ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHRISTIAN EDUCATION

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Contributor ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHRISTIAN EDUCATION

Edited by George Thomas Kurian Only and Mark A. Lamport

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Copyright © 2015 by George Thomas Kurian and Mark A. Lamport

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of Christian education / edited by George Thomas Kurian, Mark A. Lamport. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8108-8492-2 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-8493-9 (ebook) 1. Christian education—Encyclopedias. I. Kurian, George Thomas, editor. II. Lamport, Mark A., editor. BV1471.3.E53Contributor 2015 268.03—dc23 2014021410

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From George: To my wife, Annie, beloved and faithful companion, wise counselor,Copy dedicated Christian, and doughty intercessor. From Mark: To my wife, Therese, who so beautifully examples to what extent a Christian can be educated in faith.

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Only Editors, Prologue and Foreword Contributors, Editorial Advisory Board, and Editorial Consultants ix Prologue by J. I. Packer xiii Foreword by Stanley Hauerwas xv Foreword by Richard J. Mouw xvii Foreword by Ronald J. Sider xix Foreword by Will Willimon Copy xxi Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxvii Introduction xxix Volume 1: A–F 1 Volume 2: G–R 529 Volume 3: S–Z 1089 Lead-in Introductions 1427 Appendix A: World Statistics on Christian Populations 1519 Appendix B: World Listing of Christian Universities by Continent 1539 Appendix C: Entries Listed by Author 1553 Index of Names 1569 Index of Entries 1591 ContributorContributing Authors 1603

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Contributor Editors, Prologue and Foreword Contributors, Editorial Advisory Board, and Editorial Consultants Only Editors Yale University. He was named “America’s Best Theolo- gian” by Time magazine in 2001. His book, A Community George Thomas Kurian is president of the Encyclo- of Character: Toward a Constructive Christian Social pedia Society and the editor of 61 books, including 27 Ethic, was selected as one of the 100 most important encyclopedias, 15 of them multivolume. His Christian books on religion of the 20th century. Hauerwas recently encyclopedias include the World Christian Encyclopedia authored Matthew: Theological Commentary on the (2 vols., Oxford University Press), Dictionary of Christi- (Brazos, 2006) and The State of the University: Academic anity (Thomas Nelson Books), Encyclopedia of Christian Knowledges and the Knowledge of God (Blackwell, 2007). Civilization (4 vols., Wiley-Blackwell Publishing), Ency- clopedia of Christian Literature (2 vols., Scarecrow Press), RichardCopy J. Mouw is distinguished professor of faith and Baker Handbook of Denominations and Ministries (Baker public life after 20 years as president of Fuller Theologi- Books, 2013), and Visual Timelines of Christian History cal Seminary (1993–2013). He also served FTS as pro- (Harvest House, 2014). vost, senior vice president, and professor of Christian philosophy and ethics beginning in 1985. Mouw served Mark A. Lamport (PhD, curriculum and instruction, for 17 years as professor of philosophy at Calvin Col- Michigan State University) is professor of practical the- lege (Michigan). A graduate of Houghton College, he ology/educational ministry at graduate schools in Colo- studied at Western Theological Seminary and earned rado, Arizona, Virginia, California, Indiana, Belgium, a master’s degree in philosophy at the University of Wales, and Portugal. He has master’s degrees in bibli- Alberta. His PhD in philosophy is from the University cal studies from Wheaton Graduate School (Illinois), of Chicago. He is the author of 19 books, including The in church history from Evangelical Theological Semi- Smell of Sawdust; Calvinism in the Las Vegas Airport; nary (Pennsylvania), and in Christian education from Praying at Burger King; Uncommon Decency; and most Princeton Theological Seminary (New Jersey), and has recently, Abraham Kuyper: A Short and Personal Intro- published for 30 consecutive years in the discipline of duction, The Challenges of Cultural Discipleship, and Christian education. Talking with Mormons.

J. I. Packer was born in Gloucester, England and became Prologue and Foreword Contributors professor of systematic and historical theology at Regent Contributor College (Vancouver, British Columbia) in 1979. Time Stanley Hauerwas seeks to recover the significance of named him one of the 25 most influential evangelicals the virtues for understanding the nature of the Christian in 2005. Packer earned an MA and a DPhil from Oxford life. His work cuts across disciplinary lines in conversa- University and has lectured widely in Great Britain and tion with systematic theology, philosophical theology and North America. He is a member of the editorial council ethics, political theory, as well as the philosophy of social of Christianity Today and was general editor of the Eng- science and medical ethics. He earned a BA from South- lish Standard Version of the Bible. He is a prolific writer, western University and BD, MA, MPhil, and PhD from but is best known for Knowing God. His Collected Shorter

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Writings are available in four volumes, and a selection and editor of Didache: Faithful Teaching, a journal for of his articles is published as The J.I. Packer Collection. Wesleyan Higher Education. Packer is associated with St. John’s Vancouver Anglican Church, which in February 2008 voted to leave the Angli- Joel Carpenter (PhD, history, ) can Church of Canada. is director of the Nagel Institute for the Study of World Christianity of Calvin College. He has a long-standing in- Ronald J. Sider is senior distinguished professor of theol- terest in American religious and cultural history, the his- ogy, holistic ministry, and public policy at Palmer Theo- tory of Christianity in Africa and Asia, and Christianity logical Seminary of Eastern University (Pennsylvania). in higher education. Carpenter is coeditor of The Chang- An ordained minister in the Mennonite and Brethren in ing Face of Christianity: Africa, the West, and the World Christ Churches, his BD, MA, and PhD (history) degrees (2005) and author of Revive Us Again: The Reawakening are from Yale University. Sider has provided leadership of American Fundamentalism (1997). to those who recognize not just the spiritual, but also the social and political implications of a high view of scrip- Ralph Enlow serves as president of the Association for ture. Among more than 30 published books, his Rich Biblical Higher Education (abhe.org), whose 200 North Christians in an Age of Hunger was lauded by Christianity American member and affiliate institutions engage stu- Today as among the top 100 books on religion in the 20th dents in education that is distinctivelyOnly biblical, trans- century and the seventh most influential in the evangeli- formational, experiential, and missional. Enlow is also cal world in the last 50 years. He is the founder and presi- a founding member of Global Associates for Transfor- dent of Evangelicals for Social Action (ESA). mational Education and author of The Leader’s Palette: Seven Primary Colors (2013). Will Willimon served as the dean of Duke Chapel and professor of Christian ministry at Duke University for 20 James Riley Estep Jr. (DMin, Southern Baptist Theologi- years. He returned to Duke after serving as the United cal Seminary; PhD Trinity Evangelical Divinity School) is Methodist Church Bishop of the North Alabama Confer- dean of the School of Undergraduate Studies at Lincoln ence (2004–2012). He earned a BA from Wofford Col- Christian University (Illinois) and teaches Christian edu- lege, an MDiv at Yale Divinity School, and an STD from cationCopy at its seminary. Emory University. Willimon is the author of 60 books. His Worship as Pastoral Care was selected as one of the Charles R. Foster is professor of religion and education 10 most useful books for pastors by the Academy of Par- emeritus at the Candler School of Theology, Emory Uni- ish Clergy. More than a million copies of his books have versity. He is the author of From Generation to Genera- been sold. He is editor-at-large for The Christian Century. tion and Educating Congregations; project director and His book Pastor: The Theology and Practice of Ordained lead author of Educating Clergy: Teaching Practices and Leadership is used in dozens of seminaries. Pastoral Imagination; and coauthor of We Are the Church Together, Working with Black Youth, and The Church in the Education of the Public. Editorial Advisory Board Bryan Froehle directs the PhD program in practical the- Jeff Astley is honorary professor in the Department of ology in the School of Theology and Ministry, St. Thomas Theology and Religion at Durham University (United University (Miami). Froehle has also been associated Kingdom) and was director of the North of England with Dominican University (River Forest, Illinois), the Institute for Christian Education (1981–2013). His 35 Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate (CARA) at books on Christian education, practical theology, or reli- Georgetown University, the University of South Carolina gious faith include The Philosophy of Christian Religious Upstate (Spartanburg, South Carolina), and the Universi- Education and Ordinary Theology. dad Católica Andrés Bello (Venezuela). His PhD and MA Contributorare in sociology (University of Michigan). Dean G. Blevins (PhD, personality and theology/religious education, Claremont School of Theology) serves as pro- Perry L. Glanzer (PhD) is professor of educational foun- fessor of practical theology and Christian discipleship at dations at Baylor University. His most recent book, coau- Nazarene Theological Seminary (Missouri). Past president thored with Todd Ream, is The Idea of a Christian Col- of the Religious Education Association and USA/Canada lege: A Reexamination for Today’s University. He has also regional education coordinator for the Church of the published three other books and more than 40 journal Nazarene, Blevins is coauthor of Discovering Discipleship articles and book chapters on topics related to education. Editors, Contributors, Advisory Board, and Consultants xi

Thomas Groome (PhD) is professor of theology and focus on modes of faith formation both for those engaged religious education at Boston College and chair of the in ministry and for believers committed to growing in Department of Religious Education and Pastoral Minis- their faith and its expression in their lives. try in Boston College’s School of Theology and Ministry. His publications include Christian Religious Education Philip Graham Ryken (PhD) is the eighth president of (Harper, 1980), Sharing Faith (Harper, 1991), Educat- Wheaton College, having served previously as the senior ing for Life (Crossroads, 2000), What Makes Us Catholic minister of ’s Tenth Presbyterian Church. (Harper, 2002), and Will There Be Faith? (Harper, 2012). He was educated at Wheaton College (Illinois), West- minster Theological Seminary (Pennsylvania), and the S. Steve Kang (PhD, Northwestern University) serves as University of Oxford (UK), and has authored or edited professor of educational ministries and interdisciplin- more than 40 Bible commentaries and other books. ary studies at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary in South Hamilton, Massachusetts. Jack L. Seymour is professor of religious education at Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary in Evanston, Kevin E. Lawson (EdD, University of Maine) served on Illinois. He is the editor of Religious Education and the a church staff for 11 years and in higher education for author or editor of nine books, including Teaching the 22 years. He serves as professor of Christian education Way of Jesus (Abingdon, 2014);Only Yearning for God, with and director of PhD and EdD programs in educational Margaret Ann Crain; and Mapping Christian Education. studies at Talbot School of Theology, and as editor of Christian Education Journal. James D. Smith III (ThD, Harvard) is professor of church history at Bethel Seminary, San Diego, and has lectured at John R. Lillis (BS, MS, MRE, MDiv, PhD) is currently the University of San Diego. An ordained Baptist General dean/executive officer of Bethel Seminary San Diego and Conference/Converge minister, he has served churches senior associate of Global Associates for Transforma- in Massachusetts, Minnesota, and California. Recently he tional Education (GATE). He was previously professor was consulting editor for the award-winning Dictionary of educational ministry, executive vice president/pro- of Christian Spirituality. vost, Cornerstone University, and president, Asia Baptist Copy Theological Seminary. Catherine Stonehouse (PhD, Michigan State University) served as professor of Christian discipleship and dean in Mark A. Maddix (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Divinity the School of Practical Theology at Asbury Theological School) is professor of practical theology and Christian Seminary from 1987 to 2011. She is the author of several discipleship and dean of the School of Theology and books focusing on the spiritual formation of children. Christian Ministries at Northwest Nazarene Univer- Before joining the Asbury faculty, she provided leader- sity (Idaho). He has published academic articles in the ship for the Christian education ministries of the Free areas of Christian education, spiritual formation, and Methodist Church in North America. Wesleyan theology. He has coauthored four books, including Discovering Discipleship (2010) and Spiritual John Westerhoff, (STB, Harvard; EdD, Columbia; DD, Formation (2011). Ursinus) is a retired Episcopal priest and one-time pro- fessor of theology and Christian nurture at the Duke Robert W. Pazmiño is the Valeria Stone Professor of University Divinity School (North Carolina). He is the Christian Education at Andover Newton Theological author of more than 30 books, including Will Our Chil- School in Newton Centre, Massachusetts, serving since dren Have Faith? 1986. He holds a BA from Bucknell University, an MDiv from Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, and an EdD from Teachers College, Columbia University in Consulting Editors cooperationContributor with Union Seminary. Bob is the author of a dozen Christian education books and is ordained by the Beverly Johnson-Miller (PhD) is professor of Christian American Baptist Churches. discipleship and director of the MA program in aging and spirituality at Asbury Theological Seminary (Ken- Jane E. Regan (PhD, religious education, Catholic Uni- tucky). Her research is focused on spiritual formation versity of America) is associate professor of theology and and transformative pedagogy. She serves as archivist for religious education at the School of Theology and Minis- the Religious Education Association and is a member of try at Boston College. Her areas of research and writing the Society of Professors in Christian Education. xii Editors, Contributors, Advisory Board, and Consultants

David Setran (PhD, Indiana University) is associate Pofes- Donald Tinder (BA, PhD, Yale University; MDiv, Fuller sor of Christian formation and ministry at Wheaton Theological Seminary) is dean and professor of historical College, where he teaches courses in the history and theology, Olivet Theological College & Seminary (San philosophy of Christian education and college and young Francisco). He is professor emeritus, Evangelical Theo- adult ministry. He is the author of The College “Y”: Student logical Faculty (Belgium) and formerly dean, Tyndale Religion in the Era of Secularization (Palgrave/Macmillan, Theological Seminary (Netherlands). Tinder was associ- 2007) and coauthor with Chris Kiesling of Spiritual For- ate editor of Christianity Today and is a Commended mation in Emerging Adulthood: A Practical Theology for worker with the Plymouth Brethren (Open). College and Young Adult Ministry (Baker Academic, 2013). Mai-Anh Le Tran (PhD) is associate professor of Chris- I. Smith (PhD) is director of the Kuyers Institute tian education at Eden Theological Seminary in St. for Christian Teaching and Learning and director of Louis, Missouri. She is current vice president and 2014 graduate studies in education at Calvin College in Grand program chair of the Religious Education Association Rapids, Michigan. He serves as senior editor of the Jour- (REA:APRRE), with research and teaching focus on nal of Education and Christian Belief and is a former edi- local/global intersections of race, gender, and class in tor of the Journal of Christianity and Foreign Languages. religious identity formation and practices.Only

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Contributor Prologue

J. I. Packer Only When education is casually defined as imparting know- meant to be. The process, fueled by faith, begins by mak- what along with know-how, or as telling people where ing us face the facts and learn the truths to which faith to look things up, it hardly sounds important. In truth, is a response, so it is hardly surprising that education however, education is serious business. It is a process is Christian belief and its application to life has always that solidifies society, as old and universal as the human been central in Christian strategy, both for strengthen- race itself. Informally, parents have always taught their ing the church’s existing adherents and for engaging children, and chiefs their clans, things that need to be outsiders, who, it is hoped, will become insiders through known in the family and the community, respectively. a God-given change of heart. Not for nothing were the Schools of various sorts codifying and extending such in- first Christians called disciples, a Greek word meaning, struction existed long before Christianity arrived, estab- precisely,Copy learning, and the content of the Christian com- lishing standards of competence and expectation simply munication was called doctrine, a Latin word with which by doing their job. The Athenian academy of Plato and its Greek counterpart (didche) means something taught. Aristotle, and other Greek schools derived thence, ex- There have been times when the primacy of education in plored questions of truth, goodness, and beauty at a level Christianity has been better understood than at others; of critical and analytical thought matching that which it is encouraging that we seem to be moving into such a modern universities maintain. Over the centuries, most time once more, after a century of drift. notably where Western Europe’s Renaissance made its Generically, the Christian education curriculum has strongest impact, the idea of an educated person as one always consisted of authoritative intellectual and moral who can exercise good judgment on theoretical, practical, material drawn from God’s own self-revelation in the and moral issues across the board has taken firm root. All history recorded, the thinking embedded, and the ethic of this, be it said, is significant background for what is delineated in the canonical Holy Scriptures, a reality presented in these volumes. that reaches its in the space-time, word-and- Christianity has from the start understood itself as gos- deed, provincial-Jewish, historical-redemptive ministry pel. Gospel is a key word, almost a technical term, in the of Jesus Christ, whom Christians adore as the Son of New Testament. The gospel that the apostles preached God incarnate and risen, the perfection of humanness, appears as a divinely authored good-news message that the ultimate authority on all aspects of the relational shows the way to a restorative transformation of our knowledge, sovereign love, and saving action of God, flawed humanity. Through all cultural variations and himself the personal transformer of all who truly trust changesContributor this gospel remains essentially unchanged, in him. Catechetical schools covering this ground in a three- every generation, calling on those in the grip of the anti- year course that all candidates for baptism were required God evil called sin, as we all initially are, to recognize to take seem to have been up and running in churches their plight and embrace God’s remedy. Christianity from early in the second century, if not before. Sermons may properly call itself a humanism, indeed the only in mainline churches were understood as, precisely, times true humanism, because it tells how, under God and by for teaching and learning, at least until the First World God’s power in loving action, twisted human nature may War; they are now slowly but steadily becoming so again, be put straight and so become all that human nature was while structured catechesis, long neglected, is also reviv-

— xiii — xiv Prologue ing. These facts, too, form significant background to this sionalism among all who teach is called for, the discipling present encyclopedia. significance of Christian education is appreciated, and Christianity, for the most part, has in the past sought debate in all directions is encouraged. All of this seems to Christianize the communities within which it has been likely to continue for the foreseeable future. planted; that is, to make Christian values and behavioral At the outset I hinted that there is more to education standards culturally normative within them. Out of this than knowing where to look things up, and so there is: purpose came the Western school system, until recently, more, but not less. In an era such as ours, in which knowl- when humanistic scientism took over, and the same pur- edge has exploded to the point of information overload al- pose has yielded the plethora of independent Christian most everywhere, encyclopedias—comprehensive printed educational institutions—universities, colleges, schools, resources compiled directly for the purpose of enabling us academic communities—that confront us today. The to look things up—are necessary aids to intellectual life. It educational path that these bodies have followed has is an unhappy anomaly that the Encyclopedia of Christian mainly been some sort of blend of Christian and Platonic Education should be the first encyclopedia covering the perspectives, and scholars working within this frame pro- whole range of Christian education, past and present, duce material critiquing non-, sub-, and anti-Christian but its emergence now is a very happy step forward. The views and reaffirming their own stance in face of them. thoroughness with which it has been put together merits Throughout the Christian world today—Roman Catho- applause, and for its existence we shouldOnly most profoundly lic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant evangelical—intel- thank George Thomas Kurian and Mark A. Lamport, lectual vitality is clearly renewing itself, vigorous profes- Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, and Almighty God.

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Contributor Foreword

Stanley Hauerwas, Duke Divinity School Only Let me begin by answering the question many will ask The language of formation may be more basic to describe about anyone who is bold enough to write a “foreword” what becoming Christian entails, but formation is but a to this ambitious project. My answer is: “I have not read form of education. the 1,200 articles that these volumes contain.” I have, Moreover, as the table of contents makes clear, the however, read the preface and introduction to the En- education that is constitutive of being Christian is not cyclopedia of Christian Education, which has given me only about what is necessary to ensure the transmission some confidence that I might have something worth of Christianity. It cannot be so limited, because Christi- saying to commend this extraordinary book. Let me try anity is about all that is. So it is extremely important that to explain. the Encyclopedia contain articles on subjects that may I went to Yale Divinity School in 1962. There were notCopy seem central to the Christian faith. Christians are a courses in Christian education offered in the Divinity people to whom nothing human is foreign. Accordingly School, but they were not thought to be of high priority Christian education cannot help but be an attempt, often by most of us at the time. Some would take those courses, quite frustrating, to comprehend all that is. but they did so because they were taught by Professor That the subject of Christian education is not only Randolph Crump Miller. Professor Miller was an urbane about how to educate younger children in the faith of the and attractive person (his lectures on jazz were very com- church is evident by the very fact that Christians founded pelling), who made Christian education as a discipline and have sustained universities. The sheer fact that uni- seem more intellectually interesting than in fact it was. versities are the result of the Christian imagination I That Christian education was not that interesting had think has not been appropriately acknowledged by many everything to do with the assumption that the education of the cultural despisers of Christianity. Christianity is a of Christians was a parallel curriculum to public educa- faith that often painfully but necessarily develops from tion. As a result Christian education became associated within its own life the severest criticisms of itself. That with various theories about what a child could and universities, even in their most secular form, exist is not could not comprehend at different ages. Not everything a matter of indifference for the church. done in the name of educational theory was without The historical perspective that the Encyclopedia takes value for the formation of Christians, but the theology on these developments in Christian education is very that was often associated with Christian educational important, because it cannot help but spur our imagina- theory was at the best “thin.” tions to be free from what is considered to be education This Contributoris why I think the Encyclopedia of Christian Edu- in the present. That many of the articles, moreover, cation is such an important endeavor. Christianity is a are about education in contexts other than the West is faith that must be passed from one generation to the next extremely important. I assume, therefore, that the Ency- by the transmission of a story. Stories cannot be known clopedia is meant to be a reforming document carrying without tellers. As the editors of this book make clear, a normative perspective that will help us better do what education is an activity that is constitutive of the Gospel. we must do as Christians; that is, pass on what we have One does not become a Christian and then receive an learned and what we have often had to unlearn from education, but to become a Christian is to be educated. one generation to the next.

