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Recital Papers School of Music
Summer 8-10-2021
The French Flute School: A Flute Curriculum
Jessica Benevento Belmont University, [email protected]
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THE FRENCH SCHOOL: A FLUTE CURRICULUM
BY JESSICA BENEVENTO
A RESEARCH PAPER
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Music in Instrumental Pedagogy in the School of Music of the College of Music and Performing Arts Belmont University
NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE
August 2021
Submitted By Jessica Benevento in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Music in Instrumental Pedagogy.
Accepted on behalf of the Graduate Faculty of the School of Music by the Mentoring Committee:
______Barry Kraus, D.M.A. Second Mentor
______Date8/9/2021 Kathryn Paradise, M.M. Director of Graduate Studies in Music
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Contents
Illustrations ...... v
Acknowledgements ...... x
Presentation of Material
Chapter 1: An Introduction to the French Flute School ...... 1 Marcel Joseph Moyse (1889-1994) ...... 1 Marcel Moyse, the Pedagogue ...... 10 Tone Development ...... 11 Technique ...... 19 Marcel Moyse’s Legacy: Louis Moyse (1912-2007) ...... 25
Chapter 2: French Baroque (1600-1750) ...... 31 Jacques-Martin Hotteterre (1674-1763) ...... 32 Principles of the Flute by Jacques-Martin Hotteterre ...... 34 Hotteterre’s Suite No. 3 in G Major, Op. 2 ...... 43
Chapter 3: Classical (1750-1820) ...... 48 François Devienne (1759-1803) ...... 50 New Theoretical and Practical Method for the Flute by François Devienne ...... 54 Flute Concertos ...... 65
Chapter 4: Romantic (1810-1910) ...... 70 Joseph-Henri Altès (1826-1895) ...... 77 Famous Complete Flute Method by Henri Altès ...... 79 Camille Saint-Saëns and Airs de Ballet D’Ascanio (1890) ...... 92
Chapter 5: The Paris Conservatory and the French Flute School ...... 95 Paul Taffanel (1844-1908) ...... 96 Philippe Gaubert (1879-1941) ...... 98 Complete Method for Flute by Paul Taffanel and Philippe Gaubert ...... 98 Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino ...... 104
Chapter 6: The Modern Era ...... 107 Density 21.5 ...... 109 André Jolivet (1905-1974) ...... 110 Cinq Incantations ...... 113
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iv
Chapter 7: Conclusion ...... 118
Appendix: Graded Lists ...... 120 Methods and Studies ...... 122 Repertoire ...... 124
References ...... 129
Illustrations
Figures
1.1. Daily Exercises, practice schedule (Moyse 1923, III) ...... 19
2.1. Three-Piece Flute or Hotteterre Flute (Boland 1998, 5) ...... 32
2.2. Four-Piece Flute (Boland 1998, 5) ...... 32
2.3. Portrait of Jacques-Martin Hotteterre playing the transverse flute seen in Principles of the Flute (Hotteterre 1968, 8) ...... 36
3.1. Six-keyed flute (Wilson 2020) ...... 50
4.1. Boehm’s 1831 Flute (Toff 2012, 50) ...... 71
4.2. Boehm’s 1832 flute (Toff 2012, 51) ...... 73
4.3. Boehm’s 1847 flute (Powell 2002, 182) ...... 76
4.4. Briccialdi B-flat Thumb (Toff 2012, 55) ...... 77
4.5. C Major fingering chart (Altès 1918, 18) ...... 81
4.6. “Fingerings to Facilitate the Performance and Adjust the Pitch of Certain Notes” (Altès 1956, 92) ...... 84
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vi
Examples
1.1. On Sonority, Section 1, descending half steps (Moyse 1934, 6) ...... 12
1.2. On Sonority, Section 1, ascending major thirds (Moyse 1934, 9) ...... 12
1.3. On Sonority, Section 2; exercises A, B, C, D, and E (Moyse 1934, 10-11) ...... 14
1.4. On Sonority, Section 3, exercise 1 (Moyse 1934, 15) ...... 15
1.5. On Sonority, Section 3, exercise 2 (Moyse 1934, 15) ...... 15
1.6. On Sonority, Section 3, exercise 3 (Moyse 1934, 15) ...... 15
1.7. On Sonority, Section 3, exercise 4 (Moyse 1934, 16) ...... 16
1.8. On Sonority, Section 4 (Moyse 1934, 23) ...... 16
1.9. Scales and Arpeggios (Moyse 1921, 1) ...... 21
1.10. Studies and Technical Exercises, No. 1 (Moyse 1921, 4) ...... 21
1.11. Studies and Technical Exercises, No. 1 articulations (Moyse 1921, 4) ...... 21
1.12. School of Articulation, No. 14 (Moyse 1928, 5) ...... 22
1.13. School of Articulation, No. 14 common error (Moyse 1928, 5) ...... 22
1.14. 24 Little Melodious Studies, No. 1 (Moyse 1932, 1) ...... 23
1.15. 24 Little Melodious Studies, No. 1 variation (Moyse 1932, 1) ...... 23
1.16. The First Step in Flute Playing, First Part, No. 1 in C Major (Moyse 1983, 4) ...... 28
1.17. The Flutist's Primer, Part 1, C Major (Moyse 1979, 2) ...... 29
1.18. La Grande Velocité (Moyse 1958, 4) La Grande Velocité: A Progressive Work of Technique Built on Scales and Arpeggios for the Flute by Louis Moyse © 1958 Southern Music. Used by permission ...... 29
2.1. Chapter 8, Example 2, alternating tu ru articulations (Hotteterre 1968, 36) ...... 39
2.2. Chapter 8, Example 9, tu ru articulation on the smallest subdivision (Hotteterre 1968, 39) ...... 39
2.3. Chapter 8, Example 18, Slurs (Hotteterre 1968, 42) ...... 40
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2.4. Chapter 8, Example 19, Appoggiaturas (Hotteterre 1968, 43) ...... 40
2.5. Chapter 8, Example 20, Descending passing tones (Hotteterre 1968, 43) ...... 41
2.6. Chapter 8, Example 21, Springer (Hotteterre 1968, 43) ...... 41
2.7. Chapter 8, Example 22, Terminated trill (Hotteterre 1968, 44) ...... 42
2.8. Chapter 9, Example 23, Vibrato and Mordent (Hotteterre 1968, 47) ...... 42
2.9. Hotteterre, Suite No. 3, Op. 2, I, measures 21 to the end ...... 45
2.10. Tour de chant demonstration (Hotteterre 1708, 3) ...... 46
2.11. Hotteterre, Suite No. 3, Op. 2, II, measures 1-4 ...... 47
3.1. Paired slurs or “Two-by-Two” (Devienne 1794, 8) ...... 58
3.2. Counter tonguing (Devienne 1794, 9) ...... 59
3.3. Two slurred notes followed by two detached notes (Devienne 1794, 8) ...... 59
3.4. Three slurred notes and one detached (Devienne 1794, 8) ...... 59
3.5. One detached note and three slurred (Devienne 1794, 9) ...... 60
3.6. Double tonguing using dougue (Devienne 1974, 9) ...... 60
3.7. Example of all articulations in a passage (Devienne 1794, 11) ...... 61
3.8. Two notes of the triplet slurred and one detached (Devienne 1794, 12) ...... 61
3.9. “Three-by-three” articulation (Devienne 1794, 12) ...... 61
3.10. Triplet slurred pairs (Devienne 1794, 12) ...... 62
3.11. Three notes slurred and three detached (Devienne 1794, 13) ...... 62
3.12. Quick turns (Devienne 1794, 16) ...... 63
3.13. Turn in a slower tempo (Devienne 1794, 16) ...... 63
3.14. A trill in a Major key and a trill in a minor key (Devienne 1794, 17) ...... 64
3.15. Trill termination (Devienne 1794, 17) ...... 64
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3.16. Trille or Little Trill (Devienne 1794, 18) ...... 65
3.17. Appoggiatura (Devienne 1794, 19) ...... 65
3.18. Devienne, Concerto No. 8 in G Major, III, measures 1-4 ...... 68
3.19. Devienne, Concerto No. 8 in G Major, III, measures 26-27 ...... 68
3.20. Devienne, Concerto No. 8 in G Major, III, measures 39-41 ...... 68
3.21. Devienne, Concerto No. 8 in G Major, III, measures 35-36 ...... 69
3.22. Devienne, Concerto No. 8 in G Major, III, measures 155-158 ...... 69
4.1. Altès breathing exercise (Altès 1956, 19) ...... 82
4.2. Dash articulation sign (Altès 1956, 78) ...... 83
4.3. Mezzo-staccato articulation (Altès 1956, 78) ...... 83
4.4. Slashed grace notes (Altès 1956, 104) ...... 85
4.5. Compound articulation (Altès 1956, 121) ...... 86
4.6. Passing shake (Altès 1956, 125) ...... 86
4.7. Mordent (Altès 1956, 129) ...... 86
4.8. Gruppetto (Altès 1956, 134) ...... 87
4.9. Lesson 26, Step One (Altès 1956, 150) ...... 87
4.10. Lesson 26, Step Two (Altès 1956, 151) ...... 87
4.11. Lesson 26, Step Three (Altès 1956, 151) ...... 88
4.12. Lesson 28, Abbreviations (Altès 1956, 145) ...... 88
4.13. Lesson 28, Tremolo (Altès 1956, 145) ...... 89
4.14. Part III, Double tonguing (Altès 1956, 214) ...... 90
4.15. Part III, Triple tonguing (Altès 1956, 216) ...... 90
4.16. Part IV, Harmonics (Altès 1956, 323) ...... 91
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4.17. Saint-Saëns, Airs de Ballet D’Ascanio, Adagio, measures 9-13, repeated pitches. . 93
4.18. Saint-Saëns, Airs de Ballet D’Ascanio, Andantino, measures 34-36, double tonguing ...... 94
4.19. Saint-Saëns, Airs de Ballet D’Ascanio, Andantino, measures 53-54, technical finger work ...... 94
5.1. Part I, preliminary exercise (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 6) ...... 100
5.2. Part I, Articulation and single tonguing, #32 (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 14) ...... 100
5.3. Part II, Trills with termination (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 56) ...... 101
5.4. Part III, Compound tonguing, #183 (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 91) ...... 102
5.5. Part III, Double tonguing, #184 (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 92) ...... 102
5.6. Part III, Triple tonguing, #190 (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 108) ...... 102
5.7. Part IV, Exercise 8 (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 126) ...... 103
5.8. Part IV, Exercise 8 articulations (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 126) ...... 103
5.9. Taffanel, Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino, measure 5 ...... 104
5.10. Taffanel, Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino, measures 35-36 ...... 105
5.11. Taffanel, Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino, measures 121-124 ...... 105
5.12. Taffanel, Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino, measures 137-142 ...... 105
6.1. Varèse, Density 21.5, measures 24-27 ...... 109
6.2. Varèse, Density 21.5, measures 44-50 ...... 110
6.3. Jolivet, Cinq Incantations, I, measures 1-6 ...... 115
6.4. Jolivet, Cinq Incantations, I, measures 13-14 ...... 116
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to those who have guided me through this thesis. To Dr. Carolyn Totaro for her encouragement, support, and countless hours she has spent with me. I am grateful for her wisdom and sound advice on research and performance practices. I would also like to thank Dr. Barry Kraus and Dr. Robert Gregg for serving on my committee and devoting their time to reading my project. Their insight, suggestions, and corrections have been invaluable to the completion of this thesis.
Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their unending love and support. I am grateful for all those who supported and motivated me throughout my journey.
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Chapter 1: An Introduction to the French Flute School Marcel Joseph Moyse (1889-1994)
When discussing flute pedagogy, one immediately thinks of the methods and teachings of French flutist, Marcel Moyse. Most advanced flutists today are familiar with the etudes and studies of Moyse, using them to maintain and further develop their skills.
The first chapter of this document will investigate the specific contributions of the French
School to the concept of flute sound, including tone development and technique. It will also explore how Marcel Moyse focused on these concepts in his many books, used by flutists of various levels from beginners to advanced players. Specific explorations in this chapter will discuss how the methods of Marcel Moyse can be adapted to supplement a curriculum for all levels of players. To further understand Marcel Moyse, this chapter will begin with a study of his life and professional activities.
Marcel Joseph Moyse was born on May 17, 1889 in St. Amour, France, a mountain village which remained a major influence and inspiration throughout his life. In the same year, the Eiffel Tower was erected at the Exposition Universelle. Ann
McCutchan, author of Marcel Moyse: Voice of the Flute, explained in her book, “The
Eiffel Tower was a monument to French creative brilliance and an aggressive symbol of the new scientific age in which the nobility lost clout and the ambitious, self-made man became king” (McCutchan 1994, 23). This celebration was an important one as it commemorated the one-hundredth anniversary of the French Revolution. It also marked the beginning of the Belle Époque (Beautiful Epoch). This period, which lasted until the
1
2 outbreak of World War I in 1914, was characterized by optimism and peace. It was also a period with artistic and cultural development, as well as technological and scientific innovations. While little of the Exposition excitement reached the small village where
Marcel Moyse was born, he would experience the thrills of Paris later in his life.
Moyse was the illegitimate child of Christine Josephine Moyse and a notary known by the name Bernod. Bernod took no interest in marrying Christine or caring for his child, as he most likely could not afford the cost of a family (McCutchan 1994, 25).
Bernod arranged for Christine to go to the village for the birthing and nursing period.
Bernod also arranged for the baby to be placed in an orphanage after he was born.
Christine died just seven days after giving birth. Christine’s parents, Alfred and Felicité
Moyse, were informed of their daughter’s death, and were misinformed that Marcel had died too. Madame Romand, the midwife, arranged for the baby to be taken to an orphanage. On the train ride there, the three-month-old Moyse became cranky and ill and was consequently returned to Mme. Romand and St. Amour, where his health improved.
As Mme. Romand was occupied with children of her own, her neighbor, Madame
Perretier, offered to raise the baby. Moyse was adopted by Mme. Perretier and lived with her and her two daughters until the age of seven. Moyse had fond memories of his childhood, recounting, “The whole village was my family” (Wye 1993, 1). However, when his maternal grandparents, Alfred and Felicité Moyse, learned of his existence, they returned to claim him. Moyse reluctantly moved to Besançon, France with his grandparents. He made several attempts to return to St. Amour and his adoptive family, both of which he deeply loved, but he soon fell in love with his grandparents. Moyse also fell in love with his new city of Besançon because of the music he experienced there.
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Moyse’s grandparents took him to many concerts and operas; by the time he was ten, he had seen approximately forty operas. Moyse begged his grandparents to see more operas, and it was at this point his grandfather thought it was time for Moyse to have lessons on an instrument. The flute was an obvious choice, as he had been playing handcrafted flutes from the age of three or four; it was speculated that maybe he had made them himself. Ann McCutchan recounted in her book Marcel Moyse: Voice of the
Flute, a story from Moyse himself where he explained the process for crafting a homemade flute:
“You strike the branch with the handle, and it opens up inside,” Moyse explained. “In the hollowing-out process, you make six holes.” Marcel was three or four years old when he made his first flute, which was not transverse (side-blown) but played like a recorder. He took the little instrument immediately, playing by ear the country songs and popular tunes he heard at town gatherings. “I did not let a day pass without trying to perfect it,” he boasted. “The biggest trouble was the sharps and flats.” (McCutchan 1994, 31)
Alfred recognized his grandson’s passion and enrolled Moyse in the Besançon municipal music school, where he received a strong music education. Additionally,
Moyse was enrolled in flute lessons with a local flutist, Guy Angelloz, who lent Moyse his first metal flute. Moyse worked from Henri Altès’s Method for Boehm Flute, methods that would become evident in Moyse’s own teaching philosophy.
In 1904 at the age of fourteen, Moyse moved into his Uncle Joseph Moyse’s home in Paris, where he would attend the Paris Conservatory. At this time, Paris was filled with a “self-conscious culture and corrupt politics,” making it an intimidating endeavor for young Moyse who was deeply rooted in peasantry (McCutchan 1994, 43).
His uncle, a professional cellist, took Moyse to his rehearsals and concerts, providing a
4 firsthand look at the life of a professional musician. Moyse attended premieres of works such as Debussy’s Nocturne, performed by the Lamoureux Orchestra in which Joseph
Moyse played. Joseph also most likely exposed Moyse to John Philip Sousa and his military music. Sousa brought his band to Europe five times between 1900 and 1911.
Moyse was intrigued by the pageantry of Sousa’s performances but what he admired most was the unflagging rhythm. The Stars and Stripes Forever quickly became one of
Moyse’s favorite pieces of music.
In May 1904, a week before Moyse’s fifteenth birthday, Joseph introduced him to
Adolphe Hennebains, the solo flute in the Opéra as well as a former student of Altès’s.
Hennebains had much to offer Moyse in terms of correcting his technique and introducing Moyse to a variety of repertoire. Moyse learned works by Jean-Louis Tulou
(1768-1865), who was Professor of Flute at the Paris Conservatory from 1829 to 1856.
He also studied works by Albert Franz Doppler (1821-1883), and most importantly,
Friedrich Kuhlau (1786-1832). The music of Kuhlau was a fundamental aspect of
Hennebains curriculum for Moyse. Moyse remembered the importance of Kuhlau’s music throughout his life:
If you do not learn Kuhlau deeply you will never be able to play Mozart and Beethoven the right way. If you learn a solo by Kuhlau in a conscientious manner, during two or three months, you will learn almost all of the rules about playing this kind of music. A flutist without knowledge of Kuhlau is not a complete flutist. (McCutchan 1994, 49)
Hennebains and Moyse played Kuhlau duets together for several hours and sometimes were even joined by other flutists for larger ensembles; the impromptu ensembles continued through the early years of World War I. Ensemble playing allowed
Moyse to develop his ear and his style of playing. In the short time Moyse studied with
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Hennebains, he made immense progress and improvement.
Hennebains was also Paul Taffanel’s assistant at the Paris Conservatory. Taffanel was credited with the founding of the French Flute School. Taffanel held many titles including flutist, conductor, composer, and teacher. Moyse was invited to audit
Taffanel’s class at the Conservatory and did so for several months. During his audit, he gained a clear understanding of the standards set for the Conservatory students. Moyse recalled hearing Georges Laurent, a student of Taffanel’s at the Conservatory, perform
Joachim Andersen’s Opus 15 beautifully and strived to recreate the same sound
(McCutchan 1994, 57). Moyse auditioned in the fall of 1905 and earned his place in the flute class becoming a student of Paul Taffanel’s. He spent his year at the Conservatory preparing for the Concours. The Concours were and continue to be a significant experience for the students of the Paris Conservatory. The Concours were examinations held at the end of the year and were open to the public, serving as a public debut for students. First prize winners were deemed the most promising young artists in France and were graduated. The Concours are explored more in depth in Chapter 5 of this paper.
The year Moyse took his examinations was Gabriel Faure’s first year as Director of the Conservatory, a job he received after the prior director, Theodore Dubois, was forced to resign due to controversy. As the public did not care or show interest in instrumental literature, the flute examinations were “sparsely attended and barely mentioned in print” (McCutchan 1994, 67). In 1906, at the age of seventeen and after only one year of training, Moyse won first prize at the Conservatory’s Concours thus beginning his professional career.
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Moyse started his professional career during a thriving time in Paris. Between the early years of the 1900s and the late 1920s, the number of concerts in Paris doubled, though there would be a major decline with the onset of the Depression and the forthcoming World War II. Though it was difficult to find work immediately after graduation in elite ensembles, Moyse accepted work playing background music for animals at the circus or accompanying chase scenes for silent movies. Knowing he would not be able to obtain more respectable work unless he continued to polish his skills, he approached Philippe Gaubert, another student of Taffanel’s who was currently playing with the Opéra and the Société des Concerts, to ask for more lessons.
Moyse had won his first prize performing Gaubert’s piece Nocturne et Allegro
Scherzando (1906), and Gaubert sat on the jury for his performance. Impressed by
Moyse’s solo performance, he was more than happy to accept him as a private student
(McCutchan 1994, 72). Students of Gaubert described his teaching style as “‘show’ rather than ‘tell.’” McCutchan further explained, “The consensus was that Gaubert was so naturally gifted mechanically and musically that he never thought about how he did what he did and was thus unable to put it into words” (McCutchan 1994, 73). Despite this,
Moyse was a developed musician, able to listen to the nuances of Gaubert’s playing and reproduce them.
While Moyse waited for a permanent position of his own, Gaubert provided
Moyse with subbing opportunities in the Opéra and the Société des Concerts. Moyse was able to rehearse and perform Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune (Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun) under the baton of Debussy. It was also around this time, in 1909, when
Moyse met his wife, Celine Gautrau.
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Celine was a dancer at the Gaité-Lyrique Theater. Moyse saw her in a production of Meyerbeer’s L’africaine and introduced himself. The two shared a joy of music and theatre with each other. They married in March 1912 and their son, Louis Joseph Moyse, was born in August of the same year. After the birth of Louis, Celine immediately stepped away from the stage, becoming a devoted mother as well as a devoted wife.
