Examples include industrial processes manufacture of soups and sauces, and for flavour- such as washing, sorting, cutting, trimming, slicing other foods. 282 Mites Modori Mites Common name for most members of the arthro- makers, sausage stuffers and meat grinders. Portable pod order Acarina. Includes many species that are mixers are small in size, due in part to their small mo- parasites of animals or plants. tors, but are consequently easy to store. The term mix- Mitochondria Organelle of eukaryotic cells involved ers is also applied to beverages, such as soda wa- with energy production via aerobic respiration. Py- ter, tonic waters, cola beverages, lemonade or ruvic acid formed via glycolysis in the cytoplasm is fruit juices that can be combined with spirits to transported into mitochondria where it acts as a sub- make beverages such as cocktails. strate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle to generate NADH Mixes Blends of ingredients in dried form that can be and FADH2 which undergo oxidative phosphoryla- reconsitituted in a liquid, sometimes with the addition tion, the final pathway in the catabolism of nutrients of other ingredients, to make the desired product. The to generate energy, in the form of ATP. These organ- reconstituted mixture may require cooking or be elles are approximately 1 ȝm in size, their contents be- ready to eat. Products available in this form include ing enclosed in a double membrane, an outer smooth cakes, soups and desserts. membrane and an inner highly convoluted membrane. Mixing Combining food ingredients together by hand Contain mitochondrial DNA and are sites of protein or using electric machines (mixers). synthesis. Mixographs Instruments used to investigate the Mitochondrial DNA DNA present in mitochondria. physical properties of dough. Inherited solely from the mother, mitochondrial ge- Model foods nomes comprise a double strand of circular DNA, the Substances or systems that are formu- number of copies of which varies depending on the or- lated to have properties that mimic those of certain ganism. In humans, the mitochondrial genome is ap- foods and so can be used to represent them in studies proximately 16.5 kbp in size and mitochondrial DNA where sample uniformity is required. May also refer to comprises approximately 1% of total cellular DNA. specific foods that are representative of a broader cate- The 13 protein-encoding genes of the human mito- gory of foods and can therefore be used as a model of chondrial genome encode polypeptides involved in that category. oxidative phosphorylation, while other genes code Modification Alteration of chemical structures, infor RNA involved in mitochondrial protein synthesis. cluding food components. Includes modification of Can be used in PCR and restriction fragment starch and proteins to improve their functional length polymorphism (RFLP) analyses for assess- properties or biological activity. Examples in- ing the authenticity of foods. clude hydroxylation, hydroxypropylation, gly- Mitosis A cell cycle process involving replication of cosylation and methylation. somatic eukaryotic cells. Prior to mitosis, chromo- Modified atmosphere packaging Packaging somes are replicated in the nucleus. During mitosis, technique used primarily to extend shelf life of foods. these replicates become segregated into the 2 develop- Gas composition within the package is changed by al- ing daughter cells, and this occurs in 5 stages: pro- tering levels of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon diox- phase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telo- ide. This inhibits microbial growth, controls enzymic phase. The final event, cleavage of the cytoplasm to and biochemical reactions, reduces moisture loss and form 2 physically separate daughter cells, known as protects against infestation with pests. Used for cytokinesis, follows mitosis. packaging a wide range of foods. Mixer pet foods Complementary products to be given Modified starches Starch that has been modified by in conjunction with other pet foods (e.g. canned chemical reaction or physical means in order to adapt it pet foods), but unable to provide an adequate diet on for a specific application or improve its general appli- their own. Available for dogs and cats. Include cability, i.e. to increase stability. Chemical modifica- dried pet foods. Dog biscuits can also be used as tions include cross-linking, acetylation, phos- mixers. May be added to a pet's diet to promote tartar phorylation, reaction with 1-octenylsuccinic anhy- removal from teeth. dride, hydroxypropylation and oxidation. Physical Mixers Electric machines or devices for combining modifications involve pregelatinzation of starch by food ingredients by beating, mixing or whipping. drying or heating. There are two basic types of mixer - stationary and Modori Formation of very brittle, heat-set gels on portable. Stationary mixers tend to be more powerful incubation of fish surimi pastes at 50-70qC. Gel struc- and can therefore handle heavier mixing jobs; they are ture is irreversibly destroyed and mechanical strength usually equipped with an assortment of attachments is reduced. Inhibited by addition of sugars, such as including dough hooks, wire whisks, paddle-style glucose, fructose and sucrose, dried egg beaters, and even citrus juicers, ice crushers, pasta whites, alcohols, such as n-butyl-, n-amyl- and n- 283 Moinmoin Moniliformin hexyl alcohols, and proteinases inhibitors. The Is found in vegetables, cereals, oilseeds, fish and phenomenon appears to be associated with endogenous water. serine proteinases and cysteine proteinases. Momoni Condiments prepared from fermented fish Moinmoin Steamed pastes usually prepared from which are used in parts of Africa, particularly Ghana. cowpeas and popular in Nigeria. Used as flavourings in soups and stews, and also as Moistness Degree to which substances, including a source of proteins. foods, are considered to be moist. May be an indicator Monascus Genus of fungi that produce the red, yel- of food quality. low and purple pigments, rubropunctatin and Moisture Water or other liquid within a solid, con- monascorubin, ankaflavin and monascin, and rubro- densed on the surface of an object or in the form of va- puntamine and monascorubramine, respectively. pour. Moisture content is an important property of Monascus pupureus ATCC 16365 is commonly used various foods, as an excess can promote decay, rot- for pigment production. Traditionally, in Asia, Monas- ting or bacterial spoilage and impact on food cus spp. are grown on steamed rice to produce red safety. coloured foods. Monascus colorants have not been Moisture content Level of moisture held in a sub- universally approved for use in foods. stance, stated as a percentage of the wet or dry weight. Monatin One of the high intensity natural sweeten- Moisture retention Extent to which substances, in- ers. An amino acid derivative ((2S,4S)-4-hydroxy-4- cluding foods, retain moisture, for example during (3-indolylmethyl)-glutamic acid) isolated from root processing and storage. May be used as an indica- bark of the African plant Schlerochiton ilicifolius, tor of food quality. which exhibits sweetness 1400 times greater than Moisture sorption Process whereby moisture binds that of sucrose. Unlike other sweeteners, it has lit- to another substance. tle aftertaste. Applications include chewing gums, Moisture transfer Movement of moisture in stored low calorie foods and beverages, and tabletop products as a result of moisture and temperature sweetener compositions. changes. Monellin Heterodimeric high intensity sweet pro- Molasses Low purity, thick, brown syrups produced teins isolated from berries of the African plant Dio- as a by-product of sugar refining, and including the scoreophyllum cumminsii. Consists of two covalently syrups remaining after sucrose crystallization has associated polypeptide chains (one of 44 amino acid been exhausted. Uses include as a feedstock for micro- residues, the other with 50 residues); the native con- bial fermentation. Molasses from cane sugar re- formation is essential for sweet taste. Conditions that fining are also known as blackstrap molasses. induce protein denaturation, e.g. high temperatures Molecular weight Sum of the atomic weights of the or exposure to strong acids or alkalies, decrease atoms in a molecule, usually measured in Daltons (ab- sweetness intensity. The protein is tasteless below breviation Da). pH 2 and above pH 9, and its thermal instability limits Molluscicides Pesticides used for control of terres- its food applications. Purified monellin is 1500-2000 trial and aquatic molluscs such as snails and mus- times as sweet as sucrose on a weight basis; syn- sels. Examples commonly used on crops include thetic monellin is 4000 times as sweet. metaldehyde and thiodicarb. Monensin Polyether antibiotic and coccidiostat used Molluscs A diverse group of invertebrate organisms to control coccidiosis in cattle, lambs and poultry. belonging to the phylum Mollusca; includes gastro- Also used to treat ketosis in dairy cows and in growth pods (e.g. snails), bivalves (e.g. oysters) and promoters for cattle. Residues in poultry meat and cephalopods (e.g. squid). The majority of molluscs eggs may persist for several weeks post-treatment, are of marine origin, but large numbers of species oc- but it is excreted more rapidly in cattle. cupy freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Many species of molluscs are collected or cultivated for human con- Monilia Former name for the genus Candida. sumption. Moniliformin Low molecular weight mycotoxins Mol. wt. Abbreviation for molecular weight. produced by several Fusarium spp., mainly F. prolif- Molybdenum One of the essential metal minerals, eratum and F. subglutinans, which are endemic in ce- chemical symbol Mo. Component of xanthine de- reals, particularly corn. Acutely toxic for various hydrogenases and sulfite oxidase in animals and animal species, including humans. Primarily acts as a also nitrogen-fixing enzymes in some microorgan- cardiotoxic mycotoxin, and also exerts its effect on isms and plants. Dietary requirements for molybde- smooth muscle. Processing steps in the production of num are very low and deficiency diseases are rare. corn products generally reduce moniliformin concen- 284 Monilinia Montasio cheese trations, and these low levels of exposure do not give Specific properties are determined by the nature of the particular cause for concern for human health. fatty acid present. Also called monoacylglycerols. Monilinia Genus of fungi of the family Schlerotini- Monolaurin Monoglycerides formed by esterifi- aceae. Monilinia fructicola, M. laxa and M. fructigena cation of glycerol with lauric acid (dodecanoic cause postharvest brown rot of stone fruits. acid). Monolaurin exhibits inhibitory activity against Monitor Alternative term for the insecticide several foodborne pathogenic bacteria, including methamidophos. Listeria monocytogenes, and is used in food preservatives. Other uses include as mild surfactants Monkfish Name applied to marine fish species of the and emulsifiers. Also called glycerol monolaurate. genera Lophius or Lophoides (angler fish) and Squatina (angelsharks). Widely distributed throughout Monooxygenases Members of EC 1.13 and EC 1.14. the world. Marketed fresh, frozen or dried-salted and Oxidoreductases that incorporate one oxygen atom cooked by a variety of methods. May also be used as a from O2 into the compound oxidized. source of fish oils and fish meal. Monophenol monooxygenases EC 1.14.18.1. Also known as tyrosinases, phenolases, mono- Monoacylglycerols Types of glycerides, synonym phenol oxidases and cresolases, these enzymes can monoglycerides. Composed of a glycerol molecule catalyse the reaction of catechol oxidases under in which one of the hydroxyl groups has been acylated certain conditions. Involved in enzymic browning with a fatty acid substituent. in fruits, vegetables and cereals, but are useful for Monoamine oxidases Alternative term for amine the oxidation of phenols during tea, coffee and oxidases. cocoa processing. Monochloramine Synonymous with chloramine. Monosaccharides General term for a single sugar Chemical formula Cl-NH2. By-product of drinking unit comprising five or six carbon atoms in a ring con- water chlorination and is formed when ammonia formation (furanose and pyranose, respectively). is added to chlorinated water. Can be added to pota- Monosodium glutamate Monohydrate sodium salt ble water distribution systems to maintain residual of L-glutamic acid used in flavour enhancers to disinfection activity, and is also used in washes dur- provide umami flavour. Most commercial producing cleaning of chicken carcasses to control mi- tion of this additive is from glutamate produced as a croorganisms. result of fermentation by bacteria, including Mi- Monoclonal antibodies Antibodies derived from a crococcus glutamicus. May cause adverse reactions single antibody-producing cell, or produced artificially including headache, nausea and chest pain in some in- by a single clone and consisting of identical antibody dividuals. Often abbreviated to MSG. molecules. Produced by fusing antibody-forming lym- Monoterpenes Monoterpenoids synthesized from phocytes from mouse spleen with mouse myeloma isoprene and containing two isoprene units. May be cells. The resulting hybrid cells multiply rapidly and acyclic, monocyclic or dicyclic. produce the same antibody as the parent lymphocytes. Monoterpenoids Class of terpenoids which in- Monoclonal antibodies are widely used to detect and cludes monoterpenes and their oxygenated and hy- measure the amounts of particular antigens, or enti- drogenated derivatives. Occur naturally in a wide ties that can act as antigens. range of plant foods and derived products, including Monocrotophos Systemic insecticide and acaricide wines, beer, fruit juices and other fruit products. used to control a wide range of pests, including suck- Many are aroma compounds and components of ing, chewing and boring insects and spider mites on essential oils and flavourings. citrus fruits, vegetables, cereals and sugar Monounsaturated fatty acids Unsaturated fatty cane. Classified by WHO as highly hazardous (Ib). acids containing a single double bond. Examples in- Also known as azodrin. clude oleic acid, palmitoleic acid and erucic Monoglycerides Lipids composed of glycerol acid, significant sources of which include olive oils, esterified to a single fatty acid, such as glycerol fish oils and rapeseed oils, respectively. monooleate and glycerol monostearate (glycerol Montasio cheese Italian hard cheese originally esterified with oleic acid and stearic acid, respec- made from ewe milk but now made from unpasteur- tively). These compounds are present in naturally oc- ized cow milk. Rich and creamy, with a fruity fla- curring fats and oils. Monoglycerides have many ap- vour. The yellow-brown rind is smooth and springy in plications in the food industry, including uses as young cheese but becomes darker and harder with age. emulsifiers, inhibitors of staling in bread dough Interior is firm with small holes, becoming granular or and cake mixes, encapsulators for flavourings, brittle in mature cheese. Ripens in 3-18 months. moisture barriers, and in manufacture of margarines. 285 Monterey Jack cheese Morwong Monterey Jack cheese A semi-hard cheese from terobacteriaceae. Morganella morganii is found in the US that is made from cow milk. The consis- the faeces of humans, dogs, other mammals and rep- tency varies with age; ageing for 1 month produces tiles. Certain species, especially M. morganii, can pro- soft varieties, whilst ageing for 6 months or more produce histamine in scombroid fish and fish prod- duces harder varieties that are suitable for grating. ucts, which can cause scombroid poisoning in This cheese melts easily, has a creamy texture and is humans when consumed. buttery in flavour. Morin Flavonol, with a structure similar to that of Monterey sardine Marine fish species (Sardinops quercetin, which is a natural component of many sagax caeruleus) of high commercial importance be- plants and wines. Possesses antioxidative activity longing to the family Clupeidae. Found in the Pacific in lipids, antimicrobial activity and nitrite scav- Ocean, off the coast of California. Other subspecies of enging activity, but can act as a prooxidant for non- S. sagax (common name South American pilchards) lipid food constituents. Potentially useful as an anti- are found in various areas of the Indo-Pacific region. oxidant in oils. Marketed fresh, frozen or canned and cooked mainly Moringa Genus of plants native to tropical Asia. by frying or broiling. Also used to make fish meal. Seeds of some species, especially Moringa oleifera, Mood Pattern of behaviour exhibited in relation to a yield high quality oils used as cooking oils as well current state of mind. Usually a relatively short-lived as lubricants. Other plant parts are also used as foods, and low-intensity emotional state. Can be affected by fruits and leaves as vegetables and roots as a diet, and can affect consumer response to foods as source of spices. well as eating habits. Morning goods Bakery products that are usually, Mook Traditional Korean food made from mung but not always, eaten at breakfast (e.g. croissants, beans, cowpeas, buckwheat or acorns, which brioches). takes the form of a starch gel. Moose Large ruminant animals (Alces american) be- Moroccan smen Alternative term for smen. longing to the Cervidae family, which are hunted for Moromi Fermenting mash mixture of rice, koji, their meat. Moose often feed in marginal wasteland yeasts and water that is pressed to separate sake environments, which may be contaminated with pol- from suspended solids during sake brewing. Moromi lutants (e.g. heavy metals), so high levels of con- is also the mash based on koji (derived from soy- taminants may occur in moose carcasses, moose beans or cereals), with the addition of brines, which meat and moose offal. is fermented to make soy sauces. Moose meat Meat from moose. Popular in the Mortadella Large, fully cooked, semi-dry sausages, USA, a commonly consumed game meat in Sweden originally made in the Bologna area of Italy. Morta- and also a traditional food for some ethnic groups, della is prepared from very finely chopped, cured pork such as the James Bay Cree Indians in Canada. Since and beef, with the addition of cubes of white fat; it is moose often feed in marginal wasteland environments, lightly spiced with aniseed and garlic, and smoked which may be contaminated with pollutants (e.g. at high temperature before air drying. Other versions heavy metals), high levels of contaminants may oc- include German-style mortadella, which is prepared cur in moose carcasses, meat and offal. Moose meat from high quality, finely minced meat with cubes of is sometimes referred to as venison. pork fat and pistachio nuts. Mortadella has one of Moraxella Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram nega- the highest fat contents of all cooked sausages. Usu- tive bacteria of the family Moraxellaceae. Occur in ally, it is sliced and served, but it may be added to soil and water, and on plants and animal hides. Re- pasta stuffings, sauces or sautes. sponsible for spoilage of fresh meat and fish. Mortierella Genus of zygomycetous fungi of the fam- Morchella Edible fungi commonly known as morels. ily Mortierellaceae. Occur in soil. Mortierella alpina is Main species is Morchella esculenta. used in the production of arachidonic acid for use in Morello cherries Dark coloured type of sour cher- foods. ries (Prunus cerasus) used in cooking or canned. Morwong Any of a number of marine fish species in Also processed into juices, liqueurs, e.g. kirsch, and the family Cheilodactylidae, widely distributed in the jams. Pacific and Indian Oceans and parts of the Atlantic Morels Edible fungi of the genus Morchella, par- Ocean. Commercially important species include Ne- ticularly M. esculenta. madactylus macropterus (morwong), N. douglasi (grey Morganella Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod- morwong) and Cheilodactylus spectablis (banded shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family En- morwong). Marketed fresh, usually whole, gutted or as 286 Moth beans Mucor fillets; sometimes sold as frozen fillets or in ready-to- properties and ingredients, including viscosity, fla- cook packs. vour, foaming, and content of fats. Moth beans Seeds produced by Phaseolus aconiti- Moxidectin One of the broad-spectrum anthelmin- folius. Grown as a food source particularly in India, tics used to control infections by parasites, pre- where the seeds are eaten whole or split, often fried in dominantly heartworm infections, in cattle, sheep and oils; the green pods from the plant are also eaten as goats, but not approved for use in dairy animals. Rap- vegetables. Also known as mat beans, matki beans, idly metabolized and excreted from treated animals. mout beans and dew gram. Mozzarella cheese Italian soft cheese made from Moths Common name for mostly nocturnal insects of buffalo milk. A plastic, spun-curd cheese made by the order Lepidoptera. Adults or larvae may be pests coagulating pasteurized milk at 32qC, cutting the of plants and stored foods. The potato tuber moth curd, treating it with hot water (93qC) and kneading (Phthorimaea operculella) is an important pest of po- into a shiny lump. Pieces are then taken off, cooled, tatoes, the codling moth (Cydia pomonella) is a pest salted and marketed soon after. of walnuts and apples, and the Indian meal moth m.p. Abbreviation for melting point. (Plodia interpunctella) is a pest of flour and dried MPN Abbreviation for the most probable number fruits. Larvae of the emperor moth (Imbrasia belina method, a technique for estimating the number of vi- Westwood) are an important food source in southern able microorganisms suspended in a liquid. Sets of Africa. tubes containing growth medium are inoculated with Motility Ability to move independently and spontane- successively smaller volumes of sample solution. Fol- ously. Can be applied to unicellular and multicellular lowing incubation, the tubes are examined for microorganisms. With motile bacteria, motion is usually bial growth and the number of cells in the original achieved by rotation of a single flagellum or multiple sample is calculated from the pattern of growth, using flagella on the bacterial surface. Some bacteria move probability tables. Also called the multiple tube without the aid of flagella using a process called glid- method. ing motility. Helical bacteria use rotation of an internal MRL Abbreviation for maximum residue limits. axial filament for self-propulsion. These locomotion mRNA Abbreviation for messenger RNA. RNA mole- methods allow bacteria to move towards attractive cules derived from DNA by transcription that func- stimuli, such as nutrients, and away from harmful sub- tion as templates for synthesis of proteins (transla- stances in the process of chemotaxis. Motility is im- tion) in cells or for synthesis of complementary DNA portant as one of the virulence factors for patho- (cDNA). gens, aiding in colonization of host cells. MS Abbreviation for mass spectroscopy. Mottling Blotchy discoloration of foods. Mucic acid Member of the organic acids, synonym Moufflon Small, wild sheep (Ovis orientalis) which galactaric acid. Occurs as an oxidation product of ga- are believed to be the common ancestors of all domes- lacturonic acid and is found particularly in grapes tic sheep. They are hunted for their meat. infected with Botrytis cinerea. Moulding Formation of an object out of a malleable Mucilage Gums produced as plant exudates, in par- substance. Also use of containers (moulds), usually ticular those produced by seaweeds. distinctively shaped, to form food into a specific shape. Mucins Glycoproteins secreted by animal mucous Moulds can range in size from small, individual candy- cells and glands. Found in saliva, and gastric and intes- size moulds to large pudding moulds and cheese tinal secretions. moulds. The foods to be moulded (e.g. a gelatin-based Mucoids Glycoproteins or mucins with mucus- dessert) are poured or packed into the mould and then like properties. Also used to describe gummy or slimy left until they become firm enough to hold their shape. bacterial colonies. Moulds Common alternative term for fungi. Mucopolysaccharides Synonym for glycosami- Mountain apples Alternative term for Malay ap- noglycans. ples. Mucor Genus of zygomycetous fungi of the family Mousses Creamy, frothy desserts typically made Mucroaceae. Occur on vegetable matter, soil and dung. from fruit purees, whipped cream and/or beaten Can cause spoilage of fresh fruits and vegetables, eggs, and set with gelatin. Savoury mousses are and their products. Mucor racemosus and M. mucedo similar light-textured dishes made from meat or fish. may be responsible for spoilage of bread and meat, Mouthfeel Sensory properties relating to sensa- while other species may be parasitic to stored grains. tions produced in the mouth by foods during mastica- M. hiemalis is used in the production of sufu and M. tion. Mouthfeel is affected by a wide variety of food racemosus in the production of pozol. Mucor species 287 Mud crabs Muscadine grapes are of industrial importance for production of en- activity and are of interest as potential natural food zymes. antioxidants. Also valued for nutritional and health- Mud crabs Common name for marine and estuarine promoting activities. crabs of the genus Scylla, especially S. serrata. Mulching Covering or surrounding of plants with a Widely distributed in the Pacific and Indian Oceans; protective mulch. The mulch can comprise organic also produced by aquaculture in Asia and Australia. matter such as leaves, peat or straw, synthetic materials Prized for the delicate, sweet flavour of the moist or living plants interplanted or undersown with a main meat, found mainly in the claws. Cooked by steam- crop (living mulches). Undertaken during the cultiva- ing, poaching, pan frying or on a barbecue. Meat is tion of crops in order to inhibit growth of weeds, and eaten on its own or as an ingredient of soups or to prevent evaporation of moisture or freezing of the pasta fillings. Also known as mangrove crabs. plant roots. Muenster cheese Alternative spelling of Munster Mullet Any of around 80 estuarine and marine fish cheese. species in the family Mugilidae, widely distributed in Muesli Mixture of untoasted cereal flakes (e.g. oats, Atlantic and Pacific coastal waters; some species mi- wheat and rye), dried fruits and nuts, often used as grate inshore. Many species are important food fish, breakfast cereals. Can be sweetened or unsweet- including Liza ramada (thin-lipped grey mullet), L. au- ened. rata (golden grey mullet) and Mugil cephalus (striped mullet; black mullet). Marketed fresh (whole, gutted or Muesli bars Fibre-rich cereal bars based on muesli fillets) and as smoked or salted products. Roes of ingredients. some species are popular as dry-salted products. Muffin cakes Round cakes which may be leavened Multipacks Packages containing several individual with yeasts or baking powders and sweetened containers of foods or beverages that may be sepa- with sugar. May be plain, or flavoured with fruits, e.g. rated before consumption. Commonly used for dairy blueberries, dried fruits, nuts, chocolate or sa- desserts, snack foods and carbonated bever- voury ingredients such as cheese. ages. Muffins Term that has two different meanings. Ameri- Mung beans Pulses produced by Phaseolus aureus can muffins are small, round cakes which may be or Vigna radiata. Eaten boiled or in dhal; flour pro- leavened with yeasts or baking powders and duced from the beans may also be used in baking or sweetened with sugar. They may be plain, or fla- made into porridge. Contain little fat, but high levels voured with fruits,e.g.blueberries, nuts or sa- of proteins and carbohydrates. Most commonly voury ingredients such as cheese. Often eaten with used pulses for production of bean sprouts.Also breakfast or as an accompaniment at dinner. Eng- known as green gram. lish muffins are thick, round bread products which Mung bean starch Starch isolated from mung are rapidly fermented and well aerated. Baked on a hot beans. Used in Asian cookery to make transparent plate or griddle and often split and toasted before being noodles and savoury jelly products. eaten, sometimes with sweet or savoury fillings, such Munggo Alternative term for black gram. as jams, bacon or cheese. Munster cheese French soft cheese made from Mugwort Plants of Artemisia spp., the leaves of pasteurized cow milk. The edible skin is sticky and which are used as spices. In Asian cooking, leaves orange in colour, while the soft interior has a mild, are added as an ingredient to stuffings and rice piquant flavour which becomes more pungent as the cakes,andteaflavourings. In Western countries, it cheese is washed. Ripening occurs from the inside has uses as flavourings for poultry or pork dishes. out. American versions of this cheese have a lighter Mulberries Berries produced by plants of the genus coloured interior and a mild flavour. Alternative spell- Morus. The common or black mulberry (M. nigra) ing Muenster cheese is used in some countries. produces purple fruit similar in appearance to rasp- Muramidases Alternative term for lysozymes. berries. The white mulberry (M. alba) is grown Murex Genus of gastropod molluscs resembling mainly as a food source for silkworms, but also for the whelks. Found in tropical and sub-tropical coastal ar- fruits, which are dried before consumption; leaves eas. Flesh of some species is consumed. are a potential source of natural food antioxidants. Mulberries are eaten as a dessert, added to tarts and Muscadine grapes Grapes produced by Vitis ro- pies,ormadeintojams and wines.Richinpotas- tundifolia that have a characteristic musky flavour sium and vitamin C. The main acid is citric acid. and are astringent and lacking in sweetness.Grown mainly as table grapes, but some are used in wine- Mulberry leaves Leaves of the white mulberry making. (Morus alba), extracts of which have antioxidative 288 Muscles Mutton birds Muscles Tissues composed of bundles of specialized Mustard greens Leaves of the brown or Indian cells which are capable of contraction and relaxation to mustard plant (Brassica juncea) eaten as vegetables create body movement. There are >600 muscles in an and used in manufacture of kimchies. animal carcass; these vary widely in shape, size and Mustard seed oils Oils extracted from mustard activity. There are three types of muscle, namely skele- seeds belonging to the genera Brassica or Sinapsis. tal, cardiac and smooth. The largest part of the muscu- Used in the food and soap industries. lature consists of skeletal muscles and it is this part of Mustard seeds Globular seeds of black or brown animal carcasses that is generally referred to as mustard (Brassica nigra or B. juncea) or white or meat; organs comprised of cardiac or smooth muscle yellow mustard (Sinapsis alba), which are odourless tend to be classified as offal. Muscle tissue also con- when whole and have a pungent flavour. tains structural elements (collagen, reticulin and Musts Fruit juices (especially those extracted from elastin). winemaking grapes) intended for alcoholic fer- Mushrooms Fruiting bodies of various species of mentation to produce wines. fungi. Eaten raw or used to add flavour to dishes, Mutagenesis Generation of mutations. soups and sauces. Many species are gathered wild, Mutagenicity Capability of inducing mutations. but care must be taken as some are poisonous. The Mutagens Chemical or physical agents which promote most commonly cultivated species is Agaricus bis- mutagenesis. porus; other types of commercial importance include Mutanolysins Enzymes produced by Streptomy- shiitake, straw mushrooms, oyster mush- ces globisporus which are similar to lysozymes. rooms and winter mushrooms. Rich in phosphorus, Used in conjunction with or instead of lysozymes to magnesium, potassium, selenium and ribofla- hydrolyse bacterial cell walls prior to extraction of vin, and low in fat. their contents, e.g. for identification purposes. Cell Muskmelons Fruits produced by Cucumis melo. wall digestion is achieved by cleavage of ȕ-1o4-N- Yellow or green skin with a raised network of a lighter acetylmuramyl-N-acetylglucosamine linkages of pepti- shade. Flesh is green to orange, comprising mainly wa- doglycan. ter, but with high levels of sugar, vitamin C and Mutants Include populations, organisms, genes and carotenes. Eaten as a dessert. Also known as netted chromosomes that differ from the corresponding melons or nutmeg melons, and include Galia melons. wild type by one or more mutations. Mutarotases Alternative term for aldose 1- Mussel poisoning Toxic reaction following con- epimerases. sumption of contaminated mussels. Especially refers to a severe and often fatal intoxication after eating Mutations Detectable and heritable structural changes mussels that have fed on red tide flagellates (particu- to the genetic material of a cell or organism, or the re- larly the dinoflagellates Gonyaulax) and accumu- sults of such changes. May occur by chemical changes lated certain alkaloids in their tissues. to the DNA, e.g. substitution of one nucleotide for another, or physical damage such as breakage or rear- Mussels Any of a large group of marine and freshwa- rangement. Depending on where in the DNA sequence ter bivalve molluscs from the family Mytilidae. Dis- alteration occurs, a mutation may not be detected (si- tributed worldwide, but more common in cooler wa- lent mutation) or may be apparent from effects on the ters. Many species are valued for the delicate, sweet gene product. Mutations may be random, spontaneous flavour and texture of their flesh. Important com- or induced by mutagens. mercial species include Mytilus edulis (blue mus- Mutton Meat from mature sheep, which are over one sels), M. galloproviancilis (Mediterranean mussels) year old, including meat from ewes, rams, wethers and and Perna canaliculus (green-lipped mussels), all hoggets. Mutton tends to be cheaper than lamb, but of which are cultured. Marketed live (whole with also tends to be tougher, darker in colour, fattier and shells), and as fresh, smoked, canned, salted and semi- less delicately flavoured. It is the preferred meat for preserved products. Muslims. Also known as sheep meat, sheep muscles, ram meat or ram muscles. Mustard Condiments prepared from dried ripe seeds (mustard seeds, also used to produce pun- Mutton birds Any of a number of shearwaters and gent spices) of Brassica nigra (black or brown mus- petrels of the order Procellariiformes that breed on is- tard), B. juncea (brown mustard only) or Sinapis alba lands in Australasia. The young are harvested before (white mustard or yellow mustard). For serving, fledging for their meat, oils and down (feathers). mustard powder is added to water, salt, vinegar The flesh of the adult sea birds is said to resemble and/or other ingredients, e.g. wines. mutton when eaten. 289 Mutton sausages Myristicin Mutton sausages Sausages in which the main Myoglobin Purplish-red protein pigments found in meat component is mutton. muscles (meat). Myoglobin has one haem unit and Mycobacterium Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram one globin chain. In meat, myoglobin content differs positive bacteria of the family Mycobacteriaceae. between species and between different muscles. Col- Occur in dairy products, soil and water, and in the our lightness of meat is inversely correlated with my- diseased tissue of warm-blooded hosts. Mycobacterium oglobin content. Meat colour is affected by oxidation avium subsp. paratuberculosis, which causes Johne's state of myoglobin; the three major myoglobin deriva- disease in cattle, is suspected of causing Crohns tives are reduced myoglobin (purplish-red), oxymy- disease in humans who consume contaminated milk. oglobin (bright red) and metmyoglobin Mycoplasma Genus of facultatively anaerobic Gram (brown/grey). Colour changes due to oxygenation of negative bacteria of variable forms of the family myoglobin are reversible. When meat is cured with ni- Mycoplasmataceae. Species (e.g. Mycoplasma bovis) trite, myoglobin is converted into the bright red pig- are the causative agents of mastitis in cattle. ment nitrosomyoglobin. Thermal denaturation of my- Mycoprotein Commercially produced high-protein oglobin to a brown pigment begins at about 65qC; con- biomass of fungi. A major example of a mycopro- sequently, the red colour of raw meat changes to tein is Quorn, which is produced using Fusarium brown on cooking. graminearum. Myosin Myofibrillar globulins that are the most Mycotoxicosis Disease of humans and animals re- abundant proteins in meat and the predominant salt- sulting from the ingestion of mycotoxins in foods or soluble muscle proteins. During muscle contraction, feeds. myosin combines with actins to form actomyosin. Mycotoxins Toxins, e.g. aflatoxins and ochratox- Myosin molecules comprise myosin heavy chains ins, produced by fungi. and myosin light chains, and are shaped like elon- Mylar Lightweight but strong film made from poly- gated rods with thickened regions at one end. Myosin ethyleneterephthalate. is insoluble in water and only slightly soluble in acids; however, it is soluble in salt solutions or alkalies. My- Myocardial infarction Condition that occurs when osin gelation is a principal factor in obtaining good the blood supply to part of the heart is interrupted, texture in meat products. which can result in damage and/or death to heart muscles. Most commonly results from coronary heart Myosin heavy chains Heavy chain isoforms of my- diseases in which an acute thrombus (blood clot) osin. They constitute the head and tail of the myosin forms in and obstructs a coronary artery affected by molecule, and play an important role in heat-induced atherosclerosis. Risk factors for coronary artery gelation of myosin. disease and myocardial infarction include hyperli- Myosin light chains Light chain isoforms of my- paemia, hypertension, cigarette smoking, diabe- osin that are found wrapped around the myosin tes mellitus, male gender and family history of heart heavy chains near to their head portions. The 2 main disease. Commonly known as a heart attack. types are termed regulatory (18 kDa) and essential (16 Myofibrillar proteins Salt-soluble proteins, includ- or 25 kDa). They are similar in structure to ing actins and myosin, which are the predominant calmodulin, but only some bind calcium. type of proteins in muscle and are responsible for contraction, texture and water holding capacity. Deg- Myrcene One of the acyclic monoterpenes, found radation of these proteins is important for post mortem in the essential oils of a variety of useful plants, lemon grass aroma tenderization of meat. such as . Has a spicy, balsamic . Myrcene-containing essential oils are widely used Myofibrils Elongated contractile elements contained for flavouring foods. within skeletal and cardiac muscle fibres. Within them, thick filaments consisting almost entirely of myosin Myricetin Member of the flavones found particularly and thin filaments consisting almost entirely of actins in berries and wines. Myricetin occurs in both gly- are aligned parallel to each other. They overlap in cer- cosylated and aglycone forms and has antioxidative tain regions producing a striated appearance. During activity. muscle contraction, actin and myosin within the thick Myristic acid One of the saturated fatty acids, and thin myofilaments interact to form actomyosin, with 14 carbon atoms; synonym, tetradecanoic acid. which causes shortening of the muscle fibres. Lateral Major component of many animal fats, vegetable shrinkage of the myofibrils occurs in meat post mor- fats and oils. tem. Fluid is expelled from the spaces between filaments and is drained by gravity, forming drip. Myristicin One of the alkenylbenzene group of aromatic compounds, synonym 5-methoxy safrole. 290 Myrobalans Myrtle Major aroma compound in mace and nutmeg, and Myrothecium Genus of fungi of the class Sodario- also found in parsley, dill and carrots. mycetes. Some species (e.g. Myrothecium roridum) may produce mycotoxins during growth on foods. Myrobalans The name given to the astringent fruits Other species (e.g. M. verrucaria) may be used in the of several unrelated fruit-bearing plant species, includ- production of enzymes (e.g. cellulases, polyga- ing Prunus cerasifera (myrobalan plums or cherry lacturonases and xylan degrading enzymes). plums), Emblica officinalis (emblic myrobalans), Ter- Myrrh Flavourings isolated from gum exudates col- minalia bellirica (belliric myrobalans), Terminalia lected from plants of the genus Commiphora which are chebula (chebulic myrobalans) and Terminalia arjuna native to Africa and Arabia. (arjun myrobalans). Myrtle Common name for Myrtus communis, an evergreen tree with aromatic blue-black berries. Fruits Myrosinases Alternative term for thioglucosi- and leaves are used as condiments, as a source of dases. essential oils and in production of liqueurs. N

N2 Chemical symbol for nitrogen gas. NaOH Chemical formula for sodium hydroxide. Na Chemical symbol for sodium. Naphthalene Aromatic hydrocarbon with a distinctive NAA Abbreviation for the analytical technique neu- coal tar-like odour. Used as an insecticide and in the tron activation analysis and the auxin naphtha- synthesis of dyes. leneacetic acid. Naphthaleneacetic acid A synthetic member of the NaCl Chemical formula for sodium chloride. auxins group of plant growth regulators, chemi- NAD(P) Abbreviation for nicotinamide adenine cal name 2-(1-naphthyl)acetic acid. Used as a rooting dinucleotide (phosphate). agent, in plant tissue culture and to regulate the yield Naegleria Genus of amoebae of the family Vahl- and quality of various fruits and vegetables. kampfiidae. Occur in damp soil, mud, water and sew- Naphthol Phenol that is a major metabolite of the age. Pathogenic to humans and animals. Naegleria insecticide carbaryl. fowleri, a water contaminant, is the causative agent of 2-(1-Naphthyl)acetic acid Chemical name for the meningoencephalitis in humans. plant growth regulator naphthaleneacetic acid. NAFTA Abbreviation for North American Free Naphthylmethylcarbamate Alternative term for the Trade Agreement. insecticide carbaryl. Nalidixic acid Quinolone antibiotic that exhibits an- Napins Storage proteins of rapeseeds (Brassica tibacterial activity against various Gram negative napus). bacteria. Used in poultry production and aquacul- Naranjilla Orange fruits with green-yellow flesh pro- ture. duced by Solanum quitoense or S. angulatum. The Nan Flat bread originating from northwest India made juicy pulp is used in beverages and sherbet. Also from white flour, leavened with sodium bicarbon- eaten out of hand, and used as an ingredient in des- ate and baked in a tandoor. serts, jellies and marmalades. Rich in vitamin A Nanofiltration Form of filtration that uses semi- and vitamin C. Alternative term for lulo and quito permeable membranes of pore size 0.001-0.1 ȝm to oranges. separate different fluids or ions, removing materials Narazuke Vegetables pickled in sake lees. Origi- having molecular weights in the order of 300-1000 Da. nally made from uri, a cross between cucumbers and Nanofiltration is most commonly used to separate solu- melons, but now made using aubergines, small tions that have a mixture of desirable and undesirable melons, radishes and cucumbers. components. An example of this is the concentra- Naringenin Non-bitter flavanone found mainly in tion of corn syrups. Nanofiltration is capable of re- citrus fruits, but also in other fruits, e.g. tomatoes. moving ions that contribute significantly to osmotic pressure, and this allows separation at pressures Naringin Bitter glycoside present in citrus fruits. that are lower than those needed for reverse osmo- Naringinases Commercial crude fungal enzyme sis. preparations consisting of Į-L-rhamnosidases and Nanotechnology A field of science which in its ȕ-glucosidases. Used to degrade naringin, a bitter broadest sense covers development of materials and flavonoid found in citrus fruits, during extraction of devices of nanometer-scale (1-100 nm). Nanotechnol- fruit juices in order to reduce bitterness to accept- ogy applications of relevance to the food industry in- able levels. clude: carbon nanotubes used in construction of bio- Narirutin One of the flavanones found mainly in sensors and as adsorbents in solid phase mi- citrus fruits. Also known as naringenin 7-O- croextraction; structured colloids and emulsions rutinoside. Has antioxidative activity. for encapsulation of food ingredients; and nano- Nata Thick, white, mucilaginous mat formed by fer- composites used in food packaging. mentation of Gluconacetobacter xylinus grown on the surface of coconut water, coconut milk or 292 Natamycin Neomycin other sugary fruit juices. Used in production of des- Neem Common name for Azadirachta indica, a tree serts, including nata de coco which is popular in the native to tropical Asia. Neem plants contain various Philippines. bioactive compounds and thus have been used tra- Natamycin One of the polyene antibiotics with an- ditionally as medicinal plants. Neem seed oils, seed tifungal activity, this one used in preservatives for cake and, to a lesser extent, leaf extracts can act as in- foods such as dry sausages and cheese. Exhibits secticides and are used for preventing infestation no antibacterial activity, so does not disturb natural of stored grain and vegetables. The antimicrobial ripening processes in these foods. Also known as pi- activity of neem extracts may be exploited for con- maricin. trolling post-harvest spoilage of fruits and vegetables. Natto Traditional Japanese product made by fermentation of soybeans with Bacillus subtilis (B. Nematocides Pesticides used for control of nema- natto). todes that parasitize animals or infest crops. Gener- ally fall into two major classes, fumigants and non- Natural colorants Colorants that exist in nature. fumigants (contact), based on chemical and physical Natural flavourings Flavour compounds, also characteristics. Commonly used examples include essential oils, extracts and hydrolysates containing methyl bromide and oxamyl. flavour compounds, that are derived from natural Nematodes Group of worms which are members of sources, such as plants, animal foods and edible yeasts. the phylum Nematoda. Occur in soil, and fresh and Usually they have little or no nutritive value but are marine waters. Some are parasites of humans, ani- used solely to impart flavour. mals and plants. Natural foods Foods produced using natural farming Neocallimastix Genus of anaerobic fungi of the techniques (e.g. organic foods) and subjected to Neocallimastigaceae family. Grow on a range of sim- minimal processing. Free from artificial ingredi- ple and complex carbohydrates in the rumen of ents. animals. Species (e.g. Neocallimastix patriciarum and Natural sweeteners Sweet-tasting substances that N. frontalis) are used in the production of enzymes occur in nature. Saccharides, such as sucrose (sugar), (e.g. xylan degrading enzymes and cellulases). D-glucose (dextrose) and fructose (laevulose) are Neohesperidin Flavonoid glycoside bitter com- the major natural sweeteners used by the food indus- pounds present in bitter oranges (Citrus auran- try. Other natural sweeteners include sweet-tasting pro- tium). Exhibit poor water solubility, and are impor- teins (e.g. thaumatin), terpenoids (e.g. glycyr- tant flavour compounds in orange juices. The rhizin), steroidal saponins (e.g. polypodoside A), sugar component is a disaccharide, ȕ-neohesperidose dihydroisocoumarins (e.g. phyllodulcin) and flavon- (2-O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-ȕ-D-glucopyranose). oids (e.g. neohesperidin). Used as the raw material for manufacture of the sweet- Navy beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus ener neohesperidin dihydrochalcone. vulgaris). Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone Artificial sweeteners derived by hydrogenation of neo- N compounds Compounds that contain the element hesperidin. 1500-1800 times sweeter than sucrose nitrogen. and stable in crystalline form, in solutions and at high NDGA Abbreviation for nordihydroguaiaretic temperatures. Possess a very light aftertaste and have acid. a short delay to reach maximum sweetness percep- Near infrared Infrared radiation which has a wave- tion. Have a synergistic sweetening effect when com- length between 0.7 and 2.5 ȝm. Near infrared (combined with sugar alcohols such as xylitol and monly abbreviated to NIR) is subdivided into very near isomalt, and with other sweeteners such as aspar- infrared (0.7-1 ȝm) and short wave infrared (1.0-2.5 tame and acesulfame K. Applications include bev- ȝm). erages, desserts and savoury foods. Also used as Nectarines Fruits produced by Prunus persica var. flavour enhancers in a wide range of foods. nectarina. Similar to peaches in composition and Neomycin Aminoglycoside antibiotic produced by flavour, but with a smoother skin and richer colour. Streptomyces fradiae. Used for treatment of coliba- Sweet, juicy flesh varies in colour from white to yel- cillosis in sheep, goats, swine, turkeys and cattle, with low, depending on variety. Varieties also differ in the exception of veal calves. Withdrawal periods vary stone tenacity (clingstone or freestone). Rich in vita- with species and tolerance values are specified for min A, vitamin C and potassium. Eaten out of kidneys, fats, livers, meat, milk and turkey skin hand or in salads, and used as a garnish, in toppings with fat. Parenteral use in food-producing animals is and in various desserts. not permitted in some countries. 293 Neopullulanases Neurological shellfish poisoning Neopullulanases EC 3.2.1.135. Glycosidases Net protein utilization Commonly abbreviated to which hydrolyse pullulan to panose (6-Į-D- NPU. An index of the nutritional values of pro- glucosylmaltose). Useful for the production of mal- teins. This quality ratio indicates the amount of die- tooligosaccharides for use in foods as prebiotics tary protein retained in the body under specific clinical and as non-cariogenic sweeteners. Can also hydro- conditions. Changes in body nitrogen levels following lyse amyloses to maltose and catalyse transgly- consumption of a dietary protein are compared with cosylation reactions. those following consumption of a protein-free diet for Neosartorya Genus of fungi of the family Trichoco- the same duration, and then the dietary nitrogen re- maceae. Neosartorya fischeri, a heat resistant species, tained in the body is expressed as a proportion of ni- may be responsible for the spoilage of canned and trogen intake. bottled fruits. Nettings Nettings made with rubber thread which are used to enclose joints of meat, such as beef and Neotame Trade name for one of the artificial ham, to prevent their disintegration during cooking. sweeteners, a derivative of a dipeptide composed of Health concerns are associated with possible formation the amino acids aspartic acid and phenyla- of nitrosamines from vulcanizing agents used in lanine (N-(N-(3,3-dimethylbutyl)-L-Į-aspartyl)-L- formulating the rubber. phenylalanine 1-methyl ester). Approximately 7000- Nettles Plants of the genus Urtica, including stinging 10,000 times sweeter than sugar. A free flowing or common nettles (U. dioica) and small nettles (U. white crystalline powder which is water-soluble and urens). Leaves are rich in vitamin C and can be used heat-stable, and can be used in cooking, baking and as a vegetable when young. Also used in herbal prepa- frozen foods, as well as in tabletop applications. Can rations and soups, and to make beer, wines and be used in combination with other non-nutritive or nu- teas. tritive sweeteners. Although similar to aspartame, neotame is degraded differently in the human digestive Neural networks Systems of computer programs and system, avoiding problems caused by the presence of data structures which are modelled on the human nerv- phenylalanine for people suffering from phenylke- ous system and brain. Incorporate large numbers of tonuria. Also used as flavour enhancers. Marketed processors operating in parallel, each with an individ- by The NutraSweet Company. Authorized for use in ual sphere of knowledge which has been fed into it many countries worldwide. along with rules about relationships. Networks can use this information to recognize patterns in large amounts Neoxanthin One of the xanthophyll carotenoids of data. Used in the food industry to model processes found in many fruits and vegetables, but particu- and predict the behaviour of foods under specific con- larly in spinach and other green leafy vegetables. ditions. Also known as artificial neural networks. Precursor of the plant hormone abscisic acid. In- Neural tube defects Congenital malformations of duces apoptosis in prostate cancer cells. the spinal cord caused by the folds of the ectodermal Nephelometry Technique used to determine the size neural plate failing to close properly in early embry- and concentration of cells or particles in a solution by onic development. Failures to close at the top result in measuring the intensity of scattered light. Light scat- anencephaly, which is always fatal; failures to close tering depends on the number and properties of the along the spine result in spina bifida, which can have particles in the solution. either a reasonably hopeful or a very poor prognosis Neral Aldehyde; cis-citral. Volatile flavour compound depending on location and other characteristics of the found in plant essential oils. opening. Supplements of folic acid begun before conception reduce the risk of neural tube defects develop- Nerol Monoterpene alcohol. Volatile flavour coming in the fetus. pound found in many plant essential oils and in- Neurodegenerative diseases Diseases character- volved particularly in the flavour and aroma of ized by the degeneration of nerve cells (neurons) in the grapes and wines. central nervous system. Includes Alzheimer's dis- Neroli oils Yellowish essential oils derived from ease, dementia, Parkinson's disease and Creutzfeldt- bitter orange blossoms by steam distillation. Have an Jakob disease. intense aroma of orange blossom. Neurological shellfish poisoning Food poison- Net protein ratio Weight gain of a group of animals ing associated with consumption of shellfish con- (e.g. rats) fed a test diet plus the weight loss of a simi- taining neurotoxins produced by the dinoflagellate lar group fed a protein free diet, and the total divided algae Pytchodiscus brevis. Gastrointestinal and neuro- by the weight of the protein consumed by the animals logical symptoms normally occur within 3 to 6 hours on the test diet. of ingestion of contaminated shellfish. 294 Neurospora Nisin Neurospora Genus of fungi of the family Sordari- Nicotinamide Synonym for niacinamide and nicotinic aceae. Neurospora spp. are responsible for spoilage acid amide. The amide form of nicotinic acid which of bread. N. intermedia is used as a starter for ont- has niacin activity as a constituent of 2 coenzymes jom and in the fermentation of bongkrek. N. (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicoti- crassa is industrially important for production of en- namide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP)); zymes. these coenzymes act as intermediate hydrogen carriers Neurotoxicity Property of being toxic to nervous in a wide variety of oxidation and reduction reactions. system tissues. Nicotinamide can be formed in the body from the Neurotoxins Toxins that act specifically or primarily amino acid tryptophan; on average 60 mg of dietary on nervous system tissues (e.g. botulotoxins and tryptophan is equivalent to 1 mg of preformed niacin. saxitoxin). Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) Neutralization Process of making something chemi- A coenzyme derived from niacin; commonly abbrevi- cally neutral, with a pH of approximately 7. ated to NAD(P). Neutron activation analysis Analytical technique Nicotine One of the alkaloids. The principal active in which samples are irradiated with a reactor, accel- ingredient in tobacco, and responsible for the addic- erator or isotopic neutron source. Radioactive nuclides tive properties of cigarette smoking. Also found in are produced by the addition of neutrons to nuclei of lower quantities in foods belonging to the Solanaceae specific atoms and these nuclei release energy in the (nightshade) family, including tomatoes, potatoes, form of gamma rays or electrons to convert back to a aubergines and peppers. stable state. The radiation detected is a measure of the Nicotinic acid A member of the vitamin B group energy of the nuclides produced in the sample. Com- found in plant tissues. Contributes, along with nicoti- monly abbreviated to NAA. namide found in animal tissues, to niacin activity.

NH3 Chemical formula for ammonia. Chemical name pyridine 3-carboxylic acid. Niacin A member of the vitamin B group. Generic Nicotinic acid amide Synonym for nicotinamide. descriptor for two compounds in foods which have the Nigerose Disaccharide composed of two glucose biological activity of the vitamin: nicotinic acid residues linked via an Į-1,3-glycosidic bond. Isomer of (pyridine 3-carboxylic acid) and nicotinamide (the maltose. amide of nicotinic acid). The metabolic function of Niger seeds Seeds from the plant Guizotia abys- niacin is in the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinu- sinica, which is grown in India and Ethiopia as an oil- cleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide seeds crop. phosphate (NADP), which operate, often in partnership Nile perch Large freshwater fish species (Lates with thiamin and riboflavin coenzymes, to produce niloticus) widely distributed in lakes and rivers around energy within the cells. Niacin is found in animal tis- Central Africa; a highly valued food fish. Fresh and sue as nicotinamide and in plant tissues as nicotinic frozen fillets are exported from Kenya, Tanzania and acid; both forms are of equal niacin activity. Rich Uganda to markets in Europe, Israel and the USA. sources of niacin include livers, kidneys, lean meat, poultry meat, fish, rabbit meat, cornflakes (en- Nile tilapia Freshwater fish species (Oreochromis riched), nuts and peanut butter. Niacin can with- niloticus, formerly Tilapia nilotica) of high commer- stand reasonable periods of cooking, heating and cial importance belonging to the cichlid family (Cich- storage. Canning, drying and freezing result in lidae). Widely distributed in rivers and lakes of Africa little destruction of the vitamin. In cereals, niacin is and also produced by aquaculture. Marketed fresh largely present as niacytin, which is not biologically and frozen. available. Deficiency of niacin leads to pellagra (pho- NIR Abbreviation for near infrared. tosensitive dermatitis), depressive psychosis and intes- NIR spectroscopy Spectroscopy performed at tinal disorders. Previously known as vitamin PP. wavelengths in the near infrared (NIR) region. Niacinamide Synonym for nicotinamide. Nisin Polycyclic peptide bacteriocins synthesized by Nicarbazin Coccidiostat used prophylactically for Lactococcus lactis. Classed as lantibiotics and prevention of intestinal and caecal coccidiosis in contain the unusual amino acids lanthionine, me- chickens. Not used in laying hens due to detrimental thyllanthionine, didehydroalanine and didehydroami- effects on production of eggs. Withdrawal periods are nobutyric acid. Used as preservatives in a variety of specified for treated chickens. heat processed and low pH foods, such as processed Nickel Transition element with the chemical symbol cheese, meat and meat products, fish, and Ni. canned fruits and vegetables. Exhibit broad spectrum inhibition of Gram positive bacteria including 295 Nitrates Nitrous oxide important foodborne pathogens and clinically rele- standard conditions expressed as a percentage of the vant antibiotic resistant bacteria. sample nitrogen content. Particularly applied to the Nitrates Salts of nitric acid found in many animal characterization of proteins. and plant foods as a result of use of nitrate fertilizers, Nitrosamines Nitroso compounds with strong the nitrification process in the soil, or use of sodium carcinogenicity formed by reaction of amines with nitrate or potassium nitrate food additives. Health nitrogen oxides or nitrites. risks are associated with conversion of nitrates into ni- Nitrosation Reaction of secondary amines or alky- trites in the gastrointestinal tract. Contamina- lureas present in ingested foods with nitrites, forming tion of drinking water with nitrates from chemicals nitroso compounds, such as nitrosamines, which used in agriculture is a particular concern. may be carcinogenic. Methylguanidine, a compound Nitric acid Strong acid that forms nitrates with met- present in several foods, is converted to a potent als, carbonates, hydroxides or oxides. Powerful mutagen after nitrosation in the stomach. Can be inhib- oxidizing agent. Used in digestion or extraction of ited by some dietary components, such as toco- samples during analysis. Commercially utilized in pro- pherols and various phytochemicals. duction of fertilizers, explosives and dyes. Nitroso compounds Organic compounds con- Nitric oxide Gas (chemical formula NO) produced by taining the nitroso group, many of which are reduction of nitric acid, nitrates or nitrites, or mutagens. oxidation of ammonia. N-Nitrosodiethylamine Volatile nitrosamine with Nitrification Conversion of ammonia or other N mutagenic activity. Found in a range of foods, some- compounds into nitrites or nitrates. times as a result of indirect contamination, e.g. mi- Nitrites Salts of nitrous acid formed by reduction gration from rubber or packaging materials, or of nitrates. Can be oxidizing agents or reducing as a result of formation during processing. agents. Authorized as food additives for preser- N-Nitrosodimethylamine Volatile nitrosamine with vation of meat and cheese. Health risks are associ- mutagenic activity; commonly abbreviated to NDMA. ated with formation of nitrosamines from nitrites in Found in a range of foods, sometimes as a result of in- the presence of amines. direct contamination, e.g. migration from rubber Nitrofurans Antibiotics banned from use in animal or packaging materials or as a result of formation food production in many countries due to concerns that during processing. long term exposure in humans, as a result of consum- Nitrosomonas Genus of Gram negative bacteria ing contaminated products, constitutes an increased of the family Nitrosomonadaceae, occurring in soils risk factor for developing cancer. Includes furazoli- and water. Oxidizes ammonia to nitrites. The type done, nitrofurazone and nitrovin. species, Nitrosomonas europaea, is utilized for bio- Nitrofurazone Broad-spectrum synthetic nitrofuran logical nitrogen removal from waste water, includ- antibiotic that is banned for use in food animals in ing food factories effluents. many countries due to the potential for residues ex- Nitroso pigments Pigments formed during curing hibiting carcinogenicity to occur in edible tissues of meat by the reaction of nitric oxide (synthesized by and milk. Illegal use may be indicated by the presence conversion of nitrites used in curing agents) with of semicarbazide, a metabolite of the drug, in foods. metmyoglobin or myoglobin. Responsible for the Nitrogen Colourless and odourless gas that constitutes pink colour of cured meat. approximately three-quarters of the Earth's atmosphere N-Nitrosopyrrolidine Volatile nitrosamine with by volume. The common form is dinitrogen (chemical mutagenic activity. May be formed in a range of foods, including bacon, during processing. symbol N2). Constituent of proteins, amino acids, and many other groups of chemicals, e.g. amines, al- Nitrosylmyoglobin The haem pigment of nitrite- kaloids and purines. cured meat. Formed by reaction of metmyoglobin Nitrogen compounds Compounds that contain the with nitric oxide. Contributes to the red colour of element nitrogen. cured meat, such as ham. Nitrogen dioxide Brown gas with the chemical for- Nitrous acid A weak acid with the chemical formula HNO . Used as a mutagen and in tests of the resistance mula NO2. 2 of bacterial spores. Implicated in the formation of Nitrogen monoxide Alternative term for nitric ox- nitric oxide in the gastrointestinal tract. ide. Nitrous oxide Colourless gas with the chemical for- Nitrogen solubility index One of the physico- mula N O, also known as dinitrogen oxide. Used as a chemical properties. Defined as the nitrogen con- 2 mild anaesthetic (laughing gas). tent of an aqueous extract of a sample obtained under 296 Nivalenol Nonthermal processes Nivalenol Trichothecene produced by Fusarium spp. Nonachlor Component of the organochlorine insecti- (e.g. F. nivale) during growth on foods such as wheat, cide chlordane. May accumulate in animal tissues rye, barley, corn and millet. and milk, where it persists for long periods. Nixtamalization Traditional process used to improve Nonanal Aldehyde important for the flavour and the nutritional quality of corn. Nixtamalization in- aroma of many foods. volves cooking and steeping corn in a lime solu- Nonanone Methyl ketone that is important for the tion, washing the corn (nixtamal) and stone grinding flavour and aroma of many foods including dairy nixtamal to form a corn dough or masa. Masa is used products, fruits and vegetables. to produce nixtamalized products (e.g. corn tortillas, Nonenal Aldehyde important for the aroma of many tortilla chips, corn chips and taco shells). foods. Also involved in formation of cardboard off N-Lite D Trade name (of National Starch) for a waxy flavour in beer. corn maltodextrin which is one of a number of fat Nonenzymic browning Food browning process substitutes used in dairy products, particularly promoted by heat treatment, which includes a wide ice cream. It imparts creaminess to low fat frozen range of reactions, such as the Maillard reaction, desserts, and improves their mouthfeel and melt- caramelization, chemical oxidation of phenols ing properties. and madeirization. NMR Abbreviation for nuclear magnetic reso- Noni Fruits of Morinda citrifolia which have a pun- nance. gent aroma when ripening. Used to produce fruit juices approved as novel foods by the European NO2 Chemical formula for nitrogen dioxide. Commission. Also called Indian mulberries, cheese Nocardia Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped or filamentous fruit or vomit fruit. Gram positive bacteria of the family Nocardiaceae. Noni juices Traditionally prepared in the Hawaian Occur in soil. Some species are causative agents of and Tahitan islands by ageing noni fruits (Morinda mastitis in cattle; outbreaks are uncommon, how- citrifolia; Indian mulberries) in closed vessels for sev- ever, and have typically been reported on dairy farms eral weeks, prior to consumption as a cure-all folk with poor hygiene and management conditions. Other medicine. Now commercially available globally in species may be used in the production of biosurfac- health beverages. In vitro studies suggest they can tants. A range of Nocardia species are used in bio- provide a range of health promoting effects, such as technological applications for production of a variety radical scavenging activity. Little clinical data ex- of enzymes and in bioconversions. ist to support such claims, but noni juice contains high levels of fibre, vitamin C and various phytochemi- Nocardiopsis Genus of alkalophilic bacteria of the cals. Pure noni juice has a bitter flavour, and com- family Nocardiopsaceae. Found in soil. Type species is mercial products usually contain other ingredients, Nocardiopsis dassonvillei. Producers of a number of such as grape juices. enzymes, including proteinases, glycosidases, pectate lyases, milk clotting enzymes and amy- Nono Nigerian fermented milk product. lases. Nonreducing sugars Sugars that do not have a free carbonyl group (ketone or aldehyde) and therefore are N-Oil Trade name (of National Starch) for tapioca- not able to act as reducing agents. derived dextrins that are used as fat substitutes in a wide range of low fat foods. Provide a creamy, fat- Nonstarch polysaccharides Components of die- like texture to foods such as salad dressings, tary fibre. Occur in 2 forms - insoluble and soluble. sauces, spreads and ice cream. Both types are found in many plant foods. Thought to provide a range of health benefits. Nomilin One of the limonoids with anticarcinogenic Nonthermal processes Processing techniques activity found in citrus fruits. Contributes to bitter- that do not require heat. Usually refers to food pas- ness of citrus juices. Can be added to foods as a teurization and sterilization treatments that do not flavour compound or bittering agent. employ heat during processing. Examples include: Nomograms Graphical plots in the form of line charts high pressure processing (inactivates vegetative which may be used to solve particular types of equa- microorganisms); ultrasonication (inactivates vege- tions. Scales for the variables involved in the formula tative bacteria and reduces heat resistance of bacte- are presented in a way such that corresponding values rial spores); high voltage electric pulse treatment for each variable are on a straight line intersecting all (electroporation; inactivates vegetative microorgan- scales. Thus, when values for two variables are known, isms); ionizing radiation treatment (inactivates the value of a third can be read from its scale. pathogens); high intensity light pulse treatment (in- 297 Noodles Nostoc activates vegetative bacteria); and high intensity North American Free Trade Agreement The magnetic fields processing (inactivates microorgan- North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a isms). trilateral regional pact that calls for the gradual re- Noodles Elongated, ribbon-like pasta made with moval of tariffs and other trade barriers on most goods eggs, and rice, wheat or buckwheat flour. Used in produced and sold in North America. NAFTA, which European and Oriental cuisine. Often used to add bulk became effective in Canada, Mexico and the USA on 1 to soups and stews. January 1994, built upon a 1989 trade agreement between the USA and Canada that eliminated or reduced Nootkatone Sesquiterpene that is one of the essential many tariffs between the two countries. NAFTA called aroma compounds in grapefruit. for immediate elimination of duties on half of all US Noradrenaline One of the catecholamines. It pro- goods shipped to Mexico and the gradual phasing out duces a wide range of physiological effects within of other tariffs over a period of about 14 years. The the body, including vasoconstriction, increases in heart treaty also protected intellectual property rights and rate and blood pressure, and release of glucose outlined the removal of restrictions on investment from energy stores. These effects are part of the fight- among the three countries. Mandates for minimum or-flight response that enables the body to respond to wages, working conditions and environmental protec- stressful situations. In animals, the release of cate- tion were added later as a result of supplemental cholamines as a result of preslaughter stress may be agreements signed in 1993. associated with poor meat quality. Also known as norepinephrine. Northern blotting A method for analysing RNA. RNA is separated by electrophoresis, transferred to a Norbixin One of the dicarboxylic carotenoid pig- chemically reactive matrix (e.g. nitrocellulose) on ments present in seeds of the shrub Bixa orellana. which it binds covalently in a pattern identical to that The main water soluble component of the natural or- on the original gel, and detected by complementary la- ange colorant, annatto. belled probes (RNA or single-stranded DNA) that hy- Nordihydroguaiaretic acid Phenolic lipid soluble bridize to specific RNA sequences. lipoxygenase inhibitor that is used mainly in antioxi- Norvegia cheese Norwegian semi-hard cheese simi- dants for fats and oils. Often abbreviated to NDGA. lar to Gouda cheese. Norflurazon Selective pyridazinone herbicide used for pre-emergence control of annual and perennial grasses Norwalk-like viruses Alternative term for norovi- and broad-leaved weeds around crops, including fruits ruses. and nuts. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present Norwalk viruses Small round structured vi- acute hazard in normal use. ruses of the genus Norovirus and family Caliciviri- Norharman ȕ-Carboline formed from tryptophan dae. Responsible for acute gastroenteritis in hu- during heating. Demethylated analogue of harman, its mans. Transmitted by the faecal-oral route via con- co-mutagen. taminated water and foods (e.g. shellfish and sal- Nori Dried seaweed product obtained from red algae ads). in the genus Porphyra (particularly P. tenera and P. Norway lobsters Marine species of lobsters (Neph- yezoensis). Popular in Japan, where it is often con- rops novergicus) found in the North Sea, the northeast sumed in toasted form. Good source of vitamin B12, Atlantic and the Mediterranean sea. Highly valued for dietary fibre and certain minerals; may possess an- their flesh. Marketed fresh (whole, tail meat with shell ticarcinogenicity. or shelled cooked or uncooked), frozen, semi- preserved or as a component of pastes and soups. Norisoprenoids C13 butene cyclohexene degradation products formed by the cleavage of carotenoids. Im- Also known as Dublin Bay prawns, langoustines portant aroma compounds in fruits, wines and and scampi. honeys. Includes both Į- and ȕ-ionones and ȕ- Nostoc Genus of filamentous cyanobacteria of the damascenone. family Nostocaceae. Occur naturally in damp habitats Noroviruses Enteric viruses of the family as green to black gelatinous colonies. Some species Caliciviridae, which cause viral gastroenteritis. produce high levels of phycobiliproteins, making them Foodborne transmission is usually associated with con- a potential source of natural pigments for use in sumption of contaminated water, molluscs or ready foods. Several species, e.g. Nostoc flagelliforme, are to eat foods. Person-to-person transmission is possi- eaten in various countries, including China. N. com- ble. Also known as Norwalk-like viruses or small mune is rich in dietary fibre and has been used in round structured viruses. functional foods. 298 Nougat Nutrient requirements Nougat Aerated confectionery products made with Nucleosides Compounds of purine or pyrimidine honeys or sugar, egg whites and starch syrups. bases with a sugar, usually ribose. Often contains nuts, dried fruits and/or cherries Nucleotidases EC 3.1.3.31. These phosphatases and may be either chewy or brittle in consistency. catalyse the dephosphorylation of nucleotides, form- Novagel Trade name (of FMC BioPolymer) for cellu- ing nucleosides and orthophosphate. Exhibit a wide lose gels consisting of microcrystalline cellu- specificity for 2c, 3c and 5c-nucleotides, and also hydro- loses and guar gums. Used as fat substitutes in a lyse glycerol phosphate and 4-nitrophenyl phosphate. variety of low fat foods, including salad dress- Nucleotides Compounds of purine or pyrimidine ings, processed cheese, dairy beverages and bases with a sugar phosphate. frozen desserts. Improves the mouthfeel, opacity Nucleotide sequences The order in which nucleo- and consistency of these foods. tides are situated in nucleic acids, such as DNA Novel foods Foods prepared using unconventional and RNA molecules. processes (particularly genetic technology), derived Nukazuke Japanese fish product consisting of fer- from unconventional sources or offering non- mented fish (usually sardine) in rice bran-based nutritional benefits. Examples include biotechno- pickles. logically derived foods, designer foods and medical foods. Nuoc-mam Fermented fish sauces produced by fermenting anchovy (or other small marine fish) in Novobiocin Narrow-spectrum antibiotic with anti- salt, flavourings and spices for long periods. The bacterial activity against many Gram positive resulting product is clear amber in colour. Used in bacteria. Frequently used in combination with peni- Vietnamese and Thai cuisine. cillins for treatment of mastitis in cattle, and to control cholera and staphylococcal infections in poultry. Nuruk Starters (comprising yeasts and other fungi) Withdrawal periods must be observed to ensure foods for Korean rice wines. from treated animals are safe; tolerance values are Nutmeg One of the spices, along with mace, de- specified for meat and milk. Use in poultry producing rived from seeds of Myristica fragrans. Kernels may eggs for human consumption is not permitted. be used whole, grated or ground. Characteristic fla- NPR Abbreviation for net protein ratio. vour compounds include Į- and ȕ-pinene, myris- NPU Abbreviation for net protein utilization. ticin, camphene, dipentene and sabanene. Nuclear magnetic resonance Spectroscopy Nutmeg oils Essential oils obtained by steam dis- technique based on the magnetic moment of atomic tillation of ground nutmeg (Myristica fragrans). nuclei. An external magnetic field will partially align Used as flavourings in bakery products, syrups, the axis of spin of spinning nuclei, but some precession beverages and sweets, for example. about the magnetic field will occur. The precession de- Nut oils Oils extracted from nuts, such as almonds, pends on the magnetic field applied and the magnetic hazelnuts and walnuts. Best used uncooked, as heat moment of the nucleus (dependent in turn on the often destroys their delicate flavour. chemical state of the atom), and is specific to the type Nut pastes Pastes made from nuts that are used as of nucleus. The precession rate, measured by emission the base for making confectionery fillings or nut or absorption of applied radiofrequency, is used to give spreads. details about the composition of the sample. Com- Nut products General term referring to products de- monly abbreviated to NMR. rived or prepared solely from nuts. Nuclear power Power generated by nuclear reactors Nutraceutical foods Alternative term for func- in nuclear power plants or stations. Accidents at nu- tional foods. clear power stations have caused fallout of radiocae- sium, and radioactive contamination of growing NutraSweet Registered brand or trade name of the foods. low calorie sweetener aspartame. Nucleases EC 3.1.11-EC 3.1.16 (exonucleases) and Nutria Large, semi-aquatic, herbivorous rodents of EC 3.1.21-EC 3.1.31 (endonucleases). Esterases the family Myocastoridae, also known as coypu. Nu- that cleave the phosphodiester bonds between nucleo- tria (Myocaster coypus) are found in most continents, tide subunits of nucleic acids. but originate from South America. Nutria provide meat that is low in fats and cholesterol, but mar- Nucleic acids Polymers of nucleotides in which the kets for this product have not been successfully estab- 3ƍ position of one nucleotide sugar is linked to the 5ƍ lished. position of the next by a phosphodiester bond. The two major types are DNA and RNA. Nutrient requirements Estimated levels of nutrients that are required to maintain health and prevent 299 Nutrients Nyufu diseases. Nutritional needs may vary according to Nutritional labelling Information appearing on la- age, gender, physical activity levels and state of belling or packaging of foods relating to energy and health. Various sets of reference values have been es- nutrients in the food. The information which must or tablished to provide guidance on nutrient recommenda- may be given, and the format in which it must appear, tions, including dietary reference intakes (DRI) and is governed by law in most countries. dietary reference values. Nutritional status State of the body in terms of the Nutrients Essential dietary factors, such as vitamins, consumption, utilization and stores of nutrients. minerals, amino acids and fatty acids, that are Nutritional values Indications of the potential contri- required by the body but cannot be synthesized in the bution that a food or food component can make to- body in adequate amounts to meet requirements, so wards appropriate nutrition. Includes measures of the must be provided by the diet. Nutrient deficiency can efficacy and quality of dietary constituents, such as cause poor growth, deformity, malfunctioning and ste- bioavailability and protein values, and nutritional rility. A range of characteristic deficiency diseases characteristics of foods and food components such as is recognized in humans. calorific values and glycaemic load. Nutritional values of foods may be affected by cultivation condi- Nutrigenetics The study of how a person's genetic tions, handling and storage practices, and proc- makeup affects their response to diet or specific nu- essing. trients. It aims to identify the effect of genetic variants on responses to nutrients and to relate this to the Nuts Fruits consisting of an edible kernel within a risk for various diseases. Has the potential to provide shell, the thickness and hardness of which varies a basis for personalized nutrition recommendations among types. Kernels have a high fat content and are based on the individual's genotype in order to pre- often used as the source of nut oils. They are also rich vent diseases before their clinical manifestation. It has in fibre, vitamin E, folic acid and a range of min- been applied in certain rare monogenic diseases, such erals. Nuts are generally available shelled or un- as phenylketonuria (PKU). shelled; shelled nuts are sold in many forms including raw, blanched, roasted and flavoured. They are eaten Nutrigenomics The study of how the diet or specific out of hand or used in a variety of sweet and savoury nutrients interact with genes to affect health and dishes. Commonly consumed nuts include walnuts, risk of developing various diseases. Understanding pistachio nuts, pine nuts, cashew nuts and al- gene-nutrient interactions provides a basis for monds. Some foods known as nuts are not true nuts, personalized nutrition recommendations based on an e.g. Brazil nuts are really seeds and peanuts are individual's genotype in order to prevent diseases be- legumes. fore their clinical manifestation. Nylon Family of strong, elastic polyamides materi- Nutrition Science of the relationship between foods, als, which vary from moderately flexible to strong, nutrients and health. A major aspect considered is the tough and rigid products. Can be shaped when heated way by which an organism absorbs and utilizes food into forms such as sheets, bristles and fibres. Resistant components. The study of nutrition involves identifica- to greases and oils. Used widely in food packaging tion of individual nutrients that are essential for growth applications and for the immobilization of en- and maintenance of the individual, interrelationships zymes and microorganisms. among nutrients within individual organisms, and Nypa Genus of palms. The nipa palm (Nypa fruti- quantitative requirements of organisms for specific nu- cans) is the source of a sugar-containing sap. trients under various environmental conditions in order Nystose Fructooligosaccharide comprising three fruc- to optimize health. tose residues and a glucose residue. Produced by Nutritional assessment Assessment of the nutrient hydrolysis of inulin or from sucrose via the action requirements or nutritional status of a person us- of fructosyltransferases. ing appropriate methods. Nyufu Type of fermented tofu. O

O2 Chemical symbol for oxygen gas. tis and A. strigosa, used as a cereal food. A rich source of vitamin B1; also rich in protein and high in fat. O2 absorbers Abbreviation for oxygen absorbers. Oak Hard, durable wood, usually with a distinct grain, Oat starch Starch isolated from oats. obtained from oak trees, which belong to the many Obesity Condition in which body wt. is excessive species within the genus Quercus. Used to impart a due to the accumulation of body fat. Commonly de- distinctive aroma and flavour to foods by various fined as a body mass index of t30 kg/m2; in con- methods, including smoking (e.g. for meat prod- trast to overweight (25-29.9 kg/m2). Associated with ucts and fish), storing and/or ageing in oak barrels increased risk of developing a range of diseases, (e.g. for wines and spirits), and addition of oak such as cardiovascular diseases, adult-onset dia- wood supplements or extracts. The term is also used to betes and some forms of cancer. Lifestyle interven- describe the smoky flavour and aroma characteristics tions to prevent or reverse obesity include adoption of of wines and spirits aged in oak barrels. a wt. loss diet, increased physical activity and/or Oat bran Outer layer found under the hull of the oat consuming functional foods designed for this pur- grain which forms the milling fraction. pose. Oat fibre Indigestible material derived from oats, Obesumbacterium Genus of strictly aerobic, rod- which comprises both soluble fibre and insoluble shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family En- fibre. Used in snack foods, bakery products and terobacteriaceae. Obesumbacterium proteus, a meat extenders. Consumption is reported to reduce common contaminant of brewers yeasts, is respon- serum cholesterol levels. sible for producing off odour and nitrosamines in Oat flakes Whole kernels of oats that are processed fermenting beer worts. by steaming, flattening through rollers and flaking Oca Common name for Oxalis tuberosa, the stem tu- (to retain most of their nutritional value) into quick bers of which are eaten like potatoes. The oxalic cooking oats. Flakes are white to golden in colour acid present in some cultivars can be removed by sun and are used in breakfast cereals, bakery prod- drying or freeze drying. Also known as iribia, cuiba ucts and for further processing into muesli. and New Zealand yams. Oat flour Ground oat grains from which their outer layers have been removed. Used as an ingredient in Ochratoxin A Most toxic of the known ochratox- bakery products and snack foods. ins. Produced by Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicil- lium verrucosum. Consumption of contaminated foods Oat gums Gums produced from oats that are com- (e.g. cereals, oleaginous seeds, poultry meat, posed predominantly of (1o3)(1o4)-ȕ-D-glucan (ȕ- grapes, wines, pulses and green coffee) gives glucans). Used as thickeners in foods. rise to human exposure. Potentially carcinogenic to Oatmeal Rolled or ground oats. Also refers to por- humans, and also nephrotoxic and weakly mutagenic. ridge made from rolled or ground oats. Contaminated feeds have a major impact on the Oat oils Oils extracted from oats. Highly unsaturated poultry industry, producing reduced wt. gain, poor and containing high levels of linoleic acid. feed conversion, reduced production of eggs and poor Oatrim Trade name for fibre-rich fat substitutes quality of egg shells. made from hydrolysed oat flour and oat bran con- Ochratoxins Mycotoxins produced by certain spe- taining 5% ȕ-glucans soluble fibre. Imparts a creamy cies of Penicillium (e.g. P. viridicatum) and Asper- mouthfeel to a range of foods, including bakery gillus (e.g. A. ochraceus) during growth on foods and products, salad dressings, confectionery and feeds (e.g. wheat, rye, barley, oats, corn and pea- dairy products. nuts). Nephrotoxic and carcinogenic in humans and Oats Edible starchy grain derived from plants belong- animals (e.g. cattle and swine) when ingested in con- ing to the genus Avena, particularly A. sativa, A. steri- taminated foods and feeds. 301 Octadecanoic acid Offal Octadecanoic acid Synonym for stearic acid, one OECD Abbreviation for Organization for Eco- of the fatty acids that occur naturally in the form of nomic Cooperation and Development. glycerides in animal fats and vegetable fats. Oedema Excessive accumulation of tissue fluid in Octadecenoic acid Synonym for oleic acid, an body tissues, leading to swelling. Popularly known as unsaturated fatty acid that occurs as the glyceryl ester dropsy. Causes of oedema include heart failure, kidney in fats and oils. One of the major fatty acids in cow failure, liver failure and malnutrition. Diuretic drugs milk. can relieve symptoms by causing the patient to pass Octanal Aldehyde contributing to the flavour of more urine. Allergic reactions may be accompanied by many foods. Formed by lipid oxidation. local oedema. Octanoic acid Synonym for caprylic acid, a satu- Oenococcus Genus of Gram positive, anaerobic, rated fatty acid that occurs in milk and coconut oils. coccoid lactic acid bacteria of the family Leu- conostocaceae. Oenococcus oeni is used as a starter Octanol Alcohol with a strong odour. Manufactured culture in winemaking, where it carries out by the action of concentrated NaOH on castor oils. malolactic fermentation. Produces esterases and Has good demulsifying and wetting power; used as a tannases which are important to wine flavour. foam reducing agent. Also known as octyl alcohol or capryl alcohol. Oenocyanins Infrequently used term for anthocyanins that occur in red grape skins. Used as Octanone Methyl ketone important for the flavour of natural colorants in foods. foods, especially mushrooms. Oenological properties Properties of ingredients 1-Octen-3-ol Chemical of the alcohols class (mo- such as winemaking grapes, musts and wine lecular formula C8H16O) present as one of the flavour yeasts which are of relevance in relation to wine- compounds in many foods, beverages and spices, making. including mushrooms in which it was originally discovered. Approved as a flavouring and imparts a Oestradiol Female sex hormone, one of the major mushroom-like, earthy, green, savoury, umami fla- oestrogens. Found at varying levels in a range of vour. foods. Implants of oestradiol-containing growth promoters can be used to improve the growth per- Octopine Guanidino amino acid that is formed as a formance of food animals and the characteristics of product of glycolysis in cephalopods, where it their carcasses, but this practice is banned in some may be used as an indicator of quality and freshness. countries due to concerns over the safety of the meat Octopus Any of a number of eight-armed cephalopod produced. molluscs from the order Octopoda. Widely distrib- Oestrogenic activity Having an action similar to uted in shallow marine waters. Many species are con- oestrogens. Exhibited by some dietary components, sumed, particularly in Japan and Mediterranean coun- particularly the phytoestrogens, isoflavonoids, tries. Marketed fresh and frozen; also as smoked and lignans and coumestans, which are present in a wide canned products. Ink sacs found in all species contain a variety of plant foods, including beans, cereals, black liquid that is sometimes used in food colorants grain, fruits and vegetables. or flavourings. Oestrogens Group of steroid hormones derived Octyl gallate One of several esters of gallic acid ultimately from cholesterol, in which carbon atoms 1 which are used as antioxidants in foods. Octyl to 6 are in the form of an aromatic ring. Natural oes- gallate (E311) is often combined with BHA and BHT. trogens are produced predominantly in the ovaries and Unstable at high temperatures. are responsible for development of female secondary Odour Alternative term for aroma. sexual characteristics and regulation of the menstrual Odour activity values Ratio of the concentration of cycle. Alternative spelling estrogens. aroma compounds present in a product to the Oestrone One of the oestrogens, systematic name odour threshold values. 3-hydroxyoestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-17-one. Produced by Odour threshold values Levels at which perception reduction of the androgen androstenedione or by oxi- of increasing concentrations of aroma compounds dation of 17ȕ-oestradiol. Alternative spelling es- begins. The concept of odour threshold is useful in de- trone. fining aroma purity, estimating the necessary amount Offal Animal foods described collectively as by- of starting material, serving as a reference point in de- products of animal slaughter. Offal includes all parts of scribing intensity and aroma quality, and evaluating the carcass that are cut away when the carcass is which components present are important in contribut- dressed, such as the intestines, kidneys and livers. ing to a characteristic aroma. In many cultures, edible portions of offal are consid- 302 Off flavour Olefins ered as delicacies. Kidneys, livers, brains, hearts tritional characteristics and may reduce the risk of cer- and sweetbreads (pancreas and thymus) are often tain diseases. May be used as food supplements. eaten, but other organs may be associated with cultural Oilseeds Seeds, e.g. sesame seeds, sunflower limits or taboos. Religious traditions often regard offal seeds and soybeans, from which vegetable oils as unclean and, accordingly, place restrictions on con- may be extracted. The oilseed cake or meal which re- sumption of offal. As carcass organs can form the foci mains after oils have been extracted is often used as a of infection, routine veterinary inspection of offal at livestock feed, since it is rich in protein. slaughterhouses is used to identify and exclude Oily fish Fish that contains oils throughout the fillet, diseased animals from the food chain. unlike white fish, which contains oils only in the Off flavour Taints perceived in the mouth upon tast- liver. Oil contents can be as high as 30%. Include ing a product. Off flavours are negative attributes, and mackerel, salmon, sardine, pilchards, kippers, affect the eating quality of foods; they may also in- herring and fresh (but not canned) tuna. Rich source dicate that a food is spoiled. of Ȧ-3 fatty acids, which provide a range of health Off odour Taints perceived in the nose when foods benefits, including reduced risk from cardiovascular are smelled. Off odours are negative attributes, and af- diseases. May also contain environmental pollutants, fect the eating quality of foods; they may also indi- such as methylmercury and dioxins. Hence, it is cate that a food is spoiled. recommended that boys, men and older women can eat 4 portions of oily fish per week before the risks begin Ogi Nigerian weaning food made by fermenting corn to outweigh the benefits, but that girls and women of gruel with lactic acid bacteria. May also be pre- childbearing age should restrict their weekly intake to pared with millet or sorghum. 2 portions. Ogiri West African fermented condiments used to Okadaic acid Polyether toxin produced by certain season soups or stews. Typically made from fer- dinoflagellate algae that can accumulate in bivalves. mented castor beans, melon seeds or sesame Causative agent of diarrhoetic shellfish poison- seeds. ing. Ohmic heating Thermal processing of foods us- Okara Fibre-rich by-product remaining after extraction ing energy produced in the form of heat when a current of soymilk from ground soybeans. Also rich in high passes through an electrical resistance. In this form of quality proteins. Used in soups, vegetable dishes, electric resistance heating, the food itself acts as a con- sausages and bakery products. ductor between a ground and a charged electrode. The Okra Common name for Abelmoschus esculentus. food may be immersed in a conducting liquid. Heating Good source of vitamin A and vitamin C. Immature is accomplished according to Ohm's law, where con- pods are eaten as vegetables, pickled or used to ductivity of the food determines the current that will thicken soups and stews. Also known as okro, lady's pass between the ground and electrode. Ohmic heating fingers, gumbo and bindi. can be used as a cooking technique, and also for pasteurization and sterilization. Oleandomycin Macrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces antibioticus. Used for growth promot- Oil expellers Equipment used in extraction of vege- ing purposes in swine, chickens and turkeys. Dis- table oils from oilseeds. Oils are pressed from the tributes widely in the tissues of animals following ad- source material using pressure from an auger, which ministration. Tolerance values are specified for edi- turns inside a barrel. The barrel is closed except for a ble tissues. single hole through which the extracted oil drains. Ex- pellers remove larger proportions of oil from seeds Oleanolic acid Positional isomer of ursolic acid. than can be achieved with hydraulic batch presses. One of the triterpenoids found in various foods, in- Also known as continuous screw presses. cluding herbs (e.g. sage, ginseng and Chinese hawthorn), olive oils, table olives, garlic and rai- Oil palms Palm trees, Elaeis guineensis, native to sins. Demonstrates antitumour activity, cardiopro- tropical Africa. Yield palm oils from the fleshy en- tective effects and strong antiviral activity, particu- dosperm of its seeds and palm kernel oils from the larly against the human immunodeficiency vi- seed kernels. ruses. Oils Lipid-rich, viscous substances derived from ani- Olefins Hydrocarbons containing one or more car- mal, vegetable or mineral sources that are liquid at bon double bond(s) whose names have the suffix -ene, room temperature and insoluble in water. e.g. ethene, but-1-ene, but-2-ene (the number desig- Oilseed proteins Proteins derived from oilseeds, nates the position of the double bond, between C1 and which have desirable functional properties and nu- C2 and between C2 and C3, respectively). Simple ole- 303 Oleic acid Omelettes fins have only one double bond. Synonymous with al- Olfactometry Measurement of the olfactory properties kenes. of a substance. Often used in conjunction with gas Oleic acid Monounsaturated fatty acid of 18 carbon chromatography in analysis of gaseous compo- atoms with the systematic name cis-ǻ9-octadecenoic nents. acid. Prepared by hydrolysis of animal fats, such as Oligo-1,6-glucosidases EC 3.2.1.10. Glycosi- tallow, or vegetable oils, such as olive oils, sun- dases which hydrolyse 1,6-Į-D-glucosidic linkages in flower oils and soybean oils. isomaltose and dextrins produced from starch and Olein One of the triglycerides, in which glycerol is glycogen by Į-amylases. Also known as isomalta- esterified with three molecules of oleic acid. A natu- ses, some preparations can catalyse the reaction of su- ral component of fats and oils, e.g. palm olein, crose Į-glucosidases. which is used as a cooking oil and for blending with Oligonucleotide probes Alternative term for gene other oils. Olein has been employed widely in the food probes. industry in stabilizers and in solvents for flavour- Oligonucleotides Short fragments of single-stranded ings and fat-soluble vitamins. Synonymous with tri- DNA, typically up to 20 nucleotides in length. olein and glyceryl trioleate. Oleomargarines Highly unsaturated fractions of Oligopeptides Peptides composed of a small num- tallow which have a low melting point and are sepa- ber of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. rated by fractionation. Used in manufacture of mar- Oligosaccharides Compounds comprising between garines. three and ten monosaccharides linked by glycosi- Oleoresins Extracts of oil-soluble components of dic bonds. Synthesis is by limited hydrolysis of plant materials, usually spices. Produced by direct polysaccharides or via addition of monosaccha- contact of the spices with highly hydrophobic organic rides, a process catalysed by glycosyltransferases. solvents, e.g. hexane. The organic solvents can then be Oligouronides Oligosaccharides containing resi- evaporated to concentrate the extract. Used as fla- dues of uronic acids, such as glucuronic acid and vourings by the food industry. Oleoresins are cheaper galacturonic acid. May be produced by hydroly- to produce than essential oils and easier to use than sis of pectins or polyuronides. spices, but do not have the full flavour profile of es- Olive oil mills effluents Waste water produced dur- sential oils. ing processing of olive oils which have high levels Oleosins Alkaline proteins found in the oil bodies of of organic aliphatic and aromatic compounds and plant seeds. often represent an environmental problem in areas Olestra Generic name for calorie-free, thermally stable where olive oil is produced. sucrose polyesters that have been used as fat Olive oils Oils that are rich in monounsaturates and substitutes in certain foods in the US. Olestra is a are derived from the mesocarp of fruits of the olive mixture of hexa-, hepta- and octa-esters of sucrose, tree, Olea europaea. Virgin olive oil is produced from formed by reaction between sucrose and fatty acid the first pressings of ripe olives, while other grades esters obtained from edible fats and oils. As olestra are produced from subsequent pressings and then re- is neither metabolized nor absorbed by the body, it can fined. Used in cooking or in salad dressings. reduce the intake of energy from dietary fats. As a result of studies showing that olestra could cause diges- Olive pomace oils Oils extracted from the solid tive disturbances and also absorb fat-soluble vitamins residues (pomaces) remaining after pressing olives for virgin olive oils. Chemical solvents are used and carotenoids, it was subject, for a while, to specific labelling conditions, limitation to specific food (usually hexane), together with heat, to extract the re- applications (certain snack foods), and to fortifica- maining oils from the pomace. tion (with vitamins A, D, E and K). These conditions Olives Fruits produced by Olea europea with fleshy have subsequently been lifted, and olestra now has ap- pulp and stony kernels. Change from green to black as proval for use in specified food applications in the US. they mature. Used as table olives or a source of olive Also known under the trade name Olean, marketed by oils. Table olives (black and green) are pickled in Procter and Gamble. brines. Olives are sometimes pitted (stone removed) Oleuropein One of the phenols present in olives and stuffed with vegetables, such as pimento pep- and olive oils, responsible for their bitterness. Be- pers and onions, or other foods. fore consumption, olives are debittered by hydrolysis Omelettes Eggs which have been beaten, sometimes of oleuropein, e.g. by fermentation or NaOH treat- with seasonings and other ingredients such as milk, ment. and fried. May be plain or filled with savoury or sweet fillings, e.g. cheese or jams. 304 Omethoate Orange juice concentrates Omethoate Organophosphorous pesticide used to Operons Groups of contiguous structural genes and control insects and mites infesting fruits, hops, their associated control elements that are found in cereals, potatoes, ornamentals and other crops. prokaryotes and which are transcribed as single Classified by WHO as highly hazardous (WHO Ib). transcription units from common promoters, Omija Raspberry-like fruits produced by Schizandra thereby allowing coordinated regulation. The structural chinensis, also called the five taste tree. Used in orien- genes within operons may or may not be related in tal medicine and also in fruit punch and fruit tea. function, e.g. they may encode enzymes of particular Oncom Alternative term for ontjom. metabolic pathways. Onigusa Japanese name for red seaweeds of the Optical density A measure of light absorption of a genus Gelidium. Found in intertidal or subtidal areas in translucent medium, equivalent to the logarithm of the many parts of the world; normally found in greater opacity. In the food industry, optical density is used abundance in exposed coastal areas. Primarily used as in measurements of various parameters, including tur- a source of agar for processing of food and beverages. bidity, browning and bacterial growth. Some species are consumed in fresh, dried, pickled or Optical properties Physical properties relating to jelly forms, particularly in Asian countries. the appearance of a product, including clarity, col- Onions Underground bulbs of Allium cepa, composed our, reflectance, turbidity and fluorescence. of fleshy leaf bases, and varying in size, shape, colour Optical rotation Ability of some compounds to rotate and flavour according to variety. Not rich in nutri- a plane of polarized light due to asymmetry of the ents, but a good source of flavour in cooking. Fresh molecule. If the plane of light is rotated to the right, the and dried onion products are used in sauces and a vari- substance is dextrorotatory and is designated by the ety of dishes, including soups, stews and salads, prefix (+); if the plane of light is rotated to the left, the and are essential ingredients of pickles and chut- substance is laevorotatory, and the prefix is (-). A mix- neys. Available also canned, pickled and frozen. ture of the two forms is optically inactive and is termed Ontjom A tempeh-like fermented product made usu- racemic. Sucrose is dextrorotatory but is hydrolysed ally from press cake of peanuts, although other start- to glucose (dextrorotatory) and fructose which is ing materials, such as okara, can be used. Neurospora more strongly laevorotatory; therefore, hydrolysis sitophila is used to ferment ontjom, giving an orange- changes the optical activity from (+) to (-). A mixture red covering to the product. Deep-fried slices are con- of glucose and fructose is termed invert sugar. sumed as side dishes. Also known as oncom. Oral food challenges One of several clinical tech- Oocysts Spherical cysts which form around two con- niques used for the diagnosis of food allergies. Sus- jugating gametes in the sporozoa of certain protozoans. pected foods are given orally in a titrated manner, Extremely resistant to adverse environmental condi- starting at a low dose, until a clear clinical reaction is tions. presented or it becomes clear that the food is tolerated. The double-blind, placebo controlled food challenge is Oolong tea Type of tea in which the tea leaves have the gold standard of diagnosis, however, simpler open been partially fermented, rather than not fermented (as in green tea) or fully fermented (as in black tea). or single-blind challenge procedures may be used in some situations. Opacity Degree of obstruction an item produces to the Orange beverages Beverages orange transmission of visible light. based on juices, orange extracts or comminuted oranges. Opalescence A pearly or milky mineral lustre resem- Orange essential oils Essential oils bling that of opal, resulting from the characteristic in- produced by orange peel ternal play of colours, in turn resulting from the reflec- compression of that are composed pre- D-limonene but may also contain other tion and refraction of light passing through adjacent dominantly of aroma compounds, including octanal, myrcene, thin layers of different water content. linalool, decanal, sinensal, ethyl butyrate and Opaque 2 Variety of corn bred to contain higher valencene. Composition of the essential oils is depend- levels of amino acids such as lysine and lower con- ent on the species of orange from which they are pro- centrations of zein. duced. Operators Sites within prokaryotic operons where Orange juice beverages Beverages based on repressor proteins bind to the DNA, thereby inhibit- orange juices in combination with other ingredients. ing transcription of adjacent genes. Typically con- Orange juice concentrates Orange juices which sist of or contain palindromic sequences, and may lie have been concentrated; commonly used for prepara- between promoters and the first structural genes of tion of reconstituted orange juices or fruit juice operons, or may overlap or even occur within promot- beverages. ers. In some operons, two operators may be present. 305 Orange juices Organic sulfur compounds Orange juices Fruit juices extracted from oranges Organic acids Organic compounds consisting of (Citrus sinensis). Rich in vitamin C. one or more substituents with the chemical formula - Orange peel Outer skin or rind of oranges com- CO(OH). Examples include fatty acids, citric acid posed of the coloured flavedo (or zest) and the inner and acetic acid. Include carboxylic acids. white albedo (or pith). Used to make candied peel, as a Organic compounds Compounds based on a skele- garnish or to add flavour to bakery products and a ton of one or more carbon atoms. In their simplest range of dishes. forms, carbon atoms are bound to each other and to Orange roughy Deepwater marine fish species hydrogen (e.g. hydrocarbons); these include paraf- (Hoplostethus atlanticus), widely distributed in the At- fins and olefins. More complex organic compounds lantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Increasingly targeted have one or more hydrogen atoms substituted with as a food fish, particularly off the coast of New Zea- other elements or groups, e.g. halogens, nitrogen, sul- land. Flesh is prized for its firm texture and delicate, fur, hydroxyl groups, as in organic halogen com- shellfish-like flavour. Marketed fresh and frozen. pounds, organic nitrogen compounds, organic Oranges Citrus fruits of 3 main types - sweet, loose sulfur compounds and alcohols, respectively. skinned and bitter. The juicy pulp may or may not con- Carbon atoms may form linear structures and ring tain seeds according to cultivar. All are rich in vita- structures; a hydrocarbon ring comprising six carbon min C, some B vitamins and minerals. The sweet atoms and six hydrogen atoms is known as a benzene orange (Citrus sinensis) has the highest commercial ring and organic compounds containing this structure production and is used for eating fresh and extraction or derived from it are known as arenes or aromatic of orange juices. These include navel, Valencia and compounds. blood oranges. Loose skinned oranges include man- Organic foods Foods produced by organic farming darins and tangerines. Bitter oranges, also Seville methods, i.e. without the use of chemical fertilizers or or sour oranges, are too sour to eat raw, and are used in pesticides, and without any additives. The aim is to making marmalades, food flavourings, liqueurs, provide high quality, healthy food free from chemical such as curacao, and candied peel. residues. In the case of livestock, strict attention is Orange wines Fruit wines made using oranges or paid to animal welfare, growth promoters are orange juices as starting material. Many different banned and use of veterinary drugs is kept to a mini- types of oranges are used. Usually consumed as an mum. Organic foods are regarded as a healthy, envi- aperitif or dessert wine. ronmentally friendly option by the consumer, but fu- Orbignya Genus of palms including the cohune palm ture market growth is uncertain due to problems asso- (Orbignya cohune) and the babassu palm (O. phaler- ciated with high prices and provision of consistent ata). Fruits are used as a source of palm oils and quality. food. Organic halogen compounds Organic compounds Oregano Common name for Origanum vulgare and which contain one or more carbon atoms other members of this genus native to Europe (O. syri- linked via covalent bonding to one or more halogen organochlo- acum, O. compactum and O. onites but not O. majo- atoms (F, Cl, Br, I). This group includes rine compounds polybrominated biphenyls rana which is the source of the spice marjoram), the , chlorofluorocarbons leaves of which are used as spices. Mexican oreg- and . ano is produced from Lippia spp. which are cultivated Organic nitrogen compounds Organic com- predominantly in the Americas. Carvacrol is the main pounds containing one or more carbon atoms linked aroma compound of oregano. via covalent bonding to nitrogen. Amino acids, purines pyrimidines alkaloids Oregano oils Essential oils extracted from oreg- , and are all exam- ano. Rich in phenols. Possess antimicrobial activ- ples of these compounds. ity and are used to protect packaged foods, e.g. fish or Organic pet foods Pet foods (mainly dog foods meat, from spoilage. Also possess antioxidative and cat foods) made from organic ingredients. Or- activity. ganic products include dried pet foods, bones, offal pet treats Oreochromis Genus of freshwater fish belonging preparations, , moist foods and vegetar- to the family Cichlidae, many of which are of com- ian items. Tend to be more expensive than their con- mercial importance. Found in lakes and rivers across ventional counterparts. Africa. Include tilapia, with the most important spe- Organic sulfur compounds Organic com- cies in commercial terms being Oreochromis nilotica pounds which contain one or more sulfur atoms, ei- (Nile tilapia) and O. mossambicus (Mozambique tila- ther linked directly to a carbon atom via covalent pia). bonding or indirectly via an oxygen atom. Examples include thiols, methionine and allicin. 306 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Osmoregulation Organization for Economic Cooperation and insecticides and acaricides, and some antifungal Development An international organization founded agents. in 1961 which provides a setting where governments Organotin compounds Organic compounds compare policy experiences, seek answers to common which contain one or more atoms of tin. Uses include problems, identify good practice and coordinate do- as pesticides and fungicides. Regarded as con- mestic and international policies. Commonly abbrevi- taminants of foods, since some organotin compounds ated to OECD, it succeeded the Organization for Euro- have been shown to be toxic when tested in animal pean Economic Cooperation, an agency founded in models. Examples include butyltins and triphenyltin 1948 to direct reconstruction efforts in European na- (fentin). tions devastated by World War II. In 2007, the OECD Original gravity Amount of extract (soluble material) comprised governments of 30 member nations de- present in worts, as calculated from the amount of scribed as being committed to democracy and the mar- non-fermented extract left in the finished beer, to- ket economy from around the world. It publishes a gether with the amount of extract equivalent to the broad range of statistics and forecasts, on areas includ- quantity of ethanol present in the beer. ing agriculture, economic development and aid, educa- Ornithine Non-protein amino acid derived from L- tion, employment, energy, the environment, health, arginine by hydrolysis. Intermediate of the urea science and technology, taxation and trade. Also, it cycle in terrestrial vertebrates. Has an amino propane hosts various meetings, including annual meetings of side chain and is also termed 2,5-diaminopentanoic finance and economic ministers from the member na- acid. tions. Orotic acid Synonym for vitamin B13. An intermedi- Organobromine compounds Organic halogen ate in the biosynthesis of pyrimidines, and growth compounds containing one or more carbon-bromine factor for some microorganisms. bonds. Include polybrominated biphenyls such as Ortanique Cross between oranges and tangerines polybrominated diphenyl ethers, which are flame with a distinctive acid-sweet flavour, very juicy flesh retardants sometimes found as contaminants in en- and thin skin. Flesh is deep orange in colour with few vironmental matrices, including fish. or no seeds. Organochlorine compounds Organic com- Orthocide Alternative term for the fungicide captan. pounds which contain one or more carbon-chlorine Oryzaephilus Grain beetles of the order Coleoptera. bonds. Examples include organochlorine insecti- Some (e.g. Oryzaephilus surinamensis and O. merca- cides, organochlorine pesticides and solvents, tor) are pests of stored cereal grains (e.g. wheat, such as chloroform and methylene chloride. rice and barley). Organochlorine insecticides Class of insecti- Oryzanols Ferulic acid esters of terpene alcohols cides which are used widely for control of insects commonly prepared from rice bran oils but which on crops and in food storage areas. May persist for have also been extracted from corn oils and barley long periods in the environment and in animal tissues. oils. Used predominantly as antioxidants. Some of the highly persistent products, such as aldrin, Oryzenin Glutelin which is one of the main storage DDT and endrin, are subject to the Stockholm Con- proteins in rice. vention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, and their use has been discontinued in many countries. O2 scavengers Abbreviation for oxygen scavengers. Organochlorine pesticides Major class of pesti- Osladin Steroidal saponins and the main active cides comprising chlorine-containing organic com- sweet component of rhizomes of the fern Polypodium pounds. Includes organochlorine insecticides. vulgare. Osladin is glycosylated with two disaccharide Organoleptic evaluation Alternative term for sen- units of 2-O-Į-L-rhamnopyranosyl-ȕ-D-glucopyranose. sory analysis. Also known as polypodoside A. Organoleptic properties Alternative term for sen- Osmolality Concentration of osmotically active parti- sory properties. cles in a solution, measured in osmoles of solute/kg of Organophosphorus insecticides Class of insec- solvent. ticides which are widely used for control of insects Osmolarity Concentration of osmotically active parti- in crops and food storage. Act as inhibitors of choli- cles in a solution, measured in osmoles of solute/litre nesterases. of solution. Organophosphorus pesticides Major class of Osmoregulation Regulation of osmotic pressure, pesticides comprising phosphorus-containing or- especially in the body of a living organism. ganic compounds. Include organophosphorus 307 Osmosis Oxacillin Osmosis Passage of water through a differentially fiddleheads, which are eaten as a vegetable in sal- permeable membrane, from a region of low concentra- ads or in soups. Also called the fiddlehead fern. tion of solutes to one of higher concentration. Osmosis Ostrich meat Meat from ostriches. Ostrich car- stops if the pressure of the more concentrated solution casses contain a large proportion of lean meat, the exceeds that of the less concentrated solution by an majority of which is found in the 10 major muscles of amount known as the osmotic pressure between the legs and thighs. Meat from the thigh region is dark- them. est in colour whilst meat from the iliotibialis cranialis Osmotic dehydration Alternative term for osmotic is a bright red colour. Ostrich meat has a low fat con- drying. tent compared with other red meats. Ostrich meat products include sausages, salami, steaks, Osmotic drying Water removal preservation tech- meat mince, burgers and biltong. nique based on the water and solubility activity gradient across a cell's semi-permeable membrane. In- Ouzo Aniseed flavoured spirits produced in Greece. volves immersing high moisture foods in an osmotic Usually drunk mixed with, or accompanied by, water. solution, usually of sugar or salt. Water flows out of Ovalbumins Predominant proteins in the whites of the material, and solute may flow in, depending on the eggs (egg whites) produced by poultry including conditions. Osmotic drying with osmotic syrup recy- chickens, ducks, geese and guinea fowl. cling requires less energy than convection drying. At Ovens Enclosed chambers or compartments in which relatively low process temperatures (up to 50qC), it foods are cooked or heated, for example during bak- improves product colour and flavour retention. Ap- ing and roasting. plication tends to be restricted, such as to fruits, Overrun A term describing the amount of air incorpo- vegetables and fish, as simultaneous solute transfer rated into foods such as ice cream. Ice cream overrun into the foods can affect product quality. is calculated as the percentage difference in volume Osmotic pressure Pressure generated by water or between an amount of ice cream mix and the amount other solvents flowing between two solutions of dif- of ice cream produced from it. fering concentration through a semi-permeable mem- Overweight Condition in which a person's body wt. brane. Also the pressure needed to stop or oppose this exceeds a standard or reference value due to excessive force so as to prevent normal osmosis or undertake stores of fat. In general, adults with a body mass in- reverse osmosis. dex of between 25 and 29.9 kg/m2 are categorized as Osmotic stress Stress exerted on an item when overweight. Both overweight and obesity are associ- under osmotic pressure. ated with an increased risk of developing a range of Osteoporosis Weakening and brittleness of the diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, bones, resulting in them becoming liable to fracture. adult-onset diabetes and some forms of cancer. Generalized osteoporosis occurs most commonly in the Lifestyle interventions to prevent or reverse over- elderly, and in women following the menopause; it can weight include adoption of a wt. loss diet and/or in- also result from long-term steroid therapy, infection or creased physical activity. injury. The role of nutrition in the prevention and Overwrapping Packaging technique in which sev- treatment of the disease is not clear, but increased in- eral packs or multipacks are wrapped together often takes of calcium and vitamin D have been suggested with cellophane or other plastics films to form a to be beneficial. Regular exercise has an important single unit. positive impact on osteoporosis, stimulating bone me- Ovine Affecting, resembling or relating to sheep. tabolism. Ovomucins Sulfated glycoproteins found in egg Ostiepok cheese Slovak plasticized, smoked whites which are responsible for their gel structure. cheese made from ewe milk. Possess antiviral activity and act as trypsin inhibi- Ostriches Large, flightless, fast-running African tors. birds (Struthio camelus) belonging to the Struthioni- Ovomucoid Heat resistant glycoproteins found in dae family. In recent years, popularity of ostrich egg whites. Show activity as trypsin inhibitors. meat has increased in many countries; consequently, Ovotransferrin Glycoproteins found in egg ostrich farming has expanded greatly and is now popu- whites. Possesses antimicrobial activity. Also lar in many European and Scandinavian countries as known as conalbumin. well as in Africa. Oxacillin Semisynthetic isoxazolyl penicillin with Ostrich fern Common name for Matteuccia struthiop- resistance to ȕ-lactamases. Used to treat bacterial teris. The tightly curled tips of the young fronds are the infections in food-producing animals. Maximum 308 Oxalates Oxygen absorbers residue limits (MRL) are specified for milk, meat, hol, drugs, excessive physical activity, poor nu- livers, kidneys and animal fats. trition, trauma, cold or toxins. Oxalates Salts and esters of oxalic acid. Present Oxides Chemical compounds containing oxygen. at high concentrations in fruits and vegetables, e.g. Examples include many salts, nitric oxide (NO) potatoes, spinach, rhubarb, plums, tea and some which is an important biological signalling molecule, nuts, where they are regarded as antinutritional and cholesterol oxides. Superoxides and perox- factors. High concentrations of oxalates in urine are ides are reactive oxygen species. associated with formation of renal stones. Oxidizing agents Chemical additives capable of Oxalic acid Organic acid comprising two carboxylic oxidation which are themselves reduced during the acid groups which has many industrial applications in- process, i.e. they gain electrons. Food industry oxidiz- cluding clarification of fats and oils, and acid hy- ing agents include chlorine dioxide, which is used drolysis of starch to produce sugar syrups. Pre- as an antimicrobial agent for disinfection of drink- sent as oxalates in fruits and vegetables, e.g. ing water, and iodates, which are used as dough spinach, beets and strawberries, where they are conditioners. considered to be antinutritional factors due to their Oxidoreductases EC 1. Enzymes that catalyse involvement in formation of renal stones. oxidation-reduction reactions between an oxidant Oxaloacetic acid Organic acid which is an interme- (electron acceptor) and a reductant (electron donor). diate in the citric acid cycle where its reaction with This group includes dehydrogenases, oxidases acetyl-CoA produces citrate-CoA which is hydrolysed and reductases. to citrate. Also known as oxosuccinic acid. Oxolinic acid One of the quinolones. Used for Oxamyl Contact and systemic insecticide, acaricide treatment of bacterial infections in cattle, swine, chick- and nematocide used to control chewing and sucking ens and farmed fish. Maximum residue limits insects, spider mites and nematodes in a wide (MRL) are specified for fish flesh with skin, and for range of fruits and vegetables. Classified by WHO meat, livers, kidneys, animal fats with or without as highly hazardous (WHO Ib). skin, and eggs from the other animals. Not for use in Oxen Adult castrated male cattle, particularly those cattle producing milk for human consumption. used as draft animals. In broader use, the term is used Oxtail The skinned tail of all categories of cattle. to describe all domesticated bovine animals kept for Oxtail has a high percentage of bone running through draft purposes, and for meat or milk production. the middle and has a high fat content. The tails of older Oxidants Chemicals that are capable of causing the animals contain greater proportions of meat than those oxidation of other chemicals, i.e. they donate oxy- of younger animals. It is usually sold jointed into gen or remove electrons. pieces. Small pieces of oxtail are often used to prepare oxtail soups or stocks, whilst larger pieces may be Oxidases EC 1.-.3. Oxidoreductases that catalyse cooked by braising. Oxtail requires long, slow cooking reactions in which oxygen (O ) acts as an acceptor. 2 to extract the best flavour. Oxidation Addition of oxygen to a compound, for Oxygen Element with an atomic weight of 16 and an example using oxidizing agents. Also includes reac- atomic mass number of 8. Most common form of free tions in which atoms in the reacting materials lose oxygen is the diatomic species, molecular oxygen (O ). electrons, frequently together with the removal of hy- 2 Oxygen is the most abundant element of the Earth (air drogen ions. Oxidation-reduction reactions always oc- is composed of approximately 20% O ). Essential for cur simultaneously; if one reactant is oxidized, another 2 respiration in animals and aerobic microorganisms, must be reduced. produced by photosynthesis and is a common substitu- Oxidation reduction potential Alternative term for ent of organic compounds, including biopoly- redox potential. mers, such as proteins and polysaccharides. Re- Oxidative stability Extent to which a substance can action of foods with oxygen (oxidation) is a common withstand the stress of oxidation. cause of food spoilage, e.g. oxidation of fats and Oxidative stress A state characterized by excess oils causes rancidity, and presence of oxygen may free radicals or a decrease in antioxidants levels allow growth of aerobic food spoilage microorganisms. which can result in cellular damage. Oxidative stress is Oxygen absorbers Materials which reduce the oxy- involved in various diseases, such as neurodegen- gen contents of food containers and maintain them at erative diseases and atherosclerosis, and may a very low level. This inhibits the growth of microor- also promote accelerated ageing. Many factors can ganisms and insects, and oxidative chemical reac- lead to oxidative stress, including exposure to alco- tions, increasing the stability and shelf life of the 309 Oxygenases Ozone packaged products. Also referred to as oxygen scav- Oyster nuts Seeds produced by Telfairia pedata. engers. Used as a source of oils or eaten roasted. Similar in Oxygenases EC 1.13-EC 1.14. Enzymes that cata- flavour to almonds. lyse the incorporation of molecular oxygen from O2 Oyster plant Alternative term for salsify. into the compound oxidized. Dioxygenases (which contain Fe) incorporate two atoms of oxygen, while Oysters Common name for marine or freshwater bi- monooxygenases incorporate only one atom. valve molluscs in the family Ostreidae; distributed Oxygen scavengers Alternative term for oxygen worldwide. Prized for flavour and texture of flesh, absorbers. which ranges from creamy beige to pale grey in colour. Many species are commercially important, in- Oxymyoglobin Bright red pigments which repre- cluding Ostrea edulis (flat oysters), Crassostrea gigas sent the reduced form of myoglobin. In oxymyoglo- (Pacific oysters) and C. virginica (blue point oysters). bin, oxygen is bound to the ligand, and the haem Marketed live (in shell), fresh (shucked), frozen, dried, group of myoglobin is in the ferrous (Fe2+) state. When smoked and semi-preserved. fresh meat is cut and a new surface is exposed to oxygen, the surface colour changes from dark purple to Oyster sauces Sauces used in Oriental dishes, par- bright red; this colour change, associated with oxymy- ticularly in Chinese dishes. Prepared by proteolysis oglobin formation, is known as bloom. of oysters tissues. Oxytetracycline One of the tetracyclines. Used for Ozonation Application of ozone (O3), usually pro- treatment and control of a wide range of bacterial induced by electrical discharge or using UV light, to fections in cattle, swine, sheep, poultry, fish, lobsters items such as foods to reduce counts of microorgan- and honey bees. Residues may persist in foods de- isms and/or delay ripening. Food industry uses in- rived from these animals and withdrawal times vary clude the purification of drinking water, disinfec- with species and formulation. Use in lactating dairy tion of process water, washing of fresh produce, cattle, veal calves and poultry producing eggs for sanitation of food plant equipment and extension of human consumption is generally not permitted. Syn- produce shelf life. onymous with terramycin. Oxytocin Peptide hormone (nine amino acids) syn- Ozone Form of oxygen comprising three oxygen thesized in the posterior pituitary gland. Stimulates atoms (O3). This gas is a strong oxidizing agent with uterine smooth muscle to induce uterine contractions broad spectrum antimicrobial activity and the abil- and promote labour. Also induces secretion of milk in ity to delay ripening in fruits and vegetables by response to a suckling stimulus. reacting with the ethylene that they produce. Used within the food industry for disinfection, water Oyster mushrooms Mushrooms of the genus treatment and shelf life extension. Also known as Pleurotus. triatomic oxygen. P