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I cannot imagine how the editors envisioned this book help but become a classic reference, not only in Christian and the various articles they commissioned. I have had education but also for Christian theology and history. some experience in planning as well as commissioning I should like to think this publication of the Encyclo- articles, for the Encyclopedia of Bioethics. I know how pedia of Christian Education might occasion the reintro- hard it is to identify and then organize articles on par- duction of courses in Christian education in seminary ticular subjects, as well as to commission the appropriate curriculums. Indeed, the Encyclopedia might well be- author to write the article on each topic in which he or come the resource that such courses have so desperately she is assumed to have competence. I stand in awe of needed. We shall have to wait and see what the broader George Kurian’s and Mark Lamport’s extraordinary or- impact will be. But I certainly look forward to having ganizational structure of this book as well as the authors these volumes available to help me think about how chosen to write the assigned articles. This book cannot Christian education ought to be thought about. Only

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Contributor Foreword

Richard J. Mouw, Fuller Theological Seminary Only A Pentecostal friend with excellent scholarly credentials strong emphasis on the need for careful thinking, rigor- was preaching in his home church. His sermon, based ous scholarship, and well-conceived teaching methods. on a text from the Epistles, was moving along well, with Not only were many of the great universities in Europe many an “Amen!” from the congregation. But when he and North America founded by Christian communities offered a few comments about what one of the words in as arenas for the cultivation of scholarly habits of thought his biblical text meant in the original Greek, the congre- and action, but the ideals embedded in those institutions gation went silent. Afterward, one of the church stalwarts inspired missionaries to extend the educational enter- shook my friend’s hand at the door and thanked him prise to the Southern Hemisphere. for the sermon, but added this word of mild reprimand In addition to that general—and extremely impor- regarding the preacher’s excursion into Greek meanings: tant—reminderCopy regarding the positive impact of Chris- “Don’t try to educate us, brother. Just bless us!” tianity on global education, there is also the actual That church member was clearly working with a false content of this encyclopedia. The results of the edi- dichotomy: “educating” versus “blessing.” Education can tors, George Thomas Kurian and Mark A. Lamport, itself be a mode of blessing people. And as this marvelously are surely impressive—bringing together 1,200 articles comprehensive Encyclopedia of Christian Education makes written by 400 authors, covering an astounding range of clear, there is abundant evidence that the educational ef- topics: what we owe to diverse theological and confes- forts initiated and supported and sustained by Christians sional communities; the various levels of educational in- over the centuries have brought enrichment not only to stitutions; diverse “audiences” for Christian pedagogy; the churches, but to the larger human community as well. philosophies of Christian education; national contexts; Even apart from the contents of this encyclopedia, the formative educational leaders; specific fields of scholar- very fact of its appearance carries a significant message ship; and much, much more. for our present-day context. In a time when deeply held The publication of the Encyclopedia of Christian Edu- religious convictions are often seen as fostering incivility, cation has to be seen as an exciting event in the Chris- intolerance, hostility toward science as such, and a “cul- tian community and regions beyond. It deserves to be ture wars” crusading spirit, we all need to be reminded received as a blessing in what it teaches us. It might even that a profound commitment to Christian belief has be appropriate to greet its appearance with a few appro- made aContributor major contribution to Western culture, with a priately dignified shouts of “Amen!”

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Contributor Foreword

Ronald J. Sider, Palmer Seminary at Eastern University Only My personal experience underlines for me the impor- Christian revelation (within the “house of the Lord”) that tance of Christian education. My devout mother and fa- we can then most powerfully and effectively pursue and ther and the biblical Sunday school and church to which understand all truth. If Jesus, the Incarnate Son, is the they regularly took me provided my initial understanding truth, then all truth fits together with God’s special rev- of Christian faith. Four years at a Christian high school elation. Therefore Christian education boldly embraces deepened my knowledge. Three years of theological all truth and explores how truth—whether scientific, education plus a doctoral dissertation on the Reforma- historical, sociological, etc.—fits together. Christian edu- tion greatly expanded my understanding of the Bible, cators start with their commitment to the One who is the Christian teaching, and history. And for the last 45 years, way, the truth, and the life and then seek to understand I have been a professor, first in an evangelical college and everythingCopy we can about how God’s astoundingly com- then in an evangelical seminary. For almost my entire plex creation fits together with that basic Christian truth. life, I have been immersed in Christian education. Christian educators have a great stake in the claim that One essential part of Christian education—the passing truth exists—as Pope John Paul II said so well in his great on of Christian faith—can be see in St. Paul. In 1 Corinthi- encyclical, Veritatis Splendor (The Splendor of Truth, ans 15:3ff., Paul introduces his citation of the evidence for 1993). If truth does not exist, then Christian education Jesus’s resurrection with the words, “For what I received I is mere propaganda and brainwashing. But if truth ex- passed on to you.” The words “received” and “passed on” ists, then Christian education involves an exciting search are the translation of the technical words used to refer for the ways that all truth fits together. That is not to say to the finely honed Jewish oral tradition, which carefully that we dare claim that we have the truth. Postmodern- and accurately passed on important teaching orally. Paul ists are right to remind us of all the ways that we all are uses the same technical term in 1 Corinthians 11:23 when profoundly limited in our understanding by our finitude he cites the words of institution for the Lord’s Supper. and sinfulness. We should never claim that our under- Clearly St. Paul believed that it was very important to standing of anything (whether theology, biblical revela- carefully pass on core parts of Christian truth to the next tion, or contemporary knowledge) is “the truth.” We all generation of Christians. One criterion of faithful Chris- see through a glass darkly. But we know that truth exists, tian education is whether it carefully and successfully that God is truth, and that biblical revelation is true (even transmits to the next generation God’s special revelation though our understanding of it is always dreadfully im- in Christ and the scriptures. perfect). Christian educators largely search for a more ChristianContributor education, of course, is far more than merely faithful understanding of truth even as they remember passing on revealed truth. The Psalmist expressed his their own finitude and imperfection. longing to “dwell in the house of the Lord all the days of In addition to handing on the core of Christian faith my life, to behold the beauty of the Lord, and to inquire and engaging in an exciting search for how all truth fits in his temple” (Psalm 27:4). St. Augustine’s wonderful together, Christian education also nurtures more faithful phrase fides quaereus intellectum (“faith seeking under- discipleship and more mature Christian living. That is standing”) captures, I believe, an important part of what not to say with Plato that knowledge is virtue. Know- the Psalmist intended. It is as we locate ourselves within ing the truth does not guarantee that persons will live in

— xix — xx Foreword conformity to the truth. But knowledge of Christian truth first-ever Encyclopedia of Christian Education, edited does contribute to more faithful Christian living. Paul by George Thomas Kurian and Mark A. Lamport, will urges Christians not to conform to this world’s standards, enable all Christians everywhere to have a similar experi- but to “be transformed by the renewing of your mind” ence. Rightly, contributors from all parts of the world (Romans 12:2). Knowledge of Christian truth transforms have written for this important publication. My prayer us, helping us to live a lifestyle conformed to Christ. is that just as I have been taught—educated in Christian When they are faithful and effective, Christian educators faith—by Christians from every continent, so too this contribute to nurturing more faithful Christian living. publication will enable the next generation of Christians In my life, I have had the great privilege of serving to learn from their sisters and brothers in all parts of the with and learning from Christian leaders from the global global body of Christ. South—where the majority of Christian now live.1 This

ship of Evangelical Mission Theologians, and the board of the Oxford Cen- 1. Among other things, I served on the Theological Commission of the ter for Mission Studies and became a founding coeditor of Transformation: World Evangelical Fellowship (now the WEA), the International Fellow- An International Dialogue on Evangelical Social Ethics. Only

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Contributor Foreword

Will Willimon, Duke Divinity School; Duke Memorial United Methodist Church, Durham, North Carolina Only My parents never worried about whether or not I would Christians are resident aliens in a society we Christians grow up Christian. It was the only game in town, reli- once thought we owned. giously speaking. Greenville, South Carolina, we had In a sense, my church didn’t need an Encyclopedia of been led to believe, was the buckle of the Bible Belt, the Christian Education 50 years ago when I began ministry. epicenter of Christendom, North America. Church, state, Who needs cultivation and instruction into a way of and southern culture joined forces in an alliance to un- life that is already embraced by nine out of ten average dergird goodness, respectability, and the American way. people? As I read through the articles in this vast and Christianity, as we practiced it, was a willing and eager comprehensive encyclopedia, while I learned much new enlistee in this project. Being Christian was roughly syn- information, I also came to a fresh conviction that onymous with being a thinking, sensitive, compassion- Copy ate American. The town closed on Sunday. There was a • the center of world Christianity is shifting eastward traffic jam at 9:30 Sunday morning as people flocked to and southward from North America and Europe; Sunday school. Christian education, such as it was, en- • Christians are once again thinking our way into a deavored to bring out the best in already good Christian new world that is now postmodern; people, appealing to our allegedly innate inclinations and • Pentecostals are being brought into the discussion most charitable, natural dispositions. The Gospel was with an awareness of Pentecostalism as a rich, differ- reduced to conventional, American common sense. ent, fruitful way of construing the world; Whether or not my parents were justified in thinking • the truth who is Jesus Christ is amazingly adaptive, that I would quite naturally, unavoidably embrace the supple, and relevant to a world of emerging econo- Christian faith, I find it remarkable that no one thinks mies, new democracies, non-Western peoples, and that today. No North American Christian—no matter the an exploding global Christianity; denomination or geographic location—believes that our • the Christian faith has rich resources for thinking children will grow up Christian simply by being born in our way through the new challenges for discipleship; the United States. Being Christian is no longer (if it ever • the Body of Christ is a body in motion and service to really was) normal, natural, innate, or typical. a living Lord that demands we be ready to think our I find it remarkable that this seismic shift in the way through new demands upon faithfulness; and church’s self-consciousness has occurred during my • education, inculcation, indoctrination, formation, adult lifetime. Christianity, having once thought of itself and catechesis are essential aspects of conversion as the Contributormajority, established faith of our culture, is no into the way of the Gospel, a way that is neither in- longer dominant, not completely disestablished in some nate nor natural. places but definitely moving toward the margins every- where. There is a widespread realization that Christians In our changed situation God gives us a new connec- are made, not born (Tertullian), that baptism is initiation tion with sisters and brothers in young churches who have into a countercultural community of theological indoc- never known the presumption of establishment. Some may trination and moral formation named church. Stanley lament that the world of the presumed Christian hege- Hauerwas and I no longer must mount an argument that mony over North American culture, if it ever really existed,

— xxi — xxii Foreword is now over. But there is also a sense in which the changing leadership has been fulfilled by the Encyclopedia. It is our world, at least our North American world, has restored the joyous pastoral task to patiently, confidently, and beguil- necessity and the adventure of Christian education. ingly share the riches of the faith with new generations In Christian education the church graciously gives us of Christians. A primary designation for Jesus is “rabbi.” the skills we need to resist, to equip the saints, and then He promised the Holy Spirit would come and teach us to march to the beat of a different drummer who never everything we needed to know to be his disciples. That is owned a drum. One cannot be born into the Christian fortunate, because in this faith we never become so adept faith. Christ who is the way, the truth, and the life is at believing that we no longer have need for additional accessed only through his own self-giving, not through information. We never lose our amateur status in regard our astute spiritual rumination. The Gospel is not to be to handling the truth who is Jesus Christ. discovered through long walks in the woods or by rum- Rather than trying to evoke something that is already maging about in our own egos. Someone has to tell you within people, in Christian education we have the joy of this odd story that is the Gospel. Someone must lead offering people a new way of life, a different world than you step by step down the narrow way that leads to life they could have had if we had left them to their own eternal. We must submit ourselves to faithful educators. devices. Jesus always equips those whom he calls. Con- Christian education is thus training in how to be receiv- version is a lifelong process of letting go of the ideas and ers, receiving a story so strange and so true that we can- devices that are inappropriate for Onlytruthful living now that not tell it to ourselves. Jesus Christ is Lord—even if the world has yet fully to Some time ago I predicted that more of pastors’ time get the news. This exuberant, fecund, global Encyclopedia in my church would be spent engaged in the role of edited by George Thomas Kurian and Mark A. Lamport doctor ecclesiae. My prediction of the coming central- is thus a great gift to the church and to those of us who ity of Christian education for Christian congregational teach in Christ’s name. Copy

Contributor Preface

George Thomas Kurian and Mark A. Lamport Only Overview Scope

Encyclopedia of Christian Education is an ambitious and The goal of Christian education is different from that of panoptic survey of the history, traditions, methodologies, secular education. It lies in the sanctification of knowl- institutions, curricula, and rubrics of Christian educa- edge and using knowledge itself as a tool of salvation. tion for the last 2,000 years. Christianity is a magisterial Christian education does not merely instruct, it empow- religion in which teaching and learning are integral to the ers and transmutes and transforms; it does not merely growth and maturity of believers. Teaching is one of the inform, it edifies. It transmits not merely skills but also great ministries of the church, and the great apostles and values and character. Christian knowledge is not merely prophets were also teachers, as was Jesus Himself. Ency- theCopy fulfillment of curiosity and the resolution of prob- clopedia of Christian Education is the first encyclopedia lems, but also the yoking of the human mind to the mind in publishing history dedicated to the history of Christian of God. Christian knowledge is not ephemeral or circular; education in all countries of the world and through the it is permanent and teleological. Christian education is past 20 centuries. part of the church’s engagement with the world, and its Christian education is one of the oldest educational focus is to nurture faith in the context of shared values, systems in the world, continuously functioning alongside beliefs, and attitudes. the church for 2,000 years. It is also perhaps the largest Christian education is primarily of two kinds. First in the modern world, with schools, colleges, and univer- are formal day schools. Many missionary orders and sities in more than 140 countries. Christian educators groups are engaged in the running of secular schools, were also pioneers in many areas, such as literacy, home- colleges, and universities throughout the world, at which schooling, Sunday schools, women’s education, graded they often excel. There are more than 300,000 Christian schools, compulsory education, education of the deaf and schools in the educational systems of more than 140 blind, and kindergarten. countries of the world (all but 60 countries in the world). See appendix C for country-by-country statistics related to Christian universities. Their syllabi may include com- Rationale and Mission pulsory or noncompulsory religious instruction. The Jesuits in particular are celebrated for their schools as The mission of the Encyclopedia of Christian Education well as their pedagogical system. There are millions of is (1) toContributor fill a gap in the reference shelf on education, (2) Christian scholars in every conceivable discipline, even to explore the legacy and heritage of Christian education the hard sciences, which are traditionally perceived as in the history of Christianity, (3) to restore a study of being outside the ambit of religion. Christian education to the curricula of teachers’ colleges, In almost every country where there are secular and (4) to foster further research on Christian education schools, they have a Christian origin. This is particularly at all levels by providing a flagship resource. true in the Western world, where universities such as

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Oxford, Harvard, and Sorbonne were originally schools • The missionary movement beginning in the 19th for the training of clergy. In the Middle Ages the first century pioneered thousands of schools throughout schools were cathedral schools, where the teachers were Africa and Asia, providing education even in the monks or nuns. The structure of education in Europe remotest jungles. was determined in the Carolingian era and began with a • Christianity revolutionized education by making it biblical component. The goal was to provide bedrock that available to all classes and both genders. Previously, could withstand the heavy load of secular learning that only boys from the privileged classes obtained an followed later in life. Learning and faith were inseparable education. until the 18th century. • Graded levels of education were first introduced in Another more formal class of Christian education is the 16th century by a German Lutheran layman, theological, conducted in seminaries for the training of Johann Sturm, who believed that this system would priests, pastors, missionaries, evangelists, nuns, monks, motivate students to study. and parachurch professionals, who make up the ground • Kindergartens were first established in the 19th troops of the Christian army. This education is heavily century by Frederick Froebel, the son of a German denominational in nature and thus varied in its doctrinal Lutheran pastor, who developed the idea of a school texture. that would allow young children to grow under the The second basic kind of Christian education takes care of an expert gardener (teacher).Only place in informal faith community settings. This began • Education for the deaf was pioneered by Charles on the day of the Pentecost when, as Luke says, “they L’Epee, who in 1775 developed a sign language for never stopped teaching . . . that Jesus is the Christ” (Acts formally teaching the deaf. Thomas Gallaudet, an 5:34ff.). Shortly before His ascension, Jesus asked His American Congregational clergyman, opened the disciples to “make disciples of all nations . . . teaching first school for the deaf in 1817. He taught not only them to obey everything I have commanded you” (Mat- the three Rs, but also the fourth R, religion, so deaf thew 28:19–20). One of the qualifications for a bishop people could read, write, and grow in faith. was the ability to teach (1 Timothy 3:2; 2 Timothy 2:24). • Education for the blind was advanced in the 19th Catechetical instruction led to the founding of catecheti- century by Louis Braille, a Christian, who gave to the cal schools. Around AD 150 Justin Martyr established blindCopy a method of reading with their fingers. one on and one in Rome. Origen (“the Prince • The invention of the Sunday school, during the In- of Christian Learning”) established a celebrated school dustrial Revolution of the 18th century, helped boys in Alexandria. Other great schools were established at and girls from some of the poorest English homes, , Ephesus, and Caesarea in Palestine. who worked six days a week, learn the skill of read- ing and the stories of the Bible. • Christianity also was responsible for the founding The Gifts of Christian Education and growth of universities and higher education, which grew out of monastic missionary centers. The The contributions of Christianity to the world are nothing first universities—Oxford, Paris, Cambridge, Hei- less than remarkable, especially in numerous initiatives delberg, and Basel—were all founded by Christians pertaining to education.1 While to some this statement starting in the 13th century and taught theology, may seem like nothing more than self-congratulatory law, and medicine. In the United States every col- verbiage, the evidence of such an observation follows:2 legiate institution founded in the colonies prior to the Revolutionary War, save one, was established by • The printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg, some branch of the Christian church. was instrumental in the spread of the Christian faith. The first book printed was the Bible. • Christianity has been a major force for promoting Editorial Organization literacyContributor worldwide. Many of the world’s languages were first set to writing by missionaries. Encyclopedia of Christian Education is on the one hand a diachronic encyclopedia that traces the history of 1. For a more detailed analysis, see Alvin Schmidt, Under the Influence: Christian education, schools, and training over the past How Christianity Transformed Civilization (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2,000 years. On the other, it is a synchronic encyclo- 2001). 2. Some of these thoughts were stirred by the observations of Peter Ham- pedia that profiles the state of contemporary Christian mond and can be found at http://www.christianaction.org.za/contact.htm. education. It is a strict alphabetical encyclopedia, but Preface xxv the headwords are also organized in topical sections, ing editors: Beverly Johnson-Miller, David Setran, David each with a lead-in introduction to describe various Smith, Donald Tinder, and Mai-Anh Le Tran. Further, aspects of each specific theme. we are profoundly beholden to our world-class editorial The main classes of entries are lead-in introductions advisory board: Jeff Astley, Dean Blevins, Joel Carpenter, to each of the 20 sections, overview entries, interpretive Ralph Enlow, James Estep, Charles Foster, Bryan Froehle, essays, and continental and specific country glimpses to Perry Glanzer, Thomas Groome, Steven Kang, Kevin highlight the state of educating Christians in the histori- Lawson, John R. Lillis, Mark Maddix, Robert Pazmiño, cally Christian countries of the world. Overview entries Jane Regan, Philip Ryken, Jack Seymour, James D. Smith survey the subject comprehensively, define the field, and III, Cathy Stonehouse, and John Westerhoff III. Finally, include historical commentary and background and re- our vision for these ideas was more than ably managed views of literature. Breakout entries are shorter, descriptive and creatively brought to fruition by Rowman & Little- entries that explore in greater detail some facets of a core field Publishers, in particular by Bennett Graff, Monica article. Interpretive essays deal with ideas and trends. The Savaglia, assistant editor, and Sharon Langworthy, copy- select bibliography suggests the most significant resources editor. While the project was produced over a laborious, for each of the 20 sections within the very recent past. Most of the more than 1,200 articles are bylined and knowledge a disproportionate percentage of space is contributed by North carry reference lists. Biographies of our more than 400 American authors about North American institutions and initiatives. Is it presumptive for a global volume onOnly Christian education to emanate contributors appear in a separate section in the backmatter. from the United States? A central question in Mark Noll’s The New Shape of World Christianity: How American Experience Reflects Global Faith (Down- ers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009) ponders what U.S. Christianity means for the worldwide Christian community. One view is that U.S. Christians Audience and Market control events; a second view is one of influence (not manipulation); and a third view describes the relationship of U.S. and world Christianity as merely shared historical experience. Encyclopedia of Christian Education is directed primarily Which of these is most accurate in the case of the influence of the United to the more than 21,000 Christian educational institu- States on global Christian education? Of course, it is a matter of interpreta- tions in English-speaking countries, including schools, tion. To what extent is Christian education in the United States (or Chris- tianity, for that matter) qualitatively different from world Christianity? colleges, universities, and seminaries. Further, it is geared Well, U.S. Christian education has been described as biblically oriented, to local churches, denominational leadership, and para- pragmatically driven, creatively entrepreneurial, economically prosperous, andCopy denominationally expansive. Some experience it as rather aggressive church organizations. and therefore abusive. Rather baldly, Noll opines: “No body of Christians has been as capable at exercising power as American believers, though few have been more reluctant to address questions of power face-on” (ibid., 59). Noll’s operating thesis is that Christianity in its U.S. form is important Contributors for the world, but not primarily because of direct influence. Money and prestigious educational institutions still carry a good deal of weight on the world Christian scene. And while the majority of Christians reside else- An experienced and prolific, talented, and influential where, the U.S. minority has a loud presence. In his diplomatic way, Noll group of scholars, professors, and Christian educators calls the phenomenon “adolescent exuberance” (ibid., 191). Some find U.S. has joined us in the composition of this landmark project, Christianity off-putting, to say the least. The reasoning goes that to ignore the traditions of the Christian centuries and boldly introduce business and the first-ever global encyclopedia of Christian educa- marketing can be alienating, even if noticeably successful. Of course, while tion. This unprecedented collaboration has benefited U.S. Christians tend to see their contributions as nothing other than offer- ing help in extending the faith, others view this with more suspicion and from broad conversations across the bounds of Christian as intrusive. With global mission advancement and evangelistic zeal comes tradition and produced a work that addresses historical education in faith, and often with missionary church-planting come U.S. perspectives, theological themes, crucial issues, and sig- cultural values, practices, and systems. In sum, then, we submit that it is plausible that a project of this global nificant contributions that resonate with various stripes magnitude can be produced by a U.S. publisher and with a substantial pro- within the Anglican, Orthodox, Protestant, and Roman portion of North American authors and yet contribute a worldwide sensi- Catholic quarters of the faith. tivity to the concerns and practices of Christian education without borders. We celebrate the world mosaic of Christians and what they uniquely bring Specifically, we pay tribute to 400 authors from more to the enterprise of educating Christians. And while we freely concede than 75 countries who have written these 1,200 entries.3 that from a historical, cultural perspective every encyclopedia is limited, In addition, we are most grateful to our stellar consult- nevertheless we delight in it in spite of its parameters, because it illumines Contributor the truth in past and future attempts to expand the knowledge of these important subjects. We can still therefore advance the importance of a 3. One might rightly ask why this global encyclopedia is published in historicist-cultural perspective that is revelatory even when it is biased and English and in the United States, especially with an increasing amount of fractional. In other words, to understand a piece of the truth is important data becoming available from almost every part of the world. To be clear, for discovering a greater truth. In revealing the present situation we un- this is decidedly not designed as an encyclopedia about Christian education cover the past and the future. Continuity and similarity are as constant as in the United States. Indeed, authors from over 75 countries have contrib- change. We hope that after reading these volumes our readers and evalu- uted to these pages and represent even more language groups and dozens of ators will likewise agree and revel in the monumental opportunity for a Christian faith traditions. Yet to be fair, based on a number factors, we ac- Christian world in this generation! xxvi Preface nearly three-year period, each of those mentioned above others attempt a similar project in the next generation, contributed in a wonderfully responsive and highly con- that evolving cultural circumstances, continuing sound genial manner, making our task quite pleasant. scholarship, and educationally innovative practice will Our aim is to faithfully represent a snapshot of edu- certainly see requisite nuanced revisions to our empha- cating Christians of this generation while acknowledg- ses. May the Church be diligent in such activity! ing our historically orthodox heritage. We concede, as