When Moyse was young and still living in St. Amour, he contracted bronchial pneumonia, causing him to suffer from pleurisy and asthma throughout his life
(McCutchan 1994, 29). Louis Moyse recalls in his forward written for McCutchan’s book, “Early in his career he became so ill he could hardly blow his flute” (10). Celine devoted herself to Moyse and his career. Moyse explained that his wife made it possible for him to, “Continue my life as a young flute player without any trouble. She kept all my problems away” (80). During this time, he also began writing and arranging exercises time to help counter the effects of his illness and keep him in shape.
Moyse obtained the position of solo flute in a summer orchestra, which was a turning point for his career. Through the 1913-1914 season, Moyse toured the United
States and Canada with soprano Nellie Melba. It was the success of Moyse’s first performance with Melba that initiated the tour. While touring in the United States, Melba allowed Moyse to play solo pieces during concerts. Moyse experienced the value of
Europeans in America; he fell in love with the country and planned to remain. Moyse claimed he was offered a job in the Minneapolis orchestra and returned there sometime later to pursue the job; however, there was a miscommunication and the position was already filled. Moyse had no money for a ticket back to France and consequently pawned his flute. He earned his passage home by tending to horses on board a cargo ship.
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When Moyse returned home after his time abroad in the United States, France was preparing for the beginning of World War I. Moyse tried to join the army but was not admitted due to his damaged lungs. Moyse felt embarrassed as his colleagues enlisted,
Gaubert being among them. Unfortunately, there were not many performance opportunities for musicians who remained. Concerts were canceled or postponed, and orchestra numbers started to decline. Most of Moyse’s income came from teaching private flute lessons, though he, like many other musicians of the time, faced a fifty percent drop in the rate for music lessons (McCutchan 1994, 92). Towards the end of the
War, after years of struggling, the almost thirty-year-old Moyse suffered a physical and psychological breakdown. His lungs, still affected from his childhood illness, caused him frequent bouts of walking pneumonia. One day he woke and could not play a single note on his flute and was coughing blood when he tried. At the orders of a doctor, Moyse put down his flute for some months to recover. During this time, he outlined for himself a strict and progressive schedule he could adhere to when he was in better health.
From 1916 to 1918, Nadia Boulanger asked Moyse to play at her musical analysis classes. Simultaneously, Moyse became the solo flute player in l’Opéra Comique and even applied for a position in the Opéra. He was offered the position in the Opéra but declined as it would conflict with his frequent visits to St. Amour. Years later, Moyse became the first flutist of the Société des Concerts. By 1931, Moyse was the Professor of
Flute at the Paris Conservatory, and by 1933, the Professor of Flute at the Geneva
Conservatory. In Geneva, he met his future daughter-in-law, who would become the third member of the famous Moyse Trio—Marcel Moyse on the flute, Louis Moyse on the piano, and Blanche Honegger on the violin.
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Moyse’s performance career climaxed in the 1930s. In 1934, Moyse premiered the Ibert Concerto, which was dedicated to him. In 1936, he became a Chevalier of the
Légion D’Honneur for “his artistic contributions as a musician” (Wye 1993, 5). As a result, he travelled throughout Europe performing and recording. In 1938, Moyse was invited to perform at the Tanglewood Festival in the United States. He was accompanied by Louis and Blanche as the Moyse Trio to perform on the N.B.C. Radio in New York.
With the progression of World War II and Paris being invaded by the Germans in
1940, “Moyse refused to teach at the [Conservatory]” (Wye 1993, 5). He took his family and fled to St. Amour where he attempted to remain until the end of the war.
Unfortunately, Moyse had been replaced at the Paris Conservatory in his absence by
Gaston Crunelle and was not reinstated when he returned to Paris. The Conservatory offered him a class, but he was not pleased as it was not his original position. In 1949,
Moyse accepted a position in Argentina, though Moyse and his family did not remain there long as they quickly became unwelcome for political reasons. By September of
1949, the family decided to leave Argentina and go to America. In 1951, they were invited by Rudolf Serkin and Adolf Busch to help create a music department at Marlboro
College, a music department that still thrives today.
At first, the Moyse family’s move to Vermont was disappointing; he only had one student and their performance opportunities were not abundant. Moyse was surprised he was not invited to teach or perform in other areas of the United States. It is thought that it was jealousy of flutists who were already established in America, as even at age 61
Moyse was still a great performer. He was invited to teach at a school in Boston but declined the position when he was told he would have to teach the students who were
10 rejected by other teachers. As Trevor Wye, a student of Moyse’s, mentioned in his biography on Moyse, it might have been for the best that Moyse did not take the job in
Boston. Moyse’s primary method of teaching was through masterclasses, an environment basically unknown to American students who preferred one-on-one lessons with teachers.
In 1964, Moyse traveled to teach summer masterclasses in Boswil, Switzerland, thus beginning the tradition of his summers teaching in Switzerland until he died in 1984.
Marcel Moyse’s death would mark the end of an era.
Marcel Moyse, the Pedagogue
“When I die, I want to leave behind a tradition for flute players: a respect for the music.” —Marcel Moyse
Marcel Moyse was a unique teacher. He paid close attention to the mechanics of the instrument, thought about the nuances of embouchure, the role of the fingers and tongue, and how everything combined influenced musical performance. While he focused on the mechanics of the flute playing process, he encouraged his students to play in a
“natural way,” having derived this approach derived from his lessons with Gaubert (Wye
1993, 12). As mentioned, flute playing came easily to Gaubert, so easily that he was unable to describe techniques and Moyse would learn by listening intently and imitating
Gaubert.
Often, Moyse did not discuss the mechanics in masterclasses or lesson settings, but included them in his many method books. Moyse spent much of his time arranging melodies he loved to help him overcome any problems he may have encountered. For example, he heard Paggi’s Rimembranze Napoletane, a melody unknown to him, and obtained a copy of the music. Over the next year, Moyse wrote several pages of exercises based on the theme. “He looked at melodies and exercises from every angle trying to find
11 new ways to play them, not solely as technical exercises, but ways to stimulate the performer’s musical imagination” (Wye 1993, 41). To attest to his love of writing exercises, Moyse published nineteen method books, some of which will be explored in this chapter.
Tone Development
Many of Moyse’s method books focused on tone development. Nancy Toff described in her book, The Flute Book, the tone of the modern French school as “pure,”
“sweet,” and “silvery.” She also noted how the silver flute produced a light tone and responded well to the light, front-of-the-mouth attacks/articulations used by French players (Toff 2012, 103-104). There is a heavy emphasis on the homogeneity of tone and sound in the French School. These characteristics of French tone perfectly define the qualities of Taffanel’s tone, which Marcel Moyse spent much time studying. Taffanel was among the first Frenchmen to truly master and establish the silver Boehm flute. His tone on the Boehm flute system is the tone all other flutists would work to emulate.
Moyse’s most famous books, De La Sonorité (On Sonority: Art and Technique) and Tone
Development Through Interpretation, share the exercises he created to achieve the desired French tone.
Moyse believed two important aspects of tone were the homogeneity of sound— meaning consistency in all registers—as well as the use of tone colors. He believed the low register should have a full tone, dynamics and articulation should be clear in all registers, and there should be flexibility of all intervals no matter the size. To practice these concepts, Moyse organized the exercises in De La Sonorite: Art et Technique (On
Sonority: Art and Technique) (1934), often referred to as On Sonority, into five sections:
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“Timbre and Homogeneity of Tone in the Three Registers,” “Suppleness in the Low
Register,” “Attack and Slurring of Notes,” “Fullness of Tone,” and “The Management of
Tone Interpretation.”
In the first section—timbre and homogeneity of tone in every register—Moyse divided the exercise into groups of different intervals: half steps, whole steps, minor thirds, and major thirds. The first part of this exercise begins descending through the different intervals, then ascending; Example 1.1 shows the descending half steps and
Example 1.2 shows ascending major thirds. Moyse began both parts of the exercise on B3 due to the ease of obtaining the best quality of tone on this note, which is important as the goal throughout the exercise is to maintain the same purity and clarity on all subsequent notes.
Example 1.1. On Sonority, Section 1, descending half steps (Moyse 1934, 6).
Example 1.2. On Sonority, Section 1, ascending major thirds (Moyse 1934, 9).
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The first section of the book is a great example of how Moyse’s exercises can be adapted for different levels. Moyse provided shorter and longer groups of pitches. The beginner should begin with the shorter groups, the intermediate player should begin striving for longer groups, and the advanced player should strive for the longest groupings provided by Moyse. For the beginner, the exercise can be used to develop a focused, continuous air stream. For an intermediate, the player can practice the exercise humming and playing to practice opening the throat. The intermediate player can also introduce dynamics into the exercise. Finally, an advanced player can practice this exercise in the same way as the intermediate player but can add slowing down the tempo to continue practicing and expanding breath control.
The second section, “Suppleness in the Low Register,” focuses again on the idea of homogeneity of sound. Since the air column is longer when playing in the low register, it can often sound weaker than the other two registers. The goal of this exercise is to develop fullness and strength in the low registers. “I have methodically grouped all the sequential combinations, which the student will play in differing dynamics and tempos”
(Moyse 1934, 10). Moyse created different sets of four pitches that are varied in rhythm: whole notes, dotted half notes, half notes, quarter notes, and eighth notes, which can be observed in Example 1.3. For each exercise, Moyse provided the following dynamic markings over each pitch set: pp, then a crescendo to ff, and decrescendo back to pp. Due to the fatiguing nature of this exercise, Moyse stated that one exercise a day from this section is sufficient.
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Example 1.3. On Sonority, Section 2; exercises A, B, C, D, and E (Moyse 1934, 10-11).
There are various ways this section can be practiced or interpreted. The player can play through the exercise as Moyse has organized it by selecting one rhythm through different pitch sets, or the player could choose one pitch set and play it in each of the different rhythms. If the second option is chosen, the player also chooses starting with the shortest rhythm (eighth notes) or the longest (whole notes). Another variation to this exercise is doing the inverse of the written dynamics: begin at a ff dynamic, decrescendo to pp, and crescendo back to ff. Doing the opposite dynamics helps to reinforce the idea of homogeneity of sound, as the player should start and end with the same tone. While in his explanation of this section Moyse does not recommend practicing this exercise in other registers, it can be useful for the advanced player to develop more control of their embouchure and the nuances of the embouchure in the middle and upper registers.
The third section of On Sonority, “Attack and Slurring of Notes,” focuses once more on the homogeneity of sound, though this time between various intervals. This section is divided into four different exercises. The first exercise, shown in Example 1.4, utilizes tonguing on the lip akin to spitting out a grain of rice or a seed. Moyse provided the following instructions at the beginning of this exercise, “With the tongue out, try to obtain a consistent note, rather like a vibrating pizzicato; hence each note should be short but not dry; in a word, try to give as much liveliness as possible in the shortest possible
15 time” (Moyse 1934, 15).
Example 1.4. On Sonority, Section 3, exercise 1 (Moyse 1934, 15).
The second part of this exercise can be observed in Example 1.5. The player still uses the tonguing method Moyse described in the first exercise, then performs a decrescendo as they slur to the next note. Moyse’s instructions for this exercise are:
Again attack with the tongue out; observe the tempo carefully, and even more so the value of the quaver, which should emerge p in the shortest possible time… and without secondary noise. As far as possible, keep to the principle that a larger interval should be produced as easily as a small one. (Moyse 1934, 15)
Example 1.5. On Sonority, Section 3, exercise 2 (Moyse 1934, 15).
The third exercise, Example 1.6, is similar to the second exercise, but the intervals are inverted. The changing pitch receives the attack and resolves on the reference note.
Each time the player returns to F2, it should be played in the same tone as it was previously.
Example 1.6. On Sonority, Section 3, exercise 3 (Moyse 1934, 15).
In the fourth exercise, Example 1.7, Moyse combined the first three exercises: tonguing on the lip and slurring the intervals. Advanced flutists should strive for playing one full octave before taking a breath. After a breath, rearticulate the last note played using the tongue on the lip and then continue the exercise.
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Example 1.7. On Sonority, Section 3, exercise 4 (Moyse 1934, 16).
The fourth section of On Sonority, “Fullness of Tone,” is an exercise to develop homogeneity of sound throughout various dynamics. Moyse provided the player with four groups of pitches, as seen in Example 1.8, recommending only one group a day and to start in the middle register to avoid difficulties. The objective of this exercise is to restart each note with the same tone and dynamic the player had before the breath mark.
Example 1.8. On Sonority, Section 4 (Moyse 1934, 23).
The fifth and final section of On Sonority is “The Management of Tone
Interpretation” applying the concepts learned throughout other sections in this book to four excerpts selected by Moyse. He supplied the player with three steps to be practiced with each excerpt with the first step acting as an “outline” (Moyse 1934, 24).
Step one: play the excerpt with a soft, pianissimo tone, no vibrato, and closely observing note values, slurs, and breath markings. Step two: play the excerpt twice, keeping in mind the outline, but perform the indicated dynamic markings. Step three: play the excerpt twice again, like in step two, though this time with expression. (Moyse 1934, 24)
The definition of expression here can be interpreted as adding tone colors and vibrato. Moyse explained in this exercise, “Give a little warmth and life to the
17 culminating points of the phrases,” meaning that vibrato should be used on the long note rather than the shorter ones (Moyse 1934, 25). He also instructed for each excerpt to be transposed, the purpose being to develop control of the different tone colors naturally produced in different keys.
Moyse often mentioned playing with vibrato in his tone development method books. Some instruction he offered on the topic is in the fifth section of On Sonority.
Moyse recommended to use vibrato on long notes as opposed to short notes, which is a shared thought of Henri Altès, a teacher of flute at the Paris Conservatory and author of
Célèbre Méthode Complète de Flûte (Famous Complete Flute Method) (1880) who will be further discussed in Chapter Four.
Moyse believed vibrato should be natural, round, and singing. Trevor Wye, one of his students, recalled in his book, Marcel Moyse: An Extraordinary Man, “During
[Moyse’s] time at the Conservatoire, vibrato was known as ‘cache-misère’” (Wye 1993,
28). ‘Cache-misère’ literally translates to “hidden misery,” which Moyse referred to as poor vibrato. When he was fifteen and at the Paris Conservatory, Moyse explained in an article he wrote on vibrato that his colleagues warned him of his excessive vibrato. After immense consideration of these comments, Moyse realized he was using his vibrato to hide deficiencies in his tone, hence cache-misère. This revelation inspired Moyse to construct a method to develop a homogenous sound so that vibrato could be used to enhance and not hinder.
Tone Development Through Interpretation (1986) was a result of Moyse’s experiences as a student at the Paris Conservatory and in opera orchestras. He was always contemplating the mechanics of flute playing and different ways to portray expression. In
18 this book, he selected excerpts from orchestral literature and operas to help the flutist develop more tone colors. The flute expression should be influenced by the original context. For example, in an aria, the flutist should consider the text and the repetition of pitches over the text and adapt it to the flute. Phrasing and vibrato are significant in these excerpts as well.
Moyse divided Tone Development Through Interpretation into eight different sections which cycle through every range in combination with every dynamic and various tone colors. Each section denotes register and the desired expression. The sections are as follows (Moyse 1986, 2-5):
A. Register: low/Dynamic: soft (p, pp) B. Register: low/Dynamic: loud (f, ff) C. Register: low/Diversified expression D. Register: high/Suppleness (p, pp) E. Register: low to middle/Suppleness, delicacy and color variation F. All three registers/Fullness of tone G. All three registers/Diversified expression H. Interpretation of classical pieces
Moyse did not often mention intonation in his method books. When practicing tone exercises, including those in On Sonority and Tone Development Through
Interpretation, it is important to practice with a tuner, even though Moyse did not specifically instruct to, as the use of a tuner can help aid in the development of the homogenous sound. One of the few times he mentioned intonation was in his book How I
Stayed in Shape on page fifteen in the section titled “Tone, Intonation” (Moyse 1998, 15-
16). In this section, Moyse discussed tone and the importance of lip flexibility, and how proper lip flexibility results in good quality tone and close to perfect intonation. This concept reinforced his idea of developing homogeneity of sound and indirectly improving intonation.
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Technique
Technique, along with tone, is an area that a flutist will continue to develop and practice throughout their entire career. Nancy Toff stated, “Technique is the control and coordination of all the muscular action that flute playing comprises” (Toff 2012, 125).
Technique encompasses finger motion, which can be practiced through scales and different pitch patterns, as well as articulation. Moyse’s technique and articulation method books to be discussed in this section are: Exercises Journaliers (Daily Exercises)
(1923), Gammes et Arpèges (Scales and Arpeggios) (1933), Études et éxercices technique
(Studies and Technical Exercises) (1921), École de l'articulation (School of Articulation)
(1928), and Le Débutant flûtiste (Beginning the Flute) (1935).
Moyse’s Exercises Journaliers (Daily Exercises) is a complete study of chromatic, whole tone, major, and minor scales; intervals of thirds, fourths, sixths, sevenths, octaves; and arpeggios of every kind. Moyse presented a twenty-six-day schedule at the beginning of Daily Exercises the player should follow to gain the most benefit from the exercises in the book. Figure 1.1 is the schedule Moyse suggested.
Figure 1.1. Daily Exercises, practice schedule (Moyse 1923, III).
Each letter corresponds to various exercises in the book. Looking at the first day, “A B C
D,” the player would play through all exercises labeled A, then proceed to all the ones labeled B, etc. All exercises should be played slurred, single, and double tongued.
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It is also important to note that Moyse extended all exercises throughout the book into the extremes of the high and low registers, with C4 being the highest note and C1 being the lowest. Because the high and low registers of the flute are often practiced less often than the middle register, Moyse wrote in the preface of this book, “The lowest and highest extremities, where the chief difficulties are to be found, are not neglected and are practiced just as much as the rest,” and it was his goal through these exercises to “fill the gap” (Moyse 1923, I).
This book should be used by intermediate and advanced players, as it requires a foundation of scales and arpeggios as well as practice with various intervals. However, some exercises may be used or modified for beginner students. For example, as a beginning student learns major scales, the major scale and the interval studies that accompany that scale could be added to the student’s practice.
In 1933, Moyse published Gammes et Arpèges (Scales and Arpeggios) to be used in addition to Daily Exercises. As in Daily Exercises, Moyse provided an order in which the exercises should be practiced. Moyse explained the order of exercises was to provide direction, as the exercises are short and players should be able to play twelve exercises in about thirty minutes.
In Scales and Arpeggios patterns were altered to address finger motion. Example
1.9 displays an excerpt from exercise one in Scales and Arpeggios. Each section should be repeated four times and practiced through all three registers to develop smooth technique between all fingerings. Most exercises in this book follow the same pattern as this exercise. Moyse did not require different articulations, as the player’s focus was achieving the smoothest finger motions possible.
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Example 1.9. Scales and Arpeggios (Moyse 1921, 1).
Études et éxercices technique (Studies and Technical Exercises) was aimed at advanced flutists who wish to develop precise technique. It covered the entire range of the flute in order to address difficulties in all registers and focused on the mechanics of finger movements with articulations. In the preface, the publisher recommended each exercise be practiced slowly at a mezzo forte dynamic, which can be observed in Example
1.10, paying close attention to the specific directions provided before each exercise
(Moyse 1921, 3). Example 1.10 is the first exercise in the book and should be practiced as written, as well as with the two articulations Moyse provided that can be seen in
Example 1.11.
Example 1.10. Studies and Technical Exercises, No. 1 (Moyse 1921, 4).
Example 1.11. Studies and Technical Exercises, No. 1 articulations (Moyse 1921, 4).
In his method École de l'articulation (School of Articulation), Moyse cycled through various exercises using all types of articulations including single tonguing,
22 double tonguing, triple tonguing, as well as mixing the previously mentioned types together. He also included different slur patterns, combining them with the aforementioned tonguing patterns.
Example 1.12 displays No. 14, which combines single and triple tonguing patterns. Moyse provided the instructions: “Stress the eighth-note and avoid any emphasis on the 1st sixteenth-note of the triplet” (Moyse 1928, 5).
Example 1.12. School of Articulation, No. 14 (Moyse 1928, 5).
Moyse also provided an example of the correct way to play the exercise next to an example of a common mistake, which can be seen in Example 1.13.
Example 1.13. School of Articulation, No. 14 common error (Moyse 1928, 5).
Moyse’s 24 Petites études mélodiques: avec variations (Facile) (24 Little
Melodious Studies: With Variations (Easy)) (1932), combined all the concepts explored in Moyse’s methods on tone and technique in order to develop interpretation. These melodious studies allow all levels of students to be successful. Beginning students can use these melodies to learn phrasing and when to breathe, while advanced students can use the melodies to improve the nuances of their technique, such as tone color and transposition. Example 1.14 displays No. 1 from 24 Little Melodious Studies.
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Example 1.14. 24 Little Melodious Studies, No. 1 (Moyse 1932, 1).
