BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

A STUDY TO ESTABLISH FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN NETBALL IN MACHEKE ZONE AFTER COMPLETION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL EDUCATION.

BY

JOSSAM PULUMUTSA

A research project submitted to Bindura University of Science Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Bachelor of Science Degree in Sports Administration (HBScSA)

FACULTY OF SCIENCES

BINDURA, ZIMBABWE

i

JUNE 2015

DECLARATION

I, Pulumutsa Jossam hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is my own original work and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it at any university for a degree.

Signature……………………………………………………

Date: …………………………….

ii

BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

RELEASE FORM

Name of Author: Pulumutsa Jossam

Title of Project: A study to establish factors influencing the participation of women in netball in Macheke zone after completion of secondary school education.

Programme: Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Sports Administration

Year Granted: 2015 Permission is hereby granted to Bindura University of Science Education Library to produce single copies and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purpose only. The author does not reserve other publication rights and either the project nor may extensive extracts from it be printed or reproduced without the author’s permission.

Signed by ……………………………………………………………..

Permanent Address: Macheke High School P. O. Box 38 Macheke

Date: June 2015

iii

BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommend to the Bindura University of Science Education for acceptance, a project entitled: A study to establish factors influencing the participation of women in netball in Macheke zone after completion of secondary school education. Submitted by Pulumutsa Jossam in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science Honors Degree.

------Supervisor(s)

------Chairperson

------Examiner

Date

iv

DEDICATION

This research is dedicated to my late parents, Winnet and James Pulumutsa, who instilled in me the importance of education and hard work.

v

ABSTRACT

The study sought to establish factors influencing the participation of women in netball in Macheke zone after completion of secondary school education. A sample of 50 participants aged between twenty (20) and thirty (30) years comprising 25 women from the ward register were drawn from a pool of two hundred and eighty (280) women using simple random sampling and the remaining twenty-five (25) women were netball players purposively sampled from the two (2) existing local netball clubs in Macheke zone using the lottery method. Purposive sampling was largely used since it focused on the particular characteristics of a population that were of interest which makes it possible to answer research questions. Interviews were also conducted on one local councilor, two (2) club executive members and four (4) village heads. An item by item analysis was done to analyze the data. Data was presented in the form of tables, figures such as bar graphs and pie charts. The study found that the factors that were influencing the participation of women in netball after completion of secondary school education include negative perceptions of the community towards women’s participation in sport, negative attitudes of women after completion of secondary school education, absence of adequate sporting facilities, lack of funding for women’s participation in netball activities and harassment for women participants. Zimbabwe Netball Association (ZINA) must collaborate with the Sport and Recreation Commission of Zimbabwe (SRC) in mobilizing resources to organise community sport awareness campaigns aimed at spreading the game of netball to the public. The study also recommends that the Ministry of Sports, Arts and Culture should enforce a policy on the establishment of Community Sports where girl school leavers and women athletes can be linked. The district should liaise with the Zimbabwe Netball Association (ZINA) to hold coaching clinics for Club executives and their coaches. Local authorities should ensure that adequate facilities are put in place in various communities to maximize women’s participation and these training facilities should be up to standard. The Government must ensure adequate financial and material support for various community clubs and sport programs that are meant to promote participation of women.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For the success of this research project I extend my utmost appreciation to all those who gave me guidance, assistance and support. In particular, I would like to thank my supervisor Mr Mukanhairi for his constructive criticism that challenged me to aim for excellence. He was dedicated throughout the course of the project. I also thank the two (2) netball clubs in Macheke Zone which collaborated in the collection of data. The local councilor for ward 29 in Macheke zone Mr J. Kamwendo, I greatly thank you for providing me with the necessary information. Lastly I would like to extend my gratitude to my lovely wife Hellen and our two sons, Tinashe and Genius who always inspired me to work hard and never to give up even when the load seems too heavy to carry on with. Without these three people my life would have become meaningless hence my successful completion of the Research project.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ...... ii RELEASE FORM ...... iii APPROVAL FORM ...... iv DEDICATION ...... v ABSTRACT ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... xiii CHAPTER ONE ...... 16 INTRODUCTION ...... 16 1.0 Introduction ...... 16 1.1 Background of the study ...... 16 1.2 Statement of the problem ...... 20 1.3 Research questions ...... 21 1.4 Purpose of the study ...... 21 1.5 Significance of the study ...... 21 1.6 Limitations ...... 22 1.7 Delimitations ...... 22 1.8 Definition of terms ...... 22 1.9 Summary ...... 23 CHAPTER TWO ...... 24 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 24 2.1 Introduction ...... 24 2.2 Factors influencing the participation of women and girl school leavers in netball .. Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.2.1 The perception of the community towards participation of women in netball...... 24 2.2.2 Women’s role in society ...... 25 2.2.3 Gender and sport ...... 26 2.3 Attitudes of the society towards participation of women in sport ...... 26 2.3.1 Cultural factors affecting women sports participation ...... 27 2.3.2 Religion’s role in women sport ...... 29

vii

2.4 Attitude of women towards netball ...... 30 2.5.1 Positive role models in sport ...... 31 2.5 Sporting equipment and facilities ...... 32 2.5.1 Access to sporting facilities ...... 32 2.5.2 Equipment in sport ...... 33 2.5.3 Sports facilities and participation ...... 34 2.5.4 Media coverage in women sport programs ...... 34 2.6 Resourcing for women sport activities ...... 35 2.6.1 Budgets for women sport programmes ...... 35 2.6.2 Sponsorship of women sport programmes ...... 35 2.6.2.1 Corporate Sport Sponsorship ...... 37 2.6.3 Media and women sports funding ...... 37 2.7 HARASSMENT IN SPORT...... 39 2.7.1 What is harassment? ...... 39 2.7.2 Abusive behavior in sport ...... 39 2.7.3 Sexual Harassment ...... 40 2.7.4 Discrimination of women in sport ...... 41 2.7.5. The Brighton declaration of women and sport ...... 43 2.8 Summary ...... 43 CHAPTER THREE ...... 44 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 44 3.0 Introduction ...... 44 3.1 The Research Design ...... 44 3.2 Target Population ...... 45 3.3 The sample ...... 45 3.4 Sampling procedures ...... 45 3.5 Research Instruments ...... 46 3.5.1 Questionnaire ...... 46 3.5.2 Pilot study ...... 47 3.5.4 Interviews ...... 47 3.6 Data collection procedure ...... 48 3.7 Data analysis procedure ...... 48 viii

3.8 Summary ...... 48 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF DATA ...... 49 4.1 Introduction ...... 49 4.2 Biographical information of the respondents...... 50 4.2.1 Respondents age ...... 50 4.2.2 Number of Children in Family ...... 51 4.2.3 Academic Qualifications ...... 51 4.2.4 Marital Status ...... 52 4.2.5 Favorite Sport ...... 53 4.3 Perceptions of the Community towards Women Participation in Netball ...... 54 4.3.1 Perceptions of the Community towards Women and Girl-Child School Leavers Participation in Sport...... 54 4.3.2 Involvement of men in netball in Macheke Zone...... 55 4.3.3 Guardian Support ...... 56 4.3.4 Marital status and women participation in sport ...... 57 4.3.6 Relationship status and involvement in sport ...... 58 4.3.7 Influence of Religion on Participation in Sport...... 58 4.4 Attitude of Women Towards Netball following Completion of Secondary Education...... 60 4. 4.1 Women’s school-leaver sport participation ...... 60 4.4.2 Sporting Activities Done During Leisure Time ...... 61 4.4.3 Participation of Peers in Netball Activities ...... 61 4.4.4 Influence of Body Image on Sport Participation ...... 63 4.4.4 Presence of Prominent Netball players in Macheke Zone ...... 64 4.5 Sporting Facilities and Equipment ...... 65 4.5.1 Availability of Netball Facilities ...... 65 4.5.2. Availability of standard netball facilities ...... 65 4.5.3. Availability of Netball Association to Co-ordinate Netball ...... 66 4.6 Funding for Women Sporting Activities ...... 67 4.6.1 Sponsorship for Sporting Disciplines ...... 67 4.6.2 Media Coverage on Women Sport Programmes ...... 68 4.6.3 Local Business Sponsorship for Women Sport ...... 69 4.6.4 Incentives for Sport Participation ...... 70

ix

4.7 Harassment in Sport Programmes ...... 71 4.7.1 Harassment of Women in Sporting Activities ...... 71 4.7.2 Nature of Harassment in Sport ...... 72 4.7.3 Rapport Between Female Netball Players And Male Coaches During Training ...... 72 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 73 5.0 Introduction ...... 73 5.1 Summary ...... 74 5.2 Conclusion ...... 75 5.3 Recommendations ...... 76 REFERENCES ...... 77

x

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Gender breakdown of sports media coverage showing discrimination of women to access adequate media coverage……………………………………...28

Table 4.1 Number of Children in Family…………………………………………………...38

Table 4.2: Marital Status of the Respondents……………………………………………….40

Table 4.3: Favorite Sporting Event for the Respondents……………………………………40 Table 4.4: Decision making pertaining women sport participation…………………………44 Table 4.5: Involvement of Women Peers in Netball………………………………………...49 Table 4.6 Nature of harassment…………………………………………………………….52 Table 4.7 Media Coverage on Women Sport Programmes………………………………...53 Table 4.8 Availability of Netball Facilities………………………………………………...53 Table 4.9 Availability of standard netball facilities………………………………………..55 Table 4.10 Availability of Netball Association to Co-ordinate Netball…………………….59

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1: Respondents age………………………………………………………………….38 Figure 4.2: Academic Qualifications…………………………………………………………39 Figure 4.2.1 Perceptions of the Community towards Women Participation in Sport…………41 Figure 4.2.2 Men involvement in netball Macheke Zone……………………………………..42 Figure 4.2.3: Guardian Support………………………………………………………………...43 Figure 4.2.4: Marital status and women participation in sport…………………………………44 Figure 4.2.4 Women and relationship status…………………………………………………..44 Figure 4.2.5: Religion and Sport Participation…………………………………………………46 Figure 4.3: Women School leaver sport participation………………………………………..47 Figure 4.4: Activities Done During Leisure Time……………………………………………48 Figure 4.5: Influence of Body Image on Sport Participation………………………………...50 Figure 4.6: Presence of Prominent Netball Players…………………………………………..51 Figure 4.7: Sporting Disciplines and Sponsorship…………………………………………...54 Figure 4.8: Sponsorship from local business people………………………………………....56 Figure 4.9: Incentives for Sport Participating in Sport……………………………………….57 Figure 4.10: Harassment during Sporting Activities………………………………………….58 Figure 4.11: Rapport between Female Netball Players and Male Coaches…………………...60

xii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Questionnaire for girl-child school leavers and women netball players in Macheke Zone…………………………………………………………………...68 Appendix II: Interview questionnaire to club executives, local councilor and village chiefs in Macheke Zone………………………………………………………….76 Appendix III: Permission to carry out the research…………………………...... 77

xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ASC ------Australian Sports Council CANA ------Confederation of African Netball Association ESPN ------Entertainment and Sports Programming Network FIFA ------Federation of International Football Association IFNA------International Federation of Netball Associations INF------International Netball Federation NAPH ------National Association of Primary Heads NASH ------National Association of Secondary Heads PE ------Physical Education UNESCO ------United Nations Education Sport Council ZINA ------Zimbabwe Netball Association ZRP ------Zimbabwe Republic Police ZTISU ------Zimbabwe Tertiary Institutions Sport Union ZUSA ------Zimbabwe Universities Sports Association

xiv

xv

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

The aim of this research is to establish factors influencing the participation of women in netball in Macheke Zone after completion of secondary school education. Considering the modern day trends in the world wide increase in the significance of sport as a huge business brand the researcher found it necessary to identify the knowledge gap between previous work and the current situation.

1.1 Background of the study

Taiylor (2001) defines netball as a game with seven players on either side, similar to basketball except that a player receiving the ball must stand still until they have passed to another player. Netball is a fast exciting, true team sport which involves running, jumping, throwing and catching and shooting. Netball is similar to basketball although the rules, equipment and team numbers are slightly different that is no dribbling, no running with the ball, seven ( 7) players per team, ball must be passed in three seconds, ball and basket are slightly smaller, there is no backboard and players are designated to certain areas of the court. A netball team may consist of up to 12 players, only seven may take the court at any one time. Each player has a designated playing area. Female netball players usually wear skirts or dresses to play the game, explained Taylor (2001).

