ES_BEM_13-1 13/1/09 15:42 Page i Biochar for Environmental Management ES_BEM_13-1 13/1/09 15:42 Page ii ES_BEM_13-1 13/1/09 15:42 Page iii Biochar for Environmental Management Science and Technology Edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph London • Sterling,VA ES_BEM_13-1 13/1/09 15:42 Page iv First published by Earthscan in the UK and USA in 2009 Copyright © Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, 2009 All rights reserved ISBN: 978-1-84407-658-1 Typeset by MapSet Ltd, Gateshead, UK Printed and bound in the UK by Cover design by For a full list of publications please contact: Earthscan Dunstan House 14a St Cross Street London, EC1N 8XA, UK Tel:+44 (0)20 7841 1930 Fax: +44 (0)20 7242 1474 Email: [email protected] Web: www.earthscan.co.uk 22883 Quicksilver Drive, Sterling,VA 20166-2012, USA Earthscan publishes in association with the International Institute for Environment and Development A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Biochar for environmental management : science and technology / edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-84407-658-1 (hardback) 1. Charcoal. 2. Soil amendments. 3. Environmental management. I. Lehmann, Johannes, Dr. II. Joseph, Stephen, 1950- TP331.B56 2009 631.4'22—dc22 2008040656 The paper used for this book is FSC-certified. FSC (the Forest Stewardship Council) is an international network to promote responsible management of the world’s forests. ES_BEM_13-1 13/1/09 15:42 Page v Contents List of Figures,Tables and Boxes xi List of Contributors xxi Preface xxv Foreword by Tim Flannery xxvii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xxix 1 Biochar for Environmental Management: An Introduction 1 Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph What is biochar? 1 Biochar terminology 2 The origin of biochar management and research 3 The big picture 5 Adoption of biochar for environmental management 9 2 Physical Properties of Biochar 13 Adriana Downie,Alan Crosky and Paul Munroe Introduction 13 Biochars: Old and new 14 Relevance of extended literature 14 Caution on comparing data 15 Origin of biochar structure 15 Influence of molecular structure on biochar morphology 17 Loss of structural complexity during pyrolysis 19 Industrial processes for altering the physical structure of biochar 20 Soil surface areas and biochar 22 Biochar nano-porosity 22 Biochar macro-porosity 24 Particle size distribution 26 Biochar density 27 Mechanical strength 29 Future research 30 3 Characteristics of Biochar: Micro-chemical Properties 35 James Amonette and Stephen Joseph Introduction and scope 35 Formation and bulk composition 35 Surface chemistry 45 ES_BEM_13-1 13/1/09 15:42 Page vi vi BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 4 Characteristics of Biochar: Organo-chemical Properties 53 Evelyn S. Krull, Jeff A. Baldock, Jan O. Skjemstad and Ronald S. Smernik Introduction 53 Elemental ratios 54 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy 58 Oulook 63 5 Biochar: Nutrient Properties and Their Enhancement 67 K.Yin Chan and Z. Hiu Xu Introduction 67 Nutrient properties of biochars and crop production responses 68 Factors controlling nutrient properties of biochar 74 Improving the nutrient value of biochars: Research opportunities and challenges 79 Conclusions 81 6 Characteristics of Biochar: Biological Properties 85 Janice E.Thies and Matthias C. Rillig Introduction 85 Biochar as a habitat for soil microorganisms 86 Biochar as a substrate for the soil biota 89 Methodological issues 91 Effects of biochar on the activity of the soil biota 92 Diversity of organisms interacting with biochar 95 Conclusions 102 7 Developing a Biochar Classification and Test Methods 107 Stephen Joseph, Cordner Peacocke, Johannes Lehmann and Paul Munroe Why do we need a classification system? 107 Existing definitions and classification systems for charcoal, activated carbon and coal 108 Proposed classification system for biochar 112 8 Biochar Production Technology 127 Robert Brown Introduction 127 History of charcoal-making 128 Mechanisms of biochar production from biomass substrates 133 Opportunities for advanced biochar production 139 9 Biochar Systems 147 Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph Introduction 147 Motivation for biochar soil management 148 Components of biochar systems 149 Biochar systems 154 Outlook 164 ES_BEM_13-1 13/1/09 15:42 Page vii CONTENTS vii 10 Changes of Biochar in Soil 169 Karen Hammes and Michael W.I. Schmidt Introduction 169 Mechanisms of incorporation and movement of biochar in soil 170 Physical changes of biochar in soil 172 Chemical changes of biochar in soil 174 Biotic changes of biochar in soil 176 Conclusions 178 11 Stability of Biochar in Soil 183 Johannes Lehmann, Claudia Czimczik, David Laird and Saran Sohi Introduction 