The focus of this simple yet deceptively difficult melody is to develop phrasing and intonation. The dynamic markings throughout this melody generally follow the melodic contour, helping to demonstrate where the phrases should be. It is vital for the flutist to be aware of intonation throughout this melody, being conscious to raise the pitch on diminuendos and lower the pitch on crescendos in order to maintain a homogenous sound. The variation of the first melody, displayed in Example 1.15, adds a new articulation pattern; the flutist should maintain the phrasing and intonation used in the main melody throughout this variation. The variation requires smooth, legato tonguing, with each repeated pitch matching in tone. To achieve this, the flutist should use a “du” syllable.
Example 1.15. 24 Little Melodious Studies, No. 1 variation (Moyse 1932, 1).
No. 1 is a great example of how these exercises can be adapted for players of different levels. A beginner should only focus on the main melody, removing the
24 dynamics and playing the melody at mezzo forte to develop their tone. This can also be used to help beginners develop their breath control. Intermediate players can use No. 1 to develop their dynamics and phrasing. The intermediate player should add the variation to practice legato tonguing. For the advance flutist, this melody can be used to develop tone color, vibrato, expression, and transposition skills.
Flutist Trevor Wye, with Robert Scott, arranged a book of piano accompaniments for each of Moyse’s 24 Little Melodious Studies, which teachers can use to provide a harmonic background for their students to further demonstrate phrase structure and different musical moods. Moyse also published another volume of studies titled 25
Études mélodique: avec variations (Moyenne force) (25 Melodic Studies: With Variations
(Moderately difficult)) (1932). Since these studies are “moderately difficult,” they are best for the intermediate to advanced player, but focus on the same concepts in the 24
Little Melodious Studies.
Le Débutant flûtiste (Beginning the Flute) (1935) was intended as a supplement to another more comprehensive method book. Moyse stated the purpose of this book was for beginners to “acquire familiarity with the entire range of the flute” at a quicker progressive pace (Moyse 1935, iii). The student should have all notes mastered in a brief thirteen lessons. The first four lessons in Beginning the Flute introduce the easiest notes,
C5 to low E4. Because these notes are the easiest to play, they should be played clearly with careful attention and at a mezzo forte dynamic. The next three lessons focus on passing from the low register into the middle register. From lesson eight to the last lesson, three new notes are added, helping the students to master all notes after thirteen lessons. Moyse stated in the forward that if the student is still working to develop
25 breathing skills, they can begin by practicing only the even-number pages. When the student has completed all the even-number pages, they may return to the beginning and complete the more difficult odd numbered pages, first reviewing the even-number page that accompanies it.
Moyse’s lifelong focus and flute playing revolved around one thing: making music. He understood that technique development was a path to being able to make the most beautiful music possible. Moyse himself said, “I don’t play the French flute style, or the German, or English or American. I try to play the music and whatever the composer requires” (Wye 1993, 115).
Marcel Moyse’s Legacy: Louis Moyse (1912-2007)
Louis Moyse was born in August of 1912 and quickly became his father’s musical partner. Louis’s first teachers of flute were Marcel Moyse and Philippe Gaubert.
However, flute was not Louis’s only instrument. When Louis attended the Paris
Conservatory, he chose to study both flute and piano, although he spent most of his time practicing flute because he believed it would offer more career opportunities.
In 1932, Louis received first prize at the Conservatory, and in 1934, he and his father formed the Moyse Trio. The third member of the group was Blanche Honegger
Moyse, Louis’s former wife, who played violin in the group. Marcel Moyse played flute and Louis spilt his time playing flute and piano. Around this time, Louis was offered the second chair flute position with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, but due to the start of
World War II, he was unable to leave France.
As mentioned earlier, the Moyse family fled to St. Amor where they waited for the war to end. When it did, there was unfortunately no work available to them, so they
26 decided to travel. First, the Moyse family went to Argentina, and later they traveled to the
United States, specifically Vermont. The Moyse Trio found teaching jobs in Vermont at the Marlboro College, and in the early 1950s, Louis and Blanche founded the Brattleboro
Music Center (Midgette 2007). Like his father, he taught private lessons and master classes, and even published some music.
Louis Moyse was known as one of the most prolific producers of flute music. He had various compositions of his own, but his most notable works were his edited compilations. A few of his compilations are Forty Little Pieces in Progressive Order for
Beginner Flutists (1956), Young Flutist's Recital Book: 3 Centuries of Flute Music
(1986), Treasury of Flute Music: In Progressive Order for Beginning Flutists (1986), and
French Music by French Composers (1967). The majority of Louis’s publications are for younger players, but some are also appropriate for the intermediate and advanced player.
Forty Little Pieces in Progressive Order for Beginner Flutists is a well-organized compilation for beginning flutists. It contains transcriptions from Bach, Handel, Haydn,
Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, and Schumann, helping to introduce young students to classic composers. Louis also included piano accompaniment. A CD recording with the accompaniments can be purchased with the book if a teacher does not have the ability to accompany the student themselves. These short pieces are the perfect length for beginning students to start working on skills such as learning how to approach solos, early experience playing with an accompaniment, and playing in tune with a fixed pitched instrument.
French Music by French Composers contains ten well-known Paris Conservatory competition pieces. Many of these pieces were written by flutists, performers, and
27 teachers; works from Taffanel and Gaubert are among the ten in this book. These pieces are staples of the flute repertoire. The works in this compilation are listed below in order of appearance and with the original year it was used for competition.
Prelude et Scherzo by Henri Büsser (1908) Concertino, Op. 107 by Cecile Chaminade (1902) Concertino, Op. 45 by Alphonse Duvernoy (1899) Cantabile et Presto by Georges Enesco (1904) Fantasie, Op. 79 by Gabriel Fauré (1898) Andante et Scherzo by Louis Ganne (1901) Fantasie by Philippe Gaubert (1920) Nocturne at Allegro Scherzando by Philippe Gaubert (1906) Ballade by Albert Périlhou (1903) Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino by Paul Taffanel (1907)
The edits Louis made to these works help the flutist recreate the style in which the compositions were originally performed. Edits in the flute part include the addition of dynamic and sign markings, some of which were added by the original composer after publication. For the piano parts, Louis added fingerings and rearranged some notes and chords, “without betraying the original,” to make it easier and more readable for the pianist (Moyse 1967, 1).
Louis, like his father, wrote his own method books, although his were directed at the beginning player. The two most prominent works are The First Step in Flute Playing:
Based on Short, Easy, Original and Harmonious Melodies in Duet Form (1983) and The
Flutist’s Primer (1979). The First Step in Flute Playing, a resource for the teacher to work through together with students, begins with a diagram of how to hold the flute, providing a good example for students to ensure proper position when practicing without the teacher. The book is then divided into three sections: the first part is the low register, the second part is the middle register, and the third part is the top register. In the duets themselves, displayed in Example 1.16, Louis has designated the top line to the student
28 and the bottom to the teacher. Throughout this book, Louis labeled notes the first time they appear in the student line and also provided the fingering above each note. This helps foster independent learning for the student, as they do not have to solely rely on the teacher.
Example 1.16. The First Step in Flute Playing, First Part, No. 1 in C Major (Moyse 1983, 4).
It can also be observed in this example that the teacher’s line is more difficult than the student, which allows engagement from the teacher and adds harmonic context to the top line. As the duets continue through the book, Louis progressively makes the rhythm for the student more difficult. By the end of the book, the student and teacher lines look more similar.
The Flutist’s Primer: Easy and Melodious Exercises Based on Scales and
Arpeggios, a sequel to the completion of The First Step in Flute Playing, contains scale exercises appropriate for a beginning student. Louis organized the book by the circle of fifths beginning with the easiest to read: No. 1 is in C Major and A minor, No. 2 is in G
Major and E minor (1 sharp), No. 3 is in F Major and D minor (1 flat), and No. 4 is in D
Major and B minor (2 sharps). Notably, Louis introduced minor scales to students from the beginning. Often, students will not begin practicing minor scales until they have completed all major scales, but this method helps students become comfortable with major and minor scales simultaneously.
Built on scale passages, the exercises require the student to use various articulations. While there are no written dynamics, it is possible to add material for
29 students at advanced levels. Louis provided another way to make these scale exercises more musical by writing an optional second flute part and piano part. One or the other can be used by the teacher to play along with the student to provide more harmonic context for the student to make it more engaging. Example 1.17 displays a duet of two flute parts. The student part and the teacher part are similar in difficulty, allowing the student to be able to play either line in addition to allowing the student to practice playing with peers thus building ensemble skills.
Example 1.17. The Flutist's Primer, Part 1, C Major (Moyse 1979, 2).
While most of his books were designed for beginners, Louis Moyse composed La
Grande Velocité: A Progressive Work of Technique Built on Scales and Arpeggios for the
Flute (1958) for the intermediate and advanced flutist. The exercises are similar to the exercises in Marcel Moyse’s Scales and Arpeggios in that they focus on smooth finger motion. Example 1.18 displays an example from La Grande Velocité, which can be compared to the example from Scales and Arpeggios in Example 1.9 on page 21.
Example 1.18. La Grande Velocité (Moyse 1958, 4) La Grande Velocité: A Progressive Work of Technique Built on Scales and Arpeggios for the Flute by Louis Moyse © 1958 Southern Music. Used by permission.
The player should repeat each group four times all slurred, then with suggested articulations. Like his father, Louis provided the player with a schedule of study; for forty-eight-days, the student should play four exercises a day, traveling through various
30 keys, scale patterns, and arpeggios.
Because of Marcel Moyse’s passion for music, hard work, self-discipline, and dedication, flutists have documentation of the great French Flute School teachings. The explanations Moyse provided in his many method books allow modern flutists a clear understanding of how he intended for his methods to be used. It also allows teachers to adapt the exercises to best fit the level of their students. Moyse’s method books aid in the development of every area of flute playing. Louis Moyse’s contributions to flute literature should also be recognized. Louis provided more method books for the beginning level flutists, which his father wrote very little for. Regarding Marcel Moyse’s contributions to flute literature, Geoffrey Gilbert is quoted as saying, “There is so much material in the form of studies written in the world that we’ll never get through the whole lot. There are certain books, books one keeps for life; the Moyse books are amongst those” (Wye 1993, 41).
Chapter 2: French Baroque (1600-1750)
The Hotteterre family was well known in France for their woodwind instrument making and instrument innovations, including the transverse flute. Despite the general knowledge of the Hotteterre family’s importance, there was little knowledge of the family’s history and documentation to support it (Giannini 1993, 377). In Tula Giannini’s
Grove Music Online article, she credited the Hotteterre family with the development of the Baroque oboe, bassoon, musette, and flute (Giannini 2001). Regarding the transverse flute, the family was associated with the creation and development of the three-piece transverse flute. They attempted to make the instrument more expressive and improve intonation by using a conical bore, in addition to making the mouth and finger hole smaller to “increase the dynamic and color range” (Stoltz 2003, 11). In addition to their instrument making, the Hotteterre family was well known for their musicianship and contribution to woodwind pedagogy. The most famous member of the family was
Jacques-Martin Hotteterre.
Before the middle of the seventeenth century, the flute was better known as the recorder. Between 1660 and 1670, the recorder was physically remodeled and renamed the transverse flute, meaning side-blown flute, although the recorder would remain the most popular of the two flutes until the turn of the eighteenth century (Toff 2012, 183-
184). The transverse flute was also called the Baroque flute and the one-keyed flute due to the addition of a key on the foot joint, which can be seen in Figure 2.1. The reason the transverse flute grew in popularity, especially in France, was because it “offered
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32 possibilities of a wider range of tonal colors and dynamic expression,” thus creating more opportunity for individual expression (Hotteterre 1968, VIII-IX).
Figure 2.1. Three-Piece Flute or Hotteterre Flute (Boland 1998, 5). The standard transverse flute had three sections (Figure 2.1): a head joint, a conical middle joint with six tone holes, and a foot joint with one key. Flute makers would later split the middle section into two separate parts, seen in Figure 2.2, which allowed flutists to use differently sized upper-middle joints. This was a desirable feature for flutists, especially for those who traveled, as they could have one instrument capable of playing at different pitch standards (Boland 1998, 9).
Figure 2.2. Four-Piece Flute (Boland 1998, 5).
The transverse flute also had a moveable cork at the end of the head joint that allowed the player to adjust it to their own playing for proper intonation, similar to the modern flute. The range of the transverse flute was D1 to A3. These flutes were typically made from wood, with the most common being boxwood, and other favored woods including ebony and grenadilla. Ivory was primarily used to decorate the wooden flutes.
Jacques-Martin Hotteterre (1674-1763)
Due to the lack of documentation, little is known about the life of Jacques-Martin
Hotteterre le Romain. Hotteterre was born in 1674 in Paris, France to Martin Hotteterre
33 and Marie Crespy. His nickname “Le Romain” was said to be a result of a trip to Rome in the late 1690s and possibly was used to differentiate himself from others in his family
(Pottier 1997, 4). Hotteterre was known by many professional titles including performer, pedagogue, and composer. While he was best known for his flute playing, Hotteterre also played the oboe, bassoon, and musette. Hotteterre’s father, Martin, taught him and his brother, Jean, the instrument-making craft. Jean succeeded their father as the instrument maker, while Hotteterre filled their father’s performance role. In 1707, Hotteterre, following his father, gained the position of Flûte de la Chambre du Roi (The King’s
Chamber Flute), in the royal court of King Louis XIV (Pottier 1997, 2).
Known for his contribution to flute literature, Hotteterre published his Premier livre de pièces pour la flûte traversière et autres instruments avec la basse, Op. 2 (First
Book of Pieces for the Transverse Flute and Other Instruments with Bass) in 1708, and
Op. 5 in 1715. The first book of suites included two unaccompanied duets for two flutes, which he dedicated to Louis XIV. A new musical form at the time, Hotteterre’s duets were thought to be some of the first (Toff 2012, 189). In 1712, he published more unaccompanied duets in his Première suite de pièces à deux dessus, sans basse, Op. 4
(First Suite of Pieces for Two, without Bass). He published two more unaccompanied duet suites: Op. 6 in 1717 and Op. 8 in 1722.
In addition to his compositions, Hotteterre also wrote three method books for various woodwind instruments. In 1707, he published his most famous method book Op.
1, which will be discussed in the next section of this chapter, Principes de la flûte traversiere ou flute d’Allemagne, de la flute a bec ou flute douce, et du haut-bois, divisez par traitez (Principles of the Flute, Recorder, and Oboe). In 1712, he published Op. 7,
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L’Art de préluder sur la flûte traversière, sur la flûte a bec, sur le hautbois, et autres instruments de dessus (The Art of Prelude on the Transverse Flute, on the Recorder, on the Oboe, and Other Top Instruments). Hotteterre’s last method book, Op. 10, Méthode pour la musette, contenant des principes, par le moyen desquels on peut apprendre à joüer de cet instrument (Method for the Musette, Containing Principles, by Means of which One Can Learn to Play this Instrument), was published in 1738.
Principles of the Flute by Jacques-Martin Hotteterre
Principles of the Flute was the first published method book on playing the flute.
Due to the primary focus of this thesis, only the “Treatise on the Transverse Flute” section of Principles of the Flute, Recorder, and Oboe will be discussed. This treatise served as a model for other method books that would soon follow, including one of the most well-known methods by German Baroque flutist/composer Johann Joachim Quantz,
On Playing the Flute (1752). Paul Marshall Douglas provided an overview of this method book in his introduction to his translation of the Principles of the Flute:
The Principes de la Flûte contains a thorough explanation of the rudiments of playing the transverse flute, the recorder and the oboe, and includes detailed fingering and trill charts for these instruments. It also contains an important discussion on the principal ornaments and embellishments of the period. (Hotteterre 1968, XII)
Because of the method’s inclusion of performing ornaments and embellishments during the period, Hotteterre’s method proved valuable as a performance practice guide for modern day flutists. The following is a list of chapters for Principles of the Flute:
Chapter 1: The Posture of the Body and the Position of the Hands Chapter 2: The Embouchure Chapter 3: First Explanation of Plate 1: Natural Tones Chapter 4: First Explanation of Plate 2: Trills on Natural Tones Chapter 5: Second Explanation of Plate 1: Sharps and Flats Chapter 6: Second Explanation of Plate 2: Trills
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Chapter 7: Comments on Certain Semitones and Trills Chapter 8: Tonguing, Appoggiaturas, Springers, and Terminated Trills on the Transverse Flute and Other Wind Instruments Chapter 9: Vibrati and Mordents
In the first two chapters, Hotteterre provided the reader with clear and concise instructions on the physical aspects on flute playing. Chapter One, “The Posture of the
Body and the Position of the Hands,”:
The body must be kept straight, the head high rather than low, turned slightly toward the left shoulder, the hands high without lifting either the elbows or the shoulders, the left wrist bend in and the left arm near the body. When in a standing position, one must be firmly fixed on one’s legs, the left foot advanced, the body resting on the right hip, all without strain. (Hotteterre 1968, 9)
Hotteterre followed this statement by instructing the reader to look at the portrait of himself at the beginning of the treatise, which can be seen in Figure 2.3, as a demonstration.
Hotteterre drew attention to the hand position on the flute: the left hand should be higher, with the first finger and thumb being used to brace the flute. The left wrist should be bent down, while the first and second fingers have a curved shape and the third finger is more extended. The right hand is placed on the lower end of the flute. Like the left hand, the wrist is bent down, although all the fingers on the right hand should be straighter, with the thumb bracing the flute under or a little lower than the first finger.
Finally, the flute should be held “almost level,” although slanting slightly (Hotteterre
1968, 10). These instructions provided for proper body and hand posture are the same instructions modern flutist should follow today, except for exact finger positions on keys.
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Figure 2.3. Portrait of Jacques-Martin Hotteterre playing the transverse flute seen in Principles of the Flute (Hotteterre 1968, 8).
In Chapter 2, “The Embouchure,” Hotteterre stated the best way to learn embouchure technique was by gaining advice from a good teacher and observing demonstrations. However, he provided a written description of a proper embouchure:
[The lips] must be joined, except in the middle where a little opening should be made to allow for an air passage. They should not be brought forward. On the contrary, they should be drawn back at the corners, so that they are smooth and straight. Place the mouthpiece against this little aperture, blow gently, press the flute against the lips and roll it constantly in and out until the true spot is found. (Hotteterre 1968, 11)
Hotteterre strongly advocated the use of a mirror when practicing forming an embouchure in order to be able to observe each of his instructed steps. The use of a mirror when playing remains an important pedagogical tool for flutists to observe their body posture, hand posture, and embouchure. Once the embouchure technique was secured, the player began the study of pitches. He instructed the player to not place any
37 fingers on the flute but only focus on blowing and producing a sound. When the player was ready to progress, the next step was to place the upper left hand fingers down, adding one at a time while continuing to practice blowing. After all the left-hand fingers were down, the player began placing the right-hand fingers one by one. Hotteterre noted the player should not be discouraged if they were unable to produce the first pitch, for which all fingers were down, as it was difficult to securely stop all the holes.
The idea of focusing on sound and tone development before studying pitches is an idea still relevant in modern pedagogy. French flutist Michel Debost (b. 1934) described a similar method in his book The Simple Flute: From A to Z. Debost says, “A well- focused tone always sounds more in tune” (Debost 2002, 257). To achieve a focused tone, he advocated for the beginner to play only on the head joint to focus on sound production, then to practice tone production with both hands on the flute, similar to
Hotteterre’s method (Debost 2002, 35).
Hotteterre ended Chapter 2 with a qualifying statement: “[The player] must follow my rules only when they do not create an adverse situation,” as the player should always remain comfortable and in the most natural positions (Hotteterre 1968, 12). For example, if it is more difficult for a player to create an embouchure the way Hotteterre described by smoothing and straightening the lips and it is easier to form an embouchure by extending the upper lips, the player should do so. However, Hotteterre warned that even though positions may differ for comfort, the player should not compromise technique and stability.
Chapters 3 through 7 focused on note fingerings for the Baroque transverse flute specifically and are not applicable to learning the modern flute. Hotteterre included
38 explanations of trills at the beginning of Chapters 4 and 6, providing a performance practice guide for Baroque flute repertoire. At the beginning of Chapter 4, Hotteterre defined trills as:
[Trills] can be described as an agitation of two sounds, either a step or a half step apart, which are played alternately in rapid succession. The trill is started on the higher note and finished on the lower. It is tongued only at the beginning, being continued only by the finger. (Hotteterre 1968, 20)
It was characteristic in this era for trills to begin on the note above the trilled note, as
Hotteterre described above. In Chapter 6, he defined the articulated first note as a preparation or appoggiatura. Hotteterre further explained how long a trill should last, stating the number of finger shakes per trill relates to the value of the trilled note.
“Remember, above all, not to rush the trill, but instead to delay it about half the value of the note, especially in the slow movement” (Hotteterre 1968, 20). In Chapter 6,
Hotteterre explained the trill was notated by a little cross written as “+” above or below the note head, adding that trills were not always notated in music, nor were appoggiaturas. It was important to observe the appoggiatura even when it was not notated
(Hotteterre 1968, 31).
