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Bribery and Corruption in African Journalism.Pdf ISSN 1821-6544 African Communication Research a peer-reviewed journal Published by the Faculty of Social Sciences and Communications at St. Augustine University of Tanzania, Mwanza, Tanzania as a service to communication research in Africa. African Communication Research is available on line Simply enter the title in any search engine This issue dedicated to Bribery and corruption in African journalism African Communication Research, Vol. 3, No. 3 (2010) African Communication Research, Vol 3 , No. 3 (2010) African Communication Research Bribery and corruption in African journalism Contents Volume 3, No. 3 December, 2010 Review Article: Research on brown envelope journalism in the African media Terje S. Skjerdal, Gimlekollen School of Journalism and Communication, Norway 367 Business journalism ethics in Africa: A comparative study of newsrooms in South Africa, Kenya and Zimbabwe Admire Mare and Robert Brand Rhodes University, South Africa. 407 When your “take-home” can hardly take you home: Moonlighting and the quest for economic survival in the Zimbabwean press Hayes Mawindi Mabweazara University College Falmouth, England. 431 Zambian PR practitioner ’s perspectives on “brown envelopes” and freebies: Working through the confusion Twange Kasoma Emory and Henry College, Virginia, USA 451 The growing influence of bribery in Ethiopian journalism Birhanu Olana Dirbaba University of Sydney, Australia 475 Brown envelopes and the need for ethical re-orientation: Perceptions of Nigerian journalists Chinenye Nwabueze Anambra State University, Igbariam, Nigeria. 497 African Communication Research, Vol 3 , No. 3 (2010) A critical view of the Kenyan media system through the perspective of the journalists Elisabet Helander Foreign correspondent for Swedish media 521 Tanzanian journalists’ ambivalent perception of their ethics: A “Jekyll and Hyde” occupation Denis Mpagze St. Augustine University of Tanzania Robert A. White Institute of Peace Studies, Nairobi, Kenya 543 African Communication Research, Vol 3 , No. 3 (2010) Review article Research on brown envelope journalism in the African media By Terje S. Skjerdal Abstract This article gives an overview of past and contemporary research on the “brown envelope” phenomenon in African journalism and documents local terminology and appropriation. The research literature on the phenomenon is growing, coinciding with the alleged increase of informal incentives in African journalism practice. The article discusses how the research tradition has invariably interpreted brown en- velope journalism in light of the professional and societal atmosphere. It is argued that the research body has clustered around four main topics: documentation of brown envelope journalism; consideration of the impact of poor economic condi- tions; analysis of the political and social influence; and discussion of ethical and professional concerns. Three directions for further research are suggested, encour- aging further empirical, anthropological and philosophical studies on brown enve- lope practices with the view to interrogate the phenomenon as an exemplar of wider professional and ethical issues. Key words: Brown envelope journalism, freebies, corruption, bribery, professional ethics, research perspectives Introduction: Judging by the response to the call for articles for the present theme issue of African Communication Research, there is a tremendous interest in the phenomenon of brown envelope journalism among communication and media researchers in Africa. The editors received close to 40 article proposals for the issue, representing 10 countries from all parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. Although the widespread research interest may not necessarily mean that brown envelope journalism is rife in African media practice, our contention is exactly that. On the basis of informal accounts and an increasing number of media commentaries addressing the dilemma of brown envelopes, there is legitimate reason to believe that this phenomenon and other types of informal incentives and bribes are common in African media Author biographical note Terje S. Skjerdal ([email protected]) is Associate Professor at Gimlekollen School of Journalism and Communication, Kristiansand, Norway and Adjunct Lecturer at A d d i s A b a b a U n i v e r s i t y , E t h i o p i a . H i s P h D r e s e a r c h d e a l s w i t h p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n t r a dictions among journalists in the Ethiopian state media. African Communication Research, Vol 3 , No. 3 (2010) 367 - 406 367 Terje S. Skjerdal practice. The primary aim of this review article is to provide an overview of research conducted on brown envelope journalism within an African context. The review takes as its starting point brown envelopes in the strict sense – i.e. cash secretly given to a journalist on a reporting mission – but the review also includes other types of journalistic incentives such as meals and free tickets (freebies), and, to some extent, institutional corruption. Some insight into international research on the topic is provided too, as well as a note on methodological challenges for researchers who intend to do studies in the area – regardless of cultural context. The main focus in this article, however, remains on Africa. Specific studies on brown envelopes in African journalism are few. However, a range of scholarly articles mentions the phenomenon when discussing professionalism, journalism ethics and newsroom practices of the African media. It also seems that the number of articles acknowledging the phenomenon is on the increase despite the assumed professionalization of journalism practice. It does make sense to analyze brown envelope practices within a wider examination of journalism culture instead of treating them in isolation; however, given the broad recognition of the practice, more focused studies are also called for. Nevertheless, there are at least four researchers who have done special efforts to understand brown envelopes within African journalism practice, and they deserve to be mentioned at the outset of this review. Jennifer Hasty’s (1999; 2001; 2005a; 2005b; 2005c; 2006) anthropological research of journalism culture in Ghana dwells at length with soli (brown envelopes) and its kinship with local reporting practice. Conducting a comparative PhD study between Ghana and Zambia, Twange Kasoma (2007; 2009) goes on to apply both surveys and in- depth interviews to discuss the extent of brown envelope journalism in each of these countries, and specifically how it threatens development reporting. Lilian N. Ndangam (2006; 2009) focuses on gombo (brown envelopes, freebies) in Cameroon, and interrogates the tensions between severe economic crisis/corruption and media liberalization/ professionalism. Also focusing on French-speaking Africa, Marie-Soleil Frère’s (2000; 2001; 2005; 2007; 2008; 2009; 2010) studies of media in for example DR Congo, Rwanda and Chad duly acknowledge the many complications of brown envelope journalism in these countries. These four researchers will be duly revisited; however, this review 368 Research on brown envelope journalism in the african media article also refers to more than 70 other studies which consider the phenomenon of brown envelopes in African journalism in greater or lesser detail. The anecdotal references to brown envelopes in the research literature are many, though focused in-depth studies are far fewer. Before entering into a discussion of the research literature, however, it is necessary to consider some basic attributes of brown envelopes as they are generally understood by researchers and media workers. What is brown envelope journalism? The term “brown envelope journalism” is applied to denote journalistic activity which involves transfer of various types of rewards from sources to the reporter. Although the usage of the term varies somewhat from context to context, it is safe to say that the following three characteristics are usually involved if we speak about the original “little” brown envelope: the practice occurs on the personal level, it has some degree of confidentiality, and it denotes an informal contract between the source and the reporter whereby both parties have certain obligations. These three characteristics are visualized through the image of a brown envelope containing cash physically handed over from a source to a reporter. That the reward is personal means that it is primarily intended to be used by the receiver (the media worker) on a personal and individual level. Even though brown envelopes are habitually concealed as, for example, per diem or funds for transportation, the understanding is that they include a surplus rate which the reporter can use personally. Brown envelopes are similarly individual in the sense that they are usually not transferred on an institutional level as in various types of organizational corruption, but are handed over to single journalists with the view to appeal to the local decision-making level rather than to higher management or organizational level. That the allowance is personal and individual does not mean that it is not shared with others. There are examples of more or less organized brown envelope activity within organizations where reporters are expected to systematically share the allowance with other persons in the newsroom, for example, with editors who are exempt from going out and receiving such gifts. Nonetheless, the transmission of the gift usually takes place on reporter ’s level and is therefore essentially personal. Secondly,
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