Pachysolen Genus of yeasts of the family Sac- Packaging materials Substances used to make charomycetaceae. Pachysolen tannophilus is used in packs. Packaging for foods is commonly made the production of xylitol from hemicellulose hydro- from a variety of materials, including glass, plas- lysate and in the production of ethanol. tics, rubber, wood and paper, which are formed Pacific hake Marine fish species (Merluccius pro- into a range of container types. The type of material ductus, M. gayi gayi or M. gayi peruanus) of high chosen depends on the product to be packaged and the commercial importance. Widely distributed in the east- intended use. ern Pacific Ocean. Marketed fresh and frozen and Packed bed bioreactors Bioreactors generally cooked in a number of ways, including steaming, comprising a vessel filled with immobilized cells or boiling and frying. Also used in fish meal produc- immobilized enzymes. Media or substrate solution. tion, respectively, flows through the vessel in one di- Pacific mackerel Marine fish species (Scomber rection, and no mixing of the reactor contents usually japonicus) from the mackerel family (Scombridae); occurs. Can be used for continuous or batch biocon- distributed in the Indo-Pacific. Commercially impor- versions or enzymic reactions. Also known as plug- tant food fish (especially in Japan). Flesh has high fat flow bioreactors. content with a strongly distinctive savoury flavour. Packinghouses Establishments in which products are Marketed fresh, frozen, smoked, salted and occasion- packed. ally canned. Also known as chub mackerel. Pacific ocean perch Marine fish species (Sebastes Packs Containers of varying shapes and sizes made alutus) found in offshore waters of the North Pacific from paper, plastics, cardboard or other materials region. Important commercial food fish. Marketed that are used to enclose items such as food. The term is fresh or frozen (whole or fillets); livers are used as a also used to describe items or groups of items which source of vitamin-rich oils. are packed in containers or enclosed in packaging materials. Pacific salmon General name referring to any of the six species of salmon (cherry, chinook, chum, coho, Paclobutrazol Heterocyclic organochlorine com- pink and sockeye salmon) occurring in the North Pa- pound which is used as a plant growth regulator and cific Ocean. All are highly valued food fish. fungicide. Inhibits synthesis of gibberellins which Pacific whiting Marine fish species (Merluccius consequently retards growth and enhances flowering productus) from the hake family (Merluccidae), found and fruiting. For this reason, fruit trees are often in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. A commercially im- treated with paclobutrazol. portant food fish; usually marketed frozen, as flesh Pacu Name given to fruit-eating freshwater fish quality rapidly deteriorates following capture. Also species, including Piaractus mesopotamicus, found known as Pacific hake. mainly in Brazil and related to the piranha. Commonly Packaging Enclosure or wrapping of products. produced by aquaculture. Marketed fresh and fro- Functions include product containment for handling, zen. transportation and use, preservation, optimization of Paddlefish Freshwater fish species (Polyodon product presentation, hygiene and to facilitate product spathula) of commercial importance belonging to the dispensing and use. The term covers retail (primary), family Polyodontidae. Found in North American river grouped (secondary) and transport (tertiary) forms. systems. Used to make surimi. Paddlefish roes are Packaging films Packaging materials in the form used as caviar substitutes. of thin sheets which can be wrapped round a product. Paddy Rice that remains in the husks. Refers to rice Films can be made from synthetic materials, such as when still in the field or after threshing. Also refers to plastics, or natural substances, such as whey pro- a field used for growing rice that is subject to irriga- teins. tion or flooding. 311 Padi straw mushrooms Palms Padi straw mushrooms Alternative term for the sive colour variation, poor water binding capacity edible fungi Volvariella volvacea. and decreased water holding capacity occur in PSE Paecilomyces Genus of mitosporic fungi of the meat, making it unsuitable for further processing. family Trichocomaceae. Occur in soils, foods, fruit Halothane sensitivity tests have been used to juices and plant debris. Some species (e.g. Paecilo- screen breeding swine for porcine stress syndrome, a myces variotii, a thermophile) may be responsible for genetic disorder which enhances susceptibility to the spoilage of foods (e.g. oilseeds, cereals, stress, with the aim of reducing the propagation of the bread, meat and cheese). Paecilomyces spp. pro- PSE defect in breeding herds. duce industrially important enzymes. Palmarosa Cymbopogon martini or East Indian gera- Paenibacillus Genus of facultatively anaerobic Gram nium, a plant whose leaves are used as spices. Pal- positive bacteria of the family Paenibacillaceae. marosa essential oils are also used as flavourings, The type species is Paenibacillus polymyxa. Members having a sweet rose-like aroma with herbaceous un- can fix nitrogen, produce antimicrobial com- dertones due to the presence of the aromatic alcohols pounds and synthesize hydrolytic enzymes. En- geraniol and nerol. dospore-forming Paenibacillus spp. can survive HTST Palm hearts Young apical shoots (also called cab- pasteurization and are important spoilage bacte- bages) of palms, used as a vegetable. Long and slen- ria in milk. P. larvae is a pathogen of honey bees and der with a delicate, artichoke-like flavour. Available causes an infectious disease called American foul- fresh in some countries; otherwise, sold canned in wa- brood. P. larvae spores can contaminate honeys. ter. Used in salads or in cooked dishes. Also known PAGE Abbreviation for polyacrylamide gel elec- as hearts of palm. trophoresis. Palmitic acid Saturated fatty acid containing 16 car- PAH Abbreviation for polycyclic aromatic hydro- bon atoms. Present as glyceride esters in many fats carbons or polynuclear aromatic hydrocar- and oils, including palm oils, from which it is com- bons. monly obtained. Pak choi Type of Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinen- Palmitoleic acid Monounsaturated fatty acid com- sis) cultivated originally in the Far East and South East prising 18 carbon atoms and a double bond between Asia but becoming popular in Western countries. Used atoms 9 and 10. Systematic name is cis-ǻ9- widely in stir fried dishes and soups, eaten as a hexadecenoic acid. Component of fats and oils. cooked vegetable or used raw in salads. Also known Palm kernel oils Oils produced from the kernels of by various other names, including bok choy and white the fruits of oil palms, Elaeis guineensis, usually by mustard cabbage. solvent extraction. Classed as lauric oils. Used in the Pakoras Indian snack foods consisting of pieces of manufacture of margarines, cooking fats and con- spiced meat and/or vegetables enclosed in batters fectionery. and deep fried. Palm oil mills effluents Organic waste water pro- Palatability Sensory properties relating to the duced during processing of palm oils. Have high extent to which a food is acceptable to eat. Determi- carbon contents and low nitrogen contents and often nants include flavour, texture and aroma. Some represent an environmental problem in areas where foods can be made more palatable by selective proc- palm oil is produced. essing. Breadmaking, for example, improves the Palm oils Oils derived from the fleshy portion of the palatability of flour. fruits of oil palms, Elaeis guineensis. Rich in caro- Palatinit Obsolete trade name for Isomalt. tenes, which are often removed to give the oil a paler Palatinose Commercial name for the disaccharide colour. Used as cooking oils, in the manufacture of isomaltulose. Isomer of sucrose produced by bac- margarines and as ingredients in processed terial transglucosylation. foods. In addition, they are also used widely in non- food applications, such as the manufacture of soaps Pale soft exudative defect Commonly abbreviated and candles, in personal care products and as a feed- to PSE defect, a condition affecting meat, especially stock for biodiesel. pork. It is often related to animal stress or genetic disorders, but may also occur as a result of poor Palm olein Olein isolated from palm oils. meat handling and storage. This defect is associated Palms Tropical evergreen plants of the family Palmae with accelerated post mortem muscle metabolism or Arecaceae with a variety of uses. Products made and a low pH value in meat. A linear relationship ex- from plant parts include palm oils, sago, starch, ists between myosin denaturation and drip loss or sugar, palm wines and spirits. Fruits and palm surface lightness within the PSE quality class. Exces- hearts of some species are eaten. Commercially im- 312 Palm stearin Papayas portant examples include date palms (Phoenix dactylif- maltose (Į-1,4- linked glucose disaccharide). Pro- era), borassus palms, coconut palms (Cocos nucifera) duced by hydrolysis of pullulan or via the action of and sago palms (Metroxylon sagu). glycosyltransferases on maltose. Palm stearin Stearin isolated from palm oils. Pans Metal containers, usually broad, flat and shal- Palm wines Alcoholic beverages made by fer- low, in which foods are cooked. Also, open containers mentation of juices tapped from the stems of several in which panning of confectionery is performed. species of palms. Pantoea Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, Palmyra Species of palms (Borassus flabellifer) motile, pigment-producing Gram negative bacteria which yields edible fruits and whose inflorescence of the Enterobacteriaceae family. Occur on plants, (complete flower head) is a source of palm wines, fruits and seeds, and in soil and water. Also isolated sugar and vinegar. Alternative spelling is palmyrah. from wounds, blood and urine of humans and animals. Palmyrah Alternative spelling for palmyra. Pantoea dispersa produces chitinases and is also Palytoxin Potent marine toxin produced by zoanthids used in a commercial biofertilizer. P. agglomerans is of the genus Palythoa. Detected in a range of sea an effective preharvest biocontrol agent for posthar- foods, including fish, crabs and seaweeds. Can vest diseases of citrus fruits and pome fruits. cause food poisoning and even death in people eat- Pantothenic acid Member of the vitamin B group. ing contaminated products. Chemically, pantothenic acid is the ȕ-alanine deriva- Pancakes Thin, flat cakes made by frying batters tive of pantoic acid, and is required for the synthesis of in a pan or on a greased griddle and cooked on both coenzyme A (involved in the metabolism of fats, sides until brown. carbohydrates and amino acids) and of acyl car- Pancreas An elongated, tapered organ located in the rier protein (involved in the synthesis of fatty acids). abdomen; it is mainly composed of exocrine tissue but Dietary deficiency is unknown; it is widely distributed includes islets of endocrine cells. The exocrine tissue in all living cells, the best sources being livers, kid- secretes juices that contain enzymes for digestion, neys, yeasts, and fresh vegetables. Royal jelly is while the endocrine cells produce insulin and gluca- also a rich source. Approximately 50% of pantothenic gon to regulate blood glucose levels. Animal pancre- acid in grains is lost by milling, up to 50% in fruits ases form a part of edible offal and are known by and vegetables is lost during canning, freezing, and butchers as gut sweetbreads. storage, and from 15 to 30% in meat is lost during cooking or canning. Pantothenic acid is reasonably Pancreatins Mixed hydrolases prepared from pan- stable in natural foods during storage, provided that creas tissues. Useful for production of vegetable pro- oxidation and high temperatures are avoided. tein hydrolysates, casein phosphopeptides and powdered milk infant formulas in which the ca- Papads Traditional Asian snack foods made from a sein is pre-digested, and also for liquefaction of fish mixture of black gram meal, salt, oils and spices, proteins and meat residues. which is deep fried or toasted. Paneer Indian cheese-like product made by acid co- Papain EC 3.4.22.2. A cysteine endopeptidase from agulation of heated buffalo milk. White in colour the latex of papayas with broad specificity, but with with a spongy body and sweet, mildly acidic and nutty a preference for amino acids bearing a large hydro- flavour. Used in the preparation of many products, phobic side-chain at the P2 position. Many other plants including curries, vegetable dishes and sweets. contain proteinases which are homologues of pa- Panettone Rich Italian yeast cakes made with can- pain. Uses include tenderization of meat, stabili- died fruits, eggs and butter. Traditionally eaten on zation of beer, coagulation of milk in cheese- festive occasions. making and hydrolysis of whey, fish proteins Panning Method used to make coated sugar confec- and plant proteins. tionery. Used to make two types of product, i.e. hard Papaya nectars Fruit juice beverages made by centres, such as nuts or dried fruits, covered with addition of water and/or sugar, and optionally other chocolate, or chocolate or similar centres coated with ingredients, to papaya juices. sugar. In both cases, the coatings are applied to the Papayas Fruits produced by Carica papaya, a mem- centres while they are tumbled in a pan or drum. Tem- ber of the pawpaw family. Vary in size, shape and perature control is used to harden chocolate coatings, colour. Rich in vitamin A, vitamin C and potas- while sugar coatings are hardened by moisture reduc- sium. Flesh is yellow to orange, with a large number tion. of small black seeds in the centre. Both flesh and Panose Oligosaccharide comprising three glucose seeds are edible. Unripe fruits are sometimes eaten as a residues, with one glucose residue Į-1,6- linked to vegetable; ripe fruits are eaten as desserts, or used to 313 Paper Parboiling make soft drinks, jams, or ice cream. Leaves, Paralytic shellfish toxins Toxins responsible for stems and fruits of the plant contain the enzyme pa- paralytic shellfish poisoning, including C1/2 and pain, used in tenderization of meat and clarifica- B1 toxins, gonyautoxins 1-4, neosaxitoxin and sax- tion of beer. Also called pawpaws in the UK and itoxin. fruta bomba in Cuba. Paraoxon Neurotoxic metabolite of the insecticide Paper Material manufactured in thin sheets from parathion. wood pulp or other fibrous substances. Used widely Paraquat Non-selective contact herbicide used to as a medium for writing and printing, as a packaging control broad-leaved weeds and grasses around a wide material, as a wrapping material and as an absorbent. range of plants, including fruits, vegetables, tea Paperboard Thick, stiff cardboard, which is com- and sugar beets. Also used as a desiccant for pine- posed of many layers of paper or compressed paper apples, sugar cane, soybeans and sunflowers. pulp. Also known as pasteboard. Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO II). Paper chromatography Chromatography tech- Parasites Organisms which live in (endoparasites) or nique performed on blotting paper or filter paper. on (ectoparasites) organisms of another species (host), Components of the sample are separated as a result of from which they obtain nutrition and/or protection. interactions between them, the paper and the solvent or Typically detrimental to the host. mobile phase. Largely superseded by thin layer chromatography. Parasiticol Alternative name for aflatoxin B3. Parasol mushrooms Edible fungi of the genus Paprika Spices and red colorants obtained by Lepiota. grinding dried seed pods of the sweet pepper Capsi- cum annuum. Red coloration is produced from a Parathas Unleavened bread made with whole wheat mixture of approximately 20 carotenoids, though flour, pan fried in ghee or cooking oil, and often predominantly from capsanthin and capsorubin es- stuffed with vegetables, such as boiled potatoes, ters. Often used to enhance the colour of foods based radishes or cauliflowers, and/or paneer. on tomatoes. Parathion Non-systemic organophosphorus insecti- Paps Thin gruel made from corn flour and tradition- cide and acaricide used to control sucking and chewing ally used as weaning foods or breakfast foods in insects (including soil insects) and mites in a wide Nigeria. range of fruits, vegetables and cereals. Classified by WHO as extremely hazardous (WHO Ia). Parabens Esters of alcohols (usually methanol, Parathion-methyl Non-systemic insecticide and ethanol or propanol) and p-hydroxybenzoic acid. acaricide used to control chewing and sucking insects These hydroxybenzoic acid esters are used as on a wide range of fruits, vegetables and cereals. preservatives in foods and cosmetics. In 2004, pro- Classified by WHO as extremely hazardous (WHO Ia). pylparaben was excluded from the list of permitted Also known as metaphos and methylparathion. food additives in the EU, due to concerns over possible oestrogenic activity. Paratyphoid Infectious disease caused by Salmo- nella Paratyphi A, B or C. Bacteria are spread in the Paracoccus Genus of aerobic, coccoid or rod-shaped faeces of patients or carriers, and outbreaks occur as a Gram negative bacteria of the family Rhodobac- result of poor sanitation or unhygienic food han- teraceae. Occur in soil and meat curing brines. dling practices. After an incubation period of 1-10 Some species are producers of carotenoids. Para- days, symptoms, including diarrhoea, mild fever and coccus denitrificans is responsible for spoilage of a pink rash on the chest, appear and last for about a foods and beverages (e.g. carrot juices), and is used week. in the denitrification of drinking water and beet- Parbendazole One of the anthelmintics that has root juices. been employed to control gastrointestinal nematodes Paraffins Aliphatic hydrocarbons in which all car- and lungworms in cattle, sheep and swine. Use has bon atoms are saturated with hydrogen atoms. Com- been limited due to evidence of teratogenesis. Nor- pounds in this class have the suffix -ane, e.g. methane, mally excreted rapidly from animals. propane and hexane. Parboiling Partial cooking of foods by boiling Paralytic shellfish poisoning Foodborne illness briefly in water before cooking by some other means, caused by consumption of shellfish or juices from such as frying or roasting. Dense foods can be par- cooked shellfish that contain either concentrated saxi- boiled to allow them to be added at the same time as toxin (an alkaloid neurotoxin) or related compounds. quick cooking ingredients in meals such as stir fry Often abbreviated to PSP. dishes. This means that all the ingredients will com- 314 Parching Pasta plete cooking at the same time. Also refers to the wines. Rich in potassium, with good contents of process of soaking and pressure steaming of rice vitamin C. before milling to gelatinize the starch and infuse Parthenocarpy Production of fruits without fertiliza- some of the nutrients from the bran into the kernel. tion, either spontaneously or by application of auxins. Parching Drying of goods such as grain or starchy Seedless fruits are formed. vegetables through application of intense heat. Particulate foods Liquid or dried products contain- Parchment paper Waterproof, grease-resistant, stiff ing discernible particles. translucent paper treated to resemble parchment. Pro- Partitioning Separation technique based on differ- duced by passing ordinary paper through a zinc chlo- ences between solvents and solutes (for example in ride or sulfuric acid solution. Used in sheets or as size, charge, hydrophobicity), which leads to the bags to wrap foods. preferential accumulation of solute in one solvent phase. Uses include with proteins (including en- Parma ham Italian ham originating from the prov- zymes), pigments and phytochemicals. Exam- ince of Parma. Considered the true prosciutto. The ples include three-phase partitioning and aqueous meat is not smoked, but merely seasoned salt-cured two phase systems. and air-dried, giving a product that has pink-brown, firm and dense flesh. Usually eaten thinly sliced and Partridge meat Meat from partridges, short-tailed raw, often as an appetizer with melons, but some- medium-sized birds of the genera Alectoris and Per- times used in cooking. Rind may be used to flavour dix belonging to the Phasianidae family. Birds are gen- soups. erally hunted as game, but sometimes farmed. Meat is pale and tender with a slight gamy flavour, and is Parmesan cheese International name for Par- marketed fresh and frozen. It can be cooked in a vari- migiano Reggiano cheese, an Italian hard grating ety of ways, including roasting and grilling, or is cheese that is made from cow milk. Milk used for used as an ingredient of soups and stews. Meat from Parmesan cheese is heated and coagulated after most older birds is often braised. of the cream has been separated and removed. The Partridges Short-tailed medium-sized game birds of curd is cut, heated to 53qC with stirring and cooked at the genera Alectoris and Perdix belonging to the Pha- up to 55qC before pressing in cheesecloth-lined sianidae family. Partridges are hunted for their meat moulds. Cheese is salted in brine for 1 month and ma- and to a lesser extent farmed for their meat and eggs. tured for up to 2 years in very humid conditions. Parvoviruses Enteric viruses of the family Parvo- Parmigiano Reggiano cheese Italian hard grating viridae, which can cause viral gastroenteritis. Sev- cheese made from unpasteurized cow skim milk. Has eral outbreaks have been associated with the consump- a sticky, hard, yellow-orange rind and a piquant fla- tion of contaminated shellfish. vour. Used in toppings for dishes including soups, Paselli Trade name for a range of fat substitutes pasta meals and salads. The international name for derived from potato starch and tapioca, and mar- this cheese variety is Parmesan cheese. keted by AVEBE America Inc. An example is Paselli Parottas Unleavened bread eaten in southern India. SA2, which is based on maltodextrins derived from Made using maida which is mixed with eggs and potato starch, has good pH, temperature and freezing made into a dough. Dough is covered in ghee and stability, and is used in a wide range of low fat foods then beaten into a very thin layer and rolled into spirals including low fat ice cream, other frozen foods, which are then flattened and cooked on a hot griddle low fat mayonnaise and butter substitutes. until golden brown. Usually eaten with spicy meat Passion fruit juices Fruit juices extracted from dishes. passion fruits (Passiflora edulis). Parsley Common name for Petroselinum crispum. Passion fruits Fruits produced by Passiflora edulis Leaves are used as spices directly to flavour foods (purple passion fruits) or P. flavicarpa (yellow passion and sauces, having a fresh green herbaceous charac- fruits); purple fruits are more common. Good contents ter. Parsley seed oils and leaf oils prepared from P. sa- of carotenes, niacin and vitamin C. When ripe, the tivum are also used as flavourings. Parsley seed oils skin becomes wrinkled. The flesh is yellow with small have a less herbal character than the spice but are simi- black edible seeds. Used as desserts, in jams and lar in flavour to vegetable seed oils, such as celery seed marmalades, or to flavour beverages, ice cream oils. and sherbet. Also known as granadillas. Parsnips Common name for Pastinaca sativa. As well Pasta Dried, unleavened dough product made from as being used as animal fodder, roots are cooked as durum wheat semolina and water and sometimes vegetables or used in soups, stews or to make eggs and milk. The dough is partially dried in hot air 315 Pasta filata cheese Patatin and then dried more slowly at a lower temperature. tional values of treated products are not greatly re- Formed into a variety of shapes, including ribbons, duced by application of this process, nor are lactic cords and tubes, which were originally developed for acid bacteria destroyed. Cold pasteurization may be their ability to retain heat or maintain adherence of accomplished by radiation and/or chemical methods. sauces. Also known as alimentary pastes. Pasteurization precedes the drying of many liquid Pasta filata cheese Italian term that translates liter- food products. ally to spun paste cheese. Such cheese, also known as Pasteurized milk Milk that has been heated to a spe- stretched curd cheese, is made using a special tech- cific temperature for a specified length of time to kill nique that involves soaking curd in hot whey or wa- off microorganisms that could cause spoilage or ter, kneading and stretching it to the required con- poisoning. This treatment can be carried out at a high sistency, and moulding it whilst immersed. Cheeses temperature for a short time (HTST pasteurization; may then be aged, brined or smoked. Examples include 72-80°C for 15 seconds) or at a lower temperature for mozzarella cheese, Provolone cheese and Ca- a long time (LTLT pasteurization; 62-65°C for up to ciocavallo cheese. 30 minutes). Since pasteurization destroys phos- Pasta sauces Sauces for spaghetti and other types phatases but not peroxidases, a phosphatase test is of pasta. Many are tomato-based (such as Bolognese, used to test the efficacy of the process. which also includes beef mince) but others may be Pasteurizers Equipment used in pasteurization of milk-, cream- or cheese-based and include ingredi- milk and other liquid foods to destroy most of the mi- ents such as mushrooms, ham and onions. May croorganisms present by application of heat. also be purees of certain vegetables, nuts, herbs Pastila Alternative term for pastilles. and spices, e.g. pesto. Pastilles Small round sweets often coated with Pasterma Traditional Middle Eastern dry cured sugar that can be sucked or chewed and are some- meat products, commonly made from beef, but also times medicated. Also known as pastila. prepared from camel meat. They are intermediate Pastiness Sensory properties relating to the ex- moisture products produced from meat by salting, tent to which the consistency of a substance is per- pressing, marination in spices or covering with a ceived as being pasty or thick. spice-based paste, and air drying. Also known as Pasting properties Functional properties relat- pastirma, bastirma, basterma or basturma. ing to the ability of an item to act in a paste-like man- Pastes Processed foods in the form of a creamy ner. Pasting properties of starch, e.g. gelatinization mass for use in cooking or further processing (e.g. to- temperature, transparency, viscosity and retrogra- mato pastes, confectionery pastes). Also suit- dation, have an important effect on the cooking and able for spreading on products such as bread or processing of foods. crackers in a similar manner to pates and spreads. Pastirma Alternative spelling for pasterma. Pasteurella Genus of facultatively anaerobic, coccoid Pastrami Highly seasoned meat products prepared or rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria of the fam- from flat pieces of lean meat. Commonly made from ily Pasteurellaceae. Species of this genus are found in beef, but may also be prepared from poultry meat or both animals and humans. P. multocida is a commen- fish. The meat is dry cured using salt or saltpetre; sal and opportunistic pathogen of food animals, wild- seasonings used may include allspice, cinnamon, life and pets, and a zoonotic cause of human infection cloves, coriander seeds, garlic, ground pepper arising from contact with these animals. and red peppers. Beef pastrami is often served in Pasteurellosis Disease in humans and animals rye bread sandwiches. caused by infection with Pasteurella spp. Manifests Pastries Sweet bakery products made with paste- itself as haemorrhagic septicaemia and pneumonia in like dough. cattle, swine, sheep and poultry. Pastry Product made using flour, water, fats and Pasteurization Process of making milk and other sometimes sugar and flavourings, that is baked, liquids (such as beer, wines and fruit juices) safe leavened using steam, and used as a crust for products for consumption by destruction of most of the micro- such as pies and tarts. May also be glazed or iced. organisms present in them. Certain enzymes that Patagras cheese Semi-hard cheese made in Cuba would otherwise decrease shelf life are also inacti- and Argentina from cow milk. Resembles Gouda vated by the process. Pasteurization is achieved by ap- cheese and Emmental cheese in sensory prop- plication of moderately high temperatures for a short erties. period of time. Variants of the process include HTST Patatin One of the major storage proteins of pota- pasteurization and LTLT pasteurization. Nutri- toes (molecular weight approximately 40 kDa), ac- 316 Patents Peanut meal counting for 30-40% of total soluble protein. Exhibits Contain vitamin A, some B vitamins and traces of esterase activity. minerals. Eaten fresh or used in marmalades, Patents Official documents issued by a governmental puddings and beverages. agency granting an inventor or inventors sole rights to Pb Chemical symbol for lead. use or sell an invention or process described in a patent PCB Abbreviation for polychlorinated biphenyls. application for a defined length of time. The patent ap- PCR Method for amplifying DNA sequences using two plication includes a written description of the inven- oligonucleotide primers that flank the sequence of in- tion, claims which define the scope of exclusivity, and terest and which are complementary to different also drawings and diagrams where appropriate. Many strands of the DNA sequence. The method involves processes, pieces of equipment and materials devel- repeated cycles (typically 20-30) of denaturation, oped for and used in the food industry are covered by primer annealing and strand elongation using heat- patents. These include genetically modified crops and stable polymerases. Each newly synthesized DNA processes used in their production. strand serves as the template for a subsequent round of Pates Savoury fish products or meat products, synthesis, resulting in exponential amplification of the which are prepared from finely comminuted or mashed sequence of interest. May also be used to amplify mes- foods. Additional ingredients may include blood, senger RNA (mRNA) following reverse transcrip- animal fats, dairy products, egg products or tion to complementary DNA (cDNA). Abbreviation soy products. Pates may be smooth or coarsely tex- for polymerase chain reaction. tured. Preparation may or may not include moulding. Some pates are prepared with a pastry crust. Pates may Pea beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus be served hot or cold, often as an appetizer or first vulgaris). course. Varieties include fish pates, liver pates and Peaches Fruits produced by Prunus persica or Per- terrines. sica vulgaris. Similar to nectarines in composition Pathogenesis Cellular events and reactions which and flavour, but with a downy skin. Classified accord- occur during the process of disease development. ing to stone tenacity (clingstone or freestone) and flesh colour (white or yellow). Rich in vitamin A, vita- Pathogenic bacteria Bacteria that cause disease. min C, calcium and potassium. Eaten fresh, Pathogenicity Quality or degree of being capable of canned, frozen or dried. Also processed into jams, causing disease. juices and wines, and used in various dishes. Pathogenicity islands Large distinct chromosomal Peach juices Fruit juices extracted from peaches. elements found in pathogens, which encode virulence-associated genes. Peach nectars Fruit juice beverages made by Pathogenic microorganisms Alternative term for addition of water and/or sugar, and optionally other pathogens. ingredients, to peach juices. Pathogens Microorganisms that cause disease. Peach pulps Soft mass prepared from the flesh of Also known as pathogenic microorganisms. peaches by mashing. Used in the manufacture of various foods and beverages, including ice cream, Patis Fermented fish sauces prepared from juices of fruit juice beverages, desserts, yoghurt and small marine fish. milkshakes. Patisserie products Small, decorative cakes and pastries originating from France. Peach purees Food produced by straining, mashing or blending the flesh of peaches to a smooth con- Patties Meat products consisting of small, round, sistency. Used in a variety of beverages, e.g. fruit flattened cakes of meat mince. juices, and in foods, including infant foods. Patulin Carcinogenic mycotoxin produced by various fungi, especially Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. Pea flour Alternative term for pea meal. Occurs in fruit juices produced from fruits contami- Pea meal Flour produced from yellow or green peas. nated with P. expansum. Has been used to make pasta-like products and snack Pauas Alternative term for abalones, widely used in foods. New Zealand. Peanut butter Paste produced from ground, roasted Pawpaws Alternative term for both papayas and peanuts together with hydrogenated oils (which pre- papaws. Members of the cherimoya family, also vents separation of the peanut oils from the mass), known as the banana of the north, which is not grown emulsifiers and salt. Used as spreads and also as commercially. It has a greenish skin that contains a ingredients in dishes and sauces. pale yellow pulp full of seeds. The pulp has a cus- Peanut meal Flour produced from peanuts. Rich in tard-like consistency and sweet, banana-like flavour. protein and fibre. Used as a protein supplement in a 317 Peanut milk Pecorino Sardo cheese range of products, including milk beverages, bread grading wheel, produces pearl barley. Also known as and biscuits. attrition milling and abrasive debranning. Peanut milk High-protein beverages based on Pearl millet Millet kernels from which the husk and aqueous extract of peanuts to which sugar may be bran layer have been removed by polishing. Also a added. type of millet (Pennisetum typhoideum). Peanut oils Alternative term for groundnut oils. Pears Pome fruits produced by plants of the genus Peanut pastes Products similar to peanut butter Pyrus. Common or European pears are P. communis; made by mashing boiled peanuts. Asian pears are members of the species P. pyrifolia. Generally, European pears are bell-shaped with soft Peanut products Products which contain peanuts flesh and Asian pears are round with crunchy flesh. A as the main ingredient. great many cultivars are grown commercially. Good Peanut proteins Proteins found in peanuts, the source of dietary fibre, vitamin C and potassium. main ones being arachin, conarachin I and conara- Eaten fresh or canned. Used as dessert fruits, cooked in chin II. Responsible for the allergenicity of peanuts. dishes, in jams or processed into fruit juices and Peanuts Seeds produced by the leguminous plant fruit nectars. Juice from some cultivars is fermented Arachis hypogaea. Up to six seeds develop in the un- to produce perry. derground pods which are harvested by hand or me- Peas Common name for Pisum sativum, a widely cul- chanical means. Seeds are rich in proteins, miner- tivated legume. Good source of protein and vitamin als, vitamin E and vitamin B complex. As well as C. Green or immature seeds are cooked as a vegeta- being eaten out of hand, roasted, boiled or raw, peanuts ble, canned or frozen. Dry or mature seeds are cooked, are used in cooking and in products such as confec- used in soups or other dishes, or rehydrated and tionery, snack foods, peanut butter and salads. canned as processed peas. In some cultivars, including A high-protein meal made from peanuts has been in- snow peas, snap peas and sugar snap peas, the pod is corporated into a range of foods as a protein supple- also eaten. ment. The seeds are also the source of groundnut Pea starch Starch isolated from peas. oils. These contain a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids; uses include cooking and manufacture of Pecan nuts Type of hickory nuts produced by margarines. Peanuts are also known as groundnuts, Carya pecan or C. illinoensis. Kernels have a high oil American groundnuts and monkey nuts. content. Eaten out of hand and also in a range of sweet and savoury dishes, the most famous being pecan pie, Pea protein concentrates High-protein products one of the popular desserts in the USA. made from peas. High nutritional quality and good Pecan oils Oils extracted from pecan nuts. Rich in functional properties make them suitable for many unsaturated fatty acids, with only small amounts uses in the food industry, such as manufacture of edi- of saturated fatty acids. Possess the characteristic ble films, and inclusion in infant foods and protein sweet aroma of pecan nuts. Blends with other vege- supplements. Flatulence factors and antinutri- table oils have been suggested as bases for marga- tional factors that can become concentrated in these rines and shortenings. pea protein products must be removed during processing. Pecorino cheese Name for all Italian hard cheeses made from ewe milk. Types include Pecorino Pea proteins Proteins found in peas, including Romano from the Rome area, Pecorino Sardo legumin, vicilin, convicilin and albumins. Protein cheese from Sardinia and Pecorino Siciliano from fractions extracted from peas are purified to yield pea Sicily. The rind is pale straw to dark brown in colour protein isolates and pea protein concentrates. depending on age, and the interior is white to pale yel- Pear juices Fruit juices extracted from pears (Py- low with small eyes. Pecorino Romano is larger than rus communis). other Pecorino cheeses and takes 8-12 months to ma- Pearl barley Whole barley kernels with the husk and ture, after which it has a salty flavour with a fruity part of the bran layer removed by polishing. Often tang. Pepato is spiced with peppercorns. added to soups. Pecorino Sardo cheese Hard cheese made in Pearling As well as referring to the formation of pearl Sardinia from ewe milk (Pecorino is a name given to shaped items, this term relates to the removal of indi- all Italian hard cheeses made from ewe milk). Rind is gestible hulls, aleurone and germ layers from ce- pale straw to dark brown in colour, depending on age. reals by abrasion. With respect to barley, three suc- Interior is white to pale yellow with small eyes. Fla- cessive pearlings removes all of the hull and most of vour is salty with a fruity tang which becomes the bran layer, leaving what is termed pot barley. Two stronger as ripening proceeds. to three additional pearlings, followed by sizing with a 318 Pectate lyases Peel Pectate lyases EC 4.2.2.2. Pectic enzymes which tral sugars. Major sources of pectins include citrus catalyse the eliminative cleavage of pectates to oligo- peel and apple pomaces. Pectins are hydrocol- saccharides with 4-deoxy-Į-D-gluc-4-enuronosyl loids and form gels via cooling or enzymic action. groups at their non-reducing ends. Can act on other po- Used as gelling agents, stabilizers and thicken- lygalacturonides but do not act on pectins. Also ers in beverages and semi-solid foods, such as known as pectate transeliminases. These lyases are jams and jellies. thought to be involved in postharvest decay of fruits Pectolytic enzymes Alternative term for pectic by bacteria and fungi, causing tissue degradation enzymes. of cell walls, and softening and rotting of plant tissues. Peda Indian sweet made using khoa as the base material. There are regional variations in its manufacture Pectate transeliminases Alternative term for pec- techniques, with consequent effects on sensory and tate lyases. compositional properties. Generally, khoa and sugar Pectic enzymes Group of enzymes that catalyse are heated to the desired texture and then divided into degradation of pectic polymers in the cell walls of portions (usually round balls) that are packed in pa- plants. These enzymes are involved in the ripening of perboard boxes lined with greaseproof paper. fruits, and have a number of uses in the processing of fruits and vegetables. The group comprises poly- Pediocins Bacteriocins produced by several strains galacturonases, pectinesterases, pectate of Pediococcus spp. that are bactericidal against a lyases and pectin lyases. wide range of Gram positive bacteria. Plasmid encoded pediocin A, synthesized by P. pentosaceus Pectic substances Pectins and polysaccharides (FBB-61 and L-7230), has a wide host range against derived from them, such as polygalacturonic acid, po- Gram positive bacteria. Pediocin AcH, synthesized by lyglucuronic acid and polyuronides. P. acidilactici H, is a plasmid encoded, hydrophobic, Pectinases Alternative term for polygalacturo- inhibitory protein with a molecular weight of 2700 Da nases. that also has bactericidal potency against Gram posi- Pectinatus Genus of obligately anaerobic, rod-shaped tive bacteria. Some Gram negative bacteria can be Gram negative bacteria of the family Acidamino- made susceptible to pediocin AcH when they are sub- coccaceae. Pectinatus cerevisiiphilus and P. frisingen- lethally stressed. Antibacterial activity of pediocin sis are both associated with beer spoilage. AcH is through destabilization of cytoplasmic mem- Pectinesterases EC 3.1.1.11. Hydrolyse the methyl branes. Pediocin PA-1, synthesized by P. acidilactici ester groups of pectins, resulting in deesterification. PAC 1.0, is a plasmid encoded protein with a molecu- The enzymes act preferentially on a methyl ester lar weight of 16,500 Da. It is a broad spectrum bacte- group of a galacturonate unit next to a non-esterified riocin that shows particularly strong activity against galacturonate unit. Found in various fruits, where they Listeria monocytogenes, and is used as one of the are involved in ripening. Used for clarification and food preservatives. Both pediocin AcH and PA-1 reduction of the viscosity of fruit juices, as well as are ribosomally synthesized. Bactericidal efficiency of the production of low-sugar jams and jellies. Also pediocins varies greatly under different conditions. known as pectin methylesterases. Pediococcus Genus of Gram positive, facultatively Pectin lyases EC 4.2.2.10. These pectic enzymes anaerobic, coccoid lactic acid bacteria of the family catalyse the eliminative cleavage of pectins to form Lactobacillaceae. Pediococcus acidilactici and P. oligosaccharides with terminal 4-deoxy-6-O- pentosaceus are used as starters in the manufacture methyl-Į-D-galact-4-enuronosyl groups. Used for of fermented meat products and vegetable prod- clarification and reduction of the viscosity of fruit ucts (e.g. sauerkraut). P. inopinatus, P. dextranicus juices, and for softening the tissues of fruits and and P. damnosus may be responsible for spoilage of vegetables. Potentially useful in the bioremedia- beer and wines. Certain Pediococcus species produce tion of waste water from the processing of fruit diacetyl, which gives a buttery aroma to some wines juices. (e.g. Chardonnay) and some styles of beer. Pectin methylesterases Alternative term for Peel Rind of fruits and vegetables. A source of pectinesterases. essential oils that may be used as flavourings, Pectins Polysaccharides present in all plant cell dietary fibre, pectins, vitamins and minerals. walls. Composed of chains of Į-(1ĺ4) linked D- Peel from some sources, e.g. citrus peel, is used in polygalacturonate interspersed with (1ĺ2)-L- foods and beverages, eaten candied or chocolate rhamnose residues, usually found in a partially methyl coated, processed into marmalades or incorporated esterified form. Also has side chains composed of neu- into garnishes. The term also refers to a spade-like de- 319 Peeling Pentanoic acid vice used for moving loaves of bread or pizzas into these fungi, including barley, corn, rice, cheese or out of ovens. and fish. Peeling Removal of the outer covering, or peel, from Penicillinases Alternative term for ȕ-lactamases. fruits or vegetables using knives or special peel- Penicillin G Natural penicillin antibiotic produced by ers. Also commonly removal of the shell from hard Penicillium chrysogenum. Active against Gram boiled eggs. positive bacteria. Used for treatment of bacterial Pekmez Traditional Turkish concentrated fruit juice infections in all farm animals, particularly for control based product usually made from grape juices, but of mastitis in dairy cows and for treating infections of also from other fruit juices. the gastrointestinal system and urinary and respiratory Pelargonidin One of the anthocyanidins, system- tract. Residues in milk and muscle tissues are rarely atic name 3,4ƍ,5,7-tetrahydroxyflavylium chloride. detectable beyond 5 days from the final treatment. Glycosides of this compound are plant pigments Also known as benzylpenicillin. which have been identified in crops, including straw- Penicillins Group of antibiotics widely used to treat berries, radishes and red fleshed potatoes. Name bacterial diseases in animals and constituting the most is derived from the flowering plant pelargonium, important group of antibiotics. Classified in four dis- which is a source of the pigment pelargonin, the 3,5- tinct groups: natural penicillins (including penicillin diglucoside of pelargonidin. G); penicillinase-resistant penicillins (including clox- Pelargonium Genus of plants which includes gerani- acillin and oxacillin); aminopenicillins (including ums, essential oils from which may be used in foods amoxicillin and ampicillin); and extended spectrum and beverages as flavourings or antimicrobial agents. or anti-pseudomonal penicillins (including piperacillin and carbenicillin). Pelmeni Dumplings filled with meat or fish traditionally eaten in Russia. Penicillium Genus of mitosporic fungi of the family Trichocomaceae. Widespread, being found in soil, de- Pelshenke values Scores that provide estimates of caying vegetation and the air. Some species, e.g. Pen- the potential breadmaking strength of wheat in rela- cillium digitatum, P. expansum and P. implicatum, can tion to its gluten quality. cause food spoilage, and some are capable of causing Pelt 44 Alternative term for the fungicide thiophan- food spoilage at refrigeration temperatures. Some ate-methyl. species produce mycotoxins, e.g. ochratoxin A, Pemmican Meat products consisting of small, citrinin and patulin. Certain species are used in pro- pressed cakes of pounded dried meat, fat and fruits. duction of organic acids and penicillins, while The meat is mixed to a paste with melted fat and the others are used in cheesemaking, e.g. P. camemberti other ingredients, before shaping into cakes and dry- (Brie cheese, Camembert cheese) and P. roque- ing in the sun. Pemmican was originally made by forti (Roquefort cheese, Stilton cheese). North American Indians, but has subsequently gained Penitrems Tremorgenic mycotoxins produced by popularity as a useful food for travellers, including Penicillium spp. One of the most potent penitrems, Arctic explorers. penitrem A, is produced by several Penicillium species Penamellera cheese Spanish semi hard cheese including P. crustosum, a ubiquitous spoilage fungus made from cow milk, goat milk or ewe milk. A which is found in a wide variety of foods. natural rind cheese with a nutty flavour and meaty Pentanal Synonym for valeraldehyde. Organic aroma. The interior is dense with some small holes. compound present in many foods that has an unpleas- Penetration Process of entry and permeation into an ant odour and a low odour threshold value. One of the item. Penetration tests are widely used as a simple way main compounds that can cause off odour in sake. to determine yield stress of a product. Pentane One of the paraffins. Saturated aliphatic Penetrometers Instruments used for measuring the hydrocarbon composed of five carbon atoms and used firmness of foods, especially fruits, on the basis of as a solvent. the depth of penetration of a probe under a known Pentanedione Ketone which occurs in the flavour load. compounds of foods and beverages, including beer, Penetrometry Technique for measuring the firm- coffee and fermented dairy products. Also ness of foods, especially fruits, based on the depth of widely used as an analytical reagent, e.g. in the deter- penetration by a probe under a known load. mination of formaldehyde. Synonym for acety- Penicillic acid Mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus lacetone. ochraceus and Penicillium viridicatum. May occur in Pentanoic acid Synonym for valeric acid. Volatile a wide range of foods susceptible to spoilage by fatty acids comprising five carbon atoms and a single 320 Pentanol Peptidyl-dipeptidase A carboxylic acid group. Contributes to the aroma of Peppermint Common name for Mentha piperita, mature cheese. Uses include as a reactant in produc- leaves of which are used as spices. When added to tion of aroma compounds and flavourings. Also foods or beverages, peppermint imparts a fresh, cool one of the main malodorous pollutants from livestock flavour. The main active aroma compound of pep- houses. permint is menthol. Pentanol Synonym for amyl alcohol. One of the Peppermint essential oils Essential oils distilled higher alcohols, comprising five carbon atoms and a from peppermint. The characteristic fresh, minty single alcohol group. Of importance in the flavour notes, produced by menthol, are not present in the compounds fraction of alcoholic beverages. primary distillate but are formed by further processing Forms part of the toxic fusel oils fraction of spirits. or natural ageing of the oils. The oils also contain vari- Used as a solvent and as a substrate for production of ous quantities of menthofuran, peroxidation of the flavouring amyl acetate. which produces an undesirable aftertaste, and thus content of this molecule influences quality of pepper- Pentosanases Enzymes that hydrolyse pento- mint essential oils. sans. Includes xylan degrading enzymes and hemicellulases which are used in breadmaking Pepperoni Highly spiced, ready-to-eat, Italian salami- for improving dough properties and loaf vol., and type sausages prepared from pork and beef. They for extending bread shelf life. Also includes endo- are seasoned with black pepper, cayenne pepper, and exo-arabanases (Į-N-arabinofuranosidases), garlic and salt, and dried slowly to a hard texture. which are used in production of fruit juices. They are often sliced thinly and served as an appetizer or added to pizzas. Pentosans Polysaccharides formed from pentoses. Found mainly in fibrous plant tissues, e.g. al- Peppers Fruits produced by plants of the genus Cap- mond shells and cereals. Pentosan composition of sicum (family Solanaceae), the most important species cereals, such as wheat and rye, may influence grain being Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens. Vary in texture. size, shape, colour and pungency, but all are hollow, with many seeds in the centre. All types are rich Pentoses Monosaccharides comprising five car- in carotenes and vitamin C. According to variety, bon atoms. Examples include the aldoses, ribose, peppers are used as vegetables or as the source of arabinose and xylose, and the ketose, xylulose. flavourings for foods. Types include bell peppers, Peonidin One of the anthocyanidins, systematic sweet peppers, red peppers, green peppers, name 3,4ƍ,5,7-tetrahydroxy-3ƍ-methoxyflavylium chlo- pimento peppers or pimiento peppers, and chil- ride. Glycosides of this compound are plant pigments lies. which are present in red grapes, purple-flesh sweet Pepsins Includes the two aspartic endopeptidases potatoes and black rice. Name is derived from peo- pepsin A (EC 3.4.23.1) and pepsin B (EC 3.4.23.2). nies, plants with violet-red flowers from which peonin, Pepsin A is the predominant endopeptidase present in the 3,5-diglucoside of peonidin, has been obtained. the gastric juice of vertebrates and preferentially Pepino Fruits produced by Solanum muricatum. Vary cleaves peptide linkages between two aromatic amino greatly in size, shape and colour, and may be seeded acids. Pepsin B degrades gelatin. Both of these pro- or seedless. Rich in vitamin C and potassium, with teinases are secreted from gastric mucous mem- smaller amounts of vitamin A. Flavour resembles branes as inactive precursors that are converted auto- that of cantaloupe or honeydew melons. Used peeled catalytically to the active enzyme under acidic condi- as a dessert or as a component of a number of dishes; tions. Used for preparation of protein hydrolysates seeds are also edible. Available dried, canned or bot- and form part of the active constituents of rennets tled. Also known as pepino dulce, melon pepino, used in the dairy industry. melon pear and mellofruit. Peptidases Enzymes that hydrolyse peptide bonds. Pepper Spices obtained by crushing dried berries Include aminopeptidases, carboxypeptidases from Piper nigrum (black pepper and white pep- and endopeptidases. per) or Schinus molle (pink or red pepper). Pepper im- Peptides Compounds formed by two or more amino parts a warm, aromatic flavour to foods. The main acids linked via peptide bonds, e.g. dipeptides (two aroma compound present is piperine. amino acids linked), oligopeptides (several amino ac- Peppercorns Whole dried berries from Piper ni- ids linked) and polypeptides (many amino acids grum or Schinus molle (black and red peppercorns, re- linked). spectively). Used as culinary spices to impart a Peptidyl-dipeptidase A EC 3.4.15.1. Proteinases warm, aromatic flavour to foods. which release C-terminal dipeptides from polypep- 321 Peptococcus Peroxidases tides, provided proline is not present on either side of Perilla seeds Oil-rich seeds produced by plants of the the cleavage site. Also known as angiotensin I- genus Perilla, especially P. frutescens. converting enzymes. Inhibitors of these enzymes Perishability Extent to which an item is perishable, (ACE inhibitors) are potentially useful as compo- i.e. having a short shelf life or deteriorating quickly nents of functional foods, since they exhibit anti- during storage. hypertensive activity. Perishable foods Foods with a short shelf life, such Peptococcus Genus of aerobic, coccoid Gram posi- as milk, eggs, meat, fish and many fruits and tive bacteria of the Peptococcaceae family. Form vegetables. part of the normal flora of the mouth, upper respiratory Periwinkles Any of a number of small marine gastro- tract and large intestine in humans. Species may cause pod molluscs; abundant on rocky shores along Atlan- infection of soft tissues and bacteraemias. tic coasts. Several species are popularly consumed, in- Peptones Protein hydrolysates produced via the cluding Littorina littorea (common or edible periwin- action of pepsin. Peptones are formed in the stomach kles), L. obtusata (smooth periwinkle), L. irrorata during digestion of proteins. (gulf periwinkles) and L. angulifera (southern periwin- PER Abbreviation for protein efficiency ratios. kles). Usually marketed fresh (in shell, cooked or uncooked). Pera Khoa-based dairy product popular in India. Also called peda. Permeability Ability of items such as membranes or other barriers to permit fluids to flow through them. Peracetic acid Strong oxidizing agent which is used Permeability is an important indicator of membrane as a disinfectant in the food industry. Also used for functionality, and is expressed as a volume flow of liq- washing of minimally processed foods such as uid through a unit area of membrane at some defined fruits, vegetables and prepared salads. Synonyms transmembrane pressure. Permeability of food pack- include ethaneperoxoic acid and peroxyacetic acid. aging materials is important in relation to product Perch Freshwater fish species (Perca fluviatilis) shelf life. Modified atmosphere packaging of widely distributed throughout Europe. Cooked flesh is foods can involve use of films with various gas perme- normally firm with a mild flavour. A popular food ability coefficients. fish in some regions of Europe, where it is marketed Permeation Passage of fluids through items such as fresh and frozen. membranes, food packaging materials or other Perchlorates Salts of perchloric acid. Potential con- barriers, or, in chemical terms, the diffusion or pene- taminants of drinking water, groundwater and tration of ions, atoms or molecules through a perme- milk. Can reversibly inhibit uptake of iodine by the able substance. In the food industry, knowledge of the thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism. level of permeation of gases through functional barri- Performance drinks Non-alcoholic beverages for- ers such as packaging materials is important in re- mulated with ingredients claimed to enhance physical lation to product shelf life. or mental performance. Permethrin Non-systemic pyrethroid insecticide used Pergamyn Transparent, celluloses-based paper. for control of a wide range of insect pests in fruits Possesses many properties that make it suitable for and vegetables; also used to control biting insects packaging of foods, including lack of taste or smell, in animal rearing establishments. Classified by WHO and its greaseproof nature. as moderately hazardous (WHO II). Perilla Genus of plants, the green or red leaves of Permissible levels Recommended limits for the which are used in salads, as vegetables or as gar- amounts of particular contaminants (e.g. residues of nishes. The most commonly consumed species is veterinary drugs, heavy metals) that may be per- Perilla frutescens. Also known as green shiso, Japa- mitted in certain foods. nese basil and red shiso. Grown also for perilla Pernod French aniseed-flavoured aperitifs, origi- seeds, a source of perilla oils. nally formulated as a substitute for absinthe. Perilla oils Pale yellow oils extracted by pressing Peroxidases Includes EC 1.11.1.7 and other members of perilla seeds. The seeds are sourced from peren- of subclass EC 1.11.1. These oxidoreductases are nial herbs of the genus Perilla, usually Perilla frutes- involved in ripening of fruits, enzymic browning cens, which are found in China, India and Japan. The and degradation of lignin by white-rot fungi. In- oils are used in the Far East as cooking oils and are a dustrial applications include use in time temp. indi- rich source of Į-linolenic acid. The primary use of cators, such as those used for investigating inhibition perilla oils is in the manufacture of paints and var- of microorganisms during the thermal process- nishes. ing of low-acid foods, detection of phenols, cross- 322 Peroxidation Pet chews linking of biopolymers, and bioremediation of preservatives. Potassium persulfate is used in de- processing effluents. In addition, the degree of inac- foaming agents. Alternative names include peroxo- tivation of peroxidases can be used as an indicator of sulfates and peroxodisulfates. the extent of blanching in vegetables. Peruvian carrots Alternative term for arracacha. Peroxidation Formation of peroxides as a result of Peruvian parsnips Alternative term for arracacha. the action of oxygen. Lipid peroxidation refers to the oxidative degradation of lipids, in which free radi- Pervaporation Membrane separation technique in cals take electrons from the lipids in cell membranes, which a liquid feed mixture is separated by partial va- resulting in cell damage. Plant and animal systems porization through a non-porous, selectively perme- maintain complex systems of multiple types of anti- able membrane. A vapour permeate and a liquid reten- oxidants to protect cells. Examples include vitamin C, tate are formed. Partial vaporization is achieved by re- vitamin E, superoxide dismutases, peroxi- ducing the pressure on the permeate side of the dases and catalases. membrane (vacuum pervaporation) or, less commonly, by sweeping an inert gas over the permeate side Peroxides Compounds containing either the peroxide (sweep gas pervaporation). Vacuum pervaporation at ion, e.g. sodium peroxide, or covalently bonded dioxy- ambient temperature using hydrophilic membranes is gen (R-O-O-R), the simplest being hydrogen peroxide. used to dealcoholize wines and beer, whereas hydro- Organic peroxides may be formed via autoxidation re- phobic membranes are used to concentrate aroma actions or by direct oxidation, processes involved in compounds such as alcohols, aldehydes and es- the development of rancidity of fats and oils. ters. Peroxide values Measure of the number of milli- moles of peroxide absorbed by 1000 g of oil or fat, Pesticides Chemical substances used to kill plants, used as an indicator of rancidity. As fats decompose, animals or other organisms that interfere with agricul- peroxides are formed. Chemically, peroxides are capa- tural production or are harmful to humans. Major ble of causing the release of I from KI. Therefore, the groups include herbicides (for control of unwanted amount of I released from KI added to a fat is a rancid- plants), insecticides (for control of insect pests), ity test. The more peroxide present, the more I re- fungicides (for control of pathogenic or spoilage leased; hence, the higher the peroxide values. fungi) and rodenticides (for control of rats, mice and other rodents). Many are non-specific and may Peroxynitrite Powerful oxidant with the formula be too toxic to organisms that are not considered pests. ONOO-, formed by reactions between superoxides Some persist for long periods in the environment and and nitric oxide. Causes oxidation damage in hu- can accumulate in the food chain. Residues in foods man cells. Food components that act as peroxynitrite may represent a health risk to consumers. scavengers may provide health benefits. Pesto Sauces, often served with pasta, the major Perry Cider-like alcoholic beverages made by ingredients of which are basil, garlic, nuts and fermentation of pear juices, commonly prepared olive oils. from special cultivars of pears. Persimmon juices Fruit juices extracted from Pests Organisms (typically rodents, insects and persimmons (Diospyros kaki). pathogens) that are regarded as harmful to humans, animals or plants. Persimmons Fruits produced by Diospyros kaki. Contain moderate amounts of vitamin C, carotenes PET Abbreviation for polyethyleneterephthalate. and sugars. Most varieties are orange in colour Pet birds Birds kept by humans for companionship or when ripe, with the appearance of tomatoes. Some as a hobby. Housed in cages, on perches or in aviaries. varieties have an astringent taste, especially when un- Include parrots, budgies, cockatiels, canaries, finches, ripe, due to high levels of tannins. Non-astringent doves, pigeons and birds of prey. Eat a wide range of fruits are eaten out of hand, cooked, candied or made specially formulated bird foods. into jams or jellies. Pet chews Chewy snack foods for dogs and cats. Persipan Product which is often used as an alternative Usually given as pet treats rather than as an essential to marzipan and is similar in composition, but is part of the animal's diet. However, many contain health made using apricot kernels instead of almonds. promoting ingredients, claiming to improve energy Persulfates Salts of peroxodisulfuric acid which are levels, wt. control, joint flexibility, coat shininess, di- strong oxidizing agents. Ammonium persulfate and gestion and the immune system. Dental chews are also potassium persulfate are permitted food additives. widely available for dogs, improving dental health Ammonium persulfate is a bakery additive, with uses and breath freshness. Usually made from animal parts, including bleaching agents for starch and food such as tendons and cows' ears, but vegetarian and 323 Pet fish Phalsa fish versions also exist. Available in many shapes, in- rats, mice, pet rabbits, arthropods and reptiles. Often cluding flat strips, twists and knots. eat specially formulated pet foods. Pet fish Fish kept by humans as pets. Housed indoors Pet treats Pet foods, mainly for dogs and cats. in tanks and aquariums or outdoors in ponds. Goldfish Dog treats include chews, dental sticks, dog biscuits, are popular pet fish. Others include koi, tropical fish, pigs' ears, dried catfish skins, chocolate-style drops and scavengers, cichlids and brackish water fish. Eat a products ressembling cakes for humans. Cat treats wide range of specially formulated and natural fish include catnip leaves, biscuits, nibbles and tartar con- foods. trol products. Nibbles and chocolate-style drops also exist for hamsters, gerbils and pet rabbits. Some pet Pet food additives Ingredients added to pet foods treats contain high levels of sugar and fats, so should to improve their physicochemical properties, be given sparingly. sensory properties, shelf life and consumer ap- Petunidin One of the anthocyanidins (flavonoids peal. Most pet food additives have been approved for and red/blue pigments, the colour of which is pH use in human foods; however, regulations governing dependent), systematic name 3,3c,4c,5,7-pentahydroxy- their use vary from country to country. Include anti- 5c-methyoxyflavylium chloride. Glycosides of pe- caking agents, drying agents, anti-gelling agents, tunidin are plant pigments that are present in crops, in- lubricants, humectants, stabilizers, thickeners, cluding red grapes, blackberries, blueberries, sweeteners, texturizers, preservatives, anti- purple fleshed sweet potatoes and black rice. Name oxidants, flavourings and colorants. is derived from blue petunia, a flowering plant from Pet foods Foods specially formulated for pets. In- which the pigment petunin, the 3,5-diglucoside of pe- clude dried pet foods, canned pet foods, inter- tunidin, is obtained. mediate moisture pet foods, mixer pet foods PFGE Abbreviation for pulsed field gel electro- and pet treats. May be fortified with vitamins and phoresis. minerals. Also available are organic, vegetarian, raw pH Measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a and nutraceutical pet foods and premium products, substance. pH (an abbreviation for potential of hydro- which may also be fit for human consumption. gen) is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydro- Pet foods industry An extension of the human food gen ion concentration. The scale ranges from 0 (very industry, whose focus is pets. Traditionally provided a strongly acid) to 14 (very strong alkaline). A neutral convenient means by which slaughterhouse wastes solution, such as pure water, at 25°C has a pH of 7. unfit for human consumption could be turned into Phaeodactylum tricornutum Species of microal- profit. However, the industry now provides markets gae of the family Phaeodactylaceae. Used in bio- for high quality pet foods, often containing ingredi- technology for the production of polyunsaturated ents suitable for humans. Dominated by a few major fatty acids, enzymes and pigments. global companies, but many smaller companies cater- Phaeophytins Brown pigments produced by re- ing to niche markets also exist. Private label companies moval of magnesium ions from chlorophylls us- also play a key role. ing limited hydrolysis. Present in green vegeta- Petitgrain oils Essential oils extracted by steam bles as degradation products of chlorophylls; deg- distillation from the leaves and young branches of radation is accelerated by cooking or processing the bitter orange tree, Citrus aurantium. Used in fla- and thus may cause browning in vegetables or vourings for many foods, especially confectionery vegetable products. products. Phaffia Genus of yeasts of the order Cystofilo- Pet nutrition Study of the impact of pet foods and basidiales. Phaffia rhodozyma (anamorph of Xantho- their components on pet health. A major factor influ- phyllomyces dendrorhous) may be used in the produc- encing the design and formulation of commercial pet tion of astaxanthin, which is added to animal feeds foods. to confer a reddish colour to fish flesh, poultry meat and egg yolks. Petroselinic acid Monounsaturated fatty acid com- Phages Alternative term for bacteriophages. prising 18 carbon atoms obtained from parsley seed essential oils. Systematic name cis-6-octadecenoic Phalsa Small, round, dark-purple or nearly black acid. fleshy fruits with a pleasantly acidic fibrous flesh. Bo- tanical name is Grewia subinaequalis or G. asiatica. Pets Animals kept by humans for companionship, in Native to India and Nepal, but also found in Australia. contrast to those kept for economic reasons, such as May be eaten fresh as a dessert, or made into syrups livestock or working animals. Typical pets include for use in the manufacture of soft drinks. cats, dogs, pet fish, pet birds, hamsters, gerbils, 324 Phaltan Phenylalanine Phaltan Alternative term for the fungicide folpet. activity. Extracts used as functional ingredients in Phane Product made from caterpillars of the emperor foods and beverages. moth (Imbrasia belina Westwood) which feed on the Phenanthrene Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon con- mophane tree (Colophospermum mopane). Caterpillars sisting of three condensed benzene rings which is pre- are cooked after removal of the stomach contents and sent in coal tar. Used in the manufacture of pigments. then either eaten immediately or as a snack after salt- Detected as a contaminant in foods, including cheese, ing and drying. Consumed as a delicacy in Botswana sea foods and cooked meat. and other parts of southern Africa. Phenethyl alcohol Synonym for phenylethanol. Phanerochaete Genus of fungi of the family Corti- Phenethyl isothiocyanate Also known as isothio- ciaceae. Phanerochaete chrysosporium (white rot fun- cyanic acid. One of the isothiocyanates in Cru- gus) is used in the production of industrially important ciferae (e.g. watercress) with anticarcinogenic- enzymes, particularly ligninolytic enzymes (e.g. lig- ity. Inhibits growth of lung, ovarian and breast can- nin peroxidases). cer cells. Causes cell cycle arrest and induces apop- Pharmacological properties Properties of drugs tosis. and, in particular, the ways in which they interact with Phenobarbital Barbiturate that is used mainly as an living systems. Includes their uses, composition, reac- anticonvulsant drug for the treatment of all forms of tions, beneficial effects, pharmacokinetics, pharmaco- epilepsy (except absence seizures) in animals. dynamics, therapeutic values and medical toxicology. Phenolases Alternative term for catechol oxi- Phase behaviour Activity of the various components dases, laccases and monophenol monooxy- of a mixture; of primary importance for food formula- genases. tion and processing. For example, examination of Phenolic compounds Alternative term for phe- the phase behaviour of fat mixtures (palm kernel nols. oils, cocoa butter and anhydrous milk fats) can Phenols Group of organic compounds comprising aid in the understanding of softening and bloom at least one benzene ring that is covalently bonded to formation in compound coatings. Information re- one or more hydroxyl groups. Phenols have wide dis- garding the phase behaviour properties of biopolymer tribution and applications, and are available in syn- systems may be useful in the design of new low fat thetic or natural forms, e.g. lignans and catechols. foods. Uses include as disinfectants (cresols), in manu- Phaseolins One of the major types of storage pro- facture of azo dyes and plastics, and as flavour- teins (7S) of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). ings (vanillin), antioxidants (sesamol and Pheasant meat Meat from pheasants, medium- NDGA) and pigments (curcumin). Some phenols, sized, long-tailed sedentary game birds belonging to e.g. chlorophenol, are also considered to be toxins. the Phasianidae family. Birds are hunted as game and Phenotype Observable characteristics of an organism, also reared commercially for meat production. Meat is either in total or with respect to particular traits, result- lean and dry, and is marketed fresh and frozen. Meat ing from the interaction of the genotype and the envi- from female pheasants tends to be juicier and more ronment. tender than that from males; flavour of wild pheasant Phenthoate Broad spectrum, non-cumulative, or- meat tends to be stronger than that of farmed birds. For ganophosphorus pesticide. Classified by WHO as optimum meat flavour and texture, it is recommended moderately hazardous (WHO II). that pheasants are hung before cooking. The main Phenylacetaldehyde Aromatic aldehyde which has a method of cooking is roasting, or braising for older sweet, floral aroma resembling hyacinths or lilacs. birds, but meat is also used in stews and soups. Occurs naturally in a wide range of foods and bever- Pheasants Medium-sized, long-tailed sedentary ages. Applications include in aroma compounds game birds belonging to the Phasianidae family; and flavour compounds used in foods. there are several species. Pheasants are hunted for their Phenylacetic acid Volatile aromatic organic acid. meat. They are also reared commercially for pheas- Used in flavourings for foods such as bakery ant meat production. Meat from female pheasants products, ice cream and sugar confectionery. tends to be juicier and more tender than that from male Also a substrate for synthesis of other flavour com- pheasants. Flavour of wild pheasant meat tends to be pounds. Alternatively called Į-toluic acid and ben- stronger than that of farm-raised birds. zeneacetic acid. Phellinus linteus Species of edible fungi of the Phenylalanine Essential amino acid with an aromatic family Hymenochaetaceae. Used for their medicinal side chain which is obtained in the diet from pro- properties in Asia and thought to have antitumour teins, such as ovalbumins, lactalbumins and 325 Phenylalanine ammonia-lyases Phosphatases zein. In common with the other amino acids, only Phloretin One of the dihydrochalcone flavonoids. the L-enantiomer of phenylalanine is utilized signifi- Particularly abundant in apples. Possesses antioxi- cantly by humans. Substrate for manufacture of the dative activity and may reduce risk of cardiovas- dipeptide sweetener aspartame. Given the interna- cular diseases and cancer. tionally recognized three letter and single letter codes Phloroglucinol Phenolic phlorotannin with the sys- Phe and F, respectively. tematic name 1,3,5-benzenetriol. Antioxidative com- Phenylalanine ammonia-lyases EC 4.3.1.24, for- pound present in wines, seaweeds and other plant merly 4.3.1.5. Lyases which deaminate L- foods. May be involved in wine ageing and en- phenylalanine to form trans-cinnamate and ammonia. zymic browning of fruits and vegetables. Also The reverse reaction can be used for production of L- widely used as a laboratory reagent and in industial phenylalanine, a precursor of aspartame. Involved in chemical syntheses. accumulation of flavonoids in apples and enzymic Phloxine Red xanthene dyes used as food color- browning in fruits, and are markers of environ- ants. Also known as Food Red No. 104. mental stress in plant tissues, e.g. chilling injury and pH meters Instruments for measuring the pH of a wounding. solution. Phenylethanol An aromatic alcohol, synonym Phoenix Genus of palms that includes the date palm phenethyl alcohol. This aroma compound has rose- Phoenix dactylifera, the wild date palm P. sylvestris floral characteristics and is present in several foods and (used as a source of sugar) and the sago producing beverages including tomatoes, grapes and wines, palm P. acaulis. and in essential oils of orange blossom, rose and Pholiota Genus of edible fungi of the family Stro- hyacinth. Used in food flavourings for imparting a phariaceae. Edible species include Pholiota adiposa mildly floral flavour. Synonymous with phenethyl al- and P. nameko, which is a common ingredient in miso cohol. soups. Phoma Genus of fungi of the Ascomycota phylum. Phenylketonuria Genetic disease (commonly abbre- Some species (e.g. Phoma herbarum and P. sorghina) viated to PKU) in which patients are unable to metabo- may cause spoilage of fruits (e.g. melons, papa- lize the amino acid phenylalanine, a normal dietary yas and bananas), vegetables (e.g. beets), constituent. The amino acid and its derivatives accu- cheese and cereals (e.g. sorghum, barley, corn mulate in the body and prevent proper cognitive de- and rice). velopment. The gene responsible for phenylketonuria is recessive, so a child is affected only if both parents Phorate One of the organophosphate pesticides are carriers of the defective gene. Infants with the dis- effective against a wide variety of insects, mites and ease need a special diet that contains little phenyla- some nematodes. Used particularly on corn, pota- lanine, which should be maintained until at least ado- toes and cotton. Classified by WHO as extremely lescence. A low phenylalanine diet is often recom- hazardous (WHO Ia). mended throughout life in combination with a specially Phosalone Non-systemic organophosphorus insecti- designed formula to ensure adequate intakes of other cide and acaricide used primarily for control of in- amino acids. sects, particularly on pome fruits and stone fruits. Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous 2-Phenylphenol Organic compound consisting of 2 (WHO II). Also known as zolone. linked benzene rings and a phenolic hydroxyl group. Used primarily as a fungicide, particularly on citrus Phosmet Non-systemic organophosphorus insecticide fruits, but also as a food preservative (E231). Also and acaricide with predominantly contact action. Used known as ortho-phenylphenol and biphenyl-2-ol. for control of biting, sucking and chewing insects on a range of crops. Also used as an animal ectoparasiti- Phenylpropanoids Plant phenols with C3 side cide. Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous chains. Include flavonoids, coumarins, stilbenes (WHO II). Also known as imidan. (e.g. resveratrol) and many flavour compounds Phosphamidon Systemic organophosphorus insecti- (e.g. eugenol). Found in various plant foods, in- cide and acaricide which has been used to control cluding fruits, vegetables and essential oils of sucking, chewing and boring insects and spider herbs and spices. Possess anticarcinogenicity mites on a wide range of crops. Banned or restricted and antioxidative activity. in various countries. Classified by WHO as extremely Pheromones Substances secreted by a species, which hazardous (WHO Ia). are recognized by members of the same species. Used Phosphatases Members of group EC 3.1.3, these for intraspecies communication, e.g. for attraction. esterases hydrolyse phosphomonoesters, releasing 326 Phosphates Phosphorylation