Chapters 8 and 9, the most relevant for modern flutists, provided firsthand insight into the stylistic playing common in French Baroque literature. Chapter 8 focused on tonguing, appoggiaturas, springers, and terminated trills. Hotteterre spent most of the chapter explaining the various types of tonguing and providing examples of when they should be used, beginning with two syllables that were used to “make playing more pleasant, and to avoid too much uniformity in tonguing” (Hotteterre 1968, 36). The two he discussed were tu and ru. The first and most common syllable was tu. When notes ascended or descended in stepwise motion, tu was alternated with ru as seen in Example
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2.1. Phrases should only begin with tu, and tu ru was generally used on the smallest subdivisions. In Example 2.2, Hotteterre demonstrated the alternating tu ru articulations on the smallest subdivision, which in this example was sixteenth notes.
Example 2.1. Chapter 8, Example 2, alternating tu ru articulations (Hotteterre 1968, 36).
Example 2.2. Chapter 8, Example 9, tu ru articulation on the smallest subdivision (Hotteterre 1968, 39).
Hotteterre elaborated that all notes do not need to be played equally and should be grouped in long-short pairs. In her doctoral thesis, Amy Beth Guitry explained the syllables tu and ru suggested different lengths: “Tu begins the note with a shorter articulation, and ru begins the note with a slightly longer and gentler attack” (Guitry
2010, 43). She further explained this concept was known as notes inégales, or unequal notes, which produced a slightly dotted or lilting effect.
After discussing the different syllables in Chapter 8, Hotteterre provided brief instructions for slurs, appoggiaturas and descending passing tones, as well as springers and terminated trills. Hotteterre defined slurs as follows: “These consist of two or more notes played on one stroke of the tongue, and are indicated above or below the notes by
40 ties” (Hotteterre 1968, 43). Example 2.3 is an example of slur markings and how they should be articulated.
Example 2.3. Chapter 8, Example 18, Slurs (Hotteterre 1968, 42).
Hotteterre followed with descriptions and definitions of appoggiaturas and descending passing tones: devices that precede a note but were not counted in the timing
(Hotteterre 1968, 43). An appoggiatura begins a step below the note to be played, seen in
Example 2.4, while the descending passing tone begins above the note, seen in Example
2.5. Hotteterre noted, “The descending appoggiatura [passing tone] is started one step above and is hardly ever used except in descending thirds” (Hotteterre 1968, 42).
Example 2.4. Chapter 8, Example 19, Appoggiaturas (Hotteterre 1968, 43).
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Example 2.5. Chapter 8, Example 20, Descending passing tones (Hotteterre 1968, 43).
Both the appoggiatura and the descending passing tones utilize the slur; the tongue articulates the appoggiatura and under the same stroke continues to the main note.
Hotteterre ended this section by stating appoggiaturas and mordents were often linked, demonstrated in Example 2.4 on marks three and four.
The final section of Chapter 8 covered springers and terminated trills. Hotteterre defined a springer as “the sound attached to the end of certain notes to give them more expression” (Hotteterre 1968, 43). Example 2.6 demonstrates how to execute a springer.
Example 2.6. Chapter 8, Example 21, Springer (Hotteterre 1968, 43).
Example 2.7 demonstrates the execution of a terminated trill, which is “an ordinary trill followed by two sixteenth notes” (Hotteterre 1968, 44). The sixteenth notes can either be slurred or tongued; the first measure of Example 2.7 shows the slurred termination, while the second measure shows the tongued termination.
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Example 2.7. Chapter 8, Example 22, Terminated trill (Hotteterre 1968, 44).
In Chapter 9, Hotteterre provided instructions on the execution of vibrati and mordents. He described vibrati as similar to a regular trill, however the finger producing the vibrati should remain up at the end, contrary to a trill. The mordent, similar to vibrati in that the finger should remain up, is produced by rapidly striking the hole one or two times (Hotteterre 1968, 45). Example 2.8 demonstrates the two different markings. The vibrati markings can be observed on the note labeled B and C, and mordents on notes labeled D.
Example 2.8. Chapter 9, Example 23, Vibrato and Mordent (Hotteterre 1968, 47).
Hotteterre ended the chapter by explaining general rules for vibrati and mordents, stating that ornaments were not usually notated by the composer and would be added by teachers to help their students and that vibrati was generally used on longer note values.
Even though it is not marked in Example 2.8, vibrati would be used on the whole note
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(A), along with where it is marked on notes labeled B, the half note, and C, the dotted quarter note. The mordents, contrary to vibrati, were executed on shorter note values, which in this example is the quarter notes (D). Regarding ornamentation, Hotteterre said,
“Taste and experience, rather than theory, teach their proper use” (Hotteterre 1968, 47).
He recommended the beginner play pieces in which all the ornaments were notated to acquire a better understanding of execution.
Hotteterre’s devotion to sharing pedagogical information provided modern flutists with a wealth of knowledge and insight into recreating the music of the early Baroque era. The next section of this chapter will further explore the information Hotteterre has provided on performance practice through his Third Suite, Op. 2.
Hotteterre’s Suite No. 3 in G Major, Op. 2
Hotteterre’s dedication to pedagogy continued in his compositions. Hotteterre’s
Premier livre de pièces pour la flûte traversière et autres instruments avec la basse, Op.
2 (First Book of Pieces for the Transverse Flute and Other Instruments with Bass), originally published in 1708, is a prime example. Due to its popularity, Hotteterre later published a second edition in 1715. The second edition included minor changes from the first edition, with the most important change being how the pieces were grouped. The first edition contained three suites containing eleven to twelve movements, which
Hotteterre rearranged for the second edition into five suites containing seven to eight movements. The other important change was the addition of ornaments; Hotteterre even included a table of ornaments at the end (Giannini 2001).
In his preface to Op. 2, Hotteterre stated these compositions were not only for flutists but could be played by any instrument that plays in the treble, such as the recorder
44 for example: “There are some of which are too low for the recorder and so you should have recourse to transposition when you play them on this instrument. Thus, D major must be transposed to F major, the G major to B flat major, and the E minor to G minor”
(Hotteterre 1708, 10).
Hotteterre continued: “It is to be observed that almost each long note must be performed with vibrato (with flattement) which must be taken slower or faster, similar to the trills (tremblement) and the mordents (battements), according to the tempo and the character of the pieces” (Hotteterre 1708, 10). He indicated ornaments throughout the composition in the most essential places. These ornamentations and other French
Baroque characteristics will be discussed in the first and second movements of
Hotteterre’s Suite No. 3 in G Major, Op. 2.
As a genre, the Baroque Suite was a collection of dances in the same key that began with a prelude and exhibited contrasting moods throughout. Some of the dances included in suites were the German allemande, the French courante, the Spanish sarabande, the English jig or gigue, as well as a minuet, rondeau, gavotte, passepied, or hornpipe (Forney, Dell’Antonio, and Machlis 2018, 148). Suite No. 3 included the following movements:
I. Allemande—La cascade de St. Cloud (The Cascade of Saint-Cloud) II. Sarabande—La Guimon III. Courante-Double—L’Indiferente (The Indifferent) IV. Rondeau—Le plaintif (The Plaintive) V. Menuet—Le mignon (The Cute) VI. Gigue—L’Italienne (The Italian)
This suite lacked a prelude when Hotteterre published the second edition of these works
(Borg-Wheeler 2020, 7). Each of the movement titles in Op. 2 was a derivation of the following three categories: the name of one of Hotteterre’s students or admirers, the
45 character of the piece, or a picture (Pottier 1997, 5-6). With the exception of the first and second movements, all the movements in Suite No. 3 fall into the second category. The first movement was based on a painting and the second movement was titled after a student of Hotteterre’s, La Guimon.
The Allemande, La cascade de St. Cloud (The Cascade of Saint-Cloud), was based on a painting that portrayed cascading water at the Château de Saint-Cloud (Saint-
Cloud Castle). Throughout the movement, Hotteterre used downward motion in the flute and piano parts to portray the image of falling water. During the Baroque period, the key in which a composition was written was significant. As Johann Joachim Quantz stated in his treatise On Playing the Flute: “Generally a major key is used for the expression of what is gay, bold, serious, and sublime, and a minor one for the expression of the flattering, melancholy, and tender” (Quantz 1966, 125). This movement has a gay and happy expression by means of its key, G Major, and use of dotted rhythms. The ornaments seen throughout this movement consist of trills, appoggiaturas, turns, a double cadence, and a tour de chant. Example 2.9 shows the notation of the ornaments.
Example 2.9. Hotteterre, Suite No. 3, Op. 2, I, measures 21 to the end.
The note labeled A, an appoggiatura, should begin on the note below the given note (A1 to B2). The notes labeled C are trills and should be preceded by an appoggiatura according to Hotteterre’s instructions. Because of the quick nature of this movement, the trills should be played as rapidly as a mordent, though the given note should still be the last pitch heard. The note labeled D is an example of a double cadence. Hotteterre
46 instructed in the preface to Op. 2 that a “double cadence is needed when after the trill the melody rises a step higher,” as it does in this example (Hotteterre 1708, 10). Finally, the note labeled B displays the tour de chant. There is not a direct English translation for this ornament, but Hotteterre provided a demonstration of this figure in his table of ornaments, as seen in Example 2.10.
Example 2.10. Tour de chant demonstration (Hotteterre 1708, 3).
The tour de chant, similar to a lower neighbor passing tone, was followed by a trill.
Although it was not shown in this demonstration, the trill should still be preceded by an appoggiatura.
The second movement, Sarabande, La Guimon, named for one of Hotteterre’s pupils, provided great examples of ornaments in slower movements. Due to the slow tempo, the trills should all be measured for more uniformity. Example 2.11 shows trills on various note values in measures one through four of movement two. The first trill in measure two on the dotted quarter note should be performed with six measured shakes.
The second trill on the quarter note in the same measure should be performed with four shakes. The trill in measure four should be executed the same as the dotted quarter note in measure two. In addition, the player should wait half of the note’s value before executing the trill as Hotteterre instructed in Chapter 3 of Principles of the Flute. For
47 example, when performing the quarter note trill in measure two, the player should wait at least one eighth note before beginning the trill. Also, the double cadences throughout this movement should be executed as measured shakes similarly to the trills.
Example 2.11. Hotteterre, Suite No. 3, Op. 2, II, measures 1-4.
Hotteterre’s attention to pedagogy enables modern flutists to recreate stylistically accurate period performances. Because Hotteterre provided such detailed instructions on how to properly execute ornaments, his compositions provide starting points for beginners. By studying the writings of Hotteterre, advanced flutists are better equipped to improvise the appropriate ornaments thus creating a more accurate performance.
Chapter 3: Classical (1750-1820)
Throughout the beginning of the Classical era, the one-keyed transverse flute remained the instrument of choice for flutists; however, instrument makers were still striving to create a more effective and responsive flute. German Baroque flutist Johann
Joachim Quantz (1697-1773) began making changes to the one-keyed flute in the early
1700s. Quantz added a second key to the foot joint, which allowed another way to play E- flat/D-sharp. The holes under each of the keys were different sizes, one smaller and one bigger, allowing the player to tune E-flat/D-sharp while they were playing the instrument.
“By having two holes of varying size, the flute used enharmonic distinctions in which flats were to be played lower than sharps” (Fader 2018, 12). This was an important addition as it allowed the flute to be more in tune when playing with other instruments, allowing it to thrive in chamber ensembles instead of only as a solo instrument (Fader
2018, 13).
Tuning was an important concept to Quantz. The overall tuning on Quantz’s flutes was lower than the standard flutes of the time. He tuned the F key lower, allowing for a more even blend with other notes. He provided alternate fingerings for notes, like F- sharp, to further improve intonation. Quantz believed the player should strive for a
“bright, cutting, thick, round, masculine, but also pleasing sound from the instrument,” and so, “Quantz designed the proportions of the flutes he built to aid in the production of such a tone” (Powell 2002, 97). He adjusted the length and to the bore, making it wider and longer than other flutes of the time, “Giving a noticeably richer sonority to the lower
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49 register” (Brown 2002, 18). Quantz also made modifications to the shape of the embouchure hole on the head joint. The original one-keyed flute had a perfect circle embouchure hole, but he found that an oval shape, similar to the modern flute, produced the best response.
When Quantz shared his flute in the early 1700s, his contemporaries criticized his innovations and his designs were never accepted outside of slight interest in Germany.
While his flute construction innovations were an attempt to fix intonation problems, they also produced issues of their own, including making the high register difficult to play and some of the keys being too cumbersome (Brown 2018, 19). After Quantz’s death in the late eighteenth century, flute makers began more improvements focusing on intonation, consequently resembling some of Quantz’s designs.
In the late 1700s, more keys were added to the flute in an attempt to improve intonation, utilizing equal temperament. Equal temperament is a musical tuning system that divides an octave into twelve equal semitones. Around 1760, London flute makers added three keys, which are displayed in Figure 3.1: a closed G-sharp key, B-flat thumb in the left hand, and a closed F. Some flute makers even extended the range, adding low
C and C-sharp keys. Flute makers continued to add keys to the instruments, which ranged from one to eight keys. Rachel Brown listed the common key combinations on flutes of this time in her book The Early Flute: A Practice Guide: “The most usual combinations were: four keys (E-flat, F, G-sharp, B-flat), six keys (E-flat, short F, long F, G-sharp, B- flat, long C), six keys (E-flat, short F, G-sharp, B-flat, low C, low C-sharp), and eight keys (E-flat, short F, long F, G-sharp, B-flat, long C, low C, and low C-sharp)” (Brown
2002, 21).
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Figure 3.1. Six-keyed flute (Wilson 2020).
Although there were many innovations to the flute being made in the late eighteenth century, the one-keyed flute remained prominent in France because François
Devienne preferred it. Devienne, the first Professor of Flute at the Paris Conservatory, allowed his students to use four-keyed flutes even though “he ‘heartily disapproved’ of the C-foot” (Powell 2002, 211). Devienne’s method book, Nouvelle méthode théorique et pratique pour la flûte (New Theoretical and Practical Method for the Flute) was used as the primary instruction resource for flute at the Conservatory and “helped to establish a precedent for teaching and writing method books” (Glick 2014, 2)
François Devienne (1759-1803)
Until the twentieth century, there was some mystery surrounding François
Devienne’s life and how he began his music career. However, Devienne’s success in
Paris as a composer, performer, and teacher was always recognized. Flutists know him best for his concertos, duets, and his method book, although he is more generally known as being “among the most important composers of wind music in the second half of the eighteenth century” (Gallois 2017).
Devienne was born on January 31, 1759 in Joinville, France. He was the fourteenth child of Pierre Devienne, who worked as a saddler in Joinville, and the seventh
51 child of his father’s second wife, Marie Petit Devienne. His father died when he was only twelve, leaving François Memmie Devienne, his godfather and elder brother, to guide
Devienne towards a career as a musician.
There was no record of his life and musical training between the ages of twelve and seventeen. Devienne’s obituary, written by former student Joseph Guillou, stated
Devienne had composed a mass at age ten that was performed by the musicians of the
Royal Cravate. However, Émile Humblot found in his study on Devienne’s life that this story is not supported by facts. Humblot found that the musicians of Royal Cravate consisted of only eight trumpeters and one tympanist (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 2).
William Montgomery, author of Devienne’s Grove Music article, stated it was probable
Devienne received his earliest music training from Morizot, the organist in Joinville
(Montgomery 2001). More factual information on Devienne was recorded when he was seventeen.
In 1776, Devienne joined François Memmie in Deux Ponts (Two Bridges), a
French name for Zweibrücken, Germany, where François Memmie had lived since 1773.
Deux Ponts provided him with the opportunity to continue his education and “display his musical talents to the officers and nobility of Deux Ponts while learning to interact with them on a semi-courtly social level” (Montgomery 2009). He left Deux Ponts in 1778 to join the Paris Opera Orchestra as last chair bassoonist for the 1779-80 season. It was most likely at this time Devienne began flute lessons with Félix Rault, the principal flutist of the Paris Opera and the only teacher Devienne recorded in print. Devienne premiered as a flute soloist in April 1782, performing his own concerto, most likely his Concerto No. 1.
He also performed a new concerto in December 1782 (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 2-3).
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Around the same time in the early 1780s, Devienne entered the service of the
Cardinal de Rohan. During this time, cardinals were powerful political and social leaders in Paris. Devienne remained in his service until 1785. While he was in the Cardinal’s service, he remained an active musician throughout Paris. He performed regularly on flute and bassoon, and actively composed and performed works of his own. In 1788, he was documented as a teacher of flute and bassoon in the Calendrier musical universel
(Universal Musical Calendar). He may have left Paris during those years; it was speculated he took a sabbatical from performing to focus instead on composing and his newly acquired teaching duties.
The Théâtre de Monsieur (Monsieur’s Theater) opened in 1789 with Devienne as second bassoon. Just a year later in 1790, Devienne became the principal bassoonist, a position he would hold until 1801. In 1789, it was documented that he resumed performing as a flute soloist. In the same year, the French Revolution began, causing
Devienne to join the Garde National (National Guard) band sometime in the early 1790s.
During this time the number of his works that were published declined dramatically. He was a documented member of the National Guard in 1793 when the Institut National de
Musique (National Institute of Music) was formed. In 1794, the leaders of the Institute were selected and Devienne was one of the four chosen. During 1794, Devienne’s successful method for the one-keyed flute Nouvelle méthode théorique et pratique pour la flute (New Theoretical and Practical Method for the Flute) was published. The method book contained flute technique and performance practices along with duets of progressive difficulty (Gallois 2017). The following year, 1795, the National Institute of Music reorganized to become the Paris Conservatory. Devienne was appointed as an
53 administrator of the Conservatory and the professor of flute. At the Conservatory, his teaching, administrative work, and operatic composing consumed the majority of his time, although he occasionally published a few instrumental works. At some point, his mental health started declining. He entered a Parisian home for the mentally ill in May of
1803 where he died in September of the same year. Some of his works were published posthumously.
Opera was a large portion of Devienne’s compositions; specifically comic operas, of which he wrote twelve. His first opera, Le Mariage clandestine (The Clandestine
Marriage), premiered in November 1790 at the Théâtre de Monsieur. In August 1791, his second opera, Les Precieuses ridicules (The Affected Ladies), was premiered. Following his first two, in 1792, four more of his operas were produced. The four included: Encore des Savoyards, L'Enlèvement des Sabines (The Abduction of the Sabine Women), Les
Quiproquos Espagnols (Spanish Misunderstandings), and his best-known opera, Les
Visitandines (Sisters of the Visitation). In its first five years, Les Visitandines was performed over 200 times in Paris alone during Devienne’s lifetime, which provided him a decent profit (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 5-6). In 1793, Devienne collaborated with eleven composers on Le Congrès des Rois (The Congress of the Kings), a three-act comic opera. His opera writing continued into the late 1790s, beginning with Rose et Aurèle
(Rose and Aurèle) in 1794, and Agnės et Felix (Agnės and Felix) in 1795. His final three operas were Volécour (1797), Les comédiens ambulans (The Traveling Comedians)
(c1799), and Le valet de deux maîtres (The Servant of Two Masters) (c1800).
Devienne was most prolific in the area of instrumental duets, writing nearly 150 with the majority of them being for two flutes. He included three sets of progressive duets
54 in his method for the one-keyed flute. His method was first published in Paris by the publisher Imbault in 1794. It was written in Devienne’s obituary that his method for flute would be republished with corrections and edits by Devienne himself. It is unclear whether or not later editions incorporated any of the revisions. Philippe Gaubert, a famous French flutist, published an edition of Devienne’s method book in 1908-1909 because he believed it to be the “‘foundation of the flutist’s education’” (Boehm and
Bowers 2018, 14).
New Theoretical and Practical Method for the Flute by François Devienne
Devienne’s method, New Theoretical and Practical Method for the Flute (1794), contained information on the principles of music and flute technique of the time. Thomas
Boehm, in his commentary, argued that the information Devienne provided in his method was “neither comprehensive nor unique,” but ultimately remained popular due to
Devienne being one of the first flute professors of the Paris Conservatory (Boehm and
Bowers 2018, 14). Regardless, Devienne still compiled significant and useful information for Classical era flutists as well as modern flutists in the performance of Classical era works.
Devienne began his Method for the Flute with a “Preliminary Discourse” in which he discussed how the flute was a deceptively difficult instrument, requiring immense skill to play the instrument well and in tune. The player must practice to train not only their ears, but also to gain enough lip flexibility to control the vast number of pitches on the instrument (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 18). He noted that multiple pitches could be produced from the same fingerhole, thus requiring the flutist to use their lips to play the note with the correct intonation. Devienne continued in his discourse to briefly mention
55 his distaste for double tonguing, which he explained further in the articulation section of his method.
Devienne ended his “Preliminary Discourse” by sharing his opinion of the new keyed flutes. Devienne disliked the addition of keys due to the negative effect they had on the quality of tone as a result of the added length for the low C and C-sharp keys.