Hargreaves (1994) explains that a netball is smaller and lighter than a basketball (similar to a size 5 soccer ball, however with a grip of volleyball). Netball goal rings do not have a backboard. Players may attempt to dunk, however no contact is allowed with the goal ring which also includes the net. Only two (2) designated players are able to shoot a goal. Each goal is worth 1 point and has to be shot from inside the goal circle. Each player has three (3) seconds to pass the ball and there is no dribbling. Players may do a “jump shot” however the ball must be released before either foot comes in contact with the ground again, Brittain (2009).

Johannsen (2008) is of the view that netball is an all-inclusive sport, can be played by females and males of all ages, and a wide range of positions allows for different skill levels The history of Netball Internationally, Regionally and in Zimbabwe

According to Johannsen (2008) the history of netball can be traced to the early development of basketball. A year after basketball was invented in 1891; the sport was modified for women to accommodate social conventions regarding their participation in sport, giving rise to women's basketball. Variations of women's basketball arose across the United States and in England. Johannsen (2008) also highlighted that at a physical training college in England, the rules of women's basketball were modified over several years to form an entirely new sport, "net ball". The first codified rules of netball were published at the start of the twentieth century, and from there the new sport spread throughout the British Empire.

Taylor (2001) postulates that from the beginning, netball was widely accepted as a sport suitable for women. Domestic netball competitions arose in several countries during the first half of the 20th century. Starting from the 1920s, national associations were formed to organize the sport in netball-playing nations. International matches were played sporadically in the early 20th century, but were hampered by varying rules in different countries.

Following the global standardisation of netball rules, international netball competition expanded during the second half of the 20th century. Netball was included for the first time in 1985 at the World Games, a sporting competition held every four years for sports that are not contested at the Olympic Games. New Zealand won the inaugural World Games netball competition, and again in 1989. Netball has not been included in the World Games since then (Brittain, 2009).

Goodwill (2011) also explains that at the 1990 Commonwealth Games in Auckland, netball was included in the programme as a demonstration sport. Netball became a competitive sport in the Commonwealth Games at the 1998 Games in Kuala Lumpur. Australia won the inaugural netball competition in 1998, and again at the 2002 Games in Manchester. Netball has since become a "core sport" at the Commonwealth Games (for women only).

Netball has never been contested at the Olympic Games, nor has it been shown as a demonstration sport. However, netball became an Olympic "recognised sport" in 1995, paving the way for its possible inclusion as a competitive sport in the future. A campaign in England

was started in 2008 for netball to be included as a demonstration sport at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, which was supported by British Prime Minister Gordon Brown, Goodwill (2011).

Smaller regional tournaments emerged in the 1990s and early 2000s giving increased competition for second-tier nations, including the Asian Netball Championship and the Nations Cup. Netball has also been included in various smaller multi-sport events, including the Pacific Games, All-Africa Games, World Masters Games and the Arafura Games.

Increased international competition led to the development of the International Netball Federation (INF) World Rankings in 2008, in which the performances of national teams could be compared. Higher-ranked national teams often compete on an annual basis, either in one-off tests or as part of tours. The Australian and New Zealand national teams have traditionally dominated the international game, although England and Jamaica are becoming increasingly competitive against their Antipodean counterparts, Taylor (2001).

Taiylor (2001) added that today, netball is popular in Commonwealth nations, and is reportedly played by over 20 million people worldwide. It remains primarily a women's sport, although male participation is increasing in some countries. Netball is still largely an amateur sport, despite some countries having high local-level participation. Further developments to the sport are being trialed, including a shortened version of the game played in a World Series format netball is also being advocated for possible inclusion in the Olympic Games.

The IFNA reports that over 20 million people currently play netball in more than 80 countries, with 74 national netball associations affiliated with the worldwide governing body. It is the most popular team sport for women in Australia and New Zealand, and remains a popular women's sport throughout the Commonwealth of Nations, including in the United Kingdom, South Africa and Jamaica. According to International Netball Federations (2013) report, television coverage has increased the profile of the sport in countries with elite domestic competitions, but in many cases not to the extent of well-established male-dominated sports. Netball has also yet to reach the status of a fully professional sport in any country.

The International Federation of Netball Associations (IFNA) is the world governing body for the sport of Netball. It is based in Manchester, England. The Federation was founded in 1960,

following discussions to standardize the rules of netball. Prior to this, many different variations on the game were played around the world, and so international competition was difficult.

IFNA members are split into five (5) further regional federations. These are Oceania Netball Federation, Confederation of African Netball Associations, Federation of European Netball Associations, Asian Federation of Netball Associations and Americas Federation of Netball Associations (Taylor, 2001). Responsibilities of IFNA include the formalization of standardised rules and the regulation of international competition. IFNA members are also lobbying to have netball included as a sport in the Olympic Games (Taylor, 2001).

Netball is a popular women's sport in parts of Africa. Several African nations are ranked amongst the top thirty-two in the world. As of July 2014, Malawi was ranked number Five (5), South Africa was ranked number Six (6), Uganda was ranked Fourteen (14), Tanzania was ranked Seventeen (17), Botswana was ranked Nineteen (19), Zambia was ranked Twenty-two (22) Zimbabwe was ranked Twenty-four (24), Namibia's women's national team was ranked Twenty-eight (28) and the Lesotho women's national team was ranked number Thirty-two (32) in the world.

The Confederation of African Netball Associations (CANA) is the regional body within the International Federation of Netball Associations that governs netball across Europe. There are currently seventeen members within the African region. Full members of (CANA) are Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Other associate members are Cameroon, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Seychelles and Sierra Leone.

Goodwell (2011) explains that netball in Zimbabwe is viewed as a feminine sport and it’s particularly popular in Zimbabwe. The country has few netball facilities as soccer is much popular in the country at the same time women’s sports like netball get less government support because they are sports for women. Netball is one of the several sports that have replaced traditional games in the region as the country began to globalize.

The origins of netball in Zimbabwe can be traced back to basketball between the periods (1895 - 1920). The game was known as women’s basketball. There were no printed rules, no court lines, circles, or boundaries and the goals were simple baskets hung on the wall by then. Though the

exact dates are not known when netball was officially first introduced in Zimbabwe, it is assumed that in (1956) England’s first touring team of ten netball players who had to pay their own airfares, took four (4) days to fly to Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. The tour was a great success and England winning all its netball games.

Netball in Zimbabwe is played beginning at grassroots level that is it starts at primary level of education administered by National Association of Primary Heads (NAPH), it is also played in almost all secondary schools in Zimbabwe and is administered by the National Association of Secondary School Heads (NASH), Netball is also played at events such as the Zimbabwe National Youth Games, in tertiary institutions such as colleges and universities and is administered by Zimbabwe Tertiary Institutions Sport Union (ZTISU) and Zimbabwe Universities Sports Association (ZUSA). Various netball clubs also exist at national level in Zimbabwe and they all affiliate to the Zimbabwe Netball Association. Various community clubs also play netball in Zimbabwe though in most cases there are no clear structures in some of these community clubs. Zimbabwe Netball Association (ZINA) also runs a Netball Super League competition (the highest level of netball competition in the local netball league). The netball super league comprise of eight (8) women teams that are City of Harare, Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP)- Harare Central, Chinhoyi University, Nehanda Nyakasikana,Corn Gold Mara (Midlands), Jumbo Stars (Bulawayo), (Warthog Harare), Support Unit and Zimbabwe Defence forces.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Most of the girls in Macheke Zone participate in netball at high school but once they finish secondary school education the majority of them withdraw from netball activities. A survey carried out by NASH in Marondera district in (2009) revealed that most of the girls who play netball in most community clubs are still less than twenty years of age thus indicating that a few are only participating in sport. This compelled the researcher to carry out a study which sought to establish the factors hindering women from participating in netball following completion of secondary education.

1.3 Research questions

• What is the perception of community towards participation of women in netball activities following completion of secondary education? • What is the attitude of women towards netball following completion of secondary education? • To what extent can lack of sporting facilities and equipment affect women participation in netball? • To what extent can funding influence women’s participation in netball activities in Macheke zone? • Does harassment affects women’s participation in netball?

1.4 Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study is to establish the factors affecting participation of women in netball in Macheke Zone after completion of secondary school education.

1.5 Significance of the study

The study would act as a fertile ground that guides and helps rural schools, Ministry of Sport, Arts and Culture, Sports and Recreation Commission (SRC) and the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education in promoting women’s participation in sport. The research findings will also assist the above institutions in policy formulation directed at empowering women’s participation in sport at community and national levels including small towns and rural areas of Zimbabwe.

The research findings will also assist girls in schools and girl school leavers to understand the value of netball and compliment those women who have an interest in sport. The research project would be added to the literature available for sports administrators and sport science students to study and acquire more knowledge about the main factors which hinder women from effectively participating in netball activities after completion of secondary education.

The research would consequently increase the researcher’s knowledge base in the field of sport in general. The significance could also be that prospective researchers must be aware that there is still a lot to be researched on in the field of women participation in sport. Finally the research would be of value to Zimbabwe Netball Association and other sports stakeholders such as sponsors and donors in the sense that they will know how to tackle various challenges faced by women in sport.

1.6 Limitations i. The time frame to complete the project was too little to produce a comprehensive project. ii. The researcher is based at Macheke High school and faced financial constraints in travelling to areas outside Macheke to carry out a pilot study.

1.7 Delimitations

Macheke zone is in Mashonaland East Province and lies 34 kilometers South East of Marondera. The zone is composed of six (6) secondary schools which are two (2) boarding schools and four (4) council secondary schools. The zone is also comprised of seven (7) primary schools that is one (1) boarding school and six (6) council primary schools. This zone has an estimated population of about forty thousand (40 000) people and shares boarders with Rusape, Marondera and Mutoko districts, respectively. The major township in Macheke is Nyazema where the research will be mainly focused.

1.8 Definition of terms

• Hinder – Entails keeping (a person or thing) back by delaying, impeding or affecting progress and development.

• Macheke Zone – An area in ward 29 of Murehwa South Constituency but falls under Marondera District formulated according to the zoning of sports clusters.

• Netball – is a ball sport played by two teams of seven players each.

• Participate – to take part in or become involved in an activity.

• Sport – all forms of usually competitive physical activity which through casual or organized participation, aim to use, maintain or improve physical ability and skills while providing entertainment to participants and in some cases, spectators.

• Women – is an adult female human being aged between 20 to 30 years.

• Zone – an area or cluster that has the same characteristics, purpose or use in terms of sports administration.

1.9 Summary

This chapter reviewed the nature of netball internationally and in Zimbabwe. Background to the study, statement of the problem, objectives and limitations of the study were also highlighted. Delimitations of the study area were discussed as well as assumptions of the study. Key terms were also defined according to their contextual and dictionary meanings.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction This chapter is going to focus on the factors affecting the participation of women in netball.

2.2.1 The perception of the community towards participation of women in netball. The perception and attitude of an individual and that of the whole society towards sports effectively influences girl child school leavers and women’s participation in netball (Lovell, 1992). Honeybourne and Moor (1996) are of the belief that traditional African societies regard sport as play, looking at anything considered as play, it is never taken seriously and because of this, many of the older people would not take part in sport because it is a disgrace in the society. One of the reasons for such perception is the lack of knowledge on the benefits that could be acquired through taking part in sports and such people especially in rural areas must be educated through government intervention to conscientise them of the benefits that can be accrued through

actively involved in sport games such as netball (Honeybourne and Moor, 1996). Robinson (1990) virtually pointed out that negative perceptions and attitude cultivate into persons while they are still at school. Honeybourne and Moor (1996) assert that, as regards esteem, perception is concerned with societal view of the individuals. Correspondingly in many cultures, societal values dictate that women should not take part in sport, if they do it should be confide to “feminine” like gymnastics and not “macho” pursuit such as football or rugby (Honeybourne and Moor, 1996). Following this assertion, it clearly denotes that community’s perceptions and attitudes towards sports participation by women play an influential role as women are still restricted on certain sport codes by the various communities in which they come from for example the Moslem communities which restrict women and girls to leave certain parts of their bodies exposed which is the scenario in most games like netball which allows women and girls to wear sporting attire which allows them to participate freely (Lovell, 1992). According to the Financial Gazette of October 17-23, (2013) Muwaningwa is quoted saying that in most rural societies of Zimbabwe, there is still a general belief by a notable number of school staff that sport is play and it is for dull pupils, hence pupils fostered with such a myth may shun participating in sports even after secondary school education. Such pupils are bound to mature while embraced by this negative perception, then as result it will be difficult to convince such a girl child school leaver to take part both in community games and even at various sport clubs.

