City-Region 2020 This page intentionally lelt blank City-Region 2020
Integrated planning for a sustainable environment
Joe Ravetz
with the Sustainable City-Region Working Group chaired by
Peter Roberts
1899-1999~
Town & Country Planning Association First published in the UK in 2000 by Earthscan Publications Ltd
This edition published 2013 by Earthscan
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Copyright © Joe Ravetz, 2000
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ISBN 13: 978-1-85383-607 -7 (hbk)
Cover design by John Burke from a photograph by Jan Chlebic
The Sustainable City-Region Programme has been supported by: Centre for Employment Research at Manchester Metropolitan University; European Regional Development Fund; the 10 local authorities of Greater Manchester; Pieda DTZ pIc; Eversheds; Economic and Social Research Council. CONTENTS
Acknowledgements viii Foreword by Michael Meacher ix Preface by Peter Roberts x About this book xi
PART I: CONTEXT
1 Introduction 3 Background 6 Urban environmental sustainability 8 Urban development 13 Urban sustainable development 14 Methods and tools 17 About the project 22
2 The State of the City-Region 24 The story so far 27 Wealth and health 28 Environment and resources 30 Sustainability assessment 32 Other city-regions 33
3 Trends and Prospects 36 Future scenarios 39 The shape of the city-region 42 Managing change 45
4 City-Region 2020 49 City centres 50 Development areas 52 Inner city areas 54 Suburban areas 55 Urban fringe and countryside 57 Economy and society 58 PART II: KEY SECTORS
5 The Built Environment 63 Urban form and land-use 67 The social city-region 70 Housing and households 74 Services and industry 77 Energy and environment 79 Making it happen 83
6 Travel and Transport 87 Transport and environment 91 Accessibility 93 Roads and traffic 95 Public transport 98 Business and freight 100 Air travel 101 Making it happen 104
7 Land and Ecology 107 Greening the city 111 Greening the fringe 113 Farming and food 115 Wildlife and habitat 118 Resources 120 Making it happen 122
8 Waste and Pollution 125 Air quality 130 Water quality 133 Land quality 135 Waste and recycling 137 Making it happen 140
9 Energy and Climate 143 Energy-climate strategy 147 Energy supply and demand 152 Renewable energy 155 Co-generation 157 Making it happen 158 10 Economy and Work 162 Sites and premises 167 Greening of business 168 Greening the economy 173 Sustainable employment 179 Sustainable livelihoods 183 Making it happen 186
PART III: PUTTING IT TOGETHER
11 Lifestyle and Community 191 Lifestyle and environment 196 Poverty and exclusion 198 Health and well-being 201 Crime and security 204 Education and human resources 207 Putting it together 210
12 Regeneration 214 Physical regeneration 221 Economy and community 223 Integrated planning 226 Regeneration strategy 229
13 Funding the City-Region 233 Market profiles 240 Market transformation 247
14 Running the City-Region 250 City and regional governance 256 Local agendas 262 Sustainable development framework 266
15 Summary and Conclusions 271 Signposts and next steps 275
Abbreviations and acronyms 281 Core indicators 284 Rio Principles and Agenda 21 286 References 287 Index 302 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Members of the Sustainable City-Region Working Group, drawn from the TCPA and the local authorities and universities in Greater Manchester, have each contributed immense amounts of time and expertise. The working The Sustainable City-Region Work• group was chaired by: ing Group would like to acknowledge the generous support which has made Professor Peter Roberts, University of Dundee this publication possible from: The full working group included: Centre for Employment Research at Manchester Metropolitan University Prof Andrew Blowers, Open University; Prof Michael Breheny, University of Reading; (the late) Michael Brown, Landscape Architect; Glyn Manchester University Carter, London Borough of Barnet; Dr Mike Clark, University of Central Lancashire; Nic European Regional Development Clifford, Manchester City Council; Mike Gordon, Mike Gordon Consultancy; Jon Fox, Fund Peterborough City Council; Herbie Girardet, Footprint Films Ltd; Prof David Hall, Oxford the ten local authorities of Greater Brookes University; Dr Peter Hopkinson, Manchester University of Bradford; Dr Ros Howell, Manchester Metropolitan University; Brian Parker, Transport Consultant; Ralph Rookwood, Economic and Social Research former Chair of TCPA; Lee Shostak, EDAW; Council Adrian Webb, Planning Consultant; Paul Winter, Eversheds; Dr Stephen Young, Manchester Pieda DTZ pic University.
Eversheds The Group would like to acknowledge the support of many individuals in local authorities, a private Trust development agencies, utilities, industries and civic organizations, who have contributed freely their enthusiasm and expertise. In particular the Group would like to thank:
Aidan Roe, Andrew Ross, Bernd Kasemir, Bob Christie, Callum Thomas, Chris Church, Cindy Warwick, Dave Carter, Dave Gibbs, Dave Raper, David Rudlin, David Tarlo, Denise Servante, Eddie Scott, Graeme Bell, Graham Haughton, Helmut Lusser, Ian Christie, John Atkins, Jim Longhurst, Jim Watt, John Handley, Keith Howcroft, Les Coop, Lindsay Smales, Michael Carley, Mike Shields, Nick Falk, Pam Warhurst, Phil Barton, Richard Leese, Ron Cockayne, Sara Parkin, Silvio Funtowicz, Simon Shackley, Steven Kirkby, Stuart Murray, Ted Kitchen, Terry Thomas, Walter Menzies FOREWORD
Rt Hon Michael Meacher MP
Minister of State for the EnvironmentEnvironment and Member of Parliament for Oldham WestWest
Sustainable development implies a commitment to quality in every sense of the word. It is also about quality of analysis, of our situation and needs, as well as those of future generations. This detailed analysis of a long-estab• lished metropolitan area illustrates the extraordinary challenge of knowing and understanding major cities, and of anticipating and guiding their future evolution. In developing a coherent national sustainable development strategy we need more systematic and in-depth analysis of urban environments.environments. This is a useful contribution to the debate on how to take forward sustainaole devel• opment in the UK. I congratulate the Town & Country Planning Association for grappling assiduously with the dynamics of an urban region as large and complex as Greater Manchester, and producing this stimulating study. PREFACE
Peter Roberts
Professor of European Strategic Planning, University of Dundee, and Chair of the Sustainable City-Region Working Group
This book builds on the research which was un• Our great cities are pools of opportunity and dertaken during the early 1990s by the Town & potential. However, they have often been deflected Country Planning Association's Sustainable De• from achieving a quality lifestyle for everyone, due velopment Group. A report of this work was pub• to the unthinking and irresponsible rush for growth lished in 1993 as Planning for a Sustainable that has characterized much of the past two hun• Environment. This set out an agenda for change, dred years. At long last the 'muck and brass' phi• based around the concept of 'social city-regions' losophy of the past is shifting to a more responsi• in which a balanced portfolio of policies could be ble and balanced approach to the planning and applied, to help avoid environmental damage, so• management of change. This report brings togeth• cial distress and economic decline. er much of this new thinking and practice and, in The next step for the TCPA was to demon• addition, it provides a practical model to help co• strate in practice the ideas and models that had ordinate and integrate both strategy and action. been advanced. From a number of potential case It is appropriate that this book will be pub• studies, the Greater Manchester metropolitan re• lished in 1999. This year marks the centenary of gion was eventually selected as a test-bed. A re• the establishment of the TCPA, and City-Region search partnership and working group was 2020 is a worthy successor to Ebenezer Howard's established between the TCPA, Manchester Met• Tomorrow: a Peaceful Path to Real Reform. The ropolitan University and the ten local authorities book is a tribute to the dedication and diligence of of Greater Manchester, with funding from these Joe Ravetz and his colleagues who have undertak• partners together with the European Regional De• en this research, and the TCPA owes them a con• velopment Fund. siderable debt of thanks. The research gathered a huge body of evi• In addition, on behalf of the TCPA, can I ex• dence, and developed a powerful organizing frame• press my thanks to everyone who has participated work. It has now produced a report at the leading in the 'Sustainable City-Region' research pro• edge of international thinking on sustainable ur• gramme. As part of our continuing programme of ban development, particularly for the older indus• work we will monitor and review the response to trial city-regions. Conurbations such as Greater this book, and we welcome your comments and Manchester are home to a substantial part of the reactions to the ideas and messages contained in European popUlation, and the successful manage• the following pages. ment of change in such regions is a test of the in• genuity and determination of politicians, planners, the private sector and communities alike. ABOUT THIS BOOK
Scope: For such a wide ranging investiga• tion we have focused only on the key themes. Each sector or topic is in outline form, summarizing ar• guments which are often complex and controver• sial, and there will be inevitable gaps in the cover• Author's note age of many technical subjects. Sources: Information is taken from local 1 would like to pay tribute sources wherever possible, but many topics are only to the memory of Michael covered at a regional or national level, and many Brown, Landscape 'best guesses' have been made for local data. All Designer,Designer; who died in charts and graphs refer to Greater Manchester (GM) 1996. His inspired unless otherwise specified.specified. Targets refer to 2020, contributions to this and trends and changes for the period 1995-2020 project among many unless otherwise specified. Boundaries are taken others will be missed by as the local authority boundaries of the 10 GM Dis• all who worked with him. tricts unless otherwise specified. All data for GM is drawn from official sources unless otherwise 1 would like to pay special specified. thanks to Peter Roberts, Further information:infonnation: This pUblicationpublication has without whose enthusiasm been drawn from a more detailed 'Technical Re• and foresight this project port' which covers in some depth each of the key would not have happened. sectors. An 'Overview''Overview' and 'Methods and Tools' 1 would like to thank the working papers are also available. The Sustaina• staff at Earthscan, and the ble City-Region research programme continues researchers at the Centre with related projects including appraisal methods, for Urban & Regional integratedintegrated economic evaluation, resource flow au• Ecology, forfor theirtheir bound• dits, scenario workshops and a web-based 'Sus•'Sus• less patience. tainability Atlas'. Details are on thethe Sustainable City-Region website at www.art.man.ac.uklplan• Finally, thethe long journeyjourney Ding/cure.ning/cure. inin forming these ideas,ideas, Attribution: The views expressed are thosethose and fromfrom ideasideas toto publica• of thethe author as advised by thethe Sustainable City• tion,tion, would not have been Region Working Group, and do not necessarily possible without Amanda, reflect thethe views of thethe TCPA or thethe sponsoring Jerry andAlison.and Alison. organizations. While every effort has been made toto ensure accuracy, the the authorauthor and thethe Working Group cannot acceptaccept responsibilityresponsibility for any errorserrors or omissions. This page intentionally lelt blank tooo4 ~ ~