While he repeatedly stated he was not in favor of the “little keys,” Devienne identified two circumstances where the added keys were necessary: in slow movements and when
G-sharp/Ab or A-sharp/B-flat were sustained (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 89). Aside from these particular instances, Devienne deemed the added keys “useless,” concluding that simplicity was best and the focus should not be on complicated mechanisms (Boehm and
Bowers 2018, 18 and 89).
Devienne followed the “Preliminary Discourse” with the following fingering charts: Natural Scale, Scale with Sharps and Flats, and a Table of All the Trills. As in
Chapter 2 of this paper when Hotteterre’s method was discussed, the fingering charts were for the one-keyed flute and as they are not applicable to the modern flute they will be omitted. However, there was one significant difference to be noted between
Devienne’s fingering charts for the one-keyed flute and Hotteterre’s. Hotteterre provided instructions to roll the flute in and out or to use alternate fingerings to achieve correct intonation, while Devienne relied on the flexibility of the embouchure to correct intonation and only used alternate fingerings when absolutely necessary (Boehm and
Bowers 2018, 19).
Devienne’s method can be separated into two sections: the first containing instructions on the flute and principles of music, and the second including pieces
56 composed by Devienne. The pieces composed by Devienne consisted of twenty little airs, eighteen duos, six progressive sonatas, and preludes to accompany the sonatas. Devienne divided the first section into articles that were devoted to a different topic, as seen below.
Article 1: Putting the Flute Together Article 2: Holding the Flute and Placing It on the Mouth Article 3: Tone Article 4: Tonguing in General Article 5: Example of Different Articulations Which Certain Passages Require and Which Are Often Forgotten in Copying or Engraving Article 6: Concerning the Articulation of Three Notes in the Place of Two [i.e., Triplets] in Quadruple Meter, 3/4 and 6/8, etc., etc., etc. Article 7: Examples of Different Articulations that Certain Triplet Passages Require Article 8: Turns Article 9: Trills Article 10: Trilles or Little Trills Article 11: Appoggiaturas or Little Notes of Expression or Taste (Boehm and Bowers 2018, v-vi)
In Article 1, Devienne provided instructions on how to put the flute together. Like
Hotteterre instructed in his Principles of the Flute, Devienne advocated assembling the flute with the head joint turned slightly in from the line of the finger holes. Devienne stated that aligning the head joint this way resulted in a more comfortable playing position. He argued that aligning the head joint with the finger holes would result in “[the player being] forced to raise his elbow too high or to lower his head,” which would cause fatigue and furthermore, “his arm drops, his embouchure is disturbed, the pitch rises, and the sound loses all its purity” (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 91). Devienne’s main focus was producing a pure tone; by turning in the head joint slightly to create a comfortable playing position without tension, the player could produce such a tone.
In the second article, “Holding the Flute and Placing It on the Mouth,”
Devienne’s instructions again agreed with Hotteterre’s instructions on the same topic. For
57 the left hand, the flute should rest on the third joint of the index finger; the thumb should be placed opposite the middle hole; the first and second fingers should have a curved shape; and the third finger should be able to reach the third hole without any difficultly.
For the right hand, Devienne instructed the player to place the hand in a similar fashion to the left, with curved fingers over the finger holes, but to place the little finger above the key. His embouchure instructions again agreed with those of Hotteterre’s: the lips should be placed together, stretched to the sides, and drawn back at the corners to result in a small opening in the middle of the lips. When the embouchure was formed, the flute should be placed firmly on the chin for support, while feeling the embouchure hole on the flute against the lower lip. Devienne recommended, again like Hotteterre, to practice producing a sound without any fingers down.
Devienne instructed the player to always begin tone using a tongue stroke or by using only the tu syllable. He also cautioned to not “push the wind with the chest” as it can cause fatigue without producing any effect (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 92). When the player was comfortable producing a sound, Devienne recommended adding one finger at a time beginning with the left first finger. Only when the player can produce a sound with all fingers down and sealing the hole should they begin learning the scale. He finished the article by noting the embouchure should become narrower, or smaller, as the player progresses higher in pitch. This change to the embouchure helped to maintain a “full and sonorous” tone in the low register, and a “sweet and clear” tone in the higher register
(Boehm and Bowers 2018, 92).
Article 3, “Tone,” expanded on this idea, containing directions to develop a flexible embouchure. Devienne recommended playing scales while swelling and
58 diminishing each note. The player should be conscious not to disturb the embouchure and to maintain intonation throughout (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 92-93). Specifically,
Devienne instructed the player to “close the lips to begin the note piano, and to open them imperceptibly in order to pass smoothly by means of a crescendo to forte,” and doing the opposite to go from forte to piano (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 92).
In Article 4, Devienne discussed different types of articulations and how to execute them. He opened the article by comparing the tongue to a violin bow: as sound is produced from the violin by striking the strings with the bow, a tongue stroke should begin the sound on flute (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 93). As mentioned above, Devienne preferred the syllable tu, as opposed to ta or te, because it produced a smaller oral cavity
(Boehm and Bowers 2018, 21). He started with detached tonguing where he instructed the notes should be attacked firmly and similar to the staccato of a violin. Next, Devienne discussed slurring from one note to the next, or “two-by-two,” which can be observed in
Example 3.1. He described this tonguing as the “easiest and most essential” (Boehm and
Bowers 2018, 93).
Example 3.1. Paired slurs or “Two-by-Two” (Devienne 1794, 8).
Devienne also included a variation on this articulation known as counter tonguing, which can be seen in Example 3.2 where the paired slurs are offset by one eighth note. Devienne recommended this articulation to be used very rarely.
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Example 3.2. Counter tonguing (Devienne 1794, 9).
Next, Devienne discussed the slurred pairs followed by two detached notes, seen in
Example 3.3. He believed this articulation to be the most superior and referred to it as
“one of the most brilliant tonguings when one has mastered it with perfection” (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 94).
Example 3.3. Two slurred notes followed by two detached notes (Devienne 1794, 8).
The next two articulations Devienne provided, as seen in Examples 3.4 and 3.5, were three slurred notes followed by one detached (Example 3.4) and one detached note followed by three slurred (Example 3.5). He noted that the second articulation should be used only in certain circumstances. Devienne did not favor these articulations as much as the “two-by-two,” but believed they could still produce a useful effect when executed properly.
Example 3.4. Three slurred notes and one detached (Devienne 1794, 8).
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Example 3.5. One detached note and three slurred (Devienne 1794, 9).
Devienne ended this section with an example of double tonguing, Example 3.6.
Devienne was very open about his distaste for double tonguing—he mentioned it in the
“Preliminary Discourse” and again in the second article by saying tu was the only syllable needed; tu ru, or syllables like it, sounded like “disagreeable rolling to the ear”
(Boehm and Bowers 2018, 95). He argued that cleanliness with the use of tu ru syllables was impossible and that the player will never be able to play with nuance or expression.
Devienne offered new syllables for double tonguing when necessary: dougue, in which the tongue strikes against the palate.
Example 3.6. Double tonguing using dougue (Devienne 1974, 9).
In Article 5, Devienne provided examples of each articulation in a passage of a composition. Articulations were sometimes omitted in engravings or copies of music, so
Devienne included this section to demonstrate how to apply different articulations.
Example 3.7, an example Devienne included in Article 5, utilized all the different articulations. The last four bars of this example were to be played comme on veut, or “as you wish,” providing the performer with an opportunity for individual expression.
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Example 3.7. Example of all articulations in a passage (Devienne 1794, 11).
Articles 6 and 7 discussed articulations for triples. Example 3.8 shows an articulation Devienne deemed ordinary and the most frequent articulation. Devienne also explained the inverse of this articulation, which was performed by detaching the first note of the triplet and slurring the second two notes.
Example 3.8. Two notes of the triplet slurred and one detached (Devienne 1794, 12).
The next example Devienne provided was the “three-by-three,” where all three notes of the triplet were slurred together as seen in Example 3.9. Devienne noted that this articulation, while not used as often, was still an effective articulation.
Example 3.9. “Three-by-three” articulation (Devienne 1794, 12).
Another articulation Devienne provided was the “two-by-two,” shown in Example 3.10, which was performed by playing two slurred pairs. Devienne instructed the player to only
62 use this articulation on ascending or descending thirds. When executed properly,
Devienne felt it created the “most beautiful effect” (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 97).
Example 3.10. Triplet slurred pairs (Devienne 1794, 12).
The final articulation Devienne provided was three notes slurred and three detached, seen in Example 3.11. He stated the following for this articulation: “A very brilliant articulation for those who have a rapid tongue, and which may be used in passage where the notes are diatonic or nearly so” (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 97).
Example 3.11. Three notes slurred and three detached (Devienne 1794, 13).
In the remaining articles, Articles 8 through 11, Devienne discussed various ornamentations and how to execute them. The use of ornaments declined significantly in the Classical era, leaving only the trill and appoggiatura as the main ornaments. Other ornaments were generally written out and made a part of the composition (Toff 2012,
214). Article 8 discussed turns, or cadence brisée, where Devienne stated their purpose was to “give grace and elegance to the melody, and more energy to passage-work,” and added that they were made on dotted notes, as seen in Example 3.12 (Boehm and Bowers
2018, 98).
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Example 3.12. Quick turns (Devienne 1794, 16).
In this example, Devienne provided two examples for the execution of the turn. The first three measures show how the trill would have been notated in a composition. In the following three measures, Devienne notated a turn with five notes, while in the second line, he demonstrated how the same turn could be executed with four notes. The number of notes in the turn to be performed would be determined by the speed of the music.
Example 3.13, an example of the contrary, displays a notated turn in a slower tempo.
Example 3.13. Turn in a slower tempo (Devienne 1794, 16).
The top line demonstrated how the turn would be notated while the bottom demonstrated how the turn should be executed. Devienne described this turn as graceful and instructed for all the notes to be played evenly (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 98).
In Articles 9 and 10, Devienne discussed trills. Devienne started Article 9 by defining the trill: “The trill consists of an alternate beating of two conjunct notes, of which the lower note is the principal note of the melody,” and the upper note is either a
64 whole step above the principal note in a major key or a half step above the principal note in a minor key, seen in Example 3.14 (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 99).
Example 3.14. A trill in a Major key and a trill in a minor key (Devienne 1794, 17).
Devienne also stated that the trills need to end with a two-note termination which contained the lower neighbor and the principal note; if a trill did not end in a termination, it was considered incomplete. (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 23). Devienne continued by explaining that the speed of a trill was determined by the speed of the piece; however, they should be played with a slight accelerando especially when at the end of a phrase or piece. Both the termination and accelerando are shown in Example 3.15.
Example 3.15. Trill termination (Devienne 1794, 17).
In Article 10, Devienne explained a different kind of trill called a trille or little trill, seen in Example 3.16, known today as an inverted mordent. It was a “rapidly executed three-note ornament consisting of the main note, its upper neighbor, and main note” (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 24). The main difference between the two, as Devienne stated, was the little trill lacks a termination and was produced by very lightly beating the finger on the trilled note. Devienne finalized his explanation by stating the little trill should only be used when notes are in a diatonic order and when descending, and it should always be slurred to the following note (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 100).
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Example 3.16. Trille or Little Trill (Devienne 1794, 18).
In the final article, Article 11: “Appoggiaturas or Little Notes of Expression or
Taste,” Devienne explained the rules for appoggiaturas. He defined them as “little notes that are placed between ordinary notes without their being counted in the measure”
(Boehm and Bowers 2018, 101). Generally, Devienne stated that the value of the appoggiatura should be half or two thirds of the note to which it is attached and should be connected to the main notes using a slur, as seen in Example 3.17.
Example 3.17. Appoggiatura (Devienne 1794, 19).
Devienne ended his method book with three sets of flute duets organized in progressive order. In the six progressive sonatas, the second part was written as an accompaniment for the first part, serving as an important pedagogical device. The twenty little airs as well as the eighteen duos were written for beginning flutists. The six progressive sonatas were composed for advanced players to refine their style of eighteenth-century music (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 101).
Flute Concertos
Throughout his lifetime, Devienne wrote thirteen concertos for flute. The concertos can be separated into three groups: one through four comprise the first group, five through nine comprise the second, and ten through thirteen complete the final group.
The first three concertos were most likely composed in the same order in which they
66 were published: Concerto No. 1 in D (1782), Concerto No. 2 in D (1783) and Concerto
No. 3 in G (1784). While not confirmed, Concerto No. 4 in G was likely composed around the late 1780s evident in its sophisticated style. Concerto No. 5 in G major may have been written in the first half of the 1780s as its two-movement form is stylistic of that time. However, it was thought Concertos No. 5-9 were published between 1787 and
1794. Devienne’s last four concertos, Concertos 10-13, were published around the time of his death. In the essays written for the accompanying booklet to François Devienne:
Flute Concertos, Vol 1- Nos. 1-4, Allan Badley stated Concertos 10 and 13 are stronger and among Devienne’s best works, while Concertos 11 and 12 are noticeably weaker in most aspects; he believed these latter works were composed as Devienne’s mental health continued to deteriorate (Gallois 2017).
Many of Devienne’s flute concertos followed the standard Classical concerto form. Each concerto contained three movements except for his Fifth Concerto. The three- movement structure began with a fast movement that was followed by a slow movement and concluded with a fast finale. The first movements were mostly an Allegro in sonata form, although Devienne varied the form slightly in his Seventh Concerto. He often used a Rondo for his third movements, but he tended to vary this with a Polonaise in his later concertos. Even if they were not titled as a “Rondo,” his third movements were typically still in rondo form. Devienne’s concertos were similar in style to Mozart’s, labeling him as the French Mozart. Compositional characteristics such as grace and balance relate
Devienne to Mozart and can be observed in Devienne’s Concerto No. 2 in D (Verroust
2001).
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Of the thirteen concertos, only three were in minor keys: Concerto No. 7 in E minor, Concerto No. 9 in E minor, and Concerto No. 11 in B minor. Concerto No. 7 in E minor, first published around 1787-1788, became Devienne’s most enduring concerto.
The Seventh Concerto, while considered to be less technically demanding than some of his other concertos, was noted for its melodic quality.
Devienne’s Concerto No. 8 in G major, published c1794, was similar in spirit and style to Mozart’s and proved to be much more virtuosic. The opening movement, Allegro in sonata form, was characterized by a quick and lively mood, and demanded agility and flair from the performer. The Adagio movement contained four distinct melodies: the first being a mysterious, minor melody; the second in a major key was a more nostalgic melody; the third was a playful melody with a strong cadence; and the fourth melody was more modest and flowed directly into the third movement. The third movement,
Polonaise, differed from a traditional polonaise; instead of a slow dance in triple meter,
Devienne wrote a lively polonaise in rondo form. The flute begins with the Rondo theme, or A section, in G Major. The theme can be heard again in the piano accompaniment. The
A section is followed by a virtuosic episode, the B section, in the key of D Major. The B section is characterized by the extensive number of quick leaps in the flute part. The music returns to the A section with the flute playing the opening theme; however, it quickly transitions into the C section in the relative minor key, B minor. The minor C section resolves back to G Major and there is a return to the A section where the main theme can be heard once again. The virtuosic B section can be heard once more, although this time in the home key of G Major; it is followed by a cadenza from the flute. The movement ends with a final return to the A section and an acceleration to the end.
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Throughout the Polonaise, Devienne used many of the musical devices he discussed in his method book. In the opening phrase, seen in Example 3.18, Devienne utilized the turn going into the third beat of the bar. As was common in the Classical era, instead of notating the turn with a symbol, he notated each note. He utilized the turn again later in the piece, which can be seen in Example 3.19. The articulation in the second line should also be noted as Devienne utilized the “two-by-two” pattern.
Example 3.18. Devienne, Concerto No. 8 in G Major, III, measures 1-4.
Example 3.19. Devienne, Concerto No. 8 in G Major, III, measures 26-27.
Devienne also used appoggiaturas and trills in the third movement. There are only a few times Devienne used the appoggiatura in the third movement; Example 3.20 shows the first time this device was used in this movement. The few times it was used later in the piece, it was on the same figure as seen in Example 3.20.
Example 3.20. Devienne, Concerto No. 8 in G Major, III, measures 39-41.
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Appoggiaturas seen throughout this movement were before a trill, as seen in
Example 3.21. The trill followed the rules Devienne outlined in his method book ending in a termination, thus making it complete.
Example 3.21. Devienne, Concerto No. 8 in G Major, III, measures 35-36.
The main articulations Devienne used throughout this movement were the “two- by-two,” seen in Example 3.18, as well as the slur two and tongue two, seen in Example
3.22. As mentioned, Devienne deemed the latter articulation to be the most brilliant and superior.
Example 3.22. Devienne, Concerto No. 8 in G Major, III, measures 155-158.
As Gaubert said, Devienne’s pedagogical works set the foundation for flute education (Boehm and Bowers 2018, 14). His concertos offered flutists more diverse repertoire and a place to observe and apply his method book concepts. Devienne’s concertos represented the French style of the Classical concertos, many of which were considered more virtuosic and demanding than those of his contemporaries. While
Devienne’s flute compositions were not generally known, they have gained more attention in the last century. In 1960, French flutist Jean-Pierre Rampal revived the
Devienne flute concertos, bringing these pieces back into the concert hall. Rampal published recordings of Concerto No. 5 in G major, Concerto No. 7 in E minor, and
Concerto No. 8 in G major.
Chapter 4: Romantic (1810-1910)
The Romantic era brought new innovations for flute construction. Because of the
Industrial Revolution, instruments were more affordable and easier to produce which resulted in orchestras growing in size. This also had an effect on the sound; new instruments like the piccolo were developed, and the dynamic range of all instruments expanded. Composers began to including dynamics for very loud (fff) and very soft (ppp).
Composers used these dynamics and new orchestrations, as well as chromaticism, to
“create mood and atmosphere and to provoke profound emotional responses” (Forney,
Dell’Antonio, and Machlis 2018, 220). The flute became a vital member of the orchestra, as it was a part of the varied texture; however, the nineteenth century proved to be a low point for solo flute literature (Toff 2012, 235). The construction of the flute at the beginning of the nineteenth century was not conducive to the innovations happening in composition. “Quite simply, the flute did not, by itself, have the capacity to produce the power and variety of tone that were the vehicles of romantic musical expression” (Toff
2012, 235). It was for this reason the flute underwent its most extreme transformation during this period and would soon become the modern flute.
German flutist, goldsmith, and inventor Theobald Boehm (1794-1881) is responsible for the creation of the modern flute. Boehm taught himself how to play the one-keyed flute when he was a child and built a replica of a four-keyed flute in 1810. He spent most of the 1820s performing on the flute, while his interest in instrument making
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71 continued to grow. In 1828, Boehm opened his own flute making workshop where he made the simple system instruments of the time, while also began improving the flute.
Boehm’s biggest complaint about the simple system keyed flute was its indifference to acoustical principles; the finger holes on the keyed flute were placed so the fingers could reach them, not where they were acoustically correct (Toff 2012, 49).
He also believed the tone holes were too small and needed to be large to produce a better in-tune high register. In 1831, the first of Boehm’s redesigns was produced, which can be seen in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1. Boehm's 1831 Flute (Toff 2012, 50).
Boehm’s 1831 flute kept the left-hand fingers the same but moved the position of the A key down to the acoustically correct position. The other improvement he made was
72 respacing the right-hand finger holes, E, F, F-sharp, and G, placing them lower down on the flute; he also added a double-jointed ring key (Toff 2012, 50). The mechanism closed two holes simultaneously when the right hand first finger was placed down, which produced the note F. F-sharp was now played by using the third finger of the right hand.
In 1832, Boehm made a flute with significant improvements. With this flute, he experimented with the size of the tone holes, making them larger. All the tone holes were equally sized and equally placed on the flute, which greatly improved intonation of the first two octaves (Davis 2014, 24). To further enhance the quality of sound, Boehm chose to use an open-keyed system. He explained, “It is necessary, for obtaining a clear strong tone, that the holes immediately below the one sounding should remain open, for the air confined in the lower end of the tube tends to flatten the notes, and renders them less free” (Toff 2012, 51). There were now fourteen holes on the flute and with only nine fingers to control them since the right thumb only balanced the flute, Boehm created a new mechanism of rods and axels. The combination of the new rod-axles and ring keys allowed multiple mechanisms to be used at one time. Some keys were even controlled by the same finger; for example, the right-hand pinky controlled all three keys of the foot joint, as seen in Figure 4.2. Because of the development of these mechanisms, Boehm created a new fingering system so the fingers could remain in a natural position which led to the fingering system modern flutists use today.
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Figure 4.2. Boehm's 1832 flute (Toff 2012, 51).
Other modifications included the open G-sharp key and the addition of trill keys for B to C and C to D, which can also be seen in Figure 4.2. Boehm also removed the tuning slide on the flute and replaced it with tuning rings. He intended for the head joint to be pushed all the way into the body of the flute to create as smooth of an inner tube as possible, although this did not guarantee the flute would be in tune. The tuning rings were silver rings that attached between the head joint and body of the flute; the addition of more rings added length and lowered the pitch of the flute, and by contrast, removing rings shortened the length of the flute and raised the pitch (Davis 2014, 24-25).