2.2.2 Women’s role in society

Webster (1999) postulates that traditionally the women’s place was in the home while the men would go out to find employment so that they could support the family. Webster (1999) also added that the women’s multiple roles included caring for the sick and the old, looking after children and providing domestic comfort to the husbands. With H.I.V and AIDS around, women have been seen to provide home based care for those who are suffering from AIDS. Melariphy (1983) confirmed that society does not acknowledge the victory of women in sport as women are rewarded less than their male counterparts when they emerged victorious on various sporting disciplines.

Hargreaves (1994) says that despite all the evidence on the benefits of an active lifestyle, including physical education and sport, for women and girls, the percentage of women who describe themselves as physically active remains low. As powerful as the rationales and

motivation for physical activity may be, the barriers faced by women can be overwhelming. These include traditional perceptions that sweating and defined musculature are inappropriate for women, the lack of culturally relevant role models; the scarcity of facilities offering women- friendly equipment and programmes, the lack of free time due to work and family responsibilities worries about safety and shame and embarrassment about present appearance and capabilities, Hargreaves (1994).

2.2.3 Gender and sport

Hargreaves (1998) because of stereotypical assumptions that boys are supposed to be more active than girls, and that sporting activities are more appropriate for boys than girls, socialization into sport, influenced by our larger society is often gender- based and the process involved differs for boys and girls. Lewko and Greendorfer (1978) indicated that play styles, game and toy selection and gender labelling for physical activities did exists for boys and girls in society, with boys benefiting from more opportunities and more encouragement to participate in physical activity. Lewko and Greendorfer (1978) also added that though peer acceptance is equally important for all children and adolescents, there are again differences in the role physical competence plays for males and females.

The ability for girls to play has led to the reduction of female sport administrative leadership and female coaches. Smith (2009) believes that when women play certain sports they became strong. Strong women challenge the prevailing gender ideology that underlies norms, legal definition and opportunity structures that frame the conditions under which men and women form identities, live their lives and relate to each other. Hycook (2011) postulates that those who are privileged by gender ideology in society see strong women as a threat. They seek to discredit most women’s sport and strong female athlete and they call for a return to the “good old days” when man played and women watched and cheered.

2.3 Attitudes of the society towards participation of women in sport

Robinson (1990) confirms that historical attitudes and the absence of gender stereotypes in sport have been recognized as an important factor in the remarkable success of Chinese women athletes in international competitions. Such attitudes are reflected in the prioritization of elite women’s sport by the Chinese government. At the same time, however, women are

underrepresented in sport administration, coaching and other decision making positions in China. Stereotypical attitudes towards women and girls and traditional gender roles are also prevalent in the organizational cultures of sporting bodies, the norms, values, power dynamics and practices that underlie the way such bodies and institutions do their work. This often results in unequal allocation of physical resources for women’s sport added Robinson (1990).

Dooley (1999) is of the view that resources are often less or of a lower standard than those provided to their male counterparts and, when resources such as equipment or playing fields are shared, men’s teams are often given priority, for example, the men’s and women’s singles finals at the Wimbledon Tennis Championships are both supposed to be held on Centre Court, the centerpiece of the championships. When, however, postponements due to weather or other factors result in the matches being played simultaneously, the women’s match will invariably be relocated to number one court. This is rationalized as part of Wimbledon’s efforts to “have the most attractive matches played on the courts with the most spectator accommodation”.

2.3.1 Cultural factors affecting women sports participation

There is a wide spread belief in our society that women are by nature, less gifted than men. If that were the case, then there would be uniform pattern of gender difference in achievement at all levels and in all areas in Zimbabwe. According to Matiza (2010) the main factor preventing women in realizing their full potential in cognitive and motor skills appears to be a cultural environment that fosters and promotes self defeating, self negative attitudes. Bennet (1989) further explains that this creates a vicious cycle in which these negative attitudes lead to poorer performance which in turn reinforces the negative attitudes. Unfortunately, schools do not appear to be giving this problem sufficient attention. There is an understandable pre-occupation with cognitive development at the exclusion of attitudinal aspects of education. Not only that but some school or class environments actually tend to reinforce girls negative self concepts, which generally have its roots in the home environment, Bennet (1989).

Kanhukamwe and Madondo (2000) postulated that the Zimbabwean culture has a general preference for boys compared to girls and as such communities have lower expectations for girls and women as compared to boys and men. Women therefore are socialized for marriage rather than a career first and independence. Liu (1983) highlighted that women for example are

restricted in wearing tight clothing especially in rural areas as the attire is alleged to be associated with prostitution. Liu (1993) further explains that tight clothing worn by players and officials in netball are often regarded to cultural erosion. It is often difficult for most women to participate in sporting activities while clad in tight clothing especially in rural areas and other peri-urban areas due to negative comments and misconceptions passed by various male counterparts, Liu (1993). Adams et al (2010) reiterated that in Muslim culture, women are not allowed to play football since they believe that running and jumping in front of men jeopardises a woman’s dignity and that such movements expose too much of women’s body. Thus they believe that women’s participation in sport and exercise in public is unacceptable and this stems from the desire to protect men as well as women’s modesty. According to the United Nations Children’s Fund Handbook on Gender Sensitivity (1994) African culture restricts girls’ activities to such an extent that their school development, exploration, instincts etc are curtailed. Girls are restricted from wearing shorts especially in rural areas as the attire is associated with prostitution. Tight clothing is regarded as contributing to cultural erosion. The above information therefore indicates that communities through beliefs are hindering the participation of women in sport. Girls’ sports have been defined and shaped by “men’s value, men’s understanding of the world and men’s experiences- all of which suppress the development and expression of female values” (Blind, 1989). The history and evolution of gendered sport substantiates this statement and provides evidence of gender bias in sports as well as sport culture created and sustained to maintain that bias added Blinde (1989). Girls have had to adapt within the established male model. Men and boys continue to receive the bulk of sport participation opportunities, scholarships and access to better coaching (Everhart and Pemberton, 2001). This gain for boys and men has resulted in the loss of women’s sport culture, therefore merging female sports model into the existing male sport model. Everhart and Pemberton (2001) also added that the ability for girls to play has led to the reduction of female sport administrative leadership and female coaches. Smith (2009) postulates that it is believed that when women play certain sports they become strong. Strong women challenge the prevailing gender ideology that underlies norms, legal definition and opportunities structures that frame the conditions under which men and women form identities, live their lives and relate to each other. Hycook (2011) posits that those who are privileged by gender ideology in society see strong women as a threat and they

seek to discredit most women’s sport and strong female athlete and they call for a return to the “good old days” when man played and women watched and cheered. Tucker (2007) postulates that when girls and women play certain sports such as team sports, they are seen as the invaders of the male turf. This is why they have been excluded from some sports while at the same time they are encouraged to play sport that emphasizes grace, beauty and coordination. Coackley (1994) postulated that this exclusion was rationalized by experts and educators, who told women that if they played strenuous sports would damage their uterus, breast and experience problem endangering their abilities to give birth and nature their children. Many people believe these myths because they were consistent with dominant gender ideology and the idea that females were naturally weak and therefore are vulnerable to injuries and over exhaustion in sports (Coackley, 1994). Participation was limited to activities involving solo performers such as gymnastics or competitions in which nets and lane divides and other barriers separate opponents and protecting them from physical contact (tennis, swimming and golf) added Coackley (1994). Hargreaves (1997) says culture is seen to be a lived dominance and subordination of particular classes. Cultural beliefs have a great impact on the involvement of females in sport. Kane (1998) argued that sport could be regarded as the most important site for the production of cultural beliefs and practices that equate gender differences. ‘A women’s place is in the kitchen’ is still a common saying and many cultures still firmly believe it (Kane, 1998). Thus cultural beliefs make women think that they will never attain the same level as their male counterparts as far as sport is concerned added Kane (1998).

2.3.2 Religion’s role in women sport

Webster (1999) religion also plays an important role in determining women’s involvement in sport. Usually most religious sects do not approve the attire worn by sportswomen. Webster (1999) has this to say, “Women who follow the Mulsim faith are still restricted in sport which they can participate in. their religion dictates their dress code which in turn restricts participation in many sports especially those that take place when men are present. Since religious groups have their various beliefs, these have to be followed by all members belonging to that religious sect.” Matiza (2010) also cited that Muslim women may not feel very comfortable to participate in sport where males are part of the spectators. Men also detect wearing sport clothes and this usually hinder most of the women to participate in sporting activities.

There is widespread view of South Asian females being passive and not interested in participating in sport, for example Lovell (1992) maintains that they are often perceived as passive and frail, and these images can restrict involvement of South Asian women in sport. Carrol and Hollinshead (1993) proposed that there are four main factors which restrict South Asian women from participating in physical education and sport in schools and colleges and universities. First, for devout Muslim females, participation in ‘purdah’ (the Islamic term used to describe the state of being covered from head to toe) presents problems with some activities. Second, showering presents problems not an act of showering itself, but its communality. Exposure of their bodies produces strong feelings of shame or guilty for many Muslim females. Third, the month- long festival Ramadan, in which Muslims must fast between dawn and dusk, results in them becoming very tired, and strenuous physical activity can cause discomfort and be distressing. During Ramadan water is not allowed to enter the mouth between sunrise and sunset, so difficulties arise in swimming, finally participation in extracurricular activities is limited as considerable restrictions are placed on some Muslim girls by parents with particular concerns regarding daughters travelling alone or developing social relationships with boys. However there is a significant presence of South Asian women in dance and aerobics to keep fit. Muslim women face many barriers to sports and exercise, such as hijab bans, large-scale poverty and religious intolerance. But one of the biggest barriers originates from within their own communities, Hollinshead (1993).

The Indian women type of dressing also prohibits women to freely express themselves in sport. In Zimbabwe, the seventh day Adventist churches also do not allow their church members to participate in sport on Saturdays as this may tend to cause conflicts against their church doctrine. The End Time Messages church and the Paul Mwazha’s Apostolic sects are alleged to prohibit their church members from watching television and wearing tight clothing such as shorts and mini- skirts thereby denying them of opportunities to enjoy sport through active participation and viewing.

2.4 Attitude of women towards netball

Adrian (1995) postulated that girls on average have less self confidence than boys and rate their performance or ability in netball more negatively than do boys. Self confidence is also linked to

competition. Adrian (1995) added that although some women enjoy the competitive element of sport, many girls and women are turned off sports because of its competitive nature. This is one of the reasons why aesthetic activities such as aerobics and gymnastics are increasingly popular amongst girls and young women and why some traditional team sports such as netball are less popular.

2.5.1 Positive role models in sport

Denise (1994) suggested that today’s girls are bombarded with images of external beauty, not those of confident, strong female athletic role models. To some girls, fitting within the mold that they are constantly told to stay in is more important than standing out. Dooley (1999) is also of the view that peer pressure can be hard for girls at any age; when that pressure isn’t offset with strong encouragement to participate in sports and healthy physical activity, the results may lead girls to drop out altogether.

Honeybourne and Moors (2000) highlighted that many athletes have become sports stars or celebrities away from their sport. This means they are widely recognised by the general public and so their behavior might be scrutinized. It is important that these celebrities behave in a positive manner at all times. A positive role model in sport will have a positive effect on sports participation. Youngsters might try to copy their favorite sports stars and participate in the same sport such as the Wimbledon Tennis Championships where the profile of tennis is raised via the media. People especially children see sports stars and try to copy their performance at their local playing fields or courts. More participation today could mean more elite sport stars tomorrow. Beashel and Taiylor (2001) alluded that high profile athletes often work within their local communities providing encouragement to young athletes and act as sporting ambassadors. This is a positive experience for young stars, and it also reflects well on the athlete. It is usual for the media to report this, raising the profile of both the athlete and their sport. These sessions might happen on a local basis, with coaching, or they might take place on a national basis with athletes endorsing specific nationwide campaigns for example David Beckham is an F.A ambassador for World cup bid in 2018.

2.5 Sporting equipment and facilities

2.5.1 Access to sporting facilities

Mutenga (2013) highlighted that women and girls cannot play sport if they cannot get access to facilities at suitable times. Too often sport halls prioritise male sports so that men get facilities at their preferred times while women have to make do with less convenient times. In most urban areas of Zimbabwe and in some communal areas, community halls and other sports facilities such as netball courts and basketball courts are situated near business centres surrounded by beer halls and bottle stores. Mutenga (2013) postulates that most of the women and girls therefore may shun these facilities since the environment in which they are situated is not conducive for training and on several occasions the few women who are participating usually suffer more from the abusive languages uttered by the drunken people who associate them with prostitution because of their tight sporting attire.