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Contributor Acknowledgments

Only We (George and Mark) would like to thank Rowman & and Wyatt (2011)—who joyfully are the recipients of godly Littlefield for allowing latitude in the selection and design nurture and faith-affirming experiences in their induction of the front and back covers. In addition, the following of the Christian faith. May they contribute in like ways to individuals were instrumental in offering their advice for their own children and grandchildren. the image concept: Daniel J. Baker, Ronald J. Bigalke, Jr., Further, I (Mark) wish to take the liberty of personal Mark Lou Branson, Sarita Gallagher, Amy K. Grubbs, privilege in honoring four of my graduate school profes- Aaron K. Lamport, Therese C. Lamport, Debra Dean sors, whose biographies are rightly included in these vol- Murphy, Emily Peck-McClain, Emily J. Reisert, Susan umes—Larry Richards, Cam Wyckoff (†2005), Jim Loder Willhauck, and Darrell Yoder. (†2001), Ted Ward—and one of my heroes—John Stott I (Mark) am thankful to my parents, D. Keith (†1997) (†Copy2011), who have influenced my thinking in innumer- and Norma J. Lamport, and my grandparents, V.H. able ways about the educational enterprise with Chris- (†1996) and Virginia Lamport (†1999), who explicitly and tians. Finally, I have made peace with the fact that one implicitly, consistently and patiently, propelled me in a vi- of those featured in the biographies—Huldreich Zwingli brant way into my Christian education. I would also like to (†1531)—was an Anabaptist tormentor, specifically of consecrate these volumes to my grandchildren—Gweneth my thirteenth-great grandparents named Aebi who lived (2007), Alayna (2007), Addison (2008), Makenna (2010), in Sumiswald, Berne, Switzerland in the 1520s.

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Contributor Introduction

George Thomas Kurian and Mark A. Lamport

We will not hide them from their children; we will 3 Only Christianity diminishes. There is a seismic oscillation, in tell the next generation the praiseworthy deeds of the fact. Thus, some contend that European Christianity has Lord, which He commanded our forefathers to teach become archaeology, while North American Christianity their children, so that the next generation would hangs on as sociology. know them, even the children yet to be born, and they Half of all the Christians who have ever lived are living in turn would tell their children. Then they would put now! Perhaps two billion. This is a remarkable, unprec- their trust in God and would not forget His deeds but would keep His commands. edented opportunity for Christian education. With a Christian population of over 250 million, there are more —Psalm 78:4–7 Christians in the United States than in any other country inCopy the history of the world.4 What can be said about the world condition in which these Anglican, Protestant, The World Mosaic of Christian Education Orthodox, and Roman Catholic adherents are being edu- cated in faith?5 In 1900, over 80 percent of the world’s Christian popu- lation was Caucasian and over 70 percent resided in Europe.1 But while the World Christian Encyclopedia Challenges of and Opportunities for estimates the percentage of Christians worldwide to have Christian Education in the 21st Century been 33 to 34 percent of the world’s population for the last several generations and projects the same proportion While many optimistic initiatives for effectively educat- 2 in the coming half century, the European Caucasians are ing Christian adherents infuse current practices around no longer the majority at the start of the 21st century. the world, many of which are colorfully advanced in the Philip Jenkins, in The Next Christendom, compellingly volumes of this encyclopedia, we propose five substantial, articulates (at least one thesis, among others) why global imposing conditions and suggest resultant opportuni- Christianity is decisively shifting from North and West ties for the educational mission of the Church (see table to South and East: as societies gain wealth, the practice of intro.1).

We wish to thank Jeff Astley, Peter Osborn, Robert Pazmiño, Jane Regan, LawrenceContributor O. Richards, Jack Seymour, and John Westerhoff for their in- 3. Philip Jenkins, The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christi- sightful comments on the original draft of this introduction. However, we anity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). alone bear the responsibility for the contents. 4. The number of Christians in is an unknowable mystery and no doubt a spectacular number, but in all likelihood there are still fewer than 1. David B. Barrett, Todd M. Johnson, and Peter F. Crossing, “Status of in the United States. Global Mission, Presence, and Activities, AD 1800–2025,” International 5. These volumes include those major Christian bodies that acknowl- Bulletin of Missionary Research 32 (January 2008): 30. edge the historic, orthodox Trinitarian doctrine: Anglican, Orthodox, 2. David Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Chris- Protestant, and Roman Catholic. For more, see Donald Tinder’s superb tian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Survey of Churches and Religions in the overview of these faith families, “Christian Education in the Modern Modern World. 2 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001). World: Denominational Profiles in Christian Education,” in appendix A.

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TABLE INTRO.1 The first engaging opportunity is meaningful com- Contextual Circumstances in Educating Christians memorations. The main cause of this disconnect be- Encroaching Challenges Engaging Opportunities tween faith and life (and as a consequence, a loss of to Christian Education for Christian Education memory) may be an improperly constructed process of Disorienting amnesia Meaningful commemorations merely acquiring information or skills. However, edu- Suppressed thinking Shared community cation for Christians is something much broader and Redoubtable postmodernism Irresistible citizenship richer, because it deals with transforming an entire per- Divisive interpretation Generous humility son from a depraved sinner characterized by self-love Muddled approaches Faithful gestures into a pristine image of Christ characterized by love for God and neighbor. The first encroaching challenge is disorienting amnesia. The Church must make conspicuous campaigns that Some observe a discontinuity between the historical faith rejoice in “remembering” the heritage and truth given it. and the current lived experience of Christianity. When the To be sure, it is not the revelation of God as witnessed in biblical and historical roots of the Christian belief system scripture that is forgettable or wearisome, but the inabil- become estranged, serious consequences emerge. Stephen ity of those who teach to coax relevant connections with Prothero, citing E. D. Hirsch’s classic Cultural Literacy, those studying. As Craig Dykstra reminds, education in chides our current state of affairs as “a gradual disintegra- faith must be at once an investigative process that guides tion of cultural memory,”6 which has led to an inability to Only people in the exploration of our experience with God; communicate in an articulate way. This applies not only to a critical process that liberates us from the patterns of societies in general but also to the religious components of thinking, feeling, valuing, and behaving that make it dif- them. Granted, this condition may be more of a Western ficult for us to participate in this experience; and a caring phenomenon. French sociologist Daniele Hervieu-Leger process through which we graciously invite one another describes Europe’s loss of faith as amnesia, not so much to enter freely and ever more deeply into this experi- rooted in doubt, but forgetting. Certainly much of this can ence.11 To be memorable, Christian education must move be observed in American Christianity in the United States.7 beyond mere history and engage fervidly at the intersec- The “chain of memory” has been broken.8 tion of faith and life. It is not just Protestants who lament this loss of re- The second encroaching challenge is suppressed think- ligious understanding; Catholics and Jews observe the Copy ing. In sectors of the Christian family, some educational same basic ignorance of their traditions and sacred arti- practices frustrate spiritual growth—whether intention- cles.9 But some, primarily Protestants, still seethe about ally or unintentionally—by devaluing, even belittling, banned school prayer and Bible reading in the United the role of reason and critical reflection.12 In provoca- States from the early 1960s—Engel v. Vitale (1962) and tive interview-based research, Ruth Tucker deduces two Abington v. Schempp (1963)—and correlate problems traits of a typical “walk away” from Christian faith: (1) with illiteracy and wayward civility to those U.S. Supreme one’s association with a fundamentalist or highly con- Court decisions, as contributors to this lack of memory.10 servative religious background and (2) one’s inability Perhaps—who can know for sure? to grapple with philosophical, theological, and/or sci- entific challenges to scripture’s reliability.13 What does 6. Stephen Prothero, Religious Literacy: What Every American Needs to truth, we confidently invite, have to fear from engage- Know—and Doesn’t (San Francisco: Harper SanFrancisco, 2007), 3. 7. We have sought to be specific in our use of “United States” in these ment on any topic in the world? Whether out of fear volumes as distinct from “America” or “American,” as the former is one or control or poor educational modeling or ignorance, entity of several in the composition of several nations on the continent with their own histories, cultures, and contextual expressions of Christianity. 8. Danièle Hervieu-Léger, Religion as a Chain of Memory (New Bruns- his parents to validate possibly faulty childhood reasoning—because that wick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993/2000). was the night for midweek church services! 9. While Pew Research Center published results of a Fall 2013 survey 11. See Craig Dykstra, Growing in the Life of Faith: Education and Chris- that found Jews in the United States overwhelmingly proud to be Jewish, tian Practices (Louisville, NY: Geneva Press, 1999), xiii. yet nearly one in five of them described themselves as having “no religion.” 12. We are enthusiastic about the synergetic relationship of John Wes- The gap is generational, with 32 percent of Jewish millennials identifying ley’s so-called quadrilateral for interpreting and living the Christian faith: as Jewish on Contributorthe basis of ancestry, ethnicity, or culture—compared with scripture, tradition, reason, and experience. While some might accede to 93 percent of Jews born in 1914–1927, who identified on the basis of their only the former, God is operative, and faith is enhanced, by the dynamic faith. “This shift in Jewish self-identification reflects broader changes in the interaction of all. US public,” stated Pew’s Religion and Public Life Project. “Americans as a 13. Ruth Tucker, Walking Away from Faith: Unraveling the Mystery of whole—not just Jews—increasingly eschew any religious affiliation,” with Belief and Unbelief (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002). A third 22 percent of all Americans identifying with no particular faith. See http:// factor is deduced—difficult circumstances in life—and while significant, it news.yahoo.com/survey-finds-us-jews-losing-religion-043636382.html. is omitted here as it does not coalesce with our main point. See also Martin 10. Although the second author went to midwestern U.S. elementary Marty’s classic, Varieties of Unbelief: From Nihilism to Atheism; From Ag- public schools in the 1960s, there was never homework assigned on nosticism to Apathy: Explorations in American Religion (New York: Holt, Wednesdays—almost shocking to think of now and recently confirmed by Rinehart and Winston, 1964) for a more theoretical model of this topic. Introduction xxxi some assume for the sake of unity (or uniformity?) The second engaging opportunity is probing reflection. that Christians should merely accept (in a mentally Christian theology means reflecting on and articulating passive way) teaching in church and not question the beliefs about God and the world that Christians share authority of those who teach. Critical engagement with as followers of Jesus. By “reflecting,” Stanley Grenz and other Christians can only enhance one’s understanding Roger Olson claim, of faith and practice. A conception of educating that plays upon acquiescence and uncritical reasoning is a We use our minds to organize our thoughts and beliefs, standard practice of cults and other mind-control initia- bring them into coherence with one another by attempt- tives. So why is “thinking” to be eschewed in churches, ing to identify and expunge blatant contradictions, and small groups, missions, parachurch ministries, and make sure that there are good reasons for interpreting Christian faith in the way we do. Reflection, then, in- even, in some cases, theological schools?14 volves a certain amount of critical thinking—question- Perhaps there is a fundamental misunderstanding of the ing the ways we think and why we believe and behave role of “knowledge” in educating Christians. In our view, the way we do.17 one’s ability to think, to analyze, to critique, and then to adapt to contextual Christian practice is critical and ulti- Christian education should promote learning cultures mately a great deal more important than merely knowing wherein people confront intriguing sociocultural issues. facts, stories, and trivial minutiae even of the Bible. The routine quest for ChristianOnly education, we propose, is Consider, for example, Jesus’s educational intentions to explore authentic tasks that challenge students to grap- in the so-called Sermon on the Mount as a template for ple with ideas, rethink their assumptions, and examine guiding how a Christian should live as a faithful sojourn- their mental models of reality. While teaching methods er.15 It is important that believers learn information about vary, these conditions are best fostered to the degree that the kingdom of God, develop life skills for living in the learners feel a sense of control over their learning, work kingdom, pursue motivating interests in the kingdom, collaboratively with others, believe that their contribu- and commit to altering society toward kingdom values. tions will be considered fairly and honestly, and receive Nevertheless, it is perhaps more consequential to teach substantial feedback. the faithful principles that can be applied to changing so- These thoughtful exercises give Christians perspective cietal conditions; that is, learn to think critically, to think onCopy the meaning of scripture and the world’s issues. With theologically. The most desired educational result might the ability to reflect theologically on the questions of life, be a changed society, but the most effective means to a believer’s faith in and relationship with God will be achieve that is fostered by a Christian educational philos- most meaningful. “Engagement in these practices, with ophy that nurtures theological thinking and application.16 other people, over time, can give rise to new knowledge In sum, a flawed understanding exists wherein teach- and new capacities for perception that are not accessible ers of Christian education cater more to the passive otherwise.” Through theological reflection, Christians acquisition of content knowledge over the more critical actively grasp God’s perspective in the cosmos.18 ability of teaching students to think theologically with The third encroaching challenge is redoubtable post- an eye to applying the Christian faith and mission to the modernism. Granted, contemporary society, with its wan- changing conditions of the world. ing forgetfulness, has diminished the impact of Christian education. Have social secularization and religious plu- ralism severely diminished the Christian consciousness 14. For more on this idea, see Mark A. Lamport, “The Most Indispens- and education in faith? Postmodernism is not a culture, able Habits of Effective Theological Educators: Recalibrating Educational Philosophy, Psychology, and Practice,” Asbury Journal (Fall 2010): 36–54. but rather the fatigue of culture. It is a sign of the end of 15. It is also interesting to note that Jesus asked more than 100 ques- modernity, and for that reason its critique of modernity is tions, as recorded in the Gospels, which would appear to be an intentional telling. But it is not a new age, nor the sign of a new kind and significant teaching strategy. Since we can assume He knew the an- 19 swers to these questions, His strategy was one of engaging learners in think- of culture. It despairs of culture. Does this spell doom ing, evaluating assumptions, and having meaningful dialogue. for the teaching nature of the church and its version of 16. It is a remarkable phenomenon to observe the correlation of how truth, life, and virtue? prevailingContributor societal customs and educational philosophies in a given region of the world mimic the same stances in Christian education practices in those same geographic regions. It is not surprising then—and the second author has observed it firsthand in Africa, Asia, and Eastern Europe—that 17. Stanley Grenz and Roger Olson, Who Needs Theology? An Invitation a teacher-dominated, content-centered, student-dependent, pedagogical to the Study of God (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1994), 25. model is more common than not in Christian education, much like the 18. Amy Plantinga Pauw, “Attending to the Gaps between Beliefs and more rigid political environments in these regions. Conversely, in many Practices,” in Practicing Theology: Beliefs and Practices in Christian Life, ed. cases Christian education, at least in theory, in North America and Western Craig Dykstra and Dorothy Bass (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002), 41. Europe more often leans toward a more egalitarian-based, learner-focused 19. A. J. Conyers, “Can Postmodernism Be Used as a Template for style, much like the democratic political arenas in these regions. Christian Theology?” Christian Scholar’s Review (Spring 2004): 308–309. xxxii Introduction