Boehm premiered his new flute in 1832, performing on it in Munich and later in
Paris and London. He only sold one flute over the next year because other flutists were
74 reluctant to try the new flute as they would have had to learn a new fingering system.
However, these innovations did gain attention from other flutists and instrument makers who began making their own modifications to Boehm’s 1832 flute. A significant modification was made by instrument maker Auguste Buffet; Buffet moved the axles to the inner side of the flute. In addition, Buffet utilized a rod and sleeve device where ring keys and key cups were attached and mounted together to reduce overcrowding. Buffet also used needle springs instead of flat leaf springs to “enhance the mechanical action”
(Toff 2012, 52). Other modifications included a C-sharp-D-sharp trill for the second and third octaves and a closed G-sharp, which modified the previously used closed key designed by Vincent Dorus, a flutist and professor at the Paris Conservatory. Although
Dorus’s closed G-sharp was deemed awkward, it helped encourage hesitant players to try the new Boehm flute as it utilized some of the old fingerings (Toff 2012, 53). In 1839,
Boehm closed his workshop to study his interests in the steel industry, which he utilized in his later design.
After studying classical acoustics under Dr. Carl von Schafhäutl at the University of Munich in 1846, Boehm introduced a new flute design in 1847. In his studies, Boehm conducted more experiments to determine the best bore for his flute. He determined that the cylindrical tube was superior to the conical bore, as it “was far more conducive to the production of the harmonic components or partials of the flute tone” (Toff 2012, 53).
However, Boehm did not entirely omit the conical shape from his design; instead of the flute tapering down to the foot of the flute as it previously had, he added a slight taper to only the head joint. The bore of the flute’s body was nineteen millimeters and the head joint gradually decreased to seventeen millimeters at the cork. The cork stopper is at the
75 top of the head joint, underneath the crown. The purpose of the cork is to create an airtight seal at the top end of the flute and improve intonation as a result.
Other modifications seen on Boehm’s 1847 flute included a lip plate, a larger embouchure hole, and larger tone holes. The lip plate allowed flutists to direct their air stream into the flute at the proper angle, creating a clearer and more pronounced sound
(Davis 2014, 29). Also contributing to a better overall sound was the enlarged embouchure hole; Boehm found that the embouchure hole should be as large as possible and that a rounded rectangle shape produced a better sound than the previously used oval or round embouchure hole (Toff 2012, 54). Regarding the tone holes, Boehm found that a larger size created more stable intonation in all registers, as well as an overall more powerful sound. Boehm recorded the final proportions of the bore and tone holes in a diagram he called a Schema, which allowed for the ratios to be adapted to various tube lengths to create flutes in different pitch standards.
While the larger tone holes improved the overall sound of the instrument, they also created a technical problem: the larger tone holes were unable to be sealed by the fingers. To solve this, Boehm replaced the ring keys and open holes with padded hole covers, which he had already utilized on his 1832 flute for the G and B keys (Figure 4.2).
Boehm used Buffet’s rod and sleeve system, as seen in Figure 4.3, to allow each key the ability to be opened independently while still being attached to other keys. Needle springs were also used to spring keys open and clutches, or overlapping pins, were used to interconnect keys (Toff 2012, 54).
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Figure 4.3. Boehm’s 1847 flute (Powell 2002, 182).
The most significant innovation of Boehm’s 1847 flute was the use of metal material for the main body. After experimenting with brass and silver tubes, Boehm determined that metal was superior to wood tubes as it had a larger capacity for vibrations and therefore produced a more resonant tone. Boehm preferred his silver flute; he concluded: “it was impervious to splitting, the bore was dimensionally stable and less affected by temperature, and it was more suitable for tone modulation” (Toff 2012, 54).
As with Boehm’s 1832 design, other instrument makers also made modifications to his 1847 flute. Instrument makers Clair Godfroy and Louis Lot produced Boehm’s metal flutes, but also produced flutes from cocoawood for Vincent Dorus. These same instrument makers also modified some of the keys by opening them for venting. These models were known as “open hole” or “French model” flutes, which are still used today
(Toff 2012, 54). Another modification was made by Giulio Briccialdi, an Italian flutist who lived in London. Boehm’s original design feature had one thumb lever, making B an open key. The note B-flat was produced by using the first finger of the left hand.
Briccialdi created an alternate B-flat fingering by adding a second thumb lever, seen in
Figure 4.4. This design allowed B-flat to be played with only the left first finger and left
77 thumb. Briccialdi’s design remained a permanent fixture and is still used on modern flutes.
Figure 4.4. Briccialdi B-flat Thumb (Toff 2012, 55).
Boehm’s innovations to the flute were revolutionary and changed how flute music was composed. Romantic music was evolving to be more virtuosic and expressive, and older simple flutes could not perform the new style of music. Boehm’s flute possessed greater stability of intonation and pitch control, allowing composers to explore the flute’s full range as well as the tone colors produced by the new silver body. The fingering system also allowed for more technical passages. Flutists could now play in all keys with an ease and facility they did not previously have. In 1847, the Paris Conservatory adopted the Boehm flute for use in the orchestras (Powell 2002, 214). By 1860, the Boehm flute was the official flute of the Paris Conservatory. Boehm’s flute provided flutists with a new style of virtuosic playing. Joseph-Henri Altès wrote one of the first French method books for the Boehm flute, still in use today.
Joseph-Henri Altès (1826-1895)
Joseph-Henri Altès, born in Rouen, France, began studying flute at an early age.
Demonstrating great skill from the beginning, he enrolled in the Paris Conservatory in
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1840 and received lessons from Jean-Louis Tulou (1786-1865). “[Tulou] epitomized the
French ideal of flute playing, with his precise, brilliant technique and tonal perfection”
(Toff 2012, 244). Tulou played on a four-keyed flute as he strongly opposed the Boehm flute and the adoption of it at the Conservatory. Because of this, Altès also played a four- keyed flute. It was uncertain when he learned the Boehm flute, although it is speculated he learned it in secret and began using it in public performance later in his career (Etienne
1988, 4).
In 1842, Altès won first prize in the Concours at the Conservatory, graduated, and began his performing career in Paris. He held positions in the Orchestra of the Concerts
Vivienne in 1844 and in the Opéra orchestra in 1847 where he played second flute to
Vincent Dorus. When Dorus left to become Professor of Flute at the Conservatory, Altès gained the principal flute position although he yielded the position to Paul Taffanel in
1864. He returned to the second flute position in the Opéra orchestra and remained there until 1876.
In 1868, Altès was appointed the Professor of Flute at the Paris Conservatory where he taught until 1893; his prominent students included Georges Barrère, Adolphe
Hennebains, and Andrè Maquarre. “Altès represented a new generation, not only in his adoption of the Boehm flute, but also in his pedagogical approach: he required his flute students to study theory as well as technique” (Toff 2012, 246). His method book Célèbre
Méthode Complète de Flûte (Famous Complete Flute Method) provides insight into his pedagogical approach.
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Famous Complete Flute Method by Henri Altès
Altès’s flute method was originally published in 1880 and was later revised by
Fernand Caratgè for republishing in 1956. As mentioned, he placed a high importance on his students studying the theory of music because he felt it created a complete artist, so throughout his method he included instructions and lessons on music theory. His method was divided into four parts and grouped into two volumes. A notable characteristic of
Altès’s method is his inclusion of duets throughout his studies. The publishers, Alphonse
Leduc, stated in the preface to the method:
When students have studied their parts properly, its presence has proved how much progress they make by playing duets, applying themselves in this way to a perfect interpretation, both accurate and musical, which, moreover, initiates them into ensemble playing. (Altès 1956, preface)
The first volume was intended for beginners and the second was intended for more advanced players. Part I provided a complete description of the flute and how the student should maintain the instrument, as well as studies on tone and common fingerings for the full range of the instrument. Part II contained information on general technique, specifically focusing on scales, articulations, appoggiaturas, and trills. Part III focused on advanced techniques; it included daily exercises, various articulations, and special fingerings. The final part, Part IV, focused primarily on modern technique and included instructions for improvement on the homogeneity of tone, vibrato, harmonic sounds, and high-pitched notes.
Part I began with information on how to maintain the flute. Altès instructed the player to keep the flute clean, wiping down both the outside and the inside after playing because remaining moisture could damage the pads under the keys. When placing the flute down, he recommended to place the flute so the keys and mechanisms were
80 upwards. He then instructed how to hold the flute. Beginning with the left hand, he instructed the player to rest the flute on the third joint at the base of the index finger and to place the thumb on the thumb-key next to the B-flat key. The second and third fingers should find their place over the keyplates, and the little finger should be placed over the
G-sharp key. Regarding the wrist, Altès instructed the player to place it directly underneath the flute to maintain the proper resting point on the index finger. For the right hand, the flute should be stabilized by placing the thumb on the underside of the body; the little finger should be placed on the E-flat key; the other three fingers, with a slightly curved shape, should all fall appropriately over their respective keys. He ended this section by stating the hand positions should conform to natural positions and movements.
Next, Altès discussed where the embouchure hole should be placed on the face.
He recommended the mouth-hole be placed under the lower lip with the lip-plate resting in the “hollow of the chin so as to stabilize the flute without having to exert much pressure. The lower lip must only cover a quarter of the mouth-hole” (Altès 1956, 5). He also suggested placing the lip-plate lightly on the lower lip to maintain flexibility.
Regarding the embouchure, Altès stated the lips should be gently stretched and simultaneously brought together, and by blowing gently a small crack should be created between them. He also noted that the air stream should be aimed at the outer edge of the mouth-hole to create a sound, and that tone production requires slight modifications to be made to the shape of the embouchure and the airstream for dynamics and intonation.
In the next section of Lesson One, Altès discussed preparatory tone exercises, exercises performed on the head joint and in front of a mirror. The flutist should blow air gently into the mouth-hole, changing the direction until a sound was produced. Altès
81 instructed the player to change the direction of the airstream by moving the lips and lower jaw. When a clear sustained sound was produced, the flutist could then try attacking the note with the tongue. To do this, he instructed the player to place the tip of tongue on the upper front teeth to prevent air from escaping, then to quickly and smoothly pull it back to pronounce the syllable tu (Altès 1956, 17).
Figure 4.5. C Major fingering chart (Altès 1918, 18).
The final section of the first lesson discussed breathing and led into notated exercises. He first provided a fingering chart for a C major scale, which can be seen in
Figure 4.5, as all the exercises in this chapter were written in the key of C major. For breathing, Altès instructed the player to breathe as naturally as possible, and to do it without noise and with the mouth half open; the shoulders should not lift and the ribs
82 should expand. He provided the following exercise on a G, seen in Example 4.1, to practice breathing and playing:
Example 4.1. Altès breathing exercise (Altès 1956, 19).
The next few lessons explained meter, all still in the key of C major. Lesson Two contained exercises with two beats in a bar, Lesson Three with four beats in a bar, and
Lesson Four contained exercises with three beats in a bar. These lessons were all written in the middle register of the flute and included metronome markings for each exercise, which can be seen in Example 4.1. In Lesson Five, low notes, Altès provided these instructions for playing in the low register: the embouchure should be less compressed than when playing in the middle register, a reminder to cover no more than a fourth of the mouth-hole, and to direct the airstream vertically into the mouth-hole (Altès 1956, 31).
Lesson Six, titled “Evenness of Tone and Intonation,” contained exercises that cover going from the low register into the middle register and vice-versa. The flutist should focus on their embouchure for these exercises; “Gently compressing his lips and advancing imperceptibly his lower-jaw, to produce the octave above,” all while maintaining a gentle airstream (Altès 1956, 34). This lesson also introduced compound meter, although only 6/8 meter, and included staccato articulations and slurs. Lesson
Seven introduced 3/8 meter and triplets in simple meter.
Lesson Eight set a format for the rest of the lessons in the book. This lesson introduced scales and arpeggios, defining an arpeggio as a broken chord or “a chord of which the notes are sounded one after the other” (Altès 1956, 41). He also provided
83 fingering charts for new notes being introduced. The rest of the lesson contained scale exercises and melodic exercises in the same key. The remainder of Part I, Lessons Nine through Fifteen, followed the same structure as Lesson Eight, going through all major keys. Lesson Fifteen included a list of minor scales as well as chromatic scale exercises in
C and A.
Part II opened with a list of all major scales followed by their relative minor scales. In Lesson Sixteen, Altès introduced two new articulations: the first was notated by what Altès referred to as a dash, seen in Example 4.2, and the second was called mezzo- staccato, as seen in Example 4.3.
Example 4.2. Dash articulation sign (Altès 1956, 78).
Example 4.3. Mezzo-staccato articulation (Altès 1956, 78).
The dashed articulation sign should be played with a strong attack and should be shorter than a normally articulated note but longer than a staccato note. Altès included these instructions to play the mezzo-staccato articulation: “It is played by attacking each note very gently with no breaks between the notes. For this articulation, the syllable tu of the natural articulation will be changed to du” (Altès 1956, 78).
Lesson Seventeen provided instructions and exercises on syncopation. Altès explained syncopation as a rhythm that starts on the weak part of the beat and continues
84 through the strong part of the next beat. He instructed the player to attack the syncopated note strongly and to reduce the volume over the syncopated rhythm in order to be able to rearticulate the next syncopated rhythm strongly. In Lesson Eighteen, Altès provided a table of alternate fingerings, as seen in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6. “Fingerings to Facilitate the Performance and Adjust the Pitch of Certain Notes” (Altès 1956, 92).
As the title of the lesson indicated, the intent of the alternate fingerings was to “facilitate the performance and adjust the pitch of certain notes” (Altès 1956, 92). Altès accompanied the table with exercises to demonstrate where to use these alternate fingerings.
Lesson Nineteen and Twenty covered ornaments, starting with the appoggiatura.
Altès provided instruction to play the appoggiatura a note higher or lower than the principal note which follows it. He also explained that when the appoggiatura was above the principal note, it could be a half step or a whole step above; when the appoggiatura
85 was below the principal note, it was better to only be a half step below. Appoggiatura translates to “lean upon,” which Altès included in his method to inform performance of the grace note. Regarding the value of the appoggiatura, he explained it should take its value from the principal note. For example, if the value of the principal note was divisible by two, then it should take half the principal note’s value; if the principal note was dotted, then the appoggiatura should be one third of the principal note’s value. When the grace note should be played quickly, it was notated with a slash through the tail, as seen in
Example 4.4.
Example 4.4. Slashed grace notes (Altès 1956, 104).
He concluded this section explaining how groups of grace notes should be played. He stated that the groups of grace notes should be played lightly and the speed was dictated by the piece: they should be played “rapidly if the piece is playful and lively, more slowly if the piece is slow and melancholy” (Altès 1956, 104).
Lesson Twenty-One focused on the trill. The trill followed many of the same principles in the nineteenth century as it did in prior centuries, although the biggest difference was how the to start the trill. Altès clearly stated to begin the trill on the principal note, rather than on the note above as it had been performed previously. It still ended in a termination, although Altès referred to it as a “turn” (Altès 1956, 117). He explained that the only time a trill could end without a turn was when a series of notes were trilled on an ascending or descending scale line; the last trill should still end with a turn. Altès followed with a trill chart which demonstrated the trills for each note. In
86 addition to trills, Altès also explained compound articulation in Lesson Twenty-One.
Compound articulation combined the syllables of normal articulation, tu, with the mezzo- staccato, du, as seen in Example 4.5.
Example 4.5. Compound articulation (Altès 1956, 121).
In Lesson Twenty-Two, Altès explained the passing shake, defining it as “A short trill which has only 2, 3 or 4 alternations” (Altès 1956, 125). Example 4.6 demonstrates how to perform the shakes.
Example 4.6. Passing shake (Altès 1956, 125).
Lesson Twenty-Three introduced the mordant. The mordant contains an alternation, starting on the principal note. It is demonstrated in Example 4.7.
Example 4.7. Mordent (Altès 1956, 129).
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In Lesson Twenty-Four, Altès provided the following example, seen in Example 4.8, for how to play a gruppetto:
Example 4.8. Gruppetto (Altès 1956, 134).
He followed this example with studies containing the turns with four notes, and Lesson
Twenty-Five contained exercises focusing on turns with three notes.
Lesson Twenty-Six, titled “The Study of Sustained Notes Crescendo and
Diminuendo,” provided exercises to practice the nuances of the embouchure. It was possible that Moyse modeled the second section of On Sonority, suppleness of the low register, after these exercises written by Altès. Altès provided three steps to this exercise, with the first to begin ff and diminuendo to pp, as seen in Example 4.9. The next step, seen in Example 4.10, was to begin pp and crescendo to ff.
Example 4.9. Lesson 26, Step One (Altès 1956, 150).
Example 4.10. Lesson 26, Step Two (Altès 1956, 151).
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The final step, seen in Example 4.11, was to combine the previous two steps: begin pp, crescendo to ff, and return to pp. This step can also be practiced using the opposite dynamics by beginning ff, decrescendo to pp, and crescendo back to ff to reinforce the idea of homogeneity of sound similar to the Moyse exercise. Lesson Twenty-Seven continued with exercises to practice these nuances and added fermatas.
Example 4.11. Lesson 26, Step Three (Altès 1956, 151).
In Lesson Twenty-Eight, Altès provided directions on abbreviations, which are used by composers to avoid rewriting repeating notes or groups of notes, as seen in
Example 4.12.
Example 4.12. Lesson 28, Abbreviations (Altès 1956, 145).
Abbreviations for groups of notes were notated as slashes in the measure, as seen in
Example 4.12 labeled four and five. They were also notated by dots above the note head or a slash through the note stem, as seen in the measures labeled six. This lesson also included tremolos. Altès provided these instructions for playing a tremolo: “Tremolo means, play as many notes as possible in the time of the notes on which the tremolo sign appears” (Altès 1956, 145). An example of tremolo notation can be seen in Example
4.13.
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Example 4.13. Lesson 28, Tremolo (Altès 1956, 145).
In Lesson Twenty-Nine, Altès provided instructions on transposition. This was an important skill to have for orchestra players accompanying a singer; if a piece was too high or low for the singer, it would need to be transposed to the appropriate key. Since pieces would generally only need to be transposed a major third up or down from the written key, Altès recommended mainly focusing on those transpositions. He ended Part
II and his volume for beginning flutists by including pieces that include all the skills learned thus far. Lesson Thirty, titled “Ancient Music. Movement in 3/2 Time,” included excerpts from George Frideric Handel’s ninth Sonata, as well as a sonata for two flutes by Georg Philipp Telemann. The last lesson, Lesson Thirty-One, included a Sonata for two flutes written by Altès himself.
Volume II and Part III, were meant for the advanced flutist, and should be used after the completion of Volume I. Because Altès’s method was progressive, many of the exercises in this volume continued and reinforced the foundation set in the first volume.
He began volume two by introducing the B-flat thumb key, as well as providing more alternate fingerings to facilitate ease of playing and better intonation. He also provided many daily exercises which include sustained notes, scale and arpeggio exercises in addition to exercises on mordents, passing shakes, and trills.
Altès then proceeded to different types of tonguing, including double and triple tonguing. He recommended the following syllables: tu for single tonguing, du for mezzo-
90 staccato tonguing, tu du for the compound tonging, tu ku for double tonguing, and tu ku tu for triple tonging. Example 4.14 is an example from an exercise for double tonguing and Example 4.15 is an example from a triple tonguing exercise. Altès ended Part III with
“Complementary Studies,” which explored more articulation patterns and focused on the practice of finger work.
Example 4.14. Part III, Double tonguing (Altès 1956, 214).
Example 4.15. Part III, Triple tonguing (Altès 1956, 216).
Part IV focused on advanced skills and began with more tone studies, this time focusing on obtaining tone colors. To create a mellow tone, Altès recommended the player to “relax [the] lips, without enlarging the air-stream, blow more gently, enlarge the space in the mouth by opening a little the throat, as though beginning a yawn” (Altès
1956, 320). To brighten the tone, Altès instructed the player to do the opposite: tighten the lips and reduce space in the mouth. Next, he discussed vibrato, defining it as “A means of expression which consists of rapid and regular variation in the pressure of air, so as to produce a very slight variation in the pitch of the note being played” (Altès 1956,
322). Altès advised against the use of vibrato as color or to brighten a dull tone. He also
91 advocated the use of slower vibrato for sustained phrases and to avoid vibrato when notes rapidly follow each other in a quick tempo.
Altès then proceeded to discuss harmonics. He opened this section with the following:
Acoustics, the science of sound, teach us that the vibrating column of air in an open tube (such as a flute) can produce, in addition to the fundamental note, which is the lowest note that the tube can give, a series of higher notes, which are called harmonics. (Altès 1956, 322)
Harmonics are produced by overblowing the fundamental note. Example 4.16 is an example from the exercise Altès provided to practice dynamics. In this example, the fundamental note is C1 and the other notes are obtained by over blowing the C until the correct harmonic sounds. Altès encouraged the flutist to aim for clarity of sound and to practice getting the harmonic to speak immediately.