Adams (2010) reiterated that both males and females must be accorded equal opportunities to access the available facilities. It involves treating everybody equally and fairly regardless of race, gender, disability or religion. The government must therefore set out clear legislation to prevent discrimination. The culture and structure of sport must be changed to ensure that all sporting facilities becomes equally accessible to all members of the society for example in England people have access to sport regardless of their age, race or gender as compared to most developing countries in Africa where access to sporting facilities is limited due to a variety of factors such as high cost, social status, age and so on. Access to sporting facilities is particularly limited for women and girls with disabilities. Access can be limited by physical barriers such as inaccessible entrances, reception areas, changing rooms and sports facilities, lack of accessible transport and parking. Lack of information in accessible formats for visually impaired and hearing impaired people can also create barriers to participation in netball, Mutenga (2013). Recent studies by Goodwill (2000) indicated that women and girls have 1,3 million fewer opportunities to participate in sports than boys and men have. Limited opportunities to play sports in colleges and communities mean women have to look elsewhere for sports which may not exist or may cost more money. More often there is an additional lack of access to adequate

playing facilities near their homes that makes it more difficult to engage in sports. Research conducted by the Nziramasanga commission of inquiry into education and training in 1999 in Zimbabwe revealed that most Physical education and (PE) and Sport facilities in primary schools particularly in rural areas, farming areas and high density suburbs are substandard and inadequate. Evidence was also availed to the commission to suggest that the equipment required for teaching Physical Education is expensive and not easily available. The evidence provided to the commission showed that there is no financial provision for the development of Physical Education and that the general-purpose funds in Zimbabwean schools are too little to support any meaningful PE programmes. The same sentiments were echoed by Musangeya, et al who say that the successful implementation of the Physical Education syllabus has been adversely affected by inadequate facilities, equipment, instructional materials and finance.

2.5.2 Equipment in sport

Taiylor (2001) reiterates that clothing equipment for sports can be expensive. Images of sports people can promote the idea that unless you are dressed in fashionable clothing designed for particular sport you will look out of place. Burges (2001) argued that some sports clothing is also quite revealing which create problems for women and girls linked to the issue about body image. Strict requirements about clothing can also prevent some netball women from participating particularly in clubs which insists members to wear tight fitting or revealing sportswear as this can exclude those who strongly follow their religious beliefs for example the Muslim followers. This can also scare away those who are self conscious of their bodies. With an increasingly body-obsessed culture, these women are frequently judged negatively, added Burges (2001).

Burges (2001) says all sports have recommendations and guidelines relating to the equipment that can be used for a particular sport. These recommendations will often relate to the type of equipment that can be used and the appropriate use of that equipment. The type of equipment to be used in your sport ranges from the clothes that you wear through to whether or not equipment is fit for use for example nearly all sports have recommended dress codes, some involving safety equipment to prevent illness and injury. Proper dressing may range from the usual sturdy, loose- fitting clothing made of breathable fabric to heat – preserving wets or running shoes with a list of essential features. This depends on the type of sport and the environmental conditions in which the sport is played.

Protective equipment for contact sports or those with a high risk of falling is also specific to the activity. In some sports protective clothing include guards or pads for specific body areas and may need to be professionally fitted. It should be worn at all times during participation, including practice and matches. Equipment should be fit for purpose. This relates to the guidelines for sports equipment and recommendations such as size and footballs and goals in relation to the age groups participating, Adams (2010).

2.5.3 Sports facilities and participation

Adams (2010) also reiterated that the equipment must also meet specific rules and regulations as technological developments affect sports equipment, governing bodies must approve new products to ensure that they will not give users an unfair advantage. For example when adidas introduced its ‘Predator’ football boots, Federation of International Football Association (FIFA) initially conducted a number of tests to ensure that they did not give too much of an added advantage to any player wearing them. The boots however could only be used in competitions after FIFA had approved them.

2.5.4 Media coverage in women sport programs

The world of sport is almost entirely divided between men’s and women’s categories. However men’s sport has always dominated all forms of media coverage despite the fact that women also compete in those exact same sport (increasingly on a professional level). This includes live broadcasting, newspaper and internet articles and reports, news coverage etc. For example, in the United States of America women’s sports receive a total of 1.6% of sports airtime on local television and sports media giant ESPN. A similar story is in Australian sports media where women’s sports coverage totaled 9% compared to 81% on men’s sports in 2008. In the written press the numbers are similarly skewed, Brittain (2009).

Brittain (2009) says between 1998 and 2009, 303 articles were published on women’s football in the British press. Putting this into context, in the same time span 388 articles were published on Coventry City Football Club (a lower league British club) alone. Brittain (2009) says what’s important to note with the examples given is that they are all taken from countries that have a relatively large participation and interest in women’s sports. Paradoxically, although the level of participation of girls and women in sport has increased significantly over the past decades this

does not appear to have transposed onto increased airtime for women’s sports. Indeed some studies in Britain have shown the opposite has occurred and the gap in coverage between men’s and women’s sport has widened. The only notable exceptions to the male domination in the world of sport are in the Olympic Games where coverage is equal irrespective of gender, and to a lesser extent Grand Slam Tennis where coverage is roughly equal but the men’s competitions still carry more prestige.

Clarke (1999) posits that the sports world is unfairly dominated by a male-orientated world- view. Increased media coverage changes public perceptions towards gender roles and women’s sport. Increased media coverage creates more role models for young girls to engage in sport. Increased media coverage will also lead to increased funding towards women’s sport (Clarke, 1999).

2.6 Resourcing for women sport activities

2.6.1 Budgets for women sport programmes

Sallis and Owen (2009) postulated that gender equity is often subverted by budget cuts. Compared with sports for boys and men, schemes for girls and women are often vulnerable to budget cuts because they are less well established, they have less administrative support, a smaller fan base and they have less revenue generating potential. Overally, they are often viewed as less important by many sponsoring organizations. As Sallis and Owen (2009) observed, ‘it seems like the only time women’s programmes are treated equally is when cuts must be made.’ In most developing countries such as Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana and Malawi women sport often suffers from budget cuts as compared to other well established countries in terms of sport for example South Africa and Nigeria where there are clear women sport structures which are well funded by their respective governments through the Sport and Recreation Commission of their countries, Matiza (2010).

2.6.2 Sponsorship of women sport programmes

Gold and Action (2012) defines sponsorship as when a business provides funds, resources or services to a club, in return for some form of rights and associations with the club that may be

used to help the business commercially. This could be in form of a logo on a sport ball or kit, signs at the oval or free advertising in the newsletter. According to International Cricket Committee Code of sponsorship (2003), any commercial agreement by which a sponsor, for the mutual benefit of the sponsor and sponsored party, contractually provides financing or other support in order to establish an association between the sponsor’s image, brands or products and a sponsorship property in return for rights to promote this association and for the granting of certain agreed direct or indirect benefits.

Honeybourne (2005) postulates that all sponsorship differs in their objectives and delivery. Some of these objectives include corporate or brand name awareness, reach a target audience, change or reinforce image, appropriate partnership, media reach and profile, corporate social responsibility, entertain existing and potential clients, support other marketing including sport at large. Honeybourne (2005) highlighted that the influence of sponsorship on the development of sport has been enormous. Sport is now big business with large amounts of money being spent by commercial companies on sports participants and events. Traditional male sports such as cricket and football have secured much of the corporate dollar. Matiza (2010) says women’s sport in most developing countries suffers from lack of exposure and subsequent sponsorship opportunities.

Some successful women’s teams gain a measure of support, but this is well below male sports resourcing, for example, the women football league in Zimbabwe suffered a major blow in failing to access sponsorship while the men’s premier league is always sponsored. Sunday Mail of August 10, (2014) states that the state of women’s football was deplorable. Sibanda also told the Parliamentary committee that there is no commitment to the promotion of women’s soccer which is looked down upon by almost all stakeholders in the football fraternity. Some of the issues that raised emotions during the portfolio committee proceedings were the lack of a football policy in the country, lack of commitment by government to fund soccer development and concerns that Zimbabwe Football Association (ZIFA) has done more damage than benefits to the world’s most beautiful game.

Women sport in South Africa and other developed nations like Australia and Britain is well funded. There are substantial disparities between advantaged and disadvantaged communities in terms of access to sport in South Africa as compared to other developing nations such as

Zimbabwe where there is still a great challenge in terms of accessing funding for women sports development. The state governments must ensure that local community sporting and recreational facilities, services and infrastructure available to all citizens and funds must be made available to maintain these facilities.

When mobilizing for resources for women sport, the government must forge partnerships with sports organisations, various companies and non- governmental organisations to provide a strategic approach to resource mobilization, both for and through sport. Thus corporate efforts are particularly effective if working with sponsors of major events or focusing on cause- related marketing or other creative initiatives.

2.6.2.1 Corporate Sport Sponsorship

Corporate sponsorship is any commercial agreement by which a sponsor, for the mutual benefit of the sponsor and sponsored party, contractually provides financing or other support in order to establish an association between the sponsor's image, brands or products and a sponsorship property in return for rights to promote this association and/or for the granting of certain agreed direct or indirect benefits according to the International Chamber of Commerce’s Code of Sponsorship (2003). Sponsorship of sport is important to companies worldwide. One analyst describes sports sponsorship as ‘one of the best ways to build a communication path toward consumers’, (Buchan, 2006). In addition, sponsorship provides business with opportunity for it to be seen as involved in the community, and importantly, for it to counter adverse perceptions. In other words, sports sponsorship is a powerful marketing tool. Sponsorship revenue ‘is a key source of income for sporting organisations from the grassroots level through to the upper echelons of professional sport’, (Crawford report, 2011).

2.6.3 Media and women sports funding

Adams et al (2010) says media messages are associated with commentary, positioning and size of articles and headlines and the focus of photographs tend to give a negative portrayal of women’ capabilities in sport. Clarke (1999) says men’s sport has always dominated all forms of media coverage despite the fact that women also compete in those exact same sport. The extent of media involvement has also influenced the amount of sponsorship and advertising revenue

available to participants, clubs and other sports organisations (Clarke, 1999). Mandy (2005) is of the view that the role of media in constructing meanings around feminity and masculinity tend to give a negative view on women capabilities when compared to male participants. Therefore the presents of media has turned sport a commodity that can be bought or sold. Thus a number of female athletes or participants prepare for sport in the knowledge and hope that the media will give them a stage on which to present their talents and also gain wealth through sponsorship. There is a direct link between the funding of sport and the media. Media coverage brings sponsors and advertising to a sport, which is now essential for a sport to remain viable, Mandy (2005).

According to Mutenga (2013) there is a “chronic lack of investment” in women’s sport in Zimbabwe from sponsors and broadcasters despite increased interest from spectators and viewers. The Guardian of Saturday 5 November (2011) in London, postulated that women’s sport only attracts 0,5% of all sponsorship as compared to 61,1% for men’s sport over the same period, with mixed sports accounting for the remainder of the market. Thompson (2012) also supported that it’s disappointing that more brands and rights holders have not seized the opportunity to benefit themselves and women’s sport, and help create a lasting legacy. During the London Olympics in 2012, Sports and Olympics minister, Hugh Robertson said it was disappointing that women’s sport continues to get nowhere near the same backing as men’s from the commercial sector. Robertson added that without the backing of sponsors and broadcasters, women’s sport will continue to face an uphill battle to get the recognition it deserves. Clarke (1999) posits that media is a powerful factor which influences our beliefs, attitude and values we have of ourselves and others as well as the world surrounding us. Media does not merely communicate and reflect reality in a more or less truthful way. Women have made a consistent and significant contribution to sport in Zimbabwe at all levels yet their achievements on the whole receive limited coverage by mass media. Buffer (1996) postulated that quality and quantity of coverage of netball sport by the media is not an accurate reflection of the amount of sport played and watched by women. Media coverage is generally inadequate and selective. High profile media is essential for attracting sponsorship, spectators and other sources of financial support.

2.7 HARASSMENT IN SPORT.

2.7.1 What is harassment in sport?

Monis (2004) says the world of sports has been riddled with sexual abuse and harassment of young athletes by their powerful and publicly respected coaches (respected for producing performance results) for many decades, across all sports, regardless of sex. While there is no consistently collected data on the prevalence of these transgressions, there is reason to believe that news reports and limited data from national sport governing bodies represent the proverbial “tip of the iceberg.”