Sociologist Peter Berger, reflecting on a genera- istic revelation), and its own agenda (worship of God by tion of theorizing about the correlation of modernity service to the world). and secularization, admits he and his colleagues were As postmodernism cannot ultimately satisfy the quests wrong: most of the world today is not secular, but very of the humans who search for happiness, the uncompro- religious.20 A 1997 Gallup World Poll administered in mising beauty of the Christian life irresistibly attracts pre- 160 nations (representing 97 percent of the world’s viously exhausted and unfulfilled devotees to a newfound population, though China was excluded from the reli- peace. And so the Church does not shrink from engage- gion questions) revealed that 53 percent had attended ment with the world and is not paralyzed by postmodern a religious place of worship within the last seven days, tendencies; instead, such interactions are found to enliven and 76 percent confirmed that religion was an impor- faith and commitment to its fitting citizenship. To be tant part of their lives.21 properly oriented amid a wayward postmodern culture, In fact, a significant thesis of Rodney Stark asserts Christian education emphasizes the true-north guidance that vigorous religiosity arises along with pluralism.22 of the Holy Spirit to negotiate our place in the world. Upsurges of Christianity coexist with—and are even due The fourth encroaching challenge is divisive inter- to—postmodernity. But what are the consequences of pretation. The fundamental themes of Luther’s reforms such identifications and divergent values? Despite these locate the Bible as the ultimate foundation of all Christian flashes of global spiritual arousal, unintended outcomes, belief and practice. The text of theOnly Bible, and all teaching curious inventions, and misshapen creatures have some- based on it, should be in the vernacular. But the problem times been produced by socially compromising attempts that emerged (and is still flourishing) is how one can to shape faith.23 speak of the Bible as having any authority when it is so The Christian flirtation with culture has been (and clearly at the mercy of its interpreters.25 The fundamen- continues to be) an uneasy dance. Culture is the collec- tal problem of Protestant theological identity, as other tion of practices, beliefs, and stories that carve out a sense branches within Christianity perceived, was primarily of distinctiveness and pride or failure and shame. To be about a certain way of doing theology that could lead observers is fascinating; to engage culture is titillating. In to an uncontrollable diversity of outcomes. And who fact the people who most carefully study cultures tend to would have the definitive prerogative to decide what is stress how much they are transformed by this study. So, orthodoxCopy and what is heretical? This was “a dangerous we ask with Andy Crouch, what does it mean to be more idea,” as Alister McGrath extrapolates, that opened the than cultural consumers but instead be culture mak- floodgates to “a torrent of distortion, misunderstanding, ers? What does it mean to be not just culturally aware and confusion.”26 but culturally responsible? What is our calling in this or A current example, which dominates the Church any culture? If we are to be culture makers, where in the where it is growing with the most global gusto, is Pente- world do we begin? And how does this affect how we ef- costalism’s resonance with postmodernism. Pentecostals, fectively educate Christians?24 while affirming the traditional Protestant of the The third engaging opportunity is irresistible citizen- accessibility of the Bible and the right of every believer ship. In spite of the pervasive anti-God spirit of the to interpret this text, stress the multiple dimensions of times, the church rejoices in the sovereignty of God in the meaning that arise—not on account of the indetermi- this world. The countercultural nature of the Christian nate nature of the text, but on account of “leading of the kingdom, manifested without geopolitical borders, has Spirit” into the true meaning of the text, which that same its own ethic (in the Sermon on the Mount), its own Spirit originally inspired.27 Of course the underlying issue language (loving kindness), its own epistemology (the- is the source of authority for interpreting the text and practicing the faith. The fourth engaging opportunity is generous humility. 20. From an interview in Christian Century, October 29, 1997, 972–978. 21. Reported in Rodney Stark, The Triumph of Christianity: How the While divergent ways of interpreting scripture manifest Jesus Movement Became the World’s Largest Religion (San Francisco: Harp- themselves within faith traditions, the Church rejoices erOne Publishing, 2011). 22. Ibid., 410–412.Contributor 23. See Mark A. Lamport, “Unintended Outcomes, Curious Inventions, 25. Alister McGrath, Christianity’s Dangerous Idea: The Protestant and Misshapen Creatures: Juxtapositions of Religious Belief and Faith- Revolution—A History from the Sixteenth Century to the Twenty-First (San Formed Practice and the Renewed Case of the Educational Mission of the Francisco: HarperOne Publishing, 2007), 93. Church,” Asbury Theological Journal (April 2008): 95–113; Mark A. Lamp- 26. Ibid., 208–209. ort, “Excellent Belief, Congruent Practice: Juxtapositions of Promise and 27. Robert Plummer, ed., Journeys of Faith: Evangelicalism, Eastern Peril in the Educational Mission of the Church,” in Thy Brother’s Keeper Orthodoxy, Catholicism, and Anglicanism (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2010), 237–257. 2012). To be sure, this is not a book on biblical interpretation, but on how 24. Andy Crouch, Culture Making: Recovering Our Creative Calling various traditions of Christianity interpret and practice scripture in com- (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2008). munity, as exemplified in representative journeys. Introduction xxxiii in the unity and charity offered through revelation. One renewal and reformulation.29 The relentless energy and of the primary descriptors of Christian education is its creativity of one generation gives rise to a new move- emphasis on studying the Bible. Children are taught Bible ment; a later generation, anxious because the original verses and stories at a very young age, which has instilled dynamism and energy of the movement appears to be in many a deep respect for God’s Word. However, at the dissipating, tries to preserve it by petrification—that is, same time, it seems many of these same people struggle as by freezing the original vision in the hope that its energy adults to have meaningful conversations about the most will thus be preserved. Yet all too often, petrification basic of biblical concepts. They know snippets of biblical leads to the conservation of only a structure, not the content but lack the ability to deal with the overarch- life-giving vision itself. These trends have affected the ing themes, which restricts their ability to intelligently structures, strategies, and methods of Christian educa- critique the culture around them and develop their faith. tion to a tremendous degree. Many Christians manifest a greater need not only for bib- “Being Christian educated” has a fluid meaning and lical instruction but also theology, church history, ethics, has through the Christian centuries eventuated in less and philosophy. than ideal results. Religious literacy is not just the ac- However, just as it is important that believers learn cumulation of facts or memorizing and regurgitating the Bible and theology, it is also important how they dogma. To what extent does its meaning in previous gen- learn it. Educators need to teach the Bible and theol- erations or centuries relate whatOnly would be acceptable in ogy not merely as additional subjects but as the central the 21st century? What is the proper balance between an and pervasive focus of all education. Students need to intellectual and experiential knowledge of faith? learn to think theologically in every area of life. This Christian education, we aver, is the cultivation of wis- includes developing a biblical perspective and engag- dom and virtue by nourishing the soul on truth, good- ing in the struggle to apply that worldview to one’s ness, and beauty, so that in Christ, the learner is enabled daily walk. Such an integrated approach will provide a to better know, glorify, and enjoy God. As Irenaeus much-needed depth of meaning and significance to the declares, “The glory of God is the one fully alive.” The learning experience. However, the overarching posture central concepts to grasp regarding our Christian expres- must model a gracious, generous humility as the church sions are irreducible: faith that requires obedience in makes its way to faithful means of encountering both submissionCopy to God and in mission to the world, hope that the Word and the world. sees a transcendent story of this life and the next, and love The fifth encroaching challenge is muddled approaches. that binds us into a nurturing community and extends to While Christianity has been affected by memory prob- despairing humanity (1 Corinthians 13:13). lems and mixed results due to postmodern sympathies, a The fifth engaging opportunity is faithful gestures. pronounced misunderstanding continues to plague how Despite some bungled schemes to educate Christians, the the Church best educates Christians.28 What, in its most Church rejoices in the faithful expression of celebrating basic form, is Christian education, and how is effective the gifts of God. To be clear, what it means to be Chris- Christian education to transpire? tian is that we are a people who affirm that we have come One pattern that emerges from the development of to find our true destiny only by locating our lives within Protestantism, especially as it may be influenced by the story of God. Hauerwas says, “The Church is but Western individualism, is what seems to be an endless God’s gesture on behalf of the world to create a space and cycle of birth, maturing, aging, and death, leading to time in which we might have a foretaste of the Kingdom. It is through gestures that we learn the nature of the story that is the very content and constitution of that Kingdom. 28. In October 2013, during a pilgrimage to the saint’s Italian home- The way we learn a story, after all, is not just by hearing it. town, Pope Francis called for the Catholic Church and its faithful to rid It must be acted out.”30 Simply put, Christian education themselves of earthly concerns like St. Francis of Assisi. Speaking in the hall where the medieval saint is said to have taken off his robes in a gesture of is the training in those gestures through which we learn humility, Francis said the Church should also “divest” itself and return to the story of God and God’s will for our lives. The primary spiritual basics. “The Church, all of us should divest ourselves of worldli- task of being educated Christianly is not the achievement ness,” a visiblyContributor emotional pope said, adding: “Worldliness is a murderer be- cause it kills souls, kills people, kills the Church.” “Without divesting our- of better understanding, but faithfulness. Indeed, we can selves, we would become pastry-shop Christians, like beautiful cakes and sweet things but not real Christians,” he said. Francis has called for a “poor Church for the poor” and has said he wants to overhaul the 2,000-year-old institution, making it less “Vatican-centric” and closer to ordinary people. The Pope seeks to “refresh” Roman Catholic Church Christian education in an age of postmodernism and focus on the saint’s message of poverty 29. McGrath, Christianity’s Dangerous Idea, 463. rather than on inter-religious peace. See http://news.yahoo.com/pope-says 30. Stanley Hauerwas, “The Gesture of a Truthful Story,” Theology -church-rid-itself-worldliness-131008936.html. Today (July 1985): 186. xxxiv Introduction only come to understand through faithfulness, as the Martyr founded the first Christian school in the first cen- story asks for nothing less than our lives.31 tury. For him as well as the great Christian educators who followed him, education was the principal conduit for the transmission of knowledge and the most powerful instru- Distinctive Features of and ment for Christian growth and maturity. Faith and knowl- Gifts for Christian Education edge are intimately connected. The metaphor most used in the scriptures to represent knowledge is Light, because Education is the creation, acquisition, transmission, light illuminates the world and dispels darkness. In Prov- and preservation of knowledge. Christian education is erbs the Lord is the beginning of knowledge, and Samuel concerned not with the simple exchange of facts and uses the term “the God of Knowledge.” Hosea laments that information, but with their epistemological dimensions. people are perishing for lack of knowledge. In the New It is different from secular knowledge because it is also Testament Christ calls Himself the Light of the World. concerned with the ultimate purpose of human life. For Thus Christian education, ultimately, is unlike any a Christian, education is not an otiose exercise of mental other educational venture in the cosmos. No other faculties, as in learning for learning’s sake. It is purpose- curricular enterprise has equivalent content (revealed driven by the urge to find meaning in existence. But un- scripture), goals (Christocentric transformation), and dy- like in Buddhism and Gnosticism, knowledge itself has namic (power of the Holy Spirit).Only It is distinct in what it no salvific value in Christianity. Knowledge and educa- attempts, and it dispatches extraordinary gifts to accom- tion in themselves are not pathways to spiritual wisdom, plish the task (see table intro.2). The Christian faith is nor do they provide students with a moral compass or outrageously astonishing in that the God of the universe sense of existential direction. wants to know us and wants us to know him. The task Christian education is not different from secular edu- of Christian education, then, is nothing less than seizing cation in its pedagogy or methodology, but it is deeper a most inconceivable, even implausible, idea: humans in function and more varied in origin. Education is mul- become intimate with divinity . . . and vice versa! Here is tifunctional. First, education develops professional skills how J. I. Packer spins it: and talents, provides book learning from manuals, trans- fers ideas from teachers to students, and adapts the mind WhyCopy has God spoken? . . . The truly staggering answer to be receptive to new experiences. Christian education which the Bible gives to this question is that God’s pur- goes one step further and transforms the mind, or as Paul pose in revelation is to make friends with us. It was to this says, endows the students with a new mind— the mind of end that He created us rational beings, bearing His image, able to think and hear and speak and love; He wanted Christ. Thus the goal of Christian education is metanoia, there to be genuine personal affection and friendship, or transformation or transmutation. Similarly, human two-sided, between Himself and us. . . . He speaks to us knowledge is a blend. First, there is genetic knowledge simply to fulfill the purpose for which we were made; or what is called the wisdom of the body. Although that is, to bring into being a relationship in which He is a educational theorists describe the mind of a newborn as friend to us, and we to Him, He finding His joy in giving a tabula rasa or an empty slate, it knows far more than us gifts and we finding ours in giving Him thanks.32 we realize. Second, knowledge comes through scientific study, analysis, observation, analogy, and logical re- Herein we chronicle encroaching factors that impede construction of facts. Third, knowledge comes through this unlikely friendship from occurring as completely as books and artifacts and the wisdom of the past. It is said intended. However, the Christian education enterprise that all of us stand on the shoulders of giants. But in the supplies ammunition to overcome these five factors (and case of Christian education, there is an additional factor: others) with five supernatural resources and to accom- revelation or revealed knowledge that comes through plish the reality of Psalm 78:4–7 in the “epilogue”: hope, meditation, prayer, and direct communication with the freedom, faith, grace, and love: divine. Without revealed knowledge, human experience remains one-dimensional. Revealed knowledge is not • While loss of Christian memory diminishes effec- Contributor tiveness in the educational task, the Bible is the only merely a state of knowing, but a state of being. Education thus has profound theological significance, source of revealed truth for living. This alone, and and even the early Apostolic Fathers realized it. Justin the story it tells, provides a transforming hope that casts out fear and extends eternity to Earth.

31. For more, see Mark A. Lamport and Darrell Yoder, “Faithful Ges- tures: Rebooting the Educational Mission of the Church,” Christian Educa- 32. J. I. Packer, God Has Spoken (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2005), tion Journal (Spring 2006): 58–78. 43. Introduction xxxv

TABLE INTRO.2 Contextual Circumstances and Counteractive Remedies for Educating Christians Encroaching Challenges to Engaging Opportunities for Exclusive Uniquenesses Extraordinary Gifts for Christian Education Christian Education of Christian Education Christian Education Disorienting amnesia Meaningful commemorations Penetrating scripture Transformative hope Suppressed thinking Probing reflection Discerning community Principled freedom Redoubtable postmodernism Irresistible citizenship Supernatural guidance Countercultural faith Divisive interpretation Generous humility Resurrected image Restorative grace Muddled approaches Faithful gestures Focused proclamation Fortifying love

• While critical thinking seems undervalued in edu- education is as much about engendering intimacy in cating Christians, the nature of the Church is collec- human relationships nurtured by faith as articulated tively a discerning community who together reason parsing or indoctrinating systems of belief. Although the with godliness. The result is a principled freedom to inspired truth of the Gospel is persuasive, the beckoning experience reality as God intended humans to abide. love, unremitting concern, and personal involvement in • While the creeping tendencies of postmodernism the lives of people are also extremely forceful. Hear the steer civilizations in godless ways, Christian edu- poetic elocution in which MichaelOnly Warren expresses this cation relies on the supernatural guidance of the truth: “Faith can be elaborated, explained, and system- spirit of holiness to keep the church grounded. This atized in books, but it shouts, it dances, it lives and takes posture takes a countercultural faith that lives both flesh in people.”33 In a similar vein, Jewish theologian within and beyond human understanding. Abraham Joshua Heschel has keenly observed: “What • While some branches of the Christian education we need more than anything else is not textbooks but over- or underemphasize various interpretations text-people. It is the personality of the teacher which is of scripture and in some cases bow to postmodern the text that the students read; the text they will never patterns of subjectivism, the church is being trans- forget.”34 formed into the image of Jesus, which nevertheless Whereas postmodern culture and other factors may may have a spectrum of perspectives. We are com- impactCopy the spiritual dimensions of the mission of the forted by God’s resurrection miracle of restorative Church, we seek wisdom to apply human development grace in our lives. research, theological scholarship, and educational theory • While practices of Christian education sometimes and practice for the creative and faithful application of falter in focused integration of the story of God, the biblical truth to permeate the values of children, ado- infusion of relentless, gracious, fortifying love is the lescents, and adults, as well as families, faith communi- most powerful educator in faithful compassion to ties, institutions, voluntary associations, and societal each other and the world. structures recognizing dimensions of our communal and corporate lives in the deeply meaningful, life-affirming, radicalizing Christian way. Conclusion Gloria in excelsis Deo

We celebrate people in the volumes of this encyclopedia: 33. Michael Warren, Youth and the Future of the Church (Minneapolis, MN: Seabury Press, 1990), 20. people who embark upon the opportunity for teaching 34. Cited in Marvin R. Wilson, Our Father Abraham: Jewish Roots of the and learning the historical and vibrant faith. Christian Christian Faith (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1989), 280. Contributor Only

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Contributor A Only A Foundation for Theological Education Wesley Fellows serving as faculty members, administra- tors, deans, and presidents in theological schools, colleges, A Foundation for Theological Education (AFTE) is a universities, and larger denominational structures, both nonprofit organization that seeks to revitalize theological in the United States and abroad, within and beyond the education according to the standards of the evangelical borders of the United Methodist Church. Yet important as Wesleyan tradition, and in so doing, to bring renewal to its influence is on contemporary , AFTE also the United Methodist Church. AFTE was established in holds a lesson for the theological education enterprise at 1977, by a clergyman with a passion for spiritual revival, large. It offers a small but remarkable example of imagin- Dr. Edmund Robb, and the renowned Methodist scholar ing theological education that is thoroughly connected to Dr. Albert Outler. The differences in their professional itsCopy ecclesial base, respectful of the institutional realities of contexts lie at the core of AFTE mission: to support ex- graduate education, and successful in uniting “the pair cellence in academic scholarship and education that is long disjoined, knowledge and vital piety.” rooted in the life of faithful discipleship. AFTE’s impact on theological education can be seen References and Suggested Readings on two levels: its engagement with current seminarians Glass Turner, Elizabeth, and Steve Beard. 2011. “Theological and its nurture of prospective seminary faculty. To reach Renewal: The AFTE Effect.” Good News Magazine (January/ the current seminarians, AFTE sponsors the publication February): 10–15. of Catalyst, a scholarly newsletter that shares information Robb, Edmund. 1975. “The Crisis of Theological Education in about new resources in theology and offers stimulating the United Methodist Church.” An address delivered at The reflections on Christian life and action. To support and Sixth Annual Good News Convocation. Lake Junaluska, NC: nurture the prospective seminary faculty, AFTE spon- http://aftesite.org/wordpress1/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/ sors The John Wesley Fellowship Program. Each year AFTEEdRobbSermon1975.pdf. up to five United Methodists in their doctoral studies at Wesley, John, Franz Hildebrandt, Oliver A. Beckerlegge, and esteemed universities are invited to become John Wesley James Dale. 1989. A Collection of Hymns for the Use of the Fellows. The program is unique, because it offers not People Called Methodists. The Bicentennial Edition of the only adequate scholarship for doctoral studies but also Works of John Wesley. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. ongoing fellowship in the community of mentoring and professional development. AFTE’s commitment to inten- Catalyst is sent to every Methodist seminarian in the United tional formationContributor of the new generation of scholars and States four times a year and is available online at www.catalyst theological educators enables it to reach future genera- resources.org. tions of the Methodist clergy. The John Wesley Fellowship Program, www.johnwesleyfellows Today, more than 30 years since its establishment and .org. with $3 million in grants awarded, there are 145 John —Natalya Shulgina