'Ql) 'Ql)
The story begins with the question - what does sustainable development mean, if anything. in cities and ....= regions? 'The State oj the City-Region' shows the oW dynamic and problematic reality oj the case-study. the oW conurbation oj Greater Manchester. 'Trends and Prospects'jollows the moving picture, and points to ::s altemative paths or scenariosjor thejuture. 'City-Region ~ 2020' shows one oj these paths in outline. as a vision and gUideJor thejoumey toJollow. This page intentionally lelt blank INTRODUCTION 5
Suslainable. a. (jprec.+-A BLE. Cf SUS1'ENABLE} capable af being IIpheld ar defended: maintainable
What If " ,? resul t of a unique history, for the future there are many forking paths, from utopias to ni ghtmares. Sustainabi lity is the wa tchword for the new mil• Planni ng, in its widest sense - strategic manage• lenn ium, and a guiding theme for all human ac• ment of environmental, economic and social tivity. " is also a n ever-end ing quest for ' having change - has the c hallenge of steering large and our cake and ea ting i i ' - nOI only economic complex ci ty-regions towards more benign fu • growth wi th social justice. but environ menial tures. protection into the bargain. To begin this, we need some kind of vision For the ' devc:loped' nati ons of the North , or goal to work towards. That is why we start th e race for affluence stretches th ei r environmen• with the questi on: tal l imits. even while their social fabric is frag• mented by unemployment and exclusion. For 'developing' nalions the need for basic shelter 'W I /at Iif ... ." and serv ices is overwhelming. but 'developmenC 100 oftcn destroys the oalUral resource base. For What if aci ty-region was to become truly 'sus• the world in total. problems such as climale tainable' within our lifetimes? What changes change and species loss are raisi ng the stakes to could we see on the ground? Would economics. the brink of catastrophe - and as five billion peo• po litics or technology p rovide the answers? ple reach out for western levels of fflu a ence, cur• Would there be jobs for the unemployed. and rent trends cannot continue. where would the money come from? What if What has this g lobal agenda got t o dowi th plans and policies could be full y integrated be· cities, regions, or planning? This is a m ulti• tween all sectors? .These are the kind of ques• layered question, which we explore through a ti ons which guide this inquiry into ' integrated detailed case study. planning for long (enn sustainable development'. In most induslrial countries most people live A hundred years ago Ebenezer Howard took in or near cities, and the worki ngs of such cities up a similar chall enge. in t he waste and depriva• are implicated in most environmental damage. But ti on of both lown and country. T he esul r t was urban activi ty now reaches right across 'city• not only a physical model f or garden cities. bul region' territories, fro m ci ty centres to r emote an economic model f or oc l al industry and social countryside. And while each cit y-region is the welfare.' More ece r ntly the TePA set oul e nvi-
1 How~'d 1893: HalI& Wa~ 1993 4 Context
momental goals for all areas of urban develop• few clear answers in sight (Box 1.1). It is no menl.2 wonder that busy practitioners take the 'S' label Here we follow through that agenda. We ask and stick it on whatever they were doing any• how such ideas might fit together on th e ground way. - not so much in a one-off new seulemenl, as in the much larger 'reality test' of reslTuclUring and Putting it together fe-engi neering existing cities and regions. Faced with thi s. we have aimed to see the wood And the reality lest here is challenging in• for the trees. We have used best available infor• deed - the dynamic and problemati c conurba• mation, and we have invented methods and tools tion of Greater Manchester (GMV OM is aworl d where none existed. The result is a demonstra• icon for style and spon, and a thriving cent re for tion of what is possible in the integrated plan• finance, media, education and culture. It is also ning and restructuring of a major conurbation. It a city where a million people live amidst poverty, is a source-book for l ong tenn policy and strat• obsolete industry and crumbling buildings - the egy. It i s also a demonstration of methods and 'human landfills' of a post-industrial wasteland.' tools for similar projects else where. OM contributes If700'h of the global climate These methods have been developed change effect, air pollution is high, life expectan• around the basic sustainability themes - balance cies are short, suicide and depression are rife. and integration - to be explored below. Just a s the industrial revolution began here, s o Our starting point is the physical city-region, might the post-industrial sustainability revolu• its fonn and fabric, its resource inpu ts and out• tion - but it will not be a simple or easy transi• puts, and its pressures and impacts on local and tion. global environments. But to tackle such physi• cal problems we have 10 look 'upstream' at their Complexity & contradiction roots and causes in sectors such as housing or Such a challenge depends o n ahig h level of transport, and look at how far these sectors meet 'joined-up t hinking' - but this is aperennial human needs or demands. We also have to look quest, wit h many contradictions and few simple 'downstream' of the problem, at the environmen• solutions. So we have taken a scepti cal view of tal impacts caused, and the fina l outcomes for many claims, both from the 'business as usual' individuals or societies. Overall, we can look at and the 'sustainabi li ty' camps. In practical tenns the balance of 'needs' and 'outcomes', upstream we tread a very thin line between 'cynical and downstream, and put the question of how greenwash' and 'mi splaced idealism'. Both are far it is 'sustainable' in the s horter and longer plentiful. term - whether we get the totality of what we At th e start we find that most r eal-time prob• need, as individuals, city-regions or nations. This lems cross the boundaries of subjects and sec• balance of needs and outcomes is at the core o f tors, and that most available infonnation doesn't the methods below. seem to fit the problem. We find that many sustainability goals are in conflict - for instance. bOllom-up decision-making versus strategic 80".1 COMPLEXITY & CONTRADICTION planning. We find hu ge gaps between princi• A line example Is the question 01 'where will the ples and practice - the core concept of people go?' (Chapler 5). Hooseholds In the UK are sustainability is aboul long term thi nking, but becoming smaller as people live longer and more most of us st ruggle with uncertainly day by day. Independently, and huge numbers 01 new dwellings We find that any practical question is surrounded will be oeeded. Should we allow everybody to trade by trade-offs such as efficiency vs equality, wi th up, and buitd all over the countryside? Should we protect rural land, and keep the poor in high density 21110wers 1993 urban areas? Is there a win-win solution that keeps 3 G M0$ used!or i3
Another theme is integration - or in more conflicts between economic growth, social topical terms 'joined-up thinking'. The solutions needs and environmental protection. to many problems in transport, for instance, are • New regional governance in the UK aims to often in other sectors such as housing or indus• bring together economic, social and environ• try, and vice versa. But in practice each sector mental strategy, but the institutions, re• tends to draw a line around its own concerns - sources or methods are not always up to the so a 'sustainable' transport strategy has to ex• job. tend mainstream transport thinking towards wider • Urban regeneration appears more intractable issues, from climate to communities. On the prin• than ever, as many former approaches have ciple that the whole is greater than the sum of failed, while again the needs outstrip the re• the parts, we look at a hundred industries in a sources. dozen sectors, to see the linkages and the bigger • Public services are perennially short of funds, picture - less detail, but more synergy. even while the fabric of society is torn by A third theme is that of space and time. Just unemployment and exclusion. as people live and work in places, rather than • Local and regional economies are caught in sectors, there is a clear logic for putting together the race for global competitiveness, where problems and opportunities by territory - the the pace of change, and the risks of depend• neighbourhood, city, bio-region or whichever is ency and polarization seem greater than ever. the most appropriate for the task. This project looks beyond many others at the implications For these and similar issues there are few simple 'on the ground' of sustainable development. 5 It solutions - each is a tangle of economic, social also looks at the time dimension of restructuring and environmental problems with many conflict• and re-engineering, as a process over a medium ing viewpoints. For such issues, the principle of and long horizon. sustainability is not just a cosy marketing label, The case-study approach here also brings or a clever academic game, or a mediaeval theol• special opportunities - a kind of mental labora• ogy. Sustainability has to be an over-arching tory where a city can be taken to pieces and put guiding theme, a combination of vision and prac• back together again. Looking at one city-region tice, to be interpreted at every step of the way. in depth can help to show the linkages between many problems and solutions. GM is of course a Caveats unique mix, but not unlike many post-industrial In practice, one person's vision is another's blind cities. The core themes, if not the fine detail, will spot, especially where it concerns the broad and be relevant to most cities and regions in the de• fuzzy theme of sustainability. Decision-makers veloped world and elsewhere. If we substituted often assume that sustainability can be Birmingham, Barcelona or Berlin for GM, how 'achieved', as if cities were like machines whose much would be different or common between problems can be fixed with a tune-up or a new them? prot. Our analysis suggests quite the opposite - a view of cities which lurch restlessly between Applications crisis and opportunity, where today's solutions Such a quest, in the long tradition of envision• become tomorrow's problems. ing the ideal city, is a fascinating journey in its Another misconception is that sustainability own right. But meanwhile there are urgent and is a scientific quantity to be measured on a scale. controversial policy debates in . the UK, Europe Again we suggest the opposite - that there is and elsewhere: rarely a single 'true path' of sustainability, more often a tangle of interactions, the results of which • Housing, transport, waste management and may be more or less efficient, equitable and risk• many other sectors show rising pressures and avoiding, depending on who measures them.