Hargreaves (1994) says harassment for sports and recreation clubs can be divided into sexual, abusive behavior and discrimination. Abusive behavior include for example assault, emotional abuse for example blackmail, repeated requests or demands, neglect for example failure to provide the basic physical and emotional necessities of life and abusive of power which the harasser holds over the harassed for example coach-player or manager-player relationship. Monis (2004) also defines harassment as any form of behavior by a person or organization which is offensive, belittling or threatening. Harassment is directed at any other person or a group of people. It also refers to a particular characteristic of that person or group of people, Monis (2004).

2.7.2 Abusive behavior in sport

Hargreaves (1994) says abuse is a form of harassment and includes physical abuse (eg. assault), emotional abuse (eg. blackmail, repeated requests or demands), neglect (eg. failure to provide the basic physical and emotional necessities of life) and abuse of power which the harasser holds over the harassed (eg. coach-player or manager-player relationship). Hargreaves (1994) also postulates that abuse also includes use to bad effect or for a bad purpose or treat with cruelty or violence or addressing in an insulting or offensive way. Abuse can be in the form of bio psycho- social, emotional abuse that is use of language even in jokes that hurt emotions. Abuse can also be in form of social abuse that is nepotism and sexual abuse (use of sex for favours).

2.7.3 Sexual Harassment

It is alleged that women have been generally prone to abuse by men. Some women are no longer keen to participate in sport after being sexually harassed. Mandy (2005) says some male of low morals have been seen to take advantage of their low positions as coaches of female athletes in abusing their female netball players.

Robinson (1990) points out that rejection of male coach’s sexual over tunes could well mean the end of a young women’s athletic career. Some women and girls have been sexually abused while in sporting attire. This has been allegedly proved to be most prevalent in most tertiary institutions. In a study carried out by Bennet, et al (1989) at a University in New Mexico, it was found out those women physical educators who are assertive, competitive, outgoing, aggressive, strong and independent were particularly labeled to be lesbian because they displayed male characteristics. Such accusations need strong women to go ahead with their career in sport despite the labeling associated with it. Women seem to suffer a lot of embarrassment and mental torture even at Universities. Lensky (1986) carried out an investigation at Ontario Institute for studies in Education Toronto Canada. She discovered that most women and girls shun sport and physical activities because of sexual harassment they receive from their male counterparts.

Sexual harassment in sport takes on unique dimensions because of the power relationships established with coaches and because of the necessary focus on athletes’ bodies. Recognition of sexual harassment in sport has come at the highest levels. The International Olympic Committee issued a Consensus Statement in 2007 which reported that, sexual harassment and abuse happen in all sports and at all levels. Honeybourne (2000) says prevalence appears to be higher in elite sport. Members of the athlete’s entourage who are in positions of power and authority appear to be the primary perpetrators. Peer athletes have also been identified as perpetrators. Males are more often reported as perpetrators than females. Research demonstrates that sexual harassment and abuse in sport seriously and negatively impact on athletes’ physical and psychological health. It can result in impaired performance and lead to athlete drop-out. Clinical data from The International Olympic Committee (IOC) indicate that psychosomatic illnesses, anxiety, depression, substance abuse, self harm and suicide are some of the serious health consequences.

At the same College, findings show that apart from sexual harassment, women also have a negative attitude towards sport. Some of them feel that sport is antithetical to feminist values that it is waste of time even to consider them. Therefore, women need encouragement from the males in order to actively take part in sport. This has caused a lot of concern, which gave rise to the Brighton Declaration in September 1995.

2.7.4 Discrimination of women in sport

Media often portray female athletes as inferior to their male counterparts and are dismissive of their true abilities. The little coverage received often sexually objectifies female athletes by putting the spotlight on their looks and strength. On the other hand the media is quick to recoil at women who do not fit into the traditional feminine mold, Phillips (1997).

Women have made a consistent and significant contribution to Australian sport at all levels, yet their achievements on the whole receive limited coverage by the mass media. The quality and quantity of the coverage of women’s sport by the media is not an accurate reflection of the amount of sport played or watched by women. Media coverage is generally inadequate and selective. A high media profile is essential for attracting sponsorship, spectators and other sources of financial support. In 1996, the Australian Sports Commission (ASC) carried out a survey of the media coverage of women’s sport over a two-week period. Some of the results of this study are highlighted below.

Table 2.1: Gender breakdown of sports media coverage showing discrimination of women to access adequate media coverage.

Women`s Mixed Men`s Radio 1,4% 3,5% 95,1% Television 2% 14,8% 56,2% Newspapers 10,7% 10,2% 79,1%

Source: Phillips (1997).

In 1996, newspapers covered a higher percentage of women’s sport (10.7%) than the other forms of media (television, 2%, and radio, 1.4%). The low media profile of women’s sports affects women and sport in several ways, the Australian public is unaware of women’s sporting events and women’s achievements in sport, there are few widely known positive role models for women and girls, and women and sports with a low media profile don’t gain sponsors. The figures above represent a five-fold increase in women’s sport coverage between 1980 and 1996, and at least a doubling of the coverage from 1992 to 1996. In 1996, there was a similar level of coverage of women’s sports in regional (11.4%) and metropolitan (10.1%) newspapers. Despite the increase in newspaper space devoted to women’s sport, the coverage of men’s sport was still six times greater. COACHING CHILDREN • Number 3 The survey carried out in Australia between 1980 and 1996 found that majority of women’s sport coverage appeared on days when there is little male sport (Wednesdays and Thursdays). In the newspapers examined in the Australian Sports Council (ASC) survey, articles on women’s sport were often at the bottom of the page or buried on the inside pages of the sports section. Only 5.6% of women’s sports stories appeared on the back page. The language used to describe women in sport often emphasized their weakness, passivity and insignificance, detracting from their athletic abilities. Newspaper articles about women’s sport included head shots and posed images rather than action shots more often than did articles about men’s sport, suggesting that women’s sports are less active.

Beashel and Taylor (2001) alluded that gender discrimination in the sports industry has long been a controversial issue, even the founder of the modern Olympics, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, said in 1886, “No matter how toughened a sports woman may be, her organism is not cut out to sustain certain shocks.” Since then, gender equality in sports has become a long way, including United Nations Education Sport Council (UNESCO) recognizing sports and physical activity as a human right in 1978. Statistics show that female sports do not carry the same weight as male sports even in terms of winning prizes and sponsorship packages. Research from UNESCO supports the notion that there is less value placed on women’s sports. This leads to unequal wages and coverage when compared to men’s sports. Although approximately 40 percent of sport and physical activity participants are women, only 6 to 8 percent of total media sports coverage is devoted to their athletics, according to the Women’s

Sport Foundation (1995). Multiple committees have been formed to improve gender equality in athletics. In 1995, the Beijing Platform for Action was adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women, with the goal of providing policy recommendations on women, gender equality and sport. It called for accessible sports facilities at all educational institutions, establishment of gender sensitive programs at educational, workplace and community institutions and equal opportunities for women to participate in sport on the same basis as men.

2.7.5. The Brighton declaration of women and sport

The Brighton Declaration aims to, develop a sporting culture that enables and values the full involvement of women in every aspect of sport. Some of the aims outlined in Windhoek in Namibia in 1998 are:

To ensure that all women and girls have the opportunity to participate in sport in a safe and supportive environment this presents the rights, dignity and respect of the individual.
Increase the involvement of women in sport at all levels.
Promote the recognition of women’s involvement in sport as a contribution to public life, community development and in building a healthy nation.

2.8 Summary

Chapter 2 is mainly focused on factors influencing the participation of women in sport. Factors looked at included the perceptions of community towards participation of women in netball, attitude of women towards netball, lack of funding for women sport and harassment faced by women athletes. Other minor factors such as religion, cultural influences, gender inequalities in sport, women’s role in society and sponsorship were also looked at in isolation. The researcher also looked at how countries like China, Britain and South Africa liberated themselves through sport. The researcher also looked at how organizations like the Brighton declaration support the involvement of women in sport. Chapter 3 will deal with how the research was carried out.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

The main focus of this chapter is to highlight the research design, target population, sample and sampling procedures, research instruments and the data collection procedures to be used.

3.1 The Research Design

The researcher used the descriptive survey method making use of both the qualitative and quantitative approaches. Bell (1993) defines a survey as, a research design which aims to obtain information which can be analyzed and patterns extracted. More simply put, descriptive research is all about describing people who take part in the study. It can involve collections of quantitative information that can be tabulated along a continuum in numerical form, such as scores on a test or the number of times a person chooses to use a certain feature of a multimedia program, or it can describe categories of information such as gender or patterns of interaction when using technology in a group situation (Saunders, 2003). The descriptive survey method was defined by Kerlinger (1967) as that branch of social scientific investigation that studies large and small population for universes by selecting and studying samples chosen from the population to discover the relative incidence, distribution and interrelations of sociological and psychological variables. Descriptive research involves gathering data that describe events and then organizes,

tabulates, depicts and describes the data collection (Glass and Hopkins, 1984). It often uses visual aids such as graphs and charts to aid the reader in understanding the data distribution.

3.2 Target Population

Fraenkel and Wallen (1996) assert that a target population includes all individuals from which the researcher desires to obtain information upon which to make conclusions on the basis of the sample drawn from the population. Target population usually has varying characteristics and it is also known as the theoretical population. Borg and Gall (1989) describes the target population of a research as all the members of the hypothetical set of people to which the research results are generalized. In this research the target population constituted of two hundred and eighty (280) women drawn from ward twenty-nine register in Macheke zone, two club executive members from the two existing clubs, one councilor and four local village heads.

3.3 The sample

Mswazi and Kanhukamwe (2003) defined a sample as a portion or fraction of the total population. The concept “sample” arises from the inability of the researcher to test all the individuals in a given population. Saunders et al (2003) postulated that a sample must be representative of the population from which it was drawn and it must have good size to warrant statistical analysis. Thus the main function of the sample is to allow the researcher to conduct the study that can derive conclusions that will apply to the entire population. The sample for this study was made up of fifty (50) women, one local councilor, two (2) club executive members

and four (4) village heads all drawn from Macheke Zone.

3.4 Sampling procedures

Saunders (2003) postulates that a sampling procedure is developed to ensure that a sample adequately represent the target population. To get the sample, the researcher drew his subjects through the simple random sampling method and purposive sampling method. Fraenkel and Wallen (1996) suggested that a simple random sampling is one in which each and every member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected. From the total

population of two hundred and eighty (280) women in Macheke zone, the researcher selected every tenth name from a register he collected from the local Councilor of ward twenty nine in order to come up with a sample of twenty- five (25) women, the remaining twenty- five (25) members or respondents were drawn from the two local netball clubs using purposive sampling and lottery method. Using the lottery technique, each member of the club was assigned a unique number. The numbers were then roughly mixed in a bowl and shaken and without looking in the bowl the researcher selected a card bearing a number. Thus the researcher managed to come up with a population of twenty five (25) remaining respondents from the total of thirty (30) players

from the two clubs combined.

3.5 Research Instruments

Gwimbi and Dirwai (2003) defines research instrument as any relevant tool used in a research to collect the required information. For this study, information was collected through questionnaires, interviews and documentary evidence.

3.5.1 Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a designed set of questions used to gather data from respondents or direct from primary sources (Fox 1969). Mswazi and Kanhukamwe (2003) also defined a questionnaire as a document containing questions designed to solicit information appropriate for analysis. The questionnaire developed for this study shall seek to capture opinions as well as perceptions from girl-child school leavers and women netball players on the research problems highlighted in chapter one. The designed questionnaires contained closed questions and some few open ended questions. Questionnaires were used by researchers to convert into data the information given directly by respondents (Tuckman, 1978).This ensures people’s participation with reduced costs of bringing people together. Respondents gave less biased responses without peer or group pressure. Gwimbi and Dirwai (2003) also stated that questionnaires can be administered through personal interview surveys, telephone interview surveys, postal surveys and drop and pick surveys. Bell (1999) argues that the open ended questionnaire makes an interviewee getting off the track (i.e. the interviewer loses control of the interview) and can be time consuming, particularly if the interviewer is inexperienced. Questionnaires lack validity and there is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is. Robson (1993) postulates that closed ended questions

generate a specific answer that is possible responses to the question are limited. It makes the interviewer to be in control and allows him or her to get relevant data quickly.