free phosphate. Levels of alkaline phosphatases phosphate. The latter convert ȕ-D-glucose 1-phosphate (EC 3.1.3.1) can be used to determine the degree of to ȕ-D-glucose 6-phosphate. milk pasteurization and are also commonly meas- Phosphoglycerides Phosphate esters of glyc- ured in serum samples as biomarkers of bone erides. health and some diseases. Acid phosphatases (EC 3.1.3.2) produced by lactic acid bacteria are Phospholipases Includes EC 3.1.1.32 (phospholi- involved in flavour development during cheese rip- pase A1), EC 3.1.1.4 (phospholipase A2), EC 3.1.4.3 ening, but can also cause food spoilage. (phospholipase C) and EC 3.1.4.4 (phospholipase D). These lipases hydrolyse phospholipids; phosphol- Phosphates Salts, condensation products or esters ipases A1 and A2 hydrolyse sn-1 and sn-2 acyl esters, of phosphoric acid. Phosphates used in the food in- respectively, while phospholipases C and D cleave ei- dustry include the food additives trisodium ther side of the phosphodiester bond. Widespread in phosphate, potassium phosphates, and polyphos- occurrence and thought to affect the integrity of bio- phates. logical membranes. Phospholipase D has been Phosphatides Salts or esters of phosphatidic linked to chilling injury and decay in some fruits, acid. whilst phospholipase C acts as a virulence factor in Phosphatidic acid Simplest phospholipids, com- certain bacterial pathogens. Used industrially for posed of glycerol esterified to two fatty acids and production of emulsifiers, novel lecithins and other phosphoric acid. Also called diacylglycerol-3- structured phospholipids with nutritional applications. phosphoric acid. Also used in cheesemaking, degumming of Phosphatidylcholine One of the phospholipids vegetable oils and for improving the softness of and a major component of lecithins. Sometimes also bread. Also known as lecithinases. Phospholipase referred to as lecithin. B is included under lysophospholipases. Phosphatidylethanolamine Phospholipid produced Phospholipids Lipids comprising a glycerol or by esterification of phosphatidic acid to etha- sphingosine backbone esterified to two fatty acids nolamine. and phosphoric acid or a phosphoric acid ester. Ex- Phosphatidylinositol Phospholipid formed by es- amples include phosphatidic acid, phosphatidyl- terification of phosphatidic acid to inositol. serine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphati- Phosphatidylserine Phospholipid formed by esteri- dylethanolamine and lecithins. fication of phosphatidic acid to serine. Phosphopeptides Peptides containing one or more Phosphine Fumigant gas produced from phospho- serine or threonine residues esterified to a phos- rus or metal phosphides. phate group. Phosphodextrins Phosphate esters of dextrins. Phosphorescence Luminescence that persists Phosphodiesterases Family of hydrolases which after the cause of excitation has been removed. catalyse the hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds. Phosphoric acid Synonym for orthophosphoric acid. Substrates for these enzymes in class EC 3.1.4.- in- Acid produced by reaction of phosphates with sul- clude cyclic nucleotides, lecithins (phospholi- furic acid or by oxidation of phosphorus followed pases C and D), and sphingomyelin. Phosphodi- by addition of water. Permitted food additive that is esterases acting on nucleic acids, whose phosphate- used to acidify fruit juice beverages and cola sugar backbones are linked via phosphodiester bonds, beverages, and as a substrate for phosphates. are classed as nucleases. Involved in various physio- Phosphorus Mineral element with the chemical sym- logical processes, and used for production of bol P. Forms three different types of crystal structure, guanosine monophosphate (GMP) and inosine termed white, red and black phosphorus which also monophosphate (IMP), nucleotides used as fla- differ with respect to physical properties and reac- vour compounds. Inhibition of phosphodiesterases tivity. by polyphenols present in red wines has been linked with cardioprotective effects. Phosphorylases Members of EC 2.4. Enzymes that Phosphoglucomutases EC 5.4.2.2 (phosphoglu- transfer glycosyl groups from donor compounds to in- comutases) and EC 5.4.2.6 (ȕ-phosphoglucomutases). organic phosphates. The former isomerases convert Į-D-glucose 1- Phosphorylation Addition of phosphate groups to phosphate to Į-D-glucose 6-phosphate. Also catalyse, molecules (e.g. proteins). A form of post- although more slowly, the interconversion of 1- and 6- translational modification that occurs in vivo, alter- phosphate isomers of many other Į-D-hexoses, and the ing activity of enzymes. May affect virulence of interconversion of Į-D-ribose 1-phosphate and 5- foodborne bacteria. Plays several important roles in 327 Phosphotransferases Physical activity human metabolism. Oxidative phosphorylation in- photometers equipped with photoelectric cells of vari- volves the conversion of ADP to ATP. ous types and sensitivities. Phosphotransferases EC 2.7. Transferases that Photooxidation Oxidation reactions initiated by the mainly transfer phosphates from a donor to an ac- presence of light. ceptor that may be an alcohol (EC 2.7.1), a carboxyl Phoxim Organothiophosphate pesticide used in veteri- group (EC 2.7.2), a nitrogenous group (EC 2.7.3) or a nary medicine to control mites, lice and other para- phosphate group (EC 2.7.4). Other subgroups include sites. Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous diphosphotransferases (EC 2.7.6), nucleotidyltrans- (WHO II). ferases (EC 2.7.7) and protein kinases (EC 2.7.10 to Phthalic acid Aromatic organic acid with the system- 2.7.13 and 2.7.99). atic name benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid. Used for Phostoxin Compound used, typically in pellet form, manufacture of pigments and phthalic acid es- for the fumigation of foods and feeds in storage. ters. Comprises aluminium phosphide, which releases Phthalic acid esters Esters of phthalic acid phosphine gas on contact with moisture. May be which have uses as plasticizers, e.g. in food pack- added directly to feeds and raw commodities (e.g. ce- aging materials. Migration from the packaging ma- reals, coffee beans and nuts) stored in bulk, or terials into packaged foods or beverages can occur. used without direct contact to treat these commodities Phulka Puffed unleavened Indian bread made from in smaller quantities or after processing. Brewers' wheat flour and similar to tortillas. Eaten warm as rice, malt and corn grits for beer manufacture are the an accompaniment to curries. only processed foods for which direct contact with Phycocyanin One of the light harvesting pigments the pellets is permitted. Finished products fumigated produced by cyanobacteria, e.g. Spirulina platen- with Phostoxin must be aerated for 48 hours before sis. Used in natural colorants for foods such as they are offered to consumers. chewing gums and ice cream. Blue in colour. Phosvitin Phosphoproteins found in egg yolks. Pos- Also exhibits antioxidative activity. sess antioxidative activity. Phycoerythrin One of the light harvesting pig- Photobacterium Genus of facultatively anaerobic, ments, this one produced by red algae, cyanobac- coccoid or rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria of teria and cryptomonad algae. Used in natural color- the family Vibrionaceae. Occur in sea water, the gas- ants to provide red colour. trointestinal tract of fish and marine animals, and R-phycoerythrin Red phycobiliprotein pigment the luminous organs of certain fish and cephalopods. found in certain red algae that consists of two poly- Photobacterium phosphoreum may be responsible for peptide chains each linked covalently to an open-chain the spoilage of fish and fish products. tetrapyrrole chromophore. Phycoerythrins are useful as colorants in foods. Photocolorimetry Colorimetry technique in which results obtained using a colorimeter are recorded per- Phyllophora Genus of red seaweeds occurring on manently using photography. rocky coastlines around the world. Some species are utilized by the food industry as a source of carra- Photodensitometry Technique used to determine the geenans. density of a substance by examination of photographic Phylloquinone Synonym for vitamin K1. Fat-soluble negatives. Used in combination with chromatographic vitamin found in all green plants. Especially abundant techniques, such as thin layer chromatography, in alfalfa and green leafy vegetables. Essential for gel electrophoresis and to quantitate separated production of prothrombin, and several other proteins components. Also used widely in medicine, where it is involved in the blood clotting system, and the bone known alternatively as radiographic absorptiometry, to protein osteocalcin. Deficiency causes impaired blood assess bone mineral changes. coagulation and haemorrhage. Photolysis Cleavage of one or more covalent bonds in Phylloxera Genus of plant-eating insects of the fam- a molecule due to the absorption of energy from light ily Phylloxeridae. Phylloxera vitifoliae is a serious or some other form of electromagnetic radiation (e.g. grapevine pest. UV radiation or X-rays). Physical activity Any form of exercise or movement Photometry Science of visual radiation and the theory that results in the expenditure of calories. Includes of its measurement. Luminous quantities can be meas- sports as well as lifestyle activities. Regular physical ured by the human eye, while radiant quantities are activity, combined with a healthy diet, is associated measured by devices sensitive to electromagnetic en- with a number of health benefits, including control of ergy. Photometric measurements are performed using body weight, reduced risk of overweight and obesity 328 Physical properties Phytostanols and prevention of several diseases. Numerous prod- (sodium and potassium) and insoluble salts of cal- ucts are available that are claimed to enhance exer- cium and magnesium. Phytates may decrease ab- cise performance, including sports foods, sorption of calcium, zinc and iron from the intestine. sports drinks, performance drinks and sports Phytic acid Hexaphosphoric acid ester of inositol supplements. present mainly in cereal grain, nuts and legumes. Physical properties Characteristics of substances Phytoalexins Organic nitrogen compounds that do not involve a chemical change, such as den- produced by plants in response to infection or injury, sity, electrical properties, mechanical proper- which exhibit antimicrobial activity. ties and optical properties. Phytochemicals Physiologically active chemicals Physicochemical properties Characteristics of produced by plants. Used in functional foods and chemical systems determined by application of physi- nutraceutical foods. cal principles, i.e. the physical properties of chemi- Phytochrome Protein bound pigment of plants which cal compounds. Also used to collectively refer to a regulates flowering in response to light. combination of properties pertaining to physics and Phytoene One of the carotenoids. High amounts chemistry. found in sweet potatoes, oranges, grapefruit, Physics The study of systems and their interactions peppers, tomatoes, papayas, grapes, saffron with one another, in terms of the interrelationship be- and tea. Possesses anticarcinogenicity. tween matter and energy, without reference to chemi- Phytoestrogens Non-steroidal, non-nutrient com- cal change. Traditionally divided into the study of me- pounds occurring naturally in plants which possess chanics, electricity and magnetism, heat and thermo- oestrogenic or anti-oestrogenic activity via binding to dynamics, optics and acoustics. More modern aspects oestrogen receptors. Examples include isoflavonoids include quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear phys- and lignans, which are present in tea, coffee, cere- ics, particle physics, solid-state physics and astrophys- als, fruits, vegetables (especially soybeans) and ics. alcoholic beverages. Physiological effects Effects that products or their Phytofluene One of the carotenoids found in or- components have on human physiological processes. ange and red fruits and vegetables, especially to- Physiology Study of the function of biological proc- matoes. esses within living organisms. Broken down into the Phytohaemagglutinins Lectins produced by plants study of the function of particular organs. The concept and present in beans, particularly red kidney of homeostasis, the regulation of the internal environ- beans. Cause agglutination of mammalian eryth- ment within certain parameters, is central to this sci- rocytes and leukocytes, influence the transport of ence. proteins across cell membranes and have mitogenic Phytases EC 3.1.3.8 (3-phytases) and EC 3.1.3.26 (4- effects. Responsible for the poisoning that may occur if phytases). Enzymes that dephosphorylate phy- certain beans are eaten raw. Levels are greatly reduced tates. Antinutritional factors found in beans and by cooking. bran products. Can be used to increase the nutritional Phytohormones Chemicals produced by plants properties of beans and cereal products by increas- which regulate plant physiology. Produced in various ing the bioavailability of phosphorus and other parts of the plant and generally have no specific target minerals. organs, but act on various plant tissues. 4-Phytases EC 3.1.3.26. Phosphoric monoester hy- Phytophthora Genus of parasitic microorganisms drolases which catalyse hydrolysis of myo-inositol of the group Oomycetes and the order Peronosporales hexakisphosphate (phytic acid) to release 1D-myo- in the stramenopile taxonomic group. Responsible for inositol 1,2,3,4,5-pentakisphosphate and phosphate. several diseases of fruits and vegetables. Phy- Used for reducing contents of phytates, which are tophthora infestans causes late blights of potatoes, considered antinutritional factors, in foods, par- P. syringae and P. cactorum cause storage rots of ticularly cereals, nuts and legumes and products apples and pears, P. citrophthora causes storage rot prepared from them, to improve their nutritional of citrus fruits, P. fragariae causes red root rot of values. Also known as 6-phytases and phytate 6- strawberries, P. palmivora causes rot of coconuts phosphatases. and betel nuts, and P. sojae causes root rot in soy- Phytates Salts or esters of phytic acid containing beans. inositol and phosphates as the base. Especially Phytostanols Hydrogenated phytosterols found abundant in the outer layer of cereals, in dried leg- naturally in only small amounts in plants, but produced umes and some nuts as both water-soluble salts commercially by hydrogenation of naturally occur- 329 Phytosterols Pigging ring phytosterols. Due to their hypocholesterolaemic include sauerkraut, cucumber pickles and chut- activity, phytostanols are used in functional foods neys. and beverages, generally in the form of stanol es- Pickling Preservation of foods in a pickling liquid ters. such as vinegar or brines, often containing spices. Phytosterols Steroid alcohols present in plants, Foods commonly preserved in this way include vege- particularly in oils and waxes. Have hypocholester- tables, fruits, meat, eggs or nuts. Pickles can be olaemic activity and are thus used in functional of various flavours, and can be sweet, savoury or foods, such as specially formulated margarines and spicy. spreads. Examples include sitosterol and stig- Picloram Selective systemic herbicide used for control masterol. of many annual and perennial broad-leaved weeds Picante cheese Hard or semi-hard spicy cheese around monocotyledonous plants. May be used as a made in Portugal from mixtures of goat milk and plant growth regulator. Classified by WHO as unlikely ewe milk. Also called Picante da Beira Baixa cheese. to present acute hazard in normal use. Also known as tordon. Piceatannol Hydroxylated stilbene analogue of resveratrol found in various foods, including red wines Pidan Alkali-treated preserved duck eggs. Prepared and blueberries. Protects DNA from oxidation by storing fresh duck eggs under a mixture of caustic damage, but may act as an oestrogen receptor agonist soda, burnt straw ash and slaked lime for several under certain conditions. months, until the egg whites and egg yolks coagulate and become discoloured. Also known as Chinese Pichia Genus of yeast-like ascomycetous fungi of the eggs or thousand year eggs. family Saccharomycetaceae. Occur in tree exudates, tunnels of woodboring beetles, grain, flour, wines, Pie fillings Sweet or savoury preparations used as faeces and skin. Species may cause spoilage of fillings for pies. Prepared fillings based on ingredi- wines, sauerkraut and delicatessen foods. Pichia ents such as fruits, meat or vegetables and contain- farinosa and P. fermentans are involved in cocoa ing seasonings and other additives are available fermentation. The anamorphs of some Pichia spp. commercially. are Candida spp. P. pastoris is used as an expression Pies Bakery products consisting of a pastry case system in molecular biology. Species of the obsolete filled with either a sweet or savoury mixture and baked Hansenula genus have been reclassified into the until the crust is crisp. May be topped with pastry or an Pichia genus. alternative such as mashed potatoes, or may have Picking Alternative term for harvesting. Generally no top. refers to manual, rather than mechanical, gathering of Pigeon meat Meat from wild and domesticated pi- crops. geons. Among the various cuts from pigeon carcasses, breast meat constitutes the largest portion fol- Pickled cheese Cheese that is ripened in brines. lowed by the wings, back, neck, thighs and drumsticks. Curd is cut into pieces that are put into containers Pigeon meat is relatively fatty and has a higher energy filled with brine or salty whey and left to ripen for value than chicken meat; it is also darker in colour several months. Examples of this type of cheese in- than chicken meat. clude Feta cheese, Domiati cheese, Brinza cheese and Kareish cheese. Also known as brine ripened Pigeon peas Seeds produced by Cajanus cajan. cheese. Grow in long, twisted pods and are usually greyish in colour. Young seeds are eaten as a vegetable, but ma- Pickled cucumbers Alternative term for cucumber ture seeds are often dried and split, eaten as dhal in pickles. India. Green pods may also be used as vegetables Pickled eggs Products prepared by pickling hard and seeds can be germinated to produce sprouts. May boiled eggs in solutions usually of vinegar mixed be used instead of soybeans to make tempeh. Also with flavourings. As well as eggs from chickens, known as red gram. duck eggs and quail eggs are commonly used. Pigeons Various stout bodied, fruit- or seed-eating Pickled onions Small onions (commonly pearl on- birds belonging to the Columbidae family; there are ions) pickled in vinegar mixture or brines. Used as a many species. Pigeons are hunted and farmed for pi- condiment or garnish. geon meat. Young unfledged pigeons are called Pickles Foods preserved by pickling in liquids such squabs. as vinegar or brines, usually containing spices to Pigging Cleaning of pipes or ducts in processing enhance flavour. Can be made from vegetables, equipment, including that in food factories, by forc- fruits, meat, eggs or nuts. Popular pickled foods ing a tightly fitting, flexible object, such as a brush, 330 Pigmentation Pinus blade or swab (pig), through the pipeline in order to Pilins Fibrous microbial proteins which make up scrape or push out the residual contents. the structures of bacterial pili and fimbriae. Pigmentation Colour that a substance exhibits, due Pimaricin Alternative term for the fungicide nata- to the presence of pigments. mycin. Pimento Alternative term for allspice. Pigments Compounds, usually fine, solid particles, Pimento peppers Large red peppers (Capsicum that give colour or other properties to a tissue, object annuum). Flesh is more aromatic and sweeter than or substance. For example, chlorophylls impart a that of bell peppers. Available fresh, canned and green colour to lettuces and peas, carotenes are bottled. Used as a stuffing for green olives. Dried responsible for the orange colour of carrots, lyco- fruits are used as a source of paprika. Also known as pene gives the red colour to tomatoes, antho- pimiento peppers. cyanins contribute the purple colour of grapes and blueberries, and oxymyoglobin gives the red col- Pimiento peppers Alternative spelling for pimento our to meat. Pigments are sensitive to chemical and peppers. physical effects during food processing, and to chemi- Pineapple juices Fruit juices extracted from pine- cal change during ripening. Pigments may also be apples (Ananas comosus). added intentionally to foods in the form of food col- Pineapple nectars Fruit juice beverages made by orants. addition of water and/or sugar, and optionally other ingredients, to pineapple juices. Pigs Specific types of swine. Domesticated omnivo- Pineapples Fruits produced by Ananas comosus. rous ungulates, which are related to the wild boar (Sus Good source of potassium and fibre, and contain scrofa) with some crossing with the Chinese type (Sus moderate amounts of sugars and vitamin C. Con- indicus). Pigs are kept for bacon, ham and pork sumed fresh, dried or canned, and used to make pine- production. Commercial farming systems commonly apple juices and jams. Pineapple juices can be fur- produce four classes of pigs, namely: pork pigs (also ther processed into vinegar or spirits. Fruits and known as porkers) usually slaughtered at about 19 stems of the plant contain bromelains, proteinases weeks of age; bacon pigs (also known as baconers) used for the tenderization of meat and for chill usually slaughtered at about 24 weeks of age; cutters proofing beer to prevent haze. usually slaughtered at about 23 weeks of age; and heavy hogs usually slaughtered at about 27-28 weeks Pine needles Needles produced by plants of the ge- of age. Pig performance and carcass confirmation are nus Pinus, extracts of which have health promoting optimized by selective breeding and feeding, especially properties including antioxidative activity and an- in bacon pigs. timicrobial activity. May be used to make beverages, including teas, which are rich in vitamin A and Pike Any of several freshwater fish species in the vitamin C. genus Esox; distributed across Europe and North Pinenes Terpenoids and flavour compounds America. Valued as a food fish in some regions, where with a camphor-like aroma frequently present in it is utilized fresh or frozen. Also known as pickerel in essential oils. Used for manufacture of synthetic North America. pine oil. Pilchards Any of a number of small herring-like Pine nuts Nuts produced by Pinus spp. Found on marine fish species in the family Clupidae; world- the woody scales of female pine cones. Removal is la- wide distribution. Many species are also referred to as bour-intensive, making the nuts expensive. Eaten raw sardine; the term pilchards generally refers to larger or roasted, or used in savoury and sweet dishes. individuals within the species. Commercially impor- Pink salmon Smallest of the Pacific salmon spe- tant species include Sardina pilchardus (European pil- cies (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha); found in rivers and chard), Sardinops caerulea (Californian pilchard) and coastal waters along western and eastern Pacific S. melanosticta (Japanese pilchard). Marketed fresh, coasts. Mostly sold canned but also utilized fresh, smoked, salted and dried; particularly popular as a smoked and frozen; roes are used as caviar substi- canned product in various sauces or oils. tutes, especially in Japan. Pili Thin hair-like structures on the surface of many Pinto beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus bacteria. Composed of oligomeric pilins. Long pili vulgaris). play a role in bacterial conjugation and gene trans- Pinus Genus of plants of the family Pinaceae, com- fer. Short pili are involved in adherence and are also monly known as pines. The inner bark (cambium) can known as fimbriae. Can be important virulence fac- be eaten or ground into powder and used as thicken- tors in pathogens. ers for soups. Pine needles are steeped to make 331 Pipecolic acid Plankton teas, sometimes known as strunt, which are high in the bacteriocins produced by C. piscicola includes vitamins A and C. Some pine needle and pine bark various genera of lactic acid bacteria and generally extracts also possess antioxidative activity, an- also includes Listeria monocytogenes. Gram nega- timutagenicity and antiproliferative activity. tive bacteria are not inhibited. Pipecolic acid Cyclic amino acid, the L-form of Pisco South American spirit made by distilling Muscat which is present in plants and can be produced from L- grape wines. lysine. Pistachio nuts Nuts produced by Pistacia vera. Piperidine Organic nitrogen compound derived from Shells split as the nut matures, making the kernels easy piperine by heating. Present in pepper in small to remove. Kernels are green and have a unique fla- amounts. vour that makes them a popular constituent for a range Piperine One of the alkaloids and flavour com- of sweet and savoury dishes. Also eaten raw or roasted pounds isolated from black pepper, this one pri- and salted in their shells. Rich in calcium, phospho- marily responsible for pungency. Used in flavour- rus, iron, thiamin and vitamin A. ings for products such as brandy, as well as in in- Pita bread Round or oval, flat bread originating secticides. This compound improves the absorp- from the Middle East. Made from yeasts-leavened tion of nutrients (e.g. vitamin B6, ȕ-carotene and dough, which expands when baked to form a pocket selenium) from foods and aids thermogenesis. which can be opened and filled to form a sandwich. Piperonyl butoxide Chemical substance used pri- Alternative spelling for pitta bread. marily as a synergist for enhancing the toxicity of py- Pitayos Pink to red or yellow-orange fruits produced rethroid insecticides through inhibition of cyto- by several species of cacti, including Hylocereus spp. chrome P450 detoxification enzymes. Also used as and Stenocereus spp. The white or red juicy flesh is a food additive in Japan (as a preservative for cereals full of tiny seeds. Eaten out of hand, and used in and legumes). Classified by WHO as unlikely to pre- preserves, sorbets and beverages. Also called pita- sent acute hazard in normal use. yas, pitahayas and dragon fruits. Pipes Tubes of various diameters through which sub- Pito Traditional African alcoholic beverages made stances, including gases and liquids, can flow. Usu- by fermentation of mashes based on cereals. ally made of metal or plastic. Used to convey ingredi- Pitta bread Alternative spelling for pita bread. ents and products during processing of foods. Pizza dough Yeasts-leavened dough used to make Pips Alternative term for small seeds, usually applied the base for pizzas. to those within fruits. Pirimicarb Selective systemic carbamate insecticide. Pizza fillings Foods used to top pizzas. Include to- Used to control aphids and other insects in a wide matoes, mozzarella cheese, salami and sea range of plants, including cereals, fruits and vege- foods. tables. Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous Pizzas Baked tarts of Italian origin composed of a flat (WHO II). base of yeast dough topped with seasoned tomato Pirimiphos-methyl Broad-spectrum organophospho- sauces, cheese (usually mozzarella cheese) and rus insecticide and acaricide used to control a wide other foods such as salami, olives, vegetables and range of insects and mites in fruits, vegetables, sea foods. Traditionally baked rapidly in wood burn- cereals and sugar cane. Also used for pest control ing ovens and served hot. in stored grain and in animal houses. Classified by PKU Abbreviation for phenylketonuria. WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). Plaice Generally refers to the marine flatfish species Piscicides Chemical substances used for control of (Pleuronectes platessus; European plaice), found in the undesirable fish species, normally non-indigenous northeast Atlantic, where it is a highly valued food species that have been introduced to lakes or river sys- fish. Other plaice species include P. quadritubercula- tems. Rarely used in practice, mainly due to their ten- tus (Alaska plaice) and Hippoglossoides platessoides dency to harm many other organisms in addition to (American plaice). Marketed live (on ice), fresh (gut- target species. Examples include antimycin and rote- ted or fillets), frozen or smoked. none. Plankton General name given to animal (zooplankton) Piscicolins Plasmid encoded nonlantibiotic bacte- or plant (phytoplankton) organisms which float more riocins synthesized by Carnobacterium piscicola. or less passively in large bodies of freshwater and in Small hydrophobic peptides that are moderately heat oceans. The majority of planktonic organisms are mi- stable. Activity is not affected by exposure to pH val- croscopic. Forms the primary food base for larger ues in the range 2 to 8. The antibacterial spectrum of aquatic organisms. 332 Plantains Plasticity Plantains Fruits resembling bananas produced by quality of individual crops. Legumes, particularly Musa paradisiaca. Larger, firmer and starchier than soybeans, are especially rich in protein. bananas and usually eaten cooked (e.g. fried, baked or Plants Multicellular eukaryotic organisms belonging boiled). When green, the cooked fruit tastes like pota- to the Plantae kingdom. Self-supporting plants charac- toes, but as it ripens, it becomes sweeter, black teristically exhibit photosynthesis. Source of a wide skinned fruits being used for dessert recipes. Very ripe range of foods, beverages and ingredients. fruits may also be consumed raw. Rich in vitamin A. Plasma Liquid component of blood in which blood Plantaricins The wide range of bacteriocins syn- cells (e.g. leukocytes and erythrocytes) are sus- thesized by Lactobacillus plantarum. Includes plan- pended. Comprises approximately 90% water and taricin A, which is bactericidal towards some lactic 10% other substances, mainly proteins. Further con- acid bacteria, but is not active against other Gram stituents include salts, lipids and glucose. Straw positive bacteria or Gram negative bacteria, yellow in colour. and plantaricin B, which has a narrow inhibitory spectrum against only a few strains of lactic acid bacteria. Plasmids Autonomously replicating, extrachromo- Many others exist, such as plantaricins C, S, T, W, somal, covalently closed, circular molecules of DNA C19, SA6, LP84, KW30, BN, NC8, 423 and 149. found in bacteria, fungi, algae and plants. In bacteria, they often carry genes conferring antibiotics Plant density The density at which plants are cul- resistance. Usually non-essential for cell survival tivated. The spacing between crops during cultiva- under non-selective conditions and may integrate into tion can affect factors such as growth and develop- the host genome. Used widely as expression and clon- ment, plant biomass, yield, shading, abundance of ing vectors. pests and microclimate. Plasmin EC 3.4.21.7. One of the serine endopepti- Plant diseases Adverse effects in plants caused by dases that cleaves preferentially after Lys and Arg infection with bacteria, viruses or fungi, or by in- residues. Derived from plasminogen by the prote- festation with pests. Can affect the growth and sur- olytic action of plasminogen activators, it is re- vival of the whole plant and quality of the fruits and sponsible for digestion of fibrin in blood clots. It is other edible parts it produces. also the predominant native proteinase in milk where Plant disorders Adverse effects in plants caused by it hydrolyses casein, with both desirable and undesir- abiotic factors, such as environmental, nutritional and able effects on product quality. Important in ripening physiological conditions. As with plant diseases, of cheese and can be used to alter the functional the plant and quality of its produce can be affected. properties of milk proteins. Plant extracts Products obtained from plants by Plasminogen The inactive precursor of plasmin. extraction. Appropriate solvents are employed to re- Plasminogen activators EC 3.4.21.68 (t- cover active ingredients from the plant tissue. Certain plasminogen activators) and EC 3.4.21.73 (u- extracts provide a source of phytochemicals for use plasminogen activators). The latter are also known as in nutraceuticals and functional foods. urokinases. Serine proteinases that differ in structure Plant foods Foods derived from plant sources. but which both cleave Arg-Val bonds in plasmino- Plant growth regulators Chemicals that affect gen to form plasmin. Their presence in milk can growth of plants. Include endogenous compounds, i.e. have significant effects on product quality. Have been phytohormones, and exogenously applied chemi- associated with invasion of cells by certain patho- cals, such as herbicides and antisprouting gens. agents. Plasteins Proteins produced by action of pro- Planting Placing of plants in the ground so that they teinases on protein hydrolysates (peptides). can take root and grow. Date and density of planting Plastein reactions, i.e. transpeptidation and condensa- can affect growth of the plants and the yield and qual- tion reactions, have been used to improve nutritional ity of produce. quality, sensory properties and/or functional Plant proteins Proteins sourced from plant material properties of proteins, such as fish proteins, soy as opposed to animal products. Include vegetable proteins and whey proteins. proteins and cereal proteins. Preferred by some Plasticity Extent to which a substance can be de- consumers due to health benefits. Quality of plant pro- formed as a result of application of a stress. When teins, especially with respect to amino acids compo- stress is applied in excess of a certain value (yield sition, varies according to source, but many plant point), deformation is permanent. Below a certain breeding programmes have aimed to improve protein stress, the elastic limit, most substances will recover 333 Plasticizers Polarimetry their original shape when the stress is removed. Such like layers. Includes the commercially important oyster substances are said to be elastic. mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus). Has a delicate fla- Plasticizers Substances that are capable of imparting vour and texture. Cap colour varies with age. Can be flexibility to non-plastic materials or improving the eaten raw or cooked. flexibility of ceramic mixtures. Added during the Plumcots Fruits that are a hybrid cross between manufacturing process to decrease brittleness and to plums and apricots, with the combined flavour of promote plasticity. Applications within the food in- each fruit. dustry include the production of food packaging Plum juices Fruit juices extracted from plums films from plastics such as polyvinyl chloride. (Prunus domestica). Plastics Synthetic materials made by polymeriza- Plums Stone fruits produced by plants of the genus tion, polycondensation, polyaddition or other similar Prunus. Vary widely in flesh and skin colour and fla- processes from molecules with a lower molecular vour, according to variety. Contain about 10% sugar weight, or by chemical alteration of natural macro- and are rich in potassium. Available fresh or canned; molecules. Can be formed into different shapes while dried fruits are known as prunes. Eaten out of hand soft, generally when heated, and then set into a slightly and used in desserts, jams and jellies. Also used to elastic or rigid form. Synthetic organic polymers which make liqueurs and spirits, such as slivovitz. are used as the basis of plastics are referred to as resins. Early plastics were used to make imitations of Plutonium One of the radioelements, chemical other materials, but they are now appreciated widely symbol Pu. Isotopes with atomic masses of 228-247 for their own range of useful thermal, electrical, optical have been identified. Can occur as a low-level con- and mechanical properties. Major applications of taminant in foods and drinking water. plastics include their use in containers, packaging Pneumatic conveyors Conveyors containing or materials, construction materials, consumer items, operated by air or gas under pressure. adhesives, pipes, textiles and electronic components. Poffertjes Small pancakes originating from Hol- Types of plastics used commonly for packaging of land. Usually served hot with icing sugar and but- foods include polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride ter. and nylon. Pogonias Genus of marine fish containing several Plastics bags Bags made from plastics. Used species of croakers (drum). The most commercially widely as containers for particulate and solid foods. important species is Pogonias cromis (black drum); Plastics bottles Bottles made from plastics. Used distributed along the Atlantic seaboard of North and widely as containers for liquid foods and bever- South America. Marketed fresh and frozen. ages. Poi Dish made by fermentation of cooked taro that Plastics films Packaging films, such as cellulose has been pounded to a paste. films and polyethylene films, made from plastics. Polar compounds Compounds that are ionic or are Used to wrap or to make containers for foods. made up of molecules with a large permanent dipole Plate counts Estimations of the numbers of micro- moment. Commonly used as indicators of oil quality. organisms in a sample, by means of culturing a solu- During repeated heating of frying oils in the presence tion of the sample on agar plates and counting the of oxygen, water and foods, triglycerides are broken number of microbial colonies that grow. down into polar compounds such as free fatty acids, Platelets Fragments of cells found in the blood of monoglycerides, diglycerides, glycerol and vertebrates that are involved in the formation of blood polymers. Such decomposition products have a nega- clots. A higher than normal platelet count is associated tive effect on the flavour and nutritional quality of the with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases fried foods. To avoid deterioration in food quality while a low count can lead to extensive bleeding. and possible health effects for consumers, there are Plesiomonas Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod- regulations in force in some countries specifying limits shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family En- for total polar compound levels in frying oils. Once terobacteriaceae. Occur in surface waters, soil, these values have been reached, the oils are prohibited fish, shellfish, aquatic animals and mammals. Ple- for use in food processing. Polar compound profiles siomonas shigelloides is responsible for gastroen- can also be used in detection of adulteration of oils teritis in humans due to consumption of contaminated such as virgin olive oils with less expensive types. food (e.g. fish and shellfish) or water. Polarimetry Technique in which the identity and Pleurotus Genus of basidiomycetous edible fungi of quantity of a substance are determined from its effect the family Pleurotaceae, that grows on logs in shelf- on the direction of vibration of polarized light. 334 Polarization Polychlorinated dibenzofurans Polarization Restriction of the waves of electromag- Polonium Radioactive element, chemical symbol Po. netic radiation, including light, to one plane or one Isotopes of Po have relative atomic mass numbers of direction. This property is not directly perceived by the between 188 and 220. 209Po is the most stable isotope. eye but can be detected, in the case of light, by its be- Polyacetylenes These hydrocarbons (e.g. falcari- haviour after it has interacted with polarizers. Meas- nol) are bioactive compounds found in various urement of the degree of polarization of electromag- plant foods, including carrots, celery and gin- netic radiation coming from an object reveals valuable seng. Demonstrate antimicrobial activity, neuro- information not only about that object but also about toxicity, anti-inflammatory activity and anticar- any material lying between the object and observer. cinogenicity. Polarography Electrochemical technique in which Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis Electro- current flowing through an electrolysis cell is meas- phoresis technique in which polyacrylamide gel is ured as a function of the potential of the working elec- used as the diffusion medium. Commonly abbrevi- trode. ated to PAGE. Pole beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus Polyamides Synthetic polymers, including nylon, in vulgaris). which the structural units are linked by amide or Polenta Thick porridge of Italian origin made with thioamide groupings. Used as components of casings ground corn or sometimes barley which is boiled in and packaging materials for foods. water or stock. Eaten hot with cheese, gravy, butter Polyamines Compounds that contain two or more or oils, or tomato-based sauces. Alternatively, may amine groups. Examples include putrescine, sper- be cooled, cut into shapes, and baked or fried. midine and spermine. Policosanols Very long chain aliphatic alcohols Polybrominated biphenyls Organic halogen derived mainly from sugar cane. Used as ingredients compounds which are known toxins and suspected of nutraceutical foods and food supplements to carcinogens. reduce plasma cholesterol levels. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers Organobro- Poliomyelitis Infectious disease of the central nervous mine compounds used as flame retardants in a vari- system which may result in muscle paralysis. Caused ety of commercial products. Persistent and ubiquitous by a picornavirus, which is excreted in the faeces of an in the environment. There are public health concerns infected person; the disease is most common where regarding potential adverse effects of polybrominated sanitation is poor. diphenyl ethers found as contaminants in fish. Polioviruses Single stranded RNA viruses of the Polycarbonates Group of synthetic polyesters in genus Enterovirus within the family Picornaviridae re- which the carboxyl groups are derived from carbonic sponsible for poliomyelitis in humans. Transmission acid. Used to make reusable plastics containers for may be through the faecal-oral route via contaminated foods, especially bottles for infant feeding. food or water. Polychlorinated biphenyls Toxic chlorinated Polishing Process in which a surface is made shiny hydrocarbons once widely used in industry, e.g. as and smooth by rubbing against abrasive materials such pesticide extenders and plasticizers. Proven toxicity as metal, rock or wood. With reference to rice, polish- to humans and animals includes adverse clinical effects ing is the final stage in milling, in which hulled and on the gastrointestinal tract and eyes. May also act as pearled rice is spun in cones that are lined with leather carcinogens. Environmental contamination with or sheepskin. The fully processed form is called pol- these compounds and their high stability can allow ished rice. them to enter the food chain, affecting predominantly animal foods. Preparations include Arochlor, Clo- Pollack Marine fish species (Pollachius pollachius) phen, Fenclor, Kanechlor, Phenoclor, Pyralene and from the cod family (Gadidae); distributed across the Santotherm. Commonly abbreviated to PCB. northeast Atlantic. Flesh is dry with a delicate, somewhat sweet flavour. Marketed fresh (whole, gutted or Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins Toxic environ- fillets) or salted. mental contaminants produced by municipal waste incinerators and chemical, paper and metallurgical in- Pollen Granules produced in the anthers of seed form- dustries. Exposure to these toxic organochlorine ing plants that contain the male gametes. compounds can occur via the diet, particularly from Pollination Transfer of pollen from the anther to the consumption of animal foods, due to their accumula- stigma of a flower, constituting the first step in the tion in fats. production of fruits or seeds. Polychlorinated dibenzofurans Potential toxic Pollock Alternative term for coalfish, or saithe. contaminants of foods, particularly animal foods, 335 Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins Poly(Ȗ-glutamic acid) where they accumulate in fats. These organochlo- ethylene is used to make more rigid structures, such rine compounds are produced as a result of incin- as barrels and bottles. Also known as polythene. eration of municipal waste and as wastes from various Polyethylene bags Bags made from polyethylene industrial processes. which are used for packaging or storage of foods. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins One of the Polyethylene films Transparent packaging films polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, a group of toxic made from polyethylene which are commonly used chemicals which may be contaminants of foods, in packaging of foods. Desirable characteristics in- particularly animal foods. clude their low cost, resistance to low temperature and Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons tough, moisture-proof and heat sealable nature. comprising two or more ring structures, at least one of Polyethylene glycol Synthetic polymer which exists which is an aromatic (benzene) ring. Lipophilic pollut- as a liquid or waxy solid, depending on its degree of ants and potential carcinogens. Examples that have polymerization, and thus molecular weight. Soluble been found in foods include benzo[a]pyrene and phe- in water. Applications within the food industry include nanthrene; foods affected include cheese, cooked emulsifiers, thickeners, stabilizers, antifoam- meat and shellfish. Commonly abbreviated to PAH ing agents, lubricants for food processing and also called polynuclear aromatic hydrocar- equipment, solvents, plasticizers for edible bons. films and coatings, enzyme immobilization and Polydextrose Low calorie, highly branched polysac- modification of proteins. charide composed of randomly linked D-glucopyranose units (average 12 units/molecule). Manufactured from Polyethylene naphthalate Polyester polymer with glucose and sorbitol in the presence of citric acid characteristics making it suitable for food packaging or phosphoric acid. Used as sugar substitutes applications. Compared with polyethyl- and fat substitutes in low calorie foods. Imparts eneterephthalate (PET) it has improved oxygen mouthfeel, texture and humectancy similar to those barrier properties, chemical and heat resistance, of sugar, but does not have a sweet flavour. Also and stiffness, but is more expensive. Its physical and exhibits prebiotic activity and has low glycaemic in- mechanical properties make it suitable for manu- dex values. Derivatives of polydextrose with im- facturing refillable containers and use in hot fill approved flavour are marketed under the Litesse brand plications. Polyethylene naphthalate is sometimes name. blended with PET to make plastics containers for foods and beverages, e.g. bottles for beer. Polydimethylsiloxane Polymer consisting of dimethyl silicon oxide monomer units. Colourless vis- Polyethyleneterephthalate Synthetic resin pro- cous oil that is insoluble in water but soluble in hydro- duced from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. carbon solvents. Uses include as antifoaming Used in production of polyester fibres, plastics bot- agents or defoaming agents in beverages, such as tles for beverages, and food trays for use in conven- wines and fruit juices, anticaking agents in tional and microwave ovens. Commonly abbreviated foods, e.g. dried dessert mixes, and as a base for to PET. manufacture of chewing gums. This polymer is also Polygalacturonases EC 3.2.1.15. Glycosidases used as an extraction fibre and a separation matrix which hydrolyse 1,4-Į-D-galactosiduronic linkages in for analysis of food components. Often abbreviated to pectate and other galacturonans. Involved in the rip- PDMS; it is also known as dimethicone. ening of fruits, and are used in the processing of Polyesters Synthetic resins in which ester groups fruits and vegetables, and production of wines; spe- link the polymer units. They are heated to harden them cifically for improving cloud stability in citrus into a shape which they do not lose when heated sub- juices, mash treatment, clarification of fruit sequently at normal cooking temp. Used to make con- juices, and maceration and pulping of plant tis- tainers for heating foods in conventional or mi- sues. Potentially useful for production of oligogalactu- crowave ovens. ronides that can be used as functional food compo- Polyethylene Flexible, tough, but lightweight syn- nents. These pectic enzymes are also known as thetic resin which is a polymer of ethylene and is pectinases and pectin depolymerases. formed by pressure treatment of ethylene. Used Poly(Ȗ-glutamic acid) High molecular weight poly- mainly as a packaging material, especially in bags, mers composed of glutamic acid residues. Produced films and sheets. Density of the polymer varies accord- as bacterial fermentation products, mainly by Ba- ing to the polymerization process used. Low den- cillus spp. Exhibit biodegradability and so are use- sity polyethylene is used for flexible applications, ful alternatives to conventional plastics and floccu- e.g. polyethylene films, while high density poly- lants used in bioremediation. Also used as food 336 Polyglycerol fatty acid esters Polyphenols thickeners, cryoprotectants and debittering Polymers Long chain molecules of repeating units agents, and to promote the absorption of minerals formed by the chemical combination of monomers in a (e.g. calcium). process called polymerization. Natural organic Polyglycerol fatty acid esters Fatty acid esters polymers include proteins, DNA and latexes, such as widely used as non-ionic emulsifiers in foods (e.g. rubber. Diamond, graphite and quartz are examples of bakery products, dairy products) and beverages). inorganic natural polymers. Synthetic polymers in- Can also be used as thickeners, stabilizers and include inorganic compounds, such as glass and hibitors of fat crystallization. May be hydrophilic or concrete, but the great majority are plastics. Poly- lipophilic. Also known as glycerin fatty acid esters. mers are formed from monomers under the influence of heat, pressure or the action of a catalyst. Polyglycerol polyricinoleate Highly viscous, Polymorphism Difference in specific DNA se- strongly lipophilic liquid comprising polyglycerol fatty acid esters derived from castor oils. Insolu- quences among individuals. Useful for genetic linkage ble in water or ethanol, but soluble in fats and oils. studies. Used in the chocolate industry as a viscosity reduc- Polymyxins Group of five antibiotics (designated ing agent and as a partial substitute for cocoa butter alphabetically A-E) that show specialized activity in reduced fat products. Also used in emulsifiers for against Gram negative bacteria. Polymyxins B and foods such as salad dressings and spreads. Com- E are the only examples used in animal husbandry. monly abbreviated to PGPR. They are mainly applied orally to treat infections caused by Escherichia coli and Salmonella, or Polyhydroxyalkanoates Salts or esters of topically to treat Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Can in- poly(hydroxyalkanoic) acids. activate endotoxins during the early stages of coli- Poly(hydroxyalkanoic) acids Organic com- form mastitis in cattle. pounds formed by polymerization of hydroxyalka- Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons Hydrocar- noic acids, e.g. hydroxybutyric acid and hydroxy- bons comprising two or more ring structures, at least valeric acid. Used in biodegradable packaging ma- one of which is an aromatic (benzene) ring. Lipophilic terials. May be formed as fermentation products by pollutants and potential carcinogens. Examples that bacteria grown on food processing wastes such as have been found in foods include benzo[a]pyrene and whey. phenanthrene; foods affected include cheese, Polyketides Precursors in the mycotoxins biosyn- cooked meat and shellfish. Commonly abbreviated thesis pathway in fungi. to PAH and also called polycyclic aromatic hy- Polylysine Homopolymer of L-lysine. These pep- drocarbons. tides are used as natural food preservatives with Polyolefins Polymers, including polyethylene and antimicrobial activity against a wide range of mi- polypropylene made from olefin monomers. Used as croorganisms, including Escherichia coli and components of plastics films for packaging of Salmonella Typhimurium. Used in foods (e.g. foods. surimi) and in antimicrobial packaging materials. Polyols Products formed by hydrogenation (reduc- Also claimed to reduce risk of obesity. tion) of the free aldehyde or ketone groups of reduc- Poly(ȕ-D-mannuronate) lyases EC 4.2.2.3. ing sugars to produce an alcohol group. Examples Lyases which catalyse the eliminative cleavage of include sorbitol, mannitol and maltitol, produced polysaccharides containing ȕ-D-mannuronate resi- by hydrogenation of glucose, mannose and mal- dues to give oligosaccharides with 4-deoxy-Į-L- tose, respectively. Also known as sugar alcohols. erythro-hex-4-enopyranuronosyl groups at their ends. Polypeptides Unbranched chains of 10 to approxi- Since these enzymes degrade alginates, they are mately 100 amino acid residues linked via peptide also known as alginate lyases. bonds. In contrast to proteins, polypeptides have no Polymerase chain reaction Technique usually secondary or tertiary structure. abbreviated to PCR. Polyphenol oxidases Alternative term for catechol Polymerization Chemical combination of simple oxidases. molecules (monomers) to form long chain molecules Polyphenols Organic compounds containing at (polymers) of repeating units. In addition polymeri- least two phenol (hydroxybenzene) groups. Plant poly- zation, the monomers simply add together and no other phenols, including catechin and flavonoids, are compound is formed. In condensation polymeriza- present in tea, coffee, fruits, vegetables, fruit tion, water, alcohol, or some other small molecule is juices and wines and have antioxidative activity. formed in the reaction. Polyphenols in legumes and cereals are regarded as 337 Polyphosphates Polyvinylidene chloride antinutritional factors, due mainly to the effects of therefore more likely to be oils at room temperature. tannins, which reduce protein digestibility. Considered more beneficial than saturated fats with Polyphosphates Salts of polyphosphoric acid, a respect to their influence on risk of developing car- polymer produced by condensation of two or more diovascular diseases. phosphoric acid molecules. Sodium and potas- Polyunsaturated fatty acids Fatty acids that sium salts of tripolyphosphates are permitted contain two or more carbon-carbon double bonds. food additives and uses include as emulsifiers and Have lower melting points than monounsaturated texturizers. fatty acids or saturated fatty acids with an identi- Polyporus Genus of fungi of the class Homo- cal number of carbon atoms. Hence, lipids containing basidiomycetes. Occur on felled timber and living a high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids will be trees. Some species (e.g. Polyporus squamosus) may more fluid at room temperature. Examples include li- be used in production of enzymes. Several species noleic acid, linolenic acid and arachidonic acid, (e.g. P. umbellatus and P. confluens) are considered with 2, 3 and 4 double bonds, respectively. Commonly edible. abbreviated to PUFA. Polypropylene Synthetic resin prepared by polym- Polyurethane Any synthetic polymer produced by erization of propylene. Used for food packaging reacting polyols with monomers containing at least in a variety of forms including plastics films, two isocyanate groups in the presence of catalysts. foamed resins, sheets and labels. Useful for the con- These polymers comprise a chain of organic units struction of containers, including some micro- joined by urethane links. Polyurethane foams have waveable containers. Polypropylene membranes various uses in the food industry, including immobili- also find use in some enzyme immobilization appli- zation of cells and enzymes, and insulation of cations. equipment (e.g. brewery tanks) and utensils. Polyure- Polysaccharides Carbohydrates that are com- thane adhesives are used in food packaging. posed of at least 10 monosaccharide residues linked Polyuronides Pectic substances present in plant via glycosidic bonds. Starch, celluloses, pectins cell walls. Comprise polysaccharides composed of and carrageenans are all polysaccharides. Polysac- uronic acid monomers. charides have multiple applications in the food indus- Polyvinyl acetate Synthetic resin which is a polymer try as thickeners, bulking agents, anticaking of vinyl acetate. Used as a component of gum bases agents, gelling agents, and substrates for microbial and flavour delivery systems in chewing gums. fermentations and manufacture of sweeteners. Also used in high-gloss coatings for foods. Hy- Polysorbate 60 Additive produced by reaction of drolysis of polyvinyl acetate generates polyvinyl ethylene oxide with partial stearic acid esters of alcohol. sorbitol. Has an average of 20 oxyethylene groups Polyvinyl alcohol Synthetic resin produced by po- per molecule. Used predominantly as emulsifiers, lymerization of vinyl acetate and hydrolysis of the e.g. in cakes, coffee whiteners, imitation cream resultant polymer (polyvinyl acetate). Exhibits bio- and frozen desserts, but also as foaming agents degradability and is suitable for use in food pack- and dough conditioners. Also called polyoxyethyl- aging materials. Also used for the immobilization ene (20) sorbitan monostearate. of enzymes. Commonly abbreviated to PVA. Polystyrene Synthetic resin made by polymerizing Polyvinyl chloride Tough, chemically resistant, syn- styrene. Produced in two forms, i.e. a hard form and thetic resin, which is a polymer of vinyl chloride. a lightweight foam form called expanded polystyrene. Low cost material that is moisture-proof but has some There is concern about health hazards associated oxygen permeability. Used in a variety of packag- with migration of styrene monomers, dimers and ing applications including plastics films for wrap- trimers from packaging materials into some types ping foods (e.g. meat), beverage bottles and con- of foods. tainers for take away foods. Other uses include the Polytetrafluoroethylene Tough synthetic resin production of drinking straws and plastics uten- which is used to coat non-stick cooking utensils. sils. Commonly abbreviated to PVC. Commonly abbreviated to PTFE. Polyvinylidene chloride Transparent, moisture- Polythene Alternative term for polyethylene. proof, thermoplastic polymer also known as Saran. Polyunsaturated fats Fats and oils that contain at Used in food packaging, often as a component of least two carbon-carbon double and/or triple bonds due multi-layer packaging materials or for coating to the presence of unsaturated fatty acids. Have films made from other plastics to improve their bar- lower melting points than saturated fats, and are rier properties and prolong the shelf life of the 338 Polyvinylpyrrolidinone Pork foods they are used to package. Commonly abbrevi- Ponceau Group of synthetic, mostly red, azo dyes, ated to PVDC. some members of which have uses as food colorants. Polyvinylpyrrolidinone Alternative term for poly- Ponceau 4R or Cochineal Red A, which is used in vinylpyrrolidone. foods such as sea food dressings, sweets, salami Polyvinylpyrrolidone Polymer of N-vinyl pyrroli- and cake mixes, has been linked with hyperactivity done used in its cross-linked form (polyvinylpolypyr- in children and intolerance reactions in people with al- rolidone; PVPP) to control haze or colloidal stabil- lergies to salicylates. It may also exacerbate the ity in beer by removing polyphenols. Similarly symptoms of asthma and exhibits carcinogenicity used in clarification of wines. Also known as povi- in animals. It is banned in Norway and the USA. done. Ponkans Type of mandarins (Citrus reticulata). Pomaces Wastes or by-products from manufacture Pont-l'Eveque cheese French soft cheese made of fruit juices. Solid residue remaining after press- from cow milk. The edible brown rind is slightly ing of fruits to extract juices or musts. mouldy and ridged as the cheese is cured on straw Pombe Type of sorghum beer made in East Africa. mats. The interior is soft and yellow. Flavour is sa- Pome fruits False fruits, the flesh of which develops voury and piquant. from the receptacle of the flower, enclosing the fused Poori Puffed, deep fried, unleavened Indian bread carpels. The carpels form the core (true fruit) after fer- made from wheat flour. Eaten warm. Plain poori is tilization. Examples include apples, pears and eaten as an accompaniment to curries; can also be quinces. flavoured to make a sweet or savoury product. Pomegranate juices Juices high in vitamins A, C Popcorn Variety of corn with hard kernels that ex- and E, folic acid, potassium and niacin, extracted pand on exposure to heat or microwaves to form from pomegranates and consumed as a beverage. large, fluffy white masses. Also refers to the edible Also traditionally used to produce Grenadine, a thick- mass formed by this process, which is eaten as a snack ened and sweetened pomegranate juice. Studies sug- food, often flavoured with salt or a sweet substance gest that pomegranate juice reduces arterial plaque, such as toffee. systolic blood pressure and LDL cholesterol. Popping Process in which cereals and grains are Pomegranates Fruits produced by Punica expanded by heating until the outer skin of the ker- granatum. The orange to red skin is leathery and en- nels burst with a sudden sharp, explosive sound. Used closes a pinkish pulp that contains numerous edible particularly in the manufacture of popcorn. seeds. The pulp is scooped out and eaten fresh. Poppy seeds Small, kidney shaped, grey-blue seeds Pomegranate juice is used in wines and cocktails produced by Papaver somniferum. Have a mild, nutty and is the main ingredient of grenadine syrup. flavour and aroma and are used as toppings and Pomelos The largest of the citrus fruits, produced ingredients for bread and other bakery products. by Citrus maxima or C. grandis. Ancestors of the Porcine Affecting, resembling or relating to swine. modern grapefruit. Closely resemble the grapefruit in Porcine somatotropin Growth hormone produced appearance, but the flesh is sweeter and less acidic, by swine in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, lacking the bitterness of a grapefruit. Rich in vita- which stimulates growth and influences the metabo- min C and potassium. Eaten fresh or used to make lism of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Has jams, jellies and marmalades. Also known as been used in agriculture to improve growth perform- shaddocks, Chinese grapefruit and pummelos. ance and carcass characteristics of swine. Pomfret Any of a number of marine fish species Poria cocos Species of edible fungi of the family within the family Bramidae; worldwide distribution. Coriolaceae. Used as medicinal products in Asia and Species valued as food fish include Brama brama thought to have lipaemic activity and antitumour (pomfret; black sea bream), B. japonica (Pacific pom- activity. Common names include hoelen and fu ling. fret), Taracticthys longipinnis (bigscale pomfret; long- Porins Transmembrane proteins present in outer finned bream) and Paratromateus niger (black pom- membranes of Gram negative bacteria. Porin fret). Flesh tends to be tender with a rich, sweet fla- trimers form channels in the membrane through which vour. Marketed fresh, frozen and canned; also salted transport of small molecules, e.g. monosaccharides in India. can occur. Pommes frites French term for potatoes that have Pork Meat from swine, especially when the meat is been cut into thick or thin strips, soaked in cold water, uncured. Depending on the size of the animal and the dried and deep fried in oil. Also called chips (UK), part of the swine carcasses from which the meat is fries or French-fried potatoes or French fries. cut, colour of pork varies from pale pink to pinky-red. 339 Pork bellies Possums Raw boar meat and sow meat tend to be a stronger red Porphyridium Genus of red microalgae of the fam- colour than pork from young swine. On cooking, ily Porphyridiaceae. Species include Porphyridium pork becomes paler and may become almost white in cruentum and P. purpureum. Source of a range of colour. Pork is characterized by clearly noticeable de- compounds, including polysaccharides, the long posits of subcutaneous fats, which are white in colour chain polyunsaturated fatty acids docosahex- and medium-firm in texture. Pork is a particularly aenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid, and the rich dietary source of thiamin, containing up to 10 pigment phycoerythrin, which is used in natural times as much as beef. In some religions, pork is con- colorants. sidered as unclean and consumption is forbidden; con- Porphyrins Derivatives of porphin (a cyclic tetrapyr- versely, in certain parts of the world, notably in China role) in which the pyrrole ȕ-carbon atoms are variously and the Pacific, and in other Asian cultures, pork is substituted. Can readily chelate various minerals, the highly regarded. Pork quality is affected by halo- metalloporphyrins being components of several impor- thane sensitivity and Rendement Napole genes tant biological pigments, e.g. chlorophylls, cyto- in swine. Quality is often categorized as being: pale, chromes and haem. soft and exudative (PSE defect); reddish-pink, soft and exudative (RSE defect); red, firm and non- Porpoises Marine mammals from the family Phocoe- exudative (RFN; normal); or dark, firm and dry (DFD nidae; worldwide distribution. Not commercially ex- defect). ploited on a large scale. However, some species are utilized as a source of meat and oils. Pork bellies Cuts of swine carcasses used in preparation of various foods such as commercial pork, ba- Porridge Breakfast foods originating from Scotland con, bacon bits and specialities including smoked and made by boiling oatmeal or other oat products in salted products. Also an important commodity in the water or milk. May be flavoured with ingredients such futures market. as sugar or salt. Usually eaten hot. Porridges Soft, easily digestible breakfast foods Pork chops Thick slices of pork, usually including made by boiling cereals, pseudocereals or leg- an eye of meat, a rib and a layer of subcutaneous fat. umes in water, milk or a water-milk mixture until Pork mince Meat mince prepared from pork. Also thick. Usually eaten hot and may be flavoured with a known as ground pork or minced pork. variety of ingredients, e.g. salt or sugar, either during Pork patties Meat patties prepared from commin- or after preparation. uted pork. May be seasoned with a variety of ingredi- Port Sweet fortified wines produced from specific ents but commonly contain herbs, salt and pepper. local winemaking grape cultivars in a delimited area Pork products Products manufactured from pork, of the upper Douro valley in Portugal. Types include: e.g. charcuterie products and pork patties. vintage port; ruby port; and tawny port. Most port is red, but white port is also available. Pork sausages Sausages prepared from pork. Properties of pork make it highly suitable for the Portioning During food processing, this is the divi- preparation of sausages. The majority of sausages in- sion of foods into food portions of a particular size clude some pork, but pork sausages include a high for further processing, packaging or distribution. proportion of pork (lean meat, skin and offal) and pork Portion packs Packs which each provide an amount fat trimmings. Although they may include other types of food suitable for one person. of meat, the proportions of these are lower than the Port Salut cheese French semi-soft cheese made proportion of pork. from cow milk. Originally made by Trappist monks. Porosity The amount of void space in a material, ex- Rind is smooth and yellow; interior has an elastic tex- pressed as a proportion of its total volume. Materials ture. Slightly aromatic flavour but no pronounced that contain many pores exhibit increased permeabil- aroma. Also known as Saint-Paulin cheese. ity. Possums Tree-dwelling Australian marsupial ani- Porphyra Genus of red seaweeds found on rocky mals; there are many species, particularly in the family shorelines around the world. Some species are utilized Petauridae. Recently, interest has increased in farming as foods, including Porphyra tenera and P. yezoensis. possums for the production of possum meat, particu- Various names are given to seaweed products formed larly in New Zealand. Possum carcasses (brush-tail from members of this genus, including laver (Eng- possums, Trichosurus vulpecula; 1-5 years old) are land), nori (Japan, North America), kim (Korea) and characterized by a high content of lean meat and a low karengo (New Zealand). Cultured on a large scale in content of fat. Cooked brush-tail possum meat has ac- some parts of Asia. ceptable tenderness, a high content of protein, a low 340 Postprandial response Poultry content of fat and a high content of unsaturated Potato flakes Products made by drying thin slices of fats. potatoes. Used as an ingredient in doughs or to make Postprandial response Physiological response to instant mashed potatoes by reconstituting with wa- the ingestion of a meal. ter or milk. Potable water Water of composition and hygienic Potato granules Fine powders (instant foods) and sensory quality permitting its use as drinking wa- which are mixed with boiling water to yield foods ter. similar in texture and flavour to mashed potatoes. Potassium Alkali metal with the chemical symbol K. Often called instant mashed potatoes. Granules are An essential element in the human diet. Good sources produced by peeling, cooking and drying potatoes include orange juices, bananas and beans. Defi- which are then reduced to granules of 1 or a few cells ciency is known as hypokalaemia. each. Chemical additives may be used to prolong Potassium bromate Salt formerly widely used in their shelf life and prevent lumping. dough conditioners. Now generally banned due to Potato meal Flour prepared from potatoes. Can be possible human carcinogenicity. Still permitted by used as an ingredient in many types of processed some countries for use in malting of barley for the foods. manufacture of alcoholic beverages. Can also oc- Potato peel Outer skin of potatoes, sometimes re- cur in drinking water as a by-product of disinfec- moved before cooking, but often retained, as in baked tion. potatoes, boiled potatoes and potato wedges. Con- Potassium hydroxide One of the hydroxides sumption of the peel along with the flesh is often rec- which are widely used in food processing. Uses in- ommended as it is rich in vitamins, minerals and clude washing or chemical peeling of fruits and fibre. vegetables, cocoa and chocolate processing, Potato products Generic term for foods which have caramel colour production, poultry scalding, soft been formulated using potatoes or their components drinks processing and thickening of ice cream. (e.g. potato starch) as the main ingredient. Synonyms include caustic potash, potash lye and potassium hydrate. Chemical formula KOH. Potato purees Made by mashing cooked potatoes to a smooth, thick consistency by forcing through Potassium lactate White solid which is produced on sieves or blending in food processors. May be com- a commercial scale by neutralization of lactic acid bined with other ingredients and served as a side dish with potassium hydroxide. Applications in foods and or used to thicken soups and sauces. beverages include flavour enhancers, flavourings, adjuvants, humectants and pH regulators. Potato salads Salads prepared from boiled or Potato chips Thin slices of potatoes fried until roasted potatoes, cut into chunks. Coated with vari- crisp. Eaten as snack foods or served as a garnish or ous dressings, often a mayonnaise-type dressing. with dips. May be flavoured with salt or a variety of Usually served cold, but can be eaten hot. other flavourings. Called potato crisps or crisps in Potato starch Starch isolated from potato tubers. the UK. Potentiometry Technique in which detection is Potato crisps UK name for thin slices of potatoes achieved by measuring the change in electric potential that are fried until crisp. Eaten as snack foods or between two electrodes placed in the sample solution. served as a garnish or with dips. May be flavoured One electrode (the indicator electrode) responds to with salt or a variety of other flavourings. Also analyte concentration, while the other (the reference known as potato chips in other countries, including electrode) remains at a fixed potential. the USA. Pouches Small, sealed flexible bags which can be Potatoes Edible tubers produced by Solanum tube- used as containers for foods. Commonly made from rosum, widely cultivated worldwide. Good source of plastics or foils, and used to store frozen foods or vitamin C, a range of minerals and dietary fibre, dried foods. with a high water content (approximately 80%). Vary Pouchong tea Lightly fermented tea, intermediate in shape and skin colour according to cultivar. Eaten between green tea and oolong tea. cooked in a number of ways, including boiled, baked, fried and roasted, as well as being used in soups, Poultry The collective term for any domestic or stews and other dishes. Also a source of starch and farmed birds including chickens, chukars, ducks, alcohol. Green parts of the potato plant, including tu- emus, geese, guinea fowl, ostriches, quails, bers exposed to light, contain the poisonous glycoalka- rheas, turkeys and waterfowl. They are reared pri- loid solanine. marily for poultry meat production and production of eggs. 341 Poultry breast Prepared meals Poultry breast A part of poultry carcasses which Prato cheese Brazilian semi-hard cheese similar to consists of the breast muscle (meat), skin, ribs, ster- Gouda cheese. num and pectoral girdle. It is usually removed from the Prawn crackers Fried sea food products made from carcass by cutting through the ribs, near to their at- minced prawns or shrimps mixed with flour (usu- tachment to the backbone. Some poultry breast meat is ally tapioca flour) and seasonings. Often con- deboned before retail. The breast muscle of larger spe- sumed as snack foods or a meal accompaniment. cies of poultry may be processed by deboning and Prawns General name for many species of marine and slicing or rolling before retail. Poultry breast meat is freshwater crustacea within the suborder Dendro- lighter in colour than meat from the legs and thighs. branchiata. Often confused with shrimps, prawns Poultry meat Meat from poultry. Most of the fat in may be distinguished by their branched gill structure poultry meat is associated with the skin and can be re- and abdominal plates that overlap in sequence from moved. Skinless poultry meat has low intramuscular front to back. They also have longer legs and a smaller and saturated fat contents making it a healthy dietary set of first pincers than second, whereas in shrimps the alternative to red meat. Meat from younger birds reverse is true. Despite these differences, the term tends to be more tender than that from older birds. De- prawns is often applied, on the basis of size only, to velopments in poultry husbandry (e.g. intensive pro- larger species within the families Pandalidae, Penaei- duction systems), advances in feeds and selective dae and Palaemonidae. Many species have commercial breeding have led to large-scale, rapid production at importance as foods, including Palaemon serratus low prices. Consequently, poultry meat has become an (common prawns), Marsupenaeus japonicus (kuruma increasingly important part of diets in many countries. prawns) and Fenneropenaeus indicus (Indian prawns). Marketed fresh, frozen, canned and as pastes. Poultry products Generic term for foods which have been formulated using meat from domestic fowl (e.g. Prebiotic foods Foods containing nondigestible in- chickens, turkeys, ducks and geese) as the main gredients with potentially beneficial health effects for ingredient. the host based on selective stimulation of the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of bacterial Poultry sausages Sausages made from poultry species already resident in the colon (e.g. probiotic meat. They are often prepared from mechanically re- bacteria). Examples of prebiotic components include covered poultry meat, poultry meat trimmings or poul- inulin and nondigestible fructooligosaccharides. try thigh meat. Other ingredients may include poultry Food sources include bananas, onions, tomatoes, skin and the less preferred components of poultry of- legumes and Jerusalem artichokes. fal, such as gizzards and hearts. Poultry fat, pork fat Prebiotics Nondigestible carbohydrates which or beef fat may also be included. They may be smoked provide health benefits by stimulating growth of se- or unsmoked. They include chicken sausages and lected bacteria (e.g. lactic acid bacteria and bifi- turkey frankfurters. dobacteria) in the colon. Common prebiotics in foods Poultry science Division of animal science deal- include oligosaccharides and inulin. ing with the production, management and distribution Precipitation Process of forcing a substance in solid of poultry, including those intended for food use or for form from solution. Achieved through a variety of production of eggs to be used in or as foods. means, including addition of an agent to the solution Poverty The state of being poor. and centrifugation. Powders Dried foods in the form of fine particles. Predictive microbiology Determination of the influ- Food powders include products, which can be reconsti- ence of various chemical, physical and biological fac- tuted (e.g. with milk or water) to form liquid foods, tors on microbial growth and survival, typically by and powdered ingredients such as baking powders means of challenge trials or mathematical models. and spices. Predictive modelling Use of simplified and generalized representations (models) of phenomena to forecast Pozol Corn dough traditionally produced in Mexico the influence of certain factors on events. and Guatemala by steeping corn in lime followed by Prepared dishes Types of convenience foods cooking and fermentation. The fermented dough is similar to prepared meals. often suspended in water and consumed as a refreshing beverage. Prepared foods Alternative term for processed foods. Pralines Cooked mixtures of crushed nuts and partly Prepared meals Convenience foods eaten at caramelized sugar, often used as a centre for choco- mealtimes and/or designed to be one of the main lates. May be ground to a paste for use in pastry or meals of the day. Similar to prepared dishes. candy fillings. 342 Preservation Pristane Preservation Process of maintaining a food in its uniform ice crystals throughout the food and reduced original or existing state by treatment that will prevent structural damage due to crystal growth. its spoilage or deterioration. Preservation is achieved Pretzels Small, brittle biscuits made from a stiff by a range of treatments, including refrigeration, dough typically formed into loose knots which are freezing, canning, brining, smoking, freeze boiled briefly, glazed with eggs and baked. Often drying, drying and pickling. topped with salt crystals. Preservatives Additives that increase the shelf life Pricing Determination of the amount of money ex- of foods and beverages. Shelf life is determined by pected or required in payment for something. rates of growth of spoilage microorganisms and Prickly pears Spiny fruits produced by several varie- chemical degradation, usually oxidation, of food ties of cacti, especially Opuntia ficus-indica. The soft components. Preservatives are chemicals that inhibit flesh is similar in texture to that of watermelons. one or both of these processes. Examples include or- Usually eaten fresh, but also used as an ingredient for ganic acids (e.g. lactic acid, propionic acid, desserts and beverages. Also known as cactus formic acid), benzoic acid derivatives (sodium pears, Indian figs and barberry figs. benzoate, hydroxybenzoic acid esters), sulfur dioxide, nitrites and antioxidants. Principal component analysis Statistical technique by which variables in a data matrix are transformed to Preserves Term applied to preserved foods, usually make them independent of one another. Covariance referring to preserved fruits. Fruit preserves are values are plotted on axes in multidimensional space. made by cooking fruits with sugar and sometimes The first principal component, describing the majority also pectins. Differ from fruit jams in that preserves of the spread of data, corresponds to the first axis in generally contain larger chunks of fruit, while jams are multidimensional space. Higher order axes show less similar to thick fruit purees. Preserves are used in a variation, as the data are less correlated. similar manner to jams. Other types of preserves include vegetable preserves and fish preserves. Printers Equipment, such as computer peripherals, which are used for printing text or graphics, e.g. on Preserving Alternative term for preservation. labels for foods. Print quality and printing speed vary Presses Devices used for applying pressure in order greatly between printers. The major types include line to flatten or shape an item, or to extract natural fluids, printers, matrix printers, letter quality printers and laser e.g. fruit juices from fruits or oils from oilseeds printers. or nuts. For oil extraction, screw presses are com- Printing Process of generating printed material, such monly used in preference to hydraulic presses because as labels for foods, including text and graphics. they provide a continuous process, have greater capac- Prion diseases Degenerative, fatal brain diseases ity, require less labour and generally remove more oil. which are believed to be transmitted by prions. Prion Pressing Process whereby pressure is applied to an diseases are characterized by very long incubation pe- item with presses in order to flatten or shape it, or to riods. They include bovine spongiform encepha- extract natural fluids. Used to produce fruit juices lopathy (BSE) in cattle, Creutzfeldt-Jakob dis- from fruits, and vegetable oils from oilseeds and ease (CJD) and kuru in man, and scrapie in sheep. nuts. They may also be known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Pressure The force per unit area applied to a surface. Pressure is usually measured in pascals (Pa), which are Prion proteins Alternative term for prions. defined as 1 Newton per square metre; it can also be Prions Submicroscopic particulate proteins, which measured in millimetres of mercury (mmHg) or milli- are believed to be the infective agent of prion dis- bars. High pressures may be applied in food manufac- eases such as bovine spongiform encephalopa- turing (high pressure processing) for preserva- thy, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and scrapie. tion purposes and in certain analytical techniques They resist inactivation by procedures that modify nu- to enhance method performance. cleic acids. Conversion of soluble prion proteins Pressure shift freezing A freezing technique that (PrP) into insoluble, pathogenic, proteinase-resistant results in frozen foods with improved texture. isoforms is one of the crucial events in the develop- Foods are subjected to pressure, which reduces the ment of prion diseases. However, to date, the mecha- freezing point of water. They can then be cooled to nism by which this conversion gives rise to pathogenic a sub-zero temperature without the water within events remains unclear. Also known as prion proteins. them freezing. Upon release of the pressure, rapid Pristane Member of the branched chain hydrocar- freezing occurs, resulting in the formation of small, bons produced by certain zooplankton. 343 Private labels Progesterone Private labels Products manufactured by one com- Processing Treatment of a raw material, such as a pany, but labelled as a store brand. food, usually by applying a series of actions or steps, to produce a specific end product. Proanthocyanidins Condensed tannins found in many foods and beverages, such as green tea and Processing equipment Machinery used in the proc- red wines, where they contribute to flavour, e.g. as- essing of foods. tringency and bitterness. Possess antioxidative Processing lines Sequences of processing activity and antibacterial activity. Can form com- equipment units that are integrated in order to manu- plexes with proteins in beer, which may lead to facture a complete product. formation of non-biological haze. Also thought to Process water Water that is used in the manufacture scavenge free radicals. Proanthocyanidins isolated of foods for processes such as cooling and cleaning. from cranberries have been found to inhibit the ad- Spent process water may be re-used to minimize herence of Escherichia coli to model epithelial sur- waste water production, but must first be treated so faces. that it is at least of drinking quality. Probiotic bacteria Bacteria which benefit health by Procyanidins Polyphenols found in foods such as promoting a balanced gastrointestinal microflora (e.g. cocoa, chocolate, green tea and red wines, Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus spp.). Used in which are thought to exhibit cardioprotective effects the preparation of microbial cultures for use in foods due to their ability to scavenge free radicals, inhibit and animal feeds. oxidation of lipids and suppress the activation of platelets. Probiotic foods Novel foods containing viable pro- Procymidone Systemic fungicide which inhibits synbiotic microorganisms (particularly lactic acid thesis of triglycerides by fungi. Used to control a bacteria, but also some bifidobacteria and yeasts) range of fungal pathogens on crops. Classified by that have beneficial effects on the health of the host by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in normal improving the microbiological balance of the intestine. use. Examples include bifidus milk, acidophilus milk Production The action or process of producing or and Yakult. being produced, or the bulk of a commodity produced Probiotic microorganisms Microorganisms in a given country or area. which benefit health by promoting a balanced gastroin- Product liability A producer's legal responsibility for testinal microflora. Used in the preparation of micro- goods, or the liability of manufacturers and traders for bial cultures for use in foods and animal feeds. damage or injury caused to purchasers or bystanders by their products. Procaryotes Alternative spelling of prokaryotes. Product recalls Requests made by food companies Process control Use of computerized systems for that batches of foods should be returned to the manu- automatic control of continuous industrial processes. facturer, usually in response to health hazards or Processed cheese Product made from one or more food safety issues. hard or semi-hard cheese by milling and heating with Product technology Processing procedures em- water, emulsifying agents such as phosphates or ployed during the manufacture of foods. citrates, and other ingredients including milk or Profilins Small, actin-binding proteins found in all whey powder, butter, cream, seasonings and fla- eukaryotes. Some are highly cross-reactive aller- vourings. The mixture is pasteurized at a high tem- gens responsible for allergies to pollen and fruits. perature to extend shelf life of the product. The heat- Present in a range of plant foods, including celery, ing used during processing stops any further cheese peppers, melons and corn. ripening or flavour development. Soft versions con- Profitability The monetary difference between the taining 50% water are used as processed cheese cost of producing and marketing goods or services and spreads. the price subsequently received for those goods or ser- Processed foods Foods which have been subjected vices. Profit is an essential competitive feature of buy- to some degree of processing in order to bring about a ing and selling in the economic system. desired modification, e.g. enhanced shelf life, phys- Profiteroles Small, cream puffs made from baked icochemical properties, sensory properties or choux pastry shells, which are filled with whipped nutritional quality. Examples include chilled foods, cream and topped with chocolate sauces. frozen foods, canned foods, ready meals, pre- Progesterone One of the steroid hormones pro- serves and dietetic foods. Also known as prepared duced mainly by the corpus luteum which prepares the foods. uterus to receive the fertilized egg and maintains the 344 Progoitrin Propazine uterus during pregnancy. Used in cattle breeding to ing (or proving), starch is converted by enzymes suspend the oestrous cycle and allow the mating of the into sugars that are used as growth substrates by the whole herd to be synchronized. Potentially useful as a yeasts employed. The breakdown products are car- marker of mastitis in cattle. bon dioxide and alcohol. As carbon dioxide is pro- Progoitrin Glucosinolates found in Brassica duced, it is retained in the tiny cells formed in the pro- vegetables that may contribute to their flavour and tein matrix during mixing, causing them to grow and bitterness. the dough to expand. Other products of yeast activity, Prokaryotes Typically, unicellular microorgan- mainly acids, are also formed during proofing; they isms within the superkingdoms (domains) bacteria contribute significantly to flavour development. and archaea. Characterized by a lack of a defined nu- Dough expands by a factor of three or four during cleus, and the possession of a single circular DNA proofing, and it is important that the skin remains molecule and a very small range of organelles. Alter- flexible so that it does not tear as it expands. Yeast is at native spelling is procaryotes. its most active at 35-40qC, so to minimize proofing time, heat transfer to the dough is necessary, to raise its Prolactin Proteinaceous hormones secreted by the temperature by 10-15qC. anterior lobe of the pituitary gland which stimulate secretion of milk in mammals and assist in maintaining Prooxidative activity Ability of a substance to pro- the corpus luteum. Also thought to be involved in de- mote oxidation. Some substances can act as prooxi- velopment of the immune system in neonates. dants or antioxidants, depending on the conditions, Prolamins Seed globulins that are insoluble in water including some minerals, vitamins and carotenoids and soluble in water-ethanol mixtures. Rich in proline . and glutamic acid but contain small amounts of ly- Propanal Aldehyde that exists as a colourless liquid. sine, arginine and tryptophan, resulting in their Can be reduced to propanol and oxidized to pro- being of poor nutritional value. panoic acid. Also known as propionaldehyde. Proline Non-essential amino acid whose structure Propane Gaseous hydrocarbon of the paraffin series differs from those of other amino acids in that its obtained from petroleum. Useful in the food industry side chain is bonded to the N of the amino group as for extraction of lipophilic compounds and proteins. well as the C, making the amino group a secondary 1,2-Propanediol Aliphatic alcohol used primarily in amine. Has a strong influence on the secondary struc- emulsifiers. Other uses in foods include in anticak- ture of proteins and is found more abundantly in col- ing agents, antioxidants, flavourings and hu- lagen than in other proteins. mectants. Used in freezing media and solvents for Prometryn Selective triazine herbicide which controls food processing. Synonym for propylene glycol. annual grasses and broad-leaved weeds in a variety of crops including cotton and celery. Classified by Propanil Common name for 3',4'- WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in normal dichloropropionanilide, a selective contact herbicide use. with short duration of activity used to control broad- leaved and grass weeds, particularly among rice. Clas- Promoters Nucleotide sequences located upstream sified by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). Also from transcription start sites that are recognized and known as DCPA. bound by DNA-directed RNA polymerases and other regulatory proteins during the initiation of tran- Propanol Alcohol containing three carbon atoms scription. which is also known as propyl alcohol. Used for ex- Pronase A commercial preparation of proteinases traction of glutenin subunits from wheat and phos- from Streptomyces griseus containing at least 4 en- pholipids from fish oils. zymes, including trypsin and a neutral metallopro- Propanone Colourless, flammable, volatile ketone teinase. Used for production of protein hydrolys- used as a solvent and as a raw material for making ates, and improving the sensory properties of dry plastics. Produced commercially by fermentation fermented sausages and the functional proper- of corn or molasses, or by controlled oxidation of ties of insoluble gluten. hydrocarbons. Also known as acetone. Proofers Equipment assisting in the proofing (or Propazine Selective systemic triazine herbicide used proving) of dough, in which airflow, ambient condi- for pre-emergence control of grasses and broad-leaved tions (e.g. air temperature and relative humidity) weeds around carrots, parsley and sorghum (most and handling can all be controlled. other vegetables and cereals are sensitive). Classi- Proofing Stage of breadmaking in which dough is fied by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in fermented under controlled conditions. During proof- normal use. 345 Propenal Propylparaben Propenal Colourless, highly volatile, liquid aldehyde Propionicins Bacteriocins synthesized by Propi- also known as acrolein. Can cause formation of unde- onibacterium spp. Propionicin PLG-1, produced by sirable flavour in cider and spirits. P. thoenii P127, has a bactericidal mode of action. It is Propham Selective systemic herbicide used to control heat labile, and effective against a wide range of annual grasses and broad-leaved weeds around plants Gram positive bacteria and Gram negative bac- including some Brassica vegetables, legumes, teria, as well as against some yeasts and fungi. Dif- sugar beets and oilseeds. Also used as a plant ferent aggregative forms exist: one of 10,000 Da and growth regulator and sprouting inhibitor for stored the other of >150,000 Da. potatoes. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present Propolis Resinous product collected by bees from acute hazard in normal use. plant exudates for use in the construction of hives. Has Propineb Dithiocarbamate fungicide used in protec- wide applications in medicine, cosmetics and foods, tion of a wide range of fruits and vegetables. Ap- e.g. in food supplements. Also reported to have an- plied to leaves and rapidly degrades, but metabolites tibiotic or antifungal properties. Other hive products may be taken up in small amounts by the plant. Classi- include honeys, beeswax and royal jelly. fied by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in Propoxur Non-systemic N-methylcarbamate insecti- normal use. cide used for control of insect pests in food storage Propionaldehyde Synonym for propanal. Aldehyde areas. Also used for control of sucking and chewing that exists as a colourless liquid. Can be reduced to insects in a range of crops. Residues tend to be rela- propanol and oxidized to propanoic acid. tively persistent. Classified by WHO as moderately Propionibacteria Bacteria of the genus Propioni- hazardous (WHO II). bacterium. Propyl alcohol Synonym for propanol. Alcohol Propionibacteriaceae Family of anaerobic, rod- containing three carbon atoms. Used for extraction of shaped or filamentous Gram positive bacteria of glutenin subunits from wheat and phospholipids the suborder Propionibacterineae and order Actinomy- from fish oils. cetales. Occur in dairy products, and on the skin and Propylamine Amine containing three carbons atoms. in the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract of Propylene Colourless, gaseous hydrocarbon with a humans and animals. Contains the genus Propioni- garlic odour. Also known as propene. Active ethyl- bacterium. ene analogue, which can be used to promote the rip- Propionibacterium Genus of Gram positive, anaero- ening of fruits. bic, irregularly-shaped bacteria of the family Propi- Propylene glycol Aliphatic alcohol used primarily in onibacteriaceae. Occur in soil, milk and dairy emulsifiers. Other uses in foods include as anticak- products, and the gastrointestinal tracts of herbi- ing agents, antioxidants, flavourings and hu- vores. Certain species (e.g. Propionibacterium sher- mectants. In food processing, propylene glycol is manii) are used to promote flavour development and used in freezing media and solvents. Synonym for 1,2- eye formation during the ripening of some types of propanediol. hard cheese. Other species may cause food spoil- Propylene oxide Oxide of propylene that can be age. used for fumigation. Also used as an intermediate in Propionic acid Colourless liquid carboxylic acid. the synthesis of propylene glycol, glycerol and Propionic acid and its derivatives, such as calcium propanolamines, and as a solvent for cellulose ace- propionate, are used as preservatives in foods and tate, cellulose nitrates and natural resins. beverages, where they act as fungicides. Can be pro- Propyl gallate Esters of propanol and gallic acid duced by fermentation of bacteria such as Propi- (3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid) with antioxidative onibacterium spp., Clostridium propionicum and activity. Soluble in fats and thus used as antioxi- Megasphaera elsdenii. dants for fats, including margarines and edible Propionic acid bacteria Bacteria, usually of the oils, and meat products. Propyl gallate exhibits genus Propionibacterium, which produce propi- synergistic antioxidative activity with BHT and BHA. onic acid as a main end product in the propionic Propylparaben One of the parabens, also called 4- fermentation of glucose or lactic acid. hydroxybenzoic acid propyl ester. Several of the para- Propionic fermentation Process by which certain ben esters are used as preservatives for foods, bacteria (such as Propionibacterium spp., Clos- beverages, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. In 2004, tridium propionicum and Megasphaera elsdenii) fer- propylparaben was excluded from the list of permitted ment substrates such as glucose and/or lactic acid food additives in the EU, due to concerns over possible to produce propionic acid. oestrogenic activity. 346 Propylthiouracil Protein-glutamine Ȗ-glutamyltransferases Propylthiouracil A bitter compound used in taste thiol proteinases, metalloproteinases or acid pro- research, also known as 6-n-propylthiouracil. The abil- teinases. Some proteinases exhibit a high degree of ity to taste propylthiouracil is an inherited trait and is specificity with respect to the peptide bonds they associated with higher sensitivity to selected bitter cleave (e.g. trypsin), while others are much less spe- compounds and with aversions to some bitter foods. cific (e.g. papain). These enzymes are used in all ar- It can therefore be used to examine individual sensi- eas of food production, including the meat, brewing, tivities to bitterness and for gaining insight into cheesemaking and breadmaking industries. Also variations that exist among the population with regards known by many other names, including proteases, pro- to sensory perception, flavour preferences and teasomes and proteolytic enzymes. food acceptability. Individuals can be classified as Proteinases inhibitors Substances that have the supertasters, moderate tasters or nontasters depending ability to inhibit the proteolytic activity of certain en- on their response to this compound. Also used pharma- zymes. Such inhibitors are found throughout the plant cologically as an antithyroid agent. kingdom, particularly among legumes. Trypsin in- Proso millet Millet belonging to the species Panicum hibitors are found in soybeans, lima beans and miliaceum, which is grown as a cereal food in Asia and mung beans. Chymotrypsin inhibitors are found Eastern Europe. in cereals and potatoes. Proteinase inhibitors are Prosopis africana seeds Seeds of a wild tropical destroyed by heat. plant that grows in Nigeria. Fermented to produce Proteinates Products typically obtained by precipita- condiments (kpaye, okipye or okpehe) that may be tion of proteins from the source material at the used in soups, or boiled and made into daddawa cake, isoelectric points, followed by a neutralization step used to add flavour in cooking. A potential source of (e.g. to form sodium or calcium proteinates). Some of vegetable oils. the most widely used proteinates include caseinates, Prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthases EC total milk proteinates and soy proteinates, which have 1.14.99.1. Accepted name for cyclooxygenases applications as functional ingredients in meat prod- adopted by the International Union of Biochemistry ucts, dairy products and imitation foods. Min- and Molecular Biology (IUBMB). eral proteinates are also used in animal and human nutrition as a readily absorbed form of mineral complex. Prostaglandins Group of compounds formed from unsaturated fatty acids with 20 carbon atoms, pre- Protein concentrates Products prepared by extract- dominantly arachidonic acid. Prostaglandins con- ing proteins from animal and plant materials such as tain a five membered ring and are mediators of a wide vegetables, fish or whey. Protein content varies range of physiological processes. among preparations. Used to provide protein fortification and enhance functional properties in a wide Prostate cancer A form of cancer in men involving range of foods. Some of the most commonly used con- the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the pros- centrates in the food industry are fish protein con- tate gland. A healthy diet that includes plenty of centrates, soy protein concentrates and whey fruits and vegetables may offer protection against protein concentrates. this malignancy. Protein efficiency ratios Biological method (com- Prostokvasha Low fat fermented milk product, monly abbreviated to PER) for evaluating protein qual- popular in Russia, fermented with lactic acid bacte- ity in terms of weight gain per amount of protein con- ria. sumed by a growing animal. PER is used widely in Protamine Antimicrobial peptide with high arginine comparing the nutritional values of proteins in in- content, usually found in association with DNA of dividual foods. It assumes that all protein is used for spermatozoan nuclei of fish (including salmon, carp growth and no allowance is made for maintenance. and herring). Particularly active against Gram posi- Protein engineering Use of genetic techniques tive bacteria. Used in food preservatives for inhi- to modify and enhance the properties of proteins. bition of microbial growth, and also shows emulsify- Protein-glutamine -glutamyltransferases EC ing capacity. Also known as salmine. Ȗ 2.3.2.13. Catalyse the formation of amide bonds be- Proteases Alternative term for proteinases. tween side chain glutamine and side chain lysine resi- Proteasomes Alternative term for proteinases. dues in proteins with the elimination of ammonia. Proteinases Enzymes that hydrolyse proteins by Used for cross-linking proteins, thus modifying their cleavage of peptide bonds. Endoproteinases cleave functional properties (e.g. milk proteins in pro- within protein molecules, while exoproteinases attack duction of yoghurt, cereal proteins in production the ends of protein chains removing amino acids one of bakery products and fish proteins in produc- at a time. They are classified as serine proteinases, tion of surimi gels). Also used for covalently incorpo- 347 Protein hydrolysates Protoplasts rating individual essential amino acids into proteins Proteolysis Hydrolysis of proteins to smaller pep- (e.g. casein) and for joining 2 proteins, thus allowing tide fractions and their constituent amino acids, cata- creation of designer proteins. Also known as transglu- lysed by alkalies, acids or enzymes (pro- taminases. teinases). Protein hydrolysates Proteins that have been sub- Proteolytic enzymes Alternative term for pro- jected to hydrolysis by treatment with enzymes, teinases. acids or alkalies, so that the protein molecule is bro- Proteomics Branch of science involved with the study ken down into peptides and free amino acids. Eas- of proteins produced by an organism during its life- ily digestible and used to reduce antigenicity of time (the proteome). Analogous to genomics as the foods. Applications include as ingredients of medical study of genomes. Various analytical techniques foods, infant formulas and hypoallergenic are employed for investigation of the protein content of foods. cells, tissues or organisms. Effects of development, Protein isolates Products prepared by extracting and mutations, diseases, environment, etc. on protein purifying proteins from animal and plant materials. composition, structure, expression and activity may be Have similar properties to protein concentrates, studied using a proteomics approach. but typically contain about 90% protein. Examples in- Proteose peptones Small peptides in milk derived clude soy protein isolates and whey protein isolates. from the breakdown of casein by proteinases. Proteins Nitrogenous organic compounds consist- Proteus Genus of Gram negative, facultatively an- ing of linked amino acids that are distributed widely aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Entero- in plants and animals. The sequence of amino acids in bacteriaceae. Occur in soil, water, dairy products, proteins is determined by the base sequence of their raw shellfish, fresh vegetables and the gastrointes- encoding genes. They serve many roles, such as en- tinal tracts of humans and animals. Some species (e.g. zymes, structural elements and hormones, and are Proteus vulgaris and P. intermedium) may cause essential nutrients. spoilage of foods (e.g. eggs, cottage cheese, Protein values Relative nutritional values of pro- meat and shellfish). teins based on amino acids composition, digesti- Protocatechuic acid Phenolic compound found in bility and availability of the digested products. Also many foods and beverages which exhibits antioxida- the relative biological value defined in various terms, tive activity and is able to scavenge free radicals. including the ability of a test protein, fed at various Proton magnetic resonance Spectroscopy tech- levels of intake, to support nitrogen balance, relative to nique also known as 1H-NMR (nuclear magnetic a standard protein. resonance) in which analysis is based on chemical Proteobacteria Diverse phylum of Gram negative shifts between non-equivalent protons in the molecule bacteria containing several genera of foodborne under investigation. pathogens, including Escherichia, Salmonella, Proton resonance Phenomenon used in nuclear Vibrio and Helicobacter. magnetic resonance and proton magnetic Proteoglycans High molecular weight complexes of resonance in which protons in a static magnetic field proteins and polysaccharides that are major con- absorb energy from an alternating magnetic field at stituents of structural tissues such as bones, cartilage characteristic frequencies. and muscles, and are also found on the surface of cells. Protoplast fusion Fusion of protoplasts from dif- Glucosaminoglycans, the polysaccharides in pro- ferent strains, species or genera to form hybrid proto- teoglycans, are polymers of acidic disaccharides con- plasts, and ultimately hybrid cells. Protoplasts are taining derivatives of glucosamine or galactosa- mixed together, transferred to appropriate media for mine. cell wall regeneration and the resulting cells are Proteolipids Complexes of proteins and lipids screened for the presence of genetic markers from both abundant in brains but also found in a wide variety of parents. tissues in animals and plants. In contrast to lipopro- Protoplasts Bacterial and plant cells that lack cell teins, they are insoluble in water. The proteins in pro- walls. Cell walls can be removed enzymically or by teolipids have high contents of hydrophobic amino growth in the presence of antibiotics that block synthe- acids, while the lipids consist of a mixture of sis of cell wall peptidoglycans. Protoplasts can con- phosphoglycerides, cerebrosides and sulfatides. tinue to metabolize and can revert to normal cells un- In contrast, lipoproteins consist of phospholipids, der appropriate conditions, although they cannot di- cholesterol and triglycerides. vide. Protoplasts are prepared more easily from Gram 348 Protozoa Psoralens positive bacteria than from Gram negative bac- PSE defect Abbreviation for the pale soft exuda- teria. tive defect of meat, especially pork. Protozoa Former taxonomic group which included Pseudoalteromonas Genus of Gram negative unicellular eukaryotes such as amoebae, flagellates bacteria of the family Pseudoalteromonadaceae and ciliates. These microorganisms are found in which are found in marine environments. The type soil and freshwater, brackish and marine habitats. species is Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis, and the Some, such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp., genus includes species which are psychrophiles are pathogens in humans and animals. Transmission and/or halophiles. Biotechnological potential for is typically via water, raw meat and faecally- production of various enzymes, including cold- contaminated vegetables, salads and fruits. adapted variants, particularly hydrolases and Providencia Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod- poly(ȕ-D-mannuronate) lyases. May be associated shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family En- with spoilage of shellfish. terobacteriaceae. Occur in soil, dairy products, Pseudocereals Plant species that do not belong to the raw shellfish, fresh vegetables, and the gastroin- grass family, but produce seeds or fruits that are testinal tract of humans and animals. Providencia used in the same way as grain from cereals to make alcalifaciens is associated with diarrhoeal illness in flour and bakery products. Include buckwheat, humans due to consumption of contaminated foods. quinoa and amaranth grain. Provitamin A Vitamin precursor for vitamin A. Pseudomonadaceae Family of aerobic, curved or Some carotenoids, such as Į- and ȕ-carotene and ȕ- straight, rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria of the cryptoxanthin, have provitamin A characteristics. order Pseudomonadales. Occur in fresh water, salt wa- Provitamins are chemically related to preformed vita- ter and soil. Includes many plant pathogens and a mins, but have no vitamin activity unless converted to few animal pathogens. Some members synthesize the biologically active form. products of biotechnological interest. Includes the gen- Provolone cheese Italian semi-hard all-purpose era Cellvibrio, Azotobacter and Pseudomonas. cheese made from cow milk. The rind is yellow and Pseudomonas Genus of aerobic, curved or straight shiny, thin and hard. It may also be waxed. The interior rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family is cream-white or slightly straw coloured with a com- Pseudomonadaceae. Occur in soil, water, salads pact texture. Marketed in various types that have been and meat. Some species (e.g. Pseudomonas fluores- aged for periods of 2-3 months to 2 years, and differ in cens and P. fragi) may cause spoilage of meat, dairy flavour and aroma. products, eggs and fish. Certain species, e.g. P. ce- Prunasin Cyanogenic glycoside found in a range of pacia, have been reclassified under the new genus plant materials including almond roots and leaves, Burkholderia. vetch seeds (used as lower priced substitutes for Pseudoterranova Genus of parasitic nematodes of lentils), Japanese apricot seeds, plum seeds, juice the family Anisakidae. Larvae have been implicated in and peel of passion fruits, and black cherry seeds. anisakiasis, an infection caused by consumption of Also isolated from fresh tea leaves, where it is a pre- contaminated raw or undercooked sea foods. cursor for the flavour compound benzaldehyde. Pre- sent in many immature fruits, but converted to amyg- Psicose Sugar with the systematic name D-ribo-2- dalin during maturation. hexulose of interest for potential use in sweeteners Prune juices Fruit juices prepared by water extrac- or bulking agents. tion of the soluble solids from prunes (Prunus do- Psocids Insects of the order Psocoptera, which are mestica). A good source of dietary antioxidant small, soft-bodied and sometimes winged. Some spe- compounds, vitamin A, potassium, magne- cies, e.g. those of the genus Liposcelis, are pests sium, fibre and iron. The high fibre content provides infesting grain stores in hot, humid areas, with conse- a digestive function as a natural laxative. quent adverse effects on grain quality and value. Also Prunes Dried plums. Specific varieties, mainly of infest raw and processed foods in food manufacturing European plums, are suitable for production of prunes. or retail premises as well as in the home. A wide range Plums are dried on the tree where the climate is warm of commodities is prone to infestation, but the insects enough, or alternatively dried by artificial means. have a preference for microorganisms. These can Pruning Cutting branches or roots of trees and bushes, become entangled in their bodies, and thus, the insects usually to a specified length or position. Can have provide a means of disseminating spoilage-causing beneficial effects on plant growth as well as on yield organisms. Also known as booklice. and quality of fruits produced. Psoralens Toxic secondary metabolites found in many fruits and vegetables. They are potent photo- 349 PSP Pullulan sensitizers that can form photoadducts with nucleic Pudding mixes Dried instant foods consisting of a acids if irradiated with UV light. mixture of pregelatinized starch and other ingredients PSP Abbreviation for paralytic shellfish poison- used to prepare puddings, typically by adding milk. ing. Puddings Sweetened, usually cooked, desserts made from various ingredients, e.g. flour, fruit, milk Psychiatric disorders Mental health disorders that and eggs. Include milk puddings and steamed are characterized by alterations in thought patterns, sponges. The term may also refer to savoury dishes mood and behaviour. Includes depression, schizo- topped with or surrounded by suet crust or pastry, such phrenia and neuroses. Research indicates that diet can as steak and kidney puddings, or to savoury products have a significant impact on mental health. in a sausage shape enclosed in casings, e.g. black Psychrobacter Genus of aerobic, mainly psychrotro- puddings or white puddings. phic Gram negative bacteria of the family Morax- Puerarin One of the isoflavones found in the leg- ellaceae. Some species, such as Psychrobacter immo- ume kudzu, also known as Pueraria lobata. A glyco- bilis, can cause spoilage of animal foods, including side of daidzein that acts as a phytoestrogen. Claimed meat and fish products. to improve memory and cognitive performance, Psychrophiles Organisms, especially microorgan- reduce osteoporosis risk and improve glucose isms, that grow best at relatively low temperatures. tolerance. Their optimum growth temperature is generally ac- Pu-erh tea Type of China tea which has undergone a cepted as being below 15qC. microbial fermentation process during manufacture. Psychrotrophs Organisms, especially microorgan- PUFA Abbreviation for polyunsaturated fatty ac- isms, that can grow at relatively low temperatures, but ids. grow optimally within the temperature range of 15 to Puff balls Common name for edible fungi of the 20°C. genus Lycoperdon. Psyllium Small, dark red/brown seeds from plants Puffed rice Rice grains that are heated under pressure belonging principally to the species Plantago psyllium, which is then rapidly released, causing the superheated P. ovata or P. afra, producing a mucilaginous mass steam in the grain to expand and explode the rice grain. which is often added to foods as a source of soluble Used in a range of food applications, including snack fibre. foods, breakfast cereals and confectionery. Psyllium gums Gums extracted from seeds of Pufferfish Any of a number of small, predominately psyllium (selected Plantago spp.). Used primarily as marine fish in the family Tetraodontidae; widespread stabilizers for ice cream and sherbet. in the Indo-Pacific region. Some species are highly es- Ptarmigans Game birds belonging to the genus teemed food fish, particularly in Japan. Many species Lagopus of the Tetraonidae (grouse) family, which are contain potent neurotoxins, implicated in severe and hunted for their meat. often fatal food poisoning incidents. Commercially important species include Takifugu porphyreus (purple PTFE Commonly used abbreviation for polytetra- puffer) and T. vermicularis (nashi-fugu). Normally fluoroethylene. marketed fresh and prepared for consumption by spe- Puberty The stage of physical development during cialist chefs able to remove toxic components. which the reproductive organs become functional and Puffing Method for expanding foods, particularly ce- secondary sexual characteristics begin to develop. real grains. Grain is subjected to high pressure and/or These changes typically occur earlier in girls than in temperature, before being ejected into a normal atmos- boys. pheric pressure, causing the samples to expand sharply. Public health Systems and procedures designed to Used mainly in the manufacture of breakfast cere- protect and improve the health of a population and to als such as puffed rice and puffed wheat, and for prevent the spread of diseases. Includes concepts making snack foods and puffed rice cakes. such as sanitation, disease control, public health edu- Puff pastry Light flaky pastry formed by alternating cation and access to health treatment. layers of fat and dough so that, upon baking, steam Pubs Informal name for public houses, also known as collects between dough layers, causing them to expand inns. Establishments, found chiefly in the UK, consist- and form cavities between the thin pastry layers. ing of at least one public room and licensed for the sale Pullet eggs Eggs produced by pullets (young and consumption of alcoholic beverages. Most chickens usually less than one year old). pubs now sell meals, often in a separate restaurant Pullulan Extracellular, water-soluble, linear D-glucan area. produced by Aureobasidium pullulans, consisting 350 Pullulanases Purchasing behaviour predominantly of maltotriose units linked by (1,6)-Į- Pummelos Alternative term for pomelos or shad- glucosidic bonds. Useful as a starch replacer in die- docks, the largest of the citrus fruits, produced by tetic foods and as a component of edible films. Citrus maxima or C. grandis and ancestors of the mod- Pullulanases EC 3.2.1.41. Glycosidases which ern grapefruit. Closely resemble the grapefruit in appearance, but the flesh is sweeter and less acidic, hydrolyse (1,6)-Į-D-glucosidic linkages in pullulan, amylopectins and glycogen, and in Į- and ȕ-limit lacking the bitterness of a grapefruit. Rich in vita- dextrins of amylopectins and glycogen. Also known min C and potassium. Eaten fresh or used to make as debranching enzymes, Į-dextrin endo-1,6-Į- jams, jellies and marmalades. glucosidases and amylopectin 6-glucanohydrolases, Pumpernickel Dark brown, dense bread made with and, erroneously, as limit dextrinases. Applications coarsely ground whole rye flour and sourdough, include the production of resistant starch or other originating from Germany. modified starches, often by debranching treat- Pumpkins Fruits produced by plants of the genus ments, and use in the saccharification of starch to Cucurbita, especially C. pepo and C. maxima. Contain yield starch syrups. approximately 90% water, moderate amounts of vita- Pulpboard Type of paperboard in which all plies min C, and small amounts of carotenes, starch, are usually made from wood pulp, although the centre sugars, proteins, fats and the vitamin B group. may sometimes be filled with waste paper. Used in jams and pies and as vegetables. Leaves Pulping Crushing of foods, e.g. fruits and vegeta- and flowers of the plants can also be eaten. Pumpkin bles, into soft, smooth and moist masses (pulps). seeds are eaten or processed into pumpkin seed oils. Pulps Preparations of a soft, moist consistency, typi- Pumpkin seed oils Oils rich in unsaturated fatty cally obtained by mashing foods, particularly fruits or acids. Frequently used as salad oils; also used as an vegetables. Used in the manufacture of a wide range ingredient of cider vinegar. of foods and beverages, including fruit juices, yoghurt and pie fillings. Also refers to the solid residue Pumpkin seeds Oilseeds produced by pumpkins, remaining after extraction of juices from fruits and Cucurbita pepo, which, when roasted and salted, may vegetables. be consumed as snack foods. Rich in unsaturated fats, vitamins and minerals. Pulque Mexican alcoholic beverages prepared by fermentation of sap of the agave plant. Pumps Mechanical devices that use suction or pressure to raise or move liquids or compress gases. Often Pulsed electric fields Used in food processing components of larger pieces of equipment. and preservation. A high intensity electric field is delivered as a series of pulses of direct current to the Pungency Sensory properties relating to the ex- food for a very short period of time while the food is tent to which the aroma or flavour of a product (usu- held between two electrodes. This process results in ally onions, chillies, peppers, ginger and rad- formation of pores in, and breakdown of, cell mem- ishes) is acrid or pungent. branes. Applications include inactivation of microor- Pungent principles Flavour compounds respon- ganisms and increased yield of fruit juices during sible for pungency of foods such as chillies, on- extraction. The risk of dielectric breakdown of foods ions, peppers, ginger and radishes. limits this type of processing primarily to liquid foods, Punnets Small lightweight containers or baskets because uniformity of the applied electrical field would for vegetables or fruits. be distorted by air bubbles or suspended solids that usually exist in solid foods. Puppy foods Pet foods designed to meet the nutritional needs of puppies. Contain relatively large Pulsed field gel electrophoresis Gel electro- amounts of proteins and certain minerals and vi- phoresis technique in which DNA fragments are tamins to promote growth and organ development. separated by subjecting the gel to an electric current Include dried, semi-moist and moist foods with or alternately from two angles at timed intervals. Com- without mixers. Often contain chicken meat, rice monly abbreviated to PFGE. and corn as major ingredients. Also available are Pulses Edible seeds of leguminous plants, including premium and organic products. various beans, peas and lentils. Mature seeds are Purchasing behaviour Consumer activity related to dry and can be stored. Also refers to the plants produc- awareness, attitudes, knowledge and selection of foods, ing these seeds. as well as willingness to pay. Influenced by consumer- Pulverization Reduction into fine particles (powders related factors (age, ethnic groups, socioeconomic or dust), usually by crushing, pounding or grinding. groups, education, ability to pay), pricing, shopping 351 Purees Pyrimethanil environment and marketing. An important aspect of the weights of a given volume of water and the same market research. volume of sample. Purees Smooth, thick preparations made by mashing Pycnoporus cinnabarinus Species of fungi of the foods, particularly cooked fruits and vegetables, family Polyporaceae. Used for bioremediation of which have had any coarse fibre removed by sieving processing wastes such as olive oil mills effluents or similar means. and sugar cane bagasse, and for the industrial pro- Purge loss The loss of liquid from a food such as duction of enzymes. meat following processing, particularly thawing. Pyranoanthocyanins Derivatives of anthocyanins Accumulation of liquids in packs during retail dis- found mainly in red wines, berries (e.g. strawber- play can adversely affect consumer acceptability. ries, raspberries) and fruit juices. Pigments with Purification Removal of contaminants or undesirable a range of chemical structures. Can be formed in wines components from a substance. during fermentation, by reaction of yeast metabolites with anthocyanins. Include vitisins A and B, which Purines Heterocyclic organic bases that pair with may contribute to the orange/red colour of wines, and pyrimidines in DNA and RNA, and whose deriva- portisins (vinylproanthocyanins), which are found in tives are important in metabolism. They include ade- port and exhibit a blue colour in solution. nine and guanine, as well as many alkaloids, such as caffeine and theophylline. Pyrazines Nitrogen containing, heterocyclic flavour compounds that can be formed during the Maillard Purity Extent to which an item or substance is pure, i.e. reaction. Found in many foods and beverages. free from contaminants and adulterants. Pyrene Toxic four ringed polycyclic aromatic hydro- Puroindolines Lipid-binding cereal proteins (pur- carbon that can contaminate foods and beverages. oindoline-a and puroindoline-b) found in wheat which play a significant role in texture of bread crumb. Pyrethrins Natural insecticidal compounds found in Genetic variation of puroindoline alleles is associated the flower of the pyrethrin daisy, a Chrysanthemum with kernel hardness in wheat, a property known to sp. native to Kenya. Used in the manufacture of pyre- affect milling and baking qualities. throid insecticides. Pyrethroid insecticides insecti- Purothionin Disulfide-rich protein of the wheat en- Class of synthetic cides pyrethrins dosperm which shows antimicrobial activity. based on . Widely used for control of insects on a range of crops. Examples include Purslane Common name for plants of the genus Por- cypermethrin, deltamethrin, fenvalerate and tulaca, especially P. oleracea. Leafy vegetable that is permethrin. eaten raw in salads or cooked in soups or as greens. Pyridine Heterocyclic nitrogenous base that acts as the Rich source of Ȧ-3 fatty acids, known to be benefi- nucleus of a large number of organic compounds, cial in coronary heart diseases and some types of such as alkaloids. Used as a solvent, and in the manu- cancer. Seeds are ground into a meal that may be facture of various drugs and pesticides. used to make bread. Pyridoxal One of the three forms of vitamin B , the Puto Fermented rice cakes which are consumed as 6 aldehyde form, the others being pyridoxamine (the breakfast foods or snack foods in the Philippines. amine form) and pyridoxine (the alcohol form). The Putrefaction Typically anaerobic, microbial decom- relative proportion of each of the three forms in foods position or spoilage of substances (especially pro- varies considerably. All are equally biologically active. teinaceous and fatty products such as meat and fish) Pyridoxamine One of the three forms of vitamin B , with the production of foul-smelling compounds (e.g. 6 the amine form, the others being pyridoxal (the alde- ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, cadaverine and pu- hyde form) and pyridoxine (the alcohol form). The trescine). relative proportion of each of the three forms in foods Putrescine Foul-smelling biogenic amine formed varies considerably. All are equally biologically active. from the decarboxylation of ornithine, usually during Pyridoxine One of the three forms of vitamin B , the putrefaction. 6 alcohol form, the others being pyridoxal (the alde- PVC Abbreviation commonly used for polyvinyl hyde form) and pyridoxamine (the amine form). The chloride. relative proportion of each of the three forms in foods PVDC Abbreviation commonly used for polyvi- varies considerably. All are equally biologically active. nylidene chloride. Pyrimethanil One of the anilinopyrimidine fungi- Pycnometry Technique for determining the density cides. Also known as Scala. Effective against Botry- of a liquid, using a small bottle of accurately measured tis cinerea and Penicillium spp. Used to reduce fun- volume. Density is determined from the ratio between gal contamination of fruits (e.g. stone fruits, pome 352 Pyrimidines Pyruvic acid fruits, grapes) before harvest and to minimise decay phosphate bonds, mainly those of nucleoside di- and during storage. Can be applied by spraying or dip- triphosphates, liberating either a mono- or diphosphate. ping. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute Pyrophosphates Compounds containing two phos- hazard in normal use. phate groups linked together by an ester bond. In- Pyrimidines Heterocyclic organic bases that pair with volved in many metabolic reactions in prokaryotes purines in DNA and RNA, and whose derivatives are and eukaryotes. important in metabolism. Include cytosine, thymine and uracil. Pyrroles Organic nitrogen compounds that can be formed in foods by the Maillard reaction or by Pyrocarbonic acid diethyl ester Esters with another pathways, and contribute to flavour. Some pyr- timicrobial activity used as preservatives mostly roles exhibit antimicrobial activity. The pyrrole for beverages, including wines, alcohol reduced ring structure is also found in many important biologi- wines, fruit juices and iced tea. Also known as cal compounds, such as pigments, chlorophylls dimethyl dicarbonate. and haem. Pyrocatechol Catecholic diphenol that acts as a substrate for catechol oxidases. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids Toxic alkaloids found in some flowering plants. Can be consumed directly as Pyrococcus Genus of strictly anaerobic, ultrathermo- natural food components (e.g. in honeys and herb philic, coccoid archaea of the family Thermococca- tea) or indirectly via consumption of cereal prod- ceae. Occur in heated sea water. Pyrococcus furiosus ucts contaminated with weeds that produce these tox- is used in the production of thermostable enzymes. ins. Can also occur in eggs, milk and offal, after Pyrodextrins Indigestible mixtures of glucose- animals have eaten contaminated grain. Cause hepa- containing oligosaccharides derived from the hy- totoxicity in animals and humans. Can be fatal. drolysis of starch during heating. Function as prebiotics, promoting proliferation of Bifidobacterium Pyruvaldehyde Organic compound often used as a spp. in the gastrointestinal tract. Also used as reagent in organic syntheses and in flavourings. Can components of sweeteners. be formed by the Maillard reaction and has been shown to exhibit antibacterial activity. Also known Pyrogallol Phenolic compound also known as pyro- as methylglyoxal. gallic acid that acts as a powerful reducing agent. Pyroglutamic acid Degradation product of gluta- Pyruvate carboxylases EC 6.4.1.1. Carboxylating, mine found in many types of cheese, particularly anaplerotic enzymes which produce oxaloacetate extensively ripened cheeses produced with thermo- from pyruvic acid. Important for replenishment of philic lactic acid bacteria as starters. Pyroglu- the oxaloacetate consumed during growth of certain tamic acid produced by lactic acid bacteria has been bacteria. Thought to be required for rapid coagula- shown to exhibit antibacterial activity. Also found tion of milk by lactic acid bacteria. in alcoholic beverages, fruit juices, meat and Pyruvate decarboxylases EC 4.1.1.1. Enzymes fruits, where it can have adverse effects on sensory which catalyse the decarboxylation of Į-keto acids to properties. aldehydes and carbon dioxide. Decarboxylate py- Pyrolysis Decomposition of chemical substances as ruvic acid to acetaldehyde prior to metabolism via a result of high temperatures. Sometimes used in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (aerobically) or to ethanol analysis of foods by gas chromatography and (anaerobically). Thought to contribute to the formation mass spectroscopy, and as part of some processing of important flavour compounds such as acyloins techniques to add flavour or colour to products. and isoamyl alcohol produced by yeasts in alco- Pyrones Heterocyclic flavour compounds found, holic beverages and also important during posthar- for example, in roasted malt and chicory. Can also be vest storage of fruits. Also known as Į-carboxylases, produced by microbial fermentation. Certain py- pyruvic decarboxylases and Į-ketoacid carboxylases. rones act as mycotoxins, while others have been Pyruvic acid Intermediate in a wide range of aerobic found to exhibit antifungal activity. and anaerobic metabolic pathways. Produced as the Pyrophosphatases Group of enzymes within the end product of glycolysis and is at the starting point subclass EC 3.6.1 that catalyse the hydrolysis of di- of the Krebs cycle. Q