5 Roberts 1995: Cohen 1993 6 Context
There is also a view that a city-region can regional level. This interplay of scales and func• somehow be an island of sustainability, as if in• tions is another recurring theme. sulated from the world around it. Cities may be Finally we have to keep asking 'who or what' autonomous in some ways, but they are driven we are trying to sustain.6 If we can demolish an by the global system in most other ways. If the obsolete house to make way for one which is sustainable development of a city is like turning more beautiful and efficient, could we do the same round a supertanker, the crew cannot ignore the with an obsolete city? Are we setting out to storm-force gale of the global economy around sustain the city, its people, the global environ• them, or the disputes over who is captain. ment, or all of these? The question of 'who or The upshot is that everything said here what' is at the heart of this project and its ap• about OM is conditional - a local transport strat• proach to linking different kinds of knowledge. egy, for instance, will not get very far without That is why, at the end of the day, we avoid sim• linking actions at national and global scale. At ple conclusions and ten-point lists, in favour of the same time higher level actions need to take in-depth debate. If this book enriches such de• account of how they fit together at the local or bate it will have achieved its aims.
BACKGROUND
World leaders met in 1992 at the UN Conference local and global, present and future, and material on Environment and Development - the Rio Sum• and environmental (Fig 1.1).10 mit - and then again at New York in 1997.7 There Behind the environmental rhetoric, the real was a common agenda, in that environmental business of Agenda 21 was overtly political - damage caused by economic development was the link between economic development, inter• endangering the well-being, and possibly the national trade, environmental impacts, and the survival, of present and future generations. gap between rich and poor. Since 1960, income Major global environmental problems, such as inequality between the richest and poorest 20% disruption to the climate, had finally produced a of the world's population has increased from 30: 1 commitment to address their causes. The result to 75:1, and the 200 richest individuals now pos• was a large set of declarations - 'Agenda 21' - sess as much wealth as half the world's popula• aimed at improving the environmental tion (Fig 1.2).11 In this sense the environmental sustainability of economic development. 8 agreements - the Conventions on Biological Di• Agenda 21 was based on the commonly accepted versity, Climate Change, Desertification, For• definition of sustainable development, from the estry, and the Commission on Sustainable 'Brundtland Report' :9 Development - were diversions from the core agenda, while being major achievements in their 'to provide for the needs of the present own right. generation without compromising the Rio gave a huge impetus to discussion at abilities of future generations to meet every level, but results, unsurprisingly, have their needs' fallen short of promises.12 The full Agenda 21 programme was cos ted at $128 billion, one tenth One way to interpret this definition is through of the global arms budget, but only a small frac• the concept of a 'balance' of needs - between tion of this has been found. Some environmen-
6 Mitlin & Satterthwaite 1996 10 the vital distinctions between 'need', 'demand' and 'greed' are so problem· 7 This section was kindly drafted by Ralph Rookwood atic that we coined the term 'gneed' 8 Centre for Our Common Future 1993 11 United Nations Development Programme 1998 9 World Commission on Environment & Development 1987 12 Dodds & Biggs 1997 INTRODUCTION 7
f iO 1.2 f iO 1.2 RICH vs POOR f iO 1.2 SUSTAINABILITY BALANCE
POOR POOR almost 10:1 almost There continue instability -- 3(1: \ instability ozone RICHEST 20%
3(1: \ 3(1: \ 10:1 10:1 RICHEST 20% 9_'-_ 01 "p!>01Lo1!1 pi ."" '_1. s~"'... , bllH onWCEO ,n7.
RICHEST 20% linkage tal problems have been contained. such a s ozone depletion. while others continue almost una• IncomfI disp_ritv 01 lOp & bOaom 2"0% 01"01 10:1 POPUlation. SoI.c.: UfliOP Igge bated, such as fores t destruct ion. While the ga p between rich and poor grows. There is a clearbe tween between urbanization and the GAlT world trading system excludes social Agenda 21, and this is the focu s of global meet• and environmental policies which might hinder ings such as 'Habitat Ir .1l Such meetings tend internati onal trade. The current instability in the to be once removed from mainstream worl d economy is a sign that the re are no si mple decisionmaki ng. but are essen ti al for building solulions or safe fall·back posi tions - the global networks and spreading ' best practices', some roller coaster is effect ively out of control. of which are used as examples here. 16 In Europe. the urban agenda was set cui in the Green Paper The urban agenda on the Uban r Environment. 1l It was then devel• One of the most alanni ng global trends is runa• oped through the Aalborg Charter, the Lisbon way urbanization in developing countries - Declaration, the EU Climate Alliance. the EU Sus• three·quarters of the world's 30 largest conurba· tainable Cities Project. II the Euronet database, tions are inth e South and East, each of them and many others." larger than many nations. and contai ning the In the U K the 'su.stainable city' is now a most extreme environmental problems. I) Mean• guiding theme, and there is some consensus o n while, in countries such as the UK, 8 0% ofpeo• a model of more compac t, mixed use urban fonn. 1I) ple are a lready in urban areas, and there is an Bul the princi ple is often slippery i n practi ce - opposite trend of 'counter-urbanization' or out• not least with the evidence th at current policies ward migration - threatening the viability of both would al best save a tiny proportion of urban urban and rural areas, and dependent on high• climate emissions.ll And in practi ce, long tenn im pact lifestyles and technologies. " Urbani za• environmental risks are secondary to present• tion and counter-urbani zation can be seen as two day nee~s for jobs and hou ses: local govern• sides of the same coin, re fl ecti ng differe nt stages ment is still under-fun ded and disempowered: in a general urban development path, where cit• and for most hard decisions - such as where to ies are both the 'engi nes' and the 'dustbins' of build the houses - there is much connicling a d• economic growth (Fig 1.3). vice. While policy-makers grasp for simple fix es
13 GioaJdII19901 15em.'996 I'~I99O 161JNCHS 1996 I7Ct'C 1990 18EUExperlGroup 1996 19~_ . __.K.uIc 2OO£m 1999; ~ 1.kbM o..eIopo,,,,t: 2Hlrehslyl99!; 8 Context
and print glossy leaflets, there is widespread Fig 1.3 URBANIZATION & ENVIRONMENT confusion over the complex and many-layered challenge of the 'sustainable city'. global resource use
Global linkages total global Southern cities appear to be increasing their en• urban population vironmental impacts faster than those in the North, where relatively stable populations and population in average urban more advanced technology have contained most settlement local environmental problems. But cities in the local environmental North are the consumers and financiers of mate• problems rial and products from the South - the '20% with MEDIAEVAL INDUSTRIAL POST· the 80%' - the affluent minority who consume CITY CITY INDUSTRIAL CITY the majority of global resources.22 So while city• General trends in urban development I environmental impact, regions such as GM grapple with their own' so• with 'environmental Kuznets curves': cial and environmental problems, they also have Source: adapted from Kuznets 1963. Ekins 1997, World Bank 1992 a wider responsibility to the cities of the South. As well as reducing their expropriation and colo• At the same time there is much that North• nization of Southern resources, they can pro• ern cities can learn from their Southern counter• vide examples, incentives and transfers to parts, where activities such as recycling, Southern cities of low-impact technology, mar• self-build and social trading are often much more ket infrastructure, consumer aspirations and po• advanced. We aim to show that sustainable de• litical institutions - the essential components of velopment in a northern city-region depends on a sustainable development path. global linkages and transfers both ways.
URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
In the rest of this chapter we look at ways to changes, 'sustainability' is a direction not a unravel some of the tangled questions raised fixed goal. above. We look at how the principles of sustain• + able development apply to cities and regions, 2) ' Urban development': the evolution and and outline the methods and tools developed restructuring of urban systems in their glo• during the research. bal context - also a direction, not a goal. To simplify the task we start with three linked definitions: 23 = 3) 'Sustainable urban development': actions 1) 'Urban environmental sustainability' -:- the which steer the evolutionary process of 'ur• balance of urban systems with their long term ban development' towards the moving bal• environmental resOurce base. As each of ance of 'environmental sustainability'. these has many definitions and constantly
22 Galbraith 1977 23 in this section the term 'urban' is taken generally to mean a city, regional or city·region system: INTRODUCTION 9
FIg l A ENVIRONMENT _ ECONOMY .... Fit 1.5 LADDER of LOCAL SOCIETY SUSTAINABILITY
environment: ENVIRONMENT _ gIotNII ir\Id_«I eI!_ fA .. 9 K'"'Y 9 !IICJbII.n.c:ta fA -,•CIIy.~-~ protection protection 9 elsewhere. several several _1.,.".... __.... 9 gIotNII ir\Id_«I eI!_ fA .. resourcesK'"'Y Each economic, ..~ these linkages __,no health, '-' social >ualioo services for elsewhere. So we need to look althe services for elsewhere. So we need to look alt
services for elsewhere. So we need to look althe Another approach is to oo l k at the role of cities city·region with several kinds of concerns to the as providers of economic, social and environ• outside world, as with a ' ladde r' of local mental functions - as shown by the well-known sustainabitity (Fig /.5P· Most cities are seek• three-ball sign (Fig 1.4): ing to improve their local environment s, such as air quality or derelict land. Some cities are stan• • environment: to reduce environmental im· ing to look at the urban-hinlerland or 'bio-re• pact and esource r use to 'sustainable' lev• gion' system of energy, water and nu tri e n t s. ~ els, and enhance environmental qual it y and A third level concerns the global impacts of the safety. urban syste m, such as e ne rgy and climate • economy: to enhance long term resilience, change. A wider and deeper view looks at the competitiveness, employmenl, and equita• direct and indirect effects, global and local, ofall ble distribution of resources. activity - physical, economic, social and politi• • society: to enhance health, education, se• cal. If a company headquaners is sited in GM , curity, equity, cohesion, di versity and 'qual• for instance. how much responsibility does the it y of life'. city bear for that company's subsidiaries on the other side of the world? Such a question may Each of these is instrumental to the others - have more to do with ethics th an science. environmental protection is essential for all hu• man life, economic development is needed for & environmenlal protection, and social progress is Environment resources needed fo r a tabl s e economy. Actions that hit The middle steps of this ladder focus on the en• the bullseye or the overlap between three cir• vironmenlal ' metabolism' of a c ity-region - a cles, are the 'win-win' strategies that attract sup• system of activity which maintains itself with pon from all directions. In reality there are many continuous fl ows of inputs and outputs - as does 'win-lose' strategies - solving one problem while a living organism (Fig 1.6). For a conurbation creating several others. such as GM, the total flow, including water, is about 2000 million tonnes per year, or about 0.2% Such goals might be applied directly to a of the world total, and the overall efficiency or self-cont ained island - but cities and regions are ratio of primary to 'useful ' materials can be esti• by nature specialized and int ensive hubs of ac• ti vity, taking resources and producing goods and mated at less than 5% (Chaplu 8J,?'
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'It ... 'It FIg ' .7 EN VIRONMENTAL TARGETS ' It ... URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL METABOLISM
OZONE OEPlETlON INPUTS Future "'pacts OUTPUTS PESTICIDES ACDIFlCATION CAFOC OOENS Eco-Indcator .m.. ~n People People CUMA TE CHANGE twgel. EUTfIOPHICATlON Energy & Inlormation water & capit.V El'N'ltOftI'NItul ALUMI~IUM POiASH ..oc. eonlUmpton Goods & Goods & CE... Em CHLO~ IN E SEIIVlces '"'DOts services BUlK AGGREGATES
Renewable • • && f8sources Air, water, waste 'Environmental space': aggregated tong term targets tor recluetiOns NOfH808wable In environmenlaJ impacts and matenal throughput resources Resource Source: based on Sachs 1998, Calley & Spapens 1998. Pre deple~on Consultants 1995. Wackernagel& Rees 1995, McLaren elal1997 Land & environmenlal capadly
General outline of ma!erialu''Puts and outputs. Source: based on Douglas 1963: Girardet 1994. Such stocks and flows are organi zed in 'pat• The concept of 'eeo·cycles· in environmen• terns' - structural arrangement s or land-uses or tal metabolism looks at how fl ows of substances activities in space and time. Within the same area such as waler and carbon cO nlinuous]y circu• or greenspace, ror instance, dirrerent layouts or late through the biosphere. Cities tend 10 dis• management systems might change its social rupt such natural and self-organizing cycles with amenity fU ncl ion. Any city-region accounti ng a ' linear' metabolism - natural resources are system should include estimates ror both tangi• sucked in, and poliUlion and wastes are pushed ble and intangible stocks, flows and patterns. 27 oul . A city or region wh ich contains ils own Each ceo-cycle's stocks and flows take place ec()<-cycles would tend to be less vulnerable and within certain limits, or 'capacities' - the ability damaging, or more 'sustainable' - such a cycle or environments and eeo-systems to absorb pol• might be food whi ch is locall y grown, digested lution and disruption without damage or adverse and ils nutrients returned 10 the soil. Even where errects. But environments and eco-systems are the cycle is on the global scale il can slill be continually changing, and th e definition or un• 'sustainable' , if ils side-effects or risks are ac• certain or irreversible efrects needs both human ceptable. OM ror instance could operate a 'car• and technical judgement. Even ror si mple ques• bon cycle', orrsetting its emissions by planting tions, causes and effects can be complex - the rorests elsewhere which also supply its timber li nk between a smoky chimney and ill -health may needs (Chap/er 9). be obvious but difficult to prove. To tackle this An urban metabolism can be analysed in there are new methods ror capacity assessment tenns of its environmental 'stocks ' such as the at local and global scales, and these are the ba• urban rabric and re ne wable resources, and sis ror the environmental targets used through• 'fl ows' such as direct resource inputs and waste out thi s project (Fig 1.7): outputs. Some types or stock are obvious and measurable, such as the area or urban greenspace • Critical Capacity: level or pollution which - but others are more intangible, such as the causes significant or irreversible damage to human welrare provided by the same greenspace. human or ecological health.2I
26 World ResoI.octI1tIaIiIuII1991 27EUExpftlG Fli ' .1 LOCAL & GLOBAL Fli ' .1 NOW. SOON and LA fER wORLO El..IflOPE (BJCpansbn of sun) Fli ' .1 NATION REGION crrv (mBio' meleori1e) DISTRICT (taCioactiva waste) NElGl9JUAHOOo AAEA (tI i o-acculm~taliOf1' STAE£T (alrnospheric carton) HOUSEHJlO UFESPAN PERSON PlANMNG 10 MANAGEMENT 100 1000 10000 100000 , !feBI 1000000 10 10000000 (GAEATER MANCHESTER) 100 tOO 000 000 1000 1000000000 (CITIES) 10000 10000 000 000 (LANGUAGE) 100000 (HCf.lO SAPIENS) 1 millon 101nl1li()n Ecological Footprint: the (FOSSIL FUeLS) 100 m~ (L IFE) 1 billiOn (EARTH)(Uo"'~ ) 10 b l JOn Fli ' .1 Ecological Footprint: the • Ecological Footprint: the notional la nd area Space & time needed to supply primary encrgy. materials The themes of metabolism. eco-cycles and ca• and producls.29 pacity above are each relative to units in space • Environmental Space: estimates the global and time. and there may be different thresholds equal distribution of resources and assimila• for global. national, or ocal l levels. The majority tion capacit y. 30 of the im pac ts of an urban system are indirect • Ecological Rucksack: a ratio of total material and non-local - while cleaner technology may consumption to useful outputs of goods or improve local air quality, heavy industries may services.l' move overseas to produce materials which are • Eco-indicators: global targets fo r envi ron• then imported back. So a ota t l impact and capac• mental pressures to minimize human and cco• ity assessment has to look at supply chains at logical risk.ll local, regional. national and global scales. • Natural Step: long erm t goals for zero emis• In this project. for practical reasons. we draw sions, zero minerals use and zero toltic chemi• a line at the political boundary of GM. while keep' cal accumul ation.H ing in view other units suc h as the bio-re gion • Urban Capacity: acceptable pressures and where relevant (Chapter /4). Putting togeth er thresholds in the physical, env ironmental, all possible spatial scales, it turns out that a city• social and economic functions of ci ti es.:loO region is hal fway between an individual and the world (Fig 1.8). At each of these scales there The most far -reaching envi ronmental capacity are activity patterns and a func ti onal territory problem is perhaps global climate change, of where a metabolism and capacities can be identi• which the largest human cause is fossil fuel use, fied. and we give this a special priority in Chapler 9. This also raises the question - what is a city-region? The concept was put forward wi th the term 'conu rbati on', as a territorial system of city- hinterland relationships.ls A city-region Xl carley& ~ 1997 35Geo:1dN ,9,5 31 SacI\I ,997 32 PNConsubnIs ,995 3J~'996 34 EnIIt , Il9a JIooobs , 998 12 Context Figl.l0 PHASES of SUSTAINABLE Steering the course of urban development DEVELOPMENT towards environmental sustainability implies a major restructuring and re-engineering of urban form and fabric. This of course takes time. Long 'Business as usual' path: follows term trends show rising economic growth linked economic growth ~ at 2.25% p.a. to rising environmental impact, and sooner or 13 later such impacts cross environmental capacity ~ .