Simple language was used in the questionnaires to enhance the clarity of the questions and to maximize the reliability of the questionnaires (Creswell 2012). Questionnaires are also cost effective for large numbers of people or people at a distance. They enabled the researcher to ask questions that are relevant and vital for the study, in this particular research the questions were mainly formulated after the literature has been reviewed (Bell 1981). Open ended questions can generate large amounts of data that can take long time to analyze and process. Cohen (1998) postulated that through questionnaires women respondents may not be willing to answer the questionnaire and might not wish to reveal the information or they might think that they will not benefit from responding perhaps even penalized by giving their opinions. Respondents should therefore be told why the information is being collected and how the results will be beneficial.

3.5.2 Pilot study

The questionnaire developed for women netball players was pilot tested for the purpose of refining it in the interest of ensuring that it produces the information required. Bell (1999) argued that piloting finalizes instruments and construct their validity. Twenty (20) women in Svosve zone of Marondera district were given questionnaires and adequate time to respond to the questionnaires in order to test the validity and reliability of the questionnaire.

3.5.4 Interviews

The interview questionnaire developed for the councilors and club executives were used to verify the responses given by the respondents in the questionnaire survey for the women netball players. Patton (1990) asserts that interviews help the researcher in obtaining detailed information about personal feelings, perceptions and opinions and allow more detailed questions to be asked. The respondents own words are recorded and ambiguities can be clarified and incomplete answers followed up. This technique enabled the researcher to administer interview sessions using the vernacular language of the respondents (Tuckman, 1978). In interview sessions, the researcher probed into questions, repeat or rephrase questions using the vernacular language of the participants for clarifications, Patton (1990). Gwimbi and Dirwai (2003) argues

that the interview method involves setting up, interviewing, transcribing, analyzing feedback and reporting which they view as time consuming.

3.6 Data collection procedure

The research data for this study was collected in the month of May 2015. The researcher hand delivered the questionnaire to all the women in ward twenty-nine and women netball players in the two (2) local functional clubs after seeking permission from the responsible authorities. The questionnaire was physically distributed to fifty (50) respondents. The respondents comprised of women aged between 20 to 30 years drawn from the ward register and two local netball clubs. The researcher achieved hundred percent (100%) in terms of receiving responses from the questionnaires. One on one interviews were also held to two (2) club executive members, four (4) village heads and one local councilor.

3.7 Data analysis procedure

The study generated a mass of both qualitative and quantitative data. Data analysis was focused on the questions that were posed in this study. Data from the questionnaire was quantitatively analyzed and the frequencies presented in the form of tables, graphs and pie charts. According to Patton (1990) data analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap and evaluate data. Tuckman (1978) defines data analysis as the systematic transformation of raw data aggregating it into units or categories that permit description of relevant characteristics. Collection of data through interviews was qualitatively analyzed. Qualitative data collected through the use of interviews was analyzed textually through writing accompanying comments to the graphs and pie charts drawn. The researcher commented on the trends and patterns shown on the graphs.

3.8 Summary

This chapter is concerned mainly with the methodology of the research in which the research design, subject of study, research instruments, data collection and data analysis were discussed. The research design is an outline or strategy in an attempt to obtain answers from the research problems. The subjects of the study included the target population and the sample and the

research instrument includes the tools which the researcher used in an attempt to facilitate data collection.

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF DATA

4.1 Introduction This chapter will focus on data presentation, analysis, interpretation and tables, graphs and pie charts have been used to provide a clear description of the findings from the data gathered. The study will focus on the following research questions: • What is the perception of community towards participation of women in netball activities following completion of secondary school education? • What is the attitude of women towards netball following completion of secondary education?

• To what extent can lack of sporting facilities and equipment affect women’s participation in netball? • To what extent can funding influence women’s participation in netball activities in Macheke zone? • Does harassment affects women’s participation in netball?

Section A

4.2 Biographical information of the respondents.

4.2.1 Respondents age

Figure 4.1: Respondents age (N=50) Figure 4.1 indicates that most of the women (70%) were aged between 25-30 years while (20%) were aged between 21-24years and (10%) 18-20 years.

4.2.2 Number of Children in Family

Table 4.1 Number of Children in Family (N=50) Number of children Frequency Percentage %

1 to 4 48 96 5 to 8 2 4 9 to 12 0 0 13 and above 0 0

Total 50 100 Table 4.1 shows that the majority of respondents (96%) are from families that have between 1 and 4 children and 4% are from families with 5 to 8 children.

4.2.3 Academic Qualifications

Figure 4.2: Academic Qualifications (N=50) The results in figure 4.2 show that most of the respondents (70%) had completed their ordinary level of education, (20%) only attended school up to grade seven level and (10%) managed to complete their secondary school at Advanced level.

4.2.4 Marital Status

Table 4.2: Marital Status of the Respondents (N=50)

Marital status Frequency Percentage %

Single 15 30

Married 30 60

Widowed 1 2

Divorced 4 8 Total 50 100

Table 4.2 shows that (60%) of the respondents were married, (30%) were single, (8%) were divorced while (2%) were widowed.

4.2.5 Favorite Sport

Table 4.3 Favorite Sporting Event for the Respondents (N=50)

Sporting activity Number of participants Percentage %

Netball 15 30

Aerobics 0 0

Tennis 5 10

Volleyball 5 10

None 25 50

Total 50 100

Most of the respondents (50%) indicated that they are not actively involved in any sport and a total of (30%) do participate in netball, (10%) of the respondents also indicated that their favorite sport was tennis while the other (10%) also indicated that volleyball was their favorite sport.

Section B

4.3 Perceptions of the Community towards Women Participation in Netball

4.3.1 Perceptions of the Community towards Women and Girl-Child School Leavers Participation in Sport.

Key

Figure 4.2.1 Perceptions of the Community towards Women Participation in Sport (N=50) Most of the respondents (90%) indicated that the community had negative perceptions towards participation of women in sport. Honeybourne and Moor (1996) postulated that traditional African societies regard sport as play, looking at anything considered as play, it is never taken seriously and because of this, many of the older people would not take part in sport because it is a disgrace in the society. Honeybourne and Moor (1996) also argued that in many cultures,

societal values dictate that women should not take part in sport, if they do it, should be confide to feminine. Following this assertion, it clearly denotes that community’s perceptions and attitudes towards participation by women play an influential role as women are still restricted on certain sport codes by the various communities in which they come from for example the Muslim communities which restrict women and girls to leave certain parts of their bodies exposed which is the scenario in most games like netball which allows women and girls to wear sporting attire which allows them to participate freely. A certain village head who was interviewed commented that, traditionally women’s roles were more concentrated in household chores were they must be involved in less strenuous work rather than straining their bodies through too much physical forms of exercises hence must not take part in any sport of physical stature. The above results in figure 4.2.1 also reviewed that only (10%) of the people had a positive perception towards participation of women in sport. One of the councilors suggested that lack of culturally relevant role models and the lack of free time due to work and family responsibilities were affecting women’s participation in sport.

4.3.2 Involvement of men in netball in Macheke Zone.

Figure 4.2.2 Men involvement in netball Macheke Zone. (N=50)

Figure 4.2.2 shows responses to the questionnaire item that sought to establish the involvement of men in netball activities in Macheke Zone. Most of the respondents (60%) indicated that men were actively involved in netball activities. One of the club executives interviewed highlighted that most men were more actively involved in the technical and administrative roles such as

coaching and managing the game of netball. Only (40%) had indicated that men were not being actively involved in netball. During one of the interviews held, one female club executive reviewed that soccer is the most popular sport in Macheke zone dominated by most men and boys hence only 40% of men were actively involved in netball

4.3.3 Guardian Support

Figure 4.2.3: Guardian Support (N=50) Figure 4.2.3 indicates that most of the respondents (80%) were from the families were there were no support for women and girl-child school leavers participation in sport while only (20%) reviewed that they receive parental or husband support in form of sportswear, food, and at times bus fair to competitions and training venues. One of the club executives viewed guardian support as a strong motivational factor for encouraging women and girls to be actively involved netball activities.

4.3.4 Marital status and women participation in sport

Fig 4.2.4: Marital status and women participation in sport (N=50) Figure 4.2.4 shows responses to the questionnaire item that sought to establish the marital status of women respondents. Responses in figure 4.2.4 indicate that most (60%) of the women responded showing that they are married while (40%) are single.

Table 4.4: Decision making pertaining women sport participation (N=50)

Decision maker Frequency Percentage %

Husband 40 80

Wife 0 0

Others 10 20

Total 50 100

Table 4.4 indicates that most of the women (80%) responded that the married men made the final decision if their wives were to engage in netball activities. A limited number (20%) of single women , widowed and divorced indicated that at times they make their own decisions to participate since they are old enough to make their own decisions and exercise their rights to participate in sport. The Brighton Declaration (1998) aims to develop a sporting culture that

enables and values the full involvement of women in every aspect of sport. This includes the right for all women and girls to have the opportunity to participate in sport in a safe and supportive environment this represent the rights, dignity and respect of the individual. One village head suggested that most married women were facing serious challenges to participate since they had to respect their husbands as the head of the family hence need to serve their marriages.

4.3.6 Relationship status and involvement in sport

Yes No

Figure 4.2.4 Women and relationship status (N=50) Figure 4.2.4 shows data collected on the number of respondents who were in a relationship with a boyfriend. Most of the respondents (80%) reflected that they were in a relationship and indicated that their participation in netball was being affected by the relationships. They cited several reasons including lack of support and at times restricted to participate in sport. The few respondents (20%) revealed that they do not have boyfriends.

4.3.7 Influence of Religion on Participation in Sport. (N=50)

key

Fig 4.2.5: Religion and Sport Participation Most of the respondents (70%) indicated that they were affected by their religion as result they were not participating in sport and a total of 30% do participate in sport. Webster (1999) postulates that women who follow the Muslim faith are still restricted in sport which they can participate in, their religion dictates their dress code which in turn restricts participation in many sports especially those that take place when men are present. Matiza (2010) also argued that most Apostolic sects and the Seventh Day Adventist churches in Zimbabwe does not allow women and girls to participate in sport during their days of worshiping as this is against their church doctrines hence denying women of opportunities to participate. One club executive reviewed that some churches like the United Methodist, Anglican and Methodist in Zimbabwe were all in full support of their church followers to participate in sport and could even organise some free Sunday afternoons for them to engage in sporting activities of their own.

Section C

4.4 Attitude of Women Towards Netball following Completion of Secondary Education.

4. 4.1 Women’s school-leaver sport participation

Yes No

Figure 4.3 Women School leaver sport participation (N=50) Figure 4.3 shows responses to the questionnaire on the participation of women school leavers in sport. Most of the women (60%) indicated that they were not participating in sport while 40% were actively involved in sport. For those who were participating, most of them (60%) were involved in tournaments while 10% involved in sport training and 30% playing club games. In this regard, the researcher identified that most women were not taking part in sport at community level probably because of the absence of a variety of clubs. Therefore this affected girl child school leavers from participating in organized sport competitions.

4.4.2 Sporting Activities Done During Leisure Time

Key

Figure 4.4 Activities Done During Leisure Time (N=50) Fig 4.4 indicates that most of the women (44%) were involved in household activities during their leisure time, 11% of the women largely involved in watching television, knitting, chatting and reading while only 7% were involved in sporting activities and others indicated that they could do anything during their leisure time. A club executive revealed that they were very limited opportunities in Macheke Zone for women to participate in sport since women sport was not very popular in the area. Another club executive who was interviewed asserted that apparent low status of women sport in the area makes most of the sporting activities uncommon to general public hence resulting to women having negative attitude towards sport.

4.4.3 Participation of Peers in Netball Activities Table 4.5 Involvement of Women Peers in Netball (N=50)

Involvement of Friends in Netball Activities Frequency Percentage%

Yes 10 20

No 40 80

Total 50 100

Table 4.5 indicates that most of the peers (80%) were not actively involved in netball while a few respondents (20%) indicated that their friends were actively involved in netball. Most women (80%) indicated that sport is a waste of time. Their interest was on other commitments such as household chores. One female club executive indicated that most parents argue that no girl school leavers have benefited from netball in their community and as such they see no reason for their women counter parts to concentrate on netball. United Nations Children’s Fund handbook on Gender Sensitivity (1994) stated that the main factor preventing women from realizing their full potential in motor skills appears to be a cultural environment that values academic work at the expense of the former. The findings indicated that most friends have not yet accepted sport as an industry that creates employment. This possibly could be due to the fact that there are no raw models in their society who have benefited from sport. Dooley (1999) is also of the view that peer pressure can be hard for girls at any age, when that pressure isn’t offset with strong encouragement to participate in sports and healthy physical activity, the results may lead girls to drop out altogether.