QTL Abbreviation for quantitative trait loci. quantification of selected sensory characteristics; and Quail eggs Eggs produced by quails. Considered as analysis of results by parametric statistics. a delicacy. Consist of approximately 13% protein and Quantitative trait loci Location of genes that affect 11% lipids, and have a mean weight of 11 g. Egg traits which can be measured on a quantitative (linear) shells may be a variety of colours, but are often light scale. These traits are usually affected by more than brown with dark speckles. one gene and also by the environment. Examples of quantitative traits are body wt. and plant height. Ab- Quail meat Meat from quails, commonly from breviated to QTL. farmed bobwhite quails (Colinus virginianus) or Japa- nese quails (Coturnix coturnix). Farmed quail meat Quarg German soft cheese made from cow milk. tends to be white in colour, delicately flavoured and Can be made from whole, skim or semi-skimmed milk very tender. In comparison, wild quail meat can be or buttermilk. Skim milk powders are sometimes very richly flavoured, but it can also be tough; conse- added, giving a gritty texture. Ripens within a few quently, it benefits from application of marinades or days. The moist, white product has a light taste and is slow pot-roasting, which soften the meat. usually sold in pots. Also known as quark. Quartirolo cheese Italian soft cheese similar to Quails Several species of migratory, short-tailed birds Taleggio cheese. Also made widely in Argentina belonging to the Phasianidae family, which are hunted where it is known as Cuartirolo Argentino cheese. for quail meat or farmed for production of quail meat and quail eggs. Quassin Triterpenoid produced in the bark of the plant Quassia amara. Used as a bittering agent in foods and Quality assurance Planned and systematic actions beverages. necessary to provide adequate confidence that goods or services will satisfy given requirements. For the food Quaternary ammonium compounds Cationic industry, this is a customer-focused management sys- surfactant ammonia salts in which the nitrogen atom is tem, whose aim is to guarantee food safety and consis- bonded to four organic groups. Used as antiseptics, tent product quality by application of production, proc- disinfectants or preservatives due to their antim- essing and handling standards. Proactive food safety icrobial activity. Commonly used for disinfection programmes, in particular those based on Hazard of equipment in dairies and breweries. Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) princi- Quercetin Flavonol aglycone distributed widely in ples, are the foundation of many food quality assurance plants and found in many foods and beverages. Ex- systems. hibits a range of biological activities including antioxidative activity. Forms the glycosides quer- Quality control A system of maintaining standards in citrin and rutin with rhamnose and rutinose, re- manufactured products by testing a sample against the spectively. specification. Quercitrin Flavonol glycoside formed from Quantitative descriptive analysis Comprehensive quercetin and rhamnose. Distributed widely in system used in sensory analysis that covers sample plants and found in many foods and beverages. Ex- collection, assessor screening, vocabulary develop- hibits a range of biological activities including anti- ment, testing and data analysis. Quantitative descrip- oxidative activity. tive analysis (commonly abbreviated to QDA) uses Queso Blanco cheese Mexican soft cheese made small numbers of highly trained assessors. Once the from cow milk. Traditionally produced from skim training sessions have established satisfactory panel milk or whey coagulated with lemon juices. Fla- performance, and removal of ambiguities and misun- vour is milky and fresh. Has an elastic texture which derstandings, the test samples can be evaluated. This is holds its shape when heated, making it ideal for prepa- carried out in replicated sessions using experimental ration of dishes such as stuffed chicken breasts, stuffed designs that minimize biases. Three major steps are peppers, enchiladas and burritos. required: development of standardized vocabulary; 354 Queso fresco cheese Quorum sensing Queso fresco cheese Mexican soft cheese made Quinoa flour Food produced by milling seeds of from a mixture of cow milk and goat milk. Mild, quinoa, a pseudocereal. Can be used in wheat-based with a fresh acidity and grainy texture; softens but does and gluten-free baking. not melt when heated. Used in cooking and also in Quinolones Group of synthetic antibiotics used to salads. combat a wide range of diseases in animals and farmed Quiches Rich, savoury tarts comprising pastry fish. Commonly used examples include oxolinic acid cases filled with egg custards containing ingredients and nalidixic acid, which show activity against such as vegetables, meat, cheese and sea foods. Gram negative bacteria only. Second generation Quillaja saponins Group of saponins derived from quinolones (containing a fluorine or piperazino moi- the tree Quillaja saponaria. Non-ionic surfactants ety) show broader antibacterial activity; examples with good resistance to salt and heat and high stability include ciprofloxacin and sarafloxacin. at acid pH. Used as foaming agents in foods and beverages. Quinones Aromatic dioxo compounds that are usually coloured and are constituents of many natural pig- Quinalphos Organophosphorus insecticide and acari- ments; intermediate products of enzymic brown- cide used for control of a wide range of insect pests ing. Their derivatives include the K vitamins. They on fruits, vegetables and cereals. Classified by function in aerobic and anaerobic electron transport WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO II). Also known chains, in photosynthesis, and as carriers of reducing as bayrusil and ekalux. equivalents between dehydrogenases and terminal Quince jams Jams made using quinces (Cydonia enzyme complexes. oblonga). Quince juices Fruit juices extracted from quinces Quintozene Soil applied fungicide that controls a (Cydonia oblonga). wide range of soil borne plant diseases. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in normal Quinces Fruits produced by the shrub Cydonia ob- use. Also known as pentachloronitrobenzene. longa. Usually resemble pears in shape, and are light golden-yellow, green or orange in colour. Fruits are a Quito orange Alternative term for naranjilla. good source of potassium and vitamin C. Generally Quorn Trade name for textured mycoprotein ob- unpalatable when raw, but have a good flavour when tained from the filamentous fungus Fusarium cooked. The flesh turns pink when cooked. Contain graminearum A3/5. Commonly used as meat substi- high levels of pectins, ensuring that any jelly made tutes, e.g. in sausages and ready meals, or sold with them will set easily. Used to make jams, jellies, as unflavoured chunks or mince for use in home marmalades, quince juices and flavourings. cooked dishes. Originally conceived as a protein-rich Quinic acid Organic acid that, together with caffeic food, now usually promoted as a healthy food that is acid, is a constituent of chlorogenic acid, an anti- high in fibre and low in calories and saturated fungal metabolite found in certain higher plants. fats. Quinic acid can interact with proteins, influencing their function and digestibility. Quorum sensing Mechanism through which com- Quinine Bitter alkaloid isolated from cinchona bark, munication occurs among bacteria and some social insects derivatives of which are used in the treatment of ma- . In bacteria, this involves the accumulation laria. Also used as a bittering agent in carbonated and detection of signalling molecules (autoinducers) beverages, especially tonic waters, although high secreted by other bacteria. Usually communication is doses are thought to be toxic. between bacteria of the same species; however, recognition of signals produced by other species has been Quinoa A pseudocereal comprising the high protein shown. Used by a bacterium to monitor the number of dried fruits and glutinous seeds of the plant Cheno- bacteria within an environment and co-ordinate a re- podium quinoa or C. album, which is native to Chile sponse to an environment. Important for successful and Peru. Used to make flour and bread. Rich source virulence of some pathogens or formation of of iron and vitamin B . 1 biofilms. R

Rabadi Traditional fermented food of India, prepared Raclette cheese Semi-firm, salted cheese, with a by fermentation of a mixture of flour, made usually pale yellow colour and a light brown rind, made from from pearl millet, and buttermilk. Cereal flour may cow milk. Originates from the Swiss canton of Valais be partially substituted by that prepared from soy- but is also made in the French regions of Savoie, beans or other vegetables. Franche-Comte and Bretagne. Cheese flavour is in- Rabbitfish Marine fish species (Chimaera mon- tensified, and its elasticity improved, by heating, strosa) found in the northeast Atlantic. Of little com- usually in front of a fire or under a hot grill. The mercial value, but livers are sometimes utilized as a melted cheese is scraped off onto various dishes such source of oils. as boiled potatoes, cold meat and gherkins. Can also be used in fondues. Rabbit meat Meat from wild or farmed rabbits. Ractopamine ȕ-Adrenergic agonist which increases Rabbit carcasses have a high meat to bone ratio; a nitrogen retention and protein synthesis, enhances high proportion of the carcass is edible meat. Meat lipolysis, suppresses lipogenesis and increases rate of from young rabbits tends to be more tender and succu- weight gain and feed conversion efficiency in farm lent than meat from older rabbits. Rabbits are sold animals. Rapidly absorbed and eliminated from animal whole or jointed into back legs, forelegs, saddle and tissues; residues rarely persist in any organs beyond 10 fillets. The highest quality meat is found in the rabbit days. thigh. Farmed rabbit carcasses tend to be larger than Radiation Energy emitted in the form of electromag- those of wild rabbits. Farmed rabbit meat tends to be netic waves or subatomic particles. whiter in colour, is covered by a thin layer of fat and is generally more tender, more delicately flavoured and Radicals Highly reactive molecular species which juicier than wild rabbit meat. Wild rabbit meat is very possess an unpaired electron. Often formed by the lean and, consequently, can be tough and dry when splitting of a covalent bond. May react with macro- cooked. molecules (especially DNA and proteins), causing them damage. Rabbits Burrowing, plant-eating mammals belonging Radical scavenging activity Ability to trap organic to the Leporidae family, that are farmed and hunted for free radicals formed by the splitting of molecular rabbit meat and fur production. bonds. This protects cellular membranes from oxida- Rabri Concentrated and sweetened buffalo milk tive destruction and ultimately prevents DNA damage product with a flaky/layered texture. Popular in India. caused by the action of the radicals which can lead to Traditionally, milk standardized to 6% fat is heated at carcinogenesis. Substances with high radical scav- approximately 90qC with repeated removal of clotted enging activity include antioxidant vitamins, such as cream (malai), sugar is added to the concentrated Į-tocopherol. milk and finally the clotted cream is added back to the Radioactive contamination Contamination that concentrated sweetened milk. In a commercial method, is caused by the presence of radioactive materials, such shredded chhana or paneer is used in place of clot- as radioelements. ted cream. Rabri has a relatively short shelf life. Radioactivity Emission of ionizing radiation or parti- Racemases Includes members of subclass EC 5.1. cles caused by the spontaneous disintegration of These isomerases catalyse the racemization of a atomic nuclei. centre of chirality and are subdivided according to Radioelements Elements that undergo spontaneous their substrates; amino acids (EC 5.1.1), hydroxy disintegration of their nuclei with the emission of sub- acids (EC 5.1.2), carbohydrates (EC 5.1.3) and atomic particles (Į-particles and ȕ-particles) or elec- other compounds (EC 5.1.99). tromagnetic rays (X-rays and gamma rays). Racking Process of drawing off wines or beer from Radiofrequency Electromagnetic wave frequency the sediment in the barrel. between audio and infrared. Radiofrequency technol- 356 Radioimmunoassay Raisins ogy is used in a number of food processing applica- Raftilose Obsolete trade name for oligofructose food tions, including heating, drying, tempering, de- ingredients produced by partial enzymic hydrolysis frosting and pasteurization. of chicory inulin. Now marketed by the Orafti Group TM Radioimmunoassay Immunological technique in under the trade name Beneo oligofructose. The which a substance is measured by its ability to compete products consist of oligofructose, glucose, fructose with a radioactively labelled form for binding to spe- and sucrose in varying combinations. Used as sugar cific antibodies. Concentration of the substance is de- substitutes in a wide range of food applications, and termined by comparing inhibition of binding with that can be blended successfully with artificial sweeten- caused by a series of standards. ers. Radioisotopes Isotopic forms of elements that are Ragi Cereal plant, Eleusine coracana, that is an impor- radioactive and undergo radioactive decay, properties tant food grain in India and Africa. Used in porridges that make them useful in various analytical tech- and gruel, and to make beer. Alternative term for niques and for studying metabolic pathways. finger millet. Also the Indonesian name for fer- Radiometry Technique for measurement of incident mented and dried balls of roasted rice flour (other radiation using radiometers that can be tuned to spe- flours may be used as a substitute, e.g. cassava or mil- cific frequencies. let) that contain a mixture of microorganisms and Radionuclides Radioactive species of atoms that are used as starters for fermented foods such as decay into products that themselves decay, the se- tape. quence of which constitutes a radioactive series. Ragout Richly seasoned dishes made by stewing Radishes Common name for Raphanus sativus, the meat and/or vegetables. Preparation usually in- fleshy roots of which are consumed. Roots vary in volves slow cooking over a low heat. Also refers to colour, size and shape. Western or small radishes, sauces for pasta, noodles or other starchy foods. which contain moderate amounts of vitamin C, are Ragusano cheese Italian hard cheese made from generally used raw to add colour, crispness and raw cow milk. Curd is heated and stretched until it pungency to salads and sandwiches. Oriental becomes rubbery before being pressed and left to dry. radishes, such as Japanese radishes, produce very During ripening the cheese is rubbed with oil and large roots which are sold in the UK as mouli or ret- vinegar giving a strong savoury flavour to the ma- tich. Other types of radish include rat-tailed radishes, ture product. which produce edible pods, and leaf radishes, which Rahat Alternative term for Turkish delight. are grown for fodder. Rahnella aquatilis Species of bacteria of the family Radish sprouts Sprouts formed by germination Enterobacteriaceae which can cause spoilage of of radish seeds. Rich source of vitamin C, vitamin vegetables, fish and dairy products. Also used in A, calcium and folic acid. Eaten raw in salads and biotechnology for the production of lactan gums. sandwiches. Have a pungent, peppery flavour. Rainbow trout Salmonid fish species (Oncorhynchus Radium Radioactive element with the chemical sym- mykiss) predominately found in freshwater; indigenous bol Ra. to geographical areas linked to the East Pacific Ocean, Radon Radioactive element with the chemical symbol but introduced worldwide. An important food fish with Rn. high commercial value; cultured in large numbers Radurization Low-level ionizing radiation treatment around the world. Marketed and consumed in a variety designed to enhance the shelf life of food by reducing of forms, including fresh, frozen, smoked and canned. the level of spoilage microorganisms present. Raising agents Bakery additives that are used for Raffinose Oligosaccharide composed of 3 sugar resi- chemical leavening of cakes. Raising agents, such as dues, i.e. fructose, glucose and galactose. Con- baking powders (mixtures of tartaric acid and so- sidered one of the antinutritional factors in leg- dium bicarbonate), produce CO2 on addition of liq- umes due to its tendency to cause flatulence. uid, such as water or milk. On baking, the gas bubbles Raftiline Obsolete trade name for inulin food ingredi- expand but are trapped by the protein and starch of ents extracted from chicory roots. Now marketed by the flour, and become set as the liquid in the cake mix TM the Orafti Group under the trade name Beneo inulin. evaporates. The products are mixtures of oligo- and polysaccha- Raisins Dried grapes, usually made from Thompson rides, which can stabilize water in foods into a creamy seedless grapes. Prepared by sun or mechanical dry- structure with the same mouthfeel as fat. Used as fat ing. Rich in iron with a high sugar content and a substitutes and stabilizers in a wide range of low range of vitamins and minerals. Eaten out of hand fat food applications. or used in bakery products and various dishes. 357 Raki Raspberry juices Golden raisins are amber in colour due to treatment Rancidity Sensory properties relating to the extent with sulfur dioxide, and are dried with artificial heat, to which the flavour of a product containing fats or giving a plumper and moister product that is preferred oils is perceived to be rancid (sour or stale). Caused by to common raisins for cooking. Muscat raisins are oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in fats and dark and sweet and used in fruit cakes. oils, resulting in the characteristic disagreeable flavour Raki Aniseed flavoured spirits made in Turkey. and aroma. Occurs slowly and spontaneously, and is accelerated by light, heat and certain minerals. Rancid- Rakia Spirits made from grapes or other fruits in ity in foods may be prevented by proper storage, Bulgaria and adjacent regions. and/or the addition of antioxidants. Peroxide val- Rakkyo Common name for Allium chinense, a plant ues are used as a measure of rancidity of oils and fats. grown for its bulbs, that resemble small shallots. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA Amplifi- Eaten raw or cooked, but most commonly used for cation of randomly selected genomic sequences by pickling. PCR under low stringency conditions using arbitrary Raman spectroscopy Technique based on meas- primers. Can be used to determine taxonomic identity, urement of scattering of incident light from lasers study genetic diversity, generate probes and analyse upon striking a sample. Raman scattered light is of a mixed genome samples. Usually abbreviated to RAPD. different wavelength from the incident light. The dif- RAPD Abbreviation for randomly amplified poly- ference in energy between the incident light and Ra- morphic DNA. man scattered light is the energy required to make a Rapeseed meal Residue remaining after rapeseed molecule vibrate or rotate. A Raman spectrum is built oils have been extracted from rapeseeds. Rich in up of the energy difference at different intensities, with proteins and minerals, but use in foods is limited clear bands representing functional groups. This tech- due to the presence of antinutritional factors, such nique is able to provide information about concentra- as glucosinolates. tion, structure, and interaction of biochemical mole- Rapeseed oils Oils extracted from rapeseeds, cules within intact cells and tissues in a nondestructive Brassica napus. Rich in erucic acid, although varie- way, without homogenization, extraction or use of ties producing oils low in erucic acid have been devel- dyes or other labelling agents. Recognized as an ana- oped. Rich in monounsaturated fatty acids and lytical tool within different areas of food science, low in saturated fatty acids. Often used as cook- one such area being the rapid and non-destructive qual- ing oils. Also known as canola oils. ity assessment of foods for in-line purposes. Rapeseeds Seeds produced by Brassica napus and Rambutan Fruits produced by Nephelium lapaceum. used as a source of rapeseed oils. Also known as Rich in vitamin C. The outer skin is covered with red canola seeds. or yellow spines and encloses the edible white to pink Raphia Genus of palms. Stems of some species are flesh, in the centre of which is a seed. Flavour varies used in the production of palm wines. from sweet to acid according to cultivar; the former Ras cheese Egyptian hard cheese made from cow are eaten fresh and the latter cooked. Fruits are also milk, buffalo milk or a mixture of both, raw or pas- available canned. teurized. Ram meat Meat from rams (adult male sheep), Rasogolla Sweetened dairy product prepared from alternatively known as mutton. When produced from chhana. Chhana is mixed with flour and other con- early maturing breeds, carcass and eating qualities tend stituents, divided into balls and cooked in sugar syr- to be good. However, meat from older rams tends to be ups. darker in colour and may have an undesirable aroma Raspberries Berries produced by some species of and flavour. the genus Rubus. R. idaeus produces red berries, al- Ram muscles Alternative term for mutton. though it has some less common yellow-fruited culti- Ramp Common name for Allium tricoccum, a pungent vars. R. occidentalis produces black fruit, while purple vegetable also known as wild leek. An aroma similar berries are produced by hybrids. Rich in vitamin A to onions is combined with a strong garlic flavour. and vitamin C. Eaten out of hand and used in making Culinary and medical applications are similar to those desserts, jams, jellies and beverages. of garlic. Raspberry juices Fruit juices extracted from raspberries (Rubus spp.). Good sources of ellagic Rams Uncastrated adult male sheep. Although often acid (one of the anticarcinogens), quercetin and kept solely for breeding, they may be reared for pro- anthocyanins (powerful antioxidant com- duction of mutton. They produce lean meat more ef- pounds). ficiently than female or castrated male sheep. 358 Ravioli Recombined foods Ravioli Small square parcels of pasta which are usu- Ready to eat foods Convenience foods that really stuffed with meat mince or cheese and served quire no further preparation by the consumer, such as in tomato-based sauces. fast foods, food bars, ready to eat meals and Raw milk Milk that has not been heat treated to de- ready to eat cereals. Similar to ready to serve stroy disease or spoilage causing microorganisms. foods. Used to make some products, especially cheese, but Ready to eat meals Convenience foods in the not usually drunk. Sale of raw milk for drinking is pro- form of meals that require no further preparation by hibited in many countries. Also called unpasteurized the consumer. Similar to ready meals. milk. Ready to serve foods Convenience foods re- Ray General name used for a number of flattened ma- quiring no further preparation by the consumer, other rine fish species in the order Rajiformes; worldwide than reheating where appropriate. Examples include distribution. Generally used synonymously with ready to serve dairy desserts, gravy, salads, skate. Many species are utilized as food fish, includ- soups and beverages. Similar to ready to eat ing Raja clavata (thornback ray), R. asterias (starry foods. ray) and Leucoraja fullonica (shagreen ray). Flesh Rearing Agricultural term relating to breeding and tends to be firm and white with a sweet flavour; fins raising of animals as sources of foods. may also be consumed. Marketed fresh, frozen, Rebaudiosides Sweet glycosides of the diterpene smoked and salted. derivative steviol, which are 400 times sweeter than Raya seeds Seeds extracted from Brassica juncea sugar. Found in leaves of Stevia rebaudiana, along or B. carinata. Potential use as oilseeds. with stevioside. Can be used as natural, non- nutritive, heat-stable sweeteners in foods and bever- Razor shells Any of a number of marine bivalve ages. Less bitter than stevioside. Their use in foods is molluscs with elongated shells. Found in sediments permitted in some countries, but not in others. on Atlantic and Pacific shores. Some species are consumed, including Siliqua patula (razor clam) and Ensis Recipes A set of instructions that provide details on ensis (pod razor). how to prepare culinary dishes and certain beverages. Information may include: ingredients required and RDA Abbreviation for recommended dietary al- their quantities, a step-by-step list of directions, prepa- lowance. ration time, cooking instructions and number of serv- RDI Abbreviation for recommended daily intake. ings provided. Some recipes may also give nutritional Reactive nitrogen species Potent oxidants information, usually per portion, such as the contents formed from nitric oxide. Cause inflammation and of fats, carbohydrates, proteins, salt and calo- have been linked to ageing, cancer and other condi- ries. tions. May be formed by reaction of nitrates (e.g. in Recombinant enzymes Enzymes produced by leafy vegetables) or nitrites (e.g. in cured meat) recombinant DNA techniques. DNA encoding the en- with other dietary components or gastric acid. Also zyme of interest is manipulated in vitro and trans- generated as part of an innate host defence mechanism formed into an appropriate cell type where it is ex- against microbial infection. May be inhibited by die- pressed. tary antioxidants, such as quercetin and isofla- Recombinant microorganisms Genetically vones. modified microorganisms that contain DNA or Reactive oxygen species Small, highly reactive genes from different sources. Produced using ge- moieties causing harmful effects in humans, such as netic engineering techniques. DNA damage and cell damage, leading to oxidative Recombinant proteins Proteins produced by re- stress and increased risk of cardiovascular dis- combinant DNA techniques. DNA encoding the pro- eases and cancer. Formed as by-products of O2 me- tein of interest is manipulated in vitro and transformed tabolism and include oxygen ions, free radicals, into an appropriate cell type where it is expressed. peroxides and superoxides. Various dietary com- Recombination Process similar to reconstitution, ponents (e.g. polyphenols) react with the above, but involving addition of substances other than water neutralizing their effects and potentially providing which have been removed from the product. Examples health benefits. include addition of butterfat as well as water to dried Ready meals Convenience foods prepared indus- skim milk to make recombined milk of the desired trially to a set meals recipe usually by cook freeze or fat content. cook chill processing, and requiring no further Recombined foods Products made in a similar way preparation by the consumer other than reheating. to reconstituted foods, but with the addition of 359 Recombined milk Redcurrants substances other than water which have been removed be carried out with a continuous feed of liquid. During from the product in its original form during processing. manufacture of vodka, by-products of distillation, Examples include recombined milk, made by addi- such as methanol, are removed from the distillate by tion of butterfat, as well as water, to dried skim rectification using a continuous still. milk to achieve the desired fat content in the final Recycling Reuse of renewable resources in an effort product. to maximize their value, reduce waste, and reduce en- Recombined milk Dairy product made by reconsti- vironmental disturbance. Food packaging wastes such tuting dried milk with water and other components as paper, glass and plastics are often recycled. such as a fat source (e.g. butter) to give a composition Red beans Dark red beans used in making chilli con similar to that of milk. carne and refried beans. Also used in red beans and Recommended daily intake Amounts of nutrients rice, a dish that is popular in the southern states of the greater than the requirements of almost all members of USA. the population, determined on the basis of the average Red beets Roots of some varieties of Beta vulgaris. requirement plus twice the standard deviation, to allow Eaten cooked as a vegetable and in salads. Also avail- for individual variation in nutrient requirements able canned. Leaves are sometimes consumed as a pot and thus cover the theoretical needs of 97.5% of the herb. population. Commonly abbreviated to RDI. Red cabbages Cabbages containing antho- Recommended dietary allowance The average cyanins as pigments, giving them a red colour. daily dietary intake level of individual nutrients that Rich source of vitamin C. Flavour is generally is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of milder and sweeter than that of other types of cabbage. most healthy individuals in a particular gender and age Eaten as a cooked vegetable or raw in salads and group. Comprises a component of the dietary reference coleslaw. Also popular for pickling. intakes (DRI), and commonly abbreviated to RDA. Red chillies General term for chillies which are red Reconstituted foods Foods that have undergone in colour. Immature chillies are green in colour and, reconstitution before consumption, often by addi- depending on the variety, may change in colour during tion of a liquid. Examples include soups and bakery ripening to red, orange, yellow or brown. Thus, all products made from mixes, and fruit juices made red chillies are mature fruits. Most common type used from concentrates. for preparation of chilli powder. In general for chillies Reconstituted meat products Alternative term for there is no correlation between pungency and colour. restructured meat products. Red clover Common name for Trifolium pratense. A Reconstitution Restoration of a product to its original rich source of isoflavones. The young leaves and state and consistency, often achieved by adding a flowers of these plants can be used in salads and liquid, usually water. Includes addition of water to soups, the seeds can be sprouted and used in salads, concentrates and powders. and a sweet herb tea can be made from the fresh or Rectification One of two general methods, the other dried flowers. Employed as a herbal remedy for vari- being simple distillation, used to separate a substance ous ailments, such as respiratory problems and skin or a mixture of substances from a solution through va- conditions, and may be used to relieve symptoms of porization. Distillation usually involves boiling a liq- premenstrual syndrome and menopause due to its high uid and condensing the vapour that forms in a still. In content of phytoestrogens. Also used for grazing simple distillation, all the distillate is removed from the cattle and other animals. still after collection. In rectification, part of the distil- Red crabs Common name used for several species of late flows back into the still. This portion comes into marine crabs occurring along Pacific coasts, princi- contact with the vapour being condensed and enriches pally Pleuroncodes planipes and Chaceon quin- it. Rectification can also be undertaken using large quedens. Marketed in a variety of forms, including towers (fractionating columns). As the mixture to be fresh cooked whole crab, cooked leg meat, canned separated is heated, its vapours rise through these col- meat and pastes. umns. Substances that boil at the lowest temperatures form the first fractions. Their vapours rise highest and Redcurrant juices Fruit juices extracted from red- are carried off by pipes near the tops of the fractionat- currants (Ribes rubrum). ing columns. Separate pipes carry off different frac- Redcurrants Red berries produced by Ribes ru- tions at various levels. Reflux (return) of some distil- brum. Rich in vitamin C. Eaten out of hand or used as late to the columns produces the most efficient condi- components of preserves, jellies and sauces, es- tions for this method of distillation. Rectification can pecially Cumberland sauce. 360 Reddish pink soft exudative defect Reflectometers Reddish pink soft exudative defect Commonly some coastal regions. Marketed live, fresh, frozen and abbreviated to RSE defect, a condition which affects as a spice-cured product. pork. RSE describes one of the four quality conditions Redspot emperor Marine fish species (Lethrinus into which most pork can be categorized. Colour of lentjan) of the family Lethrinidae which is of high RSE meat tends to be normal. However, the meat has a commercial importance. Widely distributed in the Pa- poor water holding capacity, and drip loss is far cific Ocean. Also known as pink ear emperor. greater than in normal red, firm, non-exudative (RFN) Reducing agents Chemicals capable of the reduc- pork. Mishandling of swine pre-slaughter increases the tion of other chemicals, i.e. they donate electrons or incidence of the RSE defect, but the defect is not asso- hydrogen. During this process, the reducing agents ciated with any particular halothane genotype. themselves undergo oxidation. Also known as re- Redfish Name given to several different marine fish ducing substances. species, but most commonly refers to Sebastes spp. Reducing substances Alternative term for reduc- Used as a synonym for rockfish. In Australia, the ing agents. name refers to Centroberyx affinis. Marketed fresh and Reducing sugars Sugars with free aldehyde or frozen. ketone groups available for oxidation to form car- Red ginseng Form of ginseng prepared by sun dry- boxylic acid groups. Reducing sugars are substrates for ing or steaming, which changes the colour of the Maillard reaction with amino acids. Examples in- root from nearly white to red. Contains bioactive gin- clude glucose, maltose, lactose and mannose. senosides, and is used as a traditional medicine in Reduction Loss of oxygen from a compound, e.g. Asia and as an ingredient of functional foods and removal by reducing agents. Also includes reac- functional beverages, including ginseng bever- tions in which atoms in the reacting materials gain ages. electrons. Reductions always occur simultaneously Red gram Alternative term for pigeon peas. with oxidation reactions; if one reactant is oxidized, Red hake Marine fish species (Urophycis chuss) another must be reduced. belonging to the family Phycidae. Found in the western Reductones Chemicals that contain an enediol group, North Atlantic Ocean. Marketed fresh, frozen and e.g. ascorbic acid. Intermediates of the Maillard dried/salted and cooked in various ways, including reaction which possess antioxidative activity. steaming and baking. Small fish are also used in Red wines Wines which are red in colour, due to fish meal production. the presence of anthocyanins extracted from the Red meat Meat (e.g. beef, venison, rabbit meat, skins of red winemaking grapes. Thought to have lamb and mutton) that is dark red in colour before beneficial effects on health due to the anthocyanins cooking. Generally a good source of iron and pro- and polyphenols such as resveratrol. teins. Reference materials Materials of certified composi- Red onions Varieties of onions having inedible tion that are used as standards in analytical procedures. peel that is red to purple in colour and edible flesh Refining Removal of impurities or unwanted elements flecked with red to purple pigmentation caused by from a substance. Often used to describe the process- the presence of anthocyanins. Many are less pun- ing of sugar and oils. gent than their yellow/brown or white counterparts and Reflectance Optical properties relating to the can be eaten raw. Used as an ingredient of various measure of the proportion of light or other radiation meals including salads. falling on a surface which is then reflected or scattered. Redox potential Scale of values, measured as electric Reflectivity Optical properties relating to the potential in volts, indicating the ability of a substance amount of light or other radiation that can be re- or solution to cause reduction or oxidation reac- flected by an item. Rough surfaces reflect in a multi- tions under non-standard conditions. tude of directions, and such reflection is said to be dif- Red peppers Term applied to any of several types of fuse. Smooth, brightly polished or glossy surfaces re- red coloured hot peppers, such as chillies. Also flect clearly and sharply at the same angle to the sur- may refer to red bell peppers, a milder variety of face as the angle at which the light or heat contacted Capsicum. the surface. Reflectometers are instruments used for Red rice Alternative term for angkak. measuring the luster or sharpness of reflection of a fin- Red salmon Alternative term for sockeye salmon. ished surface. Red sea bream Marine fish species (Pagrus major) Reflectometers Instruments used to measure the distributed around the northwest Pacific. Popular food colour or gloss of foods based on their reflec- fish which fetches high prices in Japan; cultured in tance of light. 361 Refractive index Relative density Refractive index Measure of the bending or refrac- have four basic elements: an evaporator; a compressor; tion of a beam of light on entering a denser medium a condenser; and a refrigerant flow control (expansion (the ratio between the sine of the angle of incidence of valve). A refrigerant circulates among the four ele- the ray of light and the sine of the angle of refraction). ments, changing from liquid to gas and back to liquid. Constant for pure substances under standard condi- In the evaporator, liquid refrigerant evaporates under tions. Used analytically, for example, as a measure of reduced pressure, so absorbing latent heat of vapori- sugar or total solids in solutions, and in determin- zation and cooling the surroundings. The evaporator ing the purity of oils. is at the lowest temperature in the system and heat Refractometry Measurement of refractive index flows to it. This heat is used to vaporize the refrigerant. using one of the several types of refractometer. The refrigerant vapour is sucked into a compressor, a pump that increases the pressure and then exhausts it at Refrigerants Substances with low vaporization a higher pressure to the condenser. To complete the temperatures used to promote the refrigeration con- cycle, the refrigerant must be condensed back to liquid, ditions necessary for chilling foods and beverages. and, in doing this, it gives up its latent heat of vapori- Ideal refrigerants have good thermodynamic prop- zation to a cooling medium such as water or air. erties, and are noncorrosive and safe. Examples include ammonia, ice and solid carbon dioxide (dry Regenerated cellulose Alternative term for cello- ice). phane. Refrigerated foods Chilled foods requiring re- Reggianito cheese Argentinean hard cheese made frigeration prior to consumption. from cow milk. Similar to Parmigiano Reggiano cheese. Used mostly for grating, in cooking or in Refrigerated storage Process of keeping objects, toppings on pasta dishes. usually foods, at a temperature that is significantly Regional foods Foods produced in, and often tradi- lower than that of the surrounding environment in or- tionally associated with, a particular geographical re- der to extend their shelf life by a few days. Refrig- gion. Examples include Cornish pasties and eration or cold storage of foods is a gentle method Roquefort cheese. Similar to ethnic foods which of preservation, having minimal adverse effects are foods associated with a particular nation rather than upon flavour, texture and nutritional values. Re- a particular region. frigeration keeps spoilage reactions (microbial or enzymic) to a minimum, but does not kill microorgan- Reheating Application of heat to a food that has al- isms or inactivate enzymes; instead it slows down ready been thermally processed but then cooled. Cook their deteriorative effects. Household refrigerators chill foods and ready meals often need reheating are usually run at a temperature of 4-7qC. Commercial before consumption. refrigerators are operated at a slightly lower tempera- Rehydrated foods Products made by reconstitu- ture. tion of dried foods, e.g. dried vegetables, with Refrigerated transport Specially designed transport water. vehicles, such as lorries, rail cars, aeroplanes or cargo Rehydration Process by which the water or moisture ships, with refrigeration systems on board which are removed in making dried foods is replaced, so re- designed to protect frozen and perishable foods from storing it to near its original quality. high ambient temperatures. The refrigeration systems Reindeer Large migratory ruminant animals (Rangifer also cool the hot air mass in the cargo container, and tarandus) belonging to the Cervidae family. Wild rein- remove the stored heat from the structure of the cargo deer are hunted and domesticated reindeer are farmed body. Product integrity is maintained through avoid- as a source of reindeer meat. In some countries, e.g. ance of temperature fluctuation. Sweden, careful management of wild reindeer herds Refrigeration Process by which heat is removed from produces a regular crop of animals that can be culled an enclosed space or from a substance for the purpose for meat production. Reindeer meat is sometimes re- of lowering the temperature. Refrigeration is chiefly ferred to as venison. used to store foods and beverages at low temperatures, Reindeer meat Meat from reindeer. It has a low thus inhibiting the destructive action of microorgan- content of fat. In farmed or harvested reindeer, stress isms. Cooling caused by the rapid expansion of during gathering, herding, selection, feeding, road gases (refrigerants) is the primary means of refrig- transport and lairage may result in glycogen deple- eration. tion and hence deterioration of meat quality. Refrigerators Appliances or compartments kept arti- Relative density Ratio of the density of a substance ficially cool by the use of refrigerants, and used to to the density of a reference material. For liquids or store foods and beverages. Mechanical refrigerators solids, relative density is the ratio of the density (usu- 362 Relative humidity Resins ally at 20qC) to the density of water (at its temperature preparation. The active enzyme is chymosin, but of maximum density (4qC). Synonym for specific pepsin is also present. gravity (sp. gr.). Rennet substitutes Enzymes used as alternatives Relative humidity The moisture content of air to animal rennets for coagulation of milk during expressed as the percentage of the maximum possible cheesemaking. Developed due to shortages of the moisture content of that air at the same temperature animal products and in cases where a vegetarian and pressure. Commonly abbreviated to RH. cheese is desired. Substitutes include microbial ren- Relishes Pickles or condiments with a strong, nets, vegetable rennets and GM rennets. usually piquant, flavour that are served as an accom- Rennin Alternative term for chymosin. paniment to foods. Reporter genes Genes encoding easily assayed Renaturation Reconstruction of proteins or nu- products under the control of regulatory elements from cleic acids that have previously been denatured, such other genes. Regulation and localization of gene ex- that the molecules resume their original function. pression of the gene of interest can then be studied Some proteins can be renatured by reversing the condi- following transformation into appropriate cells. Ex- tions that brought about denaturation. amples include the genes encoding luciferases, ȕ- Rendement Napole genes Autosomal swine galactosidases, chloramphenicol acetyltransferases genes which affect pork quality. The rendement na- and green fluorescent protein. pole phenotype is determined by 2 alleles: a dominant - + Resazurin A member of the quinone-imine group of mutant allele (RN ) and a recessive normal allele (rn ). dyes that is blue when fully oxidized but is reduced Expression of the mutant allele leads to excessive gly- irreversibly to the pink-coloured resorufin when the cogen levels in swine muscle which is converted to redox potential is lowered sufficiently. On further lactic acid after slaughter. Pork from these animals reduction, the colourless hydroresorufin is formed. has greater acidity and a lower water holding ca- Measurement of resazurin reduction time can be used pacity than pork from swine with rn+/rn+ genotype. - to determine the microbiological quality of raw The RN genotype may also negatively affect colour, milk. drip loss, cooking loss and processing yield of pork. Reservoir water Water stored in reservoirs. Com- Rendering Process applied on a large scale to produc- monly intended for purification to drinking water tion of animal fats such as tallow, lard, bone fat and quality and distribution via the water supply system. whale oils. Consists of cutting or chopping the fatty tissue into small pieces that are boiled in open vats or Residence time distribution Distribution of times cooked in steam digesters. The fat gradually liberated spent by the various components of a substance, e.g. a from the cells floats to the surface of the water, where food product, through a process vessel. Residence time it is collected by skimming. Membranous matter is distribution (RTD) is a critical factor affecting the siz- separated from the aqueous phase by pressing in hy- ing of holding tubes for aseptic processing of par- draulic or screw presses; in this way, additional fat is ticulate foods. Also, in design of continuous steriliza- obtained. Centrifuges may also be employed in render- tion equipment for liquid food processing, knowledge ing. Cells of the fatty tissues are ruptured in special of flow characteristics, especially residence time dis- disintegrators under close temperature control. The tribution, is of prime importance. protein tissue is separated from the liquid phase in a Residues The remainder or surplus after a separation desludging type of centrifuge, following which a sec- procedure or other process. In a food context, usually ond centrifuge separates the fat from the aqueous pro- refers to chemical contaminants of foods which can tein layer. Compared with conventional rendering, cen- be derived from a variety of sources. Include agricul- trifugal methods provide a higher yield of better- tural chemicals (e.g. pesticides, fertilizers and vet- quality fat, and the separated protein has potential as erinary drugs) and their degradation products or mean edible meat product. tabolites, and also chemicals resulting from environ- Rennetability The ease with which milk is coagulated mental pollution (e.g. radioelements) and manufac- using rennets. turing processes. Rennets Enzymes used to cause coagulation of Resins Group of organic chemicals, usually polymers, milk during cheesemaking. Traditionally extracted which are solid or semi-solid and have high electrical from the abomasum of young ruminants, mainly calves resistance. Used as chromatography support mate- (animal rennets, calf rennets), but other forms rials and for manufacture of plastics, including those (e.g. microbial rennets, vegetable rennets, GM used as food packaging materials, e.g. epoxy resins rennets) are now used as alternatives to this type of used for coating of food containers. 363 Resistant starch Restructured meat products Resistant starch Starch which is resistant to dition site). There are currently 3 recognised EC classifi- gestion in the gastrointestinal tract. Resistance cations for the site-specific endodeoxyribonucleases may be conferred by: protection by a physical barrier, (restriction endonucleases): types I, II and III site- such as plant cell walls, e.g. starch in seeds and specific deoxyribonucleases (EC 3.1.21.3, 3.1.21.4 and legumes; the highly crystalline nature of some 3.1.21.5, respectively). These enzymes differ in their starch granules, such as those in bananas; retro- structure, cofactor requirements, recognition and re- gradation of starch in cooked foods; and during pro- striction site characteristics, and restriction products. A duction of modified starches. Regarded as a source more detailed nomenclature scheme is also used which of dietary fibre. recognises 4 main types of restriction enzymes (Types Resistographs Instruments similar to farinographs I, II, III and IV). There are currently over 3500 indi- used to study rheological properties of dough, vidually recognized Type II enzymes, identified by and thus evaluate flour quality. names incorporating letters for name and strain infor- Resorcinol Resorcinol and its derivatives are used as mation and Roman numerals to distinguish different preservatives in foods, where they exhibit antioxi- enzymes from the same isolate. Restriction endonucle- dative activity and inhibit enzymic browning, and ases are widely used as tools in genetic engineer- for stabilization of vitamin D and vitamin E. De- ing, in identifying gene polymorphism and in rivatives of this phenolic compound are also useful in genotyping studies. Also known as restriction en- the development of high performance packaging zymes. materials. Restriction enzymes Alternative term for restric- Respiration Metabolic process in animals and plants tion endonucleases. by which organic substances are broken down into Restriction fragment length polymorphism simpler products with the release of energy, which is Commonly abbreviated to RFLP. Variation in the incorporated into ATP and subsequently used for other length of DNA fragments produced by the action of facets of metabolism. In most plants and animals, restriction endonucleases. A result of changes in respiration requires oxygen (aerobic respiration), and the DNA code at the site of action of the enzymes, carbon dioxide is an end product. Anaerobic respira- such as by mutation, insertion or deletion. Employed tion is the breakdown of food components such as widely in genetic techniques for differentiating be- glucose to yield energy in the form of ATP in the ab- tween organisms. sence of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration in yeasts produces ethanol as a waste product, a process that is the Restriction modification systems Enzyme sys- basis of manufacturing alcoholic beverages. tems in bacteria which afford protection against bacteriophages. Comprise restriction endonucle- Response surface methodology Collection of ases and DNA methyltransferases. The cell's own statistical and mathematical techniques used in devel- DNA is modified by the transferase, the resulting me- oping and optimizing processes, developing new prod- thylation providing protection from degradation by ucts and improving existing products. Used particu- the restriction enzyme. Foreign DNA is not recognized larly where several variables affect the process or and not methylated and is therefore susceptible to properties of the product. cleavage. Such systems are of potential interest as de- Restaurants Any of a wide variety of commercial fence mechanisms against bacteriophages in dairy catering establishments where foods and beverages starters, and have also been studied in pathogens are prepared and served. Types of restaurants include including Helicobacter spp. fast food establishments, cafeterias, canteens and pub restaurants. Restructured fish products Reformed products Restriction endonucleases Endonucleases containing small pieces of minced, flaked or diced fish isolated from bacteria and archaea which cut dou- flesh as the main ingredient. ble-stranded DNA molecules into smaller pieces. In Restructured meat products Small pieces of meat cells, these events form part of their restriction reformed into steaks, chops and roast-like meat modification systems which are defence mecha- products. They may be difficult to distinguish visu- nisms, preventing or restricting incorporation of for- ally from the real product. Minced, flaked, diced or eign DNA from sources such as viruses or plas- mechanically recovered meat may be used. Of- mids. The enzymes function by attaching to DNA at ten, massaging and tumbling are used to extract salt- specific nucleotide sequences (the recognition site) soluble contractile proteins from the meat pieces. The and, according to the enzyme type, either cut randomly pieces become coated with these proteins, which sub- somewhere along the length of the molecule or cleave sequently act as an adhesive when the pieces are ther- both strands of DNA at a specific location (the restric- mally processed and compressed. Cohesion of the meat 364 Resveratrol Rhamnogalacturonans pieces also involves gelation of connective tissue pro- Retort pouches Flexible containers used for foods. teins. Also known as reconstituted meat products. Commonly made from aluminium foils and plastic Resveratrol Polyphenol found in grapes and wines laminates. Can withstand in-package sterilization of that exhibits antioxidative activity and is thought to the enclosed products. Some have zipper-type closures protect against cardiovascular diseases. and are resealable. Retail display Storage approaches used for the dis- Retrogradation Process in which gelatinized (disor- play or marketing of foods to consumers in a retail en- dered) starch reassociates to form a more ordered vironment. Appropriate strategies can be employed to structure; under optimal conditions starch may recrys- improve the quality and shelf life of foods, and influ- tallize. Occurs during cooling of cooked starch. ence the purchasing behaviour of consumers. Retsina White wines flavoured with pine resins, Retinal Aldehyde derivative of vitamin A, originally produced mainly in Greece. isolated from animal retinas. Formed in the body by Reuterin Broad spectrum aldehyde and antimicrobial cleavage of ȕ-carotene in the intestines. Necessary compound produced from glycerol by Lactobacillus for night vision. Also known as vitamin A aldehyde, reuteri. Active towards Gram positive bacteria, retinene or retinaldehyde, the last form being the pre- Gram negative bacteria, yeasts, fungi and pro- ferred alternative if the name is liable to be confused tozoa. Reuterin is water soluble, effective over a wide with the adjective meaning pertaining to the retina. range of pH values, and resistant to proteolytic and Retinoic acid Biologically active acid form of reti- lipolytic enzymes, making it ideal as one of the food nols; can partially replace retinols in the rat diet. Pro- preservatives. Reuterin is also believed to play a motes growth of bone and soft tissue production. How- role in the probiotic effects of L. reuteri. Alternative ever, has no activity in the visual process or the repro- name for 3-hydroxypropionaldehyde. ductive system and cannot be stored in the body. Reti- Reverse micelles Aggregates of small molecules noic acid is converted by the rat to an unidentified such as surfactants which assemble in non-aqueous form that is several times as active as the parent com- solutions at levels above the critical micellar concen- pound in conventional vitamin A nutritional assays. tration. In contrast to normal micelles, hydrophilic Retinoids Compounds consisting of four isoprenoid components associate in the interior of the aggregates. units joined in a head-to-tail manner. Vitamin A is a Widely used to manipulate localized solvent polarity, generic descriptor for retinoids exhibiting qualitatively for example in enzyme catalysis, to provide a hydro- the biological activity of retinol. While preformed vi- philic environment for the enzymes used in an oth- tamin A occurs only in foods of animal origin, reti- erwise non-aqueous solvent. Also used for selective noids such as ȕ-carotene are found in both animal extraction from mixed solvent systems. foods and plant foods. Retinoids have many activi- Reverse osmosis Membrane process, driven by a ties in the body, including control of cell proliferation, pressure gradient, in which a membrane separates the cell differentiation and embryonic development. solvent (generally water) from other components of a Retinols The alcohol form of vitamin A. Vitamin A solution. With reverse osmosis, the membrane pore exists in two forms: retinols, which predominate in size is very small (0.0001-0.001 ȝm) allowing only marine fish mammals and ; and dehydroretinols, small amounts of very low molecular weight solutes to which predominate in freshwater fish. Retinols can pass through. Even small dissolved molecules, such as be reversibly oxidized. Retinols circulate in the blood salts, are retained by the membrane. At this molecular as a complex with retinol binding protein and level, high pressures are required of the order of 10-50 transthyretin. bar because osmotic forces come into play. The largest Retinyl palmitate Natural antioxidant which occurs commercial food applications of reverse osmosis are in plant materials such as vegetable oils, celery concentration of whey produced as a by-product of seeds, aniseed and allspice, as well as in animal cheese manufacture and clarification of wines and fats. Used in fortification of foods with vitamin A. beer. Reverse osmosis systems are additionally used Also known as vitamin A acetate. in water processing, e.g. for desalination of sea wa- Retorting Thermal process that is part of the food ter. Also known as hyperfiltration. canning process. Batch retorts, of a still or agitating RFLP Abbreviation for restriction fragment length type, and designed to operate with saturated steam or polymorphism. hot water, are used. By processing under pressure, it is possible to use temperatures of approximately 121°C RH Abbreviation for relative humidity. (250°F), which greatly speeds up the destruction of Rhamnogalacturonans A group of closely-related microorganisms and spores. pectic substances found particularly in apples, but also in other fruits, vegetables, wines and fruit 365 Rhamnolipids Rhubarb juices. These polysaccharides consist of long patch disease of clover, while R. solani causes damp- polymers with backbones containing galacturonic ing off and eyespot of potatoes. acid and rhamnose. Possess antimutagenicity. Rhizomucor Genus of zygomycetous fungi of the Rhamnolipids Glycolipids which contain rham- Mucoraceae family. Occur in soil, and are found on nose and 3-hydroxy carboxylic acids. Synthesized by decaying fruits and vegetables. Rhizomucor miehei microorganisms, especially Pseudomonas and R. pusillus produce proteinases which are used aeruginosa. Used as biosurfactants in the food in- as rennet substitutes in cheesemaking. R. miehei dustry. also produces lipases. Rhamnose One of the methylpentoses. A deoxy- Rhizopus Genus of zygomycetous fungi of the family sugar composed of 6 carbon atoms which is a compo- Mucoraceae. Occur in soil, and on fruits and vege- nent of pectins, mucilage, gums and bacterial tables. Some species are used in the preparation of exopolysaccharides. Also a common glycoside of ontjom, ragi, bongkrek and tempeh, while others plant pigments and flavonoids. Alternatively are used in the manufacture of mycoprotein for in- known as 6-deoxymannose. corporation into foods. Rhizopus stolonifer may cause Į-L-rhamnosidases EC 3.2.1.40. Hydrolyse termi- spoilage of fruits, vegetables and bread, and nal, non-reducing Į-L-rhamnose residues in Į-L- other species may be responsible for meat spoilage. rhamnosides. Can be used to reduce the bitterness of Rhodobacter Genus of rod-shaped Gram negative citrus juices, depolymerize gellan gums and re- bacteria with vesicular-type photosynthetic mem- lease flavour compounds in wines, thus increasing branes. Member of the Rhodobacteraceae family. Oc- their aroma. cur in freshwater, marine and hypersaline habitats. Rhea meat Meat from rheas. The proportion of lean Some species, especially Rhodobacter sphaeroides, meat from rhea carcasses is similar to that obtained produce polyhydroxyalkanoates from food proc- from ostrich, broiler chicken, turkey and cattle car- essing effluents. casses. Rhea meat resembles ostrich meat, but it has Rhodococcus Genus of obligately aerobic, coccoid a lower fat content. Gram positive bacteria of the family Nocardiaceae. Rheas Large flightless birds belonging to the order Occur in soil and aquatic habitats. Species may be used Rheiformes; Rhea americana is known as the Greater in the synthesis of carotenoids or enzymes. Rhea and Pterocnemia pennata as the Lesser Rhea. Rhodococcus erythropolis is used in the production of Not only are they farmed in their native South Amer- lactone hydrolases for the biotransformation (debit- ica, but also in other parts of the world, e.g. Australia tering) of terpenes in citrus juices. and South Africa. They are used to produce rhea meat, rhea eggs, feathers and skins. Rhodothermus Genus of thermophilic, halophilic Gram negative bacteria of the order Sphingobacte- Rheological properties Mechanical properties riales. Occur in shallow marine hot springs. Type spe- relating to the flow of materials. In food technology, cies is Rhodothermus marinus. Used in production of rheological properties relate to concepts such as elas- enzymes, such as glycosidases, xylanases, ticity, rigidity, shear, stretch, thixotropy and amylases, pullulanases, cellulases and ȕ- viscosity. mannosidases. Rheology Study of the relation between forces exerted Rhodotorula Genus of pigmented, mitosporic, on a material and the ensuing deformation as a func- basidiomycetous yeasts of the order Sporidiobolales. tion of time. In the food industry, rheology provides a Occur on plants, plant debris, and in sea water and scientific basis for subjective measurements such as fresh water. Some species (e.g. Rhodotorula glutinis) mouthfeel, spreadability and pourability. may cause spoilage of sauerkraut and olives, while Rheometers Devices used for measurement of vis- others (e.g. R. mucilaginosa) may cause spoilage of cosity. meat and sea foods. Rhizobium Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram Rhubarb Common name for Rheum raphonticum or R. negative bacteria of the Rhizobiaceae family. Occur rhabarbarum. The part of the plant that is eaten is the in soil. Often symbiotically associated with the root leaf stalk. Although not botanically a fruit, rhubarb is nodules of certain leguminous plants where they carry eaten like a fruit with added sugar in fruit pies, crum- out nitrogen fixation. bles, tarts and preserves. It is also used in fruit Rhizoctonia Genus of mitosporic fungi of the order wines. The leaf blade contains high levels of oxalic Basidiomycota. Includes some important plant acid, which can cause poisoning if this part of the pathogens. Rhizoctonia leguminicola causes black- plant is consumed. 366 Riboflavin Rice noodles

Riboflavin Synonym for vitamin B2 and vitamin G. ponent of dishes such as paella or risotto. It is also A water soluble vitamin which occurs mainly in used to make breakfast cereals and infant foods, yeasts, livers, milk, eggs, cheese and pulses; and as the starting material in manufacture of sake. milk and dairy products are probably the most im- Rice beans Beans produced by the legume Vigna portant source in the average diet. Occurs in bound umbellata. Usually boiled and eaten with, or instead of, form in plant and animal tissues and is not available rice. unless liberated by cooking. Resistant to heat, but Rice bran Outer layers of rice seeds. Used as a source readily destroyed in the presence of light and alkali. of rice bran oils and protein concentrates and as Involved in a wide range of oxidation reactions, of a fibre ingredient in bakery products. fats, carbohydrates and amino acids. A constitu- Rice bran oils Oils with high oxidative stability ent of the coenzymes flavine adenine dinucleotide which are derived from the outer layers of the rice (FAD) and flavine mononucleotide (FMN). Deficiency grain removed during manufacture of white rice. Used impairs cell oxidation and results clinically in a set of widely in Japanese cooking as salad oils and frying symptoms known as riboflavinosis. oils. Reported to lower serum cholesterol levels due Ribonucleases Nucleases which hydrolyse ester to high contents of oryzanols. bonds within RNA, acting as either endonucleases Rice bread Bread in which rice flour is used as a or exonucleases. Includes members of EC 3.1.13- complete or partial substitute for wheat flour. 3.1.16 and EC 3.1.26-3.1.31. Can be used for produc- Rice cakes Cakes made with glutinous rice that tion of 5 - and 3 -ribonucleotides, which are useful c c have a soft texture. Also known as arare. as seasonings. Also known as RNases. Rice crackers Crackers made with non-glutinous Ribonucleic acids Full form of the abbreviation rice that have a hard, rough texture. RNA. Rice flour Flour produced by milling rice grains. Ribonucleosides Compounds that consist of Used to provide texture in various foods including fry- purines and pyrimidines linked to ribose. Ribonu- ing batters, breakfast cereals and bakery prod- cleosides containing the bases adenine, guanine, cy- ucts. Also used in thickeners for products such as tosine, uracil, thymine and hypoxanthine are sauces. called, respectively, adenosine, guanosine, Rice germ oils Oils extracted from rice germ, a by- cytidine, uridine, thymidine and inosine. product of rice milling. Rich in vitamin E. Major Ribonucleotides Nucleosides in which the ribose fatty acids are linoleic acid and oleic acid. Bene- sugar contains one or more phosphates. fits for human health include protection against car- Ribose Pentose sugar that forms, with phosphate, the diovascular diseases, lowering of high choles- backbone for ribonucleic acids. terol levels and management of menopausal problems. Ribotype A DNA fingerprint based on genes coding Rice koji Product prepared by fermenting steamed for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Polymorphism in rice with the fungus Aspergillus oryzae, which con- rRNA genes provides a sensitive method for distin- verts the rice starch into fermentable sugars. Used guishing between strains of bacteria, including food in manufacture of sake. pathogens. Ribotypes are often determined in epi- Rice milk Types of grain milk used as milk substi- demiological studies when characterizing isolates. tutes. Processed from rice (mainly brown rice) and Ribotyping DNA fingerprinting method used to usually sweetened with cane sugar syrups. Con- identify polymorphism in the genes encoding ribo- tains more carbohydrates than cow milk but does somal RNA (rRNA). Utilizes a variety of genetic not contain significant amounts of fats, Ca or pro- techniques, including PCR and restriction frag- teins, and contains no cholesterol or lactose. ment length polymorphism, and can be auto- Commercial brands are often fortified with vitamins mated. Widely used when studying the epidemiol- and minerals, such as Ca, vitamin B12, vitamin B3 ogy of food poisoning outbreaks. and Fe, and may contain added thickeners. Rice milk generally has a shelf life of one to two weeks Rice Starchy grain produced mainly by Oryza sativa once it has been opened. that forms a staple food, especially in Asia. Brown Rice noodles Noodles prepared from rice flour and rice, produced by removal of the hulls, is regarded as water, although other ingredients, such as tapioca or a healthier food than white rice, as vitamin B and fibre corn starch, may be added. Commonly used in the contents are reduced by removal of the bran and cuisines of east and southeast Asia, and are available germ. However, parboiling of rice before milling fresh, frozen or dried, and in various shapes and thick- increases the nutritional quality of white rice. Rice is nesses. eaten in many forms, as an accompaniment, or a com- 367 Rice powders Risk communication Rice powders Ingredients derived from roasted rice tive against Gram positive bacteria only, but de- grains that are ground into a powder. Often used in in- rivatives are also effective against some Gram nega- fant foods. tive bacteria. Useful for the treatment of infections Rice starch Starch isolated from rice. Comprises caused by Mycobacterium spp., e.g. tuberculosis. small granules and has a soft gel structure, which Examples include rifaximin, rifapentine, rifampicin imparts a creamy mouthfeel. Used in various foods and rifabutin. including salad dressings, infant foods and dairy Rigidity Rheological properties relating to the desserts. Also used to produce maltodextrins. extent to which products (such as food gels, plant cells Rice vinegar Vinegar made from fermented rice. and meat fibres) are rigid, i.e. solid, firm and inflexi- Milder and with a gentler flavour than other vinegars ble. made from fruits and wines. Chinese rice vinegars Rigor Relates to rigidity or stiffness of muscles, as are available in white, red and black varieties, while occurs in rigor mortis. Japanese rice vinegars tend to be almost colourless. Rigor mortis Stiffening of muscles, which accompa- Used in salad dressings, a variety of dishes, includ- nies the post mortem loss of ATP and glycogen in ing sushi rice and sweet and sour meals, and in muscle fibres; it develops gradually after slaughter of pickles. animals. The physical changes in muscles accompany- Rice weevils Common name for Sitophilus oryzae, ing development of rigor mortis include a loss of ex- serious pests of stored grain and other seeds. De- tensibility and elasticity, shortening, and an in- velop inside whole grain kernels with no external evi- crease in tension and firmness. Stiffening results dence of their presence. May be transported into the from the formation of permanent crossbridges between domestic environment in infested whole grains or actins and myosin filaments in the muscles. Rigor seeds, e.g. popcorn or beans. mortis does not last indefinitely, as after a period of Rice wines Oriental alcoholic beverages made ageing or conditioning, the muscles gradually lose from rice based mashes. Saccharification is by their stiffness; resolution of rigor mortis results from enzymes of starters containing fungi, rather than physical degradation of the muscle structure. In many by malt enzymes, as in Western alcoholic beverages species, onset and resolution of rigor mortis occur based on cereals. more rapidly following electrical stimulation of carcasses. Ricin Highly toxic lectins extracted from the seeds of Rigorometers Instruments used to measure rigor castor beans (Ricinus communis). Ricin consists of mortis development in meat and fish on the basis of a toxic A subunit that inactivates ribosomes, and a B muscle tension and length. subunit that binds to carbohydrates and is specific for galactosyl residues. Poisonous if inhaled, injected or Rind A tough outer layer particularly used in the con- ingested (8 beans are considered toxic for an adult), text of fruits and vegetables (when it is also known and acts by inhibiting protein synthesis. Has been used as peel), cheese (cheese rind) and bacon (incor- in bioterrorism; however, ricin is not as powerful as porating the skin and subcutaneous fats). some other agents (e.g. botulotoxins and anthrax Rinsing Washing an item with clean water to remove spores) as it is less toxic and is inactivated more read- impurities. ily. Ripened cream Cream that has been ripened natu- Ricinoleic acid Fatty acid found in castor oils and rally or by fermentation with starters. Used in other vegetable oils. Useful as a precursor for mi- making butter. Also called sour cream. crobial production of flavour compounds. Ripeness Extent to which crops, such as fruits or Ricotta cheese Italian soft cheese made from cow vegetables, or cheese are ripe (fully developed and or ewe milk whey. Citric acid is used to facilitate mature), and ready for eating. separation of proteins from the whey during heating. Ripening Term used in relation to the maturation of Whey proteins rise and coagulate, after which they fruits, vegetables or cheese. As ripening proceeds, are skimmed off and drained for 2 days when the sensory quality of foods improves. Ripening of fruits ‘cheese’ is ready for market. Varieties of Ricotta in- and vegetables can involve changes in colour and clude Ricotta Salata Moliterna (made from ewe milk texture. Flavour development is an important stage whey), Ricotta Piemontese (made from cow milk during the ripening of cheese. whey + 10% milk) and Ricotta Romana (a by-product Risk communication The exchange of information of Pecorino Romano cheese production). about health, environmental or food safety risks, so Rifamycins Antibiotics belonging to the group of as to arrive at well-informed risks management de- naphthalene-ringed ansamycins. Natural forms are ac- cisions. In risk communication the 4 elements to con- 368 Risk factors Rockfish sider are: the message, the messenger, the audience RNases Alternative name/abbreviation for ribonu- and the context. cleases. Risk factors Characteristics associated with the in- Roach Freshwater fish species (Rutilus rutilus) creased likelihood of an event occurring. Used particu- distributed in lakes and rivers across Europe. Not a larly in the context of variables linked with the devel- popular food fish, but occasionally sold fresh (whole opment of diseases (e.g. blood pressure, body gutted) or as a dried/salted product. wt. and lifestyle characteristics such as diet and Roasted coffee Coffee beans which have been physical activity) and food contamination (e.g. roasted to develop characteristic flavour and aroma. inadequate hygiene, processing, handling and The degree of roasting required is dependent on the storage). intended style of coffee beverages to be prepared. Risks assessment Estimation of the probability of Roasted foods Foods cooked by dry heating, usu- adverse effects occurring due to exposure to specified ally with added fats, in ovens. Maillard reaction health hazards or the absence of preventive or bene- products contribute to the characteristic roasted fla- ficial measures. vour. Risks management Process of minimizing the prob- Roasted peanuts Peanuts that have been roasted ability of adverse effects occurring by developing sys- by conventional oven cooking in-shell or shelled, or by tems to identify, analyse and prevent hazards. microwave or oil cooking out of their shells. Usually Rissoles Meat products often prepared from seasoned with salt or a variety of other flavourings, cooked lamb or beef. The meat is minced before including garlic, paprika or chilli. mixing with the other ingredients, which may include Roasting Cooking of foods, e.g. tender pieces of onions, breadcrumbs, garlic, eggs, herbs and meat or vegetables, by prolonged exposure to heat in seasonings. The mixture is then divided and shaped ovens or over a fire. Roasting usually produces foods into round cake shapes; these are coated in flour be- with a well-browned exterior and, ideally, a moist inte- fore cooking, commonly by frying. rior. River fish Any freshwater fish which exist in river- Robiola cheese Italian cream cheese made from ine environments. cow milk, goat milk or a mixture of both. Eaten fresh or aged. During ageing, a pink to brown colour RNA Nucleic acids consisting of linked ribonu- develops, which intensifies as the process proceeds. cleotides, each of which contains the sugar ribose, a Flavour is generally tangy. Different varieties of Ro- phosphate group and one of the bases adenine, gua- biola vary slightly in characteristics due to differences nine, cytosine or uracil. Usually single-stranded but in manufacturing processes. All are typically served as can form duplexes with complementary RNA or DNA a table cheese, with olive oils, salt, pepper and strands. Constitute the genomes of many viruses. sometimes a tomato and anchovy based sauce. The major RNA species (mRNA, rRNA and tRNA) are involved in all stages of the synthesis of proteins Robotics The branch of technology concerned with in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Abbreviation for the design, construction and application of robots used ribonucleic acids. for mechanical operation of procedures. RNA interference Cellular mechanism which results Rock cod General term used for a variety of marine in gene silencing due to targeted degradation of fish species in the order Perciformes. The majority of mRNA, thereby decreasing levels of expression of the species occur in coastal waters in rocky and reef habi- corresponding genes. During RNA interference tats. Some species are utilized as food fish; normally (RNAi), double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), supplied marketed fresh or frozen. exogenously or originating from infection by a virus, is Rocket Common name for Eruca sativa. Generally processed to form small interfering RNA (siRNA). used in salads, although it can be added to soups These siRNA bind to sense strands of mRNA to form and dishes such as sauteed vegetables. Flavour is dsRNA which is itself degraded. Thought to have bitter and peppery. Rich source of iron, vitamin A evolved to protect cells from dsRNA viruses, this and vitamin C. Also known by several other names, process is now exploited to control gene expres- including arugula, roquette, rugula and rucola. sion. Applications include use for increasing levels of Rockfish General term used for a range of marine carotenoids in potatoes or for producing foods fish species found in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, with reduced levels of allergens. particularly Sebastodes spp. Used as a synonym for RNA polymerases Alternative term for DNA- redfish. Several species are utilized as food fish; directed RNA polymerases. normally marketed fresh or frozen. 369 Rodenticides Roquefort cheese Rodenticides Chemical substances used for control ments. Marketed as a semi-preserved product, often of rodents such as mice and rats. Most act as antico- with added preservatives. agulants (prevent blood from clotting), causing death Rolls Small rounded portions of bread made from from internal bleeding. Some are used for control of yeasts-leavened dough. May have a soft or crisp rodents in food preparation and storage areas. Exam- crust. Also called bread rolls. ples include bromadiolone, chlorophacinone and Rolmops Alternative spelling for rollmops. cholecalciferol. Romano cheese Italian hard cheese made from Rodents Mammals of the order Rodentia. Occupy a cow milk, goat milk, ewe milk (Pecorino Romano wide range of terrestrial and semiaquatic habitats cheese), or a combination of cow milk with goat or worldwide. Many species may be pests of stored ewe milk. Traditionally from the area around Rome in foods (e.g. rats and mice), while others are used as Italy. Pale yellow in colour and used mostly for grat- human food (e.g. agoutis). ing. Alternatively, this cheese can be spray dried and Roes Eggs from marine fish or freshwater fish. used as a powder. Flavour varies according to the May also refer to the entire gonads of female fish or to type of cheese milk used in manufacture, but is usu- the gonads of male fish (also known as soft roes). ally strong, due to the long ageing period. Marketed and sold in a variety of forms, including Roncal cheese Spanish hard cheese made from caviar (from sturgeon), caviar substitutes (from raw ewe milk. The surface of the hard rind has a layer a range of fish species), dried/salted and smoked prod- of blue grey mould which is sometimes covered in ucts. olive oil. The beige interior is firm with small irregular Rohu Freshwater fish species (Labeo rohita) of holes and has a sweet herby flavour which becomes high commercial value belonging to the carp family increasingly tangy as the cheese ages. (Cyprinidae). Widely distributed throughout Asia. Rooibos tea Type of herb tea from South Africa, Marketed fresh. produced from leaves of the bush Aspalathus linearis. Has strong antioxidative activity. Rohwurst Raw, fermented, dry sausages, conventionally made from frozen raw materials. Rohwurst Root crops Produce of plants grown for their edible may be prepared from red meat or poultry meat, and roots. may contain pork fat. They may be produced by rapid, Rootstocks Part of the stem of a plant into which a moderate or slow fermentation. Addition of starter cul- bud or scion is inserted for grafting. tures/micrococci cultures to the sausage emulsion con- Root vegetables Produce of plants with edible roots, siderably improves reddening of rohwurst. Modern e.g. carrots, turnips, salsify and celeriac. curing methods use starter cultures and additives, such Ropiness Condition responsible for spoilage in as glucono-į-lactone, to accelerate gel formation; products including beer, wines and bread due to the however, these methods tend to cause flavour losses presence of certain bacteria (ropy bacteria) which in comparison with traditional curing methods. Natu- form polysaccharides and rope-like threads, ad- ral and synthetic flavourings may be used to enhance versely affecting viscosity and consistency of the the spicy characteristics of the sausages. product. In yoghurt manufacture, ropy bacteria are Rokpol cheese Typical Polish blue-veined cheese. sometimes used as yoghurt starters to produce a Roller drying Type of web drying in which the mate- product with the desired consistency. rial to be dried makes a sinusoidal path around rollers Ropy bacteria Bacteria which produce ropiness in while heat is supplied externally by blowing air. foods, due to production of slimy exopolysaccharides. Usually undesirable as they cause food spoil- Roller mills Mills that crush or pulverize items by age (e.g. Acetobacter spp. causing ropiness in beer, means of rollers that move the material and press it Bacillus spp. acting on bread, Leuconostoc spp. against the sides of a revolving bowl. responsible for spoilage of wines and Alcaligenes Rolling Flattening of an object by passing a roller over viscolactis causing ropiness in milk). However, in it or by passing it between rollers. During baking, a some fermented dairy products, ropy lactic acid rolling pin is used to flatten dough into a thin, even bacteria, such as certain subspecies of Lactococcus layer. lactis, are used to develop texture. The exopolysac- Rollmops Fish products consisting of marinated her- charides produced increase product viscosity, bind ring fillets wrapped around pickled vegetables or hydration water and interact with other milk constitu- slices of onions and fastened with small sticks or ents to strengthen the rigidity of the casein network. cloves. Packed in brines and vinegar; may also be Roquefort cheese French semi-soft blue cheese packed with spices, mayonnaise or other condi- made from ewe milk. Traditionally ripened in natural 370 Roquefortine Rubber nettings caves under the French village of Roquefort-sur- Rotaviruses Viruses of the family Reoviridae. Oc- Soulzon. Interior is creamy and white with blue to cur in the faeces of birds and mammals. Responsible green-grey veins. Cheese has a pungent flavour with a for acute gastroenteritis in humans, especially chil- metallic tang. Frequently used in dressings and sal- dren. Transmitted by the faecal-oral route via foods, ads. such as salads and fruits, or contaminated water. Roquefortine A family of tremorigenic cyclopeptide Rotenone Colourless-to-red odourless solid, used as a mycotoxins produced by various species of Penicil- broad spectrum insecticide and piscicide. Extractable lium (e.g. P. roqueforti and P. crustosum). Roque- from various tropical plants, such as derris, and has fortine C is neurotoxigenic and inhibitory to Gram been used in organic agriculture. Classified by WHO positive bacteria. Although it has been found in as moderately hazardous (WHO II). blue cheese and blue cheese products, the low levels Roti Flat, unleavened bread prepared with corn present, combined with the low toxicity of roquefortine flour. C, make these products safe to eat. Rots Fungal or bacterial infections of plant tissues that Rose apples Fruits produced by some species of the cause softening, discoloration and disintegration. genus Eugenia, especially E. jambos. Usually red and Rotting Natural process in which animal or plant tis- juicy; used in various products, mainly jellies and sues decay or decompose due to microbial activity. sauces. May also be eaten candied. Roughage Alternative term for dietary fibre, previ- Rose Bengal A xanthene dye and food colorant also ously widely used. known as Food Red No. 105. Commonly incorporated Roughness Physical properties relating to the into nutrient media as a stain for detection of growth of extent to which the surface of an item feels rough, i.e. yeasts and fungi. not smooth or glossy. Rosehips Fruits of the dog rose (Rosa canina or R. Roux A base for thickening of sauces, prepared by rugosa). Used to make jellies, preserves, sauces, heating together flour with fats. Sauces produced syrups, fruit tea and other beverages. Rosehip from this base by addition of liquid (e.g. milk or syrups are particularly rich in vitamin C. stocks) and heating, to thicken the liquid, are known Roselle Common name for Hibiscus sabdariffa, and as roux sauces. red colorants extracted from its berries. Roselle is Rovral Alternative term for the fungicide iprodione. rich in delphinidin-based pigments. Rowanberries Scarlet berries produced by Sorbus Rosemary Common name for Rosmarinus officinalis, aucuparia. Used to make jams and alcoholic bev- the leaves of which are used as spices and commonly erages. used as flavourings for meat dishes. Royal jelly An apicultural product. Secreted from the hypopharyngeal glands located in the heads of young Rosemary essential oils Essential oils obtained worker bees and used in the colony to feed young lar- by steam distillation of the flowering heads of vae. The secretions are thought to possess beneficial rosemary. Possess strong antioxidative activity health properties, and are thus marketed as health and antimicrobial activity, allowing use for extend- foods. ing shelf life of fats and meat. rRNA Abbreviation for ribosomal RNA. The major Roses Flowers produced by bushes and shrubs of the component of ribosomes, the sites where messenger genus Rosa, the petals of which may be used as the RNA (mRNA) undergoes translation to proteins. source of pigments or essential oils. Rose oils are rRNA is transcribed but not translated. used as flavourings in foods. The plants are also the RSE defect Abbreviation for reddish pink soft source of rosehips, fruits with a number of uses in exudative defect. the food and beverages industries. Rubber Elastic, tough polymeric substance made syn- Rose wines Wines which are pink in colour, cover- thetically or produced from the latex of Hevea brasil- ing a range of shades. The pink colour results from ex- iensis, a tropical plant native to the Amazonian rain- traction of a small proportion of the anthocyanins forest. Used in making various food contact materi- from the grape skins during winemaking. als, including sealing rings for bottle closures, teats Rosmarinic acid Phenolic compound produced as a for infant feeding bottles and rubber nettings used secondary metabolite in plants. Of interest in food to enclose meat joints. preservation due to its antioxidative activity and Rubber nettings Nettings made from rubber thread, antimicrobial activity. Can be produced by plant which are used to enclose joints of meat such as beef suspension cultures. and ham to prevent their disintegration during cook- Rossiiskii cheese Russian hard cheese. ing. Health concerns are associated with possible for- 371 Rubber seeds Rye malt mation of nitrosamines from vulcanizing agents Young pods are eaten, but when older, seeds are re- used in formulating the rubber. moved from the pods before consumption. Rubber seeds Seeds produced by Hevea brasiliensis, Rusks Light, sweet crisp or hard biscuits or raised which are rich in unsaturated fatty acids and show bread which are browned in an oven and often used potential as oilseeds. as a food for young children. Rubratoxins Mycotoxins produced by certain Russeting Physiological disorder that affects various strains of Penicillium rubrum. Cause liver damage, plant parts, including fruits and tubers. Character- brain lesions and gastrointestinal haemorrhages when ized by rough brown areas on the surface of the af- ingested by animals. fected tissue. Rue Common name for Ruta spp., the leaves of which Russula Genus of edible fungi that contains numer- are used as spices. Added as natural flavourings ous species varying in flavour and quality. to bakery products and dairy products. Rust Reddish- or yellowish-brown flaky coating of Rum Spirits made by distillation of fermented iron oxide that is formed on iron or steel by oxidation, mashes based on cane sugar juices or molas- especially in the presence of moisture. ses. Exist in different grades, such as light (or white), Rusts Diseases caused by rust fungi in plants, giving gold (or amber), spiced, dark, overproof and premium. them a rusty appearance. Choice of distillation still affects final rum character. Rutabagas Alternative term for swedes. Ageing in barrels and use of caramel colorants Rutin Disaccharide derivative of quercetin, contain- determines final colour. ing glucose and rhamnose. Found mainly in cere- Ruminants Herbivorous even-toed ungulate mammals als and at one time known as vitamin P. belonging to the sub-order Ruminantia. They include Ryazhenka Russian fermented milk. cattle, sheep, goats, antelopes and deer. Rumi- nants regurgitate and re-chew feeds (chew the cud) and Rye Edible grain from hardy plants belonging to the have a four-chambered stomach, comprising a rumen, species Secale cereale, used to make rye bread and reticulum, omasum and abomasum. Composition of rye whisky. ruminant meat fats and milk fats are greatly affected by Rye bran Outer layers of the rye grain. Used as a microbial activity in the rumen, particularly by the source of fibre; displays cholesterol lowering activ- hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids into ity and anticarcinogenicity. relatively more saturated fatty acids. Rye bread Bread made either entirely from rye Ruminococcus Genus of anaerobic, coccoid Gram flour or with a blend of wheat flour and rye flour. positive bacteria of the family Ruminococcaceae. When made entirely from rye flour, it is often dark Occur in the rumen, large intestines and caecum of grey in colour and lacks the elasticity of wheat mammals. Ruminococcus albus may be used in the bread. production of glycosidases and other enzymes, Rye flour Flour produced by milling of rye grains. while R. flavefaciens is used in the production of cel- Available in varying degrees of purity and colour lulases. (light, medium or dark). Runner beans Beans produced by Phaseolus coc- Rye malt Fermented mashes made from rye grain, cineus. Popular as a vegetable particularly in the UK. which are used in the manufacture of rye whisky. S