— 1 — 2 Abelard, Peter

Abelard, Peter of Heloise discovered their affair, he had Abelard gravely punished by mutilation. The relationship between Abe- Early Background and Education lard and Heloise is preserved (albeit with some redaction Peter Abelard (1079–1142) was born into an aristocratic and editing of original sources that have not survived) in family in Le Pallet, near Nantes, France. While he was their correspondence, which reveals the tension between the elder son, and thus first in line in terms of inheri- amorousness and lust and romantic love and honor, the tance, he renounced his claim to inherited wealth. Little possibility of chaste love after carnal usury, and the roles is known of his early education, though it is possible he of faith and passion. studied under Marbod, master of the cathedral school in Second, without putting on exhibit Abelard’s specific Angers, and later, at Loches, studied under the dialecti- views on the atonement, the interpretation of scripture, cian Roscelin of Campiegne. We are more confident that the Trinity, and the assessment of the role of intention in 1100 he studied with William of Champeaux. The in ethics, Abelard stands as a foremost proponent of the intellectual climate of his day was fraught with debate view that theological teaching should not be accepted in metaphysics and about the roles of philosophy and based only on appeal to the authority of the past, whether theology. Throughout his education and in his early ca- in the form of the authority of a saint or a philosophi- reer, Abelard distinguished himself as a master dialecti- cal theologian such as Augustine. Abelard relentlessly cian and polemicist. He challenged his master, William insisted on the importance of creativeOnly and novel ways of of Champeaux, in debate, and eventually, after leaving addressing perennial positions in Christian orthodoxy. Paris, compelled William to renounce his position on So, the spirit of Abelard is very much in keeping with the universals. William initially defended an abstract, Pla- ways in which Christian philosophical theologians today tonic conception of universals (the universal “human are working out new, alternative ways of understanding being”), according to which they are independent of the Trinity, the Incarnation, and more. language and ideas. Abelard took a middle position, Third, there is some reason to believe that debate be- locating universals as concepts we identify linguistically, tween Christian theologians and philosophers needs to avoiding both the Platonism of William and the nomi- be conducted with greater charity than Abelard showed. nalism of Roscelin, according to which universals are Abelard’s ferocious and inextinguishable drive to best his groupings of objects that we invent through words. Tak- opponentsCopy in debate is a cautionary tale for contempo- ing the middle path between opposite positions came to rary debaters of matters of faith and reason. As all extant be the mark of many of his contributions to the history biographies of Abelard reveal, his life was often marked of ideas. This was the case when he went to Laon to study by uncharitable lines of reasoning on his part that were theology under the biblical scholar Anselm (known later met with similarly uncharitable responses form his crit- as Anselm of Laon). He rejected the scholastic project of ics, even from St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who (except for smoothing over the apparent contradictions in scripture his endorsement of the Crusades) developed a deeply and what he saw as the uncritical appeal to authority, amorous, capacious theology of love. later publishing a book, Sic et Non (Yes and no), which brought to light the paradoxes found in scripture. He Most Notable Publications thought each of these paradoxes resolvable, but not with- The Story of My Misfortunes out painstaking, subtle analysis. Letters Yes and No (Sic et Non) Ethica Significant Contributions to Christian Education Theologia We may learn at least three insights about Christian —Charles Taliaferro education from the study of the life and work of Peter Abelard. Not all of these are insights that Abelard himself set out to convey to future Christian educators. Abuse, Clergy First and foremost, we may learn from the life of Peter AbelardContributor the danger of a teacher or, in his case, a There is no trust more sacred than that of parents tutor, trying to seduce and be sexually intimate with who entrust their children to religious educators in the his or her students! Despite the brilliance of Abelard’s church. The church should be a place where every child is dialectical skills, he is perhaps best known for his affair safe—emotionally, spiritually, and physically. Most of the with a student, Heloise, and the tragic course of events time this trust is honored, and our children grow in “age that followed, which Abelard narrates in the book The and wisdom and grace” (Luke 2:52) within our religious Story of My Misfortunes. When the guardian and uncle institutions. When this trust is broken, however, the ef- Abuse, Clergy 3 fects are devastating: first and primarily, for the victim down myths about sexual predators, reporting regula- himself or herself, then rippling out to the family, the tions, and personal ethical standards and behaviors when congregation, and the wider community. Clergy abuse working with children or vulnerable persons that are of children is one of the most important legal and ethical meant to secure the safety of all children. Recognition issues of the contemporary church. of situations that are more likely to enable the abuse of This shattered sacred trust extends to inappropriate children, such as grooming, gives religious educators adult relationships with clergy as well, especially with the power to intervene and interrupt potentially abusive those who are particularly vulnerable and who have situations. “Although not all child sexual abuse involves placed their trust in the clergyperson. While there has grooming, it is a common process used by offenders. It been a great deal of media attention on incidents of clergy usually begins with subtle behavior that may not initially abuse in the Catholic Church, it is not limited by marital appear to be inappropriate, such as paying a lot of atten- status, sexual orientation, denomination, or geographic tion to the child or being very affectionate. Many victims location. In the end, clergy abuse is a terrible abuse of of grooming and sexual abuse do not recognize they are power that leaves a wake of destruction for the victim, being manipulated, nor do they realize how grooming is the congregation, the wider community, and the clergy a part of the abuse process.”3 Other behaviors that might person. It is always the responsibility of the clergyperson be observed that should raise a warning flag include an to appropriately establish and maintain the boundaries of adult always wanting to be alone with children; an adult 1 Only his or her ministerial position. While clergypersons may preferring to be with children rather than adults; an adult personally feel an absence of power, they often have a discouraging other adults from supervision or monitor- great deal of power that they may not acknowledge or re- ing, often done as a “favor” to the other adults; touching, alize. “Ministers have at their disposal not only the power including tickling and wrestling, that is inappropriate or of their own presence as persons but also the power oth- overboard; and an adult indicating that the rules do not ers associate with moral, religious or spiritual authority. apply to him or her.4 They embody the authority of the church and even the authority of God.”2 This authority may add to a level Warning Signs of Possible Abuse of disbelief on the part of the congregation, or church The identification of children or adults who have been staff or volunteers, that the clergyperson is capable of orCopy are being sexually abused is not always simple. Symp- the reported or observed abuse and can lead to blaming toms of abuse do not necessarily indicate abuse and may the victim for any abuse that is revealed. Whether the point to other issues in life. The role of guilt and shame, accused is a beloved pastor or famous coach, power can particularly in abuse that takes place in the context of a blind those in a position of authority from seeing what is religious institution, may be particularly strong and may right in front of them. prevent reporting of the abuse by the child, the adult, or All religious educators, regardless of level or scope of other adults who suspect inappropriate behavior. General position, should be aware of three critical issues: how to symptoms of child sexual abuse include eating disorders, best protect those who are vulnerable, how to identify repeated headaches, sleep problems, stomachaches, dis- warning signs of abuse, and the responsibility to report ruptive behaviors, high-risk sexual behaviors (including abuse. sexual talk), poor academic achievement, excessive fear, and withdrawal from group activities.5 Protection for Children and Vulnerable Adults Most congregations and polities have guidelines in place Legal Responsibility for Reporting Abuse— regarding the protection of young people. Some common State and Federal elements of these guidelines and policies are background Not only is protecting children and vulnerable adults checks and fingerprinting for all those who have contact from abuse our moral responsibility, it is also a legal re- with children, including volunteers, and ongoing training sponsibility. In most states in the United States, clergy are in the prevention, recognition, and reporting of abuse. not exempt from the legal responsibility to report child BackgroundContributor and fingerprint checks serve to identify abuse under clergy privileged communications. Christian those individuals who have been found guilty of child educators are required under law in almost every state endangerment or other relevant actions, using a national to report child abuse or be held legally responsible for database of sexual predators. The training dimension in- nonreporting.6 All educators should be aware of these cludes learning warning signs of possible abuse, breaking 3. U.S. Department of Justice (2013). 4. Doty (2013). 1. Liberty (2006). 5. New York Times (2011). 2. Grenz and Bell (1995). 6. Child Welfare Information Gateway (2012a). 4 Academic Giftedness obligations from both a moral and legal perspective, Child Welfare Information Gateway. 2012a. Clergy as Manda- and ongoing training should help to ensure the safety of tory Reporters of Child Abuse and Neglect. August. Accessed children in the care of the church. The legal and finan- 1 June 2013. https://www.childwelfare.gov/systemwide/ cial ramifications of not reporting suspected abuse can laws_policies/statutes/clergymandated.cfm. be substantial, in addition to the spiritual and personal ———. 2012b. Immunity for Reporters of Child Abuse and destruction for the victim/survivor and the congregation. Neglect. Accessed 1 June 2013. https://www.childwel There is often a group of people within congregations fare.gov/systemwide/laws_policies/statutes/immunity where clergy abuse has been reported who doubt the ve- .pdf#Page=2&view=Fit. racity of the accusations, especially when there has been Doty, Sharon, JD, MHR. 2013. “.” The Signs are There, a long gap in time between the incidents of abuse and but Few Can See, VIRTUS Online. The National Catholic the reporting. There appear to be many impediments Risk Retention Group, Inc. Accessed 1 June 2013. https:// to reporting on the part of the victim/survivor: loyalty www.virtusonline.org/mytraining/display_mtb.cfm?mtb developed by the perpetrator with the victim; guilt that _id=1305&mtb_type_id=2. http://www.virtus.org/virtus/ somehow the abuse has been his or her fault; sensing that index.cfm?free_articles_id=618&scheddate=03-10-2008 he or she will not be believed by members of the church Grenz, Stanley, and Roy Bell. 1995. Betrayal of Trust: Confront- and/or family; and overwhelming fear or denial that the ing and Preventing Clergy Sexual Misconduct. Grand Rapids, events happened, in order to survive the abuse.7 It is often MI: Baker Books. Only an event or series of events later in life that bring the vic- Liberty, Patricia L. 2006. “Victims/Survivors: The Healing tim/survivor to the realization that the abuse was real and Journey.” In When a Congregation Is Betrayed: Responding should be reported as such; this does not indicate that the to Clergy Misconduct, edited by Beth Ann Gaede, 74–80. trauma was fabricated at some later date. Durham, NC: Alban Institute. One of the difficulties is the conflict between the legal New York Times. 2011. “Health Guide.” 24 January. Accessed 1 requirements for reporting and the moral and ethical June 2013. http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/ responsibilities as defined and outlined by individual ju- child-abuse-sexual/overview.html. dicatories, including conflicting definitions of what con- U.S. Department of Justice. 2013. Common Questions about stitutes abuse.8 In addition, there are differences between Sexual Abuse and Associated Risks. Accessed 1 June 2013. denominations in regard to how and who intervenes. The http://www.nsopw.gov/en-us/Education/CommonQuestionCopy bottom line for all religious educators must be the protec- s?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1#answer-05. tion of our children and the most vulnerable members of —Mary Carter Waren our congregations. Keeping silent or looking the other way when you suspect that a child is in danger in any way is what allows such clergy abuse to exist and persist. Re- Academic Giftedness ligious educators might legitimately be concerned about their liability should a report turn out to be false. “All Although there is debate among educational psycholo- States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, . . . and the gists regarding the nature of giftedness, secular theories U.S. Virgin Islands provide some form of immunity from tend to focus on two factors: intelligence and creativity. liability for persons who in good faith report suspected Intelligence is generally objectively measured on the basis instances of child abuse or neglect under the reporting of IQ (the ratio of intellectual age to chronological age, laws.”9 We must take the obligation to protect our chil- multiplied by 100), while creativity is typically subjec- dren and those most vulnerable as a sacred responsibility tively assessed. The general consensus in contemporary and do everything in our power to keep others safe. theories of giftedness is that intelligence and creativity are not mutually exclusive, but complementary, and both References and Resources are necessary for the identification of gifted and talented Ashbry, Homer, and David Verner. 2010. “Do Pastoral Coun- students (Piirto 1992, 2011). Contemporary theories of selors Have a Duty to Report Clergy Sexual Abuse Done by giftedness are broadening to include a more holistic pic- Their ClergyContributor Clients?” Journal of Pastoral Care and Counsel- ture of what it means to be gifted or talented, beyond the ing: 64, 1–11. results of cognitive assessments alone. Benyei, Candace R. 1998. Understanding Clergy Misconduct in While students with above-average IQs and high de- Religious Systems. New York: Haworth Press. grees of creativity are typically identified as gifted and talented, theories such as Howard Gardner’s “multiple intelligences” ([1983] 1993) have questioned the level 7. Benyei (1998). 8. Ashbry and Verner (2010). of accuracy, objectivity, and potential for bias of typi- 9. Child Welfare Information Gateway (2012b). cal IQ tests. Multiple intelligences theory, for example, Academic Giftedness 5 suggests that intelligence can be expressed in many Christian Implications ways, including visual-spatial, body-kinesthetic, musi- In light of the “other-orientedness” of a Christian cal, interpersonal, intrapersonal, linguistic, and logical- perspective on giftedness, research suggests that gifted mathematical. children have a tendency toward a strong sense of com- Students who are “gifted twice-exceptional” have passion (Strip 2000, 173). Gifted children have a height- both above-average talent or abilities and a diagnosed ened sense of moral sensitivity and tend to care about disability; these students tend to use their intellectual the needs of others (Lovecky 1997). Through faith com- abilities to “ameliorate the effects of the disability” (Rob- munities, gifted children can learn the practice of caring inson, Shore, and Enersen 2007, 25). Often, gifted twice- for others (Strip and Hirsch 2000, 173). Such faith inte- exceptional students are identified with autism, ADHD, gration permits gifted children to practice the spiritual or another disability, which can obfuscate the “hidden discipline of selfless service outside of themselves. abilities” in students who would otherwise be readily Gifted children are often identified to be spiritually sensi- identified as gifted, talented, or creative. tive from a young age and express concern for spirituality (Lovecky 1998). Moreover, Ellen Winner (2000) has argued Giftedness in Christian Perspective that a “rich inner life” sustains gifted children. In Christian Secular educational psychologists argue that giftedness is education, spiritual development, along with academic not an acquired skill attained by personal effort, but an enrichment, can foster this aspectOnly of the lives of gifted and innate or “natural” ability. Talent, on the other hand, can talented children. Christian educators should work to iden- be an acquired skill. Sternberg and Davidson (2005, 99) tify not only the intellectual strengths of gifted children, differentiated gifts and talents as follows: but also their moral and spiritual interests. Thus, Christian educators can help facilitate spiritual growth and moral 1. Gifted: possession and use of outstanding natural activation in cognitive, academic, and faith development. abilities (aptitudes or gifts) in at least one ability domain, to a degree that places the individual at References and Resources least among the top 10 percent of peers. Gardner, H. (1983) 1993. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Mul- 2. Talented: outstanding mastery of developed abili- tiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books. ties or knowledge in at least one ability domain, Grudem,Copy W., R. B. Gaffin, S. N. Gundry, S. Storms, and D. Oss. to a degree that places the individual in the top 10 1996. Are Miraculous Gifts for Today? Grand Rapids, MI: percent of peers in the given field. Zondervan. Lovecky, D. V. 1997. “Identity Development in Gifted Chil- Christian educators should immediately recognize that dren: Moral Sensitivity.” Roeper Review 20 (2): 90–94. if giftedness is indeed a “gift,” then there must be a Giver. doi:10.1080/02783199709553862. From a Christian perspective, giftedness is just that: a gift ———. 1998. “Spiritual Sensitivity in Gifted Children.” Roeper from God given to individuals for the purpose of serving Review 20 (3): 178–183. doi:10.1080/02783199809553887. others and bringing glory to God. A theologically inte- Oord, T. 2012. “Relational Love.” In Relational Theology: A grated view of giftedness takes into account the best data Contemporary Introduction, edited by Brint Montgomery, available from psychology and neuroscience, but also Thomas J. Oord, and Karen Strand Winslow, 24–27. Eugene, recognizes that “every good and perfect gift” comes from OR: Wipf & Stock. God (James 1:27) and not by human effort (Gal. 3:3). All Piirto, J. 1992. “The Existence of Writing Prodigy: Children giftedness is part of the “givenness” of human beings as with Extraordinary Writing Talent.” In Talent Development, created by God (Tirri 2007, 21). edited by N. Colangelo, S. Assouline, and D. Ambroson, Similarly, spiritual gifts are “mysterious differences” I:387–389. Unionville, WA: Trillium. freely given to an individual by God (Tirri 2007). While ———. 2011. “Talent and Creativity.” In Encyclopedia of Cre- there are many different views concerning the nature and ativity, 2nd ed., edited by M. Runco and S. Pritzker, 2. Lon- operation of spiritual gifts, most Christians agree that any don: Elsevier Publications. gift givenContributor freely by God operates according to charis, or Robinson, A., B. Shore, and D. Enersen. 2007. Best Practices grace (Grudem et al. 1996, 9). These gifts are for the ben- in Gifted Education: An Evidence-Based Guide. Waco, TX: efit of the whole community of believers. Thus, from a Prufrock Press. Christian perspective, all gifts, creativity, and even devel- Sternberg, R. J., and J. E. Davidson. 2005. Conceptions of Gifted- oped talents are not for the benefit of oneself, but for the ness. New York: Cambridge University Press. benefit of others (Welker 2004, 241). Christian educators Strip, C. A., and G. Hirsch. 2000. Helping Gifted Children Soar: should emphasize that all giftedness reflects the “other- A Practical Guide for Parents and Teachers. Scottsdale, AZ: oriented nature of God’s love” (Oord 2012, 25). Great Potential Press. 6 Academics, Biblical Theology of Christian

Tirri, K. 2007. Values and Foundations in Gifted Education: those who do His commandments” (Ps. 110:11, NASB). Protestant and Catholic Perspectives. New York: Peter Lang. The psalmist refers to a specific genre of learning, not Welker, M. 2004. God the Spirit. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg possible to attain through intellectual study alone, but Fortress Publishers. requiring the process of spiritual formation. Psalm 119:99 Winner, E. 2000. “The Origin and Ends of Giftedness.” Ameri- explains that the acquisition of authentic knowledge and can Psychologist 55: 159–169. wisdom requires a commitment to the process of medi- —Joshua D. Reichard and Sara M. Reichard tative study of the scriptures: “I have more insight than all my teachers, for Your testimonies are my meditation” (NASB). The meaning indicates that intensive, medita- Academics, Biblical Theology tive study of the scriptures inculcates spiritual knowledge of Christian and principles of moral behavior, therefore leading to progressive obedience in following God’s teachings. This Comparing Biblically Based and Secular Views process of formation results in the attainment of authen- of Academics tic knowledge and wisdom, based on maintaining a rela- A valid question much discussed by Christians who tionship with God that is centered in the active pursuit of serve in academic or ecclesial contexts is: What is a valid keeping God’s commandments. theological perspective concerning academic pursuits? The biblical perspective of theOnly Psalms and Proverbs The Heidelberg Catechism, a confessional document indicates that one is competent, equipped, or able in a from the Reformed tradition approved by the Synod of particular area not primarily due to possessing informa- Heidelberg, Germany, in 1563, maintains “that all things tional knowledge, but by attaining the wisdom resulting must be subservient to my salvation, and therefore, by from a committed relationship with God. Wisdom results His Holy Spirit, He also assures me of eternal life, and from communion with God: seeking God, loving God, makes me sincerely willing and ready, henceforth, to and obeying God’s commands. In the English language, live unto Him.” The catechism asserts that every aspect “to hear” refers to the auditory reception of sound or of the Christian’s individual and corporate existence words. The ancient Hebrew concept of “hear” did not is holistic in the sense that every aspect of existence is refer primarily to a physical, cognitive process of the au- meant to encompass a lived theology derived from the ditoryCopy senses. To declare “I have heard your Word, Lord” teachings of scripture. meant “I have obeyed your commands.” One “heard” Historically and contemporarily in secular world cul- God only if there was evidence that one had obeyed God’s tures, education is equated with the pursuit, reception, commandments. Psalm 119 presents the attainment of and retention of information. In the context of aca- knowledge and wisdom as a process of formation that demia, one gains cognitive and intellectual advancement begins with hearing. The person of wisdom is one who is through the discipline of academic study. Although first attentive to hear God’s commands auditorily, then academic study does not preclude learning for the joy of receives God’s Word into his or her spirit, believes the discovery, primarily the student engages in a program Word, loves the Word, and ultimately obeys the Word of of study for the purpose of acquiring knowledge and/or God. Education, in biblical perspective, is not primarily practical skills in a specific academic discipline or field, an academic exercise indicating the mere reception and ultimately applying that knowledge for engagement and comprehension of certain knowledge, but an inner moral service in a profession or other field of employment. reception of truth and commitment to truth that results in active obedience to the demands of truth. Relationality as Essential to Authentic Learning The biblical perspective of education views the process of The Moral Qualities of Knowledge and Wisdom learning as primarily and essentially relational, not ini- Academic excellence alone, in biblical understanding, is tially for the purpose of gaining information and knowl- not equated with authentic knowledge and wisdom. In edge toward the pursuit of a life vocation or employment. Judeo-Christian writings, integrity and morality cannot From a biblicalContributor perspective, one is not wise because he or be separated from knowledge and wisdom; the latter she intellectually possesses certain facts or information cannot be present without the former. The wise person and can practically apply what is learned to contexts of expresses, in thought and action, an integration of in- professional endeavor or employment. The learned or tellectual understanding with moral action. From the wise person is identified not as one who merely possesses perspective of Judeo-Christian faith, cognitively attained intellectual abilities and knowledge, but rather as one knowledge does not necessarily equate with transforma- who reverences God: “The fear [reverence] of the Lord is tion of character. It is in the context of one’s obedient the beginning of wisdom; a good understanding have all relationship with God and with one’s community of faith Academics, Biblical Theology of Christian 7 that one becomes learned and wise. The wise person is not which God is the source and center of an individual’s life; the mere possessor of knowledge. The wise person is one of one’s motivations and actions in the service of God who knows God and acts righteously based on a commit- and others. Biblically, the process of learning is under- ment to God and the motivation to love and serve God. stood as essential to a worshipful life. One’s commitment Biblical wisdom literature, particularly the Psalms and to the process of learning is not other than worship, but Proverbs, indicates that academic study alone has no expresses worshipful reverence, praise, and thanksgiving power to create a learned or wise person. Becoming an for God’s gifts of knowledge and wisdom. accomplished scholar or academician does not necessarily John’s Gospel indicates the need for spiritual atten- equate with possessing wisdom that results in the expres- tiveness as one approaches and engages in study, mind- sion of moral actions. The biblical understanding of wis- ful that the Holy Spirit, “the Spirit of truth,” guides the dom was defined by an individual’s possession of moral worshipful learner in the paths of authentic knowledge excellence and spiritual discernment. The dominant Old and wisdom, a path that includes prophetic awareness: Testament concepts of knowledge (d’ath) and wisdom “But when He, the Spirit of truth, comes, He will guide (hokmah) contain a depth of meaning that exceeds con- you into all the truth; for He will not speak on His own temporarily defined concepts of knowledge and wisdom. initiative, but whatever He hears, He will speak; and He A biblical theology of education views knowledge and will disclose to you what is to come” (John 16:13, NASB). wisdom as qualities of moral character attained through A Christian theology of academicsOnly accepts the Holy Spirit obedience to God’s commandments. The learned and as the Teacher, Guide, and Counselor who transforms wise understand that avoidance of evil thoughts and ac- those committed to Christ to become people of knowl- tions is essential in maintaining moral integrity: “Discre- edge and wisdom who, by their example of integrity in tion will guard you, understanding will watch over you, to thought, motivation, and actions, bear witness to the deliver you from the way of evil” (Prov. 2:11–12, NASB). distinctive qualities of Christ-centered academic study. Jesus emphasized the importance of loving God with the Engagement in study also requires the discipline of entirety of one’s being, including the mind: “You shall prayer, which is the Christian’s communion with God. love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all In the act of communing with God through worship and your soul and with all your strength, and with all your prayer, the learner remains in the transforming pres- mind” (Luke10:27, NASB). The Epistle of James defines enceCopy of God. Paul’s Letter to the Colossians indicates the wisdom as a gift of God that possesses moral qualities: learner’s source of all truth: “Christ Himself, in whom “But the wisdom from above is first pure, then peaceable, are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” gentle, reasonable, full of mercy and good fruits, unwaver- (2:2–3, NASB). Paul emphasizes that knowledge and wis- ing, without hypocrisy” (James 3:17, NASB). dom are not independently attained, but dependent on one’s relationship with Christ, in whom all truth, knowl- The Ultimate Purposes of Education edge, wisdom, and moral integrity reside and through Overarchingly, the Judeo-Christian scriptures view the whom those faithful to Him are transformed into people discipline of study as valid and honorable before God of knowledge and wisdom. if the knowledge and skills acquired are gained through righteous pursuit of God’s truth, applied according References and Resources to God’s guidance, and employed for the purposes of Anderson, David W. 2012. Toward a Theology of Special the Kingdom of God. The person possessing authentic Education: Integrating Faith and Practice. Bloomington, IN: knowledge and wisdom is one who practically applies WestBow Press. the teaching of scripture to every aspect of life. The wise Bass, Dorothy, and Craig Dykstra. 2008. For Life Abundant: are not motivated by intellectual knowledge alone; they Practical Theology, Theological Education and Christian know the spiritual realities of human times and seasons. Ministry. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. They are faithful in active obedience to God’s truth and Cetuk, Virginia Samuel. 1998. What to Expect in Seminary: are motivated to apply knowledge and wisdom to every- Theological Education as Spiritual Formation. Nashville, TN: day situationsContributor in all contexts of life. The godly person Abingdon Press. does not dichotomize contemplation and action, but Crabtree, Mara Lief. 2013. “A Theology of Christian Academ- prays so that he or she may then act within the boundar- ics: A Paradigm for Learning.” Presentation for SFRM 501, ies of God-given knowledge and wisdom. Spiritual Formation 1, Regent University School of Divinity, Virginia Beach, VA, 22 January. Learning as Essential to a Worshipful Life Estep, James R., Michael Anthony, and Greg Allison. 2008. Authentic knowledge and wisdom are understood in A Theology for Christian Education. Nashville, TN: B & H biblical context as derived from a worshipful life, one in Publishing. 8 Administration