~ limits. So the 'de-linking' of economic growth ~ <1> from environmental damage is essential to allow E ~ 'critical' & one to rise while the other reduces. Such a de• .~ 'carrying' w capacities linking process is different in each sector or in• dustry, but there are several key stages (Fig 1.10); 'Sustainable STABILIZATION development' path: RE-DIRECTION delinked from SUSTAINABILITY economic growth • 'Stabilization' of environmental impacts and pressures - slowing the rate of growth in material damage in the shorter term. General outline of key phases in the 'de-linking' of economic growth • 'Redirection' of trends in impacts and pres• from sustainable levels of environmental impact. sures, towards significant reduction in the medium term. • 'Sustainability' in levels of impacts and pres• might be defined by its politics, industry, com• sures, taking all activity to within long term muting, river basins or others, and there are per• capacity limits. ennial efforts to re-arrange the political map around the optimum pattern (Chapter 14).36 With a medium and longer time horizon we can At higher spatial levels, location is crucial - also look at alternative 'scenarios' - composite the position of OM as gateway to a peripheral explorations of possible future conditions, trends region is crucial to its prospects. At lower spa• and transitions (Chapter 3). In each chapter we tial levels, within the city-region each area type review four possible scenarios, with a focus on a contains a profile of problems and opportuni• 'business as usual' (BAU) projection, and a 'sus• ties, and the phenomenon of 'uneven develop• tainable development' (SD) scenario, this last ment' is the focus for urban regeneration being explored in depth. Such scenarios include (Chapter 12).37 The spatial implications of en• both discussion and technical calculation, as vironmental strategy in each area type are out• shown in the boxes and charts of Parts II and III. lined at the end of each 'key sector' chapter in For practical reasons again we focus on the year Part II. 2020 and the decade 2020-30 as a horizon. This The time dimension also shows nesting lay• allows actual 1995 base data to be projected to ers, from past to present and future - putting in 2020 - or estimated for 2000 and projected to modest perspective the one-generation horizon 2025. Such a generation timescale is short of this project (Fig 1.9). Longer term risks, such enough to be grounded in current trends, and as atmospheric carbon or radio-active waste, can long enough to see major restructuring of the be seen in relation to the lifespan of a human, a urban system. city-region, or the earth itself. 36 Senior 1967 37 Breheny & Rookwood 1993 INTRODUCTION 13 URBAN DEVELOPMENT Urban environmental sustainability is not a fixed ogy, communications and economic changes blueprint on a blank sheet - cities are continu• (Fig 1.11).'1 And in parallel is another transi• ally evolving and interacting with the world tion of human activity itself - from 'primary' re• around them. And of course this world itself is source-based sectors, to 'secondary' in an overwhelming state of flux. Alongside the manufacturing, to 'tertiary' services, to 'quater• endless race of economic growth, there are sev• nary' knowledge-based and cultural activity. For eral key transitions: several centuries secondary activity was the basis of the industrial city, of which GM was • 'Globalization': integration of investment, arguably the world's first. Local and imported production, trade and consumption. 38 materials were processed via labour, land and • 'Connexivity' : global networks through in• capital, producing goods for export along water formation and communications technology or railway corridors. Economic specialization and (lCT) , media, international travel,39 'advantage' could be defined in terms of the city• • 'Post-fordism' : dissolution of former more region's location and resources as a 'material stable economic, social and political struc• processor' (Fig 1.12).'2 tures.'o That model is now in transition to a more • 'Exclusion': new patterns of polarization, un• post-industrial 'city of flows' .'3 The city-re• employment and dependency for large sec• gion now functions more as a node in a global tions of the population. 'hypergrid' - networks of motorways and air• ports for movement of people and goods, and Behind such trends lie the 'long waves' of eco• networks of satellites and wires for movement of nomic development, a combination of technol- information and capital. Many patterns of urban activity and urban form are turning inside out, as Fig1.11 the growth nodes of production and consump• CYCLES & TRANSITIONS tion migrate to the urban fringe or 'edge city' - retail, leisure and business parks with easy links long wave cycles economic Fig1.12 CITY as MATERIAL PROCESSOR upturn downturn imported resourcesresources exported quaternary: O pollution 100% knowledge based pollu1ion tertiary: white capit)'r&capitl& .c,ollar services techn,blogytechrjO lo9Y exported 50% seyondary: LABOUR cenir~ GoNsu• M!1'rION goods long wave man,ufacturing mdustr:v ;ltmer ~ proportion transitions primary: ~uburbs-. of active ~esources population .ft,{er hinterland rail local pollution 1800 1900 2000 regional resources Overview of structural cycles and transitions in economy, technology and society. General system flows in a t ypical industrial city-region: Source: adapted from Schumpeter 1939, Hand y 1992. based C(l geography of Greater Manchester. 38Townroe 1996: Dicken 1998 42 Solow 1970 39 Mulgan 1997: 43 Castells 1998 40 Amin 1994 44 Garreau 1994 41 Schumpeter 1939: Brotchie Hall & Newton 1987 14 Context Fig 1.13 CITY as INFORMA TlON to the hypergrid (Fig 1.13).44 The city itself, PROCESSOR and its people's 'reason for being there', centres on services and consumption, and its cultural 'cachet' competes in a global hierarchy. leisure retail There are many paradoxes in such a transi• nodes node CAPITAL, CONSU• tion - OM contains 19th and 21st century cul• SERVICES, MPTION INFORM• CULTURE, tures and economies side by side. And while ATION AMENITY production and consumption globalize, there is a counter trend of 'localization' - a new kind of leisure Greater 'place advantage' in culture and amenity:s In globalized before. physical terms, edge cities are 'counter-urban• leisure ized', while historic centres are 're-urbanized' and Trans-European network,,1 global exclusion. industrial areas 'regenerated'. In social terms, hypergrid Imported I airport 'uneven development' creates clusters of unem• node exported production pollution ployment and exclusion. In environmental terms, nodes the bulk of a city-region's resources and impacts come and go through the global hypergrid which Flows of capital, information and cultures in a post-industrial globalized city-region; based on geography of Greater Manchester. is increasingly privatized and deregulated, and where environmental management is an even greater challenge than before. URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT The concept of 'urban sustainable development' 1.14).46 Doubling average levels of affluence, brings together 'environmental sustainability' while halving environmental impact, requires a with 'urban development' - a rich mixture indeed. 