Sablefish Marine fish species (Anoplopoma fimbria) the level at which the device floats. Also known as hy- distributed across the north Pacific. An important drometers. commercial food fish; most of the catch is marketed in Saccharomyces Genus of yeast fungi of the class Japan. Flesh is soft-textured with a mild flavour. Saccharomycetes. Occur in foods and beverages (e.g. Marketed fresh, dried/salted and smoked (known as fruit juices, fruits and alcoholic beverages), soil barbecued Alaska cod). Liver oils are a rich source of and on human skin. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used vitamin A and vitamin D. in breadmaking (bakers yeasts) and brewing Saccharases Alternative term for ȕ- (brewers yeasts). S. cerevisiae is also used in the fructofuranosidases. manufacture of spirits, wines, kefir, cider and pulque. Saccharides General term for monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysac- Saccharomycodes Genus of yeasts of the family charides. Saccharomycodeaceae. Saccharomycodes ludwigii may be responsible for spoilage of grape juices Saccharification Process by which oligosaccha- and wines, and may also be used in winemaking. rides and polysaccharides are degraded to produce smaller sugar units. Involves acid, alkali or enzymic Saccharomycopsis Genus of yeast fungi of the (e.g. cellulases, amylases) hydrolysis of glucosidic class Saccharomycetes. Occur on fruits, and in soils, bonds. Term is used frequently to describe hydrolysis foods and the tunnels of wood-boring beetles. Sac- of wastes, e.g. sugar cane bagasse or other lig- charomycopsis fibuligera may be responsible for the nocellulosic materials to produce substrates for micro- spoilage of bread and cereals. bial fermentation. Saccharose Alternative term for sucrose. Saccharimeters Devices used for measuring degree Sachalinmint Perennial herb (Mentha sachalinensis, of rotation produced during transmission of polarized syn. M. canadensis), the leaves of which are used for light through a sugar solution. When a standardized flavouring foods. saccharimeter is used, this property is a function of the Sachets Small packs or bags made of flexible mate- concentration of a sugar solution. In the sugar indus- rial, that are used to package small quantities of sub- try the rotation value (Pol) is used as a measure of su- stances, e.g. single servings of foods. Common appli- crose content due to the low concentrations of other cations include liquid foods such as sauces, ketch- sugars. ups and other condiments, and particulate products Saccharin Heterocyclic organic sulfur com- such as instant soups, dried infant foods and cof- pounds (o-benzosulfimide) that are 300-600 times as fee granules. sweet as sucrose and are used as artificial sweet- Sacks Large bags usually made of thick paper, eners. Available as a free acid and as sodium or cal- plastics or materials such as hessian. Used for carry- cium salts. Like sugar, saccharin salts are white crys- ing or storing goods, e.g. potatoes or grain. Less talline solids that are highly soluble in water, but commonly, refers to dry white wines formerly im- unlike sugar they are non-nutritive and impart a bitter ported into the UK from Spain and the Canary Islands. metallic aftertaste. Saccharin is stable when heated SADH Alternative term for the plant growth regulator and in the presence of acids, and blends well with other daminozide. sweeteners. It is used in a wide range of low calo- Safflower oils Oils extracted from seeds of Cartha- rie foods and beverages, such as soft drinks, table- mus tinctorius which are rich in linoleic acid. Used top sweeteners, jams, chewing gums, candy and as cooking oils, in salad dressings and in the salad dressings. Approved for use in many coun- manufacture of margarines. tries worldwide. Safflowers Large orange, red or yellow flowers pro- Saccharometers Graduated devices used for deter- duced by the thistle-like plant, Carthamus tinctorius. mination of the density of sugar solutions, based on Used as a source of food colorants that may be used 373 Safflower seeds Salami as a substitute for saffron dye. The plant also has edi- heat resistant and bactericidal to sensitive strains. Its ble leaves and produces seeds from which safflower inhibitory spectrum includes Carnobacterium pisci- oils may be extracted. cola, Enterococcus spp., L. curvatus, other L. sakei Safflower seeds Oil-rich seeds produced by Cartha- strains, Leuconostoc spp. and Listeria monocyto- mus tinctorius. genes. Sakacin A is plasmid encoded. Saffron Dried stigmas from flowers of Crocus sativus Sake Rice wines made in Japan by fermentation of that are used as yellow colorants and spices. The rice mashes saccharified with koji starters. principal pigments of saffron are the carotenoids Sake yeasts Yeasts (Saccharomyces spp.) used crocin and crocetin. for fermentation of saccharified rice mashes in Safranal One of the major aroma compounds sake manufacture. found in saffron. This monoterpene aldehyde is be- Sakuradai Marine fish species (Odontanthias lieved to be a degradation product of zeaxanthin. rhodopeplus) from the sea bass family (Serranidae); Can be used as an indicator of saffron quality. Demon- occurs in the Indo-West Pacific. Consumed mainly in strates antioxidative activity, radical scavenging Japan and Indonesia. Usually marketed fresh. activity and antitumour activity. Salad cream Salad dressings similar to mayon- Safrole Organic compound found in various spices naise but of a more fluid consistency. Major ingre- and essential oils that has been shown to be car- dients include water, vinegar and oils. Egg yolks cinogenic in rats. Safrole and its isomer isosafrole are and mustard provide a characteristic yellow colour. used as flavourings in foods. Salad dressings Condiments that are served with, Sage Common name for Salvia officinalis, the leaves and complement the flavour of, salads. Examples of which are used as spices. Sage has a warm, cam- include mayonnaise, French dressing and salad phor-like flavour and aroma, and is often used in cream. flavourings for seasonings, soups and meat Salad oils Refined, bleached and deodorized vege- dishes. table oils used in preparation of salad dressings. Sago Starchy substance extracted from the interior of Oils used in manufacture of commercial salad dress- the trunk of sago palms (Metroxylon sagu) and other ings are also subjected to winterization to prevent similar plants such as sugar palms (Arenga pinnuta). clouding upon refrigeration. Clouding is caused by The wet starch that is washed out from the bark can formation of crystals of high melting point triglyc- be eaten cooked, or dried to produce flour. Pearl sago erides and may also be inhibited by addition of anti- is produced by forcing wet starch through sieves and clouding agents, namely oxystearin, polyglycerol es- drying; this form is used in puddings. ters and some emulsifiers. Sailfish Any of a number of large, fast-swimming Salads Cold dishes consisting of one or more un- pelagic marine fish from the genus Istiophorus; cooked salad vegetables, such as tomatoes, cu- found in tropical and temperate Pacific waters and the cumbers and lettuces, usually sliced or chopped, Indian Ocean. Commercially important species include and often accompanied by a protein source, such as I. albicans (Atlantic sailfish) and I. platypterus (Indo- eggs, fish or meat. Also refers to dishes of vegeta- Pacific sailfish). Marketed fresh, smoked and frozen; bles served with dressings, such as potato salads also used in preparation of sashimi and sushi. or coleslaw, and to cold dishes of cooked rice or Saint-Nectaire cheese French semi-soft cheese pasta mixed with cooked or raw vegetables or made from cow milk. Rind is pink with a covering of fruits. Fruit salads usually comprise sliced mixed grey mould; the soft interior is ivory to straw coloured. fruits served in fruit juices or sugar syrups. Saint-Nectaire has a fruity flavour and characteristic Salad vegetables Vegetables eaten raw in salads. grassy aroma due to being cured on a bed of straw for Include leafy green vegetables, such as lettuces, 8 weeks. chicory and watercress, spring onions and rad- Saint-Paulin cheese French semi-soft cheese made ishes. from cow milk. Originally made by Trappist monks. Salami Highly seasoned, raw, dried sausages, origi- Rind is smooth and leathery, and yellow to orange in nally produced in Italy. They are prepared from colour. Also known as Port Salut cheese (licensed coarsely comminuted meat. There are two major name). Saint-Paulin is a mild, creamy dessert or table kinds, namely soft salami, which are semi-dry sau- cheese firm enough for slicing. sages; and dry salami, which are dried slowly to a hard Saithe Alternative term for coalfish or pollock. texture. Most are made from fresh pork and include Sakacins Bacteriocins synthesized by Lactobacil- garlic; however, they may be prepared from beef, lus sakei. Sakacin A, produced by L. sakei LB706, is turkey meat, veal, or from meat mixtures. The ma- 374 Salatrim Salt jority are cured during preparation, air dried, uncooked Salmon Any of several medium to large anadromous and unsmoked, but some smoked versions are pro- fish of the family Salmonidae, native to the North At- duced. Characteristics of salami are affected by: type lantic and North Pacific Oceans and spawning in adja- and amount of meat used; proportion of lean to fat; cent streams of Europe, Asia and North America. All how finely, uniformly or coarsely the fat appears are important food fish highly prized for the flavour among the lean; choice of seasonings; and degree of of their flesh, which in many species is typically red- salting and drying. dish-orange in colour. Well-known Pacific salmon Salatrim Acronym for short- and long-chain acyl species include chinook (king) salmon (Oncorhynchus triglyceride molecules. Fat substitutes produced by tshawytscha), coho (silver) salmon (O. kisutch) and interesterification of short chain triacylglycerols, sockeye (red) salmon (O. nerka). The Atlantic such as triacetin, tripropionin or tributyrin, or their salmon, Salmo salar, is the prinicipal salmon species mixtures, with fully hydrogenated vegetable oils, consumed in Europe. Marketed and consumed in a such as hydrogenated rapeseed, soybean, cottonseed or wide variety of forms. sunflower oils. Applications include use in confec- Salmonella Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod- tionery, bakery products and dairy products. shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family En- Trade name is BenefatTM (Cultor Food Science). terobacteriaceae. Occur in soil, water, foods (e.g. Salbutamol ȕ-Adrenergic agonist used to enhance raw meat, raw sea foods, eggs and dairy prod- growth rates and improve feed efficiency and lean ucts) and the gastrointestinal tract of humans and meat content of animals. Normally depletes rapidly animals (especially poultry and swine). Salmonella from animal tissues following treatment. Typhi is the causative agent of typhoid fever, while Salchichon Spanish, raw, dry, fermented pork sau- Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis sages, that are very popular in Spain. They are pre- are responsible for gastroenteritis. Transmission is pared primarily from lean pork, but also include beef via the faecal-oral route by contaminated foods or wa- and pork backfat. Varieties include Salchichon de ter. Vich (Vich sausage). Salmonellae Bacteria of the genus Salmonella. Salers cheese French hard cheese made from raw Salmonellosis Any infection caused by Salmonella cow milk. Traditionally, only milk from cows graz- spp. Usually manifests itself as food poisoning with ing mountain pastures in the summer can be used. The severe diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, fever, headache hard brown rind becomes rough with ageing. The yel- and abdominal cramps. low interior has a flowery, grassy aroma and a nutty, Salmon oils Fish oils derived from salmon such as savoury flavour. Salmo salar. Rich in Ȧ-3 fatty acids, particularly ei- Sal fats Vegetable fats rich in stearic acid and cosapentaenoic acid. oleic acid, derived from the seeds of the sal tree, Sho- Salsa Literally, the Spanish word for sauces. In culi- rea robusta. Physical properties and melting be- nary terms, the term refers to sauces prepared from haviour are similar to those of cocoa butter, making chopped vegetables, lemon juices or lime juices, them useful as cocoa butter extenders. and spices. The most common type is tomato-based Salicylic acid Aromatic acid with the systematic salsa. name 2-hydroxybenzoic acid that is found as the methyl ester in many essential oils. In the food in- Sal seeds Seeds from the sal tree, Shorea robusta, dustry, it is used in preservatives. Used in the phar- which contain a hard green fat used in cocoa butter maceutical industry in antiseptics and aspirin. extenders. Salinity Measure of the total amount of salt in foods Salsify Name given to two plants of the Compositae and brines. family. White salsify is the common name for Salinomycin Polyether antibiotic and coccidiostat Tragopogon porrifolius. Its white roots are boiled and used for prophylaxis of coccidiosis in chickens; also eaten with melted butter, cream or cheese, or used used as a growth promoter in swine. Residues present in soups and stews. Leaves are also eaten, in salads. in edible tissues are generally barely detectable after 1 Black salsify or scorzonera is Scorzonera hispanica, day of withdrawal. the edible root of which has black skin and white flesh. It is used in the same way as white salsify. Both plants Saliva Fluid secreted by the salivary glands which are also known as oyster plant. facilitates mastication. Saliva serves to moisten foods, help create a food bolus and aid swallowing. It Salt Mineral with the chemical formula NaCl, obtained also contains enzymes that initiate the digestion of by mining or as residues from evaporation of sea wa- starch (salivary amylase) and lipids (lipase). ter. Several different forms of this mineral are used as condiments; table salt, rock salt and sea salt are all 375 Salted fish Sapodillas forms marketed for this purpose. Commercial salt of- elastic texture broken up by irregularly sized holes. ten includes other salts, such as calcium chloride or Flavour is mild and nut-like, but a sweet-sour pun- magnesium chloride, as anticaking agents. Salt has gency develops with ageing. Used in a wide variety multiple uses in the food industry, primarily in fla- of ways, from cooked dishes to salads and sand- vourings, e.g. salted butter and salted nuts, and in wiches. Alternative spelling is samsoe cheese. aqueous solutions (brines) as preservatives. Other Sandesh Sweetened Indian dairy product made from uses include as dough conditioners and curing chhana. agents. Sand lance Marine fish species of the genus Ammo- Salted fish Fish products preserved or cured with dytes, some of which are of commercial interest. Simi- dry salt or in brines, after which they may or may lar to sand eels. Widely distributed in the Arctic, Pa- not be dried. In the UK, the term usually refers only to cific and Atlantic Oceans. Marketed dried, salted or salted white fish species, such as cod, coalfish, frozen and mainly consumed fried. Also used as a haddock and hake. source of fish meal. Saltine crackers Crackers which are thin and crisp- Sandwiches Snack foods comprising 2 or more like and are topped with coarse salt crystals. slices of bread (usually buttered), enclosing sweet or Saltiness Sensory properties relating to the extent savoury fillings (e.g. meat, fish, cheese, eggs, to which a product tastes of salt. jams). Variations include open sandwiches and Salting The process of treating foods with dry salt, toasted sandwiches. Commercial, pre-packed sand- particularly as a preservation technique. Used in the wiches form an important part of the fast foods sec- production of salted fish and cured meat. Contrasts tor in many countries. with brining in which salt solutions (brines) are ap- Sangak Middle Eastern flat bread made from whole plied. wheat sourdough and baked in traditional style ov- Salts Compounds produced from the reaction between ens. acids and bases. Sangria Beverages originating in Spain based on Salt substitutes Chemicals used to mimic the flavour red wines, citrus juices, sugar and water (option- and/or applications of salt. Concern regarding effects ally carbonated water). May be garnished with berries of salt consumption on blood pressure has lead to a or fruit slices. search for salt substitutes that do not have hypertensive Sanitation Establishment and maintenance of envi- effects. Potassium, ammonium and calcium salts ronmental conditions conducive to the preservation of have been tested as salt substitutes, but these metal public health. ions have been unsuccessful in replacing sodium, un- derlining the importance of sodium ions in perception Sanitizers Agents used in disinfection or steriliza- of saltiness. Reductions in salt content of proc- tion. essed foods have been possible due to the addition Sansa oils Low quality vegetable oils that are of salt flavour enhancers such as amino acids, chemically extracted from press residues of olives. yeast extracts, acetic acid and allyl isothiocy- May be used as frying oils. anate. San Simon cheese Spanish semi-hard cheese Samna Egyptian clarified butter. made from cow milk. Curd is pressed in pear shaped Samphire Herbs (Crithmum maritimum) native to moulds and smoked to give a woody flavour. Rind is Mediterranean and European Atlantic coastlines. Used glossy and honey to red-brown in colour. Consis- as condiments and incorporated into pickles and tency of the interior is open and supple. Flavour is salads. Essential oils extracted from the plant dis- also buttery with slight acidity. play antimicrobial activity. Also known as crest Santoquin Alternative term for the antioxidant eth- marine, rock samphire, marine fennel, sea fennel and oxyquin. sampier. Can also refer to marsh samphire, another Sapodillas Fruits produced by Manilkara zapota or name given to edible glassworts, such as Salicornia Achras zapota. Also known as sapota. Brown skinned, europaea. with black shiny seeds embedded in the amber to Sampling Collection of samples for analysis. Proce- brown pulp. Seeds are removed before consumption of dures vary according to type of material and analytical the flesh. Contain moderate amounts of vitamin C technique to be used. and approximately 15% sugars. Mainly eaten out of Samso cheese Danish semi-hard cheese made hand, but also used in fruit salads and ice cream. from pasteurized cow milk. Swiss-style cheese simi- The plant produces a latex that coagulates into chicle, lar to Emmental cheese, with a yellow interior of an used in the manufacture of chewing gums. 376 Sapogenins Satiety Sapogenins The aglycone components of saponins Sardine Any of a number of herring-like marine occasionally found free in plants but usually present as fish species in the family Clupidae; distribution is glycosides. May be triterpenoid or steroid in nature. worldwide. Many species are also referred to as pil- Saponification Hydrolysis of fats into constituent chards; the term sardine generally refers to smaller glycerol and fatty acids by boiling with alkalies. individuals within the species. Commercially impor- Saponins Glycosides found in many plants, consist- tant species include Sardina pilchardus (European pil- ing of sapogenins and sugars. Thought to have a chard), Sardinops sagax (Pacific sardine) and S. number of beneficial health effects, such as the ability melanosticta (Japanese pilchard). Marketed fresh, to lower cholesterol levels. smoked, salted and dried; particularly popular as a sauces oils Sapota Alternative term for sapodillas. canned product in various or . Sardinella herring marine fish Sapoviruses Pathogenic enteric viruses of the Genus of -like in the family Caliciviridae that infect humans and other ver- family Clupidae; worldwide distribution. Commer- tebrates (including swine), and are a causative agent cially important species include Sardinella aurita (gilt of gastroenteritis. Type species is the Sapporo virus. sardine), S. longiceps (oil sardine) and S. anchovia Comprise a single strand of RNA surrounded by a cap- (Spanish sardine). Marketed fresh or canned; some- sardine pil- sid, but does not possess an outer envelope. times processed in the same way as and chards. Saran Class of thermoplastic resins that are polymers Sardine oils Fish oils of vinylidene chloride. Made into transparent films, extracted from the body of ei- also called cling films, that are resistant to oils and Sardina pilchardus. Contain variable amounts of cosapentaenoic acid docosahexaenoic chemicals and used for wrapping foods. Originally a and acid marga- US trademark. It is also known as saran wrap. . May be used in the manufacture of rines. Sarcina Genus of anaerobic, coccoid Gram positive Sargassum seaweeds bacteria of the family Clostridiaceae. Occur in soil, Genus of brown containing a air, milk, grain and the gastrointestinal tract of number of free-floating and attached species; distrib- humans and animals. Species may cause spoilage of uted across the world. Some species are edible and are food addi- milk. consumed directly or used as the basis of tives. Rich source of certain minerals and functional Sarcocystis Genus of parasitic protozoans of the polysaccharides. family Sarcocystidae. Occur in reptiles, birds and Sarsaparilla Spices prepared from the roots of Smi- mammals (especially sheep, cattle and swine). Sar- lax spp. Root extracts from this plant are also used as cocystis hominis and S. suihominis may cause infection flavourings. Former name for root beer, a beverage in humans when contaminated meat is consumed. containing sarsaparilla extracts. Sarcodon aspratus Species of edible fungi of the Sashimi Fish products family Thelephoraceae. Extracts thought to possess consisting of thin slices of fish tuna antioxidative activity, antiallergic activity and raw flesh. Fish commonly used include , halibut snapper yellowtail mackerel anticarcinogenicity. Also known as neungee and , red , and . koutake. Also known as tsukurimi. Saskatoon fruits berries Sarcodon imbricatum Species of edible fungi. Dark blue to black produced by Amelanchier alnifolia. The mild flavour re- Sarcoplasmic proteins Animal proteins found in sembles a combination of those of blueberries and fish and meat. Include globulins, myoglobin and cranberries. Used in pies, preserves and fruit top- various enzymes involved in cell metabolism. In- pings. Also known as juneberries, serviceberries and fluence meat quality parameters, such as colour, wa- Saskatoon berries. ter holding capacity, gelation properties and Satiety binding capacity. Precipitation of sarcoplasmic State in which the desire or motivation for proteins contributes to the PSE defect in pork. something no longer exists because the need has been satisfied. In the food sense, satiety relates to the Sarcosine Amino acid derivative (N- physiological sensation of fullness after consumption methylaminoacetic acid) occurring as an intermediate of a meal. Satiety can also be sensory-specific, e.g. in the metabolism of choline. texture and flavour specific satiety; this may signifi- Sarda Genus of marine fish containing several me- cantly contribute to overall satiety. Sensory-specific dium-sized tuna species; generally known as bonito. satiety refers to the decrease in the perceived pleasant- Commercially important species include Sarda sarda ness of a food after it has been eaten to satiety, and the (Atlantic bonito), S. chilliensis (Pacific bonito) and S. smaller amount of that food, relative to other foods, orientalis (Oriental bonito). Marketed mainly fresh; that is subsequently eaten. also dry-salted, canned and frozen. 377 Satratoxins Sausages Satratoxins Trichothecene mycotoxins produced by saury). Flesh of most species has a highly esteemed Stachybotrys atra. Cause mycotoxicosis (stachy- flavour. Marketed fresh, frozen or as a dry-salted botryotoxicosis) in humans, horses, cattle and poul- product. try. Responsible for irritation and ulceration of the mucous membranes of the mouth, throat and nose, Sausage casings Natural, cellulose or collagen cas- widespread haemorrhages, leucopaenia and possible ings which are filled with sausage emulsions in the death. preparation of sausages. Particular types of sausages are prepared in particular types of casings. For exam- Satsuma mandarins Small citrus fruits of the ple, sheep intestines are used as casings for chipolatas mandarins (Citrus reticulata) family. Almost seed- and frankfurters, swine intestines are used as casings less with a smooth, thin skin. Used in production of for fresh frying sausages, and cellulose casings are canned mandarin oranges. Also called satsumas. used in the preparation of skinless sausages. Satsumas Alternative term for satsuma mandarins. Sausage emulsions Fillings for sausages pre- Saturated fats Fats composed of triglycerides pared from comminuted meat, fats, preservatives, containing saturated fatty acids. Have a relatively spices, salt and sometimes fillers, such as cereals high melting point and tend to be solid at room tem- or dried milk solids. Level of NaCl is controlled in perature. High intakes are associated with hyperli- order to improve the binding capacity of sausage emul- paemia and increased risk of cardiovascular dis- sions, especially those prepared from non-slaughter- eases. Main sources are from animal foods, includ- warm meat. Additives are often included to help pre- ing red meat and dairy products (e.g. butter, serve, thicken or colour sausages. Extent of com- cream and cheese), although some plant foods minution of the raw meat materials differs widely, so such as palm oils, palm kernel oils and coconut that sausage emulsions may include small pieces, oils also contain high levels. chunks, chips or slices of meat. Curing ingredients Saturated fatty acids Fatty acids that contain no may be added during comminution or mixing, either in double bonds. Diets rich in saturated fatty acids are dry form or as a concentrated solution. Most sausage thought to increase the risk of developing coronary emulsions are packed into sausage casings to pro- heart diseases. duce sausages. Sauce mixes Powders containing all the ingredients Sausagemeat Fresh sausages which are sold in required (e.g. fats, flour, seasonings, stabilizers) to bulk without casings. Often mixed with other meats, produce sauces upon reconstitution with water. The formed into patties or balls, or used as an ingredient in reconstituted powders are usually thickened by heating stuffings. to produce sauces of the required consistency. Sauces Condiments of a pourable or spoonable Sausages Comminuted, seasoned, usually cylindrical, consistency that are served as an accompaniment to meat products prepared from sausage emulsions foods in order to enhance the flavour of the food. stuffed into sausage casings. Commonly, filled Sauces may be sweet or savoury, e.g. apple sauces sausage casings are twisted at intervals to form links; and cheese sauces, respectively, and may be served these vary in shape and size depending on the type of as a side dish, poured over the food or used during sausages. Sausage production may also involve cur- cooking. ing, smoking, fermentation, shaping and/or cooking. Shape or form of particular types of sausages Saucisson Raw, dry, fermented sausages. Varie- tends to be dictated by tradition. Countries such as ties include French and Spanish saucisson. They are France, Italy and Germany have an extensive range of prepared from lean meat, generally pork and beef; regional speciality sausages. Most sausages are pre- other ingredients include pork fat, spices and salt. pared from pork mince or beef mince, but some are Lactic starters are often used. The surface of the prepared from other meats (e.g. chicken mince or don- sausages is often coated with chalk or talc. key mince) or various types of offal (e.g. livers). Sauerkraut Dish made by fermenting shredded cab- They often include low value meat, such as mechani- bages, salt and, optionally, spices. Rich in vitamin cally recovered meat or parts of the carcass that are C and B vitamins. Sold fresh or in jars or cans. Eaten unattractive to the consumer, e.g. the intestines and as a side dish, in sandwiches and in casseroles. feet. The six major types of sausages are: fresh (e.g. Saury Any of a number of marine fish species in the fresh pork sausages); cooked (e.g. liver sau- family Scomberesocidae; distributed worldwide. sages); uncooked smoked (e.g. mettwurst); smoked Commercially important species include Scomberesox and cooked (e.g. knackwurst); semi-dry (e.g. semi- saurus (Atlantic saury) and Cololabis saira (Pacific dry salami); and dry (e.g. rohwurst). 378 Sauteing Schizosaccharomyces Sauteing Frying of foods quickly in a small amount odour when fresh and is creamy white or slightly or- of hot fat or oil in a skillet or special saute pan over ange in colour; normally, only the large adductor direct heat. muscle is eaten. Commercially important species in- Savory Leaves of Satureja hortensis (summer savory) clude Pecten maximus (great scallops), P. yessoensis or S. montana (winter savory) which are used as (Japanese scallops) and Chlamys opercularis (queen spices. Essential oils and extracts of savory leaves scallops). are also used as natural flavourings. Scampi Italian name for Norway lobsters (Neph- Savoy cabbages Variety of cabbages (Brassica rops norvegicus) or langoustines; also refers to lob- oleracea) with wrinkled leaves. Generally have a ster tail meat, fried after coating in batters or milder flavour than smooth leaved varieties. Used to breadcrumbs. In the UK, foods labelled as scampi prepare coleslaw. must be derived from Norway lobsters, but elsewhere Saxitoxin Potent neurotoxin produced by dinoflagel- other species may be used. In the USA, the term may lates (e.g. Gonyaulax catenella and G. tamarensis). refer to shrimps and is sometimes used to describe a Causes paralytic shellfish poisoning in humans culinary style rather than an ingredient. Thus, meat who ingest filter-feeding bivalve molluscs (e.g. subjected to marination and broiling, then served in clams and mussels) which feed on these dinoflagel- a sauce of garlic, butter and white wines may also lates. be referred to as scampi (e.g. chicken scampi). Scab Any of several plant diseases caused by a Scanning electron microscopy Electron mi- range of bacteria or fungi which affect a variety of croscopy technique, usually abbreviated to SEM, in crops, including apples, cereals and potatoes. which a focused beam of electrons is used to scan the The term is also used to describe visual symptoms of surfaces of suitably prepared samples. Secondary elec- the disease, which are characterized by crustaceous le- trons emitted from the samples are detected and used sions on fruits, tubers, leaves or stems. to create detailed images of the structure of the sam- Scad Any of a number of fishes of the family Carangi- ples. Advantages over light microscopy include greater dae (order Perciformes), but usually restricted to spe- magnification (up to 100,000×) and much greater cific species in the genera Decapterus, Selaroides and depth of field. Trachurus. Examples include Atlantic horse mackerel Scenedesmus Genus of green algae of the family (Trachurus trachurus), rough scad (T. lathami), yellow striped scad (Selaroides leptolepis), round scad (De- Scenedesmaceae. Occur in a wide range of freshwater capterus maruadsi), shortfin scad (D. macrosoma) and habitats. Some species (e.g. Scenedesmus quadri- cauda) may be used in production of single cell pro- layan scad (D. macarellus). teins. Scald Necrotic condition in which plant tissues, including fruits, appear to have been exposed to high Schizochytrium Genus of microorganisms of the temperature or sunlight, or standing water. Affected family Thraustochytriidae in the stramenopile taxo- fruits, mainly apples, have a dry, brown coloured area nomic group. Fermentation products obtained on the skin, but quality is not usually otherwise altered. from this organism include lipids enriched with Scalding Immersion of foods briefly in boiling water. docosahexaenoic acid. Substrates used in these Scalding of tomatoes is performed to loosen their fermentations include glycerol and food industry skins and facilitate peeling. wastes. Cofermentation of Schizochytrium spp. with other stramenopiles of the genus Thraustochy- Scales Alternative term for weighing machines. trium is also used for production of docosahexaenoic Scaling Removal of scales from fish skin, generally acid and other polyunsaturated fatty acids. using blunt knives or special tools called fish scalers. Scallion Name applied to various types of onions Schizophyllum Basidiomycetes that grow on de- which do not develop a bulb at the root. The long, cayed wood. Some species, mainly Schizophyllum straight green leaves and the white part nearer the bot- commune, are consumed as food, in soups or raw. Can tom are both eaten, raw or cooked. Uses include stir cause the disease basidioneuromycosis in humans. fried dishes, salads, soups and garnishes. Also called Also used as a source of enzymes and polysaccha- green onions and spring onions. rides. Scallops Common name for marine bivalve mol- Schizosaccharomyces Genus of fungi of the class luscs in the family Pectinidae; widely distributed in Schizosaccharomycetes. Occur in fermented bever- intertidal zones and deeper waters of the Atlantic and ages, fruit juices, dried fruits, molasses and ce- Pacific Oceans. Most species are valued for the fla- reals. Schizosaccharomyces pombe is used in the vour and texture of flesh, which has a distinct, sweet manufacture of sorghum beer. 379 Schmalzfleisch Sea bass Schmalzfleisch Comminuted meat products, pro- Scopulariopsis Genus of fungi of the class Hypho- duced from pork and pork fat, seasoned with salt and mycetes. Occur in decaying plant material and foods. spices; they have a very high content of fat. Scopulariopsis brevicaulis causes spoilage of cere- Schnapps Strong, dry spirits, consumed mainly in als, meat, salami, cheese and eggs. Germany, the Netherlands and Scandinavia. Scrambled egg Eggs which have been beaten, usually with milk, seasonings and butter, and cooked School meals Meals, particularly lunches, but some- with stirring to give a lumpy texture. times also breakfasts and evening meals, provided for school pupils, usually by a foods service. Emphasis Scrapie One of a group of prion diseases, this one is placed on planning healthy menus that appeal to affecting sheep. Scrapie is characterized by progres- children and adolescents and which provide suitable sive and fatal degeneration of the central nervous sys- nutrients for these age groups. tem. Deaths occur a few weeks or months after the initial symptoms appear. Mode of transmission of scrapie Schwanniomyces Obsolete name for a genus of is not fully understood, but evidence suggests that yeasts whose species have been reclassified into scrapie has been present in sheep in many parts of other genera, including Debaryomyces. Europe for more than 250 years. Experimentally, Sclerotinia Genus of fungi of the class Leotiomy- scrapie has been transmitted to mice, rats, hamsters cetes. Some species (e.g. Sclerotinia fructigna and S. and goats; however, there is currently no evidence for trifoliorum) are responsible for several plant diseases. transmission of scrapie from sheep to man. Scrapie is S. sclerotiorum and S. fructigna cause spoilage of not currently believed to have a role in the origins of vegetables (e.g. carrots, celery, cucumbers and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). artichokes) and fruits (e.g. apples, pears and Slaughter programmes for scrapie have failed as a peaches) during storage. means for control, but it may be possible to breed for Sclerotium Genus of fungi that includes some impor- scrapie resistance. tant plant pathogens that cause rotting. Sclerotium rolf- Screw caps Closures for sealing containers such sii produces several glycosidases as well as the as bottles or jars. These caps screw onto threads on exopolysaccharide scleroglucan, with many potential the neck of the container. applications in the food industry, e.g. in thickeners. Sculpin Any of a large number of marine fish or freshwater fish species in the family Cottidae; most Scombroid poisoning Poisoning linked to consump- species occur off the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the tion of fish containing high levels of histamine, USA. Few species have significant commercial impor- which is produced soon after death in fish having natu- tance as food fish. rally high levels of free histidine, particularly scombroid or scombroid-like marine fish such as mack- SDS Abbreviation for sodium dodecyl sulfate. erel and tuna. Formation of histamine in fish depends SDS-PAGE Abbreviation for sodium dodecyl sulfate on the temperature at which the fish is kept from time polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A process of capture until it is consumed; to minimize risks it is for separation of a mixture of proteins according to important to refrigerate fish after capture. their size and charge. SDS, a detergent, is used to de- nature the proteins to the same linear shape and to ap- Scones Quick breads traditionally prepared with leav- ply a negative charge to them prior to separation. A ened barley flour or oat flour, milk or buttermilk, polyacrylamide gel is used for the separation, as it al- baking powders, sugar, salt and sometimes lows differently sized proteins to move at different cream and eggs, which are then cut into various rates through it. Electricity is used to pull the dena- shapes and baked on a griddle or in ovens. Often tured proteins through the gel for a set amount of time made with additional ingredients, such as dried after they have been applied to one end of the gel. fruits, cherries, nuts, dates and cheese. Smaller proteins move faster through the gel than lar- Scoops Utensils used to collect, transfer and dispense ger proteins, and the proteins of different sizes appear substances such as foods. Can also refer to contain- as distinct bands in the gel upon staining. ers for dispensing fast foods, particularly French Sea bass Any of a number of marine fish in the fries. family Serranidae, many of which are valued food fish; Scopoletin 6-Methoxy-7-hydroxycoumarin. Found in distributed worldwide. Commercially important spe- a number of higher plants, often as scopolin (sco- cies include Dicentrarchus labrax (European bass), poletin 7-glucoside). Accumulates in the tissues of cer- Centropristis striata (black sea bass), Morone saxatilis tain microbially infected plants and is thought to ex- (striped bass) and M. chrysops (white bass). Mar- hibit antifungal activity. Scopolin may contribute to keted fresh, frozen and smoked. the bitterness of citrus fruits. 380 Sea bream Sea mustard Sea bream Any of a number of marine fish in the Sea food products Generic term for products which family Sparidae, many of which are valued food fish; contain fish, shellfish, aquatic foods or algae as distributed in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Some the main ingredient. species are cultured in sea cages. Commercially impor- Sea foods All edible marine and freshwater aquatic tant species include Pagrus major (red sea bream), organisms; includes fish (finfish), shellfish, aquatic Sparus aurata (gilthead sea bream) and Pagellus cen- mammals, plants and algae. Generally regarded as a trodontus (sea bream). Flesh tends to be lean, with a healthy component of the human diet. Many sea foods coarse-grained texture. Marketed fresh, frozen, salted, are good sources of high quality proteins, unsatu- dried and as semi-preserved or canned products. rated fatty acids, vitamins and minerals, and are fats calories Sea buckthorn Common name for Hippophae rham- low in and . noides and the round yellow-orange berries it pro- Sea kale Common name for Crambe maritime, these duces. Fruits are rich in vitamin C, vitamin E, caro- plants are found on shingle and sandy shores, mainly tenoids and flavonoids. Used in sauces and jel- of the Baltic Sea and Atlantic Ocean. Leaf stalks are lies, and to make liqueurs and fruit juices. Also the blanched by covering when the plants are young, or by source of oils with reported healing properties. a covering of shingle in the wild. Stalks are boiled like asparagus and served with mild white sauces or Sea buckthorn juices Fruit juices prepared from butter. sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) berries. Seal blubber Thick, subdermal lipid layer found in When prepared by pressing, the juice may be turbid seals; marine mammals belonging to the family Pho- due to its high content of insoluble solids and oil cidae. Often forms up to 25% of the animal's total droplets, which can be removed by centrifugation. weight and acts as an insulator. May often become Contains high levels of vitamin C and carotenoids. contaminated by organochlorine compounds such as May provide health benefits due to its antioxidative polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB). Frequently con- activity, anti-inflammatory activity and anticar- sumed by Arctic inhabitants. cinogenicity. Astringent, so usually mixed with Seal blubber oils Oils derived from the subdermal sweeter ingredients (e.g. grape juices or apple lipid layer (blubber) of seals; marine mammals of the juices) to improve its palatability. Used in drinks for family Phocidae. Rich source of Ȧ-3 fatty acids. troops working in cold conditions, due to its relatively low freezing point (-22qC). Sea lettuces Any of several green seaweeds of the genus Ulva; distributed on rocky shores worldwide. Sea buckthorn oils Oils extracted from the pulp or Consumed raw, cooked, dried, in soups or as a deep seeds of berries produced by sea buckthorn. Oils fried product. vary in composition according to source (pulp or seed), Sealing Process of closing openings in containers in but are consistently rich in tocopherols. May be used such a way as to prevent leakage of the contents or en- in foods. Health benefits include potential for protec- try of undesirable elements. tion against cardiovascular diseases. Seal meat Meat from seals. The prime cuts of seal Sea cucumbers Any of the 1100 species of marine carcasses are the flank, flipper and rump sections. invertebrates from class Holothuroidea of the phylum Seal meat is dark red in colour and has a characteris- Echinodermata; all have soft cylindrical bodies and are tic aroma. Composition of meat is altered when seals mainly found in shallow tropical waters. Many species are in moulting condition; at this time they shed their are edible, particularly those from the genera Stichopus hair, reduce feeding substantially and hence lose up to and Cucumaria. A popular delicacy in some Asian 20% of their blubber. Age of seal and type of carcass countries, where they are normally gutted, boiled and cut significantly affect sensory quality of the meat. dried prior to consumption. Also known as beche de Seal oils General term for oils derived from seals, mer and sea slugs. marine mammals belonging to the family Phocidae. Sea fennel Common name for Crithmum maritimum, Seals Fish-eating marine mammals belonging to the a herb which grows wild along coastlines, particularly Phocidae family (eared or true seals) or Otariidae fam- in the Mediterranean and European Atlantic areas. ily (the earless or hair seals); there are many species. Rich in vitamin C. Sensory properties are similar They are hunted for seal blubber and seal meat. to those of parsley. Used in condiments and in Seaming Process of joining together the edges of food pickles and salads. Essential oils extracted from cans to form a seal. the plant display antimicrobial activity. Also known Sea mustard Common name for Undaria pinnatifida, by a variety of names, including samphire, rock a member of the brown (Phaeophyta) group of sea- samphire, crest marine, sampier and marine fennel. weeds. Rich source of dietary fibre. Extracts pos- 381 Sea perch Selenites sess antitumour activity and antimutagenicity. In some countries, desalination is used to produce Used in production of soups, edible starch gels potable water from sea water. (mook or muk) and jams, and as an ingredient of Seaweeds Multicellular marine algae which are foods including cakes and kimchies. fixed to marine substrates by root-like holdfasts; occur Sea perch General name given to a number of main intertidal or subtidal environments worldwide. Sub- rine fish within the family Serranidae (including divided into 4 classes: green (Chlorophyta); brown grouper and sea bass); particularly refers to Epi- (Phaeophyta); red (Rhodophyta); and blue-green nephelus species. (Cyanophyta). Many species are edible, providing an excellent source of vitamins and minerals. Agar, Sea slugs Any of the 1100 species of marine inverte- carrageenans and alginates are extracted from brates from class Holothuroidea of the phylum Echi- some species for use as food additives. nodermata; all have soft cylindrical bodies and are found mainly in shallow tropical waters. Many species Secalins Major storage proteins of rye. are edible, particularly those of the genera Stichopus Secretion Physiological processes involving the modi- and Cucumaria. A popular delicacy in some Asian fication and release of substances such as proteins countries, where they are normally gutted, boiled and from cells. dried prior to consumption. Also known as sea cu- Sedimentation Settling of matter to the bottom of a cumbers. liquid by gravitational force so as to separate sus- Seasonings Blends of spices, flavourings and pended solids from fluids. other additives, such as colorants and sweeten- Seedless grapes Grapes that contain no seeds. The ers, that are used to enhance flavour, aroma and/or most commonly eaten varieties include Thomson seed- overall appearance of foods. Commercial seasonings less, flame seedless and ruby seedless. Eaten out of may also contain anticaking agents. Seasonings are hand, in salads and in cooking, e.g. in Veronique often created for use with particular types of food, e.g. dishes. barbecue seasonings or chicken seasonings. Seeds Produce of flowering plants; mature fertilized Sea squirts Primitive marine chordates of the class ovules. Contain an embryo and a seed coat, and often Ascidiacea, which are found attached to natural and an endosperm. Examples include beans, peas, oil- man-made structures in sea water and distributed seeds and cereals. worldwide. Some species are consumed as a delicacy; Seer fish marine fish particularly popular in France (often eaten raw with Group of predominantly of the lemon juices) and in Japan. Also known as ascid- genus Scomberomorus belonging to the family Scombridae (mackerels, tunas, bonitos). Widely dis- ians. tributed in tropical and subtropical waters. Species Sea trout Marine form of the brown trout (Salmo vary from minor to high commercial value, but all are trutta) found in northern Atlantic waters; migrates important game fish. Marketed fresh, dried-salted or back into freshwater to spawn. Highly valued as a smoked, and consumed in a number of ways, including sport fish and for the flavour and texture of its flesh. pan-fried, grilled, baked or as spicy fishballs. Cultured in some areas of northwest Europe. Marketed Sei-kombu Japanese name for dried seaweed products fresh, frozen and as a smoked product. formed from the kelp species Laminaria japonica; Sea urchin gonads Ovaries and roes of sea ur- used in Japanese cuisine as an ingredient of stocks or chins (echinoids); the only part of sea urchins which seasonings. Contain significant amounts of glu- are consumed. A highly esteemed and valuable deli- tamic acid, the basis of monosodium glutamate. cacy, particularly in Japan (known as uni). Marketed Sekts German sparkling wines available in various principally as a salted product; also sold fresh and fro- degrees of sweetness. Often made using the Char- zen. Used to make shiokara. mat method from imported wine, but must be made en- Sea urchins Any of around 700 species of marine tirely from German winemaking grapes for the la- invertebrates in the phylum Echinodermata; worldwide bel ‘Deutscher Sekt’ to be applied. distribution. Generally have rounded hard, calcareous Selenites Selenium salts and one of the forms in shells and prominent spines. Many species are ex- which Se is taken up from soils by plants. Although ploited for their gonads, which are a highly valued poisonous in large amounts, sodium selenite (Na2SeO3) delicacy. Also known as echinoids. is used to provide Se in various items, including in- Sea water Water from marine environments, charac- fant formulas, dog biscuits, animal feeds, sup- terized by a high salinity and complex physicochemi- plements containing proteins or vitamins, and cal structure; covers nearly 75% of the earth's surface. weight loss products. 382 Selenium Sequestrants Selenium Essential trace element with the chemical Sensory perception Recognition, acquisition and symbol Se. Deficiency can cause Keshan disease, a fa- interpretation of sensory information, including the tal form of cardiomyopathy, and may increase the risk sensory properties of foods. of cancer, while excess can cause balding, garlic Sensory properties Properties that can be detected breath, intestinal distress and impaired mental func- by the sense organs. For foods, the term relates to the tioning. Food sources include sea foods, meat, and combination of concepts such as appearance, fla- some grains and seeds. vour, texture, astringency and aroma. Selenoproteins A group of selenium-containing proteins that have one or more selenocysteine resi- Sensory scores Scores given to particular sensory due(s) in their amino acid chains. At least 25 human properties of foods by panellists during sensory selenoproteins have been identified so far, which in- analysis. clude glutathione peroxidases, iodothyronine deiodi- Sensory thresholds Term used in sensory analy- nases and thioredoxin reductases. To date, most se- sis relating to the levels at which perception of in- lenoproteins with known functions have enzymic ac- creasing concentrations of a stimulus, such as aroma tivity. Involved in a wide range of physiological proc- compounds or flavour compounds, begins. Clas- esses, including antioxidant defence, thyroid hormone sical methods for estimating sensory thresholds include metabolism, immune function and sperm development. probit, graphic, exact, logistic, Spearman-Karber, mov- Synthesis is reduced under selenium-deficient condi- ing average and up-and-down methods. tions. Separation Action or state of division into distinct SEM Abbreviation for scanning electron micros- elements, using techniques such as centrifugation, copy. filtration, sieving, crystallization, chromatog- Semicarbazide A contaminant formed from azodi- raphy and distillation. Separation of food compo- carbonamide used in bakery additives or as a nents is fundamental for preparation of ingredients to blowing agent in foamed plastics gaskets used to be used in other processes. Some separation methods seal glass bottles. A weak carcinogen in mice, but not are used to sort foods into classes based on size, col- thought to be a health risk at the low levels found in our or shape, to clean them by separating contaminat- foods. Also a metabolite of the prohibited veterinary ing materials, or to selectively remove water by drug nitrofurazone, and used to detect this drug in evaporation or drying. Centrifugation is used for animal foods. Synonym is carbamylhydrazine. separation of immiscible liquids and for separation of Semi skimmed milk Milk from which some of the solids from liquids. Filtration is used for removal of fat has been removed. This low fat product is preferred insoluble solids from a suspension. Components of to whole milk by some health conscious consumers, gaseous or liquid mixtures may be separated by chro- and is used by processors to make low fat dairy matography. products. Semi skimmed cow milk contains ap- Separators Equipment that facilitates the division of proximately 1.7% fat, compared with approximately items or solutions into distinct elements. Examples in- 4% in whole milk. clude centrifuges, filters and sieves. Semolina Purified granular middlings from durum Septoria Genus of ascomycetous fungi of the My- wheat used principally in the manufacture of pasta cosphaerellaceae family, which includes many species and milk puddings. responsible for plant diseases. Some species cause Sencor Alternative term for the herbicide leaf spot diseases on food crops (e.g. celery, toma- metribuzin. toes, wheat, rye and barley). Senescence Degeneration of plants due to maturation or ageing. Stress due to disease or attack by in- Sequencing Examination of the sequence of compo- sects may induce early senescence. nents in a sample to aid in its identification. Compo- nents sequenced include bases in genes, and amino Sensors Apparatus used in detection by responding to acids in proteins or peptides. a specific stimulus. Sensory analysis Analytical techniques used to de- Sequestrants Additives that bind to or form com- termine the sensory properties of foods. The tech- plexes with other chemicals, reducing their reactivity niques fall into three main classes: discrimina- in order to prevent the occurrence of undesirable reaction/difference tests; descriptive tests; and he- tions. Examples of sequestrants include sodium citrate donic/affective tests. and EDTA which are used to chelate calcium ions (e.g. used to modulate the strength of gellan gels), and Sensory evaluation Alternative term for sensory phosphates that bind to and enhance the stability of analysis. proteins at low pH. 383 Serine Sesbania Serine Non-essential amino acid required for metabo- thiamin. Served as a snack in thin slices and used to lism of fats and fatty acids, muscle growth and a flavour soups, vegetable dishes or pasta dishes. healthy immune system. Abundant in meat and dairy Serratia Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped products, wheat gluten, peanuts and soy prod- Gram negative bacteria of the Enterobacteri- ucts. aceae family. Occur in water and soil, and on plants. Serological tests Immunological techniques in Some species (e.g. Serratia liquefaciens and S. which antibodies in blood serum samples are de- marcescens) may be responsible for the spoilage of tected using specific antigens. foods (e.g. meat, dairy products, shellfish, vegetables and eggs), and some species also produce li- Serology Study of blood serum with particular refer- pases. ence to components important for immune response. Used to detect specific antigens or anti- Serum Blood fraction expressed from clotted blood. bodies. Also sometimes used as an alternative term for whey, which is produced by the clotting of milk. Serotonin Hormone derived from tryptophan found Sesame Tropical, annual herb, Sesamum indicum, in humans, animals and plants. Acts as a vasoconstric- which bears small flat seeds, which are used as top- tor and neurotransmitter. Present in some tropical pings and in flavourings for foods as well as being fruits such as bananas and pineapples. Excessive a source of edible oils. intake in the diet may lead to myocardial lesions. Also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine. Sesame oils Seed oils derived from sesame seeds, which are rich in oleic acid and linoleic Serotype Serologically (antigenically) distinct vari- acid and have high oxidative stability due to the ety or strain of an organism, as defined by antisera presence of natural antioxidants. Contain sesamin against antigens expressed on cell surfaces. Also and sesamolin. Due to their nut-like flavour, the known as serovar, particularly when applied to micro- oils are used as seasonings as well as cooking oils. bial pathogens, whose antigens can include toxins, Also known as gingelly oils or til oils. lipopolysaccharides and other virulence factors. Sesame seed meal Residue remaining when ses- Serotyping Methods for distinguishing between ame oils are extracted from sesame seeds. Used closely related organisms, including strains of microas an animal feed, a source of proteins and some- organisms, based on differences in their surface an- times as a partial substitute for wheat flour in bak- tigens. Using standard immunological tech- ing. niques, the strains or isolates to be typed are exposed Sesame seeds Small flat seeds with a nut-like fla- to antibodies specific for certain antigens and those vour produced by sesame (Sesamum indicum). Used that interact are detected, e.g. by agglutination tests as toppings for bakery products, flavourings and or precipitation. Reactions to an appropriate range of as a source of sesame oils. Also known as gingelly antibodies distinguish a strain in terms of its surface seeds. antigens. More recently, the application of modern Sesamin One of the lignans found in sesame oils genetic techniques such as PCR and DNA mi- and sesame seeds. Possesses anti-inflammatory croarrays has provided alternative molecular typing activity, anticarcinogenicity, hypolipaemic ac- methods for serotype analyses. tivity and antihypertensive activity, promotes oxi- Serra cheese Portuguese soft, almost spreadable, dation of fatty acids and enhances vitamin E status cheese made from ewe milk using vegetable ren- by inhibiting tocopherol hydrolase. Food supple- nets prepared from cardoon flowers. Traditionally, ments containing sesamin are claimed to have fat entirely hand-made, down to breaking of the curd by burning properties. hand. Flavour has the slightly burnt toffee character Sesamol Natural phenol antioxidants prepared from of ewe milk. Ripening takes 30-40 days. Also known sesame oils. as Serra da Estrela cheese, after its place of origin. Sesamolin One of the lignans found in sesame Serrano ham Cured ham produced in Spain using oils and sesame seeds. Possesses antioxidative methods similar to those used in Italy to produce activity, anti-inflammatory activity and antitu- Parma ham. Fresh hams are covered with salt for mour activity, and induces apoptosis. approximately 2 weeks to draw off moisture and pre- Sesbania Genus of leguminous plants, the leaves, serve the meat, washed, hung for approximately 6 flowers and seeds of which are eaten commonly in months and finally air dried. The name derives from India. Seeds and leaves are potential sources of pro- the practice of carrying out the air drying phase, which tein. Gums extracted from seeds of some species have lasts 6 to 18 months, in sheds located at high eleva- possible uses in the food industry, e.g. as thickeners. tions. Good source of vitamin B1, vitamin B2 and 384 Sesquiterpenoids Shear values Sesquiterpenoids Volatile compounds produced Sharks Any of numerous cartilaginous, predatory as secondary metabolites in certain plants, spices marine fish; worldwide distribution. Many species and essential oils. are exploited as a source of food; shark fins from Setting Firming of foods, usually as a result of cool- several species are used to make soups. Marketed ing, as with gelatin-based dishes, such as jelly. fresh, frozen and as dried, salted or smoked products. Sevin Alternative term for the insecticide carbaryl. Liver oils are a rich source of vitamin A. Sevruga Species of sturgeon (Acipenser stellatus) Sharon fruit Alternative term for persimmons. found in the Caspian Sea; the smallest of the sturgeon Sharpness Sensory properties relating to the exploited commercially. Roes are used as caviar. extent to which an item tastes sharp, i.e. acid, bitter or 11S Globulins Globulins with a sedimentation coef- astringent. ficient of 11S which constitute one of the main groups Shashlik Meat products prepared from meat, or of characteristic storage proteins in non-cereal meat and offal. Ingredients vary between recipes, but grains, such as beans, peas and peanuts. may include lean meat, bacon, livers, kidneys, 7S Globulins Globulins characterized by a sedimen- animal fats, onions, peppers and gherkins. The tation coefficient in Svedberg units (S) of 7. Important product is cooked on a spit or skewer. Traditional fraction of storage proteins in seeds, e.g. leg- Turkish shashlik is made exclusively from mutton, umes, cereals and oilseeds, and includes vicilin, without addition of offal or vegetables. In Germany, phaseolins and -conglycinin. Some 7S globulins ȕ shashlik may contain pork, beef, bacon, offal, onions are allergens. and other vegetables. Shad Any one of several species of food fish of the herring family. The American species, Alosa sapidis- Shea nut butter Yellowish vegetable fats derived sima, is an important market fish. The European shad from the seed kernels of Butyrospermum parkii. Rich is less important. Shad roes are considered a delicacy in stearic acid and oleic acid. Resembles cocoa in eastern parts of the US. butter in its melting profile, making it suitable for use in cocoa butter equivalents. Shaddocks Alternative term for pomelos or pummelos, the largest of the citrus fruits, produced by Shea nuts Seeds produced by the tree Butyros- Citrus maxima or C. grandis and ancestors of the mod- permum parkii. Fats derived from the seeds are used ern grapefruit. Closely resemble the grapefruit in ap- to make shea nut butter. pearance, but the flesh is sweeter and less acidic, lack- Shear Force that one plane exerts on a neighbouring ing the bitterness of a grapefruit. Rich in vitamin C plane per unit area of contact, and which causes a de- and potassium. Eaten fresh or used to make jams, formation in a direction related to the direction of the jellies and marmalades. Also known as Chinese applied force. Shear forces are applied during food grapefruit. processing such as mixing and extrusion and will Shading Complete or partial protection of plants from affect the texture of the final product. Shear also oc- sunlight using cloth or other materials. Prevents curs during mastication of foods. sunburn and other types of damage and has various Shear strength Measure of the resistance of a mate- effects on the composition and quality of fruits. rial, such as a food, to shear stress and the associated Shallots Type of onions (Allium ascalonicum) with deformation caused by the application of this stress. many lateral, mild-flavoured bulbs. Eaten raw or Peak shear strength is the highest stress sustainable just cooked. Also used for pickling. prior to complete failure of a sample under load; after Shandy Blend of beer with lemonade. this, stress cannot be maintained and major strains usu- Shaping To give a shape or form to a substance, ally occur by displacement along failure surfaces. For sometimes with the aid of moulds (moulding). material not previously sheared there is a rapid decline Shark fins In culinary terms, can include dorsal, pec- in strength with increasing shear until the residual toral or tail fins from a few species of sharks which shear strength is reached. The shear strength of a food are considered a delicacy and are used in Asian, pre- will influence the rheological properties and me- dominantly Chinese, cooking. The cartilage in the fin chanical properties of the food during processing, and the gelatin which it provides are the components and also the texture and other sensory properties of the fin utilized in cooking. Fins are sold dried, either of the food during consumption. whole or in shreds. Eaten mainly in shark's fin soups, Shear values Measures of the forces experienced by a the gelatin imparts a characteristic texture. Also some- material, such as a food, undergoing shear. Often de- times served after braising as a main dish or used in termined in meat after cooking as an indication of small quantities in fillings or stuffings. tenderness. 385 Sheatfish Shochu Sheatfish Freshwater catfish species (Silurus glanis) fermentation in which a layer of yeasts (flor found in eastern Europe and Central Asia; occurs yeasts) grows on the surface of the wines and subse- mainly in large lakes and rivers. Cultured in some re- quently dissolves in the wines, imparting a characteris- gions on a semi-extensive basis. Marketed fresh, tic flavour and aroma. canned and frozen. Also known as wels catfish. Shewanella Genus of facultatively anaerobic, curved Sheep Ruminants (Ovis aries), the majority of or straight rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria of which have been domesticated for the production of the Shewanellaceae family. Shewanella putrefaciens is lamb, mutton, ewe milk and wool. There are many responsible for the spoilage of fish and meat. breeds; for example, in the UK there are approximately Shiga like toxins Cytotoxins produced by entero- 50 recognized breeds, various local types and numer- haemorrhagic Escherichia coli strains, which are ous crossbreeds. Different gender and age groups of similar to Shiga toxins. Inhibit protein synthesis in sheep are known as rams (adult entire males), wethers eukaryotic cells by cleaving the 28S rRNA subunit of (adult castrated males), ewes (adult females), tegs (2 ribosomes, and play a role in haemorrhagic colitis and years of age), shearlings (15-18 months of age), hog- haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Also known as verotox- gets (1 year of age) and lambs (sexually immature ins and vero cytotoxins due to their ability to kill vero animals which are generally less than 1 year of age). (African green monkey kidney) cells in culture. Sheep cheese Cheese made from ewe milk. Al- Shiga toxins Protein toxins produced by some ternative term for ewe, ewe milk or sheep milk cheese. Shigella spp. which have enterotoxic, neurotoxic and Sheep meat Alternative term for mutton. cytotoxic activity. Responsible for some of the symp- Sheep milk Alternative term for ewe milk. toms of bacillary dysentery caused by S. dysenteriae. Sheep milk cheese Cheese made from ewe milk. Shigella Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped Alternative term for ewe, ewe milk or sheep cheese. Gram negative bacteria of the Enterobacteri- Sheep muscles Alternative term for mutton. aceae family that ferment sugar without production of gas. Occur in the gastrointestinal tract in humans Shelf life Time for which a stored item remains usable. and primates, and in soil, fruits, vegetables and Shellac Solution of resinous exudation from bodies of fresh water. Shigella sonnei, S. boydii, S. flexneri and Tachardia lacca, an insect of the same family as the S. dysenteriae are causative agents of bacillary dysen- cochineal beetle. Used in coatings for foods such as tery (shigellosis). Infection is typically via the fae- fruits, chocolate and sugar confectionery. cal-oral route. Shellfish General name referring to aquatic inverte- Shigellosis Bacillary dysentery caused by infection brates possessing a shell or exoskeleton, including with Shigella spp. Characterized by abdominal crustacea (crabs, lobsters, prawns and cramps, diarrhoea, fever, vomiting, presence of blood, shrimps) and molluscs (gastropods, bivalves pus or mucus in stools, and tenesmus (a feeling of in- and cephalopods). complete defecation). Transmission is via the faecal- Shelling Removal of husks, shells or pods from oral route by consumption of contaminated foods (e.g. foods such as nuts, eggs and peas. salads, vegetables, dairy products and poultry Shells Generally refers to hard and rigid coverings of meat) and water. various invertebrates, mostly calcareous; in other cases Shiitake Alternative term for Lentinus edodes (re- chiefly or partially chitinous, horny or siliceous. Shells named Lentinula edodes) or Japanese black forest of some marine molluscs and crustacea are used mushrooms. by the food industry as a source of calcium carbonate, Shikimic acid One of the organic acids found in chitin or glucosamine. Also used to describe the plant foods, particularly star anise and goose- outer coating of birds' eggs (egg shells). berries. A precursor of several alkaloids, aromatic Sherbet Artificial fruit-flavoured effervescent pow- amino acids, indole derivatives, tannins and fla- ders eaten as sweets. When mixed with bicarbonate vonoids. Systematic name is 3,4,5- of soda, tartaric acid, sugar and flavourings, may trihydroxycyclohex-1-enecarboxylic acid. also be used to make beverages. Also a US term for Shiokara Fermented sea foods, normally made from sorbets. squid, but also from viscera of skipjack tuna or Sherry Fortified wines made in a defined region in other marine fish, or from sea urchin gonads. the vicinity of Jerez de la Frontera in Spain. The main Fermenting the raw material with salt for up to one sherry types include Fino, Oloroso, Amontillado, Man- month produces a brown, salty viscous paste. zanilla and Palo Cortado. Sherries are aged by the Shochu Japanese spirits made by distillation of unique solera system of sequential blending of succes- fermented rice mashes. sive vintages. Some sherry types undergo a secondary 386 Shops Sieves Shops Buildings or parts of buildings where goods or it. They also have shorter legs and a bigger set of first services are sold. pincers than second, whereas in prawns the reverse is Shortbread Sweetened biscuits prepared with a high true. Despite these differences, the term shrimps is of- ratio of butter or other shortenings to flour. ten applied, on the basis of size only, to smaller species within the families Pandalidae, Penaeidae and Palae- Short chain fatty acids Fatty acids with aliphatic monidae. Many species have commercial importance chains containing less than 6 C atoms. Examples in- as foods, including Crangon crangon (common clude butyric acid and valeric acid. Some are shrimps), Pandalus platyceros (spot shrimps) and products of dietary fibre fermentation in the lower Penaeus monodon (tiger shrimps). Marketed in a gastrointestinal tract that play a role in human variety of forms, including fresh, frozen, smoked, metabolism and may protect against colorectal canned and as pastes. cancer. Also known as volatile fatty acids. Shortening A process that results from changes oc- Shrink packaging Transparent, clinging thermoplas- curring in numerous connected sarcomeres in the myo- tic films used to enclose a product or package. When fibrils of muscles. It occurs during muscle contraction heated, the film shrinks to fit closely to the package. in living animals, but also during rigor mortis. De- Shubat Fermented camel milk similar to, but thicker gree of sarcomere shortening is influenced by muscle than, koumiss. Popular in Kazakhstan. Also known fibre type (e.g. oxidative vs. glycolytic) and post mor- as chal. tem ambient temperature. If ambient temperature de- Shucking Removal of husks from corn, or shells creases rapidly during the onset of rigor mortis, muscle from shellfish such as oysters and clams. fibres contract to a greater extent than at higher ambi- Shuttle vectors Cloning vectors that can replicate ent temp. This physiological occurrence is referred to in more than one type of organism, thus allowing as cold shortening; severe shortening results in re- propagation of DNA in either organism. duced meat tenderness. Electrical stimulation is used to reduce toughness associated with cold short- Sialic acid Organic acid found in animal tissues and ening in meat. fluids, e.g. in glycolipids, mucopolysaccharides and gangliosides. Also found as a component of Shortenings Solid or semi-solid animal fats or milk proteins. Terminal sialic acid residues in gly- vegetable fats often used in baking. By dispersing coproteins or glycolipids in cell membrane compo- as a film throughout batters, they impart crispness nents serve as receptor sites. Also known as N- or flakiness to bakery products. acetylneuraminic acid. Shoti Common name for Curcuma zedoaria, a plant Side dishes Dishes served as an accompaniment to a related to turmeric. Young rhizomes are eaten as a main dish, usually the main course of a meal, on a vegetable. The dried rhizome is pulverized and used as separate plate or dish. a spice. Used as a condiment and in manufacture of flavourings and bitters. Also known as zedoary. Sideritis Genus of plants of the family Lamiaceae, some species of which are used to prepare herb tea, Shoyu Alternative (Japanese) name for soy sauces. especially in Mediterranean countries such as Greece Shredding Tearing or cutting of items into strips of and Turkey. material (shreds). This can be achieved either by hand or by using a grater or a food processor fitted with a Siderophores Natural compounds produced by mi- shredding disk. croorganisms which chelate ferric ions, so enhancing iron solubility and uptake. Many are nonribosomal Shrikhand Fermented milk product usually pre- peptides. Different organisms utilize structurally var- pared from buffalo milk and popular in India. Also ied siderophores to bind iron competitively and gain known as srikand and srikhand. Traditionally, the milk selective growth advantages. Some pathogens have is fermented with a mixed starter culture (Strepto- evolved siderophore virulence factors that mediate coccus lactis and S. lactis var. diacetylactis) and the release of host iron for parasitic consumption, e.g. chakka is prepared by draining off whey from the enterochelin from Escherichia and Salmonella. resultant curd. Other ingredients, e.g. sugar, colorants and flavourings, are then added to the chakka. Sides A butchers' term for the two halves of animal carcasses, divided along the backbone. Shrimps General name used for many species of marine and freshwater crustacea within the infraorder Sieva beans Alternative term for lima beans. Caridea. Often confused with prawns, shrimps may Sieves Utensils consisting of a wire or plastic mesh be distinguished by their lamellar gill structure and the held in a frame used for straining solids from liquids, presence of a side plate on the second abdominal seg- separating coarser from finer particles or production of ment that overlaps the segments both before and after pulps and purees. Also know as strainers. 387 Sieving Simultaneous distillation-extraction Sieving Process of straining solids from liquids or modities including vegetables and milk. Also ap- separating coarser from finer particles using sieves or plied to airtight structures in which green crops are strainers. Sieving also incorporates air to make in- compressed and stored as silage for animal feeding. gredients (such as flour) lighter. Silver Soft, white, metallic element, chemical symbol Sifters Utensils consisting of a stainless steel or heavy Ag. weight plastic mesh used for removal of lumps or large Silver carp A freshwater cyprinid fish, Hypophthal- particles from finer particles. Used in sifting ingredi- michthys molitrix, native to Asia. Generally cultured ents such as flour or confectioners' sugar. and consumed fresh in producing countries. Has also Sifting Process of passing a dry substance through been introduced into many other countries for aqua- sifters to remove lumps or large particles. Sifting also culture and for use in controlling algal blooms in res- incorporates air to make ingredients (such as flour) ervoirs and other waters. lighter. Simazine Selective systemic triazine herbicide used Sigma factors Proteins present in bacteria which for control of germinating annual grasses and broad- bind to DNA-directed RNA polymerases, promot- leaved weeds around a range of crops; also used as an ing initiation of transcription at promoters of a algicide. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present specific class. Involved in response of the cell to heat acute hazard in normal use. Also known as gesatop. shock or other types of stress. Sikhe Traditional Korean beverages made with rice Simmering Heating of foods in a liquid, such as which has been saccharified and fermented. water, at a temperature that causes the liquid to bubble Silage Fodder which is harvested while green and gently. converted into succulent feed for livestock by fermen- Simmondsin Cyanide-containing glycosides found tation in silos. May also be made from fish by-catch in defatted jojoba meal, a by-product of the manufac- or wastes. The fish material is chopped or ground ture of jojoba oils. Inhibits food intake in animals prior to addition of acids or of a carbohydrate source through satiation. May have potential for use in foods for fermentation, the material being preserved by the as an appetite suppressant. low pH which develops. Composition of silage fed to Simplesse Trade name for multifunctional dairy in- animals can affect milk or meat characteristics. gredients derived from whey protein concentrates Silica Silicon dioxide that occurs in crystalline, crypto- that have undergone microparticulation. Marketed by crystalline and amorphous hydrated forms. Ubiquitous CP Kelco. Used in a wide range of full fat and low fat component of the diet with numerous applications in foods for texture enhancement, provision of the food industry, such as stabilization of beer, re- creaminess, stabilization of emulsions, thermal fining of vegetable oils, and immobilization of stability, moisture control and stabilization of proteins and enzymes. foams. Product applications include dairy prod- Silica gels Gels formed from polymers of silicic acid. ucts, condiments, margarines and sauces. When dried, they are termed silica xerogels and are Simulated foods Processed foods that are modi- used as desiccators or as adsorbents, e.g. for clarified to simulate another kind of food, e.g. by using fication of beer by adsorption of cloud-forming textured vegetable proteins and flavourings, to proteins. mimic texture and sensory properties of the target Silicates Salts derived from silica or silicic acid, food. Some of the most popular simulated foods are containing silica, oxygen, one or more minerals and meat substitutes (e.g. for use in vegetarian possibly hydrogen. Uses include reducing the content foods), butter substitutes and imitation cream. of free fatty acids in frying oils, immobilization Also known as imitation foods, analogues or arti- of enzymes and clarification of beverages. ficial foods. Silicon Essential, non-metallic element, chemical Simultaneous distillation-extraction One of vari- symbol Si. Always found in a combined state in nature. ous analytical techniques used for sample prepara- Siljo Traditional Ethiopian fermented food made with tion in food composition analyses, and of particular meal prepared from horse beans and an extract of application with GC for the analysis of volatile safflowers. The cooked slurry made from these com- compounds including flavour compounds and ponents is fermented by lactic acid bacteria in mus- aroma compounds. Involves simultaneous heating tard powder. of sample (after addition of water if a dry product) and Silos Tall towers or pits which are used for storage. organic solvent which are held in different vessels. The Commonly refers to stores for grain, e.g. on a farm or water and organic solvent vapours generated collect at a mill, but can also be used for storing other com- and are condensed together in the same condenser unit. 388 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation Skim milk powders Extraction of analytes from the water vapour to the or- Sitophilus zeamais Species of insect pests of the ganic solvent occurs on condensation. family Curculionidae, commonly known as maize Simultaneous saccharification and fermenta- weevils. Infest stored grains and cereal products, tion Process which involves enzymic saccharifica- particularly corn. tion of cellulosic biomass and simultaneous micro- Sitostanol Phytostanol occurring widely in plants. bial fermentation of the resulting glucose, e.g. to Can lower levels of total and low density lipoprotein ethanol. Advantages over the traditional two-stage cholesterol in blood by inhibiting absorption of cho- process include the ability to use lower temperatures, lesterol from the intestine. Used in the form of an ester thus reducing operating costs. Although these proc- in production of functional foods, such as esses can be performed by mixed cultures of an appro- spreads, food bars and yoghurt, which may have priate enzyme-producing microorganism and a fermen- a cholesterol lowering action. tative microorganism, recent research has focused on Sitosterol One of the phytosterols found commonly genetic engineering of strains to enable the direct in plants and vegetable oils, and in certain algae. fermentation of celluloses. Has been shown to reduce the levels of total choles- Sinapic acid Organic acid which is the major pheno- terol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol in serum. lic compound found in rapeseeds. Structural changes Exist in Į-, ȕ- and Ȗ- isomers. in sinapic acid have been associated with the darkening Size exclusion chromatography Type of chro- of rapeseed meal following extraction of rapeseed matography used for molecular weight analysis of oils, and its presence limits the usefulness of rapeseed polymers, including biopolymers, or separation meal as a food source. of a mixture of polymers in solution on the basis of Sinapine An antinutritional ester with a hot, bitter their hydrodynamic volume, one of the physical taste found in the seeds of all Brassica spp. Elimi- properties of a molecule influenced by the nature of nation of sinapine from these seeds increases their po- the solvent and the molecular weight of the molecule. tential as food sources. The stationary phase comprises an inert (non- adsorbent) porous matrix, e.g. cross-linked polystyrene Single cell proteins Protein-rich biomass produced beads. When the stationary phase is a gel, e.g. by large-scale microbial fermentation using a variety Sephadex , the technique is known as gel filtration of substrates, such as petroleum fractions or carbohy- or gel permeation chromatography. drates. Used as a source of proteins for use in foods and animal feeds. There is potential for future com- Skate General name for a number of flattened marine mercial exploitation of these proteins with advances in fish species in the order Rajiformes; worldwide distri- fermentation technology. bution. Generally used synonymously with ray. Com- mercially important species include Raja binoculata Single cream Cream with a fat content of approxi- (big skate), R. oxyrhinchus (longnose skate) and R. in- mately 18%. nominita (smooth skate). Marketed fresh, frozen, Single market An association of countries trading smoked and salted; fins are also consumed. with each other without restrictions or tariffs. Skatole Biogenic amine which contributes to the de- Sinigrin Antinutritional glucosinolate with a bitter velopment of taints in meat, particularly pork. It is taste found in Brassica spp. produced by bacteria in the intestines of swine, Sitao Alternative term for asparagus beans. then absorbed into the blood. Accumulation in fats leads to boar taint. Levels of skatole in swine may be Site directed mutagenesis In vitro mutagenesis reduced by castration, which improves metabolism at a specific site in a DNA molecule. Various methods of the compound, or by modification of the diet. can be used, e.g. oligonucleotides containing the mutated base sequence are annealed with single- Skimmed milk Alternative term for skim milk. stranded target DNA molecules, usually in plasmids, Skim milk Milk from which virtually all the fat has and used as primers for DNA synthesis; the molecules been removed (fat content is less than 0.5%). Preferred can then be introduced into host cells where subse- to whole milk or semi skimmed milk by some quent DNA replication segregates the mutant and non- health-conscious consumers and used by processors to mutant strands. make low fat dairy products. Almost total removal Sitophilus Species of weevils of the family Curculi- of fat means that skim milk differs greatly from whole onidae, which are pests of crops and stored grain milk in mouthfeel and also in appearance, having a and cereals. Include the grain weevil (Sitophilus bluish tinge. granarius), the maize weevil (S. zeamais) and the rice Skim milk powders Products prepared by drying weevil (S. oryzae). skim milk to a low moisture content, giving powders 389 Skin Small round structured viruses with a long shelf life. Also called dried skim milk inspectors and only those carcasses that are free from and non-fat dried milk. disease are allowed to leave the premises for retail to Skin The outermost covering of the body, which con- consumers. sists of a thin outer layer, the epidermis, and a thicker Slendid Trade name for a range of proprietary special- inner layer, the dermis. Large quantities of gelatin are ity pectins (either low ester or high ester pectins) de- produced from swine skin. Chicken skin also has rived from citrus peel and marketed by CP Kelco. food uses, particularly in poultry products, such as Used as fat substitutes in a wide range of food ap- sausages. Cattle skins (hides), are by-products of plications (low fat foods), including spreads, cattle processing, and are generally tanned to produce mayonnaise, salad dressings, meat products, leather. ice cream, bakery products and desserts, where Skinning Removal of the skin from foods such as they impart a smooth, creamy mouthfeel. poultry and fish before or after cooking. Slicing Cutting of thin pieces or slices of food from a Skin prick testing One of several clinical techniques larger portion using a sharp implement. that can be used for the diagnosis of allergies, such as Slime bacteria Common term for bacteria which those to foods, pollen, animal dander and mites. produce slimy exopolysaccharides. Includes spe- Drops of fluid containing the suspected allergens are cies of Xanthomonas, Leuconostoc, Alcali- placed on the skin, and the skin beneath each drop is genes, Enterobacter, Lactococcus and Lacto- pricked with a needle. A positive reaction is identified bacillus. Slime produced may be responsible for when the skin around an allergen becomes red and characteristic texture and viscosity of fermented itchy and a white swelling (a weal) develops. milk. May lead to severe quality problems during the storage and processing of certain foods and beverages. Skin spot Disorder in potatoes caused by infection with the fungus Oospora pustulans (syn. Polyscytalum Slivovitz Spirits made by distillation of fermented pustulans). Infection occurs in the soil and spreads dur- mashes based on plums. Manufactured mainly in ing storage, particularly at low temperatures. Causes Serbia, Bosnia and adjacent countries. dark spots on the skin that become purple-black when Sloes Common name for the wild plum produced by wet. Prunus spinosa (also called blackthorn). Too acid for Skipjack tuna Marine fish species (Katsuwonus use as a dessert, but commonly used to make bever- pelamis) which forms the largest part of the world ages such as sloe wines and sloe gin. tuna catch by volume; widely distributed across the Slow cooking A method of cooking that involves Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Mainly marketed as a heating foods gently for a period of several hours in canned product, but also sold fresh, frozen, dried, the presence of liquid with a high water content. A salted and as a semi-preserved product. temperature of between 80 and 90qC is typically used and the liquid ensures that efficient heat transfer to Skyr Icelandic fermented milk similar to thick yo- the food takes place. A non-hermetic lid prevents ghurt. Served as a dessert with cream and sugar or pressure from building within the cooking vessel and fruits. retains water vapour so that the temperature of the Slaughter The killing of animals and poultry for contents is kept constant. Often used for the tender- food. In developed and some developing countries, ization of tough meat cuts having a high content of slaughter of animals for meat takes place under connective tissues. closely regulated conditions in slaughterhouses. Sludges Usually thick, soft, wet mud or similar vis- Legislation often dictates that food animals should be cous mixtures, or alternatively any undesirable solids slaughtered without undue stress and suffering, and settled out from a treatment process. that bleeding should be as complete as possible; effec- Slugs Common name for gastropod molluscs of the tive stunning is of primary importance in achieving family Limacidae, which have long fleshy bodies and these aims. Both Judaism and Islam prescribe a ritual in which the shell is either vestigial or absent. Occur in protocol for the slaughter of animals for human con- damp terrestrial habitats worldwide. Some are plant- sumption; stunning is not used in kosher or halal eating pests. slaughter. Small round structured viruses Viruses within Slaughter by-products Alternative term for offal. the Caliciviridae family of viruses (e.g. Norwalk vi- Slaughterhouses Places where the slaughter of ruses) which have well-defined surface structures. animals takes place in a hygienic fashion, and where Responsible for viral gastroenteritis transmitted by carcasses are prepared for retail to consumers. The the faecal-oral route via contaminated foods (e.g. term includes abattoirs and butcheries. Usually, shellfish) or water. carcasses are examined at slaughterhouses by qualified 390 Small round viruses Snails Small round viruses Viruses with smooth edges smoking. In hot smoking, the process is conducted at a and no discernible surface structures. Responsible for high temperature (50-80°C) and lasts 6-12 hours, the viral gastroenteritis transmitted by the faecal-oral time depending mainly on the size of the fish and route via contaminated foods (e.g. shellfish) or water. strength of flavour desired. Cold smoking is per- Smear cheese Cheese in which the rind is washed formed at a much lower temperature (up to 30°C) and at intervals with water or brines to inhibit the growth may take several weeks to complete. Smoked salmon of unwanted yeasts and fungi. is usually eaten thinly sliced and cold, often in salads Smell Alternative term for aroma. and sandwiches, although it can be used as an ingredient in many dishes, hot or cold. Smen Flavouring made from clarified butter, dried herbs and salt. Aged in earthenware pots until it ac- Smoked trout Trout which has been cooked by smoking fish quires a consistency and aroma similar to Roque- . The are most commonly hot smoked, fort cheese. Used in Moroccan dishes. whole or filleted, at a temperature of 50 to 80°C. Can be eaten cold in salads, made into pates and Smetana Sour cream product popular in Eastern mousses, or used as an ingredient of soups and other Europe. Used as a drink or as toppings for many hot or cold dishes. dishes. Also known as smatana. Smoke flavourings Flavourings produced by con- Smoke Substance obtained by burning certain types of tact of a liquid, usually water or oils, with smoke pro- wood, such as hickory, maple, or ash, that is used in duced by burning of wood, e.g. hickory, oak or maple. the process of preserving or flavouring of foods, in- Smokehouses Sheds or rooms where smoking of cluding meat and fish. foods, such as fish or meat, is performed. Smoke concentrates Concentrated smoke fla- Smoking Curing or preservation, especially of vourings produced by removal of the liquid base in meat or fish, by exposure to smoke produced by the which wood smoke flavour compounds are dis- burning of certain types of wood, such as hickory, ma- solved. ple or ash. Foods can be cold smoked or hot smoked. Smoked fish Fish which has been processed by Hot smoking partially or totally cooks foods. smoking. Whole gutted or ungutted fish or fish fil- Smoothies Thick and smooth textured beverages lets are smoked at high or low temperature, sometimes made by blending fruits with yoghurt, milk, ice, ice after brining, using smoke produced from various cream or frozen yoghurt. types of wood. The kind of wood used affects the flavour and colour of the product. Cold smoking is usu- Smoothness Sensory properties relating to the ally performed at a temperature not exceeding 30°C. extent to which a product has a smooth consistency, Hot smoking is carried out at a temperature sufficient i.e. is perceived to be uniform and regular. to cause thermal denaturation of the proteins, usu- Sn Chemical symbol for tin. ally between 50 and 80°C. Common types of smoked Snack foods Sweet or savoury foods eaten to provide fish include smoked salmon, smoked trout, light sustenance in a quick and convenient format. smoked mackerel, smoked eels, smoked haddock Eaten between or as an alternative to main meals. and kippers. Some types are mainly eaten cold, while Popular types include sandwiches, cereal bars and others, especially smoked haddock and kippers, are potato crisps. Also known as snacks. usually eaten hot. Snacks Alternative term for snack foods. Smoked foods Foods preserved and flavoured by Snail meat Meat from snails. The edible portion of treating with smoke, e.g. kippers, yellow fish and snails accounts for <50% of live weight. Snail meat smoked meats. In traditional methods, foods are placed provides a valuable source of dietary protein; for ex- directly in the smoke. Other methods use smoke fla- ample, snail meat from giant African land snails vourings or liquid smoke, which are applied to the (Achatina achatina and Archachatina marginata) typi- food. Sensory properties of smoked foods are af- cally has a protein content >70%. Proteins from snail fected by the type of smoke and smoking method meat include all essential amino acids, but the amino used. acids tend to be present in lower quantities than in Smoked mackerel Mackerel which has been mammal meat; snail meat also contains considerable cooked by smoking. Fish can be smoked whole and quantities of other nitrogenous compounds. Biological gutted, or as fillets, by hot smoking at a temperature value of snail proteins is similar to that of soy pro- between 50 and 80°C or cold smoking at up to 30°C. teins. Snail meat has a high content of polyunsatu- Usually eaten cold in salads or made into pates. rated fatty acids (PUFA). Smoked salmon Salmon which has been smoked Snails A large group of creeping terrestrial and aquatic by one of two methods, i.e. hot smoking or cold gastropod molluscs; some are herbivorous whilst 391 Snake fish Sodium bicarbonate others are carnivorous. Several species of land snails Soapiness One of the sensory properties; relating and marine snails are harvested from the wild or to the extent to which a product tastes soapy. farmed as a source of snail meat. Socioeconomic factors Social and economic char- Snake fish Marine fish species (Trachinocephalus acteristics of an individual or population within a so- myops) belonging to the family Synodontidae (lizard- cial structure, including income, education and occupa- fish) and of minor commercial importance. Distrib- tion. These factors can have a major impact on nutri- uted worldwide in tropical and warm temperate waters. tional status, health and development of various Snakehead Name given to a number of freshwater diseases due to differences in health and nutrition fish species from the genus Channa; occur in lakes knowledge, available resources and diet between so- and ponds across South East Asia. Have elongated, cy- cioeconomic groups. lindrical bodies. Some species are utilized as food fish, Socioeconomic groups Groups of individuals that including C. micropeltes (giant snakehead) and C. stri- are categorized according to their social or economic ata (murrel). Flesh tends to be firm and white with status. very few bones. Marketed fresh, also used to make Sockeye salmon Pacific salmon species (On- fish pastes and soups. corhynchus nerka) found in coastal waters and rivers Snakes Predatory reptiles belonging to the suborder along the Pacific coasts of North America and Japan. Ophidia; there are many species. Snake meat resem- Flesh is highly prized for flavour and texture. Most bles chicken meat, but is chewier and has many of the catch is canned; also marketed as a smoked or small bones. It forms a part of diets in countries includ- salted product. Also known as red salmon. ing Cameroon, China and Papua New Guinea. In Ko- Soda bread Simple type of bread leavened with rea, snakes are used to produce snake wines, includ- sodium bicarbonate and acid instead of yeasts. ing salmo-sa, dok-sa and nung-sa. Often enriched with whey or buttermilk. Snap beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus Soda water Water carbonated so that it is effervescent vulgaris). when dispensed. Snapper Any of a number of marine fish within the family Lutjanidae; widely distributed across the Atlan- Sodium Soft, silvery, highly reactive alkali metal with tic and Pacific Oceans. Commercially important spe- the chemical symbol Na, most commonly found in the cies include Lutjanus campechanus (red snapper), L. form of salt (NaCl). An essential nutrient in the diet, analis (mutton snapper), Apsilus dentatus (black snap- albeit in moderate quantities; excess intake may result per) and Ocyurus chrysurus (yellowtail snapper). Flesh in high blood pressure (hypertension). tends to be lean and firm. Normally marketed fresh. Sodium acetate Sodium salt of acetic acid. Anhy- Snezhok Trade name for Russian fermented milk drous and trihydrate forms of this salt are both used as beverages, which are sometimes flavoured with fruit food additives. The anhydrous salt is hygroscopic syrups. and both forms are highly soluble in water. Uses in foods include as part of pH buffering systems, fla- SNF Abbreviation for solids not fat. vourings and preservatives. Snoek Alternative term for pike, used in the Nether- lands. Sodium ascorbate Sodium salt of ascorbic acid (vitamin C). In addition to being a source of vitamin Snow crabs Marine crabs of the genus Chionoecetes C for fortification of foods, this salt has food industry that occur in cool waters of the north Pacific and uses in antioxidants and preservatives. It is also northeast Atlantic Oceans. The most important species used in curing of meat. commercially is C. opilio (Atlantic snow crabs). Only male crabs have commercial value. Marketed in a vari- Sodium bicarbonate Monosodium salt of carbonic ety of forms, including fresh cooked whole crab, acid prepared by reaction of sodium carbonate with cooked leg meat, canned meat and pastes. carbon dioxide and water. In aqueous solution, the bicarbonate tends to decompose, releasing CO . Due to Snow peas Type of peas (Pisum sativum) in which 2 this property, sodium bicarbonate is used in raising the entire pod is eaten with the seeds inside. The pods agents for bakery products, as an ingredient of are flat and crisp, while the seeds are small and appear baking powders, and in the manufacture of car- immature. Can be eaten raw or cooked (often stir bonated beverages. Baking powders contain so- fried). A common ingredient of Chinese dishes. Also dium bicarbonate and tartaric acid, reaction between known as mangetout peas. which increases CO production. Aqueous bicarbonate SO Chemical symbol for sulfur dioxide. 2 2 solutions are slightly alkaline; solution pH increases Soaking Process by which an item is made thoroughly with agitation, time and increasing temperature due to wet by immersion in a liquid. loss of CO2 from the solution. This salt is therefore 392 Sodium caseinate Solar driers also used as an alkali and as part of pH buffering sys- soft cheese containing at least 20% butterfat. Can be tems in foods. Also known as sodium hydrogen car- ripened, e.g. Camembert cheese, or unripened bonate and baking soda. (fresh), e.g. cottage cheese, cream cheese, Sodium caseinate Sodium salt of casein. Used in a fromage frais, quarg. wide range of foods as a source of protein or to en- Soft drinks Non-alcoholic beverages, commonly hance functional properties such as water bind- carbonated beverages, often with fruit or cola fla- ing capacity, emulsifying capacity, whitening vours. ability and whipping capacity. Softeners Additives that increase softness of Sodium chloride Chemical name for salt. Chemical foods. Examples include glycerides, which are added formula is NaCl. to bakery products as crumb softeners and to Sodium cyclamate One of the cyclamates, artifi- chewing gums to improve texture. Also used to cial sweeteners with approximately 30 times the describe chelating agents that remove ions, e.g. cal- sweetness of sucrose. White crystalline solid, highly cium or magnesium ions, from water. soluble in water and stable at baking temperatures. It Softening Process whereby products such as fruits has a pleasant flavour profile and thus is often used in and vegetables lose their rigidity and firmness, combination with saccharin, a molecule that is often during ripening or ageing. sweeter than sodium cyclamate, but which produces a Soft frozen beverages Frozen beverages which bitter aftertaste. Also known as sodium cyclohexyl- are served in a partially frozen or slush state. sulfamate and sucaryl sodium. Sodium diacetate Compound with GRAS status Softness One of the sensory properties; relating for use as one of the food preservatives, e.g. as an to the extent to which a product is firm in texture. antifungal agent in bakery products and as an in- Soft pet foods Soft-moist pet foods, usually with a hibitor of Listeria monocytogenes in meat and sea moisture content of 30 to 35%. Texture closer to foods. In solution it converts to sodium acetate that of meat than that of dried pet foods. Cats and and acetic acid, leading to applications as flavour dogs often find them more palatable than dried pet enhancers in various products, including snack foods. Usually packaged in air-tight pouches for foods, sauces, coatings and ketchups. Also storage at ambient temperature. May contain pre- known as imitation dry vinegar. servatives and other pet food additives, such as Sodium hydroxide Highly caustic alkali, chemical humectants. formula NaOH. Soils Earth in which plants are grown. Growth rates Sodium lactate Sodium salt of lactic acid. Hygro- of plants, and yield and quality of their produce, in- scopic, soluble in water and alcohol and odourless, but cluding fruits and vegetables, are influenced by the with a slight salty flavour. Used in additives includ- composition of the soils in which they are grown. ing preservatives, emulsifiers, flavour enhan- Solanidine Alkaloid present in the sprouts and skin of cers, humectants, and as part of pH buffering sys- green potatoes (potatoes exposed to light). Formed tems. Also known as 2-hydroxypropanoic acid mono- by hydrolysis of solanine. Toxic to humans and not sodium salt and lacolin. destroyed by cooking. Sodium metabisulfite Disodium salt of disulfurous Solanine Alkaloid present in all green parts of the acid that forms acidic aqueous solutions. Used pre- potato plant, including potatoes that have been ex- dominantly in preservatives, but also in antioxi- posed to light. Inhibitor of cholinesterases. Poison- dants, flavourings and bleaching agents. Also ing causes gastrointestinal and neurological disorders. called (di)sodium pyrosulfite. Solanine is not destroyed by cooking. Sodium metabisulphite Alternative spelling of so- Solanum Genus of plants which includes many spe- dium metabisulfite. cies that produce commercially important fruits. These Sodium pyrosulfite Alternative term for sodium include aubergines, potatoes, naranjilla and metabisulfite. pepino. Sodium tripolyphosphate Phosphate often used to Solar driers Equipment used to carry out solar dry- improve the physicochemical properties, and in- ing, a process that depends on the sun as the source of crease the quality and shelf life of meat products. energy. There are two types of solar driers: direct and Soft cheese Cheese with a creamy, smooth texture indirect. In direct solar driers, air is heated in the dry- made from milk with a relatively low dry matter ing chamber, which acts as both the solar collector and content and range of fat contents, skim milk soft the drier. An indirect drier comprises two parts: a solar cheese having a butterfat content of <2% and full-fat collector and a separate drying chamber. 393 Solar drying Somatotropin Solar drying Drying method that depends on the sun Solubility Extent to which one substance dissolves in as the source of energy, but which also involves the another. Normal solubility records the maximum mass use of some sort of structure to collect and enhance the of a solid that can be dissolved in a specified mass of solar heat. Solar drying generates higher air tempera- water to form a saturated solution, and is measured in tures and lower humidities than those produced by sun kilograms per metre cubed. When solubility is ex- drying, resulting in faster product drying rates and ceeded, excess solid appears as a precipitate. Solubility lower final moisture contents. is temperature-dependent. Generally, for a solid in a Solar energy Radiant energy emitted by the sun that liquid, solubility increases with temperature; for a gas, is captured and used during solar drying processes or solubility decreases with temperature. converted into electrical energy. Solubilization Process by which a substance is made Solar radiation Radiation emitted by the sun, made soluble or more soluble, especially in water. up of an extensive range of wavelengths of the spec- Soluble fibre A water soluble dietary fibre fer- trum. mented in the first part of the large bowel. Slows down Sole Any of a number of marine and estuarine flatfish the digestion of carbohydrates, resulting in better species in the family Soleidae; worldwide distribution. glucose metabolism. Found in varying quantities in all Tend to have lean white or off-white flesh with fine plant foods, including fruits, vegetables, leg- texture and mild flavour. Commercially important umes and cereals. Can help lower LDL choles- species include Solea solea (common sole), Buglos- terol levels in the blood, so lowering the risk of sidium luteum (yellow sole) and Microchirus variega- coronary heart diseases. tus (eyed sole). Marketed fresh and frozen. Soluble solids Particles that can be dissolved in flu- Solidification Process by which an item becomes hard ids, especially water. or solid; for example by freezing, cooling, drying or crystallization. Solvents Liquids or gases that dissolve other substances to form solutions. Polar solvents (e.g. water Solid phase extraction Extraction technique for and liquid ammonia) dissolve ionic compounds or preparation of samples prior to analysis, developed as covalent compounds that ionize. Nonpolar solvents an alternative to liquid-liquid extraction. Samples are (e.g. ethoxyethane and benzene) do not dissolve ionic dissolved in solvent and passed through a bed of ad- compounds, but will dissolve nonpolar covalent com- sorbent to effect separation of components of interest. pounds. Solvents used commonly within the food in- Compounds are eluted with small volumes of solvent. dustry include carbon dioxide, hexane, water and Solid phase microextraction Type of solid ethanol. phase extraction in which samples are adsorbed Somatic cells Animal cells that are not involved in onto a fused silica fibre coated with a stationary phase. reproduction. In milk, most of the somatic cells are The fibre is then inserted into a GC injector, where the white blood cells (leukocytes) that cross into milk sample is desorbed and analysed. from the bloodstream to destroy bacteria. The level Solids Particles whose shape and volume are fixed and of somatic cells in milk is an indicator of udder health, are not affected by the space available to them, and increasing in cases of infection, e.g. mastitis. which have a tendency to resist forces that would alter their shape. Somatic cells counts Microbiological techniques estimating the numbers of somatic cells in Solids not fat The solids content of milk excluding given samples. Used as an indicator of the quality of the fats content, i.e. the contents of proteins, lac- milk. tose and salts. Used as an index of milk quality. Commonly abbreviated to SNF. Milk contains on av- Somatotrophin Alternative term for somatotropin. erage 8.6% SNF. Somatotropin Alternative term for growth hormone, Solid state fermentation Fermentation of mi- a substance produced by the anterior lobe of the pitui- croorganisms on a solid support of low moisture tary gland which stimulates the synthesis of proteins, content under non-septic conditions. Energy require- mobilizes reserves of fats and increases blood glucose ments are low but the process can yield high product levels. Recombinant bovine somatotropin may be ad- concentrations. In addition, downstream process- ministered to cattle to modify milk production, growth ing is facilitated. A variety of agricultural residues rate, or composition of cattle carcasses or beef. This (e.g. wheat straw, rice hulls and corn cobs) have been application is permitted in some countries but prohib- used as supports for production of enzymes and sec- ited in others due to concerns about the safety of food ondary metabolites. products. 394 Somen Souffles Somen Thin, white Japanese noodles made from conventional Western-style beer may be brewed with wheat flour and sometimes egg yolks. Often served sorghum. chilled, as well as in soups. Sorghum flour A type of flour produced by milling Sonication Process of disrupting biological materials or grinding of sorghum grains. After hull removal, such as bacteria, plants or foods using high- the remaining fraction, containing endosperm and frequency sound waves. Used widely in preparation germ, is ground to produce flours of various particle and extraction of samples prior to analysis. sizes. Does not contain gluten and consequently is not Sorbates Salts of sorbic acid. Sorbates, including suitable for making yeast bread. Can be substituted sodium, potassium and calcium sorbates, are used as for wheat flour in a variety of bakery products. preservatives for foods, particularly cheese, and Used in India to make chapattis. Nutritionally similar beverages, including wines. to corn flour but has a higher concentration of protein. Sorbestrin Thermally stable preparation formed from Sorghum malt Malt prepared from red sorghum fatty acid esters of sorbitol and sorbitol anhy- varieties, which has high diastatic activity. Usually drides. Used as a substitute for vegetable oils in ap- rich in Į-amylases. Used in brewing, weaning plications such as frying oils, salad dressings and foods and breakfast cereals. mayonnaise. Sorghum starch A type of starch produced from Sorbets Water ices made from water, sugar and sorghum by a wet milling process similar to that sometimes eggs, flavoured with fruit purees or used for corn starch. Digestibility can be increased fruit juices and sometimes alcoholic beverages by processing the grain by methods such as steam- (e.g. champagne). Frequently served between ing, flaking, puffing or micronization. courses of meals to act as a refresher. Sorgo Synonym for the sugar crop, sweet sorghum. Sorbic acid Organic acid, solutions of which exhibit Sorption A term that encompasses the various proc- antimicrobial activity. The free acid and it salts esses by which one substance binds to another, espe- (sorbates) are used as food preservatives. Sorbic cially the processes of absorption and adsorption. acid also has uses in acidulants and flavourings. Sorrel Common name for Rumex acetosa, the leaves of Systematic name is 2,4-hexadienoic acid. which are used as vegetables and spices in soups, Sorbitan Emulsifier formed via cyclization of sorbi- salads and sauces. Sorrel has a sharp, astringent tol. Many sorbitan-based food emulsifiers are avail- flavour, similar to that of rhubarb, due to a high able commercially. Most are sorbitan esters of fatty content of oxalic acid. acids, such as sorbitan oleate and sorbitan stearate. Sorting Systematic arrangement of items in groups or Sorbitol Sugar alcohol (polyol) produced by reduction grades. of glucose or fructose. Occurs naturally and has Sotolon One of the furanones, and one of the major approximately 0.5u the sweetness of sucrose. Di- aroma compounds in maple syrups, molasses, gestion of sorbitol yields fructose, making it suitable brown sugar and old port wine. Also found in sev- for use as a sweetener for diabetic foods. Also eral other foods, including fenugreek, celery, hon- known as glucitol. eys and citrus essential oils. Levels increase in Sorbitol dehydrogenases Alternative term for L- wines during ageing. Used in flavourings for im- iditol 2-dehydrogenases. parting caramel and maple syrup notes. Can pass Sorbose Monosaccharide of 6 C atoms (hexoses) through the body unchanged and can impart a maple that is also one of the ketoses. L-Sorbose is an inter- syrup aroma to urine and sweat if consumed in large mediate in the synthesis of ascorbic acid. quantities. Soudjouk Spicy fermented sausages popular in Sorghum Grain produced by cereal plants belonging Turkey. Ingredients include beef mince, tallow, to the species Sorghum vulgare and S. bicolor. Seeds seasonings and spices. Eaten cooked or uncooked. are dark brown/red or white/yellow. Dark seeds have a Many alternative spellings, including soujouk, soudjut high content of tannins, which decrease palatability and soudjouck. and protein digestibility. White/yellow seeds are thus preferred for food applications, which include por- Souffles Light spongy egg products which may be ridges, bread and beer. Also a source of starch flavoured with sweet or savoury ingredients such as and syrups. jams or cheese. Usually made by incorporating beaten egg whites into sauces containing egg Sorghum beer Beer brewed with sorghum as the yolks, flavourings, flour and butter, and cooking main source of fermentable carbohydrates. Most the mixture. sorghum beers are traditional African beer types, but 395 Soup mixes Soybeans Soup mixes Mixes, usually powdered, that are re- and has a flavour reminiscent of pineapples and combined, typically with water, to form soups. mangoes. Pulp is used in making beverages, such Soups Liquid foods typically made from stocks to as fruit juices, and products such as sherbet and which are added various vegetables and sometimes ce- custards. Also known as guanabana. reals, pasta, meat or fish. The term covers many types Sous vide Food processing and packaging tech- of product, including: clear, e.g. consommes; creamy, nique in which fresh ingredients are combined into with all ingredients liquidized and often with cream specific dishes or meals, vacuum packaged in indi- added, e.g. cream of chicken; or thick, with chunks of vidual portion pouches, cooked under vacuum and then ingredients floating in the clear liquid base, e.g. chilled. broths. Soups are generally eaten hot, but some types, Sous vide foods Vacuum-sealed pouches of chilled e.g. vichyssoise, are usually consumed chilled. Other foods preserved by the sous vide process. Foods popular types include borshch, bouillabaisse and preserved in this manner undergo minimal heat proc- minestrone. Some types are also available as soup essing and thus have improved shelf life compared mixes or instant soups. with non-vacuum cook chill methods. Improved eating Sour cherries Cherries produced by Prunus cera- quality benefits have also been reported. Foods com- sus. Suitable for cooking, they are commonly incor- monly processed in this way include fruits in syrups porated into pies and jams. Also used in manufacture and some meals used in catering. of fruit juices and liqueurs such as kirsch. Avail- Sous vide meals Individual meal portions preserved able canned, frozen and dried. Include morello cher- in vacuum-sealed pouches by the sous vide process. ries and amarelle cherries. Southern blotting Method for detecting specific Sour cream Commercial product made by fermenta- DNA fragments. DNA is digested with restriction tion of homogenized pasteurized cream with lactic endonucleases, separated by gel electrophore- acid bacteria. Used in cooking and as a component sis, denatured and transferred to a chemically reactive of dips. Also known as soured cream and ripened matrix (e.g. nitrocellulose or nylon), on which the cream. DNA fragments bind covalently in a pattern identical Sourdough Dough which has either been fermented to that on the original gel. After blotting, target mole- by microorganisms naturally present in flour cules are detected through the use of labelled comple- and/or other ingredients, or by added microbial cul- mentary single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules. tures, e.g. lactic acid bacteria. Fermentation of Southern peas Type of cowpeas (Vigna unguicu- the dough produces organic acids, which impart a lata). desirable sour flavour to the dough. Used to make Sovetskii cheese Hard cheese manufactured in the sourdough bread. Altal region of the former USSR. Sourdough bread Bread prepared from sour- Sowing Scattering of plant seeds on or in soils. dough, a dough containing a symbiotic culture of lac- Sowing date and rate can affect subsequent plant tobacilli and yeasts used to leaven and flavour the growth, as well as yield and quality of produce. bread. The sour flavour is mainly due to the presence Sows Adult female swine that have produced their of lactic acid and acetic acid which are produced first litter of piglets. by the lactobacilli. Pumpernickel is a type of sour- Soyabeans Alternative term for soybeans. dough bread from Germany. Soybean lecithins Alternative term for soy leci- Sour milk Milk that has become rancid due to break- thins. down of fats or a fermented milk. The latter is pro- Soybean oils Oils extracted from seeds of Glycine duced by fermentation of milk (of various species) max (soybeans). Contain palmitic acid, oleic by lactic acid bacteria (starters). During fermen- acid, linoleic acid and linolenic acid. Used as tation, lactose is converted into lactic acid, aroma salad oils or cooking oils, as well as in marga- compounds are formed and milk proteins are rines and shortenings. By-products obtained during partly decomposed to peptides and free amino ac- processing include lecithins, tocopherols and phy- ids, improving digestibility of the milk. tosterols. Also known as soy oils. Sourness One of the sensory properties; relating Soybeans Seeds produced by the legume Glycine to the extent to which a product tastes sour, i.e. tart, max. Rich in high quality soy proteins, unsaturated bitter or sharp. soybean oils, B vitamins and minerals. Eaten Soursop Fruits produced by Annona muricata. whole or split, or germinated to produce bean Closely related to sugar apples and custard ap- sprouts. Numerous soy products are made from the ples. The white flesh is embedded with black seeds seeds, including soymilk, cheese-like products 396 Soybean sprouts Soy 11S globulins (tofu, tempeh, miso) and meat substitutes (soy Soy lecithins Lecithins extracted from soybeans meal, soy protein concentrates, soy protein iso- and used as emulsifiers in foods. Also called soy lates). Soybean plants tolerant of specific herbicides lecithins. were the first genetically modified crops to be pro- Soy meal Flour made by grinding roasted, dehulled duced on a large scale. soybeans. Full fat soy meal is made from soybeans Soybean sprouts Legume sprouts produced by that still contain oil. Defatted soy meal is made using germination of soybeans. Rich in proteins, vi- soybeans from which soybean oils have been ex- tamins and minerals. Widely used in Asian dishes tracted. Good source of soy proteins, iron, cal- such as egg rolls and stir fried meals. Also used in cium, B vitamins and fibre. Used in baking and in soups, casseroles, sauces, bakery products, thickeners for sauces. and raw in salads. Dried sprouts can be eaten as Soymilk Product prepared by cooking dehulled, snack foods or used as a substitute for nuts in bak- ground soybeans in water and filtering of the solid ery products or dishes. matter (okara). Rich in B vitamins, protein and iron. Used similarly to milk as a beverage, as the basis of Soy beverages Beverages derived predominantly soy products such as soy yoghurt, soy ice cream from soybeans or their products. Include soymilk. and soy cheese, and in cooking and baking. Soy cheese Creamy product made from soymilk. Available in regular, low-fat and flavoured forms or as Used as a replacement for cheese or sour cream. a powder. Soy curd Product made from soymilk, by coagula- Soy oils Alternative term for soybean oils. tion, draining and pressing in a manner similar to Soy pastes Fermented products prepared from that used in cheesemaking. Rich in protein. Avail- cooked soybeans. Include Japanese miso and Ko- able packaged in water, vacuum packaged or frozen. rean doenjang. Used mainly as seasonings. Used in a variety of dishes, including soups, casse- Soy products Foods made using soybeans as the roles and sauces. Also called tofu. main ingredient. Many traditional Asian dishes include Soy flour Alternative term for soy meal. fermented soy products such as natto, miso or tofu. Soy products are also used as substitutes for meat or Soy globulins The major storage proteins of dairy products. soybeans. Made up of four protein fractions, classi- Soy protein concentrates Protein concentrates fied according to their sedimentation properties. The made by extracting sugars from defatted soy flakes, 2S, 7S, 11S and 15S fractions comprise 8, 35, 52 and leaving proteins and fibre. Used to make meat 5% of the total protein content, respectively. The prin- substitutes and in a variety of products, such as ce- cipal proteins, glycinin (11S) and ȕ-conglycinin real products, bakery products, beverages and (7S), display differing physicochemical proper- gravy. ties. Nutritional, physicochemical and functional properties of these proteins can be modified by Soy proteins Storage proteins found in soy- physical, chemical and enzymic treatments, including beans. Nutritional and health-promoting properties, heating, pH adjustment, hydrolysis and covalent at- combined with functional properties make them tachment of other constituents. Glycinin and ȕ- useful and widely-used ingredients in food processing. conglycinin have been identified as allergens. How- Soy purees Preparations made by mashing or ever, there is increasing evidence that consumption of blending cooked soybeans. Used in infant foods soy proteins lowers blood cholesterol levels and and beverages. may provide other cardiovascular benefits. Soy sauces Sauces produced by fermentation of Soy glycinin One of the main soy proteins. An 11S a soybean mash prepared by grinding soybeans with storage protein that, along with ȕ-conglycinin (7S water. A fungus, often Aspergillus oryzae, is added globulin), makes up approximately 70% of storage to the soybean mash to initiate fermentation. Duration proteins in soybeans. of the fermentation process and addition of other ingredients influences sensory properties of the Soy ice cream Frozen dessert made from soymilk sauces. Soy sauces fermented for a shorter period have and used as a substitute for conventional ice cream. a less rich flavour than those fermented for a longer Soy infant formulas Products made by mixing soy period. Addition of molasses produces richer, darker protein isolates with fats and carbohydrates to give soy sauces, while inclusion of wheat in the fermenta- a composition similar to that of human milk. Used tion produces lighter products. mainly to feed infants who are allergic to cow milk or Soy 11S globulins One of the two major types of suffer from lactose intolerance. soy proteins (the other group are the 7S globulins) 397 Soy 7S globulins Spectra that together make up approximately 70% of the total stance (solid or liquid) to transport an electric charge. storage proteins in soybeans. Conductivity values change substantially as tempera- Soy 7S globulins One of the two major types of soy ture changes. This can affect attempts to compare con- proteins (the other group are the 11S globulins) that ductivity values across different samples or seasons, together make up approximately 70% of the total particularly with respect to water analysis. Use of spe- storage proteins in soybeans. Trimeric glyco- cific conductivity eliminates this complication. Spe- proteins comprising Į, Dc and ȕ subunits, which to- cific conductivity is the reciprocal of the specific resis- gether form conglycinin. Responsible for softness tance of the sample measured between two electrodes 2 and adhesion properties of soy products. 1 cm in area and spaced 1 cm apart. The resistance is Soy yoghurt Creamy product made from soymilk. corrected to the resistance at 25qC. Units are ȝSiemens Used as a substitute for cream cheese or sour per centimetre. cream. Specific gravity Ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference material. For a liquid or Space flight foods Meals designed for consumption solid, specific gravity is the ratio of its density (usually in the confined microgravity environment encountered at 20°C) to the density of water (at its temperature of on space flight programmes. Originally bite-sized maximum density (4°C)). Synonymous with relative cubes or squeezed from a tube, space flight foods have density. Abbreviated to sp. gr. now evolved into more appetizing meals that can incorporate frozen, refrigerated and ambient foods. A Specific heat Heat capacity of a substance per unit typical meal tray could include a foil beverage pouch, mass. The amount of energy required to raise the tem- and individual servings of lightweight easily rehy- perature of unit mass of an object by a unit increment drated foods, intermediate moisture foods and in temperature (measured in Joules per Kelvin per thermostabilized, aseptic fill, natural form foods. Early kilogram). research into providing assurance against microbial Specific rotation Optical properties relating to the contamination in space led to development of the rotation that a beam of light of a given wavelength un- HACCP concept. dergoes, relative to its plane of polarization, as it Spaghetti Pasta in the form of long strands approxi- passes through a solution of a given density, path mately 2 mm in diameter. length, concentration and temperature. Speck Cured, smoked meat products, made primarily Spanish mackerel Alternative term for chub of pork and traditionally produced in the Alpine re- mackerel. gion of Italy. Production includes trimming, dry cur- Sparkling winemaking Processes involved in manu- ing and massaging, smoking and drying of pork. facture of sparkling wines such as cavas and Periodic surface treatment of the meat with a mixture champagne. of spices results in formation of an outer crust, which Sparkling wines Wines which contain sufficient helps to prevent bacterial contamination. dissolved carbon dioxide to result in effervescence Spectinomycin Broad-spectrum aminocyclitol anti- when the bottle is opened. The high carbon dioxide biotic produced by Streptomyces spectabilis. Used content may be achieved by secondary fermentation in the treatment of a variety of enteric, respiratory and (in the bottle or in a tank) or by carbonation. other infections in farm animals. Exhibits low toxicity Spearmint Common name for Mentha spicata, the and is normally excreted rapidly from animal tissues. leaves of which are used as spices. Has a sweet, Also known as actinospectacin. minty (fresh and cool) flavour due predominantly to Spectra Pattern of properties arranged in order of the flavour compound L-carvone. Essential oils increasing or decreasing magnitude. In analytical ap- distilled from spearmint are also used as flavourings, plications, the property measured varies according to particularly for chewing gums. the analytical technique being employed. In mass spec- Species identification Recognition of the animal troscopy, a mass spectrum with a range of masses is source of products containing meat, fish or milk. produced. An emission spectrum represents the range Used to detect adulteration or establish authentic- of radiations emitted when a substance is heated, bom- ity. Methods used to identify the species of origin in- barded by electrons or ions, or absorbs photons. An clude electrophoresis, isoelectric focusing and absorption spectrum shows the energies absorbed from genetic techniques. Can also refer to determination a continuous spectrum of radiation by an absorbing of microbial and plant species. medium. Spectra produced by an unknown substance Specific conductivity Electrical conductivity can be compared with those of a standard to give in- values that have been normalized to 25qC. Electrical formation about the composition of the sample. conductivity is the measure of the ability of a sub- 398 Spectrofluorometry Spiny lobsters Spectrofluorometry Spectroscopy technique in Spices Aromatic plants or parts of plants, e.g. roots, which the intensity of fluorescence of a sample is leaves or seeds, in various forms (native, dried, measured as a function of wavelength. A pair of ground, whole) used primarily for their flavour rather monochromators is used, one of which selects the exci- than for any nutritional benefit. tation wavelength and the other the emission wave- Spina bifida Specific type of neural tube defect (also length. known as rachischisis), present at birth, in which the Spectrometry Alternative term for spectroscopy. backbone fails to fuse properly, leaving the spinal cord Spectrophotofluorometry Alternative term for and its coverings exposed. The defect commonly oc- spectrofluorometry. curs in the lower spine. Recent evidence suggests that Spectrophotometry Alternative term for spectros- the risk of spina bifida is reduced if extra folic acid is copy. included in the diet of women in the first three months Spectroscopy Series of techniques in which absorp- of pregnancy. tion or emission of radiant energy of various wave- Spinach Common name for Spinacea oleracea. lengths is used to measure chemical concentrations or Leaves are eaten raw or boiled, or as ingredients of structures. Includes atomic emission, atomic absorp- soups, pasta and dishes such as souffles and tion, IR spectroscopy and mass spectroscopy. quiches. Rich in nutrients, including proteins, fibre -carotene iron vitamin C vitamin E Spelt Coarse, hardy type of wheat (Triticum spelta) , ȕ , , , and vitamin B group cultivated predominantly in Europe. Unripe grains are the . used in soups. Also known as spelt wheat. Spinal cord tissues Tissues associated with the part Spelt wheat Alternative term for spelt. of the central nervous system in vertebrates which is lodged in the vertebral canal and from which spinal Spermidine Polybasic amine present almost univer- nerves emerge. Due to concerns about a possible link sally in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Affects the between variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) structure of nucleic acids and the activity of en- in humans and bovine spongiform encephalopa- zymes, and may play a role in the synthesis of pro- thy (BSE) in cattle, controls are in place in abattoirs teins in bacteria. Also required for the replication of and slaughterhouses to exclude BSE risk materials, at least some bacteriophages. This biogenic amine such as spinal cord tissues and other central nervous is found in many foods, where it may contribute to system tissues, from the human food chain. Meas- toxicity and spoilage. ures include processing of carcasses without split- Spermine Polybasic amine present almost universally ting the spine or removal of spinal cord tissues prior to in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. This biogenic splitting. BSE risk materials are considered a source of amine is found in many foods, where it may contribute BSE prions, consumption of which could potentially to toxicity and spoilage. Has been shown to act syn- result in the development of CJD. In addition, tech- ergistically with tocopherols in inhibiting the oxida- niques have been developed to screen meat and meat tion of polyunsaturated oils. products for the presence of spinal cord tissues. sp. gr. Abbreviation for specific gravity. Spinning Texturization process usually applied to Sphingolipids Lipids derived from the amino alco- protein isolates. For example, biodegradable films hol sphingosine. Include sphingomyelin, cere- can be prepared by spinning soy protein isolates in a brosides and GM gangliosides. Thought to have a coagulating buffer, and wet spinning methods can be number of beneficial effects on health, including anti- used to produce edible protein fibres from a variety of tumour activity, and are therefore potentially useful materials, such as soy proteins, casein and blood as components of functional foods. Good sources plasma proteins. The term can also be used to describe include dairy products, meat, eggs and soy- the process used in the manufacture of cotton candy. beans. Chocolate can be spun moulded. Sphingomonas Genus of Gram negative, aerobic Spinosad Selective insecticide used to control a vari- rod-shaped bacteria of the family Sphingomonada- ety of insects, including fruit flies, thrips, leaf ceae. Sphingomonas paucimobilis is used in the pro- miners and certain beetles in crops, including fruits duction of gellan gums. and vegetables. Effective at low usage rates and of Sphingomyelin Sphingolipid in which the amino short residual activity. Classified by WHO as unlikely group at C-2 of sphingosine forms an amide bond with to present acute hazard in normal use. a long chain fatty acid, while the terminal (C-1) hy- Spiny lobsters Alternative term for crawfish; ma- droxyl is esterified with phosphorylcholine. Exhibits rine lobster species within the genera Palinurus and antitumour activity in animal models and may Panulirus. play a role in cholesterol metabolism. 399 Spiramycin Sports supplements Spiramycin Macrolide antibiotic produced by Strep- Fruits are eaten fresh, cooked or dried, and made into tomyces ambofaciens. Used for treatment and control jellies or beverages, such as fruit juices. Flower of a number of bacterial and mycoplasmal infections in clusters from Spondias mangifera are consumed as a animals. Distributes widely in tissues following ab- vegetable or in salads. Some species of Spondias are sorption from the gut, but is normally excreted rapidly. a source of gums suitable for food applications. Spirits Alcoholic beverages with high ethanol Sponge Dough used in breadmaking which con- contents, made by distillation of fermented mashes tains a proportion of the flour, all of the yeasts, yeast derived from fruits, cereals, root crops, sugar foods, malt and sufficient water to make a stiff dough. cane or other sources of fermentable sugars. Fats may also be added, together with a proportion of Spirulina Genus of cyanobacteria. Occur in warm salt; this controls fermentation which takes place saline environments. Some species (e.g. Spirulina plat- over 3-5 hours. ensis) are used in the production of single cell pro- Sponge cakes Light, porous cakes made using self- teins. raising flour, sugar, beaten eggs and flavourings. Spleens A part of edible offal. The spleen is the larg- Butter or oils may be added, although many sponge est lymphatic organ in the body, and has a sponge-like cakes contain no shortenings. structure. In animal carcasses, it lies in the upper left Spores Usually unicellular, dormant reproductive or abdomen, between the stomach and the diaphragm. resting bodies produced by microorganisms under Spleens of cattle, sheep and goats have been identified conditions of environmental stress (e.g. extremes of as risk materials in relation to the transmission of temperature and dehydration). Resistant to unfavour- prion diseases; consequently, in many countries able environmental conditions, and capable of germi- they are banned from the food chain. nating and developing into vegetative cells when envi- Splitting Breaking forcibly into parts. For example, ronmental conditions are favourable, without fusion the cutting of animal carcasses into left and right with another cell. sides using a saw during processing. Also relates to Sporobolomyces Genus of fungi of the order undesirable processes, such as the damage that can oc- Sporidiobolales. Common in the environment, and occur to fruits (such as tomatoes, cherries and cur on decaying plant material. Sporobolomyces roseus grapes) when their peel splits upon absorption of exis used as a biocontrol agent in the control of post- cess water, and fruit splitting, a physiological disorder harvest diseases of fruits and vegetables. of peel development in citrus fruits. Water stage fruit Sporotrichum Genus of filamentous fungi of the split is an erratic and complex problem often causing Basidiomycota phylum. Widely distributed in decaying major crop losses to susceptible cultivars of pecan wood and soil. Phanerochaete chrysosporium is the nuts. In the beverage industry, corks placed in wine teleomorph of Sporotrichum pruinosum. Many Sporo- bottles can be susceptible to splitting. Problems are trichum spp. are now classified under the Sporothrix also associated with premalting (splitting) of malting genus. S. thermophile produces a range of enzymes, barley, which is thought to be caused by alternating including phytases, xylan degrading enzymes, periods of sunny and rainy weather during ripening of pectic enzymes, cellulases and feruloyl es- the grain. Egg shells can split during boiling; this re- terases. sults from excess internal pressure in the egg, due to Sports drinks Soft drinks formulated to enhance or the egg contents having a higher coeff. of thermal ex- maintain the exercise performance of sports peo- pansion than the shell. Canned kidney beans are li- ple, or to improve their recovery after a sporting event able to split during storage, and sausage casings or training session. Generally contain ingredients such can split during cooking. as sugars and electrolytes. Spoilage Deterioration of a food by chemical, physi- Sports foods Products formulated to contain precise cal or microbial means. levels of nutrients and other ingredients intended to Spoilage bacteria Bacteria typically involved in the enhance exercise performance in athletes. spoilage of foods. Sports nutrition All aspects of nutrition that relate Spoilage fungi Fungi typically involved in the specifically to those involved in sports, such as ath- spoilage of foods. letes. A wide variety of products are available to sup- Spoilage yeasts Yeasts typically involved in the port nutritional demands during physical activity or spoilage of foods. enhance exercise performance, including sports Spondias Genus of tropical plants, some species of foods, sports drinks and sports supplements. which produce good quality fruits, including caja, Sports supplements Food supplements used to jocote, ciruela fruit, ambarella and African plums. support nutrient demands during physical activity or 400 Sporulation Squid enhance exercise performance. Can contain one or Springbok meat Meat from springboks. Spring- a variety of nutrients, including vitamins, miner- bok carcasses are commonly used to produce fresh als, herbs and amino acids. Available in different venison-type meat and biltong. forms, including sports foods, sports drinks, Springboks African gazelles (Antidorcas marsupi- powders and capsules. Commonly used by athletes. alis) which are hunted, often as part of controlled cull- Sporulation Process by which spores develop in ing programmes, for springbok meat production. microorganisms. Springiness One of the sensory properties; relat- Spouted bed processing Processing technique ing to the extent to which a product springs back for enhancing fluidization of solid particles in which quickly when squeezed, bent, pressed or stretched. the particles are mixed by the introduction of a stream Spring waters Mineral waters derived from springs of gas or liquid through the often conical lower region or similar sources. of the vessel holding them. Used in the food industry Sprouting Term synonymous with germination, for drying or coating of particulate matter such as meaning the process whereby seeds or spores begin to grain. grow. Also describes the production of sprouts in po- Sprat Small herring-like marine fish species (Sprat- tatoes and other tubers during storage. Sprouting tus sprattus) distributed across the northeastern Atlan- can be controlled by storing susceptible vegetables in tic. Marketed fresh and frozen (whole, ungutted), the dark and at low temperatures, or by the use of an- smoked, canned (headed, tailed, gutted and packed in tisprouting agents. oils or tomato sauces) and as a component of fish Sprouting inhibitors Alternative term for antis- pastes (dyed red to distinguish them from sardine prouting agents. pastes). Also known as brisling. Sprouts Young shoots of germinating seeds, which Spray dried foods Dried foods prepared by spray are often eaten as a vegetable. Commonly consumed drying slurries or liquids. Foods dried in this manner sprouts include bean sprouts, alfalfa sprouts and include milk and eggs. radish sprouts. Spray driers Equipment for manufacture of dried Squalene Phenolic compound with antioxidative foods from liquids, such as production of dried milk activity that is found in olive oils and fish oils. Has from liquid milk, by spray drying. Liquids are also been found to exhibit antitumour activity in sprayed as a fine mist into a hot-air chamber, where vitro and in animal models. they dehydrate; solids fall to the bottom of the chamber Squash Fruit juice beverages (mainly based on as dry powders. citrus fruits) containing comminuted whole fruits (including peel). Commonly retailed as concentrates Spray drying Process for manufacture of dried for dilution with water by the consumer. foods from liquids. The liquid food is generally preconcentrated by evaporation to reduce the water Squashes Fruits produced by plants of the genus content. The concentrate is then introduced as a fine Cucurbita, including C. pepo and C. maxima. Produce spray or mist into a tower or chamber with heated air. of this genus also include marrows and pumpkins. As the small droplets make intimate contact with the Summer squashes are immature fruits with a soft skin heated air, they flash off their moisture, become small that are mainly used as a table vegetable. Winter particles, drop to the bottom of the tower and are re- squashes are mature fruits used in a variety of ways, moved. The advantages of spray drying over other such as in pies and jams, as well as being eaten as types of drying include the need for only a low heat vegetables. Contain mainly water (usually at least and short time, which leads to better quality product. 90%), with small amounts of starch, sugar, fats, proteins, carotenes and B vitamins, and moderate Spraying The discharge or scattering of liquids in the amounts of vitamin C. form of small droplets. This technique may be used to Squash seeds Seeds contained in fruits (squashes) apply fertilizers to crops, to apply antimicrobial produced by plants of the genus Cucurbita. Kernels are agents, glazes or flavourings to foods, or for eaten raw or cooked, and used as a source of oils. cleaning. Squid Marine cephalopod molluscs within the family Spreadability Texture term relating to the ease with Loliginidae; worldwide distribution. Flesh is firm and which a product can be spread. chewy, with a somewhat sweet flavour. Commer- Spreads General term for preparations spread onto cially important species include Loligo vulgaris (Euro- products such as bread or crackers, sometimes in pean squid), L. pealei (longfin inshore squid), To- place of butter. May be low in fat, and either sweet or darodes pacificus (Japanese flying squid) and Ommas- savoury. trephes bartrami (flying squid). Marketed fresh and 401 Squid ika shiokara Star anise frozen (whole, ungutted; split, gutted) and as salted, Stachyose Non-reducing tetrasaccharide found in semi-preserved, dried and canned products. legumes and other plants, hydrolysis of which gives Squid ika shiokara Fermented sea foods made two molecules of galactose, and one each of glu- from flesh and viscera of squid. Brown, salty viscous cose and fructose. pastes made by fermenting the raw material with salt Staining Marking or discoloration with something for up to one month; often flavoured with sake during that is not easily removed, such as penetrative dyes, fermentation. pigments or chemicals. Stainless steel Type of steel which contains chro- Squid oils Oils derived from squid viscera. Gener- mium. Resistant to tarnishing and rusting. Widely used ally rich in docosahexaenoic acid and ei- in equipment and utensils for the food industry. cosapentaenoic acid. Staling Process by which foods cease to be fresh or Srikand Fermented milk product usually prepared pleasant to eat. For example, bread becomes dry and from buffalo milk and popular in India. Also known hardened when stale, due to changes in the structure of as shrikhand or srikhand. Traditionally, milk is fer- starch. mented with a mixed starter culture (Streptococcus lac- Standardization Process by which substances and tis and S. lactis var. diacetylactis) and chakka is pre- procedures are made uniform. In the dairy industry, the pared by draining off whey from the resultant curd. term refers to adjustment of the fat content of milk to a Other ingredients, e.g. sugar, colorants, flavour- given level. Milk from different batches is blended to ings, are then added to the chakka. the desired fat content. Used especially to ensure the Srikhand Alternative term for shrikhand or sri- uniform quality of cheese milk. kand. Standards Something used as a measure, norm or Stabilization Process of making or becoming stable. model in comparative evaluations; a benchmark or Stabilizers such as agar, alginates, carra- specification. geenans and gums are used for the stabilization of Stanol esters Fatty acid esters of plant stanols foods. (phytostanols). Commonly used in enrichment of Stabilizers Additives included in food formulations foods such as spreads, yoghurt and food bars to to prevent separation of ingredients and thus improve produce products which may have a cholesterol low- appearance and shelf life. Common uses include sta- ering action. Reduce levels of total and low density bilization of oil and water components in emulsions, lipoprotein cholesterol in blood by inhibiting absorp- e.g. in salad dressings, of air incorporation into tion of cholesterol in the intestine. foams, e.g. in whipped cream, and of proteins in Stanols Hydrogenation products of sterols which beer, precipitation of proteins producing cloudi- occur naturally in plants (phytosterols). Less abun- ness. Examples of stabilizers include gums and hy- dant than the corresponding plant sterols. Like plant drocolloids. sterols, stanols reduce levels of total and low density lipoprotein cholesterol in blood by inhibiting absorp- Stable isotope techniques Analytical tech- tion of cholesterol in the intestine. Stanol esters are niques in which stable isotopes (all isotopes other commonly used in enrichment of foods such as than radioisotopes) are employed as tracers or spreads, yoghurt and food bars to produce prod- measured as markers. A material may be characterized ucts which may have a cholesterol lowering action. by the natural abundance or ratio of various stable iso- Staphylococcus Genus of Gram positive, faculta- topes, e.g. 13C/12C, measured via MS, to aid its identi- tively anaerobic, coccoid bacteria of the family Mi- fication. Of particular use in food analysis for detection crococcaceae. Occur on the skin and mucous mem- of adulteration or determination of authenticity or branes of humans and animals. Staphylococcus aureus origin. Stable isotopes may be used as tracers for may be responsible for food poisoning due to con- studying bioavailability or metabolism of nutri- sumption of contaminated foods (e.g. meat and meat ents or for monitoring the progress or effects of products, eggs, salads, bakery products and processing. dairy products). S. carnosus is used as a starter cul- Stachybotrys Genus of fungi of the class Hyphomy- ture in the manufacture of fermented sausages. cetes. Occur in soil, hay and other plant products. Star anise Common name for Illicium verum, fruits of Stachybotrys alternans may be responsible for food which are used as spices. The main aromatic com- spoilage. Ingestion or inhalation of satratoxins pound present is anethole. Used to flavour bakery produced by S. atra on foods may cause stachybot- products, beverages, meat products and sugar ryotoxicosis (a mycotoxicosis) in humans, horses, confectionery. cattle and poultry. 402 Star apples Stearidonic acid Star apples Apple-sized fruits produced by trees of Sugar composition of the syrups is dependent on the the genus Chrysophyllum, predominantly C. cainito degree of hydrolysis, which is measured in terms of the and C. africanum. Round, with a white or purple rind dextrose content of the syrup (the dextrose equiva- which is green at the calyx. A soft, white, sweet pulp lent value). surrounds a centre containing seed cells. Flesh is Star fruit Fruits produced by Averrhoa carambola. scooped out of the bitter tasting rind and eaten raw, of- Waxy in appearance, the juicy, yellow fruits are star- ten mixed with other fruits, or mixed with orange shaped in cross-section. Contain relatively high juices. May also be made into jams. Oils extracted amounts of vitamin C and approximately 7% total from the seeds are sometimes used as cooking oils. sugar. Used in beverages, fruit salads, tarts and Also known as caimito. preserves. Also known as carambolas and five Starch Polysaccharide that is the main energy store of fingers. plants. Composed of molecules of amyloses and Starters Microbial cultures used to initiate fermenta- amylopectins. Amount of each polymer, which var- tion. Mixtures of specific strains are used to produce ies between plant species, influences the functional the desired properties in the product. Types include properties of starch, such as gel forming ability of cheese starters, yoghurt starters and butter starch pastes. In addition to its role in cereal flour or starters. meal used as a base for breadmaking, and manufacture of other bakery products and pasta, starch has Statistical analysis Group of mathematical tech- many applications in foods, including as thickeners, niques by which analytical results can be examined on anticaking agents, coatings and binding the basis of probability theory. agents. Starch is often chemically or physically Steaks Thick slices of high-quality meat taken from modified in order to improve its applicability for food the hindquarters of animal carcasses. They are usually processing, e.g. to increase thermal stability or alter cooked by grilling or frying. the texture. Steam Hot vapour into which water is converted when Starch granules Native structure of starch, com- heated. Condenses in the air into a mist of miniature prising discrete aggregates of amyloses and amy- water droplets. Used as a source of energy or in cook- lopectins. Arrangement of the starch polymers is ing of foods. highly organized and some crystalline regions are pre- Steamed bread Bread prepared by baking dough sent due to strong interactions between amylopectin in ovens which are heated to a constant temperature chains. Granules also contain minor amounts of pro- using closed pipes through which steam is passed. tein, lipid, ash and moisture. Starch granule size and composition vary between plant species and varieties. Steaming Cooking of foods by heating in steam Starch hydrolysates Sugar syrups produced by produced from boiling water. The food to be steamed hydrolysis of starch slurries. Starch hydrolysis is can be placed in steaming apparatus over boiling or commonly achieved by the action of acids, e.g. hy- simmering water in a covered pan. Steaming has ad- drochloric acid, or amylases; degree of hydrolysis vantages over boiling in terms of retention of fla- determines the saccharide composition of the syrups. vour, colour, shape, texture and nutrients content Dextrose equivalent of a hydrolysate is a measure of foods. of the degree of hydrolysis relative to the dextrose (D- Stearic acid A saturated fatty acid which contains 18 glucose) content, i.e. 100% dextrose equivalent de- carbon atoms. Found abundantly in animals and plants. notes full hydrolysis. Glucose syrups, maltose Even though consumption of saturated fatty acids syrups and maltodextrins are starch hydrolysates has been linked with an increased the risk of coro- and are substrates for other starch-based sweeteners, nary heart diseases, data suggest that stearic acid such as fructose high corn syrups and crystalline may be neutral with respect to effects on serum cho- sugars. lesterol levels. Starch synthases EC 2.4.1.21. Glycosyltrans- Stearidonic acid One of the polyunsaturated ferases which transfer the glucose moiety from fatty acids, synonyms octadecatetraenoic acid and ADP-glucose to glucose-containing polysaccha- moroctic acid. Contains 18 carbon atoms and 4 double rides by means of 1,4-Į-linkages. The entry also cov- bonds at positions 6, 9, 12 and 15. Converted to ei- ers glycogen synthases that utilize ADP-glucose. Sev- cosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic eral isoforms are found in plant tissues where they are acid in the body. Shown to possess anticarcino- responsible for synthesis of starch. genicity, antithrombotic activity and anti- Starch syrups Sugar syrups produced from inflammatory activity. Found in fish oils and in starch by hydrolysis with acids or amylases. seed oils from hemp and blackcurrants. 403 Stearin Stevia rebaudiana Stearin Triglycerides present in both animal fats Sterculic acid One of the fatty acids; has a and vegetable fats; found particularly in solid fats, branched, odd-numbered, unsaturated C chain struc- such as tallow and cocoa butter. May also be syn- ture. A potent inhibitor of desaturases. thesized by esterification of stearic acid with Stereoisomers Molecules with the same molecular glycerol. Uses include as emulsifiers and surface- formula and the same functional groups, but with dif- finishing agents for chocolate and sugar confec- ferent spatial arrangements, e.g. optical isomers. tionery. Also known as tristearin, glyceryl tristearate Sterigmatocystins Carcinogenic and hepatotoxic and octadecanoic acid 1,2,3-propanetriyl ester. mycotoxins produced by certain Aspergillus spp. Stearoyl lactylates Salts of the stearoyl lactylate (e.g. A. nidulans and A. versicolor) growing on foods anion prepared by reaction of stearic acid with lac- (e.g. cereals, fruits, coffee beans and cheese). tic acid. The nature of the cation in the salt influences Sterilization Destruction of all microorganisms the functional properties of the lactylate, e.g. the and spores in or on a material, such as food, by vari- sodium salt is soluble in water whereas calcium ous means, including the application of chemicals, stearoyl lactylate is not. Uses include as emulsifiers, heat, radiation or filtration. Conventional steriliza- dough conditioners and stabilizers. tion involves in-container sterilization, usually at tem- Steel Strong, hard grey or bluish-grey alloy made from peratures between 115 and 120qC for 20-30 minutes. iron with carbon and usually other elements. Used Commercial sterilization does not always meet this widely as a structural and fabricating material. Also definition, because some harmless, heat resistant bac- refers to a rod of roughened steel which is used for teria may still be present. The criterion for food steril- sharpening knives. ity is a process that will ensure no surviving botulism bacteria or their spores. The common guideline is to Steeping Soaking of ingredients such as tea leaves, use a multiple of 12 for the D-value (121qC) of Clos- herbs and spices in water or other liquid until the tridium botulinum or its equivalent. flavour is infused into the liquid. The liquid used is Sterilized milk Milk that has been heated at a high usually hot. Also refers to soaking of barley or other temperature (e.g. 110°C for 30-40minutes, 130°C for cereals as part of the malting process, and during 30 seconds or 150°C for less than a second) to kill all which imbibition occurs prior to germination. bacteria and increase shelf life. Similar to UHT (ul- Steers Castrated, adult male cattle, which are widely tra high temperature) milk. Has a distinctive flavour. used for beef production. Compared with bulls, steers Steroids Complex polycyclic lipids with a hydrocar- are easier to handle and their carcasses are less af- bon nucleus, characterized by having a fected by stress related conditions, such as the DFD cyclopenta[a]phenanthrene carbon skeleton formed defect. However, steers grow more slowly, convert from four fused rings. Many distinct steroids are found feed less efficiently and achieve lower carcass weights in plants (e.g. phytosterols and brassinoster- than bulls. Steer meat tends to be lighter in colour oids), animals (e.g. sex hormones, corticosteroids than bull beef. and cholesterol) and fungi (e.g. ergosterol). These steroids are distinguished from each other based on the Stellar Trade name (A. E. Staley) for fully digestible functional groups that are attached to the rings. fat substitutes derived by controlled acid hydrolysis of corn starch. Used in a wide range of low fat Sterol esters Fatty acid esters of plant sterols, foods such as ice cream, salad dressings, con- these phytochemicals have hypolipaemic activ- diments, sauces, bakery products, meat prod- ity and antiatherogenic activity. Occur naturally in ucts and dairy products. Not suitable for frying. small amounts in vegetable oils, seeds, nuts, fruits and vegetables. Added to margarines, milk, Stems A structural organ of vascular plants. Typi- yoghurt and salad dressings to produce func- cally an aerial component with spaced nodes from tional foods claimed to reduce the risk of cardio- which grow other stems, leaves, flowers etc. vascular diseases. Their physiological effects are comparable to those of stanol esters. Stenotrophomonas Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria belonging to the Xantho- Sterols Steroid alcohols found widely in animals and monadaceae family. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia plants which have an aliphatic hydrocarbon side chain (previously known as Xanthomonas maltophilia) is a of 8-10 C atoms at the 17-ȕ position and a hydroxyl multidrug resistant opportunistic pathogen found in group at the 3-ȕ position. moist environments, including water and foods. Some Stevia rebaudiana Plants native to South America, strains found in fish can produce the biogenic amine the leaves of which have a sweet flavour. Analyses cadaverine. have revealed the presence of at least eight sweet com- 404 Steviol Stomachs pounds in the leaves, the most widely used of which is table oils) can result in formation of carcinogenic stevioside. products. Steviol Diterpene metabolite of stevioside, a natural Stilbenes Phenols such as resveratrol and sweetener found in leaves of Stevia rebaudiana. piceatannol. Occur in vegetables, fruits, wines Formed by bacterial degradation of stevioside in the and nuts. Contain 1,2-diphenylethylene as a func- human colon. Concerns have been raised about steviol tional group. Possess anticarcinogenicity and anti- safety. Demonstrates genotoxicity and mutagenic- oxidative activity. May reduce risk of cardiovas- ity in some studies, but shown to inhibit angiogene- cular diseases and Alzheimer's disease. sis and to possess hypoglycaemic activity in oth- Stillage Liquid wastes or by-products from distiller- ers. ies, breweries or wineries. May be used as animal Stevioside One of the high intensity natural sweet- feeds or in culture media for microorganisms. eners. Obtained from the leaves of Stevia rebaudi- Stilton cheese English semi-hard cheese made ana, where it is present at levels up to 13%. Stevioside from cow milk. Available in blue and white varieties. is a glycoside of the diterpene derivative steviol. Has Stilton has a rich and mellow flavour and a piquant af- 250-300 times the sweetness of sucrose and is sta- tertaste, but is milder than Roquefort cheese or ble at baking temperatures. Possesses undesirable bit- Gorgonzola cheese. The wrinkled rind is not edi- ter and liquorice-like aftertaste. Also known as ste- ble. Maturation takes 6-8 months. viosin. Not permitted for sale as a sweetener in the Stir frying Cooking method in which food is cut into USA, UK, EU, Australia or Canada due to safety con- small pieces and fried over a very high heat in a pan cerns; however, use is permitted in South America, with a large surface area, e.g. a wok, with constant stir- Asia, China, Japan and Korea. ring. Very small amounts of oil or fat are used. Associ- Stewing Cooking foods slowly and for a long period ated particularly with Asian dishes. of time in a small amount of liquid in a closed dish or Stirred tank bioreactors Bioreactors which in- pan to make a stew. Stews usually contain meat, clude a vessel and a stirring system (e.g. impellers) vegetables and a thick soup-like broth. Stewing not for causing agitation of the contents, generally cells only tenderizes tough pieces of meat but also allows or immobilized cells in media or immobilized the flavour of the ingredient components to blend. enzymes in reaction mixtures. In industrial fermen- Stickiness One of the rheological properties; tation and reactions, stirring is usually performed us- relating to the extent to which an item is cohesive or ing a turbine system. Agitation enhances mass trans- adhesive. This term also relates to the extent to which a fer, useful in aerobic systems for maximizing the dis- food adheres to the palate during mastication. solved oxygen concentration of media, but also increases shear within the system, which may cause cell Sticking Process of adhesion. damage. Used for batch or continuous submerged Stiffness One of the rheological properties; relat- fermentation or enzymic reactions. ing to the extent to which an item is stiff, i.e. firm and Stirring Manual or automated processing action in- rigid. When stress is applied to a material, strain is volving circular movements of a utensil (e.g. a spoon) produced in the direction of the stress; stiffness is the within a food mixture. Allows ingredients to become ratio of the stress divided by the strain. well mixed together and where required, distributes Stigmastadienes Dehydration products of sitos- heat throughout the mixture. terol, formed in vegetable oils during high tempera- Stocks Juices obtained by simmering meat, bones, ture processing steps of the refining procedure such vegetables or fish, usually with seasonings, in water as bleaching and deodorization. The main product or other liquid. Used as a base for soups and accom- is 3,5-stigmastadiene. Stigmastadienes are not usually paniments such as gravy and sauces. Available formed in high levels in virgin olive oils, where pro- commercially as liquid products or in dried form. duction involves nonthermal processes such as cen- Stollen Rich bread originating from Germany which trifugation and pressing. Stigmastadienes can be is prepared by fermentation with yeasts. Usually con- used as indicators of the presence of refined vegetable tains dried fruits and nuts, and is topped with icing oils in virgin olive oils or to differentiate thermally sugar. Traditionally eaten at Christmas. Sometimes treated oils from those that have been cold pressed. called christstollen. Stigmasterol Plant sterol, also found in milk, defi- Stomachs A part of edible offal. Tripe, usually ob- ciency of which can cause muscular atrophy and cal- tained from the rumen and reticulum of cattle, is used cium phosphate deposits in muscles and joints. Oxida- as an ingredient in some sausages. Swine stomachs tion of stigmasterol (e.g. during the heating of vege- are also used as an ingredient in some sausages. 405 Stone fruits Streptococcus Cleaned animal stomachs are used as containers for Stracchino cheese Alternative term for Taleggio various traditional meat dishes, including haggis. cheese. Stone fruits Fruits with a thin skin, middle fleshy Strainers Devices for straining liquids, semi liquids or region and a single, central stone, containing the seed. dry ingredients to separate out any undesirable solid Include plums, peaches, apricots and cherries. matter. These utensils have a perforated or mesh bottom, and are usually made from stainless steel, plastic Stones Alternative term for seeds found in the mid- or aluminium. Available in a variety of sizes, shapes dle of some fruits, such as stone fruits. and mesh densities. Stoppers Plugs for sealing holes, particularly for seal- Strain identification Identification of the species of ing the necks of bottles. Also known as stopples in origin to the strain level, usually using genetic tech- the USA. niques such as PCR. Often used to differentiate Storage Maintenance of commodities, for example pathogens from nonpathogenic microorganisms fresh or processed foods, under controlled conditions of the same species. for extended durations while maintaining quality. Un- Strawberries Juicy fruits produced by plants of the desirable quality changes that may occur during stor- genus Fragaria, particularly Fragaria × ananassa. age include changes in nutrient levels or colour, de- Consist of swollen flower receptacles with the pips or velopment of off flavour or loss of texture. Most seeds (true fruits) embedded on the surface. Rich in foods benefit from storage at a constant, low tempera- vitamin C. Eaten out of hand and in fruit salads, or ture (cold storage or frozen storage) where the used to make desserts, jams, jellies and toppings. rates of most degradative reactions decrease and qual- Available virtually all year round. ity losses are minimized. However, some products, e.g. Strawberry jams Jams made using strawberries canned foods or dried foods, are processed in (Fragaria x ananassa). such a way that they may be kept at ambient tempera- Strawberry juices Fruit juices extracted from ture with no loss in quality. Careful control of atmos- strawberries (Fragaria x ananassa). pheric gases, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethylene (controlled atmosphere storage), is Strawberry pulps Soft flesh of strawberries or a important in extending the storage life of many prod- preparation made by mashing. Used in the manufac- ucts, such as fruits and vegetables. ture of fillings and jams. Storage life The time for which a stored item remains Strawberry purees Strawberries that have been usable. reduced to a smooth consistency by blending or mashing. Used in the preparation of fruit juices or Storage proteins Proteins that accumulate within to flavour foods such as ice cream. cereals, seeds and legumes, and serve as nitrogen Strawberry tree fruits Red fruits produced by the sources for germination. Usually occur in an aggre- strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo). Similar in appearance gated state within membrane surrounded vesicles (e.g. to strawberries, but with a very bitter flavour. Used protein bodies and aleurone grains), and often built in jams, wines and liqueurs, and as a source of from a number of different polypeptide chains. Possess sugar. no enzymic activity. In cereals, deposited in the endosperm; in legumes, deposited in the cotyledon. Syn- Straw mushrooms Common name for the edible thesized in seeds in large quantities over a limited pe- fungi Volvariella diplasia. riod of time. In dicots, deposited in the embryo as well Street foods Fast foods sold by street vendors, as the endosperm of developing seeds. Deficient in particularly in developing countries. Often associated several essential amino acids and generally have with high microbiological risk due to lack of hygienic limited nutritional values. Storage proteins of dif- food preparation and holding areas. ferent cereals have distinct structural characteristics Streptococcus Genus of Gram positive, anaerobic, that are responsible for their unique functional coccoid lactic acid bacteria of the family Strepto- properties. coccaceae. Occur on the skin, mucous membranes and Stores Places, such as rooms or warehouses, where in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals. items such as foods are kept under controlled condi- Streptococcus thermophilus is used in starters for tions for extended durations, for future use or sale. manufacture of yoghurt and cheese (e.g. Emmen- tal cheese and Parmesan cheese). S. agalactiae Stout Strong, dark, top-fermented beer brewed mainly and S. uberis may be responsible for mastitis in cat- in the UK and Ireland. tle. S. pyogenes is the causative agent of strep throat Stoves Devices for cooking or heating of foods. and scarlet fever, which can be transmitted via con- Operated by burning fuel or using electricity. taminated foods (e.g. dairy products, eggs and 406 Streptomyces Stunning salads). Other species are responsible for diarrhoeal Stress resistance Ability of an organism to with- disease via ingestion of contaminated foods (e.g. meat stand environmental stress. products, milk and cheese). Stretch One of the rheological properties; relating Streptomyces Genus of aerobic, filamentous Gram to the ability of an item to be drawn out in length (ex- positive bacteria of the family Streptomycetaceae. tended). Occur in soil, decaying vegetation and water, and some Stretching Making something that is soft or elastic are parasites of humans, animals and plants. Members longer or wider without tearing or breaking. An inte- of this genus produce clinically useful antibiotics and gral part of the manufacture of some cheeses, e.g. industrially important enzymes. Some species may mozzarella cheese, where the curd is stretched cause taints in wines, water and shellfish. Other during processing. species may cause diseases of crops (e.g. potatoes String beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus and sugar beets). vulgaris). Streptomycin Aminoglycoside antibiotic produced by Striped bass Marine fish species (Morone saxatilis) certain strains of Streptomyces griseus. Active belonging to the family Moronidae. Distributed in the against many Gram negative bacteria. Used to western Atlantic Ocean and northern Gulf of Mexico. treat systemic and enteric infections in animals and Produced commercially by aquaculture. Marketed also for growth promoting purposes. Residues may fresh and consumed mainly broiled or baked. persist for long periods in kidneys but normally de- Stroke Sudden attack of weakness often affecting just plete rapidly in other commonly consumed tissues. one side of the body. Brain tissue is damaged due to Streptoverticillium Obsolete genus, species of which blockage of a blood vessel as a result of thrombosis, have been transferred to the genus Streptomyces. atherosclerosis or haemorrhage. Severity of the stroke depends on the region of the brain affected and the ex- Stresnil Trade name (Janssen Animal Health) for an tent of damage. Hypertension and hypercholesterol- injectable butyrophenone neuroleptic sedative for pigs aemia are major risk factors. for control of stress, including transport-related Strontium Metallic element with the chemical symbol stress, and prevention of fighting. Contains 40 mg Sr. azaperone per ml. Pigs may only be slaughtered for Structural genes Genes that encode substances human consumption at 10 days from last treatment. such as enzymes, structural proteins and RNA Stress A broadly used term covering various external molecules, rather than genes that serve regulatory pur- and internal pressures and challenges. Can also refer to poses. a response to these demands, such as in the case of Structured lipids Lipids that have been modified to stress in animals and humans. Stress can be applied to change the position and/or the composition of their materials, at the level of the whole organism and at the constituent fatty acids. Typically triacylglycerols level of organism constituents, such as cells. Includes containing mixtures of medium and long chain fatty animal stress, osmotic stress, oxidative acids. stress, stress relaxation and yield stress. Strudels Sweet or savoury pastries made from a Stress proteins Proteins which are synthesized by dough of high-gluten flour, eggs and a high pro- an organism in response to environmental stress, e.g. portion of liquid, causing the dough to become highly heat shock, exposure to toxic substances, exposure to malleable. The dough is then stretched out to paper ultraviolet radiation or viral infection. Examples thinness, and used to enclose fruits, e.g. sliced ap- include the heat shock proteins. Produced to pro- ples, or cheese fillings. tect the organism from destructive consequences of the Stuffings Savoury mixtures of chopped and seasoned stress conditions encountered, but also play a role in ingredients which are either used to stuff poultry or normal cell physiology. Appear to act as molecular other meat joints prior to roasting, or served as a chaperones, assisting in the folding/refolding of meat accompaniment. other proteins. Prevent stress-induced protein aggrega- Stunning Methods used to immobilize animals and tion by binding to surfaces exposed as a result of de- birds before slaughter. Includes electrical stun- stabilization of protein structure. May also be involved ning, captive bolt (projectile) stunning and CO im- in repair of damaged proteins. 2 mobilization. Stunning is carried out immediately be- Stress relaxation One of the rheological proper- fore bleeding; it aims to render the animal unconscious ties; relating to the process of stress decay, i.e. the without stopping the action of the heart, which aids the stress response that is apparent after subjecting a mate- bleeding procedure. Although stunning procedures in- rial to a certain strain. volve some stress, they decrease stress responses when 407 Sturgeon Sucrose-phosphate synthases compared with bleeding without immobilization; con- Succinylation Introduction of succinyl groups into a sequently, stunning influences the properties and com- compound or substance. Usually achieved by reaction position of meat. Overall effectiveness of stunning with succinic anhydride. Such modification is used to depends on the design and careful operation of the alter the physicochemical properties, functional equipment used. properties or nutritional quality of substances such as Sturgeon Any of a number of marine fish or proteins and starch. Succinylation has also been freshwater fish from the family Acipenseridae (sub- used to modify the properties of enzymes such as class Chondrostei); found in temperate waters of the papain. Northern Hemisphere. Most species live in the sea and Succulence One of the sensory properties; relat- migrate into rivers (possibly once in several years) to ing to the extent to which a product (e.g. meat or spawn in spring or summer; a few others are confined fish) is succulent or juicy. Degree of succulence of a to fresh water. Flesh tends to be fatty with firm tex- food can be measured using a succulometer, in which ture. Marketed fresh, frozen, smoked, salted and samples are compressed to squeeze out juices, the vol- canned. Roes from some species are highly valued as ume of which can then be recorded. caviar. Sucralose Non-nutritive, high intensity artificial Styrene Unsaturated liquid hydrocarbon, which is a sweeteners produced by chlorination of sucrose; 3 by-product of petroleum manufacture. Polymerized to hydroxyl groups on the sugar are substituted by chlo- make resins and plastics that are used as packaging rine atoms. Has 400-800 times the sweetness of su- materials for foods. There is concern about health crose, a flavour profile similar to that of sucrose and hazards associated with migration of styrene no aftertaste; it is also noncariogenic. Stable at bak- monomers, dimers and trimers from packaging materi- ing, pasteurization and extrusion temperatures als into some types of foods. and over a broad range of pH values, and suitable for use in a wide range of foods and beverages. It is less Suberin Aromatic polymer similar to lignin, to which reactive than sucrose and thus interacts less with com- aliphatic components such as -hydroxy acids, dicar- Ȧ ponents of foods or beverages to which it has been boxylic acids and long chain alcohols are attached. added. Can be used in combination with other sweet- Found in waxes and in the cell walls of plants, and eners. Trade name is Splenda (Tate & Lyle); sucralose also deposited at wound sites. is also supplied under a variety of brand names by dif- Submerged fermentation Type of fermentation ferent manufacturers. Approved for use in over 80 technology in which microorganisms are grown countries worldwide. media bioreactors submerged in liquid in flasks or . Sucrases Alternative term for sucrose Į- Used for production of many fermentation prod- glucosidases. ucts, including biomass, enzymes, bacteriocins and secondary metabolites. Sucrose Disaccharide comprising a molecule of glucose and a molecule of fructose. Sucrose occurs Subtilins Bacteriocins produced by Bacillus sub- naturally and is extracted commercially from sugar tilis. cane and sugar beets to yield the crystalline sweet- Subtilisins EC 3.4.21.62, formerly 3.4.21.14. Serine ener marketed as sugar. Sweetness of sucrose is the endopeptidases produced by Bacillus spp. These milestone by which sweetness of all other sugars proteinases exhibit broad specificity, but with a and/or sweeteners is compared. preference for large uncharged residues in the P1 posi- Sucrose acetate isobutyrate Mixture of esters of tion. Variants include subtilisin BPN' and subtilisin sucrose esterified with acetic acid and isobutyric Carlsberg. Alternative names include alcalase, biopep- acid. Produced by reaction of food grade sucrose with tidase and bioprase. Used for production of protein acetic anhydride and isobutyric anhydride in the pres- hydrolysates, e.g. from casein or soy proteins, ence of a catalyst. Used as a stabilizer or weighting and for meat tenderization. agent to increase the specific gravity of flavouring Succinic acid Dicarboxylic acid with a number of oils in citrus based beverages. Commonly abbrevi- applications in the food industry. Can be produced in- ated to SAIB. dustrially by microbial fermentation and is the main Sucrose Į-glucosidases EC 3.2.1.48. Glycosi- flavour component produced by yeasts during sake dases which hydrolyse sucrose and maltose by an manufacture. Į-D-glucosidase-type action. Also known as sucrases. Succinoglucans Microbial polysaccharides pro- Sucrose-phosphate synthases EC 2.4.1.14. Gly- duced by, for example, Agrobacterium radiobacter. cosyltransferases which catalyse the conversion of Have properties similar to those of xanthan gums. UDP-glucose and D-fructose 6-phosphate to UDP 408 Sucrose polyesters Sugar cubes and sucrose 6-phosphate. Involved in sucrose and The flesh is eaten with a spoon as a fresh fruit or used starch biosynthesis in plants, and in the ripening of in fruit salads, milkshakes, yoghurt and des- fruits. serts. Also known as sweet sop. Sucrose polyesters Esters of sucrose and fatty Sugar beet cossettes Thin slices cut from sugar acids (C12 to >C20) that are not absorbed on their beets in the initial stage of sugar processing, from way through the gastrointestinal tract and may act which sugar is extracted. Cossettes are used to in- as fat substitutes in shortenings, spreads and crease the surface area available for, and efficiency of, other foods. sugar extraction. Sucrose synthases EC 2.4.1.13. Glycosyltrans- Sugar beet juices Alternative term for beet sugar ferases which catalyse the conversion of NDP- juices. glucose and D-fructose to NDP (nucleoside diphos- Sugar beet molasses Alternative term for beet phate) and sucrose. The preferred substrate is UDP- sugar molasses. glucose, although ADP-glucose may also be converted. Involved in sucrose and starch biosynthesis in plants. Sugar beet pectins Pectins extracted from the pulps of sugar beets, by-products of sugar pro- Sucuk Turkish, raw, cured sausages, prepared duction. mainly from beef with added mutton and sheep fat. Sucuk are dry cured for 7-10 days and retailed un- Sugar beets Roots produced by Beta vulgaris, plants smoked. They are usually eaten warm. from which sugar is extracted commercially. Sugar is Sudan dyes Aromatic compounds containing an present in specific cells of the tap root of the plant. azo group. Red dyes, used as colorants in a range of Major sugar beet producing regions in the world in- foods, including chilli powders, paprika, spice clude Europe and the USA. mixes, tomato products and palm oils. Illegal in Sugar cane Tropical grass of the genus Saccharum, most western countries. Detected in several products stalks of which are a rich source of sugar. S. officina- sold commercially in the United Kingdom, which have rum is the main species cultivated for commercial now been removed from sale. Include Sudan I, II, III sugar production. and IV. Sugar cane bagasse Cane sugar processing waste Suet Hard, white fatty tissue surrounding the kidneys that is composed of unextracted sugar and the re- of cattle and sheep. Used in baking, frying and in the mains of the sugar cane after milling. Used as a fuel manufacture of tallow. source, in feeds, as a substrate for microbial fermen- Sufu Cream cheese-type fermented foods made tation and for paper and board manufacture. Also from tofu and eaten widely in China. Fermentation called bagasse or megass. of tofu is carried out commercially using Actinomucor Sugar cane juices Alternative term for cane sugar elegans, followed by brining and ageing. Sufu is juices. eaten as an appetizer, as a relish, cooked with vege- Sugar cane molasses Alternative term for cane tables or meat, or in the same manner as cheese. molasses. Sugar Commercial name for crystalline sucrose Sugar cane spirits Alcoholic beverages pro- extracted from either sugar cane or sugar beets, duced by distillation of fermented cane sugar purified to at least 98% purity. juices or cane molasses, which may then be aged Sugar alcohols Products formed when aldehyde or in wooden barrels. The most common sugar cane ketone groups of sugars are hydrogenated (reduced) spirits are rum and cachaca, although arak may also to alcohol groups. Examples include sorbitol, man- be produced from sugar cane. nitol and lactitol, produced by hydrogenation of Sugar cones Ice cream cones that have been for- glucose, mannose and lactose, respectively. Also mulated to have a particularly crisp texture. known as polyols. Sugar almonds Shelled almonds covered with a Sugar confectionery Collective term for foods hard sugar coating, which is often coloured. Often which have sugar as a principal component, e.g. given as symbols of good luck at religious occasions chocolate, candy, fudges, jelly confectionery, such as weddings and christenings. sweets and toffees. Sugar apples Fruits produced by Annona squamosa Sugar crops Plants that are cultivated for sugar and related to cherimoya, for which they are some- production, including sugar beets, sugar cane and times mistaken. The egg-shaped fruits have a thick, sweet sorghum. yellowish-green skin and sweet yellow custard-like Sugar cubes Cubes produced by moulding or com- flesh containing dark seeds. Rich source of vitamin C. pression of moistened granulated sugar. 409 Sugar juices Sulfur dioxide Sugar juices Sugar containing solutions obtained by sulfides, the S atom may be linked to metals or non- crushing sugar cane, or by hot water extraction of metals, while in organic sulfides, the S atom is linked sugar beet cossettes. Sugar is crystallized from to two hydrocarbon groups. the juices following removal of impurities. Sulfitation Use of salts of sulfurous acid, mainly Sugar manufacture Alternative term for sugar sulfites, for applications including inhibition of bacte- processes. rial growth, prevention of spoilage or oxidation, Sugar pans Vessels, usually made of metal, e.g. steel and control of browning in foods. Sulfites, which plate, in which evaporation of sugar juices and may be added as preservatives to packaged and crystallization of sugar are performed. processed foods, can cause a severe allergic response Sugar processes Processes involved in the manufac- in certain individuals. ture of sugar, such as carbonatation, liming, Sulfites Inorganic salts of sulfurous acid that are evaporation and crystallization. used as food preservatives since they exhibit an- Sugar products Foods containing sugar as a main timicrobial activity and antioxidative activity, component. Includes products such as sugar confec- and prevent enzymic browning. However, they are tionery, sugar syrups and honeys. potentially cytotoxic and mutagenic, and may be aller- Sugar refineries Factories where raw cane sugar is genic to hypersensitive individuals. Hence, their use is purified to produce granulated sugar. regulated strictly. Sugars General term for saccharides or their de- Sulfolobus Genus of aerobic or facultatively anaero- rivatives that have a sweet flavour. bic, coccoid or irregularly-shaped archaea of the Sugar substitutes Chemicals used to mimic the family Sulfolobaceae, whose species are ther- flavour and applications of sucrose, e.g. sweeten- moacidiphilic. Occur in sulfur-rich, hot, acid soils and ers. springs. Sulfolobus solfataricus, found in volcanic ar- Sugar syrups Concentrated aqueous solutions of eas, is used in production of several thermostable en- sugars. Include syrups of individual sugars, such as zymes (e.g. thermostable ȕ-glucosidases). glucose syrups and fructose syrups, and syrups Sulfonamides Group of synthetic organic com- extracted from specified sources, e.g. corn syrups pounds with a broad spectrum of activity. Widely and maple syrups. used for control of bacterial and protozoal infections in Sulfadiazine Sulfonamide antibiotic active against a animals, particularly infectious diseases of the diges- range of microorganisms and used to treat diseases tive and respiratory tracts. Administered to animals by such as toxoplasmosis, meningitis and pneumonia. all known routes, often at dosages noticeably higher Sulfadimidine Alternative term for sulfamethazine. than those for antibiotics. Residues are normally Sulfamates Alternative term for cyclamates. eliminated much earlier from livers, kidneys and Sulfamethazine Sulfonamide drug used primarily for milk than from muscle or adipose tissues. Exam- control of atrophic rhinitis and other infections in ples include sulfamethazine, sulfanilamide and swine and cattle. Also used as a growth promoter. sulfathiazole. Normally absorbed and excreted rapidly; elimination is Sulforaphane One of the isothiocyanates found in generally more rapid when the drug is injected. large amounts in broccoli, broccoli and cauliflower Sulfanilamide Sulfonamide drug used to treat a range sprouts, and in smaller amounts in other Brassica of bacterial and protozoal infections in animals. Often spp. Has antioxidative activity and anticarcino- used in combination with other sulfonamides. genicity, and may reduce risk from cardiovascular Sulfates Inorganic salts of sulfuric acid. diseases. May act synergistically with selenium and with other phytochemicals found in these Sulfathiazole Sulfonamide drug used as a coccidiostat vegetables. in animals. Often used in combination with other sulfonamides. Also used as a growth promoter and for Sulfur Non-metallic element with the chemical symbol treatment of foul brood in bees. Normally absorbed S. Essential in that it is a component of cysteine, me- and excreted rapidly by animals. thionine, vitamin B1 and biotin. However, there Sulfhydryl groups Reactive SH groups that are ef- appears to be no requirement for S in any other form. fective at chelating aluminium and other toxic miner- Sulfur dioxide Gas that is used in preservatives als. Mediate the formation of disulfide bonds in pro- and bleaching agents, e.g. for beet sugar, and in teins and other compounds. stabilizers for vitamin C. Degrades vitamin B1, and Sulfides Sulfur compounds in which the S atom can thus it is not recommended for use in foods rich in this be bound to inorganic or organic moieties. In inorganic vitamin. 410 Sulfuric acid Sunset Yellow Sulfuric acid Inorganic acid with the chemical for- starters and control of lean to fat ratios in the meat. mula H2SO4. Varieties include landjaeger and thuringer. Sulfurous acid Aqueous solutions of sulfur dioxide Sunburn Damage to plants and fruits (particularly used in preservatives. apples) caused by exposure to intense sunlight. Sulphadimidine Alternative spelling for sulfadi- Causes necrotic lesions on the fruit and browning of midine. the flesh underneath. May be controlled by shading or Sulphamates Alternative spelling for sulfamates. cooling. Also called sunscald. Sulphamethazine Alternative spelling for sul- Sunett Trade name (Nutrinova) for the high-intensity, famethazine. artificial sweetener acesulfame K. 200 times sweeter Sulphanilamide Alternative spelling for sulfanila- than sugar. Blends well with other caloric and non- mide. caloric sweeteners. Possesses good storage, temperature and pH stability, and has rapid solubility. Ap- Sulphates Alternative spelling for sulfates. proved for use in a wide range of foods in more than Sulphathiazole sulfathia- Alternative spelling for 100 countries worldwide. zole. Sunfish A variety of freshwater fish and marine Sulphides Alternative spelling for sulfides. fish; particularly refers to North American freshwater Sulphitation Alternative spelling for sulfitation. fish of the genus Lepomis, e.g. L. macrochirus (blue- Sulphites Alternative spelling for sulfites. gill sunfish), some of which are popular food fish. Also Sulphonamides Alternative spelling for sulfona- refers to the large marine fish species Mola mola. mides. Sunflower meal Cake remaining after extraction of Sulphur Alternative spelling for sulfur. sunflower oils from sunflower seeds. Contains Sulphur dioxide Alternative spelling for sulfur di- high levels of polyphenols, which must be removed oxide. before the meal is used in foods. Source of proteins, Sulphuric acid Alternative spelling for sulfuric which may be isolated and used in foods. acid. Sunflower oils Oils extracted from sunflower Sulphurous acid Alternative spelling for sulfurous seeds (Helianthus annus). Rich in linoleic acid and acid. oleic acid and low in saturated fatty acids. Used Sulphydryl groups Alternative spelling for sulfhy- as salad oils and cooking oils as well as in the dryl groups. manufacture of margarines and shortenings. Sultanas Dried fruits prepared from golden sultana Sunflowers Plants belonging to the species Helian- grapes by drying in the sun or mechanically. Rich in thus annus. Characterized by a long stem and large, iron with a high sugar content, a range of vitamins composite yellow flower heads, which produce sun- and minerals, and a moderate level of dietary fibre. flower seeds rich in sunflower oils. Eaten out of hand or used in bakery products and Sunflower seeds Seeds produced by sunflowers various dishes. Also called seedless raisins. (Helianthus annus). Rich in vitamin B1, proteins, Suluguni cheese Georgian mild semi-soft cheese iron and niacin. May be eaten dried and roasted as made from ewe milk. Often eaten fried or grilled, or snack foods, incorporated into bakery products in a variety of dishes. or used as a source of sunflower oils. Sumac Common name for the plant Rhus coriaria and Sunlight Light emitted from the sun. Used in sun dry- its dark purple-red berries, which are dried and used ing and solar drying of foods. whole or ground as spices, giving a fruity, sour and Sunset Yellow Orange monoazo dye used in artifi- astringent flavour to foods. Widely used in cooking in cial colorants. Soluble in water or glycerol but only the Middle East, especially in Lebanese cuisine. Alter- slightly soluble in ethanol. Has a reddish-yellow hue in native names include sumaq, sumach, shumac and Si- concentrated solution that becomes yellow on dilution; cilian sumac. the dye is colour stable at extrusion temperatures, pH Summer sausages Spicy, semi-dry fermented sau- 3-8 and in the presence of organic acids and alkalis sages, which are cooked and dried after fermenta- commonly used in food processing, such as citric tion. Commonly prepared from pork and/or beef, but acid and sodium bicarbonate. Sunset Yellow is may also be prepared from meat mixtures including often blended with tartrazine and used in colorants chicken meat or turkey meat. Natural pigments, for low fat spreads. Also used, in combination with e.g. betalaines, may be used to simulate a cured meat other colorants, to colour a range of products, includ- colour in summer sausages. High quality is achieved ing bakery products, beverages (e.g. cola bev- by use of frozen concentrated lactic acid bacteria erages), sugar confectionery and ice cream. 411 Supercooling Surface plasmon resonance Also known as FD&C Yellow No. 6 and Food Yellow Supercritical HPLC HPLC technique in which a 3 and CI 15985. supercritical fluid is used as the mobile phase. Supercooling Cooling of liquids to a temperature Supermarkets Large self-service shops selling below their freezing point without causing crystal- foods and household goods. lization. Requires slow cooling and the absence of a Superoxide dismutases EC 1.15.1.1. Metalloen- nucleation seed. Of relevance to the food industry due zymes that are important in protecting cells against to its impact on freezing, since the degree of super- oxidative stress via their ability to scavenge toxic cooling affects the size and/or microstructure of ice superoxide radicals, catalysing their dismutation to crystals and hence the quality of frozen foods such molecular oxygen and H2O2. The enzymes from most as ice cream. eukaryotes contain both Cu and Zn, while those Supercritical CO2 extraction Extraction process from mitochondria and most prokaryotes contain that uses supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2) as the Mn or Fe. selective solvent. The polarity of CO limits its use to 2 Superoxides Inorganic compounds that contain extractions of relatively apolar or moderately polar the superoxide radical or ion. Formed when very reac- solutes. Thus, a small amount of a polar organic sol- tive metallic elements (e.g. sodium, potassium, rubid- vent (e.g. methanol, acetonitrile, water), called a modi- ium and caesium) react with oxygen. Powerful oxidiz- fier or entrainer, is usually added to the supercritical ing agents and strong bases. Generated in prokary- fluid for extraction of more polar compounds. CO is 2 otic and eukaryotic cells, where they are potentially frequently used as the extraction solvent in super- harmful. critical fluid extraction because it is in a supercritical state at a relatively low temperature (31qC) and Supracide Alternative term for the insecticide me- pressure (73 atmospheres), making it a suitable choice thidathion. from an instrumental point of view. Extraction using Surface active agents Substances such as surfac- supercritical CO2 also avoids the use of dangerous or tants that reduce surface tension by interaction toxic organic solvents and the gas is easily removed by with non-mixing substances at phase boundaries. reducing the pressure. Surface active properties Functional properties Supercritical fluid chromatography Chroma- relating to the ability of a compound to reduce the sur- tography technique that uses a supercritical fluid as face tension of a liquid, thereby increasing wet- the mobile phase. Developed for analysis of substances tability or blending ability. Surfactants used as ad- not separated effectively using liquid chromatogra- ditives in the food industry have surface active proper- phy or gas chromatography, including triglyc- ties. erides and fatty acids. Surface pasteurization Any thermal processing Supercritical fluid extraction Extraction process method used to destroy microorganisms on the sur- that uses supercritical fluids as selective solvents. face of solid foods, rather than within liquid foods as Instrumentation for supercritical fluid extraction con- with traditional pasteurization methods. Used to im- sists of a solvent supply, a pump, a cooler to cool the prove shelf life and food safety. Most often used pump head, an extraction cell that is mounted in a ce- for treatment of meat and meat products, but other ramic heater tube, a heater controller to monitor the produce including fish, fruits, vegetables and temperature of the extraction cell, a restrictor con- cheese may also be surface pasteurized. The process nected to the outlet of the cell, a restrictor heater and a may be carried out before or after packaging, and collection vial. The possibility of varying the solvent may involve exposure to steam, hot water or IR irra- strength of the supercritical fluid by alteration of diation. pressure makes supercritical fluid extraction ex- Surface plasmon resonance One of the analyti- tremely versatile in its applications. cal techniques used as a detector in biosensors Supercritical fluids Substances present in a state and immunoassays for determination of biopoly- which forms on the application of temperatures and mers, residues, microorganisms, etc. and for pressures above the critical temperature and pressure monitoring the kinetics of interactions between bio- points of the substance, at which liquid and gas forms polymers, e.g. for determination of binding affinity. co-exist. Substances can be either liquids (e.g. water) Surface plasmon resonance is an optical phenomenon or gases (e.g. CO2) in their usual states. Supercritical that occurs on irradiation under certain conditions of fluids are widely used in supercritical fluid extrac- a conducting film, commonly comprising a metal (Au tion and are also being used for other food industry or Ag), present at the interface between materials processes such as pasteurization and microniza- which have different refractive index values, e.g. an tion. aqueous solution (sample) and glass (sensor support). 412 Surface tension Sweeteners The presence of a biopolymer alters the surface plas- Suspension cultures Cell cultures maintained in mon resonance response; in a biosensor or immuno- liquid media, which grow in suspension rather than at- assay, a ligand, e.g. enzyme or antibody, respectively, tached to a surface within the culture vessel. Can in- is bound to the sensor support surface and binding of clude cultures of plants, animals and microorgan- analyte alters the response. isms. May be used in the manufacture of fermented Surface tension Force on the surface of a liquid that foods and beverages (e.g. dairy products, beer makes it behave as if the surface has an elastic mem- and wines), but also for more specialized fermenta- brane. Caused by forces between the molecules of the tion products, including some food ingredients. liquid: molecules at the surface experience forces from Swedes Root vegetables of the cabbage family with a below, whereas those in the interior are acted on by shape similar to that of turnips, with which they are intermolecular forces from all sides. The surface ten- often confused. Rich in vitamin C and potassium, sion of water is very strong, due to intermolecular hy- they also contain small amounts of vitamin A. The drogen bonding. Surface tension causes a meniscus to sweet yellow flesh is eaten in similar ways to turnips, form, liquids to rise up capillary tubes, paper to absorb i.e. boiled, mashed, eaten raw, or used in soups and water, and droplets and bubbles to form. It is measured stews. Also known as rutabagas and Swedish turnips. in Newtons per metre. Sweet almonds Nuts produced by varieties of al- Surfactants Substances that concentrate at phase monds (Amygdalus communis). Eaten raw, dried, or boundaries and reduce surface tension. Contain hy- roasted and salted, and used in bakery products drophilic and hydrophobic regions which align at inter- such as bread and pastry. Almond meal is also used faces to promote mixing of phases. Above a particular in bakery products and confectionery. Kernels are a concentration, the critical micellar concentration, sur- source of sweet almond oils. factants form micelles which encapsulate one phase Sweet basil Common name for Ocimum basilicum, within the other. Used to produce oil/water emul- the leaves and flowers of which are used as spices. sions and for encapsulation of lipid soluble fla- Sweet basil has a sweet, spicy flavour reminiscent of vourings in processed foods. Emulsifiers, such as mint. Predominant flavour compounds include fatty acid esters, are surfactants as are sodium do- methylchavicol, eucalyptol and estragole. Sweet decyl sulfate (SDS) and Tween. basil essential oils and oleoresins are also com- Surfactin Powerful cyclic lipopeptide surfactants mercially available and are used as flavourings. produced by strains of Bacillus subtilis, which are Sweetbreads Butchers' term for pancreas glands commonly used as antibiotics. Possess significant (gut sweetbreads) and thymus glands (chest sweet- antimicrobial activity. Used as emulsifiers, breads) from animal carcasses. They form a part of foaming agents and stabilizers in foods. edible offal. Surimi Fish products comprising refined, stabilized, Sweet cherries Cherries produced by Prunus frozen fish mince. Refining and stabilization are avium. Eaten out of hand or in pies and other des- achieved by washing repeatedly in fresh water to re- serts, and used in beverages. Available dried and move soluble protein, straining, pressing to restore wa- canned as well as fresh. Also known as geans and ter content to natural levels (approximately 80%), fol- mazzards. lowed by incorporation of sugar, sorbitol and polyphosphates. Used to make products such as kama- Sweet chestnuts Nuts produced by Castanea sativa. boko, fish sausages and sea food analogues such Contain more starch and fewer oils than other nuts, as imitation crab meat. and are eaten as vegetables. Eaten whole or used as in- Survival curves A predictive modelling technique gredients in dishes such as soups, stews and stuff- which plots the survival of organisms over time. Used ings. Also shelled and preserved whole in sugar to model the inactivation kinetics of microorgan- syrups, when they are known as marrons glaces. isms in foods during antimicrobial treatments such as Sweetcorn Variety of corn, kernels of which are thermal processing. sweet when young. Susceptors Alternative term for microwave sus- Sweet cream Cream in which no acidity has devel- ceptors. oped. Used to make sweet cream butter, the cream be- Sushi Japanese sea food dishes which normally consist ing ripened by warming only, with no addition of but- of thin slices of fresh raw fish flesh or seaweed ter starters. wrapped around a cake of boiled rice. The term is also Sweeteners Additives with a sweet flavour that are used for dishes consisting of fresh raw fish flesh placed added to foods as sugar substitutes. Grouped ac- on boiled rice flavoured with vinegar. cording to the nutritional value of the sweetener into: nutritive sweeteners that may be metabolized and/or 413 Sweet limes Swine skin incorporated into the glycolytic pathway in cells to nellin, neoculin and thaumatin, as well as egg produce energy, e.g. starch-derived sweeteners; fruit- whites lysozymes. derived sweeteners, e.g. honeys, lactose and maple Sweets Small shaped pieces of confectionery, syrups; and non-nutritive or non-carbohydrate based which are usually made with sugar or chocolate. sweeteners. Sweeteners may also be classified as natu- Sweet sorghum Varieties of sorghum, Sorghum bi- ral (existing in nature), e.g. carbohydrate-derived color (L.) Moench, that are sweet and juicy. A tropical, sweeteners, stevioside, thaumatin, glycyrrhizin, drought-resistant grass crop with a sweet, juicy stalk or artificial (produced by organic synthesis and not from which sugar and syrups are manufactured. present in nature), e.g. sucralose, aspartame, acesulfame K, cyclamates, saccharin. Swelling Increasing in size or volume due to any addition or uptake, for example uptake of a liquid or gas Sweet limes Citrus fruits produced by Citrus limet- into a gel or solid, or to expansion. tioides or C. lumia. Peel is greenish to orange-yellow Swine when the fruits are ripe. The juicy pulp is pale yellow Wild or domesticated omnivorous mammals belonging to the Suidae family; they include pigs and in colour, with a non-acid, faintly bitter flavour. wild boars. Swine are farmed or hunted for the pro- Eaten out of hand, cooked or preserved. Peel is a bacon ham pork offal source of essential oils with a strong aroma of lem- duction of , , , edible and other products. Different gender and age groups of swine are ons. Sometimes confused with the sweet lemon (C. known as boars (adult entire males), barrows, hogs or limetta). bars (adult castrated males), sows (adult females after Sweetmeats Any sweetened delicacy, especially producing their first litter of piglets), gilts, hilts, yelts sweets or, less commonly, cakes. or yilts (young sexually mature females to the end of Sweetness One of the sensory properties; relating their first pregnancy) and piglets or piglings (sexually to the extent to which a product tastes sweet. Sweet- immature animals, usually <10 weeks old). ness of artificial sweeteners is often expressed in Swine fever An infectious, notifiable viral disease of relation to that of sugar (sucrose). swine. Although it is caused by an RNA virus, Sal- Sweet peppers Fruits produced by Capsicum monella Cholerae suis and Pasteurella multicida annuum. Vary in size, shape and colour, but all are are commonly involved in the aetiology of the disease. mild in flavour. Rich in carotenes and vitamin C. Swine fever is characterized by a refusal to eat, fever, Although yellow, purple, red and orange types are foul-smelling diarrhoea, distressed breathing, dis- available, sweet peppers are usually picked when charge from the eyes and general weakness. The dis- green. Eaten raw in salads or as crudites, or cooked, ease may take an acute or chronic form. If swine are sometimes stuffed with rice, meat or vegetables. slaughtered in the incubative stage and carcasses are Sweet peppers include bell peppers. chilled immediately, the viruses can persist in bone Sweet potatoes Common name for edible tubers of marrow, frozen pork and bacon. Consequently, the Ipomoea batatas. Vary in shape and colour of skin disease may be transmitted to healthy animals if they and flesh. Rich in vitamin C; orange- and yellow- are fed on offal, slaughterhouse wastes or waste food fleshed cultivars contain high levels of carotenes. prepared from infected animals. Outbreaks of such Eaten cooked in the same way as potatoes. Also a animal diseases are controlled by animal slaughter, good source of starch and can be fermented to pro- burning or burial of infected carcasses, and restriction duce alcohol. of transportation and export of swine and swine products. Sweet potato starch Starch isolated from tubers of sweet potatoes, Ipomoea batatas. Used as a food Swine kidneys Kidneys from swine; they are a part starch in noodles, and also in the manufacture of of edible offal. Swine kidneys have a strong flavour, starch syrups, glucose, isomerized glucose syr- and are commonly used to add richness to pates and ups, lactic beverages and a range of other food terrines. products. Used in Japan for production of shochu (a Swine livers Livers from swine; they are a part of distilled spirit). Granules vary from 4 to 40 ȝm in size. edible offal. Swine livers are strongly flavoured, dark in colour and may have a mealy texture. Commonly, Sweet proteins Proteins which are perceived as they are cooked by braising or are minced for use in having a sweet flavour, generally thousands of times liver sausages, pates and terrines. sweeter than sucrose. Used as sweeteners, they are non-glycaemic so are suitable as ingredients of dia- Swine muscles Alternative term for pork. betic foods. Also suitable for use in low sugar Swine skin Skin from swine. The skin has a high foods and low calorie foods. Include various fruit content of soluble collagen. A large proportion of proteins such as curculin, brazzein, mabinlin, mo- swine skin is used to prepare gelatin and aspic prod- 414 Swiss chard Syrups ucts. Pork rinds (skin with adhering fat) and swine Syagrus Genus of palms. Fruits of some species are skin connective tissue are used widely as ingredients in used as food; seeds are the source of palm oils. sausages. The crisp, fatty skin of roast pork is Synbiotic foods Novel foods containing a combi- known as crackling. nation of prebiotics (e.g. oligosaccharides) and Swiss chard Common name for a type of Beta vul- probiotic microorganisms. garis. Member of the beet family that is grown for its Synechococcus Genus of unicellular cyanobacte- large leaves, which are eaten as leafy vegetables in ria of the order Chroococcales. Generally found in ma- a similar way to spinach. Can also be used raw in rine habitats, but can also survive hypersaline envi- salads, or incorporated into savoury dishes and stuff- ronments and hot springs. Produce phycocyanin, and ings. Rich in vitamin A, vitamin C, potassium are sometimes grown in bioreactors for the produc- and iron. Also known as leaf beet, white beet, silver tion of this and other commercially useful pigments. beet and spinach beet. Synechocystis Genus of cyanobacteria of the Swiss cheese A pale yellow cheese with large order Chroococcales. Used in biotechnology for the holes and a slightly nutty flavour that is made in industrial production of enzymes, vitamin E and Switzerland, e.g. Emmental cheese and Gruyere carotenoids. cheese. Also a US term for any hard cheese that Syneresis Contraction of a substance, usually a gel, contains relatively large bubbles of air. when allowed to stand, and the resulting exudation of liquid from the gel. Control of syneresis is a key step Swiss rolls Thin sponge cakes which are covered for increasing curd yield and improving cheese on one side with jams and rolled into cylinders. quality. Also important for yoghurt quality. Syneresis Called jelly rolls in the USA. depends on a combination of specific and nonspecific Sword beans Seeds produced by Canavalia interactions at the protein level, many of which also gladiata. Used in a similar way to jack beans. occur during curd formation. Swordfish Large marine fish species (Xiphias gla- Syringic acid Phenolic isoflavone with radical scav- dius) with a long, flat, sword-like bill; found in tropical enging activity and antioxidative activity. Found in and temperate waters around the world. A commer- various foods and beverages, including soy prod- cially important food fish. Red flesh tends to be firm- ucts, alcoholic beverages and olive oils. Has textured with a mild flavour. Marketed fresh (whole, also been shown to possess antibacterial activity. gutted or steaks) and frozen. Liver oils are used as a Syrups Aqueous solutions of sugars or starch hy- source of vitamins. drolysates, for example fruit syrups. T