4.4.4 Influence of Body Image on Sport Participation

Fig 4.5 Influence of Body Image on Sport Participation (N=50) The question sort to establish the effects of body image on participation of women in sport participation; The result in Figure 4.5 reveals that most of the respondents (60%) were being affected by their body image while 40% were not affected by their body image during active sporting participation. One male club executive interviewed reviewed that they often face difficulties in communicating with the women netball players especially when they are reach menarche. Some just complain of headaches as male coaches we take long to reach between the lines. We usually force them to participate in netball because previously, they would have been doing so without complaints. Those respondents who indicated that they were affected with their body image especially during menstruation cited period pains as the main hindrance to sport participation. Although period pains could be the major obstacles to participation in sport, coaches also revealed that the majority of the women in most communal areas have no access to sanitary pads. They often use pieces of cloth to control the flow and surely, pieces of cloth cannot effectively trap the flow. The majority of the women therefore would prefer not to participate in netball events when experiencing their menses. Frisch (1984) further that some female athletes have reportedly set world records during the flow phase and cites the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games when Joan Benolt won the gold medal in the first ever Olympic marathon. Jarver (1982) argues that very little has been conducted in laboratories on menstruation and as such information available on the topic is based on subjective statements made by athletes during information surveys. Most likely participation in

sport during different phases of the menstrual cycle depends on the individual’s specific conditions at that time.

4.4.4 Presence of Prominent Netball players in Macheke Zone

Key

Figure 4.6: Presence of Prominent Netball Players (N=50)

The question sought to establish whether they were prominent netball players in Macheke zone. The majority of the respondents (76%) indicated that they were no prominent netball players while few respondents (24%) indicated that they were few prominent netball players. The majority of the respondents indicated that they had no interest in taking netball as a profession due to absence of active role models from Macheke Zone. The above response is supported by one netball couch said that the majority of women athletes have a negative attitude towards netball. Many times, we force them to participate in netball activities. Sometimes very few former high school netball players normally come to assist the women during netball sessions. Beashel and Taiylor (2001) alluded that high profile athletes often work within their local communities providing encouragement to young athletes and act as sporting ambassadors. This is a positive experience for young stars, and it also reflects well on the athlete. It is usual for the media to report this, raising the profile of both the athlete and their sport. These sessions might happen on a local basis, with coaching, or they might take place on a national basis with athletes endorsing specific nationwide campaigns.

Honeybourne and Moors (2000) highlighted that many athletes have become sports stars or celebrities away from their sport. This means they are widely recognised by the general public

and so their behavior might be scrutinized. It is important that these celebrities behave in a positive manner at all times. A positive role model in sport will have a positive effect on sports participation. Section D

4.5 Sporting Facilities and Equipment

4.5.1 Availability of Netball Facilities

Table 4.6 Availability of Netball Facilities (N=50) Response Presence of netball facilities Percentage % Yes 50 100 No 0 0 Total 50 100

Table 4.6 shows the responses to the questionnaire on the presence of netball facilities. The majority (100%) of the respondents indicated that netball facilities were available in Macheke Zone.

4.5.2. Availability of standard netball facilities

Table 4.7. Availability of standard netball facilities (N=50) Response Standard netball facilities Percentage % Yes 0 0 No 50 100 Total 50 100

Table 4.7 shows the responses to the questionnaire on the availability of standard netball facilities. The majority (100%) of the respondents indicated that they were no standard netball facilities in Macheke Zone.

4.5.3. Availability of Netball Association to Co-ordinate Netball

Table 4.8. Availability of Netball Association to Co-ordinate Netball (N=50) Response Association to co-ordinate Percentage % netball Yes 0 0 No 50 100 Total 50 100

Table 4.8 shows the responses to the questionnaire on the availability of a local Netball Association to co-ordinate netball. The majority (100%) of the respondents indicated that netball facilities were available in Macheke Zone. Recent studies by Goodwill (2000) indicated that women and girls have 1.3 million fewer opportunities to participate in sports than boys and men have. Limited opportunities to play sports in colleges and communities mean women have to look elsewhere for sports which may not exist or may cost more money. More often there is an additional lack of access to adequate playing facilities near their homes that makes it more difficult to engage in sports. Research conducted by the Nziramasanga commission of inquiry into education and training in 1999 in Zimbabwe revealed that most Physical education and (PE) and Sport facilities in primary schools particularly in rural areas, farming areas and high density suburbs are substandard and inadequate.

Section E

4.6 Funding for Women Sporting Activities

4.6.1 Sponsorship for Sporting Disciplines

Fig 4.7: Sporting Disciplines and Sponsorship (N=50)

Fig 4.1.3 above indicated that most (80%) of the sponsorship is channeled towards soccer, 10% goes towards netball, 6% is channeled to volleyball and other sporting disciplines share only (4%). The local councilor interviewed echoed that most sponsors associate themselves with sponsoring football since they regard it as a crowd puller hence were likely to attract a lot of potential customers. Honeybourne (2005) highlighted that the influence of sponsorship on the development of sport has been enormous. Sport is now big business with large amounts of money being spent by commercial companies on sports participants and events. Traditional male sports such as cricket and football have secured much of the corporate dollar. Matiza (2010) says women’s sport in most developing countries suffers from lack of exposure and subsequent sponsorship opportunities. Some successful women’s teams’ gain a measure of support, but this is well below male sports resourcing, for example, the women football league in Zimbabwe suffered a major blow in failing to access sponsorship while the men’s premier league is always attract sponsorship.

4.6.2 Media Coverage on Women Sport Programmes

Table 4.9 Media Coverage on Women Sport Programmes (N=50)

Media Coverage Responses Percentage %

Yes 0 0

No 50 100

Total 50 100

Table 4.9 shows responses to questionnaire item that sought to establish the availability of media coverage in women sport in Macheke Zone. Most respondents (100%) indicated that there is no media coverage in their zone. One of the club executives highlighted that media acts as a vehicle in spreading the game of netball to the public as well as sponsors and donors who may in turn be willing to sponsor the game. Clarke (1999) posits that media is a powerful factor which influences our beliefs, attitude and values we have of ourselves and others as well as the world surrounding us. Media does not merely communicate and reflect reality in a more or less truthful way. Women have made a consistent and significant contribution to sport in Zimbabwe at all levels yet their achievements on the whole receive limited coverage by mass media. Buffer (1996) postulated that quality and quantity of coverage of netball sport by the media is not an accurate reflection of the amount of sport played and watched by women. Media coverage is generally inadequate and selective. High profile media is essential for attracting sponsorship, spectators and other sources of financial support.

4.6.3 Local Business Sponsorship for Women Sport

Figure 4.8: Sponsorship from local business people (N=50)

The results in figure 4.8 above show that the majority of the respondents (76%) indicated that there was no sponsorship from the local business people whilst 20% reviewed that at times they get sponsorship from the local business people and a few respondents (4%) indicated that very little sponsorship is received from the local business people. One of the village heads interviewed echoed that sometimes the local business people assist the local netball clubs with food and transport to and from the competition venues. The village head further reiterated that sponsorship is key to the success of any sporting event. Sponsorship provides business with opportunity for it to be seen as involved in the community and importantly for it to counter adverse perceptions. In other words, sports sponsorship is a powerful marketing tool. Sponsorship revenue is a key source of income for sporting organisations from the grassroots level through to the upper echelons of professional sport (Crawford, 2011).

4.6.4 Incentives for Sport Participation

Figure 4.9 Incentives for Sport Participating in Sport (N=50)

The question sought to establish whether women sport participants were being given incentives by their respective clubs or not. The results revealed that most of the respondents (80%) were not receiving any form of incentives, 20% of the respondents indicated that sometimes they receive some form of incentives and 4% respondents revealed that they receive incentives especially when they win some tournaments. A club executive reflected that incentives are vital in women sport since they act as a motivating factor for maximizing women’s participation in netball.

Section F

4.7 Harassment in Sport Programmes

4.7.1 Harassment of Women in Sporting Activities

Figure 4.10: Harassment during Sporting Activities (N=50)

The results in figure 4.16 shows that most of the respondents (70%) were harassed during sporting activities while 30% indicated that they had not experienced any form of harassment during sporting activities. The Local Councilor who was interviewed stated that there were several cases of harassment of women especially while at training and competition venues. These harassment cases were more of abusive nature and were mostly perpetrated by men since the netball facilities were located near the local beer hall in the Zone. Robinson (1990) points out that rejection of male coach’s sexual over tunes could well mean the end of a young women’s athletic career. Some women and girls have been sexually abused while in sporting attire. This has been allegedly proved to be most prevalent in most tertiary institutions. In a study carried out by Bennet, et al (1989) at a University in New Mexico, it was found out those women physical educators who are assertive, competitive, outgoing, aggressive, strong and independent were particularly labeled to be lesbian because they displayed male characteristics. Such accusations need strong women to go ahead with their career in sport despite the labeling associated with it. One club executive interviewed mentioned that the location of the netball courts in Macheke Zone exposed women to a lot of abusive comments from the male spectators since the facilities are located near the local beer hall in the community. Hargreaves (1994) also postulates that abuse also includes use to bad effect or for a bad purpose or treat with cruelty or violence or addressing in an insulting or offensive way. Abuse can be in the form of bio psycho-social,

emotional abuse that is use of language even in jokes that hurt emotions. Abuse can also be in form of social abuse that is nepotism and sexual abuse use of sex for favours.

4.7.2 Nature of Harassment in Sport

Table 4.1.0 Nature of harassment (N=50)

Nature of Harassment Frequency Percentage %

Sexual 2 5.71

Abusive 25 71.43

Discrimination 8 22.8

Total 35 100

The respondents were asked to state the nature of harassment which they experienced during participation in sport. The result indicated that most of the women (71%) were experiencing abusive forms of harassment, 23% were being discriminated during sporting activities while 6% experienced sexual harassment. During one of the interviews, a club executive mentioned that the majority of the women (71%) were experiencing abusive harassment in the form of negative comments and vulgar language passed by drunken men from the nearby local beer hall. She reiterated that this demoralize the women participants as some of them are even labeled “Prostitutes.”

4.7.3 Rapport Between Female Netball Players And Male Coaches During Training

Figure 4.11: Rapport between Female Netball Players and Male Coaches (N=50) Figure 4.11 shows the responses to the questionnaire item that sought to establish the Rapport between female netball players and male coaches the results revealed that the majority of the respondents (80%) were not comfortable in working with male coaches while 20% responded positively showing that they were very comfortable to be coached buy males. One female club executive asserted that female players feel shy to freely express themselves in front of male coaches especially during training sessions and demonstrations thus most of them usually abscond themselves from training therefore reducing their participation rates.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

The chapter will be focused on revealing the summary, conclusions and recommendations of the research findings.

5.1 Summary

The study aimed at establishing factors influencing the participation of women and girl-child school leavers from participating in sport with special emphasis to netball. Most of the respondents indicated that the community had negative perceptions towards participation of women in sport. Most traditional African societies regard sport as play, looking at anything considered as play, it is never taken seriously and because of this, many of the older people would not take part in sport because it is a disgrace in the society. Most of the respondents revealed that men were more actively involved in the administrative roles such coaching and management of the game of netball. Very few respondents indicated that they receive parental or guardian support for participating in sport. The research findings indicated that decision making pertaining married women sport participation is mostly centered on the husband who have the final decision. The majority of married women are facing serious challenges to participate since they had respect their husbands as the head of the family and strives to serve their marriages. A huge number of women engaged in relationships indicated that relationships affect sport partaking since they suffer from lack of support and restrictions to participate.