'factor of four' increase in material efficiency:7 One starting point looks again at the triangle of If the world population also doubles in the mean• economy-environment-society, and the resource time, a factor of eight or ten increase is needed - management concepts of stocks, flows, patterns a full-scale 'de-materialization':8 and limits, Then there is one more crucial factor In reality the economic stocks and flows rep• - 'dynamics' - meaning the evolutionary poten• resented by 'affluence' are not only in money, tial of human activity and ingenuity to tum prob• but in social and environmental resources, 'capi• lems into opportunities. tal' or 'welfare'. Some of these resources can be traded on the market, some of them can be meas• Economy & environment ured but not traded, and others can be valued only as functions or intangible qualities:9 If Economic activity has traditionally been the ex• such resources are to be protected they have to ploiter of natural resources - so how can there be 'internalized' within economic markets and be a 'sustainable economy'? A very simple bal• social systems. Different kinds of stocks and ance is shown in the equation 1 = P x A x T, flows can be seen in a mapping of production, which shows environmental impact as a func• consumption and 'welfare' (Fig 1.15).sO This tion of population, affluence and technology (Fig 45 Dicken 1998 47 von Weizsacker & Lovins 1997 46 Meadows, Meadows & Randers 1992 48 World Business Council for Sustainable Development 1994 49 CAG & Land·Use Consultants 1997 50 Ekins 1994 INTRODUCTION 15 Ag 1. 15 AFFLUENCE & EFFLUENCE Ag 1. 15 CAPITAL STOCKS & FLOWS Ag 1. 15 oulput.: proCflSUS oulput.: between 'fJood.' " Ilows 'fJood.' 'pt FIN ..... 'At 'T' 'I' ECOLOGICAl. POPULo CAPITAL CONSUMPOO'" AFFLU· TECHN· IMPACT SPlflllJAl ENVIRONMENT ATION 15 ENCE OlOGY 15 NEEDS SERVICI;S 15 SOCIAL I PtlTEI'MEOIA re CAPITAL nun'Oers. & malitfulll 1m""",,,,,, en..,ron• PAODUCTlON dlSlnOObon OO_Don unlol merwalOt HKiHEA INSMIJTIONAL INVESTMENT '" 1o. "",II,ty 01 ma_ other NEEDS CAPrr"L hOusehOl". Ide· ... 00.....",..,100 ex,",,_ DISTRIOUTlON cllt5S85Btc ·d ...... topment elleet MA.NUFACTURE outpuls: BfoSOC CAPITAL NEEDS 'blfds ' FIfIIANClAL OEPRECIATN CAPITAL Basic ralios linking popula.loo, affluence, lecIY'lO'Ogy. environmenL POllUTION SOOfce; MeadowS et 011992: as", 1993 highlights the flow s between different kinds of Gena raj I ramewoik lor ~ nking different torms of capi1al and consu~tion , Source: simplified and re--arrangecl from Ekils & MaxoNeef 1994 . capital, and the challenge of environmental eco• nomics - how to define market values for non• market resources (Chapter 13) .'1 Society &. environment Beyond the static balance sheet picture of Followi ng through the logic of the 'affluence' stocks and limits are the ' dynamics' of economic equation above, we can explore the human and bu siness activity.sl Such dynamics might 'needs' which li e behind it. A needs equation include innovation, skills, competitiveness and cannot sensibly be put into numbers. but would indeed optimism - the faclOTs which tum envi• include: ronmental problems inlO economic opportuni• ties. Fostering such dynamics is the general ai m human needs x cultural factors x fulfilment of 'ecological modernization', reducing ecologi• Jactor '" aff1uence levels cal impacts while expanding the economy. by transforming production and consumption. 'l Its This s hows very simply that social systems wi th overall goal of a 'sustainable economy' has many cuhural norms which encourage non-material layers (Chapter 10): needs are more likely to be environmentally sus• t ainable.~ For instance, the GM climate emis• • Environmenta ll y s ustai nable economy: ac• sion targets could be mel tomorrow if thermal ti vity and trading systems which co-exist with clothing was worn at all limes - but current life• local and global capacities and limits. style factors make this highly unlikely (Chapter • Sociall y sustainable economy: provision and II). A bal ance sheet approach looks at stocks equitable distribution of income. goods. serv• of human 'wel fare' from the service provided by ices, security and employment. environment al resources. SOffie of these can be • Financially sustainable economy: a viable measured through economic markets, but other balance of investment. savings, consump• welfare factors are more qualitative - a sense of tion, added value, autonomy a nd competi• 'place', for instance, is crucial for neighbourhood tiveness. vitality. but it cannot necessarily be measured or traded.ss As for the dynamics which tum problems into opponunities. there are actions at every level every level every level• every level at every • competi• 16 Context Figl.16 CULTURAL TYPES In this project we have focused on a middle way approach - 'mid-green' and 'mid-equity', which aims to bridge the gap between principles and certainty style & risk averse practice. While these differences cannot always be reconciled, awareness of alternative views can CONSUMERS & PUBLIC SECTOR: FATALISTS HIERA RCHIS TS help to mediate conflict and build consensus. One approach is 'cultural theory', a typology of the styles of individuals and institutions, show• individualist f----+--_+_~ collectivist ing different combinations of risk aversion and approach approach collective mentality (Fig 1.16).60 Meanwhile investigation of alternative views has to find out PRIVATE SECTOR: NGOSECTOR: what people really think - street-level research PIONEERS EGALITARIANS in Lancashire has shown huge alienation and uncertainty style & risk taking distrust between different sections of society.6t General outline of human types in cultural theory. ('NGO' =- 'non Economy & society governmental organization'), Source: adapted from Douglas & Wildavsky 1986; Thomson 1994. For the third side of the triangle, we have to ad• mit now - we have no masterplan to solve all and sector of society. 'Social capacity' enables human problems. But sustainability themes do the cohesion and integrity of individuals, fami• provide a fresh approach to perennial debates.62 lies, groups and networks: 'political capacity' In almost all public services there lS a dire enables empowerment of individuals and com• shortage of resources, while elsewhere many munities: and 'cultural capacity' enables diver• people lack useful or fulfilling activity. The ob• sity, identity, and the values which support vious step is to link one with the other through sustainabili ty the 'third sector' (Chapter 10). But to bypass In practice such values, often taken as self• the money system needs not only new policies, evident, contain many contradictions: but new channels for social interaction. In prac• tical terms cooperation is crucial for the success • 'Futurity': responsibility to future genera• of public transport, housing, urban ecology and tions is fundamental: but most individuals others - where people share gardens with friends, operate with very short time horizons. 56 for instance, they may increase amenity while • 'Equity': equity in the present generation is using less space.63 difficult to define, let alone achieve: even Such cooperation and mutual aid in tum the concept of 'sustainability' can be seen depends on rebuilding social cohesion and as a trick to further the exploitation of the shared norms and values. But in practice there is poor South by the rich North.57 an explosion of diversity - in organizations, net• • 'Risk' : the 'precautionary approach' seeks works, activities and cultures, as now manifest responsible action in the face of environmen• in the boundless jungle of the internet.64 Such tal risk: in practice there are many other kinds diversity is potentially unstable, and many fu• of risk to be balanced. 58 ture scenarios envisage civic breakdown, cyber• • 'Ecology': a 'deep green' approach sees na• drugs and corporate gangsterism. 65 Such ture as sacrosanct, while a 'pale green' ap• diversity is also a potential strength, encourag• proach gives priority to human needs: there ing deeper levels of human capacity, and again may not be an objective truth behind one or turning problems into opportunities. the other. 59 56 Rabl 1996 60 Thompson 1990 57 Redclift 1994 61 MacNaghten& Urry 1997 58 O'Riordan 1995 62 Jacobs 1996 59 Pearce 1993 63 Ravetz 1998 64 Mulgan 1997 65 Gibson 1984 INTRODUCTION 17 All this is a backdrop to the visible and prac• politi cians, designers, economists, activists, en• tical agenda for sustainable urban development gineers and managers each bringing their own - re-claiming land, re-structuring economies, re• angle and their own language. Coordinating engineering the infrastructure, re-imaging urban such diversity is a huge but essential challenge identity, and re-defining new roles for cities and if cities and regions are to steer towards a more their people in a globalized era. Sustainable ur• sustainable development path. ban development is a many-headed theme, with METHODS & TOOLS Here we take a step back and look for common A systems perspective on sustainabil ity threads and ways to link different fonns of knowl• looks at the qualities of viability, integrity and edge. The result is a set of methods and tools longevity - sustainability, in other words - of which were developed during the research, and any system, as manifest in a set of system func• which should be useful to similar projects. tions (Fig 1.17).M A system has to survive by utilizing its available resources and throughput Systems thinking of energy and materials.69 It has to deal with diverse conditions, respond to short term In reality an urban economy or urban environ• changes, and adapt to long tenn changes. Most ment is not a simple or predictable unit at any importantly it has to co-exist with other systems, scale - it is more like a 'complex system', where both larger and smaller, by containing its exter- many pans constantly interact and organize them• selves into ever-more intricate patterns. 