Example 4.16. Part IV, Harmonics (Altès 1956, 323).
Altès mentioned that Romantic composers began using harmonics in their compositions and thus it was important to be able to execute them. He also provided other uses for harmonics such as long sustained, quiet notes, or even tremolos. After his discussion of harmonics, Altès included fingerings for C-sharp4, D4, and D-sharp4, as Romantic composers also had begun writing for the extreme range of the flute. Altès ended Part IV with more daily exercises for the advanced flutist.
Altès’s method contained elements for flutists of all levels in a progressive order.
Because this was written for the Boehm flute, this resource is informative for the modern
92 flutist on all aspects of playing. Altès included clear and concise explanations to facilitate independent learning.
Camille Saint-Saëns and Airs de Ballet D’Ascanio (1890)
Camille Saint-Saëns (1835-1921) was a French composer, pianist, organist, and writer of the Romantic era. Like Mozart, to whom he is often compared, Saint-Saëns began his musical career at an early age. A child prodigy, he began learning the piano at the age of three; he made his formal debut at the age of ten when he performed works by
Beethoven and Mozart from memory, even adding his own cadenzas. In 1848, Saint-
Saëns entered the Paris Conservatory to study organ and later composition and orchestration. Saint-Saëns demonstrated the same intelligence and drive in his general education. He was also known for being a writer of criticism poetry, essays, and plays.
Like Mozart, Saint-Saëns was a prolific composer and contributed to most genres of French music including opera, symphonies, concertos, and many other miscellaneous pieces. He published his first symphony in 1853 and held the position of organist at the
Church of the Madeleine in Paris from 1857-1877, gaining the admiration of contemporary composers, such as Liszt, Gounod, and Berlioz.
Saint-Saëns himself was also an advocate of modern music and promoted the music of various composers, including Richard Wagner and Robert Schumann. In 1871,
Saint-Saëns and Romain Bussine founded the Société Nationale de Musique (National
Society of Music), which was created to encourage the performance of living French composers. Even though many composers were pushing the boundaries of music at the time, Saint-Saëns’s own music remained more conservative and was generally within the classical tradition. Claude Debussy called Saint-Saëns “the musician of tradition… who
93 defended the French tradition that threatened to be engulfed by Wagnerian influences and created the environment that nourished his successors” (Leneman 2017, 36).
Airs de Ballet D’Ascanio (1890) is an excerpt from Saint-Saëns’s opera Ascanio.
Paul Taffanel received a standing ovation after the first performance of the opera when he played the technically demanding part with ease. While the opera as a whole was not revived until 1921, the ballet section from the third act remains a popular solo for flutists.
Airs de Ballet D’Ascanio, which is in two sections, begins with a slow Adagio and ends in a technical Andantino. The accompaniment begins the movement with delicate, flowing lines and transitions into a tremolo accompaniment when the flute enters. The
Adagio, characterized by the lyrical and expressive melody in the flute, requires the use of tone colors and vibrato, as Altès explained in his method. When the flute begins with main theme, it starts with repeated middle register Cs, as seen in Example 4.17. Each repeated pitch should be played with different tone colors, emphasizing the climax of the repeated pitch at the height of the crescendo and again when the theme begins after the double bar line.
Example 4.17. Saint-Saëns, Airs de Ballet D’Ascanio, Adagio, measures 9-13, repeated pitches.
The Andantino begins with a strong major chord in the piano, switching to a dominant chord before the entrance of the flute. The flute enters with a melody of double-tongued repeated notes with a sparce accompaniment from the piano, as seen in Example 4.18.
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Example 4.18. Saint-Saëns, Airs de Ballet D’Ascanio, Andantino, measures 34-36, double tonguing.
The double-tonguing section is followed by passages that demand fast, technical finger work from the flutist, as seen in Example 4.19, in combination with various articulation patterns. The melody leaps through various registers of the flute, requiring a flexible embouchure.
Example 4.19. Saint-Saëns, Airs de Ballet D’Ascanio, Andantino, measures 53-54, technical finger work.
Saint-Saëns used doubled stemmed notes to notate different melodic lines; these notes should be emphasized to highlight the different voices.
The Romantic era cultivated a new style of expressive and virtuosic playing. The invention of the Boehm flute allowed flute literature to evolve with other compositions of the time, creating new opportunities for flutists. Other notable compositions for flute by
Saint-Saëns were Odelette, Op. 162 and Romance for Flute and Piano, Op.37. Altès’s method provided a comprehensive guide to the technique of the Boehm flute, as well as insight into performance practice of the Romantic era.
Chapter 5: The Paris Conservatory and the French Flute School
The Paris Conservatory, founded during the French Revolution, was the “most influential musical institution of the mid-nineteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries”
(Powell 2002, 124). It began as the National Institute of Music, which was a school for military band musicians, but was reorganized and renamed in 1795. Admission to the conservatory was free and open to everyone, and students were accepted by audition
(Ahmad 1998, 1). Class sizes were generally small and there were typically only a few vacancies per year. Instead of having individual private lessons, students were taught in a masterclass setting.
Every year since the Conservatory opened, the school has held annual end-of-year competitions known as Concours. These competitions were meant to evaluate the progress of each student and determined whether a student graduated. Students performed repertoire selected by the faculty for a panel of about eight judges that consisted of professors and distinguished musicians from outside the school; teachers were not allowed to sit on the panel for their own students (Ahmad 1998, 124-125). By majority vote from the judges, students would be awarded a prize; multiple students could be awarded the same prize. The prizes consisted of Premier Prix (First Prize), Deuxième
Prix (Second Prize), and Primer or Deuxième Accessit (First or Second Certificate of
Merit). Students were considered honorably graduated after winning a First Prize and could then begin their performing careers; a First Prize award was a prerequisite for a successful performing career.
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The pieces written for the competitions required flutists to demonstrate their technical abilities, clear articulation, tone development, and expressive development. The pieces were commissioned by the Paris Conservatory and often composed by the
Conservatory’s professors. The typical form of competition pieces was in two parts, containing a slow and fast section. The slow sections allowed the player to demonstrate their tone development as well as nuanced, expressive playing; the fast sections were typically full of quick scalar passages and leaps.
These pieces have remained staples in the flute literature and are often used as audition pieces because they highlight all areas of the flutist’s ability. As explored in the first chapter of this paper, Louis Moyse compiled some of the most famous competition pieces in his work Flute Music by French Composers, which was published in 1967.
More recently in 2006, Martha Rearick published a collection of lesser-known conservatory pieces in her work Flute Solos from the Paris Conservatory. These seventeen pieces, although not as difficult as the works in Louis Moyse’s collection, provide intermediate-level flutists an opportunity to study Conservatory works. Paul
Taffanel and his student, Philippe Gaubert, created a method book to help flutists develop the skills demanded in Conservatory’s competition pieces.
Paul Taffanel (1844-1908)
Paul Taffanel, best known as the founder of the French Flute School, held many titles including flutist, conductor, composer, and teacher. He was born in Bordeaux,
France, where his father taught him the flute and solfege. After playing in a concert in his hometown, he was advised to continue his studies in Paris. In 1858, Taffanel moved to
Paris and continued his studies with Louis Dorus, who would later be appointed the
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Professor of Flute at the Paris Conservatory in 1860. Taffanel followed Dorus to the
Conservatory where he gained First Prizes for flute in 1860, harmony in 1862, and fugue in 1865.
Over the next thirty years of his career, Taffanel was successful as a soloist and as an orchestral player. “He pioneered a new expressiveness of tone and sensitivity of musicianship which proved the flute to be capable of emotional depth” (Blakeman 2001).
To quote Louis Fleury (1878-1926), a student of Taffanel’s:
Elegance, flexibility, and sensitivity were the hallmarks of Taffanel's artistry, and his phenomenal virtuosity was made as inconspicuous as possible. He hated affectation, believing that the text of the music should be respected absolutely, and beneath the supple fluency of his playing there was a rigorous adherence to accuracy of pulse and rhythm. (Dorgeuille and Blakeman 1986, 16).
During his life, he also had an immense impact on chamber music. In 1872, Taffanel was a founding member of the Société Nationale de Musique and in 1879 founded the Société de Musique de Chambre pour Instruments à Vent (Society of Chamber Music for Wind
Instruments). He directed the chamber ensemble for fifteen years. Because of the instrumentation of Taffanel’s chamber ensemble, the repertoire for the original Harmonie ensemble (two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, and two horns) was expanded, including Gounod’s Petite Symphonie (1885).
In 1893, Taffanel retired from performing and assumed new roles. He became
Chief Conductor at the Opéra and succeeded Altès as the Professor of Flute at the Paris
Conservatory. Taffanel remained at the Conservatory until his death in 1903. Some of his most notable compositions were the Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino (1907), and
Méthode Complète de Flûte (Complete Method for Flute).
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Philippe Gaubert (1879-1941)
Philippe Gaubert was a well-known flutist, composer, and conductor. He was born in Cahors, France in 1879 where he received his musical foundation from his father.
When Gaubert was seven, his family moved to Paris and he began studying flute with
Taffanel’s father; in 1890, Taffanel himself began teaching Gaubert (Dorgeuille and
Blakeman 1986, 26). Gaubert entered the Conservatory in 1893 and a year later won his
First Prize. In 1904, Gaubert was appointed as the assistant conductor of the Société des
Concerts (Concerts Society) even though he did not have any prior conducting experience; he was later promoted to principal conductor in 1919 after World War I. In the same year, Gaubert was also appointed as the Professor of Flute at the Conservatory.
Gaubert devoted most of his time to composing and conducting. “Gaubert was a prolific composer, not only of flute music, but also of operas, ballets, orchestral works and songs” (Blakeman 2001). The relationship between Taffanel and Gaubert became a lifelong mentorship and eventually a friendship. After Taffanel’s death, Gaubert completed the works Taffanel left unfinished to preserve his legacy, including his
Méthode Complète de Flûte (Complete Method for Flute).
Complete Method for Flute by Paul Taffanel and Philippe Gaubert
Taffanel and Gaubert’s Complete Method for Flute was published in 1923.
Taffanel used parts of his method as teaching materials when he was at the Conservatory.
“Marcel Moyse, a former student at the Conservatoire, stated that the materials were kept in a large cabinet at the school where the flute students could come and borrow them to practice” (Etienne 1988, 16). The Taffanel and Gaubert Method closely resembled
Altès’s Method with notable differences. The Complete Method for Flute, an excellent
99 resource for beginners and advanced flutists, was organized and divided into eight sections as follows:
I. General Technique II. Ornaments III. Tonguing IV. Daily Exercises V. Progressive Studies VI. Twelve Studies for Virtuosity VII. Style VIII. Difficult Passages
Gaubert’s choice to organize the method in this manner resulted in it being more encyclopedic, not possessing the same progressive flow as Altès’s method (Byrne 1993,
259). The authors included in the forward that this method should be used with a teacher and not as a replacement for one. The Complete Method for Flute by Taffanel and
Gaubert and the Famous Complete Flute Method by Henri Altès share much of the same content and provide very similar explanations on performance practice. Because of this, the Complete Method for Flute will not be explored as thoroughly.
The pages before Part I provide helpful information for a beginning flutist.
Taffanel and Gaubert included a fingering chart from C1 to C4, as well as a few general remarks. The remarks encouraged the flutist to always pay attention to tone in every exercise. The authors proceeded with instruction on assembling the flute and holding the flute. These instructions, similar to Altès’s, were more concise. Taffanel and Gaubert began Part I with how to form the embouchure and producing a sound on the head joint of the flute. Most of this information was the same as in Altès’s method; the biggest difference was that Taffanel and Gaubert did not introduce tonguing like Altès and advocated against it at this stage to allow the flutist to focus on tone. When the flutist made a clear sound on the head joint alone, then Taffanel and Gaubert recommended
100 advancing to the entire instrument. The authors provided preliminary exercises for the flutist to practice changing notes; one of these exercises can be seen in Example 5.1.
Example 5.1. Part I, preliminary exercise (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 6).
The goal of these preliminary exercises was to practice clear tone and to achieve smooth transitions between the notes and fingers. Although a preliminary exercise, it is better suited for an intermediate player as perfecting smoothness of air motion in combination with finger motion can be a difficult task. Nevertheless, Taffanel and Gaubert demanded perfection from their students and stated the following about the preliminary exercises:
The student will practice these preparatory exercises with persistence until each note is emitted quite clearly and until the join between the two notes is perfect. Great attention must be paid by the student to his posture, realizing fully the fact that faults in posture can in consequence become an obstacle capable of impeding his career. (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 6)
After the preliminary exercises, Taffanel and Gaubert provided multiple pages of exercises in the key of C major. They also included interval and scale studies in values of whole notes, half notes, and quarter notes. After these exercises, the authors finally introduced articulation. Their instructions adhered closely to those of Altès, although
Taffanel and Gaubert recommended the syllable te, as seen in the exercises in Example
5.2.
Example 5.2. Part I, Articulation and single tonguing, #32 (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 14).
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They provided a handful of exercises on tonguing, then introduced slurs. In the middle of
Part I, Taffanel and Gaubert introduced sharps and flats, then ended Part I by introducing major and minor key signatures up to two sharps or flats. The studies tend to increase in difficulty at a fast rate throughout this part.
Part II, titled “Ornaments,” discussed how to execute trills, mordents, turns, grace notes, and appoggiaturas. Example 5.3 shows the example Taffanel and Gaubert provided for how to execute trills with a termination.
Example 5.3. Part II, Trills with termination (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 56).
The top line shows the notated trill while the bottom line demonstrates how to execute the trill. The authors also included a few examples of special fingerings—although not as comprehensive as Altès’s—in addition to an explanation of cross fingerings. Taffanel and
Gaubert defined cross fingerings as “the name given to a certain disposition of the fingers in which two fingers are raised when another is lowered and vice versa” (Taffanel and
Gaubert 1923, 59). They recommended practicing these fingerings patiently and slowly to achieve clear execution. The exercises in this section are significantly more difficult than those in Part I.
Part III, “Tonguing,” provided various articulations including compound articulation, double tonguing, and triple tonguing. Taffanel and Gaubert again recommended different syllables: for compound tonguing, te re, seen in Example 5.4; for double tonguing, te ke, seen in Example 5.5; and for triple tonguing, te ke te, seen in
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Example 5.6. The authors included multiple works and excerpts from J.S. Bach for the flutist to practice the various articulations.
Example 5.4. Part III, Compound tonguing, #183 (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 91).
Example 5.5. Part III, Double tonguing, #184 (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 92).
Example 5.6. Part III, Triple tonguing, #190 (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 108).
Part IV, titled “Daily Exercises,” contains seventeen exercises. Part IV was published as its own book titled 17 Grands Exercices Journaliers de Mécanisme (17
Grand Daily Finger Exercises for the Flute). A staple in many flutists’ libraries, it contained exercises in every pattern, register, and key. Taffanel and Gaubert composed scale exercises in major and minor as well as non-diatonic scales. They also wrote exercises for arpeggios and intervals of every quality. For each exercise, Taffanel and
Gaubert included various articulations to be used throughout. Example 5.7 shows
Exercise 8:
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Example 5.7. Part IV, Exercise 8 (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 126).
This exercise was selected as an example because it goes through various harmonies and chords which are notated at the end of the exercise, demonstrating the variety in Taffanel and Gaubert’s daily exercises. The articulations to be used with this exercise can be seen in Example 5.8.
Example 5.8. Part IV, Exercise 8 articulations (Taffanel and Gaubert 1923, 126).
As the title “Progressive Studies” indicates, Part V contained twenty-four progressive studies in all keys best suited for the advanced player due to their level of difficulty. Part VI, titled “Twelve Studies for Virtuosity.” that are “longer and more technically demanding than those of the previous section” (Byrne 1993, 265). These studies featured various types of articulation, octaves, and arpeggios. Part VII is titled
“Style.” In this section, Taffanel and Gaubert provided a compilation of pieces with explanations to demonstrate proper style in performance. The authors included recommendations on the use of vibrato and tone color, when to play with restraint, and how flutists should hold themselves physically in performance to have the greatest impact on the audience. The final section, Part VIII, is a collection of difficult passages from orchestral, chamber, and operatic works.
The Complete Method for Flute offered great insight into the teachings of the founder of the French Flute School Paul Taffanel and his student Philippe Gaubert.
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Although this method book was promoted as “complete” method for flutists of all levels, the difficulty of the exercises is more suited to intermediate and advanced flutists. Part I does provide some valuable information for beginning students, although it quickly progresses past the beginning level. Despite its quick progression, this method is a great resource for flutists to further their tone and technical development. Many of the skills explored in Taffanel and Gaubert’s method can be observed in Taffanel’s Andante
Pastoral et Scherzettino.
Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino
Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino was composed for the Paris Conservatory’s
1907 Concours. This was Taffanel’s last published work before his death. It followed the standard form of the competition pieces: it contained an opening slow movement followed by a fast second movement. The slow movement, Andante Pastoral, begins with a Prelude in which the piano part sets a melancholy mood. The flute follows, entering with fast, flowing notes, and transitions into a lyrical melody. Example 5.9 demonstrates the fast scale passages at the beginning of the work.
Example 5.9. Taffanel, Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino, measure 5.
This opening passage is similar in style to a recitative, as it acts as an introduction for the main theme, reflecting Taffanel’s opera experience. Taffanel and Gaubert’s various scale studies helped to prepare the finger work for the many scale passages throughout this work. Taffanel also used mordents throughout the first movement, which can be seen in
Example 5.10.
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Example 5.10. Taffanel, Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino, measures 35-36.
The Scherzettino, fast and spritely, featured various articulation patterns and finger work while maintaining a light and playful sound, as seen in Example 5.11. The range through this excerpt should also be noted because it travels through all the registers of the flute in a very short amount of time, requiring a flexible and supple embouchure.
The brief middle section featured a secondary theme to contrast the rhythmic sections.
Example 5.11. Taffanel, Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino, measures 121-124.
Other notable aspects are the use of subito dynamics and syncopation, both seen in the first measure Example 5.11. The passage begins forte although quickly diminuendos and is piano by the second beat. During the rapid change of dynamics, Taffanel also used syncopation, as seen on the upbeat of beat one on the B. The B should be strongly attacked, then quickly reduced in volume to execute the notated dynamics.
Taffanel also used complex harmonies throughout this work. Example 5.12 shows the complex harmony at the end of the work in measures 137 through 142.
Example 5.12. Taffanel, Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino, measures 137-142.
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The second and fourth measures of Example 5.12 feature a broken diminished seventh chord, which Taffanel notated with the notes E-sharp, G-sharp, B, and D.
Andante Pastoral et Scherzettino is a prime example of the Paris Conservatory competition pieces. It is also a testament to of the legacy of Paul Taffanel himself.
Through his position as Professor of Flute at the Paris Conservatory, his successful performance career, and his compositions, Taffanel revolutionized flute playing and pedagogy, setting a new standard of technical and tone development.
Chapter 6: The Modern Era
The creation of the Boehm flute in the Romantic era provided a significant number of possibilities in composition and forever changed how music was written for the instrument. With only minor modifications, Boehm’s designs have generally remained the same since first introduced. Many instrument-makers and flutists have attempted to add modifications to the Boehm flute, although most of them were quickly forgotten. One modification that became permanent was the addition of the split-E and split-G keys created by French manufacturer Djalma Julliot and François Borne, a professor at the Toulouse Conservatory. The two worked on an extensive variation of the
Boehm flute, but it was only their split E and G mechanisms, which corrected the
“sharpness and problematic production of E3,” that gained attention (Toff 2012, 59).
Another modification was the creation of the C-sharp trill key developed by
JérômeThibouville-Lamy & Cie in 1902. This key facilitated a simpler trill from C to C- sharp and improved the B to C trill, B-flat to B trill, and the third octave G to A trill.
In more recent years, the head joint has undergone modifications which included the O-Ring to replace the cork stopper. The cork stopper, tending to shrink thus causing air leakage and unstable intonation, needs to be periodically replaced. The O-Ring is made of synthetic rubber called neoprene which creates a tighter seal than cork and does not require periodic replacement (Toff 2012, 60). Another more recent modification made to the Boehm flute was the new scales, the Cooper scale being the most popular.
The Cooper Scale was designed in 1973 by Albert Cooper. Because the standard pitch
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108 was lower when the Boehm flute was developed, A = 435, Cooper redesigned the flute scale using Boehm’s Schema to improve intonation in the newer standard pitch of A =
440. It also improved register transitions, making them smoother.
Modern manufacturers also began experimenting with building the flute from different materials. As Nathan Davis stated in his thesis, “Just as Boehm discovered in his original test that the different types of metal created different sounds due to the hardness of the metals, modern flautists discovered that exotic materials could produce different timbres” (Davis 2014, 39). Flutes started being constructed from materials such as silver, nickel, gold, platinum, or a combination of these metals. While most modern flutes were made from silver, some flutists preferred those made of gold for the mellow and rich sound provided by its density. Others even prefer platinum because its density is higher making the sound it produced brighter and more brilliant.