2,4,5-T Herbicide which has been used to control with cooked beef mince and sauces and topped weeds among a range of fruits, vegetables and ce- with shredded lettuce and grated cheese. reals. Also known as 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic Taenia Genus of parasitic tapeworms of the class acid. Listed by WHO as obsolete. Cestoda. Taenia solium is associated with pork, while Table grapes Species of grapes grown for eating as T. saginata is associated with beef. Infection in hu- opposed to winemaking or drying. They are seeded mans is usually transmitted by eating raw or under- or seedless fruits of the genus Vitis, the most impor- cooked beef or pork. tant species of which is V. vinifera. While most grapes Tagatose Ketose monosaccharide comprising six are grown as winemaking grapes, significant carbon atoms (hexoses); an isomer of galactose. amounts are produced as table grapes. Table grapes Has sweetness similar to that of sucrose but no have a firmer flesh and lower level of acidity than calorific value, making it suitable as a low-calorie winemaking grapes. All grapes are rich in sugar, but sweetener and bulking agent. Formed by bacterial contain little vitamin C. Organic acids include tar- fermentation using galactitol as substrate or pro- taric acid and malic acid in approximately equal duced from lactose via isomerization of galac- amounts. Black grapes contain anthocyanins. Table tose. grapes are eaten out of hand, or used in salads, pies Tagliatelli Pasta formed into narrow flat ribbons. and other desserts. Tahini Paste made from ground sesame seeds. Table jellies Fruit flavoured sweetened desserts set Used as an ingredient of humous and also as the base with gelatin or similar gelling agents. Known as for sauces. jello in the USA. Taints Sensory properties relating to the percep- Table olives Olives from suitable varieties of the tion of off flavour or off odour in a product. Taints olive tree which have been processed to make them in foods can be related to, for example, warmed over edible. Debittering treatment is an important stage in flavour in ready meals or boar taint in pork table olive production because the presence of the bit- products. ter glycoside oleuropein in raw olives renders them Take away foods Cooked dishes, often fast foods, unpalatable. Processing may also be required for which are sold at restaurants or other catering out- preservation purposes, enabling olives to be stored lets for consumption off the premises. for long periods and consumed as required. Processing Takju Rice wines manufactured in Korea. methods include fermentation and/or curing in Talaromyces Genus of fungi of the family Tricho- oils, water, brines or salt. Olives may also be fla- comaceae. Anamorphs include Penicillium and Pae- voured by soaking in marinades or by stuffing. cilomyces spp. Occur in soil and decaying plant ma- Only the highest quality fruit are processed as table ol- terial. Some species (e.g. Talaromyces flavus) may ives, taking into account factors such as variety, size, cause spoilage of fruits and fruit juices. A range of ripeness and damage. Rejected fruit, e.g. small, mis- enzymes is produced by many species of this genus, shapen or damaged olives, can be used for the produc- e.g. T. stipitatu produces feruloyl esterases and xy- tion of olive oils. Green olives are harvested early in lan degrading enzymes, T. emersonii produces xy- the ripening period and natural black olives are late lan-degrading enzymes, Į-glucuronidases and harvested. endo-1,3(4)-ȕ-glucanases, and T. thermophilus Tacos Pancakes made from corn flour which are produces ȕ-galactosidases. filled with meat mince, cheese or beans, together Taleggio cheese Italian semi-soft cheese made with piquant sauces, before being fried. from cow milk. Also known as Stracchino. Flavour Taco shells Crisp food products made from corn is buttery and fruity. Rind is pinkish-grey and the inte- masa dough which are shaped into thin discs and rior is white. Ripening lasts 25-50 days. Also pro- formed into a U-shape before being fried. Often filled duced as a cooked curd variety that is firmer and simi- 416 Tallow Tape lar to mozzarella cheese. Taleggio is an excellent Tangle Alternative term for brown seaweeds of the dessert cheese. genus Laminaria. Tallow Solid animal fats normally derived from cat- Tangor Citrus fruits that are a cross between tan- tle or sheep tissue, containing high levels of satu- gerines and oranges. Similar in flavour to oranges, rated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty ac- but contain many seeds. ids (triglycerides of stearic acid, palmitic acid Tania Common name for Xanthosoma sagittifolium, and oleic acid). White, flavourless, odourless and the corm of which is processed in a similar way to solid at room temperature. Usually prepared by heating taro. Nutritionally similar to taro also, although the suet under pressure in closed vessels. Used for frying starch is more difficult to digest. Sometimes used as and in shortenings. the base for preparation of fufu. Also known as tannia, Tamales Concentric layered corn products, tradition- taniers, yautia or new cocoyams. ally produced in Mexico. Some tamales include sea- Taniers Alternative term for tania. soned meat, for example beef tamales, but others are Tanks Large storage chambers or containers, par- prepared without meat, for example green tamales. ticularly for gases or liquids. In the dairy industry, bulk Tamarillos Fruits produced by Cyphomandra beta- milk cooling tanks are used for cooling and holding cea. Skin is yellow to deep red in colour, while the raw milk after collection. flesh varies from yellow-orange to purple. Contains Tannases EC 3.1.1.20. Esterases which catalyse the numerous seeds. Rich in potassium and caro- breakdown of hydrolysable tannins and gallic acid tenes, with moderate amounts of vitamin E and vi- esters. Used in the manufacture of teas and other tamin C. Best eaten cooked, with the bitter tasting beverages, including wines and fruit juices. Also skin removed. Used in a range of products, including used to produce gallic acid and to remove unwanted juices, sauces, chutneys and relishes. Also known tannins from foods and food processing wastes and as tree tomatoes. effluents. Tamarinds Common name for fruits of Tamarindus Tannic acid Polyphenol which displays an- indica. The brown, curved pods contain a sticky pulp timutagenicity, anticarcinogenicity and antioxi- studded with up to 10 starchy seeds that can be eaten dative activity. Used as a food additive, a clarifying as a pulse. The sweet-sour flavoured pulp is extracted agent and a refining agent, but may inhibit the ab- and used in a variety of foods, including sweet- sorption of dietary iron. meats, curries, preserves and chutneys. Leaves and flowers of the plant are also eaten in India. Tannins Complex polyhydroxybenzoic acid derivatives found in many foods. Antinutritional factors Tamper evident closures Closures designed to inhibiting the bioavailability of vitamins and min- ensure that any unauthorized interference is evident. erals, and may be carcinogenic. However, also pos- Tamper evident packaging Packaging designed to sess antimicrobial activity, antioxidative activity ensure that any unauthorized interference is evident. and antitumour activity. Tangelo Citrus fruits that are a cross between tan- Tanoor Thin Middle Eastern leavened flat bread gerines and pummelos. The most popular varieties made from high-extraction wheat flour. are the minneola, with few seeds and a tart, sweet flavour, and the Orlando, a many-seeded fruit with a Tanshen Common name for Salina miltiorrhiza, the mild, sweet flavour. roots of which are used widely in Chinese herbal medicine. Extracts display antitumour activity, an- Tangerine juices Fruit juices extracted from tan- timutagenicity and antioxidative activity. Also gerines (Citrus reticulata). Tangerines are processed known as dan shen. into single strength juices and frozen concentrates. Of- ten blended with orange juices, as they contribute a Tansy Common name for Tanacetum vulgare, the deep orange colour. However, the amount added to leaves and tops of which are used as herbs with a bit- blends is usually <10% as higher amounts can impart ter flavour. Leaves are used in preparation of herb an off flavour to the orange juice products. tea, salads and herb stuffings. Tansy essential oils and extracts contain significant amounts of the Tangerines Small, loose-skinned citrus fruits (Cit- toxin -thujone. Only -thujone-free tansy oils are rus reticulata). Relatively good source of vitamin C. Į Į permitted as food additives and their use is limited to This species also includes mandarins and sat- alcoholic beverages. sumas, names tending to be used indiscriminately. Tangerines tend to be darker in colour than mandar- Tape Indonesian alcoholic fermented foods made ins. Consumed fresh or as a dessert, often as canned by inoculating steamed glutinous rice or mashed cas- segments. Used in several citrus hybrids. sava with a combination of starters, and incubating in airtight containers. Tape (alternatively termed 417 Tape ketan Taste panels tapai) made with glutinous rice is called tape ketan, China and Japan, and leaves are also eaten. Taro is a and that made with mashed cassava is called tape good source of potassium and fibre. Leaves contain ketela. Products have spongy texture and mild, carotenes and are rich in vitamin C. sweet, wine-like aroma and flavour. Eaten as snack Tarragon Common name for Artemisia dracunculus, foods. the leaves of which have a sweet, mild anise-like fla- Tape ketan Indonesian alcoholic fermented foods vour and are used as spices. The predominant fla- (general name tape) made by inoculating steamed glu- vour compound is estragole, also known as p- tinous rice with a combination of starters, and incu- allylanisole and methyl chavicol. Tarragon is used in bating in airtight containers. Eaten as snack foods. flavourings for foods such as meat and meat Tape ketela Indonesian alcoholic fermented foods products, flavoured vinegar and pickles. Leaf es- (general name tape) made by inoculating mashed sential oils are extracted and also used as flavour- cassava (also known as peuyeum) with a combina- ings. Also known as estragon. tion of starters, and incubating in airtight contain- Tartaric acid Organic acid present in fruits and iso- ers. Eaten as snack foods. lated from potassium tartrate films produced as a by- Tapeworms Parasitic worms of the class Cestoda. As product in winemaking. Tartaric acid, as well as so- adults they live in the intestines of vertebrates and as dium and calcium tartrates, have many uses as food juveniles they often live in the bodies of various ani- additives, including as flavourings (acidulants) mals. Species infecting man include Hymenolepis imparting a fruity flavour, humectants, antioxi- nana, Taenia solium (particularly from pork), Taenia dants, sequestrants and as part of a pH buffering saginata (particularly from beef) and Diphyllo- system. Tartaric acid is also a substrate for production bothrium latum (from raw fish). Tapeworm infection of the raising agent, cream of tartar (potassium hydro- can be asymptomatic, or may generate symptoms in- gen tartrate) which is an ingredient of baking pow- cluding increased appetite, weight loss, diarrhoea, ders. Systematic name is 2,3-dihydroxybutanedioic constipation and abdominal discomfort. Cysticerco- acid. sis, a complication of Taenia solium infection, may Tartrates Salts of tartaric acid. Crystallization of occur when larvae develop outside of the intestinal tartrates in wines is a problem, since the wines are tract. then generally considered unacceptable by consumers. Tapioca Starch extracted from tubers of cassava Tartrazine Synthetic bright yellow pyrazole dye used (Manihot esculenta). Also called cassava starch. in artificial colorants for foods and beverages. In Tapioca starch Alternative term for tapioca. aqueous solution, tartrazine shows high stability when exposed to acids and alkalis, moderate stability to light Tap water Water supplied to consumers via the water and heat (stable at extrusion and baking tempera- mains system; usually suitable for use as drinking tures) and poor stability in the presence of ascorbic water. acid. Synonymous with FD&C Yellow 5 and CI Tarag Asian fermented milk of a variety of species. 19140. Tara gums Gums obtained from seeds of the tara Tarts Open pastry cases made with shortcrust pastry, tree (Caesalpinia spinosa) by grinding of the en- which are frequently baked blind (or empty) and then dosperm. Composed mainly of galactomannans, on filled with sweet fillings such as fruits, jams or average there are 3 mannose residues to every 1 ga- custards, or sometimes savoury mixtures, e.g. lactose residue. Used as stabilizers and thicken- cheese or vegetables. ers . Taste Sensation produced by stimulation of the taste Tarama Fermented fish product containing fish roes buds on the tongue. The tongue can distinguish five (usually from carp) mixed with salt, breadcrumbs, separate tastes (sweet, salt, sour, bitter and sa- Feta cheese, olive oils and lemon juices. voury/umami). Often used as an alternative term for Tarhana Traditional Turkish version of kishk, a fer- flavour. mented wheat flour-yoghurt mixture used in Taste panels Groups of individuals, untrained or soups. The Greek version of kishk is known as trained, used to sample products and assess their fla- trahanas. vour, with a view to providing an insight into con- Taro Common name for Colocasia esculenta or C. sumer preferences. Taste panels are used in research, antiquorum. The corm is eaten cooked; if not well product development and for purposes of evaluating enough cooked, irritation of the mouth results due to new and competitive products, and are not restricted to oxalate crystals. Used as a vegetable, in soups and evaluating flavour. Texture, colour and many other stews, processed to make fufu or fermented to produce quality factors can be measured meaningfully. poi. Subsidiary corms (cormels), known as eddo in 418 Taste thresholds Teleme cheese Taste thresholds Alternative term for flavour Tea beverages Hot or cold beverages prepared thresholds. from tea leaves or infusions. Taurine Aminosulfonic acid synthesized from cys- Tea granules Instant tea products comprising teine and methionine. Abundant in animal pro- granules of dry tea extracts which are reconstituted teins but is not found in vegetable proteins. into tea beverages on addition of water. Hence, vegetarians with insufficient cysteine and me- Tea leaves Fresh or processed leaves of the tea plant, thionine intakes may have difficulty producing taurine. Camellia sinensis. Taxonomy Study of the theory, practice and rules of Tea powders Instant tea products comprising pow- classification and nomenclature of living and extinct dered dry tea extracts which are reconstituted into tea organisms. The principles of taxonomy were estab- beverages on addition of water. lished in the 18th century by the work of Linnaeus. As Teas Hot or cold beverages prepared by infusion of far as possible, organisms are arranged into a hierarchy dry plant leaves, flowers or other plant parts. The type of groups (called taxa) based on degrees of relationship usually referred to as tea is made from the leaves of (phylogeny). When knowledge of the evolution of a Camellia sinensis; other types include mate, rooibos group is lacking, taxonomy is based on structural and tea, honeybush tea and a wide range of types of other similarities. Under the Linnaean system, an or- herb tea and fruit tea. ganism is classified according to a hierarchical system Tea seed oils Vegetable oils extracted from the as follows: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, ge- seeds of tea species such as Thea sasangua or Camel- nus, species. lia oleifera. Used as salad oils and cooking oils. TBA reactive substances Abbreviation for thiobar- Tea tree oils Essential oils distilled from leaves of bituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). Name ap- Melaleuca alternifolia, a tree native to Australia and plied jointly to malonaldehyde and the other sub- certain parts of Asia. Major constituents of the oils are stances formed during lipid oxidation, as measured in terpinen-4-ol, 1,8-cineole and Ȗ-terpinene. The oils terms of thiobarbituric acid values (TBA values) have a warm, spicy flavour. Tea tree oils exhibit an- determined from reaction with thiobarbituric acid timicrobial activity and are used as an antiseptic. (TBA). TBARS values are expressed as mg malonal- Although more commonly used for their therapeutic dehyde equivalents per kg of sample. Care must be properties, tea tree oils are also used as food flavour- taken when comparing TBARS values between differ- ings, including as a substitute for nutmeg. ent studies because of the many variations that have been developed for performing the TBA test. Tebuconazole One of the triazole fungicides. Also known as Folicur. A broad spectrum, systemic fungi- TBARS Abbreviation for TBA reactive sub- cide used as a seed treatment for control of fungal instances. fections of barley, oats and wheat, for prevention of TBA values Abbreviation for thiobarbituric acid Fusarium head blight on wheat crops and as a foliar values. spray for preharvest treatment of fruits and vegeta- TBHQ Abbreviation for tert-butylhydroquinone. bles. Considered by the United States Food and Drug Administration to be safe, but listed as a potential car- TDE Persistent non-systemic organochlorine insecti- cinogen in the United States Environmental Protection cide used to control a wide range of insects. Use on Agency Office of Pesticide Programs Carcinogen List. crops has generally been displaced by less persistent Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). insecticides. Can occur as a degradation product of DDT. Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous Technetium Metallic element with the chemical sym- (WHO II). Also known as DDD. bol Tc. Tecto Alternative term for thiabendazole. Tea Hot or cold beverages made by infusion of dry, prepared leaves of Camellia sinensis in water. The Teff Tropical millet, Eragrostis abyssinica or E. tef, main types are black tea, in manufacture of which the which is native to northeastern Africa and southeastern fresh tea leaves have undergone fermentation be- Arabia and is used as a cereal crop and livestock feed. fore drying, and green tea, in which the fresh tea Used to make the traditional flat bread, injera. leaves have not undergone this fermentation. Oolong Tehineh Pastes made from ground, dehulled, dry tea and pouchong tea have undergone partial fer- roasted sesame seeds. mentation, and are intermediate in character between Teleme cheese Greek soft cheese prepared from green and black teas. ewe milk or cow milk. Now also made in California, Tea bags Tea packaged in small portion-size perme- USA. Similar to Brie cheese, with a tangy flavour able bags for easy preparation of tea beverages. that develops as the cheese ages. 419 Telemetry Teratogenicity Telemetry Process of transmitting readings from in- thickened chocolate back into the remaining melted struments or measurements by radio or a telecommuni- chocolate; and reheating the product. cations link. Tempura Japanese dish prepared from vegetables, TEM Abbreviation for transmission electron mi- fish or shellfish, fried in batters. croscopy. Tench Freshwater fish species (Tinca tinca) from Temephos Non-systemic insecticide used primarily the carp family (Cyprinidae); distributed across Europe for control of mosquito and midge larvae and certain and western Asia. Marketed fresh and frozen and as a aquatic insects in urban and agricultural environ- canned product. Also known as lin. ments. Also used for controlling lice on animals (in- Tenderization Mechanical or chemical processes by cluding humans). Residues may contaminate water which meat can be made easier to cut or chew, so im- supplies. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present proving its tenderness. Mechanical methods break acute hazard in normal use. Also known as abate. down tough fibres in the meat, usually through pounding. Pounders can be made of metal or wood, and can Temik Alternative term for the insecticide aldicarb. be a variety of shapes and sizes. Chemical methods Temp. abuse indicators Devices used to give an that can also be applied to soften meat fibres include indication of whether products have been exposed to application of long, slow cooking, marination in inappropriate temperatures that could cause damage acidic marinades and use of commercial meat ten- during transport, distribution or storage. For example, derizers. Most meat tenderizers are composed primar- indicators can be used to show whether frozen foods ily of papain, an enzyme extracted from papayas; have been thawed during handling or storage; thaw- they can also contain salt, sugar (usually glucose) ing during distribution can potentially affect quality and anticaking agents (usually calcium stearate). and safety. Indicator devices often produce a visible, Tenderness Sensory properties related to the irreversible colour change to show when temperature extent to which a product, such as meat, is tender, i.e. abuse has occurred. Microbial indicators may also be soft, palatable and chewable. Tenderness can be meas- used to detect exposure to temperature abuse, espe- ured using tenderometers. cially in animal carcasses. For example, poultry Tenderometers Instruments used to measure ten- products that have been maintained at the correct tem- derness or the stage of maturity of produce, particu- perature will have fairly constant counts of coliforms, larly peas, on the basis of the force required to cause while those that have been warmed will have higher shearing. counts. Tenjan Alternative term for doenjang. Tempe Alternative term for tempeh. Tenox Registered trade name for a series of natural Tempeh Product generally made by fermentation of and synthetic antioxidants manufactured by Eastman soybeans, sometimes mixed with cereals. Used as Chemical. meat extenders or meat substitutes. Cooked in a Tensile strength Measure of the resistance that a variety of ways or added to dishes such as sauces, material produces to a pulling stress (tensile stress); soups and casseroles. Some types of tempeh are measured in Newtons per square metre. made from other materials, e.g. bongkrek is made by Tensiometry Measurement of surface tension. fermentation of presscake of coconuts or coconut Tenuazonic acid Mycotoxin produced mainly by milk residue. Alternaria alternata growing on foods (e.g. fruits, Temper Measure of the degree of crystallization of vegetables and cereals). cocoa butter in chocolate and the type of crystals Tepary beans Seeds produced by Phaseolus acuti- present. folius, a plant that grows well under drought condi- Temperature Degree or intensity of heat present in a tions. Vary greatly in shape and colour. Dried seeds substance or object or its surroundings, usually meas- are soaked before cooking or are ground into meal. ured using thermometers. Pinto beans may be substituted for tepary beans in recipes. Tempering Stabilization of chocolate by application of a melting and cooling process. Chocolate is tem- Tequila Mexican spirits made by distillation of pered to stabilize the cocoa butter, a fat that can fermented sap of the agave plant. form crystals and cause bloom in the finished prod- Teratogenesis Process leading to developmental uct. The classic tempering method includes the follow- abnormalities in the fetus. ing stages: melting of the chocolate; working two- Teratogenicity Capacity of a substance to produce thirds of the melted chocolate on a marble slab with a teratogenic effects, i.e. to cause developmental abnor- metal spatula until it becomes thick; transferring the malities in the fetus. 420 Terbuthylazine Textured vegetable proteins Terbuthylazine Broad-spectrum triazine herbicide Tetrachloroisophthalonitrile Alternative term for used for pre- or post-emergence control of weeds the fungicide chlorothalonil. around a range of food plants. Classified by WHO as Tetrachloromethane Synonym for carbon tetra- unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. chloride. Organic halogen compound and versatile Terfezia Genus of edible fungi including desert truf- organic solvent whose use has diminished since the fles and the poor man's truffle. discovery that it is carcinogenic. May be used in fu- Termitomyces Genus of edible fungi. migants. Can occur as a contaminant of treated Terpenes Unsaturated hydrocarbons consisting of drinking water. isoprene units found in many higher plants and es- Tetracyclines Broad-spectrum antibiotics widely sential oils. Typically, volatile compounds with used in animals both for prevention and treatment of pleasant odours used as flavourings. Terpenes are disease, and as feed additives to promote growth. Dis- major components of citrus essential oils but, since tribution is rapid and wide following administration, they are not responsible for the characteristic flavour and residues may persist in some tissues. Tolerance and readily oxidize and polymerize to produce un- values are specified for meat, livers, kidneys, animal pleasant flavours, they are generally removed by distil- fats, milk and eggs. Commonly used examples include lation or solvent extraction. chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline. Terpenoids Volatile compounds found in plants Tetradifon Non-systemic contact acaricide used to and essential oils which are important for flavour. control plant eating mites on a wide range of fruits Certain terpenoids exhibit antioxidative activity, and vegetables, hops and tea. Classified by WHO anticarcinogenicity and antimutagenicity. as unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. Terpinene Flavour compounds found in plants Tetragenococcus Genus of lactic acid bacteria of and essential oils that have been found to inhibit the family Enterococcaceae. Includes the species Tet- food spoilage yeasts. ragenococcus halophilus, which is used in the fermen- Terpineol Monocyclic monoterpene alcohol used in tation of soy sauces and miso. flavourings. Found naturally in essential oils, citrus Tetrahydrofolate Biochemically active form of folic juices and wines, and can be produced by microbial acid. Coenzyme of various reactions involved in the transformation of limonene. metabolism of amino acids, purines and Terpinyl acetate Flavour compound with antifungal pyrimidines. Many foods are rich in folates, includ- activity that is found in essential oils. ing green leafy vegetables, livers, fruits and Terramycin Synonymous with oxytetracycline. yeast extracts. Terrines Foods, particularly pates, which are cooked Tetrahydrophthalimide Primary degradation prod- and served in earthenware tureens (or terrines). A pate uct of the fungicide captan. made in this way is also referred to as pate en terrine. Tetrazoles Group of organic nitrogen com- Terroir Total environment in which a grapevine is pounds derived from tetrazole, a synthetic organic grown for the purpose of producing winemaking heterocyclic compound comprising four nitrogen at- grapes. Includes a great many factors, including soil, oms and a single carbon atom. Dihydroxyphenoxy-1H- climate, location and cultivation conditions. tetrazoles and their salts have been investigated as non- tert-Butylhydroquinone Commonly abbreviated to nutritive artificial sweeteners. TBHQ. An antioxidant used in foods, including meat Tetrodotoxin Highly toxic and potentially lethal neu- products, vegetable oils, potato crisps and ce- rotoxin found in many species of pufferfish. Pro- real products. duced by bacteria which colonize the fish. Responsi- Testosterone Male sex hormone produced by the ble for poisoning caused by consumption of contami- interstitial cells of the testis of mammals. Used to pro- nated pufferfish. mote muscular development in certain animals. Texture Sensory properties relating to the feel of a Tetilla cheese Spanish semi-soft cheese made from surface or product, or the impression created by a sur- cow milk. Rind is pale yellow and ridged. The cheese face structure or the general physical appearance of a has a fresh lemony flavour and a creamy consis- surface. A major factor affecting the mouthfeel and tency; fat content is 25%. Ripening is completed in quality of a food. 2-3 weeks. Textured vegetable proteins Plant protein products Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxins Potent toxins re- that are shaped and textured to form particles, or leased into the environment from, for example, indus- shaped pieces, such as chunks and strips, usually by trial sources that can then find their way as contami- spinning or extrusion technology. Typically formu- nants into the food chain. lated with added colorants and flavourings, and 421 Texture profile analysis Thermal stability used as meat substitutes. Soy proteins are most Thearubigins Flavonoid pigments found in tea commonly used, although other proteins, such as which contribute to the flavour, depth of colour and wheat gluten, can also be used. Commonly abbrevi- body. ated to TVP. Theobromine Purine alkaloid similar to caffeine that Texture profile analysis Analysis of the texture of a is found in cocoa, chocolate, soft drinks and tea. food in terms of mechanical properties, geometrical Acts as a stimulant and may be toxic. characteristics, and fat and moisture contents, at spe- Theophylline Purine alkaloid that contributes to the cific points during the mastication process. flavour of and is used as a marker of quality in tea, Texturization Process by which sensory proper- coffee, soft drinks and chocolate. Acts as a stimu- ties of a substance are altered, e.g. to produce a par- lant. ticular feel, appearance or consistency. Therapy Treatment of diseases. Includes diet ther- Texturizers Additives that improve the texture of apy and immunotherapy. foods. Examples include gums, hydrocolloids and Thermal capacity Thermophysical properties polydextrose, used as fat substitutes to add body relating to the extent to which a material can retain to low fat foods and calcium chloride, which is heat. added to canned fruits and vegetables to maintain Thermal conductivity Thermophysical proper- firmness of the product. ties relating to the rate of conduction of heat through a Texturizing agents Substances which act as textur- material, measured in Joules per second per metre per izers, improving the texture of foods. Kelvin. Texturometers Devices used to measure texture Thermal diffusivity Thermophysical properties properties of foods, by analysis of physical attributes relating to the extent to which an item diffuses or such as hardness, cohesiveness and crush resistance. spreads heat throughout its mass. Thaumatin Non-nutritive natural sweeteners iso- Thermal expansion Increase in size (e.g. length, lated from fruits of Thaumatococcus daniellii, a plant volume, surface area) of a body in response to heat- native to West Africa. The sweet flavour of T. daniel- ing. For liquids, expansivity observed directly is called lii fruits is attributed to two sweet proteins of ap- the apparent expansivity, as the container holding the proximately 22 kDa, designated thaumatin I and II. liquid will have expanded also with the rise in tem- Both thaumatin proteins are approximately 1000-2000 perature. Absolute expansivity is the apparent expan- times as sweet as sucrose (weight for weight). Com- sivity plus the volume expansivity of the container. mercial thaumatin preparations are complexed with Thermal processes Processes involving heating aluminium to improve their stability. Thaumatin is that are used to produce desirable changes in products, soluble in water and alcohols and is synergistic with such as protein coagulation, starch swelling, textural acesulfame K and saccharin. Aqueous solutions of the softening and formation of aroma compounds. Un- sweetener have high thermal stability and are stable desirable changes can also occur with application of over the pH range 2-10. However, factors which influ- thermal processes, such as losses of vitamins and ence thaumatin structure, e.g. reducing agents, affect minerals, and loss of fresh appearance, flavour and its sweetness. Although used as a sweetener, thaumatin texture. Examples of thermal processes used in the has a liquorice-like aftertaste. It is commonly used in food industry are: HTST processing; LTLT process- flavour enhancers, e.g. in chewing gums. Syn- ing; electric heating; ohmic heating; microwave onymous with katemfe and sold under the trade name heating; and blanching. Talin. Thermal processing Application of heating meth- Thawing Transition of an item from a frozen to an ods to the processing of foods. Techniques in the cate- unfrozen state. gory include: HTST processing; LTLT processing; Theaflavins Flavonoids which contribute signifi- electric heating; ohmic heating; microwave heating; cantly to the colour and flavour of black tea, and and blanching. are used as markers of quality. Possess antitumour Thermal properties Properties that influence the activity and antioxidative activity. heating rate and response to heating of a material. Theanine Amino acid found in tea. As well as im- Thermal stability Thermophysical properties proving the flavour of tea, theanine has a relaxing ef- relating to the ability of materials to maintain stability fect, improves learning ability and lowers blood pres- when subjected to various temperatures of applied sure. Has also been found to help prevent D- heat. If food ingredients or additives are heat stable, galactosamine-induced liver injury in rats. it is possible for them to be used successfully in prod- 422 Thermistors Thermus ucts which have to be thermally processed. Synony- Thermolysins EC 3.4.24.27, formerly 3.4.24.4. Neu- mous with heat stability. tral, heat-stable metalloendopeptidases produced by Thermistors Semiconductors used for measuring Bacillus thermoproteolyticus, containing 1 zinc ion temperature on the basis that their electrical resistance and 4 calcium ions. Most heat-stable proteinases decreases with increasing temperature. available commercially, remaining active at temp. up to 80qC. Thermization Heat treatment of foods at a temp. lower than that used for pasteurization, with an up- Thermometers Instruments for measuring and indi- per limit of about 65°C for 20 s. Thermization is less cating temperature, typically consisting of a graduated severe for the product and associated microorgan- glass tube containing mercury or alcohol which ex- isms than pasteurization. pands when heated and contracts when the temperature falls. Thermometers are tailored for different purposes. Thermoanaerobacter Genus of anaerobic, rod- For example, specific instruments are available for use shaped, thermophilic Gram positive bacteria of the during the manufacture of sugar confectionery or Thermoanaerobacteraceae family. Some species are cooking of meat (to ascertain that the meat has used in the production of thermostable proteinases reached the desired degree of doneness), and also for and other enzymes. temperature monitoring in freezers, refrigerators Thermoanaerobacterium Genus of anaerobic, rod- and ovens. shaped, thermophilic Gram positive bacteria be- Thermomonospora Genus of aerobic, thermophilic, longing to the Thermoanaerobacteraceae family. Some filamentous Gram positive bacteria of the family species (e.g. Thermoanaerobacterium thermosac- Thermomonosporaceae. Occur in soil and compost. charolyticum) are used in the production of thermosta- Some species may be used in the production of ther- ble proteinases and other enzymes. mostable proteinases. Thermoascus Genus of thermophilic filamentous Thermomyces Genus of mitosporic fungi of the fungi of the family Trichocomaceae. Thermoascus au- Ascomycota phylum. Species (e.g. Thermomyces la- rantiacus shows strong cellulose degrading activity nuginosus) are used in the production of thermostable and is a source of a number of glycosidases, includ- lipases. ing xylan endo-1,3-ȕ-xylosidases and cellu- Thermophiles Organisms, especially microorgan- lolytic enzymes. isms, that grow best at relatively high temperatures. Thermococcus Genus of archaea of the Thermo- Their optimum growth temperature is generally ac- coccaceae family. These hyper-thermophiles have cepted as being above 50°C. biotechnological potential for production of enzymes Thermophilic bacteria Bacteria that are thermo- with good thermal stability, including glycosi- philes. dases and proteinases. Thermophysical properties Properties that influ- Thermocouples Devices for measuring or sensing a ence the heating rate and response to heating of a ma- temperature difference, consisting of two wires of dif- terial. Examples of thermophysical properties are ferent metals connected at two points, between which a thermal conductivity (the ability of a material to voltage is developed in proportion to any temperature conduct heat) and specific heat (the ability of a ma- difference. terial to store heat). Thermodynamic properties Thermophysical Thermostats Devices that automatically regulate properties which relate to the response of systems to temperature to a specified value or range, or activate changes in temperature, pressure and volume. devices at a set temperature. Thermogenesis The production of heat, particularly Thermotoga Genus of rod-shaped, hyperthermophilic within the body by physiological processes. Can be bacteria belonging to the family Thermotogaceae. classified into exercise-associated thermogenesis and Thermotoga maritima and T. neapolitana metabolize non-exercise-associated thermogenesis. May occur many simple and complex carbohydrates and are a through the uncoupled oxidation of fatty acids by source of a number of enzymes including glycosi- brown adipose tissues or shivering. dases. Thermogravimetric analysis Alternative term for Thermus Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped or filamen- gravimetry. tous, thermophilic Gram negative bacteria. Occur Thermoluminescence Luminescence produced in hot springs, hot water tanks and thermally polluted by heating a solid substance. Caused by emission of rivers. Thermus thermophilus is used in the production photons of light by free electrons and holes trapped in of thermostable proteinases. T. aquaticus is an ex- the solid. treme thermophile used in the production of a wide 423 Thiabendazole Thioglycolic acid range of thermostable enzymes, such as fructose- spores of Thielaviopsis basicola and T. thielavioides bisphosphate aldolases, DNA-directed RNA on their surface. T. basicola also causes black root rot polymerases, DNA-directed DNA polymerases, of carrots. alkaline phosphatases and isocitrate dehydro- Thin layer chromatography Chromatography genases. technique in which sample components are separated Thiabendazole A systemic benzimidazole fungicide as the sample travels, under the influence of a solvent, with curative and protective action used to control fun- up an inert plate coated with a sorbant. Commonly ab- gal diseases in fruits, vegetables and cereals. Em- breviated to TLC. ployed in food preservation, such as in dips for im- Thin layer drying A drying technique that involves proving the postharvest freshness of fruits. Also used arrangement of the products to be dried in thin layers as a broad-spectrum anthelmintic to treat a range of in order to optimize moisture transfer. Applied to a roundworm and cestode infections in livestock. Classi- range of food particles or slices, particularly plant fied by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in foods. normal use. Also known as tecto. Thinning In plant cultivation, removal of young Thiamin Synonym for vitamin B1 and vitamin F. plants Member of the water soluble vitamin B group. Ac- to allow remaining plants more room to grow, fruits tive in the form thiamin pyrophosphate, a coenzyme or removal of selected from a plant so that the for decarboxylation reactions in carbohydrate metabo- other fruits can increase in size. lism. Helps to maintain normal nervous system activity Thiobarbituric acid values Values (commonly and regulates muscle tone of the gastrointestinal tract. abbreviated to TBA values) used for assessing oxida- Severe deficiency is clinically recognized as beriberi. tion of lipids in foods and other biological systems, Thiamin is found in unrefined cereals, beans, meat using thiobarbituric acid (TBA). Two molecules of (especially livers, kidneys, hearts and pork), TBA react with one molecule of malonaldehyde to yeasts, potatoes, peas and nuts. Cooking losses produce a red pigment; the amount of pigment pro- can be as much as 50%. duced is measured using spectroscopy. Extent of Thiamine Alternative spelling for thiamin. lipid oxidation, reported as the TBA value, is expressed as milligrams of malonaldehyde equivalents Thiamphenicol Synthetic, broad-spectrum antibiotic per kilogram of sample, or as micromoles of malonal- (chloramphenicol analogue) used for treatment and dehyde equivalents per gram of sample. The TBA test control of respiratory and intestinal diseases in live- may be performed directly on the sample, its extracts stock, excluding animals producing eggs for human or distillate. consumption. May also be used in aquaculture. Par- ticularly effective against anaerobes. Thiocyanates Alternative term for isothiocy- Thiazoles Volatile flavour compounds found, for anates. example, in cooked meat and beer. May also cause Thiodan Alternative term for the insecticide endo- off flavour. sulfan. Thickeners Additives that increase the viscosity of Thioesters Esters containing sulfur instead of oxy- foods. Unlike gelling agents, do not promote the gen. Important aroma compounds often added to formation of gels. Gums and starch are important processed foods. Can be prepared by lipase- thickeners in the food industry. catalysed esterification of fatty acids with short- Thickening Process of making or becoming thicker and long-chain thiols. and usually more viscous. For example, sauces are Thioglucosidases EC 3.2.1.147, formerly 3.2.3.1. thickened using corn starch. Glycosidases that hydrolyse S-glycosyl compounds. Thickness As well as relating to consistency and Have a wide specificity for thioglycosides, forming viscosity, this term relates to measurement of the a thiol and a sugar. Responsible for hydrolysis of glu- depth of a substance such as backfat on animal car- cosinolates in cruciferous vegetables, producing casses. organic sulfur compounds including isothiocy- Thidiazuron Plant growth regulator with defoliation anates, some of which display anticarcinogenic- activity; used to stimulate fruit growth in a range of ity, but which also impart an undesirable flavour and fruits, including apples, grapes and kiwifruit. which may also be toxic. Also known as myrosinases, Thielaviopsis Genus of fungi of the order Microas- sinigrinases and sinigrases. cales, which includes several agricultural pathogens. Thioglycolic acid Toxic organic acid also known as Species may cause spoilage of fruits and vegeta- 2-mercaptoacetic acid, Į-mercaptoacetic acid and thio- bles. Carrots, for example, commonly harbour vanic acid. 424 Thioglycosides Thyme Thioglycosides Sulfur-containing glycosides are eaten include flowers, leaves, stems and seeds. Ex- found in cruciferous vegetables that show anticar- tracts of dried cardoon flowers are used as vegetable cinogenicity. They are useful as glycosyl donors in rennets in cheesemaking. the synthesis of complex carbohydrates. Thixotropy Property of a material that enables it to Thiols Compounds containing sulfhydryl groups, stiffen in a relatively short time on standing, while, i.e. in which the oxygen of an alcohol is replaced with upon agitation or manipulation, it can change to a sulfur. These compounds have extremely unpleasant very soft consistency or to a fluid of high viscos- odours. ity, the process being completely reversible. Thionins Low molecular weight proteins which Thomsons gazelles Swift-running, graceful African occur in seeds of several plant species and show an- antelopes that may be shot or snared for food use. timicrobial activity. Thomson's gazelles (Gazella thomsoni) are similar in Thiophanate-methyl Systemic fungicide used for appearance to Grant's gazelles, but are smaller and control of a wide range of fungal diseases on fruits, yield less meat when dressed. vegetables and cereals. Classified by WHO as Thraustochytrium Genus of filamentous fungi-like unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. Also microorganisms of the family Thraustochytriidae in known as methylthiophanate and Pelt 44. the stramenopile taxonomic group. Fermentation Thiophenes Sulfur-containing volatile com- products obtained from this organism include Ȧ-3 pounds that contribute to the flavour of many foods fatty acids, such as docosahexaenoic acid and and beverages. eicosapentaenoic acid, and carotenoids. Its Thioredoxin Small, widely distributed, dithiol protein cofermentation with other stramenopiles of the ge- with antioxidative activity. Facilitates reduction of nus Schizochytrium is also used for production of disulfide bonds in food proteins to sulfhydryl PUFA. groups, reducing their allergenicity and increasing Threadfin bream Any of several marine fish spe- their digestibility by trypsin and pepsins. Used as cies in the genus Nemipterus; distributed across the an ingredient in functional foods. Ingestion of Indo-Pacific. Commercially important species include isothiocyanates from cruciferous vegetables can Nemipterus japonicus (Japanese threadfin bream) and increase thioredoxin expression in mammals, leading N. virgatus (golde threadfin bream). Marketed mainly to reduced oxidative stress. fresh, but also frozen, steamed, dried-salted, dry- Thiouracil Drug which inhibits production of thyroid smoked, fermented or made into fish balls and fish hormones and results in increased water retention in meal. muscle tissue. Sometimes used illegally to increase Threonine Aminohydroxybutyric acid. One of the meat yield in animals. essential amino acids. Thiourea Organic nitrogen- and sulfur-containing Threshers Machines that separate grain from other ) CS. Structurally compound, molecular formula (NH2 2 debris. similar to urea, with S replacing the O atom. Widely- used industrially, and can occur as an environmental Thrips Common name for members of the insect order contaminant in water supplies. Used in the food in- Thysanoptera. Pests of a wide variety of crops (e.g. dustry as an analytical reagent and an enzyme inhibi- citrus fruits, vegetables and cereals). Some spe- tor, particularly with regard to polyphenol oxi- cies are important vectors of fungi and viruses re- dases (catechol oxidases). Has moderate radical sponsible for plant diseases. scavenging activity. Thromboelastographs Instruments used in the food Thiram Protective dithiocarbamate fungicide applied industry to monitor gelation, e.g. milk coagulation, to foliage or as seed treatments in order to control fun- by measuring gel firmness. gal diseases on a wide range of crops. Classified by Thujone Toxic ketone present in absinthe, and cer- WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). Also known as tain herbal plants, essential oils and natural fla- TMTD. vourings. Thirst A desire or need to drink that is often accompa- Thyme Common name for plants native to Mediterra- nied by a sensation of dryness in the mouth and throat. nean countries of the genus Thymus, leaves and flower- Commonly caused by an insufficient intake of fluids. ing tops of which are used as spices. The most com- Thistles Group of plants including many species monly used variety is T. vulgaris; other spice varieties used as vegetables. Such types include globe arti- include T. citriodorus (lemon thyme), T. zygis and T. chokes (Cynara scolymus), cardoons (C. carduncu- serpyllum (wild thyme). The predominant flavour lus) and milk thistles (Silybum marianum). Parts which compounds of thyme are thymol and carvacrol. 425 Thyme oils Tin plate Thyme extracts and essential oils are used as fla- Tilsit cheese German semi-hard cheese made from vourings in the food industry. cow milk. Buttery and fruity flavour with a spicy Thyme oils Essential oils obtained from thyme tinge, and mildly pungent aroma. Rind is crusty and (Thymus spp.). In addition to their use in flavourings, yellow-beige in colour. Interior is supple with small these spice oils possess antimicrobial activity and irregular holes. Tilsit is considered an excellent sand- antioxidative activity and hence may be used as wich cheese. natural preservatives and antioxidants. The fla- Time intensity Sensory analysis techniques used vour compound thymol is at least partially responsible to measure the intensity of a specific food attribute as a for the antimicrobial activity of thyme oils. function of time. Usually used to investigate the tem- Thymine Pyrimidine base that pairs with adenine in poral behaviour of flavour compounds, such as DNA. In RNA, it is replaced by uracil. sweet and bitter molecules, and the release of volatile Thymol Phenolic derivative of cymene that is iso- compounds from foods. Such techniques are impor- meric with carvacrol. Present in essential oils, and tant in the reformulation of foods that results in struc- exhibits antioxidative activity and antimicrobial tural modification. activity. Time temp. indicators Devices designed to monitor Thyristors Process control charging units used to and register accumulated temperature exposure of convert three-phase power to direct current. foods over time. Used to alert the distributor or con- Thyroxine Iodine-containing hormone derived from sumer to conditions which may render a particular tyrosine that is produced by the thyroid gland. food hazardous. Usually fixed to the product at the Tigernuts Stem tubers of Cyperus esculentus, culti- point of distribution and read by the receiving estab- vated in West Africa. Eaten raw or roasted, and used to lishment. Time temp. indicators have been used on make alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. Also a food rations employed in the armed services, as such source of oils of potential food use. Alternatively army rations may be subjected to high temperatures known as chufa nuts; also spelt tiger nuts. during transit and may also be stored and used in high- Tiger shrimps Species of shellfish (Penaeus mono- heat locations. On rations, each time temp. indicator don) which is the largest of the commercially available consists of an outer reference ring and an inner circle. types of shrimps. As well as being widely distributed The inner circle darkens with time, and darkens more in the seas around Asia, Australia and the eastern coast quickly as the temperature increases; therefore, the of Africa, tiger shrimps are major aquaculture prod- darker the circle, the less fresh the food. ucts of Australia and south east Asia. Characterized by Time temp. integrators Simple quality control grey/blue shells with black stripes and also stripes on devices and process evaluation tools that monitor food the peeled meat. Shell turns red when cooked. White temperature exposure history and relate it to shelf life flesh is tinged orange or red depending on whether it is behaviour. Time temp. integrators should give accurate cooked in or out of the shell. Also known as black tiger information and be easy to use, should be incorporated shrimps and giant tiger shrimps. into food without disturbing heat transfer and should Tilapia Any of a number of freshwater fish in the quantify the impact of the process on a target attribute family Cichlidae, particularly those within the genus that results in a specific kinetic requirement. Time Oreochromis. Occur in lakes and rivers across Africa; temp. integrators are classified according to working introduced for aquacultural purposes in many other principle, type of response, origin, and application and parts of the world. Commercially important species in- location in food, and can be biological (microbiologi- clude Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) and O. cal and enzymic), chemical or physical systems. mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia). Flesh tends to be Tin Silvery-white metal, with the chemical symbol Sn. white or light pink in colour and firm, with a sweet Also refers to various metal containers used for food and mild flavour. Marketed fresh and frozen. storage or preparation. Examples include lidded air- Tilmicosin Macrolide antibiotic used as a veterinary tight storage containers made of tin plate or alumin- antibacterial agent in food-producing animals. Major ium, open-topped metal containers used for baking residues in treated animals are of the parent com- food, e.g. cakes, and sealed containers made from tin pound, and are most persistent in kidneys and livers. plate or aluminium used for preserving foods. In the In muscle, residues persist at the injection site. Due to UK, the term is often used as being synonymous with persistence in milk, tilmicosin is not recommended for the term cans. treatment of lactating cattle. Neither is it used to treat animals producing eggs for human consumption. Tin plate Iron or sheet steel which is coated with the chemical element tin. Used to make containers and Til oils Alternative term for sesame oils. cans for food storage and preservation. 426 Tipburn Tolerance Tipburn Necrosis of plant apical or marginal tissues, min include vegetable oils, margarines, wheat affecting only a small part of the leaf. Possibly caused germ, nuts, seeds, sea foods, beef, eggs, fruits by internal water stress induced by salt or wind des- and vegetables. Į-Tocopherol is a powerful antioxi- iccation. dant that protects polyunsaturated fats and vita- Titin Family of very large proteins found in the sar- min A from oxidation in the gastrointestinal comere of striated muscle. Degradation of titin im- tract. Į-Tocopherol also prolongs the life of red blood proves the tenderness of meat during post mortem cells and protects lung tissue from the adverse effects storage. of pollution. Į-Tocopherol is included among GRAS Titratable acidity Measure of the total acidity in a substances and is one of the antioxidants used in sample, both as free hydrogen ions and as hydrogen the food industry to retard rancidity in foods contain- ions still bound to undissociated acids. Determined by ing polyunsaturated fats. addition of a standardized base to the sample until a Į-Tocopherol acetate Alternative term for vitamin predetermined endpoint is reached. The endpoint may E acetate. be assessed by a change in the colour of an indicator at Tocopherols Members of the vitamin E group that a particular pH. This test can be used to determine are fat-soluble and have antioxidative activity. In milk quality and to monitor the progress of fermenta- chemical terms, tocopherols are terpenoids. Four tion in cheese and fermented milk. isomers exist that have vitamin E activity - Į-, ȕ-, Ȗ- Titration Technique in which reagent solution is added and į-tocopherols, the most important of which is Į- to the analyte until the reaction is complete. Com- tocopherol. Tocopherols are found in wheat germ monly based on oxidation-reduction or acid-base reac- oils, butter, egg yolks and leafy vegetables, and tions, complex formation or precipitation. The end are important in the stabilization of cell membranes by point of the reaction may be measured by a range of protecting them from the damaging effects of oxygen methods, including spectroscopy, change in colour free radicals, which are produced by various disease of an indicator or changes in voltage or current passing processes and toxic substances. between a pair of electrodes in the reaction solution. Į-Tocopheryl acetate Alternative term for Į- Titrimetry Alternative term for titration. tocopherol acetate/vitamin E acetate. TLC Abbreviation for thin layer chromatography. Tocotrienol One of the main groups of compounds TMTD Alternative term for the fungicide thiram. with vitamin E activity (the other being tocopherols). Four isomers exist - Į-, ȕ-, Ȗ- and į- Toast Sliced bread which has been cooked by toast- tocotrienols. Tocotrienols are found in vegetable ing, i.e. placed in a toaster, or near a fire or a grill, so oils, seeds and leafy vegetables. These com- that it becomes brown and crisp. pounds function primarily as antioxidants in cell Toast bread Bread suitable for making toast. membranes, protecting unsaturated fatty acids Toasting Cooking or browning of a food, e.g. from oxidative damage. bread, almonds or other nuts, by exposure to radi- Toddy Type of palm wine made in Southeast Asia by ant heat. fermentation of sap of coconut palms (Cocos Tobacco Plants of the genus Nicotiana. Includes N. nucifera) or other palm species. tabacum, a plant widely cultivated for its leaves Toffees Hard sugar confectionery products made which are used primarily for smoking (e.g. in ciga- from boiling together butter or vegetable oils, milk rettes, cigars and pipes). Contains the alkaloid nico- and sugar. Similar to caramels, although the tem- tine, which is known for its addictive properties. perature used to boil the ingredients is higher than that Long-term use is associated with increased risks of de- used for caramels. veloping certain diseases, including cancer, espe- Tofu Soy curd product with a texture similar to that cially lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases and of compressed cottage cheese. Made like cheese respiratory diseases. by coagulation of soymilk and draining of the curd. Tochu tea Aqueous extract of Eucommia ulmoides A good source of proteins and B vitamins. Available leaves which is drunk as a herb tea in Japan. Displays in firm, soft and silken forms that have different uses. antimutagenicity. Firm tofu is cubed and cooked or added to a variety of Tocols Complex alcohols of the chromanol type. dishes. Other forms are used as substitutes for sour Tocols are generically termed tocopherols. Several cream or yoghurt. tocopherols have been isolated, but only four have vi- Tolerance Maximum level of a given, potentially tamin E activity. harmful, substance (e.g. mycotoxins, heavy met- Į-Tocopherol The major contributor to vitamin E als, pesticides) permitted in foods or beverages. activity in foods. Rich sources of this fat-soluble vita- 427 Toma cheese Tongues Toma cheese Italian semi-hard cheese made from as the base for sauces and soups. Available com- cow milk, originating from the Piedmont and Aosta mercially in cans, jars and tubes. Valley regions of Italy. Young cheeses have a sweet, Tomato powders Powders produced by drying milky flavour, while cheeses matured for 12 months and pulverizing tomatoes or tomato pulps. Used as have a tangy flavour. The final product is pale yellow flavourings in many foods, including instant foods in colour, with an elastic consistency and a yellow and sausages. rind. Tomato products Foods containing tomatoes as a Tomatillos Fruits produced by Physalis ixocarpa. main ingredient, including tomato purees, tomato Related to, but larger than the cape gooseberries. concentrates and tomato ketchups. Rich in vitamin A, vitamin C and niacin. Although Tomato pulps The soft, succulent parts of tomatoes classified as fruits, they are eaten as vegetables, al- or preparations made from them by mashing and con- most always cooked, as this enhances their flavour. centration. Used in the preparation of many cooked Used in sauces, such as salsa, stews, casseroles dishes. and preserves. Also known as jamberries. Tomato purees Smooth, thick liquids produced from Tomatine Glycoalkaloid saponin present in high con- tomatoes by cooking and straining. Used as the base centrations in green tomatoes. Toxic to many fungi for soups and sauces. Available commercially in and bacteria. jars, cans and tubes. Tomato sauces Condiments produced from toma- Tomato catsups Catsups in which the main ingredi- toes, seasonings and other additives. Tomato based ent is tomatoes. Popular as an accompaniment for sauces are used as toppings for pizzas and pasta French fries, burgers and many other foods. Also dishes and in many other dishes, such as stews and known as tomato ketchups. casseroles. Tomato concentrates Products made by concen- Tomato seed oils Vegetable oils extracted from tration of tomato pulps by processes such as re- tomato seeds produced as a by-product in canning verse osmosis, evaporation and ultrafiltration. of tomatoes. High in unsaturated fatty acids. Uses include as flavour enhancers or in the manu- Used as cooking oils. facture of tomato juices. Tomato seeds Seeds contained in tomatoes (Ly- Tomatoes Fruits produced by Lycopersicon esculen- copersicon esculentum) and produced as a by-product tum. Vary in colour (red or yellow), size and shape, of tomato canning. Contain oils and proteins rich according to variety. Contain more than 90% water, in unsaturated fatty acids and lysine, respec- the carotenes lycopene and ȕ-carotene, vitamin tively. Tomato seed oils may be used as cooking B complex, vitamin E and moderate amounts of vi- oils. tamin C, as well as a range of minerals. Tomatoes Tomato skins Outer surface of tomatoes. Removed also contain the non-toxic alkaloid tomatine, amounts during manufacture of many tomato products and thus of which decrease as the fruits ripen. Consumed raw, is a waste product of the tomato processing industry. cooked, as ingredients of a wide range of products, in- Rich source of pigments, including the carotenoid cluding soups, sauces, casseroles, pastes and pu- lycopene, which is valued for its health benefits. rees, or in juices. Available canned and dried. Green Tomography One of the analytical techniques tomatoes are used in pickles and chutneys. Ge- used for non-destructive imaging of sections of a ma- netic engineering has been used to produce toma- terial. Data can be produced using different signals, toes (e.g. Flavr Savr tomatoes) with improved shelf including X-rays, NMR, electrons, gamma rays, ul- life, flavour and processing properties. trasound, etc., with computerized data analysis. Ap- Tomato juices Fruit juices prepared from toma- plications in the food industry include analysis of car- toes (Lycopersicon esculentum). Drunk on their own cass composition, and food structure, foaming and (sometimes with Worcestershire sauces added) or flow. Also used for analysis of bone mineral den- mixed with other beverages. May also be used as the sity. base of sauces and in various dishes. Tongues A part of edible offal, often sourced from Tomato ketchups Ketchups in which the main in- calves, lambs, oxen and pigs. Tenderness, flavour gredient is tomatoes. Popular as an accompaniment and texture vary with species and age of the source for French fries, burgers and many other foods. animal. Tongues may be sold fresh or brined; brining Also known as tomato catsups. produces a pink colour and intensifies flavour. They are eaten hot or cold after boiling, skinning and slicing, Tomato pastes Rich concentrates produced from or are used to produce meat products, such as brawn. tomatoes by cooking, straining and reducing. Used 428 Tonic waters Trade agreements Tonic waters Carbonated soft drinks containing quality to meet, exceed and anticipate customer re- bitter compounds such as quinine. quirements. Top fermenting yeasts Brewers yeasts which are Total solids Total amount of solids in a product. non-flocculent and remain at the top of the beer dur- Commonly abbreviated to TS. ing fermentation. Commonly used for ale and other Total soluble solids Total amount of soluble sol- British style types of beer. ids in a product. Commonly abbreviated to TSS. Topinambour Alternative term for Jerusalem arti- Toughness Sensory properties relating to the chokes. extent to which a product such as meat is hard to Toppings Sweet or savoury food items such as chew or cut due to its innate resistance, hardness and sauces, pizza fillings or icings, used to garnish/top leathery texture. In a physical sense, toughness is de- other foods. fined as the energy required to propagate a fracture by Top shells Any of a number of marine gastropod a given crack area, generally derived from the area un- molluscs within the family Trochidae; found in inter- der a force-extension curve. tidal and deeper waters around the world. A few spe- Toxaphene Alternative term for the insecticide cam- cies are consumed, including members of the genus phechlor. Omphalius. Marketed fresh (shelled or unshelled) and Toxicity Quality or degree of being poisonous. frozen (unshelled). Toxicology Scientific study of the nature, effects and Tordon Alternative term for the herbicide picloram. detection of toxins, and the treatment of conditions Tortellini Pasta shaped into small rings, stuffed with caused by them. meat or cheese and often served with sauces. Toxic substances Alternative term for toxins. Torten Rich cakes comprising either cake mixture Toxins Poisonous substances, especially those that are baked in a pastry case or several thin layers of produced by one living organism, and are poisonous to sponge cakes, filled with various ingredients such other living organisms. as fruits, nuts, chocolate and cream. Toxoplasma Genus of parasitic protozoans of the Tortilla chips Popular salted snack foods. Typi- class Coccidia. Species are intracellular parasites of cally prepared by cutting extruded corn masa into birds and mammals, including domestic cats and hu- chips, baking and frying. Eaten in the same way as mans. Toxoplasma gondii is the causative agent of potato crisps or as an accompaniment to dips. Also toxoplasmosis. available flavoured with a variety of flavourings. Toxoplasmosis Acute or chronic disease of humans Tortillas Round, thin unleavened pancakes originat- and animals caused by Toxoplasma gondii. Trans- ing from Mexico which are traditionally made with mission in humans is usually via ingestion of contami- corn flour and baked on a hot surface. Also known in nated raw or undercooked meat (especially pork or Colombia as arepas. mutton), or by contact with cat faeces. Symptoms Torulaspora Genus of ascomycetous yeasts of the range from an asymptomatic, or mild influenza-like family Saccharomycetaceae. Occur in soil, faeces, disease, to an extensive fulminating disease that may wines, fermenting cucumber brines and fruit cause damage to the brain, eyes, skeletal and cardiac juices. Torulaspora delbrueckii (syn. Saccharomyces muscles, liver and lungs. Can be transmitted transpla- rosei, anamorph Candida colliculosa) is used in centally to cause congenital disease. winemaking and for brewing German-style wheat Traceability The ease with which origin or develop- beer; it is also responsible for spoilage of fruit mental history of something can be found by investiga- juice concentrates, cheese and wines. Many ob- tion. solete species in this genus have been reclassified as Trace elements Elements that are essential nutri- Zygosaccharomyces spp. ents but are required only in minute amounts (mg or Torula yeast Highly nutritious yeasts (Candida micrograms/day) by humans. Examples are chromium, utilis) grown on media such as ethanol and sulfite liq- copper, manganese and zinc. uor wastes. Rich source of proteins and vitamins Trace metals Alternative term for trace elements. (especially B vitamins). Used as an animal feed sup- Trade agreements Treaties designed to facilitate plement and a food additive. trade between two nations or a group of nations. In the Torulopsis Obsolete name for a genus of yeasts absence of trade agreements, many nations impose whose species have been reclassified into the genus special taxes (tariffs) and take other actions to discour- Candida. age importation of foreign goods. Trade agreements Total quality management Management philosophy usually seek to reduce or eliminate such barriers. geared towards continuous improvement of product 429 Trademarks Transglucosylases Trademarks Words or symbols established by use or required for transcription initiation are termed ı fac- legally registered as representing a product or com- tors. pany. The term ‘trade name’ may sometimes be used Transducers Devices that transform one type of en- to refer to a name that has the status of a trademark. ergy to another. Trahanas Greek name for kishk, a fermented wheat Transesterification Process by which fatty acyl resi- flour-yoghurt mixture used in soups. Known as dues are transferred to triglycerides in a mixture of tarhana in Turkey. triglycerides and fatty acids. Can be catalysed by li- Trametes Genus of fungi of the family Coriolaceae. pases, and may be used to modify the composition Occur on dead hardwood logs and stumps. Trametes and properties of fats and oils. versicolor and T. hirsute are used in the production of trans Fatty acids Fatty acids produced during the several enzymes used in bioremediation processes, hydrogenation of fats and oils, which are found in e.g. laccases and catechol oxidases. foods such as vegetable shortenings, margarines Tranquilizers General term for drugs that act on the and partially hydrogenated vegetable oils. Thought central nervous system and are used primarily in the to have several adverse effects on health, such as in- treatment of anxiety and psychiatric disorders that have creased risk of coronary heart diseases, increased an anxiety-related component. Major use in farm ani- levels of cholesterol and low density lipopro- mals is for sedation prior to and during handling or teins, and reduced levels of high density lipopro- transportation, usually in the form of barbiturates such teins. as azaperone, nembutal and propiopromazine. Transferases EC 2. Enzymes that transfer a group, Transaminases EC 2.6.1. Also known as ami- e.g. a methyl, acyl or glycosyl group, from one com- notransferases, these enzymes transfer amino groups pound (the donor) to another (the acceptor). In many from a donor, usually amino acids, to an acceptor, cases, coenzymes carrying the group to be trans- usually 2-oxo-acids, in a cyclic process. Most are pyri- ferred act as the donor. Includes acyltransferases doxal phosphate proteins. The reaction also involves (EC 2.3) and glycosyltransferases (EC 2.4). oxidoreduction; donors are oxidized to ketones, while Transferrins Proteins that transport Fe into cells. acceptors are reduced. However, since the transfer of Found in the plasma of vertebrates and used as indica- the amino group is the most prominent feature of the tors of Fe status. reaction, these enzymes are classified as aminotrans- Transformation Process by which exogenous DNA is ferases rather than oxidoreductases. taken up by recipient cells, sphaeroplasts or proto- Transcription Process by which RNA copies of tem- plasts. The DNA may be in the form of plasmids that plate DNA strands are synthesized, catalysed by DNA- can replicate autonomously, or may be a fragment that directed RNA polymerases. The initial products of can integrate into the host chromosomes. Transfor- transcription are typically processed and/or modified to mation can occur naturally in some bacteria, but in give the mature RNA products, e.g. mRNA, rRNA other bacteria and eukaryotic microorganisms, it can and tRNA. In RNA viruses, RNA acts as the template only occur after cells have been permeabilized by arti- for transcription; in this case the process is catalysed ficial methods. Also refers to conversion of cultured by RNA-directed RNA polymerases. cells to a malignant phenotype. Transcription factors Proteins other than DNA- Transgenes Foreign genes introduced into the ge- directed RNA polymerases which control tran- nomes of transgenic organisms early in development. scription of DNA and hence affect levels of gene Transgenes are present in both somatic and germ cells, expression. In eukaryotes, some are necessary for and are inherited by offspring in a Mendelian fashion. the initiation of transcription, since they facilitate bind- Transgenic animals Genetically engineered animals ing of the polymerase to genes at a transcription ini- or their offspring that contain genetic material from at tiation site in their promoters. Others regulate tran- least one unrelated organism inserted into their ge- scription efficiency by binding to specific sites within nomes. the promoters upstream of the transcription initiation Transgenic plants Genetically engineered plants or site, and may stimulate or inhibit transcription consti- their offspring that contain genetic material from at tutively or in response to a signal. Mutations in genes least one unrelated organism inserted into their ge- encoding transcription factors may result in genetic nomes. disorders. Targeted mutation of these factors or al- Transglucosylases Members of sub-class EC 2.4.1; teration of the level of the signal to which the regula- synonymous with glucosyltransferases. Enzymes tory factors respond may be used to alter expression of that transfer a glucosyl group from a donor to an ac- target genes. Gene-nutrient interactions may be ceptor. mediated by transcription factors. In bacteria, proteins 430 Transglutaminases Triacetin Transglutaminases Alternative term for protein- Transposition Process by which transposable glutamine Ȗ-glutamyltransferases. elements translocate from one site to another. Differ- Transglycosylation Transfer of glycosyl groups, or ent elements use different methods for transposition, saccharides, from a donor to an acceptor, with en- which is normally a rare event, and insertion leads to zymes of the group glycosyltransferases as cata- duplication of a short sequence of the target DNA, re- lysts. This type of modification is performed to alter sulting in the formation of direct repeats flanking the the physicochemical properties or functional inserted element. Transposition can result in gene mu- properties of a natural compound, e.g. to improve the tations and/or may have significant effects on gene solubility of neohesperidin dihydrochalcone or expression. Occasionally, transposable elements can to decrease the bitterness of naringin. excise from their insertion sites. Transposons Transposable elements that can Translation Process by which polypeptides are move from one site to another within chromosomes. assembled at ribosomes using mRNA molecules as They contain inverted repeats at either end and, in ad- templates. Amino acids are carried to the ribosome dition to encoding functions necessary for transposi- by specific tRNA molecules where they are incorpo- tion (including the enzyme (transposase) that catalyses rated into the growing chain in a sequence specified by their insertion), also carry genes with unrelated func- the nucleotide sequence of the mRNA template. tions, e.g. antibiotics resistance, production of Translucency Optical properties relating to the toxins or lactose metabolism. extent to which an object diffuses light passing through Trappist cheese Cheeses made by Trappist monks it, so that objects cannot be seen clearly. worldwide. Include Port Salut cheese. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies Travnik cheese Cheese originating from Travnik, Alternative term for prion diseases. in Bosnia. Transmission electron microscopy Electron Treacle Low purity, thick, brown syrup produced as a microscopy technique in which the image forming by-product of sugar refining. Called molasses in rays are passed through or transmitted by the sample. the USA and Canada. Commonly abbreviated to TEM. Tree tomatoes Alternative term for tamarillos. Transmittance One of several optical properties Treflan Alternative term for the herbicide trifluralin. which relates to the ratio of incident light that passes Į,Į-Trehalases EC 3.2.1.28. Glycosidases which through a sample, such as foods, at a specified wave- hydrolyse the disaccharide trehalose into 2 units of length. Light transmittance can be used to determine its monomer, D-glucose. Can be used for analytical product quality. The transmittance of packaging ma- determination of trehalose concentrations. Mutants terials is relevant when estimating the shelf life of with decreased trehalase activity may accumulate tre- foods since these materials can slow down degradation halose and display improved stress resistance. by blocking a portion of the incident light which can Trehalose Disaccharide composed of two molecules degrade food components. of glucose linked via an Į-1,1-glucosidic bond. Iso- Transparency Optical properties relating to the lated from fungi, including yeasts. extent to which an item allows light to pass through it Trematodes Liver flukes which belong to the class so that bodies can be clearly seen. Trematoda, e.g. Fasciola hepatica. Transpeptidases Enzymes that catalyse the forma- Tremorgens Neurotoxic mycotoxins (e.g. penitrem tion of an amide linkage between a free amino group and alfatrem) produced by various fungi (e.g. Penicil- and a carbonyl group within an existing peptide link- lium, Aspergillus and Claviceps spp.). Ingestion of age. contaminated foods and feeds by humans and animals Transposable elements DNA segments that can can lead to weakness, tremors, convulsions and death. translocate from one site to another, either in the same Trenbolone acetate Synthetic anabolic steroid with replicon or in a different replicon in the same cell. Ex- similar hormonal activity to testosterone but with tensive sequence homology between transposable ele- greater anabolic activity. Used legally for growth- ments and their target sites is not required. Transpos- promoting purposes in animals, mainly in young cattle. able elements are normal components of elements such Following administration, rapidly hydrolyses to two as chromosomes, plasmids and phage genomes, major metabolites; residues of these metabolites may and occur in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Some persist in tissues for considerable periods. transposable elements are highly specific with respect Triacetin Triester of glycerol and acetic acid. Also to their target sites, whereas others appear to insert known as 1,2,3-triacetoxypropane or glycerin triace- randomly. tate. One of the food additives, used as a solvent for 431 Triacylglycerol lipases Trichothecin flavourings and as a humectant and plasticizer in swelling of the eyes. The lungs, nervous system and chewing gums and chewy candy. Currently being heart may be affected in more advanced cases. Some- considered as a source of food energy that could be times fatal. produced by artificial food regeneration systems on Trichlorfon Non-systemic organophosphorus insecti- long space missions. cide used for control of a wide range of insect pests Triacylglycerol lipases EC 3.1.1.3. Hydrolyse tria- in crops, stored fruits, vegetables and cereals. cylglycerols to diacylglycerols and free fatty ac- Also used in animal husbandry. Rapidly hydrolyses in ids. Usually referred to as lipases. plants and degrades rapidly in soil. Classified by WHO Triacylglycerols Lipids composed of glycerol as moderately hazardous (WHO II). Also known as esterifed at all three of its constituent carbon atoms chlorophos. with one or more fatty acids. Triacylglycerols are Trichloroanisole Chlorinated hydrocarbon with a components of natural fats and oils and have multiple very low sensory threshold which is most often associ- uses in the food industry, including as emulsifiers, ated with cork taints in wines. coatings and encapsulating agents. Synonymous with triglycerides. Trichloroethylene Industrial solvent, prolonged exposure to which can cause cardiotoxicity and neuro- Triadimefon Systemic triazole fungicide used for logical impairment. Industrial pollution can cause control of a variety of fungal diseases in many differ- contamination of drinking water sources with this ent fruits, vegetables and cereals. Classified by compound. Irrigation of garden plants with contami- WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III). nated water can result in uptake of trichloroethylene in Triazophos Non-systemic broad-spectrum organo- fruits and vegetables. phosphorus insecticide and acaricide used for control Trichloromethane Volatile compound often found in of a wide range of insects and mites in fruits, foods. Can occur as a contaminant of treated drinking vegetables and cereals. Also used for control of water. some free-living nematodes. Classified by WHO as highly hazardous (WHO Ib). Trichoderma Genus of fungi that occurs in soil and Tribolium Genus of small beetles of the family on wood. Trichoderma hazianum is responsible for the Tenebrionidae. Tribolium castaneum (red flour beetle) spoilage of citrus fruits and cereals (e.g. corn, and T. confusum (confused flour beetle) are pests of rice and wheat). T. viride causes rots of citrus fruits flour, as well as stored cereals (e.g. rice and and spoilage of stored grains (e.g. wheat, rice and bar- wheat). ley) and peanuts. Some species (e.g. T. virens) parasitize disease-causing fungi, making them useful bio- Tributyltin Component of anti-fouling paints which control agents. are used on the hulls of ships. Can be released into the water and accumulate as contaminants in sea Tricholoma Genus of edible fungi that contains a foods. number of species varying in flavour and quality. Tricaprylin Triglyceride of glycerol esterified with Tricholoma caligatum is commonly known as matsu- three molecules of caprylic acid (octanoic acid). take. Used in transesterification reactions to synthesize Trichosporon Genus of mitosporic fungi of the order structured lipids incorporating desirable fatty ac- Tremellales. Occur in water, soil and faeces, and on ids such as eicosapentaenoic acid or conjugated plants (including vegetables), wood pulp and human linoleic acid. Also called glyceryl tricaprylate and skin. Some species may cause spoilage of foods, e.g. caprylic acid triglyceride. meat and meat products, cheese and milk. Trichinae Parasitic nematodes of the genus Trichi- Trichothecenes Group of mycotoxins produced by nella. various fungi, such as Fusarium, Myrothecium and Trichinella Genus of parasitic nematodes of the Trichothecium. Include deoxynivalenol, T2 class Enoplea. Trichinella spiralis is the causative toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, trichothecin, niva- agent of trichinosis. lenol and fusarenon X. Mainly infect cereal grains Trichinosis Infection caused by Trichinella spiralis. (e.g. wheat, barley and corn). Ingestion of contami- Transmission is via ingestion of larvae in undercooked nated foods and feeds can lead to haemorrhagic gas- meat (especially pork). Larvae, which hatch from troenteritis, lung and brain haemorrhages, and bone eggs laid by female worms in the small intestine, bore marrow damage, accompanied by vomiting, headache, through the intestinal wall and migrate around the fever and nausea. body causing disease. Characterized by diarrhoea, nau- Trichothecin Trichothecene produced by Tricho- sea, delirium, fever, abdominal pain, muscle pain and thecium roseum. 432 Trichothecium Triterpenoids Trichothecium Genus of mitosporic fungi of the ice-stored fish. Hence, analysis of trimethylamine phylum Ascomycota. Widely distributed in soil and on content is used to evaluate fish quality and fresh- decaying vegetation. Trichothecium roseum causes ness. pink rot of fruits and vegetables (e.g. gherkins, Trimming Making an item neat by cutting away ir- tomatoes, melons, apples and grapes), and may regular or unwanted parts. In the food industry, usually cause spoilage of bread. T. roseum is also responsi- applied to removal of fats from meat. ble for producing trichothecenes (including tricho- Triolein Synonym for olein. thecin) on foods. Tripalmitin Triglyceride of glycerol esterified with Trifluralin Selective dinitroaniline herbicide used for three molecules of palmitic acid (hexadecanoic pre-emergence control of many annual grasses and acid). A natural component of fats and oils, tri- broad-leaved weeds around crops including vegeta- palmitin is used in the food industry in additives for bles, fruits, oilseeds, sugar beets and sugar the manufacture of compressed sweets. Also known cane. Also used in combination with linuron for con- by other names, including glyceryl tripalmitate. trol of weeds in winter cereals. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. Also Tripe A part of edible offal, generally comprising the known as treflan. lining of the four-chambered stomach of ruminants, particularly of calves and oxen. Although, tripe is usu- Triglycerides Lipids composed of glycerol es- ally produced from cattle, sheep tripe is used to terifed at all three of its constituent carbon atoms with make haggis, and lamb tripe, thinner than that of one or more fatty acids. Triglycerides are compo- oxen or calves, may be used as a wrapping for savoury nents of natural fats and oils and have multiple uses stuffings. Different parts of the cattle stomachs are in the food industry, including as emulsifiers, coat- used to make different kinds of tripe: the rumen is used ings and encapsulating agents. Synonymous with tri- to produce blanket tripe, which has a rough texture and acylglycerols. varies in thickness; the reticulum is used to produce Trigonelline Alkaloid found in green coffee beans characteristically patterned honeycomb tripe; book that has been implicated in mutagenic activity of tripe, also known as bible tripe, comes from the oma- roasted coffee. sum; and reed tripe, also known as black tripe, is pre- Trihalomethanes Volatile compounds that may pared from the abomasum. Usually, tripe is cleaned, be formed during chlorination of drinking water trimmed of fat, parboiled and bleached before sale as and which are thought to be carcinogenic. dressed tripe. Tripe may also be used to make sau- Triiodobenzoic acid Plant growth regulator that can sage casings. It has a high connective tissue con- increase the oil content of oilseeds following spray- tent; on boiling, much of this is converted into gela- ing of the plants but that can also increase the spoil- tin. Cooked tripe has a mild flavour and slippery tex- age rate of fruits. ture. Triiodothyronine One of the iodine-containing Tripolyphosphates Phosphates used to enhance hormones produced by the thyroid gland; also pro- the tenderness, juiciness and flavour of meat, duced by conversion of thyroxine. and to inhibit oxidation of lipids. Include sodium Trilinolein Polyunsaturated triglyceride formed from tripolyphosphate. linoleic acid. Found in frying oils such as sun- Trisodium phosphate Phosphate that can be used in flower oils and linseed oils. Thermal decomposi- the food industry to sanitize meat, particularly tion of trilinolein during deep frying can lead to for- chicken carcasses, and to prevent discoloration of mation of volatile compounds giving rise to unde- ground garlic. sirable odours. Tristearin Triglyceride of glycerol esterified with Trimethoprim Diaminopyrimidine drug used for three molecules of stearic acid (octadecanoic acid). treatment of respiratory and intestinal infections in cat- A natural component of fats and oils, tristearin is tle, swine, sheep, goats, poultry and farmed fish. Often used in the food industry in food additives such as used in combination with sulfonamides. Rapidly and surface finishing agents, lubricants, emulsifiers, widely distributes around tissues following administra- encapsulating agents and crystallization accelerator tion. Normally depletes rapidly in farm animals; rate of agents. Also known as glyceryl tristearate. depletion in farmed fish is dependent on water tem- Triterpenoids Terpenoids arranged in a 4 or 5 ring perature. configuration of 30 carbon atoms. Steroidal in nature. Trimethylamine Volatile compound found in sea Include ginsenosides and other saponins, glycyr- foods that has a characteristic herring-like aroma. rhizin, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, maslinic acid, Associated with the onset of microbial spoilage in lupeol, erythrodiol and uvaol. Found in a wide range of 433 Triticale Tuba fruits, vegetables, nuts and herbs. Many have po- formed during boiling, and cold break, formed during tent antitumour activity and anticarcinogenicity. subsequent cooling. Triticale High-yielding hybrid of wheat (Triticum Trucks Alternative name, used especially in Canada spp.) and rye (Secale spp.) which combines the resil- and the USA, for lorries. Also describes vehicles used ience of rye with the particular elastic baking prop- for carrying freight on a railway. Forklift trucks are erties of wheat. Often used in multigrain bread. vehicles with power operated horizontal prongs that Triticale flour Flour produced by milling of triticale can be raised and lowered, and are used for transport- grains. May be used as a partial substitute for wheat ing goods, especially those stacked on pallets, in flour in bread dough. warehouses and factories. Tritium Long-lived, radioactive isotope of hydrogen. Truffles Alternative term for edible fungi of the Suitable for use in autoradiography and easy to incor- genus Tuber. porate into complex molecules for use in experimental Trumpet shells Any of a number of marine gastropod studies. molluscs within the family Cymatiidae; occur in in- Tritordeum Hybrid of barley and wheat. tertidal regions and deeper waters in tropical and Tropical fruits Fruits grown in countries of the trop- southern temperate areas. Flesh of some species is con- ics (on either side of the equator), or in hot and humid sumed; occasionally used to make preserves. conditions. Include a great many species, such as Trussing Process of tying up the wings and legs of mangoes, pineapples, pomegranates, ba- poultry carcasses in preparation for cooking. nanas, papayas, lychees, guavas and tama- Skewers, thread, string or pins may be used. Helps the rinds. food to maintain a compact shape during cooking. Tropomyosin A family of closely related proteins Trypsin EC 3.4.21.4. Highly specific serine present in muscle and non-muscle cells. Tropomyosin endopeptidases that hydrolyse peptide bonds in is an Į-helical protein that forms a coiled-coil structure which arginine or lysine provides the carbonyl of two parallel helices containing two sets of seven al- group. ternating actin binding sites. Muscle isoforms contain Trypsin inhibitors Proteins found in a range of 284 amino acid residues and possess a highly con- foods, including soybeans, peanuts, peas, lentils, served N-terminal region. In striated muscle, tropomy- and raw egg whites, which inhibit the activity of osin mediates the interactions between the troponin trypsin. Denatured, and hence inactivated, by heating. complex and actins, so as to regulate muscle contraction. Some of the proteins in this family are aller- Tryptamine Biogenic amine formed by microbial gens. decarboxylation of tryptophan. May be formed in foods such as ripened cheese, chocolate, wines Troponin Complex of three proteins found in stri- and fermented foods. Consumption of contaminated ated muscle, where it is associated with tropomyosin foods can cause increased blood pressure and mi- and actins on the thin filaments. Controls the interac- graine. tion of actins and myosin, and when combined with calcium ions, permits muscle contraction. Tryptophan Essential amino acid important in the synthesis of haemoglobin, plasma proteins and Trout Any of several anadromous fish of the family nicotinic acid. Salmonidae, native to rivers and streams of Europe, Asia and North America; usually restricted to freshwa- Tryptophol Phenolic compound found in beer and ter, though some types migrate to the sea between wines, the levels of which can be used to distinguish spawnings. The most important species commercially beer types. is Onchorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout), which is TS Abbreviation for total solids. cultured around the world. Other important species in- TSS Abbreviation for total soluble solids. clude Salmo trutta (brown trout/sea trout) and O. clarki (cutthroat trout). Flesh is usually pale orange- Tsukemono Japanese vegetable pickles. Popular pink, sometimes a deeper red-pink (young trout are of- types include pickled turnips, carrots, Chinese ten white-fleshed), with a firm yet creamy texture and cabbages, aubergines, burdock and giant rad- moderate to high fat content. Marketed fresh, frozen ishes. Ingredients can also include miso and sake. and as a smoked or canned product. T2 toxin Acutely toxic trichothecenes produced by Trub Precipitates, comprising coagulated proteins, Fusarium spp. (e.g. Fusarium tricinctum and F. polyphenols and carbohydrates, which form dur- sporotrichiodes). ing boiling of worts in the beer brewing process. Tuba Alcoholic beverages made by fermentation Also termed break; may be divided into hot break, of the sap of coconut palms. 434 Tuber Turkey meat Tuber Genus of edible fungi including the British Tunny Alternative term for tuna. truffle, Tuber aestivum, and French Perigord truffles, Turban shells Any of a number of marine gastropod T. melanosporum. Grow underground in woods, and molluscs within the family Turbinidae; distributed in are irregularly shaped. The solid flesh is light brown intertidal zones and deeper waters across the Indo- with white veins. Perigord truffles are used to make Pacific. Flesh of several species is consumed; typically foie gras. served grilled with soy sauces. Tuberculosis Infectious disease most commonly Turbidimetry Measurement of turbidity of a solu- caused by the bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis tion, usually using a turbidimeter, an instrument that and characterized by the formation of nodular lesions records the loss of intensity of a light beam passed (tubercules) in the tissues. Tuberculosis is associated through a solution containing suspended particles. with poor living conditions, such as nutritional deficiency and inadequate housing. Transmission of tuber- Turbidity Optical properties relating to the extent culosis is by inhalation of infected droplets. Treatment to which a solution is turbid, i.e. cloudy or hazy. Tur- is by long-term administration of antibiotics. bidity in solutions is caused by the presence of finely Tubers Swollen and fleshy underground stems of suspended matter. plants, usually high in starch. Include potatoes. Turbot Name given to a number of marine flatfish Tulum cheese Turkish cheese made from goat species within the family Pleuronectidae; most occur in milk or cow milk. Crumbly texture. Used in dishes the northern Atlantic. Commercially important species or as an appetizer. include Scopthalmus maximus (European turbot) and Tumbling As well as being a process by which surface Reinhardtius hippoglossoides (Greenland turbot). irregularities are removed from an item by rotating it in Flesh of most species is highly esteemed and tends to a tumbling barrel, this term also refers to a process by be white, firm with low fat content and delicate fla- which the quality of meat can be improved. The me- vour. Marketed fresh and frozen. chanical action of tumbling alters the structure of mus- Turgor Alternative term for osmotic pressure. cle proteins. Tumbling can also be used to increase Turkey frankfurters Frankfurters prepared from the rate of uptake of marinades by meat pieces. turkey meat. They are often prepared from turkey Tumours Growths in the body caused by the abnormal thigh meat and/or turkey meat trimmings or mechani- proliferation of cells. Some food components are cally recovered turkey meat. Other ingredients may in- thought to possess antitumour activity. Tumours clude turkey fat, pork fat or beef fat. may be benign (i.e. grow at one site only) or malignant (i.e. they destroy the tissue in which they arise and Turkey ham Cured turkey products prepared from spread to other parts of the body). Benign tumours, boneless thigh meat after removal of the skin and sur- which are covered by a capsule, are usually harmless face fat. They may contain other ingredients, such as but may become very large, exerting pressure on salt, dextrose, sodium nitrate and sodium. Turkey neighbouring tissues and producing severe effects. In mince, prepared from trimmings removed from the malignant tumours, which are not enclosed by a cap- turkey thigh during boning and trimming, may be sule, cell division is rapid; cells show partial or com- added as a binder. plete loss of function and bear little resemblance to the Turkey livers Livers from turkeys which form part tissue cells from which they originated. Malignant tu- of the edible offal in turkey carcasses. Used to mours cause extensive damage. make stocks and gravy or eaten in a variety of other Tuna Any of several species of large pelagic marine ways, including fried or as ingredients in stuffings fish in the family Scombridae; worldwide distribution. and pates. May contain high levels of vitamin A, Most species have high commercial importance, par- particularly if poultry are given retinol-supplemented ticularly Thunnus alalunga (albacore), T. obesus feeds. Also rich sources of iron and the vitamin B (bigeye tuna), T. albacares (yellowfin tuna) and group. Katsuwonus pelamis (skipjack tuna). Marketed in a Turkey meat Meat from turkeys. Many turkeys are variety of forms, including fresh and frozen (whole, sold whole, sometimes they are injected with butter or gutted or fillets), canned, salted, dried and semi- vegetable oils and are marketed as self-basting. Tur- preserved. Also used in a variety of prepared dishes, key breast meat contains less myoglobin than turkey such as tuna sausages, tuna roll and tuna pastes. Also drumstick or thigh meat. As a result of genetic selec- known as tunny. tion based on the economic traits of turkey car- Tuna oils Fish oils which are one of the richest casses, the turkey industry suffers from the occur- sources of docosahexaenoic acid. rence of several metabolic and musculoskeletal disorders. Poor water holding capacity in turkey breast 435 Turkey mince Typhoid meat is thought to be caused by similar factors to those natural yellow 3 and CI 75300. Extracts and essential underlying the PSE defect in pork. oils of C. longa rhizomes are also used as colorants Turkey mince Meat mince prepared from turkey and flavourings. meat. It may be prepared specifically from light or Turnip rooted celery Alternative term for celeriac. dark turkey meat. Mince prepared from light coloured Turnips Common name for the root form of Brassica turkey meat has a lower content of saturated fats than campestris or B. rapa. Roots are used in soups and mince prepared from dark turkey meat. Also known as stews or as a separate vegetable dish, while the leaves, ground turkey. or spring greens, are eaten as a vegetable. The root Turkey patties Meat patties prepared from turkey contains moderate amounts of sugar and vitamin C; mince. leaves contain large amounts of vitamin C and also reasonable amounts of carotenes. Turkey products Foods produced using turkey meat as a main ingredient, such as turkey ham and Turron Nougat originating from Spain which is made turkey patties. with almonds, sugar, honeys and egg whites. Turtles Several species of freshwater or marine, Turkeys Large birds (Meleagris gallopavo) which shelled reptiles belonging to the order Chelonia, that belong to the pheasant family. Turkeys are reared are hunted for their meat and shells. Turtle eggs throughout the world for turkey meat production. may also be eaten. Turtle meat has good flavour, but Different gender and age groups of turkeys are known because of its chewiness, it tends to be used to prepare as toms, stags or cocks (adult entire males; >26 weeks soups. Most turtle meat is produced from sea turtles; of age), hens (adult females; >26 weeks of age), turkey however, meat from freshwater terrapins is often con- growers (sexually immature young birds; 8-26 week of sidered to have the best sensory properties amongst age) and poults (sexually immature birds which have turtle meats. down rather than feathers). Tutane Alternative term for butylamine. Turkey sausages Sausages, both fresh and cured, Tvaroh Czech soft cheese similar to quarg. made from turkey meat. Varieties include turkey frankfurters, bratwurst, hot dogs, kielbasa, sa- Tvorog Russian soft cheese similar to quarg. lami and wieners. The majority are prepared from Served as a dessert with various degrees of sweetness, coarsely comminuted dark turkey meat or mechani- sometimes with sour cream or jams. cally recovered meat. Products may contain bind- Twarog Polish soft cheese similar to quarg. ers and extenders, such as calcium lactate, carra- Tykmaelk Danish fermented milk. geenans, cereals, soy meal, soy proteins, Tylose One of the celluloses. Tylose gels have starch and whey. thermal properties similar to those of lean beef, Turkish delight Soft jelly confectionery originally and are used as meat analogues, e.g. to study heat of Turkish origin, made by cooking flavoured syrups transfer during freezing and thawing, and to ana- and corn starch together slowly, leaving the mixture lyse the performance of refrigerators. to set, cutting into cubes and rolling in icing sugar. Tylosin Macrolide antibiotic produced by Strepto- Flavours are usually based on orange juices or myces fradiae. Used primarily to treat the chronic lemon juices, with rose water or orange flower wa- respiratory disease complex in chickens and infectious ter. Alternatively, a mint flavour is produced by add- sinusitis in turkeys; also effective against cattle respira- ing peppermint essential oils or creme de menthe tory diseases and swine dysentery and is sometimes liqueurs. Colour varies according to the ingredients used as a growth promoter in swine. Excreted rela- used, but is usually white, pink or green. Also known tively slowly from tissues; withdrawal periods range as lokum, lukum or rahat. from 5 days (turkeys) to 21 days (swine). Can pass into Turmeric Common name for a plant native to Asia, milk and eggs. Not permitted for use in laying hens, Curcuma longa, the dried ground rhizomes of which and milk from treated cows may not be used until 3 are used as spices. Turmeric is deep yellow in colour days after final treatment. due to the presence of curcumin, desmethoxycurcu- Typhoid Infectious disease of the digestive tract min and bisdesmethoxycurcumin. Used in natural caused by Salmonella Typhii. Transmission is by colorants, particularly in mustard, pickles and drinking infected water, usually where there is no clean other spicy condiments, curry seasonings, and water supply. Symptoms, which begin 10-14 days after fats and oils. The predominant flavour compound of ingestion of the bacterium, include fever, headache, turmeric is turmerone. The majority of commercially cough, loss of appetite, and constipation; a characteris- available turmeric is cultivated in India, leading to the tic red rash may appear. If left untreated, increasing alternative name, Indian saffron. Also known as CI production of toxins causes delirium, coma and death. 436 Tyramine Tzatziki Treatment is by administration of fluids and the antibi- Tyrosine Non-essential amino acid which can be syn- otic chloramphenicol. thesized from phenylalanine in humans. Important Tyramine Biogenic amine formed by microbial de- precursor of adrenaline, noradrenaline, thyroxine carboxylation of tyrosine. May be formed in foods and melanins. Tyrosine isomers can also be formed such as ripened cheese, chocolate, wines and by Ȗ-irradiation of phenylalanine and their detection fermented foods. Consumption of contaminated can therefore be used as an indicator of irradiation of foods can cause increased blood pressure and mi- foods. graine. Tyrophagus Genus of mites of the class Arachnida. Tyrosol Phenolic antioxidant compounds found in Tyrophagus putrescentiae and T. longior are common olive oils. Tyrosol is able to preserve cellular de- pests of stored foods (e.g. corn, wheat, barley, fences despite possessing weak antioxidative activ- bran and wheat flour). ity, possibly as a result of its good bioavailability and intracellular accumulation. Tyrosinases Catalyse the oxidation of L-tyrosine. Exhibit activity of both catechol oxidases and Tzatziki A Greek speciality yoghurt dip containing monophenol monooxygenases. cucumbers, mint and garlic. U