66 Almost every natural habitat - such as a FIg '.17 SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE woodland - contains endless layers of complex• ity, at every scale down to the microscopic. Any definition of 'sustainability' depends on the frame ROBUSTNESS ADAPTABILITY & of reference - even sudden change or catastro• & RESILIENCE: INNOVATION: for cf"'ersll)' & short for long term Change phe, such as a forest fire, may be part of a longer (Brrnchange tenn cycle.67 As there are few fixed boundaries around any 'system', its definition depends on the nature of the question - if we are looking at a EFFECTlVE• woodland, the watershed might be one kind of NES~ : u liizi ~g boundary, but the species types might be an• rescurh!, other. Li kewise in a city-region, almost any com• throughpO«. " system" of ponent - a house, a housebuilder, or a housing Interconnected industry - can each be seen as a 'system'. Each 1»t1s CO·EXISTENCE: system system responds to changing pressures, prob• with sut>SYSlems & "environment" lems and opportunities, to sustain its existence paraDe! systems and its functions. G_flII .....,\iono 01.,...... ,. 3. ~ •...... _ !:ill(. _:. OlpI«Imom McLo...".., ' 969: _ ,991\: CIoyIOi & ROdOotIt '996 66F..-uowicl. O"Connot& Ravetz. 1994 68 BosseII996: Clayton & ~ 1996 67Ho1ing$I9S6 690cUn198J 18 Context nal impacts which CQuid affect ils resource base. flg 1. 1' TOTAL METABOLISM To fu lfil these functions there are key qualities which reflect the system's capacity for survival, resilience and integrity: ~-.)'Stem bo ..... Context • cybern etic feedback and communication - abili ty to respond to pressure or change.711 • self-organization - capacity to innovate and generate diversi ly. TI Context patterns, 'OOWN- Context Context smEAM' • emergence - capacity to evolve 10 higher lev• Context OUTCOMES els of self-organizati on. With a systems perspective, seemingly unpre• ,,,. dictable behaviour can be traced via 'attractors' melabolsm& metabolism; _I&lnabllity - relalively stable or recurring patterns of OT• ganization and aClivi ty. ll Self-organizing pat• boo.n:lary.. - terns can be seen in every aspect of the natural world - sustainable agri culture also depends on enG ...... ,* _ e<:tIC"I"...... at 10I0g u""',..,,·d •.,..,._ .... rr 10at __ I "10lIl "'110_...... ': I 1UAsItrf 19!ifI 7t Kty .. Sd"IneicIIr 19901 7t Kty .. Sd"IneicIIr 19901 1UAsItrf 19!ifI 72 GIld< t993 13"""" 198B 74~""19M 1SPoft.IgIII9!i7 76t.Ugiao 1997 INTRODUCTION 19 Rg I.lt INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT • The context of assumptions on n ational or global policy, regulation, ma rkets and tech• NATlONAL & GLOBAL CONTEXT nology can be shown above. coley. reg""oon ,_.""""., an ..... • Local actions which may aller various links in the system, aiming to improve its perfonn• drive,. P,... Uftl5 patterns • loeb preuures Impact. & ance or sustai nability, can be shown below. & flows I/o",. & oulpula outcom". S lA, • O~Nm Such an 'integrated assessment ' mapping only ClA.1UAAI. SDe 'Nf'AA SU>P\.y ENV"()N HWAN VAtUES STRUe· SD, MENTAL. B&4EAT runE .... ss- puts on one pece i of paper what every good f-iGHER I"'lUS T- EOOlOOI MARICET URE NEEDS INSnT• . RV& MPACTS GOODS manager knows instinctively. Its sruc t ture is an UTleJoIS TEQiN • CONI). BASIC rnONS H ....N SERvOCEI• OLOoY extension of the common OECD 'pressure-state• N[£OS IMPN:TS response' and the EEA 'driving forces' frame• work s.7'I It is not an objective description as 'upstream ' idownstre8m' such, more a tool for investigation. It provides a needs oU/comes total systems mapping, with 'hard ' suppl y- de• LOCAL RESPONSES & IICTIONS mand equations in the centre, and more 'soft' or (X)wrl'mllrl. buslJ185S. COffiITUlItv. wbIIc intangible social and cultural va lues surround• ing them. It can be used as a guide to 'hard ' IfllegralOO assessment framewotk lor mapping o" tOlaJ melabolism' and systems modelling or 'soft" systems analysis of 'sUS1ainabilily balance'. S"""'''' ada pled from EEf< '995, OECIl 1993. social and polilical 'discourse'. It is also a link• ing framework for identifying strategies, agen• shows such a balance - we need access and cies, indicators, targets, and appraisals as below. opportunity, but we end up with congestion and As with any mapping or mental model, there climate change, un less there are changes at each are endless possible levels of de tail: the very step between. A total metaboli sm mapping general level shown here is akin t o a route map should include cullUral, social, economi c, politi• showing o nly the very largest features. Even th is cal, spatial, technological, environ mental and shows how sectors s uch ashou sing or trans• ethical dimensions, arranged in a rough order pon, can meet multiple needs with single actions, from upstream to downst ream ( Fig 1.19): or single needs wi th multiple actions, and each generating mu ltiple outcome s. It also shows how • The left hand colu mn shows cultural and life• simple actions often backfire - for instance why style factors - needs and desires for mobil• building new roads can increase congestion. ity, identity and so.on. This combination of 'i nt egrated assessment' • These pressures translate to economic mar• mapping with the 'total metabolism' systems kets and mode acti vity levels - 'demand ' for approach i s apowerful double oo t l for exploring trips i n cars or buses. the sustainability theme. The systems mappings • Market demands int eract with the urban in• at th e beginning of each chapter in Pans 11 and frastructure both physical and human - such III show in outline the main features of each sec• as the road network or the police force. tor, as a route-map for more detailed discussion. • 'Suppl y·side' technology provides services together wit h external impacts - emissions and congestion. In tegrated Sustainable Cities • These externalities cause pressures and im• Assessment Method pacts on environmental resources - climate Follow ing the logic through, we applied the change or ac id rain. 'integrated assessment' and 'tolal metabolism' • Human outcomes can be both positive and map ping approach to this research. One result negati ve, with the fi nal balance weighted by is thi s book. Another result is a prototype social priorities or ethical values. package of methods and tools, the 'Integrated .,-=79EEA 1996&OECO 1993 20 Context Sustainable Cities Assessment Method' AII.2D INTEGRATED SUSTAINABLE (ISCAM).IO This is a pat lform which links a CITIES ASSESSMENT METHOD number of applications, which surface in various parts of Ihis book: VALUES SCOPE. del/be- SYSTEMS GOALS. CONTEXT. MAPPING • 'systems mapping' or integrated assessment rative VISIONS BOUI>DARIES of the 10lal metabolism. as above. mode 'accounting', \0 compare scenarios. and 10 • analysis identify chai ns of indic310rs and targets. mode NDtCATOAS. TRENDS. SCENARIOS. 'strategies' for sets of actions coordinated (using BASEU ES TAAGETS EVALUATION • scenario between different pans of the metabolism. accounls) • 'agencies' which can achieve such a clions in the context of barriers and constraints. action STRATEGIES. ACTOAS3 OUTPUTs. POUCIES AcnONS OUTCOMES • 'appraisal' of the s usI3inabil it y o f systems, mode projects o r programmes. The accoun ting component is also available in the form of a prototype software 1001.11 General scope of ISCAM method & accounlinglool: many feedback cycles and loops are possible between each stage. The ISCA M start s by scoping the problem Sou",.: adapted Irom Chec~and 1 990. Friond & Hickling t 987 in question. whether large or small , understand• ing the nature of the metabolism, and drawing To be meaningful , each indicator needs a arge t t up a systems mapping as above. - but targets li kewise can mean little in isolation. 'Accounting' then puts fles h on the bones We need linked sets of ta rgets, each of which of the mapping, start ing with the i ndicators which reflect a al b ance of scienti fic goals, social val• are relevant and measurable. But as an y one ues. economic resources and political constrai nts. indicator is a small piece of the jigsaw, we need The ISCA M software selects the features of the to link 'fami lies' of indicators in extended chai ns city-region system which can be easil y meas• of cause and effect.u For example, an indicator ured and linked, and UIS p them on a set of of ' hi gh public transport use' might show an eco• spreadsheets, wit h minimum data requirements city, or simply a poor city, depending on other and nothi ng hidde n - 'what you see is what you factors such as ut ilizati on or emissions - we ee n d get'. A s tandard f ormat f oreac h sector shows the wider picture to see each pa rt in context. The the total m etaboli sm factors above - drivers, ISCAM systems mapping p rovides a useful pressures, stocks, patterns, fl ows and im pacts - structu re for these chai ns. An indicator chain arranged as a set of lt aernative scenari os: from the transport sector, for instance, shows lin kages all th e wa y from culture to climate • current values, and historic where available; chan ge : • business-as- u5ual (BAU) tre nd s: • sustainable development (SD) targets. • cultural: desire for access and mobility: • social: work and lifestyle pa tterns; The fac tors which are most sensi ti ve and cri ti cal • economi c: travel demand by mode: to the total system are represented b y 'core indi • • infrast ructu re: network perform ance: cators'. For each of these the distance between • technology: fuel efficiency by mode: BAU 'trends' and SD ' targets' is s hown a s a • environmental: emissions by mode: 'trend- target' index. The core indicators and • ecological: acidification and climate impacts; their indices can be explored and linked to • outcomes: economic, environmental. social. indepth political and economic debates. Such de• bates are an integral part of the process of fonn• ing scenarios, and scenarios which oo l k beyond 81 OeI;oiIton _ .., ...... ae.