The twentieth century saw a great rise in interest in the flute due to the recognition of French Flutists around the world. Some of the most influential flutists were three of Paul Taffanel’s students: Georges Barrère (1876-1944) and Marcel Moyse, who brought the pedagogy and traditions of the French Flute School to the United States; and
Philippe Gaubert, who continued Taffanel’s legacy in Paris. It was thanks to the brilliance and virtuosity of these flutists and others like them that the twentieth century was referred to as the “golden age of flute” (Time 1966). Because of their skill, others were inspired to play and compose for the flute. This era saw a large increase in compositions for flute, especially unaccompanied flute works. This was the first time since the Baroque period that a large number of unaccompanied flute works were composed. Georges Barrère contributed a great deal because he was responsible for many
109 commissions and had many works dedicated to him. One piece of particular importance dedicated to Barrère was Density 21.5, which was composed by Barrère’s good friend
Edgar Varèse.
Density 21.5
In 1935, Barrère purchased a flute made of platinum-iridium from Wm. S.
Haynes, “arguably the single best-known flute made in the twentieth century” (Toff 2005,
277). In her book Monarch of the Flute: The Life of Georges Barrère, Nancy Toff provided a quote from Barrère on what made his platinum flute the “best.” Barrère explained,
The platinum flute had greater brilliancy in the high register, a beautiful mellowness in the medium range and a rich fullness in the lower notes . . . In each register there is a somewhat higher ‘speaking quality’, which enables the player better to legato and to obtain prompter response in long intervals . . . But perhaps the most important factor . . . is that both the volume and the quality of the tone are better. (Toff 2005, 278)
Barrère held a private concert at Sherry’s restaurant to premier his new flute, at which
Barrère asked Edgar Varèse to write a piece for his new platinum flute. The result was
Density 21.5, which was named for the density of pure platinum; the piece was premiered on February 16, 1936 (Toff 2005, 278). This work was an important landmark for flute repertoire as it was the first to include audible key slaps, an extended technique seen in
Example 6.1.
Example 6.1. Varèse, Density 21.5, measures 24-27.
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Key slaps are a percussive sound produced when slapping the keys with the fingers; slapping the G key alone works best for this technique. Varèse noted in his score “Notes marked + to be played softly, hitting the keys at the same time to produce a percussive effect” (Varèse 1946). Varèse also explored the high end of the flute’s range in this work, as seen in Example 6.2.
Example 6.2. Varèse, Density 21.5, measures 44-50.
Another landmark work that expanded the flute repertoire and sound during the twentieth century was André Jolivet’s Cinq Incantations. Jolivet was a student of Varèse, and his Cinq Incantations features “one of the first extended uses of flutter-tonguing in solo flute literature” (Toff 2012, 268).
André Jolivet (1905-1974)
André Jolivet was a prolific composer whose goal was “to give back to music its original ancient meaning, when it was the magical, incantatory expression of the religious beliefs of human groups” (Dzapo 2016, 176). Jolivet was born in Paris, France. His father was a painter, and his mother was a pianist. Jolivet displayed musical talent from an early age, learning cello and composing music by the age of thirteen. His parents discouraged him from pursuing music as a career because they believed financial security was more important. Instead, they encouraged him to pursue a career in teaching. In 1927, Jolivet completed his teaching certificate and taught in various Paris schools for a year. He
111 quickly realized his passion was for music, so he left teaching and pursued a serious musical career.
In 1928, Jolivet began lessons with Paul Le Flem, Professor of Counterpoint at the Schola Cantorum, where he was trained in counterpoint, harmony, and classical forms with a focus on fifteenth and sixteenth century polyphony. Flem also introduced Jolivet to contemporary music which included works by Bartok, Berg, and Schoenberg (Lee 2009,
7). In 1929, Jolivet was exposed to atonal music, specifically Edgard Varèse's Amériques, which had a profound impact on him. He became Varèse's only European student, as
Varèse spent most of his time in the United States. Varèse influenced Jolivet to experiment with sound-masses, acoustical properties, orchestration, and atonality (Kelly
2001).
Jolivet composed an abundant amount of music in many different genres, attracting the attention of the young French composer Oliver Messiaen. After hearing a few of Jolivet’s works, Messiaen did not hesitate establishing contact with Jolivet. The two often spent time discussing ideas with each other, as well as sharing their interest in spirituality. Messiaen has also contributed to flute literature with his composition Le
Merle Noir (The Blackbird) for flute and piano. This work was commissioned by the
Paris Conservatory in 1952 for their annual competition. Messiaen recreated birdsongs throughout this work. It featured flutter-tonguing and immediate changes in dynamic levels. Messiaen composed this work using the twelve-tone row compositional technique.
In 1935, Jolivet, Messiaen, and poet-composer Dainel-Lesur, founded La Spirale
(The Spiral). The Spiral was an avant-garde chamber music society. In 1936, the three formed another group with the addition of Yves Baudrier, which they called La jeune
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France (Young France). “They became known as the ‘quatre petits frères spiritualistes’
(‘four little spiritualist brothers’) because they promoted spiritual values and human qualities in a ‘mechanical and impersonal’ world” (Kelly 2001). The four composers sought to rehumanize composition and make it less abstract. The group’s activities curtailed due to the beginning of World War II, and it soon dispersed as the group’s members were called to military duty.
During the war, Jolivet simplified his compositional style, abandoning atonality and turning to lyricism in an effort to create music for evasion and relaxation (Kelly
2001). From 1945 to 1959, Jolivet was the musical director of the Comédie Française
(French Comedy), which provided him with the opportunity to travel. In his travels, he visited Egypt where he rediscovered his childhood interest in rituals in the music of foreign countries. In 1959, he founded the Centre Française d’ Humanisme Musical in
Aix-en-Provence (French Center for Musical Humanism in Aix-en-Provence). In 1961,
Jolivet began teaching at the Paris Conservatory; he was given the position of Professor of Composition in 1965. This appointment was an exceptional accomplishment for
Jolivet, for his studies had only been through private instruction (Collier 2016, 10).
Jolivet remained at the conservatory until his death in 1974.
On a trip to Algeria in 1932, Jolivet heard an Arabian flute player who inspired him to compose for the flute. He described the flute as the ultimate musical instrument:
“Cela parce qu’animée par le souffle, émanation profonde de l’homme, la flûte charge ses sons de ce qui est en nous d’à la fois viscéral et cosmique” (“because, enlivened by its inspiration and profound aura of humanity, the flute invests its sounds with what is at once visceral and cosmic within us”). (Brönnimann 2019)
Jolivet was a prolific composer and composed music in many different genres.
While his compositions for flute constitute a small portion of his works, Jolivet was open
113 about his love for the flute. Like many other aspects of his music, his love for flute was a result of his travels. Some of Jolivet’s notable works are: Cinq Incantations pour flûte seule (Five Incantations for Solo Flute) (1936); Chant de Linos (Song of Linos for Flute and Piano) pour flute et piano (1944); Suite en concert, for flute and four percussion instruments (1965).
Cinq Incantations
Cinq Incantations pour flûte seule (Five Incantations for Solo Flute) (1936) embodied Jolivet’s interests in rituals, magic, and cultures; it represented the spiritual journey of the life cycle. Jolivet wrote this suite of five pieces in the summer a few months after the death of his mother. The titles of the incantations were stated as prayers to facilitate direct communication: “communication among members of a community, between man and the divine and between man and his inner self” (Parker-Harley 2005,
11). Composed early in his career, this piece features atonality and the experimentation of sound heard through the use of the extreme range of the flute and extended techniques such as flutter-tonguing and harmonics. Five Incantations for Solo Flute contains five movements:
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A. Pour accueillir les négociateurs— A. To welcome the negotiators—and et que l’entrevue soit pacifique. may the interview be peaceful.
B. Pour que l’enfant qui va naître soit B. That the child will be born a son. un fils.
C. Pour que la moisson soit riche, qui C. That the harvest, born from the naîtra des sillons que le laboureur work of the farmer's plow, may be trace. rich.
D. Pour une communion sereine de D. For a serene communion of the l’être avec le monde. being with the world.
E. Aux funérailles de chef—pour E. At the funeral of the chief—to obtenir la protection de son âme. obtain the protection of his soul.
Throughout this work, Jolivet utilized repetition. Repetition was often used in rituals as a means of reaching a meditative and transcendental state. In the first movement, the main body is repeated three times to build momentum and tension. The tension releases in the coda when new material is introduced. In many cultures, “three” is considered a spiritual and divine number. It often represents body, soul, and spirit; harmony, wisdom, and understanding; past, present, and future; birth, life, and death; and beginning, middle, and end.
The first incantation, Pour accueillir les négociateurs – et que l’entrevue soit pacifique (“To welcome the negotiators—and may the interview be peaceful”), explored the idea of duality, represented by two voices heard throughout the movement. The voices differ in register, pitch, timbre, and meter. Like Varèse, Jolivet also utilized the extreme range of the flute. The first voice begins the piece screaming out a high D4, the highest point of the flute’s range; this is soon followed by the second voice playing a low
C at the opposite end of the flute’s range, as seen in Example 6.3.
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Example 6.3. Jolivet, Cinq Incantations, I, measures 1-6.
After the repeat sign in measure three, the two voices are denoted by the direction of the note stems; the first voice shown through upward note stems and the second voice through downward note stems. The voices continue in these extreme ranges throughout the movement. The low voice utilizes only four pitches, B, C, D, and E-flat; the upper voice uses all of the other eight pitches not used in first voice and utilizes chromaticism.
The first voice is in compound triple meter, 9/8, while the second voice is in a simple triple meter, 3/4. These time signatures can be seen at the beginning of Example 6.3.
The flutter-tonguing in the first voice, in combination with the chromaticism and register, creates a transcendental experience. Jolivet notated flutter-tonguing by putting two slashes through the note stem, seen in measures five and six of Example 86. Nancy
Toff described two ways to execute flutter tonguing in The Flute Book. The first way is to
“roll the tip of the tongue against the roof of the mouth (the hard palate)… creating a rapid tremolo. This technique general works best with high air pressure in loud or high passages” (Toff 2012, 121). Since not everyone is capable of this technique, Toff offers an alternative: a guttural R, which is executed through a gargle action, more specifically the “vibration of the uvula against the back of the throat… this method is often more comfortable and effective with low air pressure in soft passages” (Toff 2012, 121-122).
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At the end of this movement, the voices merge and unify, representing the success of the negotiations mentioned in the title. In this coda, Jolivet used another extended technique, a harmonic, as seen in Example 6.4.
Example 6.4. Jolivet, Cinq Incantations, I, measures 13-14.
The harmonic can be seen in the second measure and is notated by the diamond note head; the diamond note head indicates the fundamental note fingering to use and the solid note head above indicates what harmonic should sound. The harmonic is executed by using a greater air speed. As Nancy Toff explained, “The greater the airspeed, in turn, the higher the pitch, because high air pressure increases the ease of emitting the harmonics of a fundamental note” (Toff 2012, 95).
In the second incantation, “That the child will be born a son,” Jolivet further explored duality. The incantation used two repetitive motives to represent the aforementioned duality, but the motives also acted as prayers that the child will arrive safely (Parker-Harley 2005, 15). Jolivet used repetition again throughout the third incantation, “That the harvest, born from the work of the farmer's plow, may be rich.”
The repetition throughout this movement represents the feelings of monotony and work that never ends; it also represents the farmer as he performs his work. The movement embodies the idea, “Work becomes a sacred act, a tool of evolution” (Parker-Harley
2005, 21).
The fourth movement, “For a serene communion of the being with the world,” represents Jolivet’s fundamental spiritual beliefs:
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Pour une communion sereine de l’être avec le monde remains one of the essential pages of my work, as much by the output of its lyricism as through the philosophy it expresses, which approaches the philosophy of Teilhard de Chardin when he states, ‘There is a communion with God, and a communion with the earth, and a communion with God through the earth.’ (Parker-Harley 2005, 21).
The fifth and final movement, “At the funeral of the chief—to obtain the protection of his soul,” summarizes the previous movements. It contains similar motives to those heard throughout the other movements and uses different voices through range, pitch, and timbre. In this final movement, Jolivet symbolizes the passage of one life to another.
Modern compositions expanded flute literature, exploring new sounds and techniques capable on the flute. Through the use of extended techniques, composers explored new areas of tone color. Modern works stretched the boundaries of flute composition. Composers created new harmonic and rhythmic languages, which highlighted the flute as an expressive solo instrument.
Chapter 7: Conclusion
Today, if there can be said to be an international style of flute playing, it is an outgrowth of the French style. Indeed, the supremacy of French woodwind playing has been acknowledged for hundreds of years, but it was not until this century that the style achieved worldwide predominance. (Toff 2012, 103)
The French Flute School has proven to be one of the most influential schools of flute playing throughout history. Modern flutists continue to emulate the tone developed by French flutists: a refined, brilliant, and fluid tone, where quality is more important than quantity. Paul Taffanel, largely responsible for rise of the French Flute School, was among the first Frenchmen to adopt and truly master the silver Boehm flute; his tone on the Boehm flute system is emulated by other flutists. Taffanel was also an advocate of contemporary music while still recognizing the importance of baroque and classical works like those from Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven. His students, such as Philippe
Gaubert and Marcel Moyse, continued his traditions making the French Flute School widely popularly throughout the world.
This thesis has provided an overview of treatises and methodologies that have influenced modern flute playing. Hotteterre’s Principles of the Flute, Recorder, and Oboe was a foundation and a model for all subsequent method books. François Devienne’s New
Theoretical and Practical Method for the Flute provided a progressive method book, another model followed by other flutists for their methods. Henri Altès’s Famous
Complete Flute Method was one of the first progressive methods for the Boehm flute and remained a popular choice of method for many modern flute teachers. Paul Taffanel and
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Philippe Gaubert’s Complete Method for Flute also remains a staple in flute literature due to the success of their 17 Daily Exercises, which is used by many flutists to maintain their technique. Jacques-Martin Hotteterre’s Principles of the Flute as well as Devienne’s method are important pieces of flute literature to inform performance practice of works from their respective eras. Marcel Moyse and his son, Louis Moyse, provided modern flutists with many notable works to develop all areas of flute technique and tone development that are associated with the French Flute School.
The works explored throughout this thesis reflect great insight into the creation and development of the French Flute School and inform performance practice throughout various eras. These works allow flutists of all levels to experience the traditions of the nineteenth century flute pedagogy, continuing a legacy.
Appendix
The following contains graded lists of French flute methods and studies, and repertoire, some of which were discussed throughout this thesis, but all are valuable resources and pieces.
The method books and studies are organized in alphabetical order by the composer. For composers who have multiple compositions listed, the compositions are ordered by grade. The method books and studies follow the grading system used in James
Pellerite’s A Handbook of Literature for the Flute, originally published in 1963 and republished in 2009 (Pellerite 2009, vii):
Grade I-II: Very Easy to Easy Grade III-IV: Moderately Easy to Intermediate Grade V-VI: Intermediate to Moderately Difficult Grade VII-VIII: Difficult to Very Difficult Grade IX: Extremely Advanced
The repertoire list was compiled using the National Flute Association’s (NFA)
Flute Repertory Resource, published in August 1997, in addition to their Selected Flute
Repertoire and Studies, published in 2020 and updated in 2021. The grading system used is as follows:
Elementary Level: beginners and early junior high school with simple, fundamental rhythmic patterns, i.e., eighth notes, etc., limited range and key signatures
Intermediate Level: junior high school, early high school, moderate range (about two octaves plus), more compound or mixed rhythm and musical demands, and simple ornamentation.
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Advanced Level: high school, [college, and above]; increased demands in interpretation, rhythm, key, range, technique. (National Flute Association 1997, 27)
For the repertoire graded list, there is a separate list for each level seen above. The lists are organized in a progressive order beginning with the lowest level and ending with the most advanced.
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Methods and Studies
Composer Grade Title of Composition
Altès, H. I-II Famous Complete Flute Method, Vol. 1 III-IV
III-IV Famous Complete Flute Method, Vol. 2 V-VI
Devienne, F. I-II New Theoretical and Practical Method for the III-IV Flute V-VI
Hotteterre, J. M. I-II Principles of the Flute, Recorder, and Oboe
Moyse, L. The First Step in Flute Playing: Based on
I-II Short, Easy, Original and Harmonious
Melodies in Duet Form
I-II The Flutist’s Primer
La Grande Velocité: A Progressive Work of
III-IV Technique Built on Scales and Arpeggios for
the Flute
Moyse, M. I-II Beginning the Flute
24 Little Melodious Studies: With Variations I-II (Easy)
III-IV On Sonority: Art and Technique
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(Moyse, M.) III-IV, V-VI Tone Development Through Interpretation
V-VI Daily Exercises
V-VI Scales and Arpeggio
VII-IX School of Articulation
VII-IX Studies and Technical Exercises
25 Melodic Studies: With Variations V-VI (Moderately difficult)
Taffanel, P. and III-IV, V-VI Complete Method for Flute Gaubert, P.
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Repertoire
Elementary Level
Composer Title of Composition
Donjon, J. Shepherd’s Lament
Bozza, E. Quatre Pièces Faciles
Fauré, G. Berceuse, op. 16
Koechlin, C. 14 Pièces pour flûte et piano
Moyse, L. 65 Little Pieces in Progressive Order
Moyse, L. A Treasury of Flute Music in Progressive Order
Moyse, L. 40 Little Pieces in Progressive Order
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Intermediate
Composer Title of Composition
Bizet, G. 2me Menuet de L’Arlésienne
Fauré, G. “Sicilienne” from Pelléas et Mélisande, op. 78
Gossec, F. Tambourin
Hotteterre, J. M. Suite No. 3 in G Major, op. 2
Hüe, G. Sérénade
Loeillet, J. Sonata No. 8 in G major, op. 3
Moyse, L. A Treasury of Flute Music in Progressive Order
Moyse, L. 40 Little Pieces in Progressive Order
Pessard, E. Andalouse
Bizet, G. “Entr’acte” from Carmen
Donjon, J. Pan Pastorale
Fauré, G. Pièce
Fauré, G. Morceau de Concours
Gaubert, P. Sur L’Eau
Rameau, J. Air Temdre pour les Muses
Debussy, C. La Petit Berger
126
Advanced Level
Composer Title of Composition
Blavet, M. Six Sonatas, op. 2
Bozza, E. Aria
Büsser, H. Les Cygnes
Büsser, H. Les Ecureuils
Büsser, H. Petite Suite, op. 21
Chaminade, C. Sérénade aux étoiles, op. 142
Debussy, C. Clair de Lune
Donjon, J. Offertoire
Godard, B. Légende Pastorale, op. 138
Ibert, J. Aria
Ibert, J. Histoires
Loeillet, J. Sonata No. 1, op. 5
Ravel, M. Piéce en Forme de Habanera
Tomasi, H. Complainte – Danse de Mowgli
Boulanger, L. Nocturne
Boulanger, L. D’un Matin de printemps
Bozza, E. Soir dans les Montagnes
Debussy, C. Syrinx
Devienne, F. Sonata No. 1 in E Minor
Gaubert, P. Romance
Leclair, J. Sonata No. 2 in E Minor, op. 9
127
Leclair, J. Sonata No. 7 in G major, op. 9
Boismortier, J. Sonata in E Minor
Rearick, M. Flute Solos from the Paris Conservatory
Saint-Saëns, C. Airs de Ballet D'ascanio
Saint-Saëns, C. Romance, op. 37
Saint-Saëns, C. Odelette, op. 162
Büsser, H. Prélude et Scherzo
Chaminade, C. Concertino, op. 107
Devienne, F. Concerto No. 2 in D major
Devienne, F. Sonata in D major
Enesco, G. Cantabile et Presto
Fauré, G. Fantaisie
Ganne, L. Andante et Scherzo
Gaubert, P. Nocturne et Allegro Scherzando
Gaubert, P. Fantaisie
Roussell, A. Joueurs de Flûte
Taffanel, P. Andante Pastorale et Scherzettino
Tulou, J. Grand Solo No. 13, op. 96
Varèse, E. Density 21.5
Bozza, E. Image pour Flûte Seule
Demersseman, J. Sixth Solo de Concert in F Major, op. 82
Devienne, F. Concerto No. 7 in E Minor
Dutilleux, H. Sonatine pour Flûte et Piano
128
Gaubert, P. Troisieme Sonate pour Flute and Piano
Gaubert, P. Sonata no. 1 in A major
Hüe, G. Fantaisie
Ibert, J. Pièce pour flûte seule
Poulenc, F. Sonata for Flute and Piano
Sancan, P. Sonatine
Widor, C. Suite for Flute and Piano, op. 34
Borne, F. Fantaisie Brilliant sur Carmen
Bozza, E. Agrestide, op. 44
Devienne, F. Concerto No. 8 in G Major
Dubois, P. Concerto
Dubois, P. Incantation and Dance
Ibert, J. Concerto
Jolivet, A. Cinq Incantations
Jolivet, A. Chant de Linos
Messiaen, O. Le Merle Noir
Taffanel, P. Grande Fantaisie sur Mignon
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