UASB bioreactors Abbreviation for upflow an- Ulluco Common name for Ullucus tuberosus, an im- aerobic sludge blanket bioreactors. portant tuber crop of the Andean region. Tubers are Ubiquinone Alternative name for the coenzyme Q produced in a wide range of shapes and bright colours. group. Consist of quinones with isoprenyl Their flesh is white to yellow in colour with a smooth sidechains. The number of isoprene units varies, as texture and nutty flavour. Leaves, which are similar reflected by the name, so coenzyme Q10, the main form in texture to spinach, are also eaten as a vegetable, present in all human cells, contains 10 such units. representing a good source of protein, calcium and These coenzymes play a role in generation of energy carotenes. via ATP production. Used as a dietary supplement for Ultracentrifugation Centrifugation in centri- treatment of metabolic disorders. Claimed to pro- fuges which have the ability to develop centrifugal vide relief from migraine and cancer side effects fields of up to 100,000 times that of the gravitational and to possess antihypertensive activity. Food field. Ultracentrifugation is generally used for analyti- sources include fish, offal and the germ portion of cal purposes, such as the determination of physico- wholegrain foods. chemical properties of food polysaccharides using Udon Thick Japanese noodles prepared from wheat sedimentation analysis. flour, often used in soups or broths. Ultrafiltration Selective membrane separation process, Ugba Protein-rich product produced by solid state driven by a pressure gradient, in which suspended sol- fermentation of African oil beans. Used as snack ids, colloids, emulsified solids such as fat-protein foods or condiments. complexes, and dissolved macromolecules with mo- UHT cream Cream heated by UHT treatment to lecular weight in the range 10,000-100,000 Da are re- prolong its shelf life. Also known as long life cream. tained by the membranes. Molecules that do not pass UHT milk Milk heated by UHT treatment to prolong through the membranes constitute the retentate. Lower shelf life. Also known as long life milk. molecular weight dissolved materials that pass through UHT treatment Abbreviation for ultra-high tempera- the membrane under a driving force of relatively low ture treatment, a brief, intense heat treatment (direct or hydrostatic pressure (1-10 bar) are the permeate. Ul- indirect) used to sterilize foods prior to packaging. trafiltration is generally used in the concentration Kills all microorganisms that would otherwise spoil and fractionation of large molecules from materials the product. Following UHT treatment, foods are filled such as cheese whey and milk. into pre-sterilized containers in a sterile atmosphere. Ultrapasteurization Process of heating foods, espe- Food products processed by UHT treatment include cially milk and liquid egg products, at a high tem- liquid products (e.g. milk, some fruit juices, cream, perature for a short time, sufficient to kill any patho- yoghurt, wines, salad dressings), foods with dis- gens present. Used to extend the shelf life of the crete particles (e.g. infant foods, tomato products, product without greatly affecting its nutritional proper- some fruit juices and vegetable juices, soups), ties. A typical process for ultrapasteurization of milk and foods containing larger particles (e.g. stews). would involve heating at 138qC for at least 2 seconds. Uji Thin, fermented porridges made from corn Ultrapasteurized products are aseptically packaged and flour, sorghum flour or cassava meal, either sin- stored under refrigeration. gly or in mixtures. Often used in Ghana and Kenya in Ultrasonics The science and application of ultrasonic infant foods. Also known as koko. waves that have a frequency above those that are audi- Ulcerative colitis An inflammatory bowel dis- ble, generally defined as above 20,000 hertz. ease that causes inflammation and ulcers in the lin- Ultrasound Sound or other vibrations having an ultra- ing of the colon. Common symptoms include abdomi- sonic frequency. Generally, ultrasound is classified as nal pain and bloody diarrhoea. Diet therapy may be any acoustic wave above the normal range of human one approach used to relieve or manage symptoms. hearing, i.e. above 20,000 hertz, but, in practice, the 438 Ultrastructure Ureases term usually refers to a much higher frequency used can thus be used as a source of information for their for a specific application. characterization and authentication. Ultrastructure Detailed structure of organic materials Unsaturated fats Fats, found at high levels in vege- or objects that can be observed by electron micros- table oils, that contain one or more carbon-carbon copy. double bonds. Thought to lower plasma cholesterol Ultraviolet Relating to electromagnetic radiation that levels and reduce the risk of cardiovascular dis- has a wavelength in the range 100-400 nm, which is eases when used to replace saturated fats in the just shorter than that of violet light but longer than diet. that of X-rays. Abbreviated to UV. Unsaturated fatty acids Fatty acids containing Ultraviolet radiation Electromagnetic radiation in one or more carbon-carbon double bonds. Those that the ultraviolet range that has a wavelength in the contain one double bond are termed monounsatu- range 100-400 nm, and which is just shorter than that rated fatty acids and include oleic acid, while of violet light but longer than that of X-rays. Abbre- those that contain two or more double bonds are viated to UV radiation. termed polyunsaturated fatty acids and include linoleic acid. Found at high levels in vegetable Ultraviolet spectrophotometry Alternative term for oils and fish oils, and thought to lower plasma cho- UV spectroscopy. lesterol levels and reduce the risk of coronary Ulva Genus of green seaweeds (Chlorophyta) with a heart diseases. global distribution in seas and estuaries. Type species Unsaturation State in which an organic compound is Ulva lactuca which is characterized by a broad green contains double or triple bonds and thus shows in- frond and a disc-shape hold-fast; this and other Ulva creased capacity for reaction relative to saturated com- species are edible and known as sea lettuces. Used pounds. Used especially with respect to fats and oils. as foods and feeds. The degree of unsaturation refers to the number of Ulva lactuca Species of green seaweeds distributed double and triple bonds within the compound. This is on rocky shores worldwide. Consumed raw, cooked, expressed in terms of iodine values, determined by dried, in soups or as a deep fried product. Rich the weight of iodine absorbed by the substance under source of vitamins and minerals, particularly vita- investigation. With respect to fats and oils, degree of min B1, vitamin C, iron and iodine. Also known as unsaturation is important for their characteristics and sea lettuces. health considerations, unsaturated forms having bene- Umami Sensory properties relating to the percep- fits with respect to blood cholesterol levels and risk tion of savoury flavour, particularly that of mono- of cardiovascular diseases development. sodium glutamate, proteins, certain amino ac- Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket bioreactors ids, and the ribonucleotides inosinate and Bioreactors in which anaerobic digestion is per- guanylate. Derived from the Japanese word for sa- formed by microorganisms that form thick floccula- voury taste. tions maintained in a suspended state near the bottom Ume Alternative term for Japanese apricots. of the reactor. Used for bioremediation of wastes UMP Abbreviation for the nucleotide uridine mono- and waste water from the food industry. phosphate, also known as uridylic acid. Uracil Pyrimidine base that replaces thymine in Undaria Genus of brown seaweeds occurring on RNA, where it pairs with adenine. Also a constituent natural and man-made substrates along coasts of many of uridine. parts of the world. The most important species in Uranium Radioactive metallic element with the commercial terms is Undaria pinnatifida, which is cul- chemical symbol U. tured on a large scale in parts of Asia, particularly Ja- Urd beans Alternative term for black gram. pan. Used in soups; also consumed as a toasted, Urea Synonym for carbamide. The excretory product sugar-coated and canned product. Also known as wa- of nitrogen metabolism produced in the livers of kame and wakami. mammals following the breakdown of amino acids. Undecanone Aroma compound found in foods such Formation during the fermentation of wines is a as milk, cheese and spices, which can also be pro- cause for concern, since it is a precursor of ethyl car- duced by microbial biotransformations. bamate, a carcinogen. As well as being used as a fer- Unsaponifiable matter Substances present in fats tilizer, it is also utilized as a feed supplement for rumi- and oils which are not glycerides and which are re- nants leading to its presence in milk. sistant to saponification with strong alkalies. Con- Ureases EC 3.5.1.5. Convert urea to CO2 and NH3. tent varies among different types of oils and fats, and Used in the food industry for removal of urea from 439 Urethane UV spectroscopy foods and beverages, and for preventing formation of Uronic acids Carboxylic acids, e.g. glucuronic the carcinogen ethyl carbamate. Also used to meas- acid and galacturonic acid, formed by oxidation of ure urea concentrations and have been used to control hexoses. Found in certain polysaccharides, such pH during lactic fermentation, thus enhancing lac- as pectins and alginates. tic acid production. These enzymes are important Ursolic acid One of the pentacyclic triterpenoids. virulence factors in certain bacterial pathogens. Positional isomer of oleanolic acid. Found, together Urethane Synonym for ethyl carbamate. Organic with its derivatives, in a wide range of plant foods, in- nitrogen compound derived from urea, which in pure cluding cherries, blueberries, cranberries, form is a white or colourless, crystalline solid. Soluble prunes, apple peel and herbs, such as lavender, in water, alcohol and ether, and slightly soluble in oils. peppermint, oregano and thyme. Shown in vari- A possible carcinogen that is used in pesticides and ous studies to possess antioxidative activity, anti- fungicides. Formed in wines, other alcoholic tumour activity, anticarcinogenicity, anti- beverages and fermented foods during processing inflammatory activity and hypolipaemic activ- or storage. ity. Also used as one of the food emulsifiers. Urticaria Itchy skin rash of raised spots (weals) on a Uric acid End product of purine metabolism in certain reddened background, resulting from release of his- mammals, and the main nitrogenous excretory product tamine by mast cells. Acute urticaria represents an in birds, reptiles and some invertebrates. Responsible immediate response to such allergens as sea foods for gout in humans. It is thought that consumption of or strawberries. Also known as nettle rash or hives. caffeine-rich beverages such as tea and coffee may reduce serum levels of uric acid. May be useful as an UV Abbreviation for ultraviolet. indicator of insects infestation of cereals and ex- UV radiation Electromagnetic radiation in the ul- truded products. traviolet range, having a wavelength just shorter than that of violet light but longer than that of X-rays. Ab- Uridine Nucleoside in which uracil is bound cova- breviation for ultraviolet radiation. lently to ribose. UV spectroscopy Spectroscopy technique in Uridine monophosphate Nucleotide usually abbre- which samples are identified on the basis of absorption viated to UMP and also known as uridylic acid. of light of ultraviolet wavelength. V

Vaccenic acid One of the trans-18:1 fatty acids Vacuum packaging Packaging process in which present at significant levels in milk fats as well as in some or all of the air is removed from flexible or rigid other foods. containers before sealing. This form of packaging is Vacuum A space entirely devoid of matter or from used to preserve flavour, inhibit bacterial growth and which the air has been completely removed. In practi- prolong the shelf life of food. cal terms, a vacuum is an enclosed region of space in Vacuum pans Sealed devices that control the crys- which the pressure has been reduced (below normal tallization of solids from liquids by lowering the atmospheric pressure) so that processes occurring pressure within the sealed container. Vacuum pans are within the region are unaffected by the residual matter. widely used for crystallization during the manufacture Vacuum cooling Technique based on liquid evapo- of sugar. ration which produces a rapid cooling effect in Valeraldehyde Synonym for pentanal. Organic products containing free water. Suitable only where compound present in many foods that has an unpleas- removal of the free water will not cause structural ant odour and a low odour threshold value. One of the damage and where there is no barrier, e.g. a thick wax main compounds that can cause off odour in sake. cuticle, to water loss. Subjecting suitable products to Valeric acid Synonym for pentanoic acid. Volatile vacuum pressure allows part of the water contained fatty acid comprising 5 carbon atoms and a single car- in them to boil out at relatively low temperatures. Used boxylic acid group. Contributes to the aroma of ma- successfully in reducing postharvest deterioration in ture cheese. Uses include as a reactant in production fruits and vegetables, thus prolonging shelf life, of aroma compounds and flavourings. Also one during processing of some products, including liquid of the main malodorous pollutants from livestock foods and bakery products, and rapid cooling of houses. cooked meat, fish products and ready meals. Valine Essential amino acid important for growth. Vacuum drying Removal of liquid from a solid mate- Good sources include soy meal, brown rice, cot- rial while in a vacuum system, to lower the tempera- tage cheese, fish, meat, nuts and legumes. ture at which evaporation takes place and thus pre- Valtellina Casera cheese Italian semi hard cheese vent heat damage to the material. made on an artisanal or semi industrial scale from semi Vacuum evaporation Concentration technique in skimmed cow milk. Granted controlled Denomination which the use of high temperatures is avoided by sub- of Origin status. Rind has a characteristic straw-yellow jecting the substance to a vacuum, causing it to boil colour which intensifies with ripening. Flavour is at a lower temperature. The process is performed in a sweet with a note of dried fruits. Eaten on its own or chamber surrounded by a water jacket through which as an ingredient of a range of local cooked dishes and water is circulated to control temperature. Particularly salads. dena- useful for products where heat-induced protein Valves Mechanical devices, either manual or auto- turation should be avoided, e.g. liquid egg whites matic, for controlling the passage of fluids through and skim milk. pipes or ducts. Vacuum impregnation The direct introduction of Vanadium Element with the chemical symbol V that ingredients into foods in a controlled manner, by way is intermediate between the metals and non-metals. of their pores. A vacuum is applied to a solid-liquid Vanaspati Grainy hydrogenated vegetable oils used system so that the gas within the pores of the solid ex- as an alternative to ghee in India and Pakistan. Simi- pands and flows out. Atmospheric pressure is then re- lar to margarines and often fortified with vitamin A stored to compress residual gas and draw the liquid and vitamin D. into the pores. Vacuum impregnation can be used to improve the rate of mass transfer in processes such Vancomycin One of the glycopeptide antibiotics as osmotic drying, salting and acidification. produced by Streptomyces orientalis. Used to treat serious life-threatening human infections caused by 441 Vanilla Vegetable burgers Gram positive bacteria. Acts by inhibiting proper genicity for specific hosts (pathovar. (pv.) or patho- cell wall synthesis. Guidelines for its use have been type), susceptibility to lysis by specific bacterio- produced as a consequence of the increasing emer- phages (phagovar. or phagotype) or serological char- gence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. acteristics (serovar. or serotype). However, these Vanilla Natural flavourings produced by curing of terms are often used loosely, in a non-taxonomic sense. fully grown but unripe beans (pods) of Vanilla planifo- Varnishes Resins dissolved in liquids which are used lia or V. tahitensis. Curing causes hydrolysis of gluco- to coat wood or metals. Form a transparent, shiny, hard vanilla to produce glucose and the flavour compound, surface when dry. Varnishes based on epoxy resins are vanillin. Glucose is then involved in nonenzymic often used for coating the interior of food cans. browning via the Maillard reaction with bean pro- Vats Large tubs or tanks used to hold or store liquids. teins. Major vanilla producing countries are Mexico, Examples include fermentation vats used in wine- Madagascar, Indonesia and Tahiti, each country pro- making and vats used during cheesemaking. ducing vanilla with a distinctive flavour profile. Al- Veal Meat from young calves, usually cattle which though vanillin is the main flavour component of va- are slaughtered at <20 weeks of age. Commonly, veal nilla it comprises only about 3% of the total flavour is produced under semi-intensive systems in which compounds and aroma compounds. Thus com- calves are fed on milk-based concentrated feeds to position of minor flavour and aroma compounds is an produce very light-coloured (white or pink) meats. important determinant of flavour. Veal calves are prevented from feeding on fibrous Vanilla beans Seed pods of the orchids Vanilla plani- feeds in order to prevent development of darker col- folia, V. tahitensis or V. pompona. Harvested while oured, stronger flavoured meat. Typically, veal is very green, then cured for 3 to 6 months before being used lean and tender, and has a delicate flavour. The high- in the production of vanilla. Major vanilla producing est quality veal tends to be produced from calves countries include Madagascar, Mexico, Indonesia and slaughtered at 12-16 weeks of age at body weight of Tahiti. 70-90 kg; these calves are often of French lineage, be- Vanillic acid Phenolic compound produced as an in- ing from breeds such as the Belgian blue or Charolais. termediate in bioconversions of ferulic acid to Veal is expensive to produce and, sometimes, calves vanillin. Also found as a pollutant in olive oil mills are treated with growth promoters (e.g. anabolic ster- effluents. oids) to increase the weight of veal carcasses. Vanillin Substituted phenol that is the main flavour Vectors Autonomously replicating DNA molecules compound of vanilla. Synthetic vanillin is also manu- (e.g. plasmids, cosmids, viruses and yeast artificial factured for use in flavourings. Used as a cheaper chromosomes) into which foreign DNA fragments alternative to vanilla in a wide range of foods, such as can be inserted. They can then be transformed into ice cream, bakery products, sugar confection- suitable host cells and propagated. In addition to ori- ery and beverages. gins of replication, vectors usually contain selectable markers that allow selection of recombinant cells. Vapona Alternative term for the insecticide dichlor- They may also contain sequences that direct expression vos. of cloned genes in host cells. Vaporization Process by which moisture or another Vegan diet Strict vegetarian diet which contains no substance is diffused or suspended in the air, becoming animal foods of any kind. converted into vapour. Examples include the rapid Vegan foods Vegetarian foods suitable for a ve- change of water into steam, especially in boilers. gan diet, i.e. excluding meat, eggs, milk, butter, Vapours Gaseous state of a substance, e.g. water cheese and all other animal foods. vapour, at a temperature lower than its critical point, Vegetable burgers Patties made from mashed or that can be made into a liquid by the application of chopped vegetables, sometimes also containing ce- pressure. Vapours are produced from liquids by real or nut ingredients, eaten as an alternative to meat- evaporation and from solids by sublimation. based burgers such as beefburgers. Commonly var Abbreviation generally applied to variety. used ingredients include beans, mushrooms, on- Variety Taxonomic rank below subspecies, usually ions and carrots. Spices and condiments are abbreviated to var. Varieties are usually the result of added to produce the desired flavour. Health benefits selective breeding and diverge from the parent in rela- compared with meat-based burgers include low fat and tively minor ways. Varieties may be distinguished sodium contents, little or no cholesterol content within a given subspecies by, for example, metabolic and increased dietary fibre levels. Also known as and/or physiological properties (biovar. or biotype), veggie burgers. morphology (morphovar. or morphotype), patho- 442 Vegetable fats Vending machines Vegetable fats Lipid-rich vegetable products that are nets in coagulation of milk for cheesemaking. solid at room temperature. May be produced by hy- Include enzymes extracted from flowers of cardoons drogenation of vegetable oils. Used in cooking or curdle thistle (Cynara cardunculus). and as food ingredients. Include cocoa butter, sal Vegetables Plants cultivated for an edible part, e.g. fats, shea nut butter and vanaspati. root, tuber, leaf or flower buds (as in broccoli and Vegetable juice beverages Beverages prepared cauliflowers), or the edible parts of such plants. from vegetable juices with addition of other ingre- Vegetable salads Dishes prepared from a mixture of dients. vegetables, raw or cooked, sometimes served in Vegetable juices Juices extracted from vegetables. sauces or dressings. Drunk as beverages in a similar way to fruit juices. Vegetable soups Soups containing vegetables as Include carrot juices and cabbage juices. the main ingredients, e.g. gazpacho or minestrone. Vegetable nectars Vegetable juice beverages Marketed in cans or retort pouches, and also as made by addition of water and/or sugar, and option- frozen or instant soups. ally other ingredients, to vegetable juices. Vegetarian diet Diet based on plant foods, and Vegetable oils Lipid-rich vegetable products that are which excludes meat and fish, and, in some cases, liquid at room temperature. Extracted from plant mate- other animal foods. Lacto-ovo vegetarians consume rial including seeds, fruits or nuts. Often contain dairy products and eggs, while those following a phytosterols. Used widely as cooking oils and vegan diet consume no animal products at all. Vege- salad oils and as flavourings. Include cottonseed tarianism is adopted for a variety of reasons, including oils, olive oils, sunflower oils, soybean oils and ethical and religious beliefs as well as for nutri- essential oils. tional/health benefits. The positive health effects re- Vegetable pickles Vegetables preserved in liquids ported for the diet have been attributed to relatively such as brines or vinegar and eaten as an accompa- low contents of fats and cholesterol and the high niment to a meal. Examples include pickled onions contents of some vitamins and minerals. Inclusion and cucumber pickles. of supplements in the diet may be necessary to prevent the risk of deficiency in vitamin B and some miner- Vegetable preserves Vegetables that have been 12 als, such as iron, zinc and iodine. preserved by immersing in brines, vinegar or oils. Vegetarian foods Meat-free foods suitable for inclu- Vegetable products Foods derived from vegeta- sion in a vegetarian diet. Include pasta, soy bles, or containing vegetables as the main ingredients. products, vegetable burgers and simulated meat Includes a wide range of foods, such as soups, sal- substitutes. Much of the recent growth in the vege- ads, vegetable oils and pickles. tarian food market has been fuelled by non-vegetarians Vegetable proteins Proteins sourced from vegeta- who are keen to cut down on meat consumption and ble tissue. Preferred by some consumers due to health who perceive vegetarian foods as a healthy option. benefits. Quality of vegetable proteins, especially with Veillonella Genus of anaerobic, coccoid Gram nega- respect to amino acids composition, varies according tive bacteria of the Veillonellaceae family that pos- to source, but many plant breeding programmes have sess lactate fermenting abilities. Occur as parasites aimed to improve protein quality of individual crops. in the mouth, and gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts Legumes, particularly soybeans, are especially rich of humans and animals. Species may be included in in protein. Textured vegetable proteins, usually competitive exclusion cultures, which are fed to ani- derived from soybeans, are used as meat substitutes mals (e.g. poultry) to prevent intestinal colonization and meat extenders. by pathogens (e.g. Salmonella spp.). Vegetable pulps Preparations made from vegeta- Velvet beans Seeds produced by Mucuna pruriens bles by mashing the cooked flesh. Used as ingredients rich in proteins and fibre but containing antinutri- in various dishes, such as soups, sauces and cas- tional factors that must be destroyed by cooking seroles. prior to consumption. Vegetable purees Vegetables that have been Vendace Freshwater fish species (Coregonus al- mashed, usually after cooking, to a smooth, thick con- bula) from the family Salmonidae; distributed across sistency by various means, such as forcing through northwest Europe. Normally marketed fresh; in Swe- sieves or blending in food processors. Used as garden, roes are used as caviar substitutes. nishes, side dishes or ingredients in dishes such as Vending machines Machines that dispense articles sauces and soups, or beverages. such as packaged foods or beverages, usually when a Vegetable rennets Enzymes sourced from plant coin or token is inserted. materials that are used as substitutes for animal ren- 443 Venison Vinegar Venison Meat from deer. It is very lean and has a Resemble lentils when split, making them a potential strong gamey flavour and aroma, which may be de- low cost substitute for lentils in human nutrition. How- creased by marination before cooking. The prime ever, there is concern over toxicity to monogastric cuts are from the loin areas of deer carcasses. Pre- species due to the presence of neurotoxins such as Ȗ- slaughter stress, particularly the holding of farmed or glutamyl-ȕ-cyanoalanine and other precursors of cya- harvested wild deer in unfamiliar surroundings before nide formation. Toxins may be removed by appropri- slaughter, is associated with high ultimate pH values in ate steeping and cooking procedures. deer carcasses and venison with a dark cutting appear- Veterinary inspection Governmental surveillance of ance. In broader use, the term is used to describe meat food producing animals to ensure a clean, wholesome, from antelopes, caribou, elks, moose and reindeer. disease-free meat supply that is without adulteration. Also known as deer meat. There are approximately 70 diseases that animals can Veratryl alcohol Aryl alcohol (3,4-dimethoxybenzyl transmit to man; for this reason, inspections are made alcohol) synthesized by white rot fungi and involved by veterinarians at places of animal slaughter and at in activation of their ligninolytic enzyme systems. En- meat processing facilities. zymes act on plant material and can be used for vari- Viability Capacity of cells for survival. Use of micro- ous functions, including removal of phenols from biological techniques which differentiate between fruit juices, treatment of olive oil mills effluents viable and dead microorganisms in foods may give and detoxification of lignocellulosic hydrolysates. a more accurate estimation of the risk of foodborne Verbascose Oligosaccharide composed of fructose, diseases. galactose and glucose residues. Vibrio Genus of Gram negative, facultatively anaero- Vermicelli Pasta formed into very long, thin strands. bic, straight or curved rod-shaped bacteria of the Vermouths Aperitifs based on wines flavoured with family Vibrionaceae. Occur in freshwater and marine herbs and spices, including wormwood flowers habitats. Vibrio cholerae is the causative agent of (Artemisia absinthium). cholera, which is often transmitted via contaminated Vernonia Genus of plants producing a seed oil rich in foods (e.g. shellfish) and water. V. parahaemolyticus vernolic acid and containing triacylglycerols with and V. vulnificus are responsible for gastroenteritis, epoxidized fatty acid moieties. and are often transmitted via contaminated shellfish. Vero cytotoxins Alternative term for verotoxins Vicilin One of the main storage proteins of leg- and Shiga like toxins. So called because of their cy- umes. totoxic activity in African Green Monkey Kidney Vicine Antinutritional glycoside present in faba (Vero) cells. beans that can cause favism (haemolytic anaemia), Verotoxins Cytotoxins produced by enterohaemor- thus limiting the nutritional value of these beans. rhagic Escherichia coli strains, which are similar to Video image analysis Computer-aided technique in Shiga toxins. Alternative term for Vero cytotoxins which photographic images of a sample are analysed to and Shiga like toxins. give information about particle structure and disper- Verrucosidin Potent neurotoxin produced by Peni- sion. cillium spp., such as P. polonicum and P. aurantiogri- Vienna sausages Small, cooked, smoked sausages seum, particularly on meat products including sau- often served as an hors d'oeuvre; they take their name sages and dry cured ham. from the city of Vienna, Austria. Traditional, Vienna Verruculogen Tremorgenic mycotoxin produced by sausages are twisted into a chain of links. More com- species of Penicillium, Neosartorya fischeri and monly, however, they are open-ended sausages, which Aspergillus fumigatus, fungi responsible for spoil- are canned in brine. age of foods. Vilia Finnish fermented milk.