~. 82~I996 INTRODUCTION 21 fI,'.2' SUSTAINABILITY APPRAISAL • a third stage explores the implications of the selected scenarios for actions and agencies. values & context Sustainablllty appraisal needs & outcomes & The crunch comes with hard decisions - should pressures osk. 'uturlty Impacts (+1-) &QuII)' ecology a derelict urban site be used for housing or allot• sOCIal ments? The ISCAM is a useful gu ide to the po,tl cal sustainability appraisal of such questi ons." The econon'lIc 'trend- target' index for each indicator is also the begi nn ing of an appraisal - the difference be• project technology tween 'where we are heading', and 'where we cIIy-reglon system 4Jnvtronmenl want to be'. The systems mapping shows how global system projects are driven by 'upstream' needs, fulfill • (many other system levels possible) ing a purpose, and resulting in 'downstream' outcomes. Nesting layers of environmental strat• General linkages between inciviIiJal pfCljects and programmes, egy in time and space are a basis for weighing up and their conte'" 01 city-regl,", and global systems , benefits and impacts (Fig 1.20). the frame of conventional thinking are essential In practice most ' real' decisions are sur• for any kind of long ra nge strategy.u rounded by uncertainty and conflict, and 'Strategies' or coordinated sets o f actions, 'sustainability' itself is a direction and Shifting can then be fonned on the basis of the system balance. So a 'sustainability appraisal' of any mapping and the scenario accounts, as a bal• project or programme is not so much a fixed an• ance of problems, constraints and opportunities. swer, as a process of inves ti gation, which should The ISCAM system mapping shows how strate• be multi-sectoral, multi-cultural and so on (Chap. gies overlap - for instance that housing, trans• ter 15)." The question - ' is Ihis house or hous• port and employment strategies have to ing industry sustainable?' - can be seen in its coordinate to avoid failure and gain added value. context - 'it depends on what or whom we want . Agencies' to carry out the aclions can be to sustain' . identified on the basis of the strategies. The After all this complexity, how can the ISCAM ISCAM systems mapping shows how political capture the basics of the city-region with some simple ' headline' indicators? The logic above and insti tutional factors are generally pari of the problem, and that new kinds of institutions may might suggest three key ratios - economy/envi• be needed. So each sector in the city-region has ronment, environment /society. and society/ a 'strategy', and each 'strategy' has an 'agency'. economy - an approach which national and other M Depending on the situation, this could be either indicators projects could do well to follow. For a formal body with funding, such as a city-re• practical purposes we can take proxies for such gion 'energy agency', or an infonnal network, or ratios. estimated pro rata per person: collaborative partnership (Chapter 14). economy/environment: GOP/C0 emissions; In summary, the ISCAM approach which • 2 links these various tools is also the methodol• • environmen(/society: CO/ housing floor• ogy for the 2020 research process (Fig 1.19): space; • society/economy: housing fl oorspacelGDP. • firstly it explores the scope and nature of the problem, using the system mapping; Such a circle of indicators show an outline sustainability balance of ' needs' to 'outcomes'. • accounting tools help [0 define indicators and targets, and explore alternative scenarios; This is useful in comparison and trend analysis, as.. in th...e e xamples to fol1ow (Chapter 2) . and explore _ 85 carIIy & Owislill um 960ETR1_~CoI.o"IIs' 22 Context ABOUT THE PROJECT This report is the outcome of an inquiry into 'in• Report structure tegrated planning for long term integrated sus• The report aims at a logical structure, although tainable development in a northern conurbation'. in practice each theme is linked to almost every It builds on the work of the TCPA Sustainable other: Development Group, published as Planning for a Sustainable EnvironmentY This was based " Part I (Chapters 1-4) looks at principles and on a holistic view of city-regions, where each methods: GM in the past and present: future component had a role to play, and it showed how trends and prospects: and a scenario for 2020. different policy menus could apply in city cen• • Part II (Chapters 5-10) looks in more detail tres, inner areas, suburbs and so on. at each of the key environmental sectors. The next step was to test these ideas with a • Part III (Chapters 11-15) looks at how to case-study of an actual city-region, where more put the many strategies and actions together in-depth analysis could show the conflicts and - in public services, regeneration, investment synergies between sectors. To carry this out, a funding, and politics and governance. partnership was formed between the TCPA and the Centre for Employment Research at Manches• Each chapter in Parts I and II follows a common ter Metropolitan University. Funding came from pattern. First we look at the trends, prospects the European Regional Development Fund in and possible scenarios, and use the 'integrated conjunction with the Global Forum 94 event, the assessment' system mapping to explore the to• 10 districts of GM, and corporate sponsors as tal metabolism and possible goals and targets. listed. Then we look in more detail at each industry and The aims of the project were to look further, sub-sector. Finally we look at how to make it wider and deeper than other current studies, and happen, in terms of 'who' does what, 'where' on to investigate how principles could apply to prac• the ground, and a comparison with other city• tice, in a typical case-study city-region: regions. The thorny question of costs and ben• efits is the subject of current research, and is • strategic time horizon for urban restructur- discussed here only in outline (Chapter 13).88 ing; In each chapter there are summary boxes of • spatial perspective on each type of territory; goals and strategies, showing the relevant roles • environmental, social, economic linkages; and responsibilities with a shorthand: • goals, targets and strategies for key sectors; • GOV: national government, agencies, EU; • action recommendations for national and lo• • LA: local authorities, agencies and related cal government, business, community and partnerships; the public; e BUS: business, industry, professions, finance; • demonstration and guidance for • COM: community groups, NGOs, networks; sustainability strategies and appraisals, Lo• • PUB : public, consumers, individuals. cal Agenda 21 and similar programmes. In each category there is a code to show very roughly 'who does what': 87 Blowers 1993 88 Ravetz 2000c INTRODUCTION 23 - direct or major responsibility shown by • summaries and extracts from the scenario ac• - indirect or minor responsibility shown by 0 counts, but the full set with details of the soft• ware is available on the Sustainable City-Region website. 90 Project methods With a general shortage of data, linkages, The research approach aimed at a holistic and methods and tools, the research aims to draw longer-term perspective on the city-region sys• together whatever evidence is relevant to a fo• tem, and to help achieve this, developed the cus on the 'real-world' prospects for various ISCAM methods and tools above. possible scenarios for sustainable development. The research process started with a 'fore• In practice the process of assembling and casting' approach of trend analysis, drawing on linking such a case is anything but straightfor• government and industry data where possible. ward - there are many feedback cycles, lateral It then combined this with a 'backcasting' ap• moves, and apparent dead ends. The result aims proach, using scenario techniques to envision at a fine line between idealism and practicality; possible futures and then work back towards between detailed policy recommendations and policies and strategies. 89 While the methodol• general research findings; and between scien• ogy is more holistic and wide-ranging than that tific evidence and political reality. Hopefully, simi• of many projects, the ISCAM scenario account• lar attempts in the future - integrated planning ing tool provides a sound mathematical ground• for long term sustainable development - can ing. 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