Nearly all of the respondents reflected that most Apostolic sects, Muslim followers and the Seventh Day Adventist churches does not allow women and girls to participate in sport during their days of worshiping as this is against their church doctrines. A small number of respondents revealed that the minority churches like the United Methodist, Anglican and Methodist in Zimbabwe are in full support of their church followers to participate in sport. On the attitude of women towards netball, the information gathered shows that the majority of women are not participating in sport after completion of secondary school education and most of the women are largely involved in household chores during their leisure time an undersized number of respondents revealed that they participate in sport during their leisure time. Apparent low status of women sport in Zimbabwe makes most of the sporting activities uncommon to general public generating a negative attitude in most women towards sport. Data gathered reflected that most women peers are not actively involved in netball activities due to the absents of sport icons in their communities. Regarding body image, the information gathered indicated that a good number of the respondents were being affected by their body image to participate in

sport especially during menstruation where they endure period pains. The presents of sport celebrities in various communities provide encouragement to young athletes. Lack of access to standard facilities and a conducive environment for training is hindering the participation of women in netball activities in the area. The community does not have a community based netball Association which if available spearhead the development of the game amongst most women in the area. Concerning funding for women sport, nearly all the respondents revealed that women sport was bleeding from lack of sponsorship as traditional male dominated sports like cricket and football are securing much of the corporate dollar. On the state of media coverage in the area, the majority of the respondents revealed that there is no media coverage in the zone. The presents of media coverage could have act as a vehicle to spread the game of netball to the public as well as potential sponsors. Most respondents indicated that they were not receiving any form of incentives after being involved in netball which if there could maximize participation. Regarding harassment of women while engaged in sport programs, a large number of respondents revealed that they had experienced some forms of harassment mostly of abusive nature perpetrated by men. The rapport between female athletes and male coaches indicate a large number of negative responses with female athletes revealing that they were not comfortable to be coached by male coaches.

5.2 Conclusion

From the research findings, it was observed that most of the people in the community had a negative attitude towards women’s participation in sport. Negative attitudes towards netball hinder the participation of women and girl-child school leavers to participate in netball. Men occupy more administrative roles in netball limiting the opportunities for women to participate in these administrative roles. From the study it was observed that religion have a great influence on participation in sport.

Lack of adequate, standardised playing facilities and equipment create limited opportunities for women to participate in sport. The researcher concludes that a conducive environment for women and girls to train is key to maximize sport participation for women. Concerning funding for women sport, it was noted that sponsorship is key to the success of any sport. Male dominated sports such as cricket and soccer are securing a large amount of sponsorship on the expense of women sport. The research also concludes that media coverage is

still biased over male sport coverage. The non-availability of media coverage poses barriers to women participation in netball hence failing to spread the game of netball to the public resulting in failure to attract sponsorship from the corporate world. Incentives are vital in women sport since they act as a motivating tool for maximizing women’s participation in netball. From the research findings it is concluded that harassment of women in sport programmes disrupt women’s achievements in sport hence forcing them to pull out of sport. The non- availability of female coaches to train women and girls in netball has exposed women to a lot of abusive forms of harassment leading to a good number of women dropping out of from participating in sport. The rapport between female netball players and male coaches is mainly negative since a good number of respondents indicated they were not comfortable to work with male coaches during sport training.

5.3 Recommendations

• The Zimbabwe Netball Association (ZINA) must collaborate with the Sport and Recreation Commission of Zimbabwe (SRC) in mobilizing resources to organise community sport awareness campaigns aimed at spreading the game of netball to the public through organizing tournaments and mini league games at grassroots level where women would participate thus encouraging positive perceptions about women participation in sport. • The Zimbabwe Netball Association must introduce a quota system in netball where women must dominate to take up all leadership and technical roles hence generating some positive attitudes in women themselves to lead their own sport. • The Local Council Responsible Authorities must source for funds to establish more sporting facilities for women sport and renovate the existing facilities such that a conducive sporting environment is created for women to have access to the sporting facilities. ZINA must also set up some Zonal structures to run the affairs of netball at Zonal level cascading upwards to the National. • More organized fundraising activities must be held where various media can be invited to cover up the event hence helping to market and promote the concept of women participation in sport. Club executives must involve the local business people more often in their fundraising programmes or organise tournaments where all the potential sponsors

can be carefully chosen to provide incentives to the winning participants. Good event management skills must be exercised in order to gain the confidence of the sponsors. • Coaches must be staff developed on how to handle female sport participants. Women Sport Foundations must be set up in various communities to provide awareness to the public hence helping to curb cases of harassment of women in sporting activities.

REFERENCES

Adms M, Barker R, Gledhill A, Lydon C, Mulligan P, Phillipo P and Sutton L. (2010). Sport Level 3 Book 1 BTEC National: Pearson Educational Ltd England and Wales. Beashel P, Sibson A and Taylor J. (2001). The World of Sport examined 2 nd Edition: Nelson Thornes Ltd: London. Bell, J. (1987). Doing your research project: a guide for first time researchers in education and social science. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Brittain, I. (2009). The Paralympics Games Explained. Sport in the Global Society: New York, Routledge. Brown, B.A. (1985). Factors influencing the process of withdrawal by female adolescents from the role of competitive age group swimmer. Sociology of Sport Journal, 2, 111- 129. Buegess, R. (2001-05-06). Netball Super Cup Launched. UK Sport. Retrieved 2008-12-09. Coakley, J. (1992). Burnout among adolescent athletes: A personal failure or social problem? Sociology of sport Journal, 9, 271-285. Daddario, G. (1992). Swimming against the tide: Sports illustrated imagery of female athletes in a swimsuit world. Nelson Thornes Ltd: London. Dooley, D. (2004). Social Research Methods. 3 rd Edition: Prentice Hall of India, Private Ltd New Deihi. Duncan, M.C. (1990). Sports photographs sexual difference: Images of women and men in the 1984 and 1988 Olympic Games: Sociology of sports Journal, Number 7. Fraenkel, J.R and Wallen N.E. (1996). How to design and Evaluate in Research. 3 rd Edition: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Gwimbi P and Dirwai, C. (2003). Research Methods in Geography and Environmental Studies. Module GED 302: Zimbabwe Open University, Mount Pleasant Harare, Zimbabwe. Gold, B and Action J. (2012). How to Watch Olympics Scores and Laws, Heroes and Zeros. An instant initiation into every sport: Profile Books Ltd. Hargreaves, J. (1994). Sporting Females, Critical issues in the history and sociology of women’s sport, London, UK: Routledge. Honeybourne J, Hill M and Moor H. (1996). Advanced Physical Education and Sport: Stanley Thornes Publishers Ltd. Johannsen, D. (2008). Glitz and hype turn netball into money game: New Zealand. Kanhukamwe, O and Madondo C. (2000). Foundations of Physical Education and Sport. Zimbabwe Open University: Harare. Kanhukamwe, O and Muswazi M.T. (2003). Research Methods in Physical Education and Sport. Zimbabwe Open University: Harare. Kerlinger, F.N (1967). Foundations of Behavioural Research Education and Psychological Enquiry. Holt Renehartz and Winston Inc: New York. Matiza C. (2010) The Herald of August 12: The Field of Sport Still Needs Expert Practitioners: Harare, Zimbabwe. Mutenga T. (2013) The Financial Gazzette of October 17-23. Poverty Eroding the Hope for Girl Child: Harare, Zimbabwe. Sallis, J and Owen N. (1999). Physical Activity and Behavioral Medicine: Thousand Oaks, US Sage. Taiylor, T. (2001). A Compliant Ferminity in Sport, Women and Netball: North America. Thomas, J.R and Nelson J.K. (1996). Research Methods into Physical Activity Human Kinetics: New York. Tuckman, B.W. (1978). Conducting Educational Research. New York: Harcourt. Treagus, M (2005). Playing Like Ladies: Basketball and Feminine Restraint. International Journal of the History of Sport. Zunidza G. (2011) Zimbabwe Netball Keep State’s Flag Flying High:Aaag. AllAfrica.com

Appendix 1: Questionnaire for girl-child school leavers and women netball players in Macheke Zone. My name is Pulumutsa Jossam, a final year Sport Administration, student at Bindura University of Science Education (BUSE) and I am carrying out a research entitled “A study to establish factors influencing the participation of women in netball in Macheke zone after completion of secondary school education” as part of my course. Questionnaires are being given to a selected number of individuals such as yourself, who will provide a representative sample. There are no wrong or right answers in this questionnaire so please feel free to express your fair opinion. Instructions to Respondents • Please answer all items provided in this questionnaire. • Respondents are assured that their responses are strictly confidential and are to be used for this study only. • There is no need to write your name. • Indicate with a tick in the brackets provided next to your chosen answer. • Thank you for your co-operation.

SECTION: A (Personal information) 1. What is your age? 18- 20 [ ] 21- 24 [ ] 25- 30 [ ]

2. State the number of children in your family

1-4 [ ] 5-8 [ ] 9-12 [ ] 13 and above 3. Academic qualifications

Grade 7 [ ] Form 2 [ ] ‘O’ level [ ] ‘A’ level [ ] Other (s) Specify…………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4. Marital status Single [ ] Married [ ] Widowed [ ] Divorced [ ]

5. Which sport are you involved in? Netball [ ] Aerobics [ ] Tennis [ ] Volleyball [ ]

None [ ]

Any other, please specify……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section B. 6. Most people in your community have negative perceptions and attitude towards girl-child School leaver’s participation in sports. Yes [ ] No [ ] 7. If yes, describe their perceptions and attitude towards girl child’s participation in sport.

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………...... 8. Are they any men actively involved in netball within your community? Yes [ ] No [ ] 9. If yes, please specify their roles ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 10. Do your guardians /parents support your participation in sport? Yes [ ] No [ ]

11. If yes, indicate the kind of support------……………………………………………………………………………………………… 12. Are you married? Yes [ ] No [ ]

13. If yes, who gives the final decision if the wife wants to engage in netball activities? Husband [ ] Wife [ ] Other (s) Specify…………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 14. Do you have a boy friend? Yes [ ] No [ ]

15. If yes, does he accompany you to training sessions and matches? Yes [ ] No [ ]

16. Does your religion allow girls and women to participate in sport?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

17. If no, please give reasons ------………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section C

18. Do you participate in sport following completion of school?

Yes [ ] No [ ] 19. If yes, indicate the activities that you usually participate in: Trainings [ ] Tournaments [ ] Club league games [ ]

20. How do usually spend your leisure time? Sporting [ ] Reading [ ] Chatting [ ] Knitting [ ] Household chores [ ] Watching television [ ] Other(s) Specify…………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

21. Do any of your friends play netball? Yes [ ] No [ ]

22. Does your body image affect your participation in netball? Yes [ ] No [ ] 23. If yes state how: ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 24. Are they any prominent netball players in your community? Yes [ ] No [ ]

25. If yes, have they been a source of inspiration to you. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section D

26. Does your community have any netball facilities? Yes [ ] No [ ]

27. If yes, state the number of netball courts in Macheke zone.

……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 28. Do you have a have standardized netball facilities in your community? Yes [ ] No [ ]

29. Does your community have a Netball Association to co-ordinate netball activities? Yes [ ] No [ ]

Section E 30. Indicate the sporting disciplines that receive sponsorship in your area. Please choose only one.

Soccer [ ] Netball [ ] Volleyball [ ] Other(s) Specify………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

31. Do the media come in your area to cover sports? Yes [ ] No [ ] Sometimes [ ] 32. Do local business people in your community support female sport participation? Yes [ ] No [ ] Sometimes [ ]

33. If yes, state the type of support. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 34. Do you get any incentives from participating in sport? Yes [ ] No [ ] Sometimes [ ]

Section F 35. Have you ever been harassed while at any sporting event? Yes [ ] No [ ] 36. If yes, specify the nature of harassment. Sexual harassment [ ] Abusive behavior [ ] Discrimination [ ]

37. Are you comfortable to work with male coaches during netball sessions? Yes [ ]

No [ ] 38. If no, please give reasons. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Appendix II: Interview questionnaire to club executives, local councilor and village chiefs in Macheke Zone. My name is Pulumutsa Jossam, a final year Sport Administration, student at Bindura University of Science Education (BUSE) and I am carrying out a research entitled “A study to establish factors influencing the participation of women in netball in Macheke zone after completion of secondary school education” as part of my course. Interview questionnaires are being held to a selected number of individuals such as yourself, who will provide a representative sample. Instructions to respondents

i) Respondents are assured that their responses are strictly confidential and are to be used in this research only. 1. What are your professional qualifications? 2. How long have you been out of school? 3. How long have you been participating in sport? 4. What is your highest achievement in sport during your school days? 5. Does your community have standard netball facilities as well as equipment? 6. Does your club offer incentives to netball players who participate in netball? 7. Do local business people in your community support female sports participation? 8. Which sporting discipline in your area get much funding? 9. Are there any female sport role models in your community? 10. How does your community view female sport participants? 11. What does your religion’s doctrine say pertaining women sport participation? 12. What is being done by the responsible authorities in Macheke in order to promote women sport participation? 13. How does your culture view women’s participation in sport? 14. How often do you get access to media coverage in Macheke zone especially in the area of sport? 15. Are they any cases of harassment in sport programmes commonly reported in your area?