Versicolorin Precursors in the aflatoxin B1 biosyn- Vinasse Liquid wastes remaining in the still after thesis pathway in fungi. Occur as versicolorin A and fermentation of beverages such as wines in the versicolorin B. manufacture of spirits. Verticillium Genus of mitosporic fungi of the order Vinclozolin Dicarboximide non-systemic fungicide. Hypocreales and class Sordariomycetes. Commonly Classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard isolated from soil and decaying vegetation. May be rein normal use. sponsible for plant diseases and food spoilage. Vinegar Fermented condiment that is essentially a Vetch seeds Seeds produced by plants of the genus solution of t4% acetic acid. The word is derived Vicia, especially V. sativa, common vetch. High in from the French, meaning sour wine, as vinegar was protein, making them a popular feed for ruminants. originally produced as an unwanted by-product of 444 Vine leaves Viscometers winemaking. Several types of vinegar with character- tissues are normally not detected. However, now istic flavour profiles are produced by fermentation of banned for use in food producing animals in many various substrates, including apples, cider, grape countries worldwide due to evidence for emergence of musts, wines and malt. Vinegar fermentation is a 2- resistant bacteria in humans and animals following an- stage process. The initial alcoholic fermentation of tibiotic use, the spread of resistant animal bacteria to sugars in the chosen substrate is carried out by Sac- humans, the transfer of antibiotics resistance charomyces spp., while the acetic fermentation genes from animal bacteria to human pathogens, and of the alcohol produced to acetic acid is carried out by resistant strains of animal bacteria causing human dis- acetic acid bacteria in the presence of O2. Due to ease. This leaves human infections untreatable by anti- the acidic nature of vinegar, it is also used in acidu- biotics from the same class as virginiamycin. lants and preservatives. Viridicatin Mycotoxin produced by fungi of the genus Vine leaves Leaves of grape vines used to wrap Penicillium, including P. cyclopium and P. discolor. foods prior to cooking, as in dolmades. Also used in Strains producing the toxin have been isolated from a salads and garnishes. Available fresh or canned in wide range of food types. brines. Viridicatol Mycotoxin produced by fungi of the genus Vines Plants of the genus Vitis, generally V. vinifera, Penicillium, including P. cyclopium and P. discolor. which produce grapes. The leaves of the plants are Strains producing the toxin have been isolated from a also eaten, being used to wrap foods prior to cooking, wide range of food types. as in dolmades, and also eaten in salads and gar- Viriditoxin Teratogenic mycotoxin produced by some nishes. species of Aspergillus, including A. fumigatus and A. Viniculture Alternative term for viticulture. viridinutans, and also by Paecilomyces variotii. Vinification Alternative term for winemaking. Strains producing the toxin have been isolated from a range of agricultural commodities. Vintage Describes the year and vineyard or geographical origin of a grape harvest and the wines Virulence The degree of pathogenicity of groups of made from these grapes. A blend of winemaking microorganisms and their relative ability to cause grapes taken from 2 or more years yields a wine that diseases. Intrinsic properties of pathogens (viru- is called non-vintage. Some vintages are considered lence factors) contribute to their pathogenic capac- better than others depending on the quality of the har- ity. vest in that year. Virulence factors Properties of, or substances pro- Vinyl chloride Flammable, possibly carcinogenic, gas duced by, pathogens that determine their capacity to which is polymerized to make polyvinyl chloride. cause disease (virulence). Include adherence, Also used as a propellant in aerosols. Synonym colonization, invasion, toxins, motility, chemo- chloroethene. taxis, microbial proteins, flagella, pili and host immune response inhibitors. Vinylidene chloride Colourless liquid which is po- Viruses Non-cellular microorganisms that consist lymerized to make the thermoplastic material polyvi- of a core of RNA or DNA enclosed in a protein coat nylidene chloride (PVDC). Synonym 1,1- (capsid) and, in some forms, a protective outer mem- dichloroethene. brane (viral envelope). Can live and reproduce only in Violaxanthin Xanthophyll carotenoid pigment found susceptible living microbial, plant, human and animal in algae and certain fruits, e.g. kiwifruit, olives, host cells. Causative agents of many important dis- grapes and mangoes. eases of humans, animals and plants. Viomellein Mycotoxin produced by species of As- Viscera Soft internal organs of the body, usually those pergillus and Penicillium. May be synthesized in contained in the abdominal cavity. In animals, fish stored cereals contaminated with these fungi. and birds processed for food, the viscera (removed by Vioxan A preparation of the insecticide carbaryl. evisceration or gutting) are often discarded as Virginiamycin Cyclic polypeptide antibiotic complex waste products. However, fish processing wastes produced by Streptomyces virginiae. Consists of 2 have shown potential for recovery of lipids and pro- major components: virginiamycin factors M1 and S1. teins. Member of the streptogramin class of antibiotics. Viscoelasticity Rheological properties relating to Has been used to treat infections with Gram positive the reaction of a product to a stress or strain, consisting bacteria and as growth promoters in cattle, partly of a viscous element and partly of an elastic one. sheep, swine and poultry. Has also been used to Viscometers Instruments for measuring the viscos- increase production of eggs in hens. Not significantly ity of liquids. Also called viscosimeters. absorbed by treated animals and residues in edible 445 Viscometry Vitamin D

Viscometry Measurement of viscosity of a liquid, Vitamin B1 Former name for thiamin.

usually performed with viscometers. Vitamin B12 Synonym for cyanocobalamin. Mem- Viscosity Measure of the ease with which a fluid can ber of the vitamin B group, found in foods of animal flow when subjected to shear stress, measured in origin such as livers, fish and eggs. Vitamin B12 is Newton seconds per square metre or Pascal seconds. the coenzyme for methionine synthase (EC 2.1.1.13), Low viscosity, e.g. that of a gas, allows flow through a an enzyme important for the metabolism of folic acid, fine tube to be quite rapid, whereas high viscosity (as and methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase (EC 5.4.99.2). with thick oils) makes motion sluggish. Viscosity Absorption of this vitamin requires the presence of arises from the intermolecular forces in a fluid (inter- an intrinsic factor. Failure of absorption, rather than nal friction); the stronger these forces, the greater the dietary deficiency, is the major cause of pernicious viscosity. With a rise in temperature, attraction be- anaemia.

tween the molecules is reduced, enabling them to move Vitamin B13 Synonym for orotic acid. An intermedi- more freely. ate in the biosynthesis of pyrimidines, and growth Vision systems Systems of visual feedback based on factor for some microorganisms.

various devices, such as video cameras, photo cells, or Vitamin B2 Former name for riboflavin. other apparatus, allowing a robot to recognize objects Vitamin B6 Vitamin which exists in three forms - or measure their characteristics. Vision systems are pyridoxine (the alcohol form), pyridoxal (the alde- widely employed in quality control processes in the hyde form) and pyridoxamine (the amine form). The food industry. relative proportion of each of the three forms in foods Vital gluten Wheat protein complex separated from varies considerably. All are equally biologically active. starch in a wheat flour dough and dried. Used to Vitamin B complex Alternative term for vitamin B improve strength of bread dough. group. Vitamers Group of compounds varying in structure Vitamin B group Group of water soluble vitamins but displaying qualitatively similar biological activities generally found together in nature and basically related with respect to specific vitamins. Collectively rein function, although unrelated chemically. These in- ferred to by the name of the vitamin involved. clude vitamin B1 (thiamin), vitamin B2 (ribofla- Vitamin A Group of fat-soluble compounds (reti- vin) the vitamin B6 group (pyridoxine, pyridoxal noids) which exist in several isomeric forms and oc- and pyridoxamine), the vitamin B12 group (the co- cur preformed only in foods of animal origin. The two balamins), nicotinic acid (niacin), folic acid vitamin A forms are: retinols, which predominate in (pteroylglutamic acid), pantothenic acid and bio- mammals and marine fish; and dehydroretinols, tin. which predominate in freshwater fish. Vitamin A is Vitamin C Synonym for ascorbic acid, an antioxi- present in yellow and green leafy plants as provita- dant nutrient present in a wide range of foods. Neces- min A, of which there are several forms. The most sary for growth of bones and teeth, for maintenance of important ones in human nutrition are the carote- blood vessel walls and subcutaneous tissues, and for noids, Į- and ȕ-carotene and cryptoxanthin. These wound healing; dietary deficiency results in scurvy. are converted to the active vitamin in the intestinal Used in food additives, with applications in food wall and liver. Richest sources of preformed retinols antioxidants and bakery additives. fish liver oils egg yolks milk are , and fortified . Vitamin D Group of several related sterols exhibiting Biologically active carotenoids are found in dark green qualitatively the biological activity of calciol (chole- leafy vegetables fruits vegeta- and yellow and calciferol). The most important members are vita- bles, such as squashes and carrots. In humans, min D2 (ergocalciferol or calciferol) and vitamin common signs of vitamin A deficiency are poor D3 (cholecalciferol). The former is synthesized by ir- growth, lowered resistance to infection, night blindness radiation of the plant provitamin ergosterol, and and rough scaly skin. Severe deficiency leads to kera- the latter is produced from the provitamin 7- tomalacia and xerophthalmia. dehydrocholesterol (found underneath the skin) on ex- Vitamin antagonists Antinutritional factors posure to UV light from the sun. Vitamin D is also which are present in some natural foods and do not considered to be a prohormone. Fish liver oils and function as vitamins, even though they are chemi- foods fortified with vitamin D are the major dietary cally related to them. As a result, they cause vitamin sources; smaller amounts are found in livers, egg deficiencies where the body is unable to distinguish yolks, sardine and salmon. Severe deficiency in them from true vitamins, and incorporates them into children results in rickets; deficiency in adults leads to essential body compounds. osteomalacia. 446 Vitamin D2 Vodka

Vitamin D2 Synonym for calciferol and ergocalcif- Two to three times more potent than naturally occur- erol; one of the group of sterols which constitute vi- ring vitamin K. tamin D. Synthesized by irradiation of the plant Vitamin K2 series Synonym for menaquinones. provitamin ergosterol. Variety of metabolites with vitamin K activity syn- Vitamin D3 Synonym for cholecalciferol; one of the thesized mainly by intestinal bacteria. Also found in group of sterols which constitute vitamin D. Fat- meat, livers, eggs and cheese. Formerly called soluble vitamin necessary for formation of the skeleton farnoquinone. and for mineral homeostasis. Produced on exposure to Vitamin P Group of plant bioflavonoids, including UV light from the sun from the provitamin 7- rutin, naringin, hesperidin, eriodictin and citrin, dehydrocholesterol, which is found in human skin. which affect the strength of capillaries in the body. Vitamin E Fat-soluble vitamin comprising compounds Bioflavonoids are found as natural pigments in which exhibit qualitatively the biological activity of Į- vegetables, fruits and cereals. In addition to their tocopherol. Two main groups of compounds have effect on capillary fragility, it is claimed that biofla- vitamin E activity - tocopherols and tocotrienol. vonoids function as follows: they are active antioxida- There are 4 isomers of each: Į-, ȕ-, Ȗ- and į- tive compounds in foods; they possess a metal- tocopherols; and Į-, ȕ-, Ȗ- and į-tocotrienols. Each has chelating capacity; they have a synergistic effect on differing vitamin potency. Vitamin E functions primar- ascorbic acid; they possess bacteriostatic and/or an- ily as an antioxidant in cell membranes, protecting tibiotic activity; and they possess anticarcinogenic ac- unsaturated fatty acids from oxidative damage. tivity. Vitamin E contents of foods are expressed as mg Į- Vitamin PP Obsolete name for niacin. tocopherol equivalent; leafy vegetables, seeds and Vitamins Groups of nutrients which are essential in most vegetable oils are good sources. small amounts for most living organisms to maintain Vitamin E acetate Esterified form of vitamin E normal health and development. which has no antioxidative activity until the acetate Vitamin U Synonym for S-methylmethionine. A is removed in the intestine as it is absorbed. The ace- compound found in raw cabbages, other green tate form is more stable with respect to storage time vegetables, beer and citrus juices. Thought to as- and temperature than unesterified forms. sist in healing of skin ulcers and ulcers in the digestive Vitamin F Obsolete name for thiamin. tract; also has an effect on secretory, acid-forming and Vitamin G Obsolete name for riboflavin. enzymic functions of the intestinal tract. Vitamin H Obsolete name for biotin. Viticulture Cultivation of vines for production of winemaking grapes or table grapes. Vitamin K Group of fat-soluble vitamins essential for production of prothrombin and several other proteins Vitreosity Extent to which a substance resembles glass involved in the blood clotting system, and the bone with respect to properties such as hardness, brittleness, protein osteocalcin. Deficiency causes impaired blood transparency and structure. coagulation and haemorrhage; vitamin K is sometimes Vitrification Phenomenon whereby a substance is called the antihaemorrhagic vitamin. Two groups of cooled rapidly to a low temperature such that the water compounds have vitamin K activity: phylloquinone, it contains forms a glass-like solid without undergoing found in all green plants; and a variety of crystallization. The temperature at which the transi- menaquinones synthesized by intestinal bacteria. tion into a glassy solid occurs is the glass transition Dietary deficiency is unknown, except when associated temp. Glass formation can result in stabilization of with general malabsorption diseases. non-equilibrium systems, including most foods. In the glassy state, physicochemical deterioration is inhibited, Vitamin K1 Synonym for phylloquinone. Fat-soluble vitamins found in all green plants. Especially abun- effectively preserving the system. Vitrification tem- dant in alfalfa and green leafy vegetables. Essential perature can be used as an indicator of food safety and for production of prothrombin, and several other pro- storage stability. teins involved in the blood clotting system, and the Vla Dutch custard-type viscous dairy dessert made with bone protein osteocalcin. Deficiency causes impaired milk, carrageenans, modified starches and fla- blood coagulation and haemorrhage. vourings.

Vitamin K3 Synonym for menadione. Synthetic com- Vodka Spirits, originating in Russia and northeast pound with vitamin K activity, used in prevention and Europe, made from grain or potatoes. Generally rec- treatment of hypoprothrombinaemia, secondary to fac- tified to have neutral flavour and aroma, but some tors that limit absorption or synthesis of vitamin K. types contain added flavourings. 447 Volatile compounds Vomitoxin Volatile compounds Compounds that are readily Voltammetry Electrochemical technique in which the vaporized. Often have a characteristic aroma and are relationship between voltage and current flowing be- therefore often flavour compounds and aroma tween electrodes in a reaction solution is measured. compounds. Utilizes a working electrode, where the reaction oc- Volatile fatty acids Fatty acids that, apart from curs, an auxiliary electrode for current flow and a ref- being present in some foods, are produced by bacte- erence electrode that is used to measure the potential of ria in the human intestine and the rumen of cattle from the working electrode. undigested starch and dietary fibre. To some extent, Volumetric analysis Titration technique based on they can be absorbed and used as a source of energy. measurement of the volume of reagent required to re- Volatile fatty acids formed in the colon may show an- act completely with the analyte. ticarcinogenicity. Volatile organic compounds Non-methane hy- Volvariella Genus of edible fungi that include padi drocarbons produced as industrial pollutants. straw mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea) and Volatile sulfur compounds Sulfur-containing fla- straw mushrooms (V. diplasia). Another widely vour compounds found in garlic (e.g. methyl consumed species is V. speciosa, easily confused with mercaptan, allyl mercaptan), onions, Brassica some poisonous Amanita spp. spp. such as cabbages, cauliflowers and broccoli, Volvatoxins Cardiotoxic proteins produced by Vol- wines and fruit juices. Some compounds can cause variella volvacea (straw mushrooms). Exist as volva- an off odour in wines, e.g. H2S can lead to a rotten toxin A1 and volvatoxin A2. egg odour. However, other compounds improve wine aroma, e.g. 3-mercaptoethanol enhances fruitiness. Vomitoxin Synonym for deoxynivalenol. A trichothecene produced by Fusarium spp. W

Wafers Light, thin, crisp biscuits served as an ac- Walruses Large, carnivorous marine mammals (Odo- companiment to desserts or ice cream, or eaten benus rosmarus) belonging to the family Odobenidae sandwiched together with sweet or savoury fillings or in the order Pinnipedia. They are hunted for their coated with chocolate. meat, particularly by the northern Inuit and Indian Waffles Light, crisp, indented raised cakes leavened communities in the Canadian Arctic and northern with baking powders or yeasts and typically baked coastal British Columbia regions. Characteristics of in a special waffle iron, which cooks both sides simul- walrus meat include: a high content of protein, with a taneously. Often consumed as a breakfast food, ac- biological value similar to that of beef; a darker col- companied by maple syrups. May also be eaten as our than beef; and a distinctive flavour. Walrus desserts, topped with cream or ice cream. blubber forms a part of traditional diets in some areas, but may be associated with health risks due to Wakame Common name for Undaria pinatifida, one bioaccumulation of organochlorine pesticides of the the brown seaweeds. Used in soups and also and other contaminants. In Arctic regions, trichi- consumed as a toasted, sugar-coated and canned prod- nosis is commonly associated with consumption of uct. Alternative spelling is wakami. raw or inadequately cooked walrus meat. Wakami Alternative spelling of wakame; one of the Warehouses Large buildings in which raw materials brown seaweeds in the genus Undaria. or manufactured goods are stored. Wallemia sebi Species of xerophilic spoilage fungi of the order Wallemiales. Causes spoilage of fruits, Warmed over flavour Characteristic off flavour cereal products, syrups and jams. primarily associated with cooked meat and poultry meat in chilled ready meals and other cook chill Walleye Freshwater fish species (Stizostedion foods. In cooked meat and poultry held at chilled vitreum) belonging to the family Percidae; distributed storage temperatures, this stale, oxidized flavour be- across North America. Flesh is highly esteemed for its comes apparent within a short time (48 hours), particu- flavour and texture. Cultured in some parts of North larly if the product is stored under air. Modified at- America. Marketed fresh and frozen. mosphere packaging under low oxygen levels Walleye pollack Alternative term for Alaska pol- helps to delay the onset of oxidative warmed over fla- lack. vour. Walnut oils Relatively expensive oils extracted from Warming The process by which an item is heated walnuts. The distinctive nutty flavour and aroma slightly to the point of being warm. make them popular for use in salad dressings, driz- Wasabi Pungent spices produced from the roots of zling on to cooked foods and in cooking. Sometimes Wasabia japonica. Used most commonly in Japanese used as an alternative to olive oils. To prevent devel- cuisine and for flavouring of condiments. Also opment of rancidity, walnut oils are best stored in a known as Japanese horseradish. cool, dry location, out of direct sunlight. Walnuts Nuts produced by trees of the genus Juglans, Wastes Unusable, unwanted or discarded materials. In the most economically important species being J. regia the food industry, wastes can result from application of (common or Persian walnuts), J. nigra (black walnuts) processing procedures, and consist of solids such as and J. cinerea (butternuts or white walnuts). Ripe pomaces, feathers and sludges. By recycling, nuts are rich in vitamin E and B group vitamins, some materials in wastes can be reclaimed for further while younger fruits also contain vitamin C. Used as use. dessert nuts, and as ingredients in confectionery, Waste water Unusable, discarded water (effluents) bakery products and ice cream. Oils extracted resulting from processing procedures. In the food in- from the nuts contain a high proportion of unsatu- dustry, waste water is commonly produced by brew- rated fatty acids and have a range of food uses. eries, dairies, distilleries, olive oil mills and palm 449 Water Water supplies oil mills. Must be disposed of safely, often after treat- Water holding capacity Extent to which a substance ment, to minimize pollution. can hold and retain water. Related to the solubility of Water Colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid with the sample. the chemical formula H2O, which is essential for plant Water ices Frozen sugar confectionery made from and animal survival. Widely drunk as a beverage, usu- water and sugar and flavoured with fruit juices, fruit ally after some form of disinfection. Used in the purees or other fruit flavourings. Used to make food and beverage industries in many ways, including some types of ice lollies. as an ingredient, in the form of process water, and Wateriness One of the sensory properties; relat- in cooling and heating systems. ing to the extent to which a product is watery, i.e. Water activity Measure of the water vapour gener- runny and wet. ated by the moisture present in a hygroscopic product. Watermelon juices Juice extracted from watermel- Defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water va- ons. Contains high levels of lycopene, vitamin A, pour to the partial pressure of water vapour above pure vitamin C, potassium, magnesium and the amino water at the same temperature. In foods, it represents acid citrulline, which is claimed to have performance- water not bound to food molecules; the level of un- enhancing effects in athletes and demonstrates anti- bound water has marked effects on the chemical, oxidative activity and vasodilatory activity. Used as microbiological and enzymic stability of foods. Com- an ingredient of fruit beverages, sports drinks monly abbreviated to aw. and some alcoholic beverages, including shots and Water binding capacity Extent to which a substance cocktails. can bind water. Watermelons Large globose or oblong fruits pro- Water chestnuts Seeds of Trapa natans or T. bicor- duced by Citrullus lanatus or C. vulgaris. Good source nis, which are cooked and eaten as vegetables. of vitamin A and vitamin C. Colour of rind and Commonly used in Chinese cooking. flesh varies according to variety. Flesh contains nu- Water convolvulus Common name for Ipomoea merous seeds that are rich in proteins and oils, and aquatica, a plant grown in China, Taiwan and Viet- can be eaten dry or roasted. nam, also known as water spinach. Stems and leaves Watermelon seeds Seeds from watermelons of are eaten as vegetables, either boiled or stir fried; the genus Citrullus. Mature seeds are roasted and stems are also used as ingredients in pickles. salted for consumption as snack foods and have po- Watercore Internal defect that affects mainly apples, tential use as oilseeds. but also pears and sometimes other fruits. Character- Water pollution Contamination of water resources ized by water-soaked appearance of some or all of the with substances (usually toxic chemicals or waste mat- flesh. ter) which can be harmful to organisms living in the Watercress Dark green leafy plant (Nasturtium offici- water, or to those that drink it or are otherwise exposed nale or N. microphyllum x officinale). Rich in proteins, to it. iron, carotenes and vitamin C; also contains vita- Water sorption Attachment of water onto the surface min E, group B vitamins and other minerals. Used in or into the body of a material. salads, garnishes, soups and cooked as a vegetable. Water spinach Common name for Ipomoea aquatica, Water dropwort Common name for Oenanthe stolo- a plant native to India and South East Asia but grown nifera. Young shoots and leaves from the plant are widely in other regions. Due to its invasive and aggres- used in China as flavourings for fish soups and sive nature, the plant poses a serious threat to water- poultry dishes. ways in the southern USA and is considered a noxious Waterfowl Wetland birds such as ducks, geese and weed. Stems and leaves are eaten as a vegetable, often swans, which belong to the order Anseriformes. The stir fried. Rich in proteins and minerals, especially term is most commonly used for wetland game iron. Alternative names include swamp cabbage and birds, some of which are hunted for their meat. water convolvulus. Water hardness A measure of the amount of dis- Water stress Condition caused in plants by lack of solved mineral salts, especially calcium and mag- sufficient water for growth, as in drought. Can have nesium salts, in water, including drinking water. adverse effects on growth and quality of edible plant Hard water has a high content of dissolved minerals, parts, e.g. fruits and leaves. while soft water has a low mineral content. Water Water supplies Drinking water supplied to the hardness is an important factor in food processing public and industry by a water supply company or au- since it can affect product quality. thority. 450 Water vapour Wet milling Water vapour Water that is in its gaseous state, espe- consists of a bar with a pan hanging from each end and cially when below its boiling point. a support (fulcrum) at the centre of the bar. Precision Wax beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus balances used in scientific laboratories can measure the vulgaris). weight of small amounts of material down to the near- Wax coatings Wax-based materials used to coat and est 1 millionth of a gram. Such weighing machines are preserve the quality of fruits and some types of enclosed in glass or plastic to prevent wind drafts and cheese. temperature variations from affecting the measurements. Electronic scales, which use electricity to Waxes White translucent materials including bees- measure loads, are faster and generally more accurate wax, but also a wide variety of similar viscous sub- than their mechanical counterparts; in addition, they stances, such as carnauba wax. Used as coatings can be incorporated into computer systems, which for foods or to make candles and polishes. makes them more useful and efficient than mechanical Wax esters Long-chain fatty acid esters present in scales. vegetable oils which can also be synthesized by li- Weissella Genus of Gram positive lactic acid bac- pases, either from free fatty acids or through deg- teria of the Leuconostocaceae family. Found in a radation of triacylglycerols. range of foods, including fermented foods. Weis- Wax gourds Juicy-textured fruits of Benincasa his- sella viridescens can cause spoilage of cooked ham. pida that are used as vegetables. Can be stir-fried, used W. cibaria, isolated from the Thai fermented fish in preparation of sweet pickles, added to soups, or product plaa-som, produces weissellicin 110, a bacte- stuffed with meat or vegetables and steamed. Also riocin that is active against some Gram positive known as ash pumpkins, ash gourds, Chinese fuzzy bacteria. gourds and Chinese preserving melons. Weisswurst White German sausages made with Weaning Process of gradually replacing mother's milk veal, cream and eggs. Eaten fried or poached and or milk substitute with other types of food in the diet of traditionally served in Germany during the Oktober- an infant or other young mammal. For infants, wean- fest, accompanied by sweet mustard, rye bread and ing foods are initially of a puree-like consistency beer. and are often based on cereals, but other textures and Well water Water derived from wells. May be used as types of food are introduced as the process proceeds. drinking water. Weaning foods Infant foods used during the transi- Welsh onions Common name for Allium fistulosum. tion from consuming solely human milk or infant Rich in vitamin C; also contains a range of other vi- formulas to introduction of a mixed diet. From six tamins, carotenes and group B vitamins. Very months of age, the amount of solid food included in the small bulbs, but hollow, cylindrical leaves that are diet can gradually be increased so that by twelve used is salads and soups. The whole plant may be months, solid food has become the main part of the in- cooked. Also known as Japanese leeks, Japanese fant's diet. Types of weaning food differ widely be- bunching onions, ciboule and cibol. tween cultures, but initial weaning foods are generally Western blotting Method for detecting specific proof a smooth, puree-like consistency and include teins. Proteins are separated by gel electrophore- items such as vegetable purees, fruit purees and sis and transferred to a suitable matrix (e.g. nitrocellu- cereals, such as baby rice. As the infant continues to lose or PVDF), on which the proteins bind in a pattern develop, a wider variety of foods with a thicker consis- identical to that on the original gel. After blotting, tar- tency and lumpier texture can be given to encourage get molecules are detected through the use of labelled chewing (mastication). antibodies specific for the proteins of interest. Alter- Weevils Common name for various insects of the natively, proteins can be detected through the use of family Curculionidae. Also known as snout beetles. specific, unlabelled primary antibodies followed by Often highly destructive pests of crops and stored ce- addition of labelled secondary anti-antibodies. real grains, e.g. the alfalfa weevil (Hypera postica), Wet milling Process for separation of a substance into the grain weevil (Sitophilus granarius) and the rice its constituent parts by a combination of chemical and weevil (S. oryzae). Larvae of some species can be de- mechanical means. Used mainly in processing of structive to fruits, nuts and grain. corn, but can also be applied to other cereals such as Weighing Process of determining the weight of an sorghum, wheat and rice. Cereals are steeped in object. water with or without sulfur dioxide to soften the ker- Weighing machines Devices, also called scales, nels before removal of the germ and separation of the used to determine the weight of an object. The simplest other components. The main product is starch, which weighing mechanism is the equal-arm balance, which can be further processed in the case of corn to manu- 451 Wet pet foods Whelks facture sweeteners or ethanol. Other products in- Wheat bran Protective outer layer of the wheat grain clude fibre, gluten and oils, such as corn fibre which is removed from commercial flour by bolting or oils. sifting. Added to foods such as breakfast cereals Wet pet foods Pet foods with a higher moisture or bread as a source of fibre. content (up to 80%) than dried pet foods or semi- Wheat bread Bread made from wheat flour. White moist, soft pet foods. Include canned pet foods. wheat breads are made from finely sifted wheat flour, Usually sterilized during the canning process. On a while whole wheat bread is prepared by incorporating dry matter basis, contain higher levels of proteins and the fibre-rich outer layers of the wheat grain. fats than dried pet foods. Tend to contain meat, Wheat breadmaking Process by which bread is fish and animal by-products, such as offal and hooves, made from wheat flour. as major ingredients, but may also contain cereals and other plant foods. Hypoallergenic wet pet foods Wheat dough Unbaked, thick, plastic mixture of are also available, containing novel proteins and/or un- wheat flour and a liquid, such as water or milk. May common starches. contain yeasts or baking powders as leavening agents. Used predominantly to make bread; dough Wettability One of the physical properties; relat- used to make other products, e.g. pizzas, biscuits, ing to the ability of a solid to absorb a liquid, such as noodles, may vary in composition from bread water, as it spreads over the surface of the solid. dough. Whale meat Meat from whales, which is eaten in Japan, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands Wheat fibre Fibre extracted from wheat. and other Arctic regions. For example, Eskimos living Wheat flour Product resulting from grinding wheat in whaling villages consume raw, frozen, boiled and grains. Wholemeal flours are obtained by grinding fried whale meat; they also eat mekiqag, a whale meat whole wheat grains, while white flour is produced by product, prepared by very slow cooking of the meat in separating wheat germ and wheat bran from the its own juices. There is growing recognition that whale endosperm. Used to prepare a range of bakery prod- products may contain high concentrations of toxic ucts such as bread, cakes and biscuits. chemicals, such as heavy metals and organochlo- Wheat germ Vitamin- and lipid-rich embryo (sprout- rine compounds. ing portion) of the wheat grain. Milling of grain to Whale oils Oils derived from the blubber of whales produce white wheat flour results in separation of the of the order Cetacea. Contain wax esters and tria- germ, which may then be used to enrich bread and cylglycerols. Uses include the manufacture of mar- breakfast cereals. Also used in dietary supple- garines. Also known as spermaceti. ments. Whales Large, air-breathing marine mammals belong- Wheat germ oils Oils extracted from seeds of ing to seven families, namely: Delphinidae, Physeteri- wheat (Triticum aestivum). Rich in linoleic acid and dae, Monodontidae, Ziphiidae, Eschrichtidae, Balaen- tocopherols; also contain Į-linolenic acid. opteridae and Balaenidae. Many species of whales Wheat gluten Complex formed when wheat pro- have been killed in large numbers by commercial teins are mixed with water. Consists of glutenin and whalers and are now rare. They are hunted to provide gliadins. Gluten forms an elastic network during whale meat, blubber, whale oils and edible offal. kneading of dough, which is important for the tex- Whale products are traditional foods to some ethnic ture of the bread. Gluten content of wheat varies groups, e.g. the Eskimos, for whom the most important among varieties. whale parts are whale meat and muktuk (a layer of blubber with skin attached). Wheat malt Germinated wheat grains used in brew- Wheat Grain of cereal grasses belonging to the genus ing and distillation, essential for making wheat beer Triticum (particularly T. aestivum, and T. durum) . Wheat malt contains more protein than barley which contains gluten, a protein complex important malt, and this can give beer a fuller mouthfeel and for the breadmaking properties of this grain. Used to enhanced beer head stability. However, it can also re- haze make many food products, including pasta and sult in beer problems. breakfast cereals; wheat flour is used widely to Wheat starch Starch isolated from wheat. make bakery products such as biscuits, cakes and Whelks Shellfish, including several species of marine bread. gastropod molluscs of the family Buccinidae; Wheat beer Beer made from mashes derived worldwide distribution. Flesh of many species is ten- wholly or partially from wheat malt, rather than the derized by pounding prior to consumption. Commer- more common barley malt. cially important species include Buccinum undatum (common whelks) and Neptunea antiqua (red whelks). 452 Whey Whitefish Marketed fresh (in shell; cooked or uncooked), semi- Whipping capacity The extent to which a food can preserved (in vinegar and salt) and canned. be whipped, usually measured by the percentage in- Whey Liquid formed by coagulation of milk during crease in volume. cheesemaking. The solid portion (curd) is proc- Whipping cream Cream with a fat content of ap- essed further to make cheese. Whey is sometimes proximately 34% that can be whipped to approxi- used in making whey cheese, but is produced in mately double its volume. large amounts as a waste, disposal of which poses Whipping properties Functional properties re- problems for the dairy industry. Although mainly used lating to the ability of a food to be whipped, increasing in animal feeds, whey can be utilized as an ingredient the volume by incorporation of air. in some foods and as a fermentation substrate. Also Whiskey Alternative spelling of whisky. This spell- called serum or lactoserum. ing is generally used for Irish and American whiskies. Whey beverages Drinks, sometimes sports drinks Spirits made by distillation of fermented mashes or nutritional beverages for specific population groups, made from saccharified cereals, using raw materials, based on whey. Can be alcoholic or non-alcoholic. distillation conditions and ageing periods as specified by national regulations for the specific whiskey type. Whey cheese Cheese prepared by concentrating Whisky Alternative spelling of whiskey. This spell- whey and coagulating the proteins with heat and ac- ing is commonly used for Scotch and Canadian whis- ids. The resulting curd is strained and possibly kies. Spirits made by distillation of fermented pressed. Milk or cream may be added to increase fat mashes made from saccharified cereals, using raw content or improve cheese flavour. Ricotta cheese materials, distillation conditions and ageing periods as is a well-known whey cheese. specified by national regulations for the specific Whey concentrates Concentrates prepared from whisky type. whey. Used in a variety of foods to supplement nutri- White amur Alternative term for grass carp. tional values. Uses include preparation of sports Whitebait General name used for young marine fish foods and sports drinks, and dietetic foods. of various herring-like species, including Clupea Whey protein concentrates Products prepared from harengus (Atlantic herring) and Sprattus sprattus whey by separation of whey proteins using pre- (European sprat). Often consumed as a fried product, cipitation or ultrafiltration. Precipitation at a high sometimes in batters (whitebait fritters). temperature and low pH followed by centrifugation White beans Type of common beans (Phaseolus produces a concentrate of denatured, insoluble whey vulgaris). proteins. Ultrafiltration followed by vacuum evapora- White cabbages Variety of Brassica oleracea. Cab- tion and spray drying produces a concentrate of non- bages with white heads that mature in winter. denatured, soluble proteins. Concentrates varying in White cheese Fresh cheese that is either uncured composition can be made by controlling manufacturing or only slightly cured. High moisture content and per- conditions. Uses include adjustment of protein contents ishable. of various products, including infant formulas, dietetic products and protein-enriched foods for specific White chocolate Confectionery containing sugar, groups of people, e.g. athletes. Foaming properties cocoa butter and milk solids, together with emulsi- of whey protein concentrates make them suitable for fiers such as lecithin, and vanilla flavouring. Does use in aerated foods and as replacements for egg not contain any cocoa solids, and cannot be marketed whites. as chocolate in many countries. Both US and EU regulations require foods marketed as white chocolate to Whey proteins Milk proteins that remain in whey contain a minimum of 20 weight% cocoa butter. after manufacture of cheese. Sometimes called serum Whitecurrants White berries produced by Ribes proteins. Consist of albumins ( -lactalbumin and se- Į sativum. Rich in vitamin C. Eaten out of hand or as rum albumin) and globulins (mainly - ȕ components of preserves, jellies and sauces. lactoglobulin). White fish General name referring to white-fleshed Whipped cream Cream in which the volume has marine fish in which the main fat reserves are in the been increased (overrun) by 90-100% by whipping in livers, particularly gadoid species such as cod, had- air. Available commercially in aerosol cans, the prod- dock, whiting and coalfish. uct containing sugar in addition to cream. Whitefish Any of several marine and freshwater Whipping Beating of ingredients, particularly cream fish within the genera Coregonus and Prosopium; dis- and egg whites, during which air is incorporated into tributed in the North Atlantic or in lakes across north- them, increasing their volume and creating a froth. ern Europe and North America. Commercially impor- 453 White lupins Wildebeests tant species include Coregonus clupeaformis (lake (Gadidae and Merlucciidae). Particularly refers to Mer- whitefish) and C. albula (vendace). Marketed fresh langius merlangus, a commercially important species and frozen. found in the north Atlantic Ocean. Marketed fresh and White lupins Common name for the white-flowered frozen (whole, or single and block fillets) and as plant Lupinus albus or L. termis. Pods contain large, smoked or canned products. off-white seeds that are rich in proteins and oils. WHO Abbreviation for World Health Organization. Seeds are sometimes used as coffee substitutes and Wholegrain foods Foods made from whole, unre- their flour as a replacement for soy meal. Potentially fined grains or wholegrain ingredients. Wholegrains toxic alkaloids in lupin seeds are removed by contain the entire edible parts of a grain kernel, i.e. the washing in water. germ, endosperm and bran, and are rich in many nu- White mould cheese Creamy and smooth cheese trients which are generally lost during refining. In ad- with white Penicillium mould grown on the outside. dition, wholegrains are low in fat and cholesterol. White mustard Common name for Sinapis alba, Wholegrain foods include wholemeal bakery seeds of which are ground to produce spices. When products and pasta, some breakfast cereals and reconstituted with water, the spice develops a pungent brown rice. Consumption of wholegrain foods has aroma due to formation of allyl isothiocyanate. been associated with a number of health benefits in- Turmeric is often added to the mustard powders to cluding reduced risks of developing certain cancers produce a bright yellow coloration, leading to the al- and heart disease. ternative name, yellow mustard. Wholemeal Flour or bread made from the entire Whiteners Substances used to whiten or bleach foods cereal grain with none of the bran or germ removed. such as flour or fish. May be used as substitutes for Whole milk Milk from which none of the fat has been fresh milk in beverages including coffee (coffee removed. Fat content of milk varies according to spe- whiteners), tea or cocoa, or in sauces. Available cies, being approximately 4% in cow milk. Milk is as liquids or powders. These are prepared from milk also available in other forms from which some (semi proteins or non-dairy proteins (e.g. soy proteins) skimmed milk) or almost all (skim milk) of the fat and fats, blended with other ingredients such as has been removed. These other forms are preferred by sugar, emulsifiers, stabilizers, buffers, flavour- some consumers wishing to limit their intake of fats. ings and colorants. Wieners Cooked, smoked frankfurters, which take Whiteness One of the optical properties; relating their name from the city of Vienna (Wien), Austria. to the extent to which an item is white, i.e. snowy and Some wieners are prepared in edible natural casings; milky in appearance. these sausages are often considered more traditional, White pepper Common name for Piper nigrum, fruit and tend to cost more than skinless varieties. Tradi- of which are ground to produce spices. Compared tionally, wieners are braided in groups of links. with black pepper, which is produced from fully Wild boar meat Meat from wild boars. It is similar grown, but unripe, fruit of P. nigrum, white pepper has to pork, but has a redder colour, a lower content of a more delicate flavour. The major flavour compound fat and a stronger flavour. It may be infested with lar- of white pepper is piperine. vae of Trichinella spiralis and therefore must be White pickled cheese White cheese pickled in cooked thoroughly before eating to prevent trichino- brines. Alternative term for brine ripened cheese. sis. White sugar Purified crystalline sugar containing Wild boars Wild swine (Sus scrofa) of the family approximately 1% moisture. Dried to produce granu- Suidae from which most domestic swine have been lated sugar. bred. They are hunted for wild boar meat. White tuna Generally refers to flesh from the alba- Wild cabbage Type of Brassica oleracea that grows core (Thunnus alalunga), which is lighter-coloured wild on coastal cliffs. Evolved into many varieties than flesh from other tuna. grown for their edible stem, leaves, buds or flowers. White whales Alternative term for beluga whales. Wildebeests Large African antelopes belonging to the genus Connochaetes; they are also known as gnus. White wines Wines with a white to golden yellow There are two species, namely the white-tailed gnu (C. colour. May be made from white winemaking gnou), which is now a protected species, and the blue grapes or alternatively from red winemaking grapes wildebeest or brindled gnu (C. taurinus). They are by a technique which avoids extraction of antho- hunted for their meat, particularly in East Africa where cyanins from the grape skins. controlled culling is carried out to harvest wildebeest Whiting Name given to a variety of marine fish spe- meat. cies, the majority being in the cod and hake families 454 Wild garlic Woodcock Wild garlic Wild plants of the genus Allium used in sherry. Wine vinegar has a wine-like flavour and is flavourings or as a vegetable, and having beneficial used more as a flavouring than as a condiment, e.g. as effects on health. Commonly consumed species in- an ingredient of salad dressings. clude A. ursinum and A. victorialis. Wine yeasts Yeasts used for fermentation of Wild mushrooms Mushrooms that grow in the grape musts to produce wines. May be spontane- wild and are prized for their exotic flavour. Since ously occurring yeasts, or pure yeasts cultures. Mainly many wild species are poisonous, great care must be Saccharomyces spp., although other genera of taken to identify the edible species when picking them. yeasts may play a role in the early stages of fermen- Wild rice Long grain aquatic grass with a nutty fla- tation. vour. Chinese wild rice is Oryza latifolia, while North Winged beans Beans produced by Psophocarpus American wild rice is produced by plants of the genus tetragonolobus. Rich in protein. As well as the seeds, Zizania. Due to the high costs of this cereal, it is often immature green pods, leaves and root tubers of the eaten mixed with other rice varieties or bulgur wheat. plant are eaten. Also known as goa beans and as- Wild vegetables Plants that are harvested from the paragus peas. wild rather than being cultivated and are eaten as Winnowers Devices for blowing air through grain in vegetables. order to remove the chaff. Winnowing is also used to Wild yeasts Naturally-occurring strains of yeasts. separate the shell and some of the germ from cocoa Wine coolers Beverages made by blending wines beans during manufacture of chocolate. with other ingredients, including water, fruit juices, Winterization Removal of traces of waxes and sugar, flavourings and ice. higher melting glycerides, or stearin, from fats. Wine distillates Intermediate products or finished Waxes are generally removed by rapid chilling and spirits made by distillation of wines. filtration. Separation of stearin usually requires very Wine gums Sugar confectionery products with a slow cooling in order to form crystals that are large chewy texture made with sucrose, glucose and ei- enough to be removed by filtration or centrifugation. ther gum arabic or gelatin. Often fruit-flavoured. Cottonseed oils and groundnut oils are winter- Similar to fruit gums and to fruit jellies, although ized to produce salad oils that remain liquid at low the latter are softer due to a higher moisture content. temperatures. Tallow and other animal fats are win- Winemaking Process of manufacture of wines. The terized for simultaneous production of hard fats and basic process comprises crushing grapes, alcoholic oleo oil. Also known as destearination. fermentation of the grape juices and ageing of the Withering Process whereby plant material or foods wines. Many additional processes may be applied, in- become dry and shrivelled. Controlled withering can cluding maceration, clarification, chaptalization, be undertaken either chemically or physically (includ- filtration, fining and, in the case of sparkling ing techniques such as freeze withering, solar wither- winemaking, secondary fermentation. ing and warm air withering). Withering is commonly Winemaking grapes Grape cultivars used primarily the first stage in the processing of teas. In some re- for winemaking, and having characteristics making gions, wines are made from grapes which have been them especially suitable for this application. Mainly partially dried by withering in the sun before pressing. Vitis vinifera, but other Vitis spp. or their hybrids with Witloof Type of chicory. V. vinifera are also used for winemaking. Wolfberries Berries of Lycium barbarum, of the Wineries Industrial establishments where wines are family Solanaceae. Usually marketed in dried form, manufactured. and can be eaten raw as health foods or used in Wines Alcoholic beverages manufactured by al- functional foods and functional beverages. Also coholic fermentation of fruit musts or fruit known as goji berries. juices. Generally refers to beverages produced from Wood Hard fibrous material which forms the main grapes (Vitis spp., mainly V. vinifera). Fruit wines substance of the branches and trunk of trees. Used as a are made from other fruit musts or juices. The term packaging material, particularly for making wooden wines may also be used to refer to rice wines (made barrels, baskets, crates and some fibreboard. from saccharified rice mashes), and palm wines Physicochemical properties of wood have major ef- (made from palm sap). fects on the aroma and flavour of alcoholic bev- Wines manufacture Alternative term for winemak- erages stored and/or aged in wooden barrels, or foods ing. exposed to wood smoke during processing. Wine vinegar Vinegar produced by acetic fermen- Woodcock Long-billed game birds of the sandpiper tation of wines, e.g. red wines, white wines or family. Valued highly as a food. Includes the Ameri- 455 Wood pigeons Wuerstel can woodcock (Philohela minor) and the European nance of trade barriers when it is needed. It is a forum woodcock (Scolopax rusticula). for governments to negotiate trade agreements and to Wood pigeons Eurasian pigeons that may be settle trade disputes. The WTO agreements provide le- hunted as game birds for their meat. Synonymous gal ground rules for international commerce. The bulk with the ring dove (Columba palumbus). of the WTO's current work comes from the 1986-1994 Uruguay Round of negotiations and earlier negotia- Wood smoke Smoke produced from the burning of tions under the General Agreement on Trade and Tar- wood. The type of wood used (e.g. oak, hickory, mes- iffs (GATT). The WTO is currently hosting new nego- quite) influences the properties of the smoke and gov- tiations under the Doha Development Agenda erns its application. Used in flavourings and/or pre- launched in 2001. servatives. Foods which are commonly processed using smoke include fish and meat. Smoke fla- Wormwood Common name for Artemesia absinthium, vourings may be added to barbecue sauces or leaves and flowering tops of which are used to produce marinades. spices. Wormwood has a bitter flavour. It is used in Woolliness Extent to which products, usually fruits, natural flavourings for vermouths. A. absinthium have a woolly texture, i.e. are dry and spongy. Woolli- extracts and essential oils are also used as flavour- ness is an adverse sensory property and physiological ings. The plant also contains Į-thujone, which is a disorder, involving lack of juiciness, internal convulsant at high concentrations; hence, in some browning and inability to ripen, without variation in countries such as the USA, foods and beverages con- tissue moisture. It is associated with an imbalance in taining wormwood are permitted only if thujone is activity of pectic enzymes during storage. Onset not present. of woolliness can be quantified instrumentally and is Worts Clarified extracts prepared from mashes based characterized as a lack of crispness, low hardness on malt, sometimes with addition of brewing ad- values and low juiciness. juncts, and subsequently fermented to form beer. Worcestershire sauces Condiments produced by Worts are generally boiled with hops to extract hop fermentation with yeasts of a mixture of fruit bitter compounds. juices, vegetable juices, syrups and amino ac- Wrapping Packaging, e.g. paper or soft material, ids. used to cover or protect a food, particularly during re- World Health Organization The World Health Or- tail and after selection by the consumer. ganization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that helps countries to improve Wreckfish Marine fish species (Polyprion ameri- their health services and coordinates international ac- canus) belonging to the family Polyprionidae and of tion against diseases. minor commercial importance. Distributed in the At- lantic Ocean, western Indian Ocean and southwest Pa- World Trade Organization The World Trade Or- cific Ocean. Marketed fresh, frozen or cooked in a va- ganization (WTO) is an international body, which be- riety of ways. gan life on 1 January 1995, that promotes and enforces the provisions of trade laws and regulations at a global Wuerstel Small sized, frankfurter style sausages, level. The WTO is an organization primarily for liber- traditionally made in Italy. They have high fats con- alization of trade, but its rules also support the mainte- tent. X

Xanthan Extracellular heteropolysaccharide produced meat. Animal enzymes can be converted to xanthine by Xanthomonas campestris. Uses in the food in- dehydrogenases by thiols such as 1,4- dustry include in gelling agents, gel stabilizers, dithioerythritol. In most tissues, the enzyme exists thickeners and crystallization inhibitors. mainly as the oxidase but in animal livers it is found almost entirely in the form of xanthine dehydrogenase. Xanthan gums Gums produced by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris. These gums are Xanthohumol Prenylated chalcone present in hops exopolysaccharides composed of repeating penta- and beer. Possesses a range of properties beneficial saccharide units comprising a cellulose backbone and for health, including antioxidative activity, anti- trisaccharide side chains of D-mannose and D- carcinogenicity, antimutagenicity and protection glucuronic acid residues. The gums also contain vari- against osteoporosis and atherosclerosis. able quantities of pyruvic acid. Used widely in the Xanthomegnin Hepatotoxic mycotoxin produced by food industry as thickeners due to their ability to certain species of Aspergillus, Penicillium and produce highly viscous, highly stable aqueous solu- Trichophyton. tions. Other uses include as emulsifiers, stabilizers Xanthomonas Genus of Gram negative, aerobic, rod- and binding agents, and to provide body, e.g. in shaped bacteria. Several species are plant pathogens low fat foods. (e.g. Xanthomonas campestris, X. fragariae, X. ampe- Xanthene dyes Pigments derived from xanthene. lina and X. abilineans). X. campestris causes black rot Examples of those used as food colorants include of cabbages and cauliflowers, common blight of rose bengal, erythrosine and phloxine. beans, and bacterial spot of tomatoes and peppers. X. campestris is also used in the production of Xanthine dehydrogenases EC 1.17.1.4, formerly xanthan gums. Several species may cause spoilage 1.1.1.204. Enzymes that catalyse the conversion of of raw chilled meat, fish and egg products. hypoxanthine to xanthine and the further oxidation Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous Species of of xanthine to uric acid. Also act on a variety of yeasts of the family Cystofilobasidiaceae. Used in purines and aldehydes. Major proteins of bovine biotechnology for the industrial production of milk fat globule membranes. Xanthine dehydro- astaxanthin. genases from animals can be converted to xanthine oxidases by storage at -20qC or by treatment with Xanthophylls Group of neutral yellow or brown caro- proteinases, organic solvents or thiol reagents. In tenoid pigments that are oxygenated derivatives of animal livers, the enzyme exists mainly as the dehy- carotenes and distributed widely in plants. Useful as drogenase, but in other tissues it is found almost en- food colorants. tirely in the form of the oxidase. Xanthotoxin Furanocoumarin toxin produced by celery in response to infection by certain fungi and bac- Xanthine oxidases EC 1.17.3.2, formerly 1.1.3.22. teria and after various stress treatments. Consumption Enzymes that convert xanthine to uric acid and or contact with affected celery can cause phototoxic H O , but also oxidize hypoxanthine, and certain 2 2 skin reactions or bullous dermatitis. purines, pterins and aldehydes. Under certain conditions, toxic superoxides are generated rather than Xenobiotics Substances that are foreign to living peroxides; green tea and seaweeds extracts, to- organisms. Can be synthetic or naturally occurring gether with certain flavonoids, have been found to compounds. Examples include drugs, pesticides inhibit this process. Major proteins of bovine milk fat and carcinogens. globule membranes, where they are thought to Xerocomus Genus of edible fungi, commonly con- constitute a natural bacterial defence mechanism, since sumed species including Xerocomus badius and X. they can produce nitric oxide radicals with antibacte- subtomentosus. rial activity. Xanthine oxidases have also been used X-ray absorptiometry One of the analytical tech- in biosensors for evaluating the freshness of niques employed for analysis of bone mineral 457 X-ray crystallography Xylose isomerases density, body composition and obesity. It is more Xylan degrading enzymes General term for gly- commonly known as dual energy X-ray absorptiometry cosidases that hydrolyse and degrade xylan. since it involves irradiation with 2 beams of X-rays Xylan endo-1,3-ȕ-xylosidases EC 3.2.1.32. Xylan having different energies. The amount of X-ray radia- degrading enzymes that catalyse the random hy- tion absorbed by a tissue is correlated positively with drolysis of 1,3-ȕ-D-xylosidic linkages in 1,3-ȕ-D- its density. Used in nutritional studies for assessing xylans. Useful as dough improvers and volume- impact of diet on bone health or body composition, increasing agents in bread and bakery products, and also for analysis of the composition of animal and for wheat starch separation. Also known as xy- carcasses. lanases and endo-1,3-ȕ-xylanases. X-ray crystallography One of the analytical tech- Xylan 1,4-ȕ-xylosidases EC 3.2.1.37. Xylan de- niques used for modelling of molecular structure. grading enzymes that hydrolyse 1,4-ȕ-D-xylans, Crystals prepared from the molecule of interest, or a removing successive D-xylose residues from the non- powder of the crystals, are bombarded with X-rays reducing termini. Also known as xylobiases, ȕ- which are scattered by the electrons of the molecule. xylosidases and exo-1,4-ȕ-xylosidases, these enzymes The pattern of diffracted X-rays generated is related to are useful for utilization of xylan-containing sub- electron density by the Fourier transform function, thus strates. Also hydrolyse xylobiose. an electron density map is created by application of Xylene Comprises 3 dimethylbenzene isomers which this function to the X-ray diffraction pattern. A mo- are potential chemical contaminants of foods and lecular model may be produced from the electron den- drinking water. Used as a solvent in the printing, sity map and other data. Synonymous with X-ray dif- rubber and leather industries. Human exposure is gen- fraction. Widely used for the analysis of proteins, in- erally via inhalation, but levels of 1-100 ppb have been cluding milk proteins and enzymes, and starch. found in foods. Can cause headaches, lack of muscle X-ray diffraction Alternative term for X-ray crystal- coordination, dizziness, renal failure and death, de- lography. pending on the level of exposure. X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy Spectros- Xylitol Naturally occurring polyol comprising 5 carbon copy technique in which the sample is irradiated with atoms which has equivalent sweetness to sucrose. X-rays, causing emission of a characteristic X-ray pho- Manufactured by hydrogenation of xylose. Used in ton and fluorescence, which is measured using a spec- sweeteners, especially for low sugar confection- trophotometer. ery, since it is non-cariogenic. X-rays Penetrating electromagnetic radiation of very Xylitol dehydrogenases Alternative term for D- short wavelength, able to pass through many materials. xylulose reductases. X-rays are produced by bombarding a target, usually made of tungsten, with high-speed electrons. The Xylobiases Alternative term for xylan 1,4-ȕ- shorter the wavelength of the X-ray, the greater is its xylosidases. energy and its penetrating power. Longer wavelengths, Xyloglucans Polysaccharides found in the hemi- near the UV-ray band of the electromagnetic spectrum, celluloses component of plant cell walls. Consist of are known as soft X-rays. The shorter wavelengths, (1ĺ4)-linked glucose residues, most of which have a closer to and overlapping the gamma-ray range, are xylose residue side chain attached. Galactose, ara- called hard X-rays. A mixture of many different wave- binose and fucose may also be present. lengths is known as white X-rays, as opposed to Xylooligosaccharides Oligosaccharides that monochromatic X-rays, which represent only a single contain xylose residues. Useful as sweeteners and wavelength. X-rays are used in the food industry for a as prebiotics. Thought to be indigestible, and ani- wide range of analytical purposes, including detection mal models have suggested that they may reduce se- of contaminants in manufactured foods. rum cholesterol levels and repress peroxidation of Xylan Polysaccharide found in the cell walls of plants, lipids induced by a high cholesterol diet. where it forms the bulk of the hemicelluloses com- Xylose Aldose monosaccharide comprising 5 carbon ponent. Consists of (1ĺ4)-ȕ-linked D-xylose residues atoms which may be produced by hydrolysis of xylan. with side chains of other sugars, such as (4-O-methyl)- Substrate for manufacture of xylitol and xylulose. Į-D-glucopyranosyluronic acid and Į-L- Has approximately 0.7 times the sweetness of su- arabinofuranosyl residues. (1ĺ3)-linkages may also be crose and is used as a sweetener for diabetic foods. present and the molecule may be acetylated. Xylose isomerases EC 5.3.1.5. Enzymes that cata- Xylanases Alternative term for xylan degrading lyse the isomerization of D-xylose and D-xylulose. enzymes and xylan endo-1,3-ȕ-xylosidases. Also isomerize D-ribose and D-glucose, and are useful for isomerization of glucose to fructose in the pro- 458 Xylose reductases d-Xylulose reductases duction of fructose high corn syrups. The name formed by aldose-ketose isomerization of xylose us- glucose isomerases is still widely used for these ing bacterial xylose isomerases. enzymes. D-Xylulose reductases EC 1.1.1.9. Dehydro- genases involved in the fermentation of xylose Xylose reductases Alternative term for aldehyde and production of xylulose from xylitol. These en- reductases. zymes have been expressed in several bacteria, and ȕ-Xylosidases Alternative term for xylan 1,4-ȕ- the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and recombi- xylosidases. nant cells have been used for fermentation of xylose to ethanol. They have also been used in xylitol bio- Xylulose Ketose monosaccharide comprising 5 carbon sensors for online control of xylitol production by atoms (pentose) that is an isomer of xylose. May be yeasts. Y

Yacon Edible tubers of Smallanthus sonchifolius that fleshed varieties contain carotenes. Eaten cooked in are usually eaten raw. Contain high contents of inulin. the same way as potatoes, and sometimes processed The sweetish water chestnut-like flavour develops af- into fufu. Flavour resembles that of potatoes. In the ter exposure to the sun for a few days. Used for pro- USA the name is used for sweet potatoes with or- duction of alcohol and sweeteners. ange flesh. Yakifu Japanese bakery product made by mixing glu- Yam starch Starch isolated from yams. Used as ten with starch or wheat flour and baking. thickeners and gelling agents in some foods, and Yakju Alcoholic beverages of the rice wines type, also in edible films. produced in Korea. Yard-long beans Alternative term for asparagus Yak meat Meat from yaks. It has higher protein, beans. thiamin, iron, potassium and sodium contents, and Yarrow Pungent, aromatic herb of the genus Achillea, lower fat and riboflavin contents than beef. In sen- especially A. millefolium. Used sparingly in salads sory terms, yak meat is described as very juicy, but and soups, and to make herb tea. sweetish, with a metallic off-flavour, due to its high Yarrowia Genus of fungi of the class Saccharomy- iron content. cetes. Yarrowia lipolytica is responsible for spoilage Yak milk Milk obtained from yaks, and drunk pre- of certain foods, e.g. yoghurt, butter, margarines, dominantly in Tibet, but also in Mongolia and India. meat mince and cheese. Pink in colour. In Tibet, it is processed into 3 prod- Yeast biomass Quantitative estimate of the total ucts: crispy oil (butter oil produced by separation of population of yeasts present in a given habitat, in milk and used in cooking and making butter tea); sour terms of mass, volume or energy. milk made from whole milk or the skim milk re- Yeast extracts Water-soluble fraction of autolysed maining after removal of crispy oil; and milk solids yeasts. During autolysis, yeast enzymes hydrolyse residue resulting from boiling skim milk (made into cytoplasmic proteins and carbohydrates. Insoluble yak milk cheese). cell wall material (cellulose) is removed, e.g. by cen- Yaks Large stocky ruminants belonging to the Bovidae trifugation, to leave a clear extract of water soluble cel- family. Wild yaks are a protected species, but domesti- lular material that is rich in amino acids and other cated yaks (Bos grunniens) are reared to provide yak nutrients. Yeast extracts are used as flavourings, as meat, yak milk, hair and hides. The domesticated yak a source of nutrients for microbial fermentation, and is the dominant dairy animal in the pastoral areas of as a source of B group vitamins for fortification of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau in China. foods. Yakult Brand of fermented skim milk drink contain- Yeast proteins Proteins produced by yeasts. ing live Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota. It is one Yeasts Unicellular fungi of the phylum Ascomycota of the probiotic foods that is drunk to help maintain that reproduce by fission or budding, and are capable the health of the gastrointestinal tract. of fermenting carbohydrates into alcohol and car- Yam beans Common name for tubers of Pachyrhi- bon dioxide. Some are responsible for food spoilage, zus erosus. Thinly sliced tubers are eaten raw in sal- while others are economically important as agents in ads or cooked in dishes such as soups and stews. breadmaking, brewing and winemaking, and in Used as a substitute for water chestnuts. Young the production of single cell proteins, B vitamins pods of the plants may also be eaten. and other fermentation products. Yam meal Non-cereal flour prepared from tubers of Yellowfin Alternative term for yellowfin tuna. the genus Dioscorea. Yellowfin tuna Marine fish species (Thunnus alba- Yams Starchy underground tubers of the genus Dio- cares), which forms the second largest part of the scorea. Good source of potassium and zinc, but world tuna catch after skipjack tuna; widely dis- contain only small amounts of vitamin C; yellow- tributed across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Mar- 460 Yellow fish Yusho keted mainly as a canned product, but also sold fresh, to failure stress, beyond which failure occurs. Meas- frozen, dried, salted and as a semi-preserved product. ured in Newtons. Yellow fish General name used for salted, cold- Ymer Danish fermented milk. smoked, white fish fillets, which usually develop a Yoghurt Fermented milk of creamy texture that can yellow colour after smoking; particularly refers to be prepared from milk of many species, but most often smoked haddock. is made from cow milk. Can be made from whole Yellow mustard Synonym for white mustard (pro- milk, semi skimmed milk or skim milk, in a range duced from seeds of Sinapis alba), to which turmeric of thicknesses, stirred or set, and in plain or flavoured has been added to produce a bright yellow coloration. varieties. Flavoured yoghurt is mixed with sugar Yellow perch Freshwater fish species (Perca fla- and flavourings or fruits. Also made into frozen vescens) of commercial importance belonging to the yoghurt, a product resembling soft serve ice cream. family Percidae. Widely distributed in rivers and lakes Commercially, yoghurt is made using yoghurt start- of America and Canada. Marketed fresh or frozen and ers (generally Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Strep- cooked by pan frying, broiling or baking. tococcus thermophilus). Other bacteria beneficial to gastrointestinal health, e.g. L. acidophilus and Bifido- Yellowtail Any of several marine fish species of the bacterium bifidum, may also be added. Pasteuriza- genus Seriola (family Carangidae); distributed across tion destroys the bacteria in yoghurt; unpasteurized warmer regions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. product is known as live yoghurt. Yoghurt is rich in The most important food fish species in commercial calcium and iodine and a source of protein and B terms is S. quinqueradiata, which is cultured on a large vitamins. Many spelling variants for yoghurt are used scale in Japan. Marketed fresh, salted and dried; also in various parts of the world, including yogurt, yog- canned (smoked flesh packed in oils). Also known as hourt and yogourt. amberjack. Yoghurt beverages Drinks based on yoghurt. In- Yerba mate Tree (Ilex paraguariensis) which grows clude many health beverages as well as fruit con- in South America, the leaves and twigs of which are taining beverages such as smoothies. dried, seasoned and made into a popular local infusion beverage, called mate or sometimes yerba mate. Yoghurt starters Microbial cultures inoculated into milk to produce acidity by fermentation during Yersinia Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped manufacture of yoghurt. Commercial starter prepara- Gram negative bacteria of the family Enterobac- tions generally contain Lactobacillus bulgaricus and teriaceae. Occur in soil and water, and in the gas- Streptococcus thermophilus. trointestinal tract of animals (e.g. swine and rodents). Some species are able to survive and prolifer- Yokan Japanese confectionery products made with ate at low temperatures, which can pose a risk for re- agar (gelling agent), sugar and adzuki beans frigerated foods; some also possess relatively high paste, together with persimmons and chestnuts, heat resistance and can withstand pasteurization. which are used as flavourings. Yersinia enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis are Youngberries Dark red berries produced by Rubus the causative agents of yersiniosis. Pork and pork ursinus, a hybrid between dewberries and black- products are substantial sources. berries. Yersiniosis Disease of humans or animals caused by Yuba Product made from the skin that forms on the Yersinia enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis. surface of soymilk during heating. The skin is hung Frequently characterized by gastroenteritis with di- up to dry in sheets or sticks. Used in meat substi- arrhoea and/or vomiting, and accompanying fever and tutes, wrapped round other foods or eaten alone after abdominal pain. Transmission in humans is usually via deep frying. ingestion of contaminated water and foods (e.g. meat, Yucca Trees belonging to the genus Yucca which grow fish, shellfish, milk, dairy products, fruits and mainly in the USA and Mexico. Extracts of some spe- vegetables). cies, especially Y. brevifolia and Y. schidigera, are Yessotoxins Class of shellfish toxins produced by used as foaming agents in foods and beverages, dinoflagellates. Can produce enterotoxic effects in including root beer, cocktail mixes and whipped humans following ingestion of molluscan shellfish drinks. Yucca extracts are also used as feed additives. (e.g. clams, mussels, oysters and scallops) Yukwa Traditional Korean snack food made by deep which filter feed on these dinoflagellates. frying gelatinized waxy rice dough, which has pre- Yield stress Stress at which the yield strength of a viously been steamed, punched and moulded. material is exceeded and elastic behaviour gives way Yusho Disease caused by ingestion of edible oils to viscous behaviour. If continued, the stress may lead which became contaminated with polychlorinated 461 Yuzu Yuzu biphenyls (PCB) on the Japanese island of Kyushu in Yuzu Citrus fruits (Citrus junos) cultivated mainly 1968. for the rind which has a characteristic aroma and is used as a garnish or flavour enhancer in a variety of dishes. Source of essential oils. Z

Zabadi Fermented milk resembling yoghurt that is flavour compounds, detoxification of contaminated popular in the Middle East. Sometimes served as a foods and feeds, and as molecular sieves. dessert with thick syrups. Alternative term for za- Zeranol Anabolic growth promoter with oestrogenic bady. activity which may be used in food-producing ani- Zabady Alternative term for zabadi. mals. Use has been banned in the EU since 1988. May Zearalenol Alcohol derivative of zearalenone with be formed in animals by in vivo metabolism of Fusa- oestrogenic activity, which may be used as an ana- rium spp. mycotoxins (e.g. zearalenone) present bolic growth promoter in food-producing animals. Use in feeds. is banned in some countries. Animals may carry out in Zinc Essential trace element, chemical symbol Zn. vivo metabolic conversion of zearalenone to Important for growth and is part of the active site of zearalenol. many enzymes, where it is usually required for activ- Zearalenone Synonym for F2 toxin. A mycotoxin ity. produced by Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum and Zineb Foliar dithiocarbamate fungicide used for con- other Fusarium spp.. May be formed when the fun- trol of downy mildew, blights and other fungal dis- gus grows on damp cereal grain (e.g. wheat, barley eases in leafy vegetables, potatoes, tomatoes, and corn) used as animal feeds. Has oestrogenic berries, stone fruits and pome fruits. Classified activity and can cause hyperoestrogenism in swine, by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in normal cattle and poultry. use. Zeatin Naturally occurring cytokinin derived from Zingerone One of the primary pungent principles adenine which plays a role in the growth and devel- of ginger, displaying antioxidative activity. opment of plants. Ziram Foliar dithiocarbamate fungicide used for con- Zeaxanthin Member the xanthophylls group of trol of fungal diseases in a wide range of fruits and carotenoid pigments and an isomer of lutein. May vegetables. Also applied to plants as an animal re- contribute to visual health. Found in many plants, cer- pellent. Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous tain algae and egg yolks, and used in food color- (WHO III). ants. Zireh Name used in some parts of the world for black Zedoary Common name for Curcuma zedoaria, a cumin (Nigella sativa). The dark brown crescent- plant related to turmeric. Young rhizomes are eaten shaped fruits or seeds are used as a spice and as the as a vegetable. The dried rhizome is pulverized and source of essential oils rich in monoterpene alde- used as a spice. Used as a condiment and in manufac- hydes and terpene hydrocarbons such as ture of flavourings and bitters. Also known as shoti. cuminaldehyde and Ȗ-terpinene. Zefir Traditional Russian foamed confectionery Zn Chemical symbol for zinc. products, similar to meringues. Zolone Alternative term for the insecticide phosa- Zein Prolamin which accounts for approximately half lone. of the total storage proteins in corn. Contains Zoonoses A group of infectious and parasitic dis- minimal concentrations of lysine and tryptophan, eases which are transmissible from animals to man, but is rich in leucine. e.g. brucellosis, salmonellosis and trichinosis. Zeleny values Indicators of wheat protein quality for Many disease organisms affect only humans or particu- breadmaking, providing estimates based on sedi- lar animals; however, zoonotic organisms can adapt mentation of swollen gluten and starch suspended in themselves to many different species. a solution of lactic acid. Z-Trim Trade name for non-caloric, thermally stable Zeolites Crystalline, hydrated alkali-aluminium sili- food ingredients derived from insoluble fibre from cates. Useful as catalysts for production of invert plants (usually cereals and legumes). Used as fat sugar from sucrose, downstream processing of substitutes, stabilizers and emulsifiers in a range 463 Zucchini Zymomonas of food applications, including bakery products, facture of miso, soy sauces, ogi and balsamic meat products, dressings and dairy products. vinegar. Z. bailii causes spoilage of mayonnaise, Developed by the USDA. Z Trim Holdings, Inc. li- salad dressings, pickles, mustard, ketchups, censes the rights to manufacture and sell Z Trim. carbonated beverages and some wines. Zucchini Alternative (US) name for courgettes. Zucchini squashes Alternative term for cour- Zymomonas Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rod- gettes. shaped Gram negative bacteria of the family Zwieback Sweetened bread originating from Ger- Sphingomonadaceae. Occur in fermenting beverages many. The dough contains eggs and butter and is and plants. Some species cause spoilage of alco- baked, sliced and baked a second time to form a type holic beverages (e.g. cider and beer). Z. mobilis is of rusks. a widely used industrial bacterium, producing fermen- Zygosaccharomyces Genus of ascomycetous fungi tation products such as ethanol, levans, fructose, of the family Saccharomycetaceae. Zygosaccharomy- oligosaccharides and sorbitol. Also used in the ces rouxii is responsible for spoilage of certain foods production of pulque and palm wines. Levansu- (e.g. musts, fruit juice concentrates, confec- crases produced by Z. mobilis are used in hydrolysis tionery and honeys), and is important in the manu- of sucrose to levans and ethanol. APPENDIX A: THE GREEK ALPHABET

Letter

Upper case Lower case Name

A ␣ alpha B ␤ beta ␥ gamma ␦ delta E ε epsilon Z ␨ zeta H ␩ eta ␪ theta I ␫ iota K ␬ kappa ␭ lambda M ␮ mu N ␯ nu ␰ xi O o omicron ␲ pi P ␳ rho ␴ sigma T ␶ tau ϒ ␷ upsilon ␾ phi X ␹ chi ␺ psi ␻ omega

465 APPENDIX B: SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ORGANISATIONS IN THE FOOD SCIENCES

International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST)

The International Union of Food Science and Technology is the world organization of food science and technology and is full scientiﬁc member of the International Council for Sciences (ICSU). The chief aims of IUFoST are to promote international cooperation, support international progress, advance technology, stimulate education and teaching, and to foster professionalism and professional organization.

Contact information

IUFoST Secretariat PO Box 61021 No. 19, 511 Maplegrove Road Oakville, Ontario Canada L6J 6X0 Phone: +1 905 815 1926 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.iufost.org

IUFoST has four Regional Groupings:

Asociaci´onLatinoamericano y del Caribe de Ciencia y Tecnolog´ıade Alimentos (ALACCTA)

ALACCTAunites Latin-American and Caribbean Associations of Food Science and Technology.A regional seminar is organized every other year as well as international courses with experts from all over the world. Sixteen countries have joined the Association and ongoing efforts are being made to pool research efforts and ﬁnd scholarship funds. Details of member organizations can be found on the ALACCTA website, www.publitec.com/alaccta.htm.

European Federation of Food Science and Technology (EFFoST)

The European Federation of Food Science and Technology is a regional grouping of IUFoST, with 80 societies in 21 countries afﬁliated to it. Its primary aims are to develop closer contact between food producers and distributors, universities and research institutes; enhance rapid technology transfer from ideas/research into industrial applications to improve European competitiveness; promote continuing professional development and educational excellence within food science and technology; harmonize food legislation and enforcement programmes throughout Europe; and maintain a collaborative network of (research) organizations within the European food industry aimed at cooperation and ‘knowledge sharing’.

Contact information

EFFoST c/o Wageningen University Bomenweg 2 PO Box 8129 6703 HD Wageningen

467 Appendix B 468 The Netherlands Phone: +31 317 482 592 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.effost.org

Federation of Institutes of Food Science and Technology in ASEAN (FIFSTA)

Activities of this body include joint efforts between the seven member countries of the Association of South- east Asian Nations (ASEAN) to develop a vital interest in and help set standards for the food industry, through conferences, committees addressing speciﬁc regional issues, and workshops. FIFSTA aims to promote cooperation and exchange of scientiﬁc and technical information among scientists, food technologists and specialists; support progress in both theoretical and applied areas of food science; advance technology in the processing, manufacturing, preservation, storage and distribution of food products; stimulate appropriate education and training in food science and technology; and foster professionalism and professional organization among food scientists and technologists.

Western African Association of Food Science and Technology (WAAFoST)

The Western African Association of Food Science and Technology was inaugurated in 2007 and is a regional, non-governmental and non-proﬁt professional body of organizations/institutions, one or more from each country or sub-region, representative of food scientists and technologists, food industry management and other related professional bodies in West Africa.

Selected national scientiﬁc societies for food science and technology

Argentina AsociaciónArgentina de Tecnólogos Alimentarios Alsina 943, 4o 406 (1088), Ciudad Autónomade Buenos Aires, Argentina Phone: +54 11 4334 0155 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.alimentos.org.ar

Australia Australian Institute of Food Science and Technology Inc. PO Box 6436 Alexandria NSW 2015 Australia Phone: +61 2 8399 3996 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.aifst.asn.au

Brazil Sociedade Brasileira de Ciˆenciae Tecnologia de Alimentos Caixa Postal: 271, Av. Brasil, 2880 CEP: 13001-970 – Campinas SP Brazil Phone: +55 19 3241 5793 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.sbcta.org.br

Canada Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology 3-1750 The Queensway Suite 1311 469 Appendix B Toronto, Ontario M9C 5H5, Canada Phone: +1 905 271 8338 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.cifst.ca

China Chinese Institute of Food Science and Technology Room 201 Zhongke Mansion, No.75 Deng shikou Street Dongcheng District, Beijing, P. R. China 100006 Phone: +86 10 652 65375/6 Email: [email protected] or [email protected] Web site: www.cifst.org.cn

Germany Gesellschaft Deutscher Lebensmitteltechnologen e.V. Eschborner Landstr.122 60489 Frankfurt, Germany Phone: +49 69 90 745187 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.gdl-ev.org

India Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) CFTRI Campus Mysore 570 020, Karnataka, India Phone: +91 821 251 5557 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.afsti.org

Italy Associazone Italiana di Technologia Alimentare Strada Farini, 31 43100 Parma, Italy Phone: +39 521 230 507 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.aitaer.com

Japan Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology Shokuhin Sogo Kenkyujo 2-1-12 Kannondai Tsukuba-shi Ibaraki 305-8642, Japan Phone: +81 29 838 8116 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.jsfst.or.jp

Korea Korean Society for Food Science and Technology Room 605, Science Center Building Yeoksam-dong, Kangnam-gu, Seoul 135-703, Korea Phone: +82 2 566 9937 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.kosfost.or.kr Appendix B 470 Mexico AsociaciónNacional de Tecnólogos en Alimentos de México Mar del Norte No. 5, Col. San Alvaro, 02090 México,D.F. Phone: +52 55 5386 4225 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.atam.com.mx

Nigeria Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology Olajide Koleoso Laboratory Complex, FIIRO, PO Box 2, NITEL Training Centre, Oshodi Lagos, Nigeria Phone: +234 1 877 5253 Email: via www.nifst.org/?nifst:contact nifst Web site: www.nifst.org

Singapore Singapore Institute of Food Science and Technology Singapore Professional Centre (SPC) 93 Toa Payoh Central #05-01 Toa Payoh Community Building Singapore 319194 Phone: +65 62 568 890 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.sifst.org.sg

South Africa The South African Association for Food Science and Technology PO Box 4507 Durban 4000, South Africa Phone: +27 31 368 8000 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.saafost.org.za

UK Institute of Food Science & Technology 5 Cambridge Court, 210 Shepherds Bush Road London W6 7NJ, UK Phone: +44 207 603 6316 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.ifst.org

USA Institute of Food Technologists 525 W. Van Buren, Ste.1000 Chicago, IL 60607, USA Phone: +1 312 782 8424 Email: [email protected] Web site: www.ift.org APPENDIX C: WEB RESOURCES IN THE FOOD SCIENCES

Shown below is a collection of web resources of relevance to the food science, food technology and nutrition communities. For details of food-related societies, please see Appendix B.

Food Science Central www.foodsciencecentral.com A gateway to free and subscription based information relating to the world of food science, food technology and nutrition. The site includes feature articles, reports on important papers published in leading food science journals, and details of products and services offered by IFIS Publishing.

FSTA Direct www.fstadirect.com Offers web access to Food Science and Technology Abstracts, a database composed of an extensive collection of abstracts prepared from the world’s food science, food technology and nutrition literature.

FoodInfo Quest www.foodinfoquest.com A guide from IFIS to help students, researchers, and professionals ﬁnd and use food science information.

British Nutrition Foundation (BNF) www.nutrition.org.uk The British Nutrition Foundation promotes the nutritional wellbeing of society through the impartial interpretation and effective dissemination of scientiﬁcally based knowledge and advice on the relationship between diet, physical activity and health. It works in partnership with academic and research institutes, the food industry, educators and government. The Foundation inﬂuences all in the food chain, government, the professions and the media.

CABI www.cabi.org CABI is a not-for-profit organization specializing in scientific publishing, research and communication. CABI improves people’s lives worldwide by providing information and applying scientific expertise to solve problems in agriculture and the environment.

Campden BRI www.campden.co.uk Campden BRI is the UK’s largest independent membership-based organization carrying out research and development for the food and drinks industry worldwide. Its website includes details of current research, member services, legislation information and training timetables.

Codex Alimentarius www.codexalimentarius.net Website of the Codex Alimentarius Commission which aims to develop food standards, guidelines and related texts such as codes of practice under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.

Deutsche Landwirtschafts Gesellschaft e.V. (DLG) www.dlg.org DLG is one of the key organizations in the German agricultural and food sector and aims to translate scientiﬁc ﬁndings into practice. The website details current research programmes and events.

471 Appendix C 472 European Food Information Council (EUFIC) www.euﬁc.org The European Food Information Council (EUFIC) is a non-proﬁt organization which provides science-based information on food safety & quality and health & nutrition to the media, health and nutrition professionals, educators and opinion leaders, in a way that consumers can understand.

European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) www.efsa.europa.eu The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is the keystone of European Union risk assessment regarding food and feed safety. In close collaboration with national authorities and in open consultation with its stakeholders, EFSA provides independent scientiﬁc advice and clear communication on existing and emerging risks.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) www.fao.org This site acts to further the FAO’s goals of leading international efforts to defeat hunger, with particular reference to: putting information within reach; sharing policy expertise; providing a meeting place for nations; and bringing knowledge to the ﬁeld.

Food Law www.rdg.ac.uk/foodlaw/ Provides resources on UK, European and international legislation including food additives, labelling and hygiene.

Food and Nutrition Information Center (FNIC) www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/ The FNIC web site provides a directory to credible, accurate, and practical resources for a wide audience. Visitors can ﬁnd material such as printable format educational materials, government reports and research papers.

Food Navigator www.foodnavigator.com A specialized news service, broadcast as a free access website, as well as e-newsletters to registered subscribers, which is built around a proactive news agenda that adds value to product announcements.

Institute of Food Research (IFR) www.ifr.ac.uk The Institute of Food Research’s vision is to be a world-leading contributor to harnessing food for health and controlling food-related disease. Its website provides resources on food science topics, information sheets, IFR publications and news releases.

International Food Information Council (IFIC) www.iﬁc.org This site aims to provide a resource on food safety and nutrition and communicate science-based information to health and nutrition professionals, educators, journalists, government ofﬁcials and consumers.

International Portal on Food Safety, Animal and Plant Health www.ipfsaph.org Developed by FAO, this portal provides a single access point for authorized ofﬁcial international and national information across the sectors of food safety, animal and plant health.

Just Food www.just-food.com A rapidly growing food trade website providing instant access to over 1500 reports, books and research products from leading market information providers, as well as news, industry announcements, feature articles and discussion forums. 473 Appendix C Leatherhead Food International www.leatherheadfood.com Leatherhead Food International is a global and independent provider of food information, market intelligence and technical and food research services. Its website details the different products and services on offer.

National Agricultural Library www.nal.usda.gov The National Agricultural Library is one of the world’s largest and most accessible agricultural research libraries and plays a vital role in supporting research, education, and applied agriculture. The website provides online access to its library catalogue, AGRICOLA, as well as to details of publications and services.

UK Department for Environmental, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) www.defra.gov.uk DEFRA’s remit is the pursuit of sustainable development, weaving together economic, social and environmental concerns. Information on the DEFRA website aims to further this outlook.

UK Food Standards Agency (FSA) www.food.gov.uk The FSA provides advice and information to the public and Government on food safety, nutrition and diet. Its website includes information on a variety of topics including food labelling, genetically modiﬁed foods and BSE.

US Department of Agriculture (USDA) www.usda.gov The USDA aims to provide leadership on food, agriculture, natural resources and related issues based on sound public policy, the best available science and efﬁcient management. This website offers information about the USDA’s agencies and ofﬁces and allows users to browse the site either by type of audience or subject.

US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) www.fda.gov The FDA is responsible for protecting the public health by assuring the safety, efﬁcacy and security of human and veterinary drugs, biological products, medical devices, food, cosmetics, and products that emit radiation. The website includes information on hot topics, reference materials and FDA-regulated products.

World Health Organization (WHO) www.who.int Published by the WHO, the United Nations specialized agency for health, this website provides health-related details on member countries, together with information on speciﬁc health topics, WHO publications and research tools.