Garrigan, Siobhan, and Todd E. Johnson. 2010. Common other generation for Christ (2 Tim. 2:1–8). (4) Purpose Worship in Theological Education. Eugene, OR: Pickwick defines direction: people are asked to join a team com- Publications. mitted to the same goal (Eph. 4:1–6). (5) Unity defines Higton, Mike. 2012. A Theology of Higher Education. New commitment: the operational unity of a Christian staff York: Oxford University Press. should mirror the commitment of Father, Son, and Spirit Hill, Kenneth H. 2007. Religious Education in the African to each other (John 17:20–23). (6) Oversight defines di- American Tradition. Atlanta, GA: Chalice Press. rection: Each person’s role dictates responsibility in an Pazmino, Robert W. 2001. God Our Teacher: Theological Basics area (1 Cor. 12:4–12; Rom. 12:3–8; 1 Pet. 4:10–11). in Christian Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Richards, Lawrence O. 1980. A Theology of Christian Educa- Biblical Philosophy of Administration tion. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Like the Trinity, people subordinate themselves to others Spears, Paul D., and Steven R. Loomis. 2009. Education to accomplish a task. Administration is born of an author- for Human Flourishing: A Christian Perspective. Downers ity outside of themselves. Theology creates philosophy, Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. which establishes mission; members accede to policies, Webb, Stephen H. 2000. Taking Religion to School: Christian which provide oversight to any Christian community. Theology and Secular Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Administrators are given authority within the structure Press. of the organization. However, theyOnly must not be abusive in Werner, Dietrich, and David Esterline. 2010. Handbook of motive or action. Those persons holding positions in the Theological Education: Theological Perspectives, Ecumenical organization must respect the authority of those to whom Trends and Regional Survey. Eugene OR: Wipf & Stock. they answer (1 Thess. 5: 11–12; Heb. 13:17). —Mara Lief Crabtree Stewardship of people, programs, policies, and pro- cedures is given as a task to those who administrate. Administrators bear the greatest responsibility to care Administration for people. Caring for people should include disciple- ship, training, evaluation, and direction. Administrators Someone or something must be in charge of any orga- should also carefully steward the resources within the nization. Order arises out of the person or group giving organizationCopy to enact the mission and enable the people. orders. Orders or directives create an accountability People are not resources to be used; resources are to be structure through which any organization can effectively used for people (Acts 6). function. Planning, providing, and protecting people Administrators are given a charge to be “in charge.” and programs is the essence of what it means to practice Management, however, should not be dictates from the administration. top down but service from the bottom up. Christian or- ganizational charts should indicate responsible parties at Biblical Theology of Administration the base of any diagram. Christian administrators bear Christian administration should pattern itself after the the weight of lifting others up, encouraging their gift- working Trinity. Each person in the Godhead has His edness, preparing them for vocation, and helping their proper role, committed to the same mission. In salva- abilities to benefit the organization (Gen. 2:22–25; Mark tion, for instance, the Father plans, the Son provides, and 10:45; 1 Pet. 5:1–4). the Spirit protects (Eph. 1:3–14). The Trinity gives the Administrative decisions may not always be under- basis for the unity within the plurality of the universe (2 stood or appreciated. But the ruler has more informa- Cor. 13:14; 1 Pet. 1:2). Christian administration follows tion, the need to balance all interests, while keeping the this pattern: persons creating community, subordinating long-term perspective of the organization in view (Prov. themselves for the good of the organization. 16:10–15, 25:3). Administrators are custodians of God- Trinitarian teaching produces the following guidelines given responsibilities within Christian groups. Bound- for administration in the Christian community. (1) Per- aries established for administrative roles prevent abuse sons defineContributor relationship: knowing who the community is (Deut. 17:14–20; 1 Sam. 8:10–18). establishes what the community does (Rom. 12:3–8). (2) Organization defines roles: order in any system is best Christian Practice of Administration established by how people fit into an organizational mis- Human corruption necessitates accountability among sion (Paul knew his role; Rom. 15:14–33). (3) Function leaders. The monarch must adhere to the dictate; “the defines responsibility: working together, a staff comple- law is king.” Oligarchies and republics should adhere to ments each other within the framework of training an- uniform standards for their representatives. Leaderless Adolescent Religious Identity 9 cultures succumb to anarchy and dictatorship. National Adolescent Religious Identity leadership must be tempered by equal branches of gov- ernment and regulations that curtail immoral activity Overview among the privileged few (Prov. 28, 29). The study of identity has been approached from numer- Governance systems may differ within Christian orga- ous academic and applied disciplines, each bringing its nizations. Respect and compliance to standards must be own assumptions about and variations of the word iden- clearly stated so that all know the boundaries. Fairness is tity. One might assume identity to be a simple label with based on a standard of righteousness. Favoritism, nepo- which a person easily identifies, yet psychologists have tism, or extortion should be eschewed. Protection of the shown how identity operates as an aspect of autobio- weaker party is always scripture’s concern (Deut. 16). graphical memory in both explicit (fully conscious) and Christians should be careful to baptize non-Christian implicit (sub- or unconscious) means. It functions as a concepts for use in Christian organizations. Manage- grounding aspect in all social cognition and as a primary ment, assessment, styles, psychology, decision making, method in organizing experiences into meaningful sche- and a plethora of resources are consistently offered. Ad- mas (Bell 2009). Moving beyond the understanding of ministrators should ask questions about the use of pagan identity as a simple association, in this deeper approach, thinking: (1) What is the source of authority for any identity is a core aspect of being human and being in resource? (2) What journals, seminars, or motivational community with others. For ChristianOnly educators, iden- leaders should provide influence? (3) What biblical grid tity, as it relates to religion, is one of the most important is in place that filters truth from error? (4) Is the dis- and relatively unexamined components of spiritual for- junction between Christian and non-Christian practice mation and religious development. clearly identified? (5) Does the information obtained cohere with the Christian responsibilities, mission, and Identity Development and Formation role of the organization? Identity research was first popularized by the develop- Scripture is clear that correction, instruction, and ac- mental psychologist Erik Erikson (1902–1994). As part of countability are part and parcel of any institution, espe- a stage approach to development, Erikson defined eight cially the church (Gal. 6:1–5; 2 John.; 3 John.). Correction psychosocial stages, in which the fifth stage, identity vs. suggests a criterion whereby evaluation will take place. roleCopy confusion, is located in adolescence (1950, 1968). There is need for validation based on objective standards. During this time, adolescents are faced with the difficult Instruction is the opportunity for feedback for teaching tasks of negotiating their rapidly changing bodies and a that will both exhort and encourage. Accountability ne- felt need to separate from parental attachments. Erikson cessitates an overseer, because fallen natures often cannot theorized that the primary goal in adolescence is to de- attest to truth about themselves. Since everyone is suscep- velop ego identity (“ego” comes from the Latin nomina- tible to error, mistake, and sin, human corroboration is tive pronoun “I”), in which simple identifications made helpful to arrest one’s flaws. during childhood are integrated into a coherent sense of While there is no perfect system for evaluation, none- self in adolescence. For Erikson, this task is necessary be- theless, the church’s mandate is to keep account of its fore one enters into the next stage of psychosocial devel- members (cf. 1 Thess. 4:9–12; 1 Tim. 4:11–16; Titus opment, intimacy vs. isolation, in early adulthood. To be 2:1–10). Growth in Christ is the goal (Col. 1:28–29) for able to truly know someone else in an intimate relation- all believers. Grace should be given as much as is pos- ship requires that you first know your own self. Again, sible as it has been given to each Christian (Eph. 4:32). for the next stage, generativity vs. stagnation (middle The Trinity establishes the practical application of roles adulthood), an individual must have a solid, integrated in ministry, the affective goals of “grace, love and fellow- sense of self-identity before being able to offer real care ship” together (2 Cor. 13:11–14). and guidance to future generations. Erikson described each psychosocial stage as a favor- References and Resources able balance of the positive element (i.e., identity) over the Anthony,Contributor Michael, and James R. Estep, eds. 2005. Management negative element (i.e., role confusion). If a young person Essentials for Christian Ministries. Louisville, KY: Broadman has more role confusion than identity, that person faces an & Holman. identity crisis, which may encumber each of the consecu- Heie, Harold, and Mark Sargent. 2012. Soul Care: Christian tive aspects of human development. The term identity cri- Faith and Academic Administration. Abilene, TX: Abilene sis became Erikson’s most popular concept and gave many Christian University Press, 2012. teenagers and young adults a structure through which to —Mark Eckel understand their own experiences. Erikson also described 10 Adolescent Religious Identity virtues that are achieved at each stage. At identity vs. role movement of identity concerns and the overwhelming confusion, the individual achieves the virtue of fidelity, in experience in many modern societies that have endless which young adults begin to display a consistent level of identity choices. Religious identity, in particular, is one commitment and faithfulness (fidelity) to how they know of the most important forms of identity attachments for and understand their own selves. young adults. Teenagers with religious experiences from Much of Erikson’s work has been adapted and re- childhood often seek to construct maximal religious ex- worked over the last few decades due to sharper un- periences in their affiliations as a form of identity play. derstandings of cognition and neurology as well as the But this is often conventional (Marcia’s identity foreclo- changing experiences of adolescents in the modern world. sure), in that adolescents are displaying attachments and For instance, Erikson’s uncomplicated understanding of not identity integration. identity as a negotiation of the self in relation to others has now been expanded to include both the integration of Christian Education and Adolescent Religious Identity the consciously expressed self (autobiographical memory Helping develop educational programs that facilitate reli- that is presented and acknowledged by others) and the gious identity in adolescence may be one of the most im- unconscious pattern of an individual’s identity-beliefs portant aspects of Christian education. It has been shown and identity-behaviors (cognitive patterns of attention that identity attachments (more simple forms of non- and attribution) (Fivush and Haden 2003). Likewise, reflective acceptance), even whenOnly formed/experienced adolescence in the middle of the 20th century (Erikson’s with strong emotions, do not have the staying power of period) was a much shorter experience, in which there identity integration. A typical pattern of Christian edu- were only a few years between childhood and early adult- cation in America is one in which a vibrant program in hood (i.e., vocation, raising a family), whereas in the 21st adolescence is unmatched during early adult years—the century, adolescence is commonly seen to last over a de- precise time that real identity crises arise (differing from cade, well into the twenties, during which time individu- Erikson’s original location of the crisis in adolescence). als deal with identity crises and attachments throughout Those who are seeking to assist individuals in religious traditional college years and beyond (Arnett 2006). identity formation are ultimately trying to help adoles- cents and young adults to move from identity attach- Religious Identity in Adolescence mentsCopy into a deeper (explicit and implicit) form of reli- James Marcia (1966) used Erikson’s work in identity gious identity integration. Many theorists argue that this to formulate an overall measure of identity, separating requires a reflective time in an individual’s life, in which identity into statuses of identity diffusion, moratorium, the person breaks loyalties and allegiances of childhood commitment, and achievement. The research measure and adolescent peer groups in an effort to integrate nar- asks questions in several different domains, includ- rative and meaning into his or her identity without the ing vocation, gender, and religion, among others. His force of outside groups (Fowler 1995). For the most part, measurement paradigm was well received by research- there has not been much practical research specific to ers and clinical therapists and has generated hundreds religion in studying how to help adolescents and young of research articles and an academic society dedicated adults during any identity crisis oriented around faith. to identity formation (Society for Research in Identity Work in the related area of narrative theory suggests that Formation, SRIF). Both in this field of identity formation prompted activities for spiritual autobiography, inter- and other areas of cognitive psychology, there is a widen- generational experiences, and group identity reflections ing divergence over whether individuals typically operate might be promising areas to study. Practical theologians within one global identity or use many different identi- also need to speak to whether the role of Christian educa- ties depending on social contexts. Recent studies have tors is to simply keep religious individuals in the church shown that identity is developed separately across several after an identity crisis, or whether the church itself should identity domains. Simply stated, a teenager may have a be impacted and open to change by individuals who have strong sense of an achieved gender identity, but may have formed, after some reflection and growth, an integrated a crisis in Contributorreligious identity (Bell 2008). sense of religious identity. These identity domains may move higher and lower in salience on a daily basis for adolescents. Thus, cogni- References and Resources tively, a teenager is commonly processing multiple areas Arnett, J. 2006. Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from of identity and is likely to be unaware of how the domains the Late Teens through the Twenties. New York: Oxford Uni- implicitly move from the foreground of consciousness versity Press. into the background. Parents’ descriptions of the typical Bell, D. 2008. “Development of the Religious Self: A Theoretical dramatic flair of adolescence are partly explained by this Foundation for Measuring Religious Identity.” In Religion Adolescent Spirituality 11

and the Individual: Belief, Practice, and Identity, edited by The Nature of Spiritual Development Abby Day, 127–142. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. A prevalent misconception regarding the religious life ———. 2009. “Religious Identity: Conceptualization and Mea- concerns the nature of spiritual development. Some surement of the Religious Self.” PhD diss. Available at confuse Lawrence Kohlberg’s theories of moral develop- https://etd.library.emory.edu/. ment, James Fowler’s theories of faith development, and Erikson, E. 1950. Childhood and Society. New York: W. W. the Bible’s notion of spiritual development. Yet they are Norton. not interchangeable. These three terms have distinct and ———. 1968. Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: W. W. separate meanings.10 Norton. In their attempts to utilize modern psychological and Fivush, R., and C. Haden. 2003. Autobiographical Memory educational theories, some Christians have unthinkingly and the Construction of a Narrative Self: Developmental and made long leaps from one realm of human development Cultural Perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum As- to another. For although one’s capacity for spiritual de- sociates. velopment can be influenced to varying degrees by cogni- Fowler, J. 1995. Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human tive, moral, social, sexual, or physical development, it is Development and the Quest for Meaning. New York: Harp- not dependent on these factors. erCollins. Spiritual development occurs as the Holy Spirit gains Marcia, J. 1966. “Development and Validation of Ego Iden- increasing lordship in one’s life.Only Spiritual growth cannot tity Status.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3: be correlated with one’s chronological age; it does not 551–558. depend on innate abilities, although those natural phe- —David M. Bell nomena can play a role. In fact, to attribute one’s spiritual development solely to natural growth (e.g., mental or social maturity) is to limit the capacity of the Holy Spirit Adolescent Spirituality and the nature of faith. The biblical approach to spiritual development of the Describing the Inexplicable adolescent is holistic. Just as Christ became incarnate so It is challenging to discuss the spiritual life of youth, that He could identify with all dimensions of humanity, chiefly because of two very difficult terms that call for thoseCopy who minister to youth must meet adolescents at careful exploration. First, ponder the concept of faith— their various levels of development. slippery to explain the nature and depth of this invisible, A strategy to foster spirituality in youth does not ignore nonempirical phenomenon. Christians have tried for the natural changes of puberty, but anticipates them and centuries to explain the significance of their faith pilgrim- seeks to help young people understand and respond to age in sermons, books, and hymns. Christians say that them. For example, adolescence brings the ability to think they have “grown” in their faith, but how can one tell? abstractly. The cognitive change causes youth to think “Growth” as a spiritual metaphor is an allusion to the more critically about the teachings and practices of the realm of development. A person’s physical growth can be Christian faith. One appropriate means to encourage their measured by a ruler; spiritual growth, however, cannot spiritual growth is to structure exercises that help them re- be quantified. think and defend their Christian ideas. The bottom line is The author of Hebrews understands this elusive term this: teach adolescents that spiritual life concerns itself with and likens faith to “being sure of what we hope for and yielding every dimension of one’s being to God’s rule, and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Even this helpful, that becoming fully human is what God intends. yet nonspecific, attempt at a definition can only com- Spiritual development, then, is a process of restoring pare the nonmaterial and nonempirical with the mate- our full humanity through Christ and full fellowship with rial and empirical. God. It is both the pursuit of God and a pursuit to be- Second, consider adolescent spirituality. Because of the come like God, or, as A. W. Tozer termed it, “the pursuit cognitive, social, physical, moral, and emotional aspects of holiness.” of youth’sContributor development, the unique nature of adoles- cence must be considered. Ministry to the spiritual needs Aspects of Spiritual Development and Adolescent of youth requires an altogether different perspective Spirituality than ministry to children and adults. Certainly youth’s Five main aspects of spiritual development are identi- spiritual life is related to their overall development. But to fied in scripture. First, as a gradual process, it requires what degree? Some Christian educators mistakenly lump faith, moral, and spiritual development together as if they 10. For more information, see Mark A. Lamport, “A Critical Look at were synonymous. Faith Development,” Youthworker Journal (Summer 1986): 64–69. 12 Adolescent Spirituality perseverance. Paul writes, “straining toward what is this “scoring” system. Spirituality is often measured by ahead, I press on toward the goal to win the prize for Christian activity, yet those things do not necessarily in- which God has called me” (Phil. 3:13–14). The road dicate the true tenor of our hearts. Spiritual development, to spiritual maturity requires gritty striving. Christian which may lead to acts of service, is hidden. Teachers of educators of youth must not emphasize the free gift of youth should communicate that they may indeed fool us salvation at the expense of the high cost of discipleship. with a Christian facade, but God knows the depth and Biblical writers encourage believers to persist and to sincerity of the commitment. complete the process for which God created them (cf. 1 Tim. 4:15; James 1:4; 2 Pet. 1:5–8; Heb. 10:36). Challenges of Adolescent Spirituality Second, spiritual development is effected by the Holy Pollster George Gallup summarizes the challenge for Spirit. Schaeffer says: “The how (of spiritual growth) is those endeavoring in the Christian education of youth in that the glorified Christ will do it through us. The Spirit the home and in the church. It is important to establish is an active ingredient: He will be the doer.”11 The Holy religious values with youth before they go to college, be- Spirit brings about spiritual development by convicting, cause the college years have a pronounced effect on value encouraging, and guiding the believer. Christians are formation. With each succeeding grade, students become transformed from the inside out. The Christian educa- less religious.13 tion of youth must not impose the trappings of an exte- Several dynamic, powerful, andOnly virtually inescapable rior-based or legalistic code of religiosity. Rather, youth trends affect adolescent spirituality: should be inspired with the interior motivation to live by the freedom of the Spirit (cf. Rom. 6:15–23; Gal. 5). First, the disintegration of the family. A plethora of Third, spiritual development is the result of choices— studies emphasize the influence of parents in de- an act of the will. Maturity is stunted or enhanced ac- veloping the religious values of their children. If cording to the choices one makes or fails to make. Luis one parent is removed from the home by divorce, Palau writes, “People are confronted by choices. Lives the influence will obviously not be as pervasive. A hinge on decisions forged in the heat of crisis. Some lives significant percentage of children come from one- break loose from the moorings of mediocrity and sail parent homes. Sensitive care from youth leaders can new seas for the honor of Christ. Other lives bog down Copyaugment this adult role model when it is missing on sandbars and never make it out of the harbor.”12 The from the home; the church youth group can be a Bible contains many exhortations to choose the right (cf. rallying force to develop close relationships and a Gal. 5:13; Rom. 7:14–25; Phil. 1:27). Christian educators sense of belonging. of youth must challenge them to choose rightly by giving Second, the abnegation of morality. Postmodern cul- nonthreatening forums in which life’s tough questions ture looks with disfavor on absolute truth systems may be asked. Mentors may share their experiences as and prescribed ethics. To this “enlightened” mind- more mature Christians and perhaps counteract negative set, Christianity, with its revealed Word from a peer pressure by modeling holiness. supernatural God, appears nothing more than a Fourth, although spiritual development is an inward deluded fable, old-fashioned wishful thinking, and process, one’s growth is evidenced by outward manifes- indeed ludicrous. The chief virtue of contemporary tations. The Holy Spirit’s work is seen in behavioral and society is an openness that accepts all points of view attitudinal changes occurring in the life of the believer: as of equal value. The lines between right and wrong love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithful- become fuzzy and then disappear. Adolescents re- ness, gentleness, and self-control (Gal. 5:22–23). The ceive a confused message. Christian educators of growing Christian is to be a visible expression of love to youth have the responsibility to teach teenagers to the world. It is important for those who educate youth to think from a theistic worldview. give practical and concrete ways of expressing their faith Third, the rise of consumerism. Possessions become and to help them exchange their family’s religion for a an obsession, so much so that people are viewed living, firsthandContributor faith. as means to get things. Consumerism, coupled (in Finally, the only judge of an individual’s spirituality is some cases) with large disposable income of youth, God. The Pharisees measure spirituality relative to one’s outward acts of obedience to the Law. Jesus denounces 13. Cited in Charles Shelton, Adolescent Spirituality (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1983), 7 and confirmed by Christian Smith, Soul Search- ing: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of American Teenagers (New York: 11. Francis Schaeffer, True Spirituality (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale Press, Oxford University Press, 2005), and Mark Regnerus, Christian Smith, 1971), 86. and Melissa Fritsch, Religion in the Lives of Adolescents: A Review of the 12. Luis Palau, A Commentary of David (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, Literature, A Research Report of the National Study of Youth and Religion, 1982), 45. (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, 2003). Adolescents, Spiritual Dimensions of 13