183 Extent of biochar decay 184 Biochar properties and decay 188 Mechanisms of biochar decay 188 Stabilization of biochar in soil 191 Environmental conditions affecting biochar stability and decay 196 A biochar stability framework 198 12 Biochar Application to Soil 207 Paul Blackwell, Glen Riethmuller and Mike Collins Introduction 207 Purpose of biochar application 208 Biochar properties and application methods 214 Methods of application and incorporation: Specific examples 217 Comparison of methods and outlook 222 13 Biochar and Emissions of Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases from Soil 227 Lukas Van Zwieten,Bhupinderpal Singh, Stephen Joseph, Stephen Kimber, Annette Cowie and K.Yin Chan Introduction 227 Evidence for reduced soil greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions using biochar 228 Biological mechanisms for reduced GHG emissions following biochar application 232 Abiotic mechanisms influencing GHG emissions using biochar 239 Conclusions 243 14 Biochar Effects on Soil Nutrient Transformations 251 Tom H.DeLuca, M. Derek MacKenzie and Michael J. Gundale Introduction 251 Nutrient content of biochar 252 Potential mechanisms for how biochar modifies nutrient transformations 254 Direct and indirect influences of biochar on soil nutrient transformations 255 Conclusions 265 ES_BEM_13-1 13/1/09 15:42 Page viii viii BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 15 Biochar Effects on Nutrient Leaching 271 Julie Major, Christoph Steiner,Adriana Downie and Johannes Lehmann Introduction 271 Evidence for relevant characteristics of biochar 273 Magnitude and temporal dynamics of biochar effects on nutrient leaching 279 Conclusions and research needs 282 16 Biochar and Sorption of Organic Compounds 289 Ronald J. Smernik Introduction 289 Sorption properties of ‘pure’ biochars 290 Influence of biochar on the sorption properties of soils 292 Effects on sorption of adding biochar to soil 293 Direct identification of organic molecules sorbed to biochar 294 Conclusions and directions for future research 296 17 Test Procedures for Determining the Quantity of Biochar within Soils 301 David A. C. Manning and Elisa Lopez-Capel Introduction 301 Biochar quantification methods 303 Routine quantification of biochar in soils 311 Conclusions 312 18 Biochar, Greenhouse Gas Accounting and Emissions Trading 317 John Gaunt and Annette Cowie The climate change context 317 Greenhouse gas emissions trading 318 How biochar contributes to climate change mitigation 321 What mitigation benefits are tradable in a pyrolysis for biochar and bioenergy project? 324 Greenhouse gas balance of example biochar systems 325 Issues for emissions trading based on pyrolysis for bioenergy and biochar 333 Conclusions 336 19 Economics of Biochar Production, Utilization and Greenhouse Gas Offsets 341 Bruce A. McCarl, Cordner Peacocke, Ray Chrisman, Chih-Chun Kung and Ronald D. Sands Introduction 341 Pyrolysis and biochar 342 Examination of a biomass to pyrolysis feedstock prospect 343 Sensitivity analysis 354 Omitted factors 355 Conclusions 356 ES_BEM_13-1 13/1/09 15:42 Page ix CONTENTS ix 20 Socio-economic Assessment and Implementation of Small-scale Biochar Projects 359 Stephen Joseph Introduction 359 Developing a methodology 360 Model scenario of a hypothetical village-level biochar project 365 Conclusions 371 21 Taking Biochar to Market: Some Essential Concepts for Commercial Success 375 Mark Glover Introduction 375 Biochar’s positioning in the sustainability and climate change agendas 377 The sustainability context for biomass generally 378 Inherent characteristics of the biomass resource 379 Lessons from the first-generation liquid biofuels sector 380 Biochar commercialization framework 381 Commercial factors and business modelling 388 22 Policy to Address the Threat of Dangerous Climate Change: A Leading Role for Biochar 393 Peter Read The tipping point threat 393 Beyond emissions reductions 394 Carbon removals 395 The economics of biosphere C stock management (BCSM) and biochar 396 A policy framework for carbon removals:The leaky bucket 398 Food versus fuel and biochar 400 Conclusions 401 Index 405 ES_BEM_13-1 13/1/09 15:42 Page x ES_BEM_13-1 13/1/09 15:42 Page xi List of Figures,Tables and Boxes Figures 1.1 Structure of graphite as proven for the first time by J. D. Bernal in 1924 2 1.2 Advertisement for biochar to be used as a soil amendment in turf greens 4 1.3 Motivation for applying biochar technology 5 1.4 The global carbon cycle of net primary productivity (total net photosynthesis flux from atmosphere into plants) and release to the atmosphere from soil (by microorganisms decomposing organic matter) in comparison to total amounts of carbon in soil, plant and atmosphere, and anthropogenic carbon emissions (sum of fossil fuel emissions