creates greed and premature affluence. Adolescents Adolescents, Spiritual Dimensions of must be taught a Christian view of humanity, to love people and use things rather than the reverse. The Traditionally, in a Western culture, the word spirituality Christian education of youth professes the invisible belonged to the religious and private spheres of people’s realities of faith over materialistic notions. lives, and it was concerned with human interiority Fourth, a developmental tendency toward egotism. (Harris and Moran 1998). Usually, the spiritual search While we acknowledge self-centeredness is inherent encouraged the individual to retreat from the world into to natural development, adolescents, given abstract contemplation and solitude. However, contemporary reasoning not available to children, have the capac- spirituality is both personal and communal (Harris and ity to see beyond themselves. Christianity cannot Moran 1998). Research studies have indicated that many wallow in self, but always locates itself in others. In young people today identify spirituality as distinct from much of the Western world, the value of individuals religion and may claim to be spiritual but not religious trumps groups or communities. Jesus turned this (e.g., Collins-Mayo et al. 2010; de Souza, 2003; de Souza, thinking upside-down when he told his followers to Cartwright, and McGilp 2004; Hughes 2007). These consider others before themselves. views highlight the fact that in today’s world, while Fifth, loss of meaning. Every culture seeks meaning for religion may be an aspect of spirituality, spirituality its existence and works hard to embrace happiness. incorporates a much broader Onlyfacet of human existence. Postmodernism offers despair, cynicism, bitterness, Also, while many young people appear to have distanced and loss of hope. Youth, products of this societal themselves from organized religion, they remain a deeply mantra, also desperately try to make sense of life. spiritual people. Their involvement, passion, and in- The Christian education with youth celebrates life, sightfulness into issues that concern themselves, their abundant life, which is what Christians proclaim to community, and the environment should not be under- the world (John 14:6). Hope, not despair, anchors estimated or overlooked. Writing in the late 1990s, Harris the Christian reality. (Harris and Moran 1998) pointed out that the spiritual- Sixth, misconstrued theories of religion. While adoles- ity of young people was alive and well and asserted that cents may think religion is a discrete and functioning the vital element in the spirituality of young people was part of their lives, in reality it often operates as a back- itsCopy connectedness—that is, its relational and communal ground operation, especially as compared to many character—which was a contrast to a previous privatized other aspects of their lives, which they can articulate, and individualistic spirituality: such as, music and relationships. Sadly, for some adolescents, a mixture of pluralism and democracy The impulse towards connectedness places the practice of has hijacked their grasp of Christianity, where “god” justice in a special and privileged place, with justice un- becomes a nice but distant being who wants us to be derstood as “fidelity to the demands of all our relations.” happy, good, realize our potential, and live healthy Such justice includes not only our relations to other human lives. This notion—coined in the term “moralistic beings; it includes our relations to the nonhuman universe as well: to the other animals, the trees, the ocean, the earth, therapeutic deism”14—is the centrally located basis and the ozone layer. (Harris and Moran 1998, 46) of American religion, encompassing the whole of the religious landscape, including adolescents. Writing at the same time as Harris, Ó Murchú (1997) also recognized the relational aspect of spirituality and References and Resources wrote about the need to reclaim spirituality. He argued Bass, Dorothy, and Don Richter. 2002. Way to Live: Christian that the spiritual consciousness evident at the turn of Practices for Teens. Nashville, TN: Upper Room Books. the century was a deep yearning to outgrow, transcend, Beaudoin, Tom. 1998. The Irreverent Spiritual Quest of Genera- and evolve toward the new that beckoned (1997, ix). Ó tion X. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Murchú identified spirituality as our “natural birthright” Lynch, Carol. 2004. Choosing Church: What Makes a Difference (ix) and supported the contention that contemporary for Teens. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. Contributor spirituality is a communal thing: Rabey, Steve. 2001. In Search of Authentic Faith: How Emerging Generations Are Transforming the Church. Colorado Springs, We are being carried along by a new surge for meaning, CO: Waterbrook Press. which, contrary to many religious beliefs, is not drawing ­—Mark A. Lamport us away from the world but plunging us more profoundly into it, not alienating us from the divine but re-connect- ing us with God who co-creates at the heart of creation. 14. This phenomenon is aptly detailed in Smith, Soul Searching, 129ff. (Ó Murchú 1997, 13) 14 Adolescents, Spiritual Dimensions of

Likewise, Groome identified a relational dimension to continuum, the movement takes the individual to a point spirituality and claimed: where she or he becomes one with Other; Self becomes part of the whole, which comprises Other; and the indi- This spiritual awakening is significant and reflects peo- vidual has entered a realm of Ultimate Unity. This is the ple’s abiding desire for something more than possessions realm that Armstrong (2009) refers to as a transcendent or personal success. It hints at renewed consciousness of mystery or Ultimate Reality, Nirvana, Dao, or Brahman, the hunger of the human heart that only Transcendence and for Christians this is known as the Kingdom of God. can satisfy . . . our spiritual propensity arises from the To translate this understanding into practice requires deepest core of human being. (Groome 1998, 323) that one lives one’s life with an awareness of one’s con- Armstrong, in her examination of historical evidence nectedness to everything other than self, which means indicating that human spirituality was the search for a living one’s life as a relational Being. There are many ele- transcendent reality, emphasized that “religion was not ments pertinent to the lives of adolescents that are gen- something tacked on to the human condition, an optional erated by this understanding. For instance, experiences extra imposed on people by unscrupulous priests. The of connectedness promote a sense of self-esteem and desire to cultivate a sense of the transcendent may be the belonging, which are likely to promote both individual defining human characteristic” (Armstrong 2009, 19). and community well-being. Belonging to a community In explaining the emergence of religious traditions, provides young people with a frameworkOnly of meaning. Armstrong argued that faith communities developed rit- Recognizing their connectedness to Other also has the uals in an effort to transcend their ordinary lives, and that potential to overcome problems related to diversity, the ultimate reality was not a personalized god. Rather, it which are symptomatic of many pluralistic societies was a transcendent mystery, which was aligned with the today. It is also important to acknowledge that not all deepest level of Being. This ultimate reality, Armstrong young people reach a point where they recognize or ex- asserted, has been named God, Dao, Brahman, Nirvana perience a transcendent reality; they may only feel a con- (2009, 5), and so on, according to different traditions. She nectedness to Other in their physical world. Nevertheless, also identified the fact that, while different faith tradi- they remain spiritual beings. tions have their own “unique genius and distinctive vi- It is important to note that with higher levels of aware- sion: each its peculiar flaws,” there are some fundamental ness,Copy a higher level of consciousness is reached by the principles common to most faith traditions “when one individual that generates a movement from a focus on loses all sense of duality and is “oblivious to everything the outer self to a focus on the inner self. This may lead within or without’” (2009, 31). Thus, Armstrong recog- to the experience of “letting go” and living in the present nized and articulated the concept of oneness or unity that moment. These are elements that may release a sense of encompasses everything. freedom in young people, thereby helping them to expe- A common thread that becomes apparent in discus- rience transcendence and, arguably, spiritual growth. sions about spirituality is captured by Nye’s concept of This contemporary understanding of adolescent spiri- relational consciousness (Hay and Nye 1998)—that is, tuality has implications for spiritual nurturing. Since the connectedness the individual experiences to Self, many young people are indifferent to religious traditions Other,15 the world, and God. This was supported by my and don’t have close associations with faith communi- own early research with young people, which clearly ties, it is important to develop other avenues through pointed to relationality or connectedness as being the which they can explore spiritual ideas, become familiar essence of their spirituality (de Souza 2003; de Souza, with wisdom literature, and find ways in which they can Cartwright, and McGilp 2004). I described a relational express their spirituality. What has become clear is that in continuum to reflect the spiritual journey where, at one this postsecular world (Habermas 2008), contemporary end, individuals are quite separate from Other. As they spirituality has a distinct role to play in enhancing the move along, they grow closer to and feel connectedness lives of adolescents and therefore their communities, so and empathy with others who are the same as themselves, that spiritual well-being and social cohesion become at- in other wordsContributor with their families and communities. tainable features, both of which are desirable elements in Further along, their life experiences may take them for- a plural divided world, ward to feel connected to others who are different from themselves, and they may develop some feelings of em- References and Resources pathy with them. Logically then, at the other end of the Armstrong, K. 2009. The Case for God. London: The Bodley Head. 15. I use Other with a capital “O” to identify collectively and to personify Collins-Mayo, S., B. Mayo, S. Nash, and C. Cocksworth. 2010. all others. The Faith of Generation Y. London: Church House Publishing. Adult Learning 15 de Souza, M. 2003. “Contemporary Influences on the Spiritual- “one right form of education.”20 In the 1960s, however, ity of Young People: Implications for Education.” Interna- educators rejected the modernist agenda in adult educa- tional Journal of Children’s Spirituality 8 (3): 269–279. tion, because it led to inequality. Thereafter, educational de Souza, M., P. Cartwright, and E. J. McGilp. 2004. “The systems pursued a more “heterodox set of ideologies” in Perceptions of Young People Who Live in a Regional City order to subvert racial, religious, and gender inequali- in Australia of Their Spiritual Wellbeing: Implications for ty.21 By the 1980s, however, adult educators, particularly Education.” Journal of Youth Studies 7 (2): 155–172. under the influence of Knowles, “were seeking for every Groome, T. H. 1998. Educating for Life. Chicago, IL: Thomas student to create their own learning in their own way, to Moore Association. ‘celebrate the other’ rather than to colonise the other.”22 Habermas, J. 2008. Notes on a Post-secular Society. June 18. This quest for diversity led to the current approaches to Retrieved 28 March 2013. http://www.signandsight.com/ adult learning. features/1714.html. Alan Rogers and Naomi Horrocks define learning Harris, M., and G. Moran. 1998. Reshaping Religious Education. as “the interaction of the learner, the context, the kind Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. of learning task and the processes involved.”23 In these Hay, D., and R. Nye. 1998. The Spirit of the Child. London: interactions, change occurs in one’s thoughts, feelings, Fount Paperbacks. beliefs, and/or actions, and these changes (“learning”) Hughes, P. 2007. Putting Life Together: Findings from Austra- take place throughout one’s lifetime.Only lian Youth Spirituality Research. Nunawading, Australia: According to Knowles and his andragogical Christian Research Association. model, five principles inform effective adult learning. Ó Murchú, D. 1997. Reclaiming Spirituality. New York: Cross- (1) Adults are self-directed and capable, taking respon- road Publishing Company. sibility for their learning. (2) Adults enter the learning —Marian de Souza process with a lifetime of experience. This experience offers resources that should be brought to bear in the learning process. (3) Adults learn best when they have Adult Learning a need. (4) Learning most effectively happens when there is immediate application to the adult’s context. Because adult learning is a multidisciplinary,16 ever- Therefore,Copy there must be a connection to the adult’s life evolving field, there is an abundance of scholarship and circumstances. Finally, (5) internal drive is the most literature on the topic. Research reports, books, journals, compelling motivator for adults.24 Others have built on and articles have been written on everything from what Knowles’s principles and contributed their own. For it is, to how it intersects with other disciplines, to meth- example, Jane Vella, another pioneer in adult learning, odological approaches. Most, however, conclude that offers 12 principles.25 Principles of adult learning ensure Malcolm Knowles17 laid the seminal foundation of an- program design that focuses on processes and proce- drogogy18 (“the art and science of helping adults learn”)19 dures for learning rather than delivery of content. In that others later used for their contributions, and now Paulo Freire’s words, the “professor” must die;26 that is, the andragogical method informs training in business, adult educators are facilitators who create the context of industry, government, colleges, universities, professional learning. Distinctives of this learning environment in- institutions, continuing education, etc. clude safety, equality—between facilitator and students From the 1940s to the 1960s, education in Western and between students—mutuality, and respect. societies was shaped by a modernist agenda. There was Educators criticize adult learning theory as Western- centric. However, Vella replicated her approach to the 16. Adult learning theory and methodology flows from educationists, theory and trained the trainers in hundreds of contexts, clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, developmental psychologists social on every continent around the world. Through these ex- psychologists, sociologists, etc. Malcolm S. Knowles, Andragogy in Action: Applying Modern Principles of Adult Learning (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1984), 7. 17. While studying in graduate school, Knowles was inspired by Eduard C. Lindeman,Contributor The Meaning of Adult Education (New York: New Republic. 20. Alan Rogers and Naomi Horrocks, Teaching Adults, 4th ed. (New Republished in a new edition in 1989 by The Oklahoma Research Center York: Open University Press, 2010), 2. for Continuing Professional and Higher Education) and Dorothy Hewitt 21. Ibid. and Kirtley Mather, Adult Education: A Dynamic for Democracy (New 22. Ibid. York: London, D. Appleton-Century Company, 1937); Knowles, Andra- 23. Ibid., 95. gogy in Action, 3. 24. Knowles, Andragogy in Action, 10–12. 18. Sharan B. Merriam, Rosemary S. Caffarella, and Lisa M. Baumgart- 25. See Jane Vella, Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach: The Power of ner, Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide, 3rd ed. (San Fran- Dialogue in Educating Adults, rev. ed. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002), cisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007), 79. 4–25. 19. Knowles, Andragogy in Action, 6. 26. Referred to in Vella, Learning to Listen, 20. 16 Adventist Church Christian Education periences, she globalized the theory and methodology.27 The “blueprint” for Seventh-day Adventist educa- Nonetheless, new developments in adult learning explore tion grew out of educational reforms in Europe and non-Western methods, as well as critical and postmodern America in the 1800s, such as selecting a rural location theories and feminist perspectives.28 for schools and promoting the benefits of manual labor Comprehending the ways adults learn has profound in connection with formal education. But this blueprint implications for faith and spiritual formation. Likened was especially informed by “Proper Education,” a 30- to spiritual formation, learning in and of its self is trans- page “testimony” written by Ellen White after receiving formational. Adults learn in informal, nonjudgmental, her first detailed vision on proper principles of educa- safe environments of mutuality, respect, and deepening tion. A foundational principle of Seventh-day Adventist relationships. Adults learn when they are engaged, not education is that redemption and restoration to the passive, when learning connects with their context, life image of God is achieved through a knowledge of and circumstances, problems, and the issues they truly care personal relationship with God, and by balanced, har- about, not through platitudes and prosaicisms. There- monious development of the physical, mental, social, fore, spiritual formation for adults must move beyond moral, and spiritual life. The purpose of this type of fill-in-the-blank and three-step formulae to authentic, education is to prepare “the student for the joy of ser- adventurous, motivational pursuit of God. vice in this world and for the higher joy of wider service —Shelley Trebesch in the world to come.”31 Other coreOnly features include de- velopment of biblical literacy, skills for practical duties of everyday life, and the capacity for right thought and Adventist Church Christian Education action. Students should become “thinkers, and not mere reflectors of other men’s thought.”32 Adventist Education: Schools, Seminaries, and Colleges In 1874, Battle Creek College (now relocated to Ber- Between the Great Disappointment in 1844 and 1872, rien Springs, Michigan, as Andrews University, which sabbatarian Adventists educated their children in pub- includes the Seventh-day Adventist Theological Semi- lic schools, homeschools, or local congregation-formed nary) was established on property adjacent to the Health schools, as well as by means of the Sabbath school, in Reform Institute (later Battle Creek Sanitarium). W. K. which those attending were divided into classes where KelloggCopy developed cereals for the sanitarium, while his they were “thoroughly quizzed and drilled on the as- brother, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, expanded the work signed lesson.”29 In 1872, the General Conference com- of health reform and established the American Medical mittee assumed administrative and financial responsibil- Missionary College in 1895. With this historical and ity for a school and in 1873 passed resolutions approving theological emphasis on education and health reform, formation of a denominational school.30 Thus, within 10 many Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities years of legal incorporation in May 1863 as the “General prepare students for careers in the health professions Conference of Seventh-day Adventists,” the formal work and work with Seventh-day Adventist hospitals and of education began as part of the mission of proclaiming clinics to extend the teaching and healing ministry of the good news of a God who created us, lived among us, Christ. “Service learning” includes other areas such as died for us, and redeems us. The unincorporated group business and benefits both the student and the local and of advent believers from across the northern United global community. Teacher education is another area States had already agreed to “take the name Seventh-day with large enrollments. Adventist” on 1 October 1860. Even today, the belief in Physical exercise, “temperance,” and a vegetarian diet the imminent return of Christ and the desire to dedicate are parts of a positive hidden curriculum by which stu- resources for proclamation of the third angel’s message dents learn the habits of a healthy lifestyle. Matters for of Revelation 14 significantly impact the mission and student discipline include consumption of alcohol, use philosophy of Adventist education. of recreational drugs and tobacco, and engaging in other high-risk behaviors, such as sexual promiscuity.33 Such 27. In addition to Learning to Listen, see Jane Vella: Training through discipline is intended to be redemptive and is directed at Dialogue: PromotingContributor Effective Learning and Change with Adults (San Fran- cisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995), Taking Learning to the Task: Creative Strategies developing self-control in students. The health benefits for Teaching Adults (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000), and On Teaching of a Seventh-day Adventist lifestyle have been thoroughly and Learning: Putting the Principles and Practices of Dialogue Education into Action (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007). 28. Merriam, Caffarella, and Baungartner, Learning in Adulthood, 241. 31. Ellen G. White, Education (Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press Pub- 29. Richard W. Schwarz and Floyd Greenleaf, Light Bearers: A History lishing Association, 1952), 13. of the Seventh-day Adventist Church (Nampa, ID: Pacific Press Publishing 32. Ibid., 17. Association, 1995), 24. 33. Institute for Prevention of Addictions, http://www.andrews.edu/ 30. Ibid., 117–122. services/ipa/ (accessed 31 July 2013). Advocacy as Christian Practice 17 documented through longitudinal research.34 There is ing direct service. Advocacy has a long tradition within also research indicating cumulative academic benefits for the Judeo-Christian tradition stemming from the biblical students who attend Adventist schools.35 imperative to honor the widows and the orphans (Deut. As of 31 December 2011, the Seventh-day Adven- 24:19–22), to care for the poor and needy (Prov. 31:8–9), tist education system consisted of 7,883 schools, col- and to offer hospitality to the stranger (Lev. 19:34). The leges, and universities; employed 89,481 teachers; and prophetic call to justice, such as in Micah 6:8, also in- educated 1,758,737 students around the world.36 The spires advocacy. Jesus was a strong advocate for those church’s schools are overseen by division, union, and outside the temple: women, children, Samaritans, tax col- conference directors of education, with boards of trust- lectors, lepers, the sick or disabled. Christians are called ees that include denominational employees and lay to love their neighbors as themselves and are encouraged church members. Schools are accredited by the Accredit- to live in solidarity with the poor and those on the edges ing Association of Seventh-day Adventist Schools, Col- of society. In the gospel of Matthew, Jesus says that to leges and Universities (AAA)37 for up to five years. Most provide for the hungry and clothe the naked is “to do of these schools also hold regional or national, and for these things to me.” Jesus preached and taught about the professional degrees, specialty accreditation. The church kingdom (or reign) of God, a rich and complex theologi- operates 112 colleges and universities, including five cal concept of God’s vision of justice that included both medical schools, three dental schools, and five regional a future, eschatological aspect Onlyand a present, achievable seminaries that offer graduate theological and ministe- reality. The Epistle of James asks, “What good is it my rial degrees. Undergraduate ministerial and theological brothers and sisters, if you say you have faith but do education is offered at nearly all Seventh-day Adventist not have works?” The New Testament identifies a form colleges and universities, while graduate theological de- of ministry, the diakonia, which was dedicated to serv- grees are primarily offered at the Seventh-day Adventist ing as a go-between between the church and the world. Theological Seminary at Andrews University (Michi- Deacons around the world continue to be immersed in gan), Adventist International Institute of Advanced advocacy work. Advocacy is both part of the content of Studies (Philippines), Inter-American Adventist Theo- and a means of Christian education. The church teaches logical Seminary (Miami/Puerto Rico), Latin-American Christians why they should engage in advocating for oth- Adventist Theological Seminary (Brazil), and Adventist ersCopy and how to do it. In practicing advocacy, Christians University of Africa (Kenya). Most of these seminaries learn by doing, and faith is formed and increased by help- also offer graduate theological and ministerial education ing others and exemplifying Christ’s compassion. Olson by means of extension programs located on a Seventh- and Friedrich (2008, 16) note: “Advocacy is as integral to day Adventist college or university campus and deliv- discipleship as prayer and worship.” ered in a format and on a schedule suitable for working Advocacy includes service and giving to others. For clergy and adult learners. example, church-related agencies associated with the —Lisa M. Beardsley-Hardy World Council of Churches spend over $1 billion annu- ally for disaster relief and development (Ferris 2005). Yet advocacy differs somewhat from charity or giving money Advocacy as Christian Practice to the poor, in that there is more direct involvement and more intention to change systems that create injustice. Advocacy is the practice of supporting the well-being of Some Christian advocates attempt to influence voting, any person or groups whose agency or voice has in any lobby for changes in resource allocations, and join in way been subdued by society, or speaking out on a par- protest marches. ticular moral issue. It may include taking a public stand Faith-based advocacy is most effective when believ- aiming to influence public policy to benefit such groups, ers from across the faith communities unite to speak as well as educating people about their needs and offer- on behalf of others, “speaking truth to power” on be- half of marginalized groups (www.changethestory.net). 34. “Adventist Health Studies,” http://www.llu.edu/public-health/ Coalition building, or working with others to address health/index.page?Contributor (accessed 31 July 2013). 35. Jerome Thayer and Elissa Kido, “Cognitive Genesis (CG): Assessing community problems and propose solutions, is crucial Academic Achievement and Cognitive Ability in Adventist Schools,” Jour- to the Christian practice of advocacy. Some advocacy nal of Research on Christian Education 21, no. 2 (2012): 99–115. organizations work directly with and are supported by 36. 2013 “Annual Statistical Report: 149th Report of the General Con- ference of Seventh-day Adventist for Year Ending December 31, 2011,” or aligned with Christian churches, such as Bread for http://docs.adventistarchives.org/docs/ASR/ASR2013.pdf#view=fit (ac- the World, World Vision, Children’s Defense Fund, and cessed 31 July 2013). 37. Adventist Accrediting Association, http://adventistaccrediting Catholic Charities. The National Council of Churches association.org (accessed 31 July 2013). brings together Christians to cooperate in programs of 18 Aelred of Rievaulx education, service, and advocacy on such issues as eco- Ferris, E. 2005. “Faith-Based and Secular Humanitarian Or- justice, racial justice, child poverty, gun control, living ganizations. International Review of the Red Cross 87 (858): wage, and health care, among others. Churches work 311–325. with more than 26,000 international nongovernmental Massaro, T. 2012. Living Justice: Catholic Social Teaching in Ac- organizations (Ferris 2005, 313). Recent U.S. presidents tion. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. have encouraged the work of faith-based action groups. Olson, D. C., and L. D. Friedrich. 2008. Weaving a Just Future Poverty and hunger are of particular concern for for Our Children: An Advocacy Guide. Nashville, TN: Dis- Christians because of the moral responsibility given to cipleship Resources. the faithful. The Reformation and Counter-Reformation Sachs, J. D. 2006. The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for brought increased concern and renewed vigor in com- Our Time. New York: Penguin Press. bating rampant poverty. Reformers like Luther, Calvin, Swartz, H. 2008. Organizing Urban America: Secular and Faith- and Wesley evangelized among the poor and entreated Based Progressive Movements. Minneapolis: University of Christians to engage in good works on behalf of the poor. Minnesota Press. Catholic catechisms and papal encyclicals through the Wuthnow, R., and J. Evans, eds. 2002. The Quiet Hand of God: ages have fostered love and care for the poor in keeping Faith-Based Activism and the Public Role of Mainline Protes- with the social teachings of the Catholic Church. The So- tantism. Berkeley: University of California Press. cial Gospel movement of the early 20th century sought to Only—Susan Willhauck apply Christian ethical teachings to social problems. Ap- proximately 925 million people in the world are hungry on any given day. There are about 50 million people living Aelred of Rievaulx in poverty in the United States, as reported by U.S. Cen- sus Bureau data (Center for Research on Globalization, Early Background and Education http://www.globalresearch.ca/nearly-50–million-living Aelred of Rievaulx was born in Hexham, Northumber- -in-poverty-in-us/5312028). Poverty has been called the land, England, in 1109.38 He was the son of a married single greatest deterrent to full and healthy lives, and priest, was educated in the Scottish court, and served many advocates believe it can be eliminated (Sachs 2006). King David I of Scotland until the age of 24. He gave up Since Christians disagree about political issues, it is the promiseCopy of nobility and power when he became a natural that advocacy groups are formed to support causes Cistercian monk in the abbey of Rievaulx in Yorkshire associated with both the political Right and Left. Both sides (1143).39 After a short time as abbot of a new house of might agree that advocacy for Christians is a response to monks at Revesby, he was promoted to the position of faith, an attempt to faithfully live out the gospel, not simply abbot of Rievaulx in 1147, overseeing as many as 300 jumping on the bandwagon of the latest cause. Evangelical monks and giving leadership to all the Cistercian abbots leaders such as Ronald Sider (founder of Evangelicals for of England.40 His diplomatic and administrative skills Social Action) and Jim Wallis (founder of the Sojourn- added clout to the already successful and growing order ers community and magazine) represent a turn toward of Cistercian monks.41 He was best known, though, for advocacy among evangelicals. Churches in the United the great love he had for his spiritual brothers in his States with tax-exempt status engage in nonpartisan ad- community of friends. A contemporary of Bernard of vocacy, but individual Christians often work on political Clairvaux, Aelred followed Bernard’s encouragement campaigns that align with their understanding of how to write his first book on spirituality, titled Speculum best to fulfill God’s vision for the world. Many advocacy caritatis (The Mirror of Charity), a treatise on following groups even provide educational and liturgical resources Christ.42 His most influential work, De spirituali amicitia for Christians (and other faiths) to assist them in advo- (Spiritual Friendship) explored the importance of devel- cating for various groups and issues. A notable example oping preferential friendship in spiritual community, is the Children’s Defense Fund’s National Observance of even though this was not common practice in the mo- Children’s Sabbaths, an annual event in which congrega- tions are encouraged to educate and advocate on concerns Contributor 38. Some sources date his birth at 1110. related to the well-being of children. 39. James Kiefer, “Aelred of Rievaulx,” in Biographical Sketches of Mem- orable Christians of the Past, http://www.justus_anglican.org/resources/ References and Resources bio/30_html (accessed 23 May 2013). 40. Kevin Knight, “St. Aelred,” in Catholic Encyclopedia, www.newadvent Children’s Defense Fund. n.d. http://www.childrensdefense.org/ .org/cathen/01172b.htm (accessed 23 May 2013). programs-campaigns/faith-based-action/childrens-sabbaths. 41. Brian Noell, “Aelred of Rievaulx’s Appropriation of Augustine. A Window on Two Views of Friendship and the Monastic Life,” Cistercian Evans, C. H., ed. 2001. The Social Gospel Today. Louisville, KY: Studies Quarterly 37 (2002): 123–144. Westminster John Knox Press. 42. Kiefer, “Aelred of Rievaulx.” Aesthetics (Beauty) 19 nastic tradition. Aelred earned the title “Bernard of the people and invited them into His confidence at differ- north” because of his widespread influence, attributed ent levels. In defense of his unconventional approach to to his personal spirituality, sophisticated writings, and leadership that sought out friendship with those lower in Christocentric doctrine.43 Aelred was abbot of Rievaulx status, Aelred advised: “Therefore, in friendship . . . let for 20 years, until his death in 1167. the lofty descend, the lowly ascend; . . . and thus let each communicate his condition to the other so that equality Significant Contributions to Christian Education may be the result. . . . For they do not rightly develop While Aelred of Rievaulx is not a common name in friendship who do not preserve equality.”51 He was a trail- evangelical circles, his influence is nonetheless felt. His blazer in taking the risk of entrusting himself to others in book, Spiritual Friendship, addresses the complexity of spiritual friendship; writing about the virtues of mutually interpersonal dynamics that exist in spiritual community loving and preferential relationships; and defending a and the importance of friendship for the unity that Christ biblical view of God’s love, which needs to be seen not said would characterize his community of followers.44 only as charitable love, but as friendship love. While many Christians tend to operate interpersonally Aelred of Rievaulx contributed much to the field of with an Augustinian underpinning of charitable detach- Christian education by addressing the need for inti- ment, Aelred provides an alternative approach to the mate, Christ-centered relationships in spiritual forma- self-protected life.45 Aelred defined and elevated the tion. “For what more sublime Onlycan be said of friendship, role of spiritual friendship, deeming it a noble pursuit what more true, what more profitable, than that it ought in the Christian life and philosophizing that it “cure(s) to, and is proved to, begin in Christ, continue in Christ, and endure(s)” the defects that are seen in each person.46 and be perfected in Christ?”52 Without human friend- “Friendship, therefore, is that virtue by which spirits are ship, one would never know the level of intimacy of bound by ties of love and sweetness, and out of many are relationship that God offers those He not only calls his made one.”47 children, but also friends. Aelred purports that spiritual Affirming the need to love others in a general sense, friendships are not only good, but necessary in the pur- he gave dignity to the notion that spiritual friendship and suit of friendship with God. preferential love is also a divine calling. MostCopy Notable Publications Divine authority approves that more are to be received Speculum caritatis (The Mirror of Charity), 1142 into the bosom of charity than into the embrace of friend- Oratio pastoralis (Pastoral Prayer), c. 1163–1167 ship. For we are compelled by the law of charity to receive De spiritali amicitia (Spiritual Friendship), c. 1164. in the embrace of love not only our friends but also our De anima (On the Soul), c. 1164–1167 enemies. But only those do we call friends to whom we —Christy Hill can fearlessly entrust our heart and all its secrets; those, too, who, in turn, are bound to us by the same law of faith and security.48 Aesthetics (Beauty) This type of interpersonal reciprocity caused some ten- sion in his own abbey, due to the appearance of favoritism Truth, goodness, and beauty are generally accepted indi- and the sense of impropriety in associating with those of cations of human creativity. Pleasure in life suggests out- lower rank.49 In defense of his philosophy that preferen- standards, which allow for innovation within life’s tial friendship is spiritually edifying, he pointed to the ex- margins. Architecture, theater, painting, poetry, music, ample of Jesus’s having had mutually loving relationships and artwork of all kinds by all people everywhere suggest with John, Lazarus, Mary, and Martha.50 He suggested humans were made to express and enjoy aesthetics. that while Jesus loved everyone, He enjoyed particular Biblical Theology of Aesthetics 43. “Saint Aelred of Rievaulx (Cistercian Monk),” in Encyclopaedia Bri- God is Truth; all truth is His, and truth reflects Himself tannica Online, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7095/Saint (1 Kings 17:24; Ps. 25:5; Isa. 45:18, 19). God is Beauty; -Aelred-of-RievaulxContributor (accessed 29 May 2013). 44. John 17:21. equality, harmony, symmetry, and proportion have 45. Noell, “Aelred of Rievaulx’s Appropriation of Augustine.” their source in Him (Gen. 1:3, “He separated,” mean- 46. Aelred of Rievaulx, “Spiritual Friendship,” in Other Selves: Phi- ing all things are given their exact place; Ps. 27:4, 90:16, losophers on Friendship, ed. Michael Pakaluk (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing, 1991), 135. 47. Ibid., 135. 48. Ibid., 137. 51. Aelred of Rievaulx, Spiritual Friendship, trans. M. E. Laker (Kalama- 49. Noell, “Aelred of Rievaulx’s Appropriation of Augustine.” zoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1977), 115–117. 50. Kiefer, “Aelred of Rievaulx.” 52. Aelred of Rievaulx, “Spiritual Friendship,” 133. 20 Aesthetics (Beauty)

17, 96:6–9). God is Good; He sets the standard for statements are made about art through music. First, sing- both expression and evaluation (Gen 1:3, “He saw that ing was artistically responsive (1 Chron. 15:16, 25, 28). it was good”; Matt. 19:17; Mark 10:17–18). All good Art can be a human response to God’s world, His Word, things come from God (1 Chron. 29:14, 15; James 1:17; and His works. Old Testament stories are punctuated 1 Tim. 6:17). Creative skills come from God, including with song and dance, for instance (Exod. 15). The great- intelligence, knowledge, and craftsmanship (Exod. 28:3, est Israelite kings were musicians (David and ). 31:1–11, 35:30, 31, 36:2; Isa. 28:23–28). The Psalms were ’s hymnal. Second, the song was The Creator created creatures who creatively create rehearsed (1 Chron. 15:19–22). Order, arrangement, from creation. Humans are made in God’s image (Gen. preparation, skill, creativity, and excellence are important 1:27). People represent God and are God’s representa- in aesthetics. 1 Chronicles 15:16–16:6 records a full choir, tives on Earth (Ps. 8). God’s likeness in humanity imbues orchestra, and a dance troupe punctuated with “shouts” creativity, intelligence, willfulness, design, purpose, plan- and percussion (vv. 25, 28). Third, singing was a regular, ning, imagination, and appreciation of the creation (Ps. repeated remembrance (1 Chron. 16:6, 37). Music is “sa- 111:2, 145:3–13). Creation was intentionally made to cred” (1 Chron. 16:42). The event of celebration was over, entwine utility (trees made good for food) and aesthetics but the story lived on in the song. One cannot remove (trees made pleasing to the eye, Gen 2.9). God combined music from the “story” without losing meaning (2 Chron. strength, balance, function, and beauty in His creation, as 20:21; Ps. 45; 137:4–6). HymnologyOnly teaches Truth (Eph. do His creatures (Gen. 1, 2:5, 8, 15). 5:19–20; Col. 3:16). Healing (1 Sam. 16:23), hope (Isa. Artists used their God-given gifts (Exod. 26:2) of artis- 35:5–8), and celebration (2 Sam. 6:14–15) are all themes tic design (35:32) and abilities of intelligence, knowledge, contained in biblical song. Aesthetics are God-given and craftsmanship (35:31); they could also teach (35:34) expressions for community and remembrance. Court and were stirred to do the work (36:2). Songs were re- songs, battle songs, harvest songs, work songs, songs of hearsed in Israel (1 Chron. 15:19–22). Order, arrange- loss and victory—all of life was worship to God’s people. ment, preparation, skill, creativity, and professionalism Aesthetics—value judgments about creation—depend are important. 1 Chronicles 15:16–16:6 records a full on personal interpretation of reality through the lens choir, orchestra, and a dance troupe punctuated with of Christian thought (“and God saw,” Gen. 1:4, 10, 12, “shouts” and percussion (vv. 25, 28). 18, 21,Copy etc.). While the culture maintains personal and In the Old Testament, the Holy Spirit dwelled in peo- experiential parameters outside of others’ authority, the ple for leadership purposes, including proclamation (1 One who made humanity demands certain standards Sam. 10:5–6), which was also an art form (Exod. 35:21). (Gen. 2:16–17). Truth is grounded in eternal verities (Ps. The instructions for the tabernacle were given through 119:160). Beauty is not in the eye of the beholder; rather, language as written revelation (Exod. 39:42–43)—not the appreciation of creation is based on the Creator (Gen. personal, inner experience of the prophet-artist. So the 2:9). Goodness is not relative; rather, within a fallen creation of the tabernacle was dependent on outside rev- world, both method and message can coincide with a elation, not an internal, artistic “voice.” This observation biblical framework of creative expression (Gen. 2:19–20). suggests that a biblical view of artistry begins with God rather than humans. Unbelievers contribute excellence Christian Practice of Aesthetics in their artwork (1 Kings 5:6; 2 Chron. 2:17–18), which Appraise the relationship between human creativity and pleases God (2 Chron. 7:12–16). purpose in life. Persuade students that value, meaning, and order find their source in God. Approve that pleasure Biblical Philosophy of Aesthetics and enjoyment is integral in a Christ-centered view of For the Christian, all of life is worship: the total response living. Recommend imagination as a reflection of God’s of the total person to the Lord Jesus (Acts 24:14; Phil. image. Affirm that taste, inspiration, vision, beauty, and 3:3). Christian purpose is to give God glory, whatever the appreciation have a source in a biblical-revelation con- task. God’s glory (literally, “weight”) resides within His trolled environment. Research an artist, go on a field trip creation (1Contributor Chron. 16:28). The responsibility to “throw to an art museum, or discuss the artwork of a specific God’s weight around” falls to Christians in their God- sculptor, painter, and so forth. Discuss the problem of given giftedness, through their God-given vocations (1 idolatry in artistic communities. Develop a biblical view Cor. 10:31; Col. 3:23). Talent, time, money, and posses- of worship that corresponds directly to the arts. Explain sions all come from God (Lev. 25:23; 1 Chron. 29:14–15). that art in any form rehearses the struggles and joys of Believers give back what has been given (1 Tim. 6:17–19). life. Exhibit aesthetics as a display of truth versus false- 1 Chronicles 15 and 16 kept the beauty of Israel’s his- hood; the latter necessitating redemption. Display the tory alive through the aesthetics of song. Three major battle between right and wrong through drama. Propose Affections, Christian 21 solutions to corruption through artists who display re- evaluation for or against, the object of the emotion demptive exhibitions. Harmonize artistic expressions to in relation to oneself. Emotions may therefore be reflect God’s intention of wholeness. Express joy in the influenced by cognitive learning. Creator and His good creation through beauty. Rehearsal 3. Christian beliefs-in, including faith and trust in and repetition is the discipline of the artist, overcoming God, salvation, baptism, and so forth; and also, creation’s corruption and the creature’s laziness. Aesthet- perhaps, Christian beliefs-that and understanding, ics can remind the Christian of God’s Word and works. insofar as certain attitudes and emotions are part of the meaning of Christian concepts (see below). References and Resources Brand, Hillary, and Adrienne Chaplin. 2002. Art and Soul: Education and the Christian Affections Signposts for Christians in the Arts. Downers Grove, IL: In- Anything that abstracts out the affective dimension of terVarsity Press. religion leaves us with only a partial description: “We Ryken, Leland. 2002. The Christian Imagination: Essays on entirely fail to capture what is involved in someone’s Literature and the Arts. Colorado Springs, CO: Waterbrook adoption or rejection of a religious worldview if we sup- Press. pose we can extract a pure cognitive juice from the mush Turner, Steve. 2000. Imagine: A Vision for Christians in the of emotional or figurative coloration, and then establish Arts. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. whether or not the subject is preparedOnly to swallow it.”54 —Mark Eckel Much Christian education limits itself to cognitive learning. By contrast, “the early catechists showed in their pastoral activity that the Christian teachings de- Affections, Christian manded the life of the affections. . . . The fear, remorse, zeal and joy of the paschal season were marks of religious The classic defense of the claim that religious feeling understanding.”55 Learning to be Christian must therefore is a constitutive element of religion may be found in include the evocation and direction of the affections: Jonathan Edwards’s 1746 treatise, The Religious Affec- “God is genuinely known only when God’s identity is tions. Edwards infers that “true religion lies much in the established in a manner that includes one’s passions.”56 affections” from the assertions that true religion “is of LudwigCopy Wittgenstein argued that this involves some sort a practical nature,” that God has so constituted human of passionate embrace: nature that the affections are “very much the spring” of human action, and that “the things of religion” take Instruction in a religious faith . . . would have to take hold of human souls “no further than they affect them.” the form of a portrayal, a description, of that system of He draws attention to the place given in the Bible to reference, while at the same time being an appeal to con- “fear, hope, love, hatred, desire, joy, sorrow, gratitude, science. And this combination would have the result in the pupil himself, of his own accord, passionately taking compassion, and zeal.”53 hold of the system of reference.57 The content of Christian education includes three main areas of affect (or feeling): It is with this embrace that the learner moves to a belief- in that encompasses both beliefs-that about God’s nature 1. Christian attitudes and values and dispositions to and existence and affective states such as trust and other act and experience in Christian ways, a category that positive attitudes toward God. includes Christian spiritual and moral virtues, and Even learning about Christianity is inadequate unless the positive valuing of God, Jesus, the Spirit, and it includes learning about these Christian affections. the church. Attitudes are primarily affective ori- Students can only empathetically understand feeling- entations, internal states that influence a person’s action responses; values are the objects of positive 54. John Cottingham, The Spiritual Dimension: Religion, Philosophy and evaluative attitudes. Human Vocation (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 80. 2. Christian emotions and feelings (or subjective reli- 55. John A. Berntsen, “Christian Affections and the Catechumenate,” Contributor reprinted in Theological Perspectives on Christian Formation: A Reader gious experiences), such as awe, thankfulness, pity, in Theology and Christian Education, ed. Jeff Astley, Leslie J. Francis, and and joy. Simple feelings are usually transitory; emo- Colin Crowder (Leominster, UK: Gracewing Fowler Wright and Grand tion is a more complex category in which feeling- Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996), 239. 56. Dean M. Martin, “Learning to Become a Christian,” reprinted in states result from a cognitive belief about, and an Critical Perspectives on Christian Education: A Reader on the Aims, Prin- ciples and Philosophy of Christian Education, ed. Jeff Astley and Leslie J. Francis (Leominster, UK: Gracewing Fowler Wright, 1994), 190. 53. Jonathan Edwards, Select Works, Volume III: Treatise Concerning the 57. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Culture and Value, ed. G. H. von Wright, Religious Affections (London: Banner of Truth, 1961), 27–53. trans. Peter Winch (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), 64. 22 Affectivity states insofar as they have them, or something very like Affectivity is a concept that has multiple meanings. them, themselves. And “the fuller the understanding The dictionary definitions suggest sentiments of af- of Christianity being aimed at, the ‘wider’ and ‘deeper’ fection and tenderness, a relation of mutual caring these feelings need to be.”58 Hence, the learning out- and support, as well as empathy, friendliness, warmth, comes that constitute successful learning about the af- love, and compassion. Espinosa59 and other authors60 fective component of Christianity overlap with those of proposed that affectivity has five components: mo- learning Christianity, and this may encourage the trans- tivation, confidence in oneself, attitudes, emotions, formative, passionate embrace to which Wittgenstein and causal attribution. These five components have refers. Learning about Christianity can thus provoke “a hugely important role in learning and teaching.”61 the affective conversion-change that characterizes full Research into the topic, reflecting the presuppositions Christian learning. of each author, has been deepening the understanding of some components and adding new ones, such as References and Resources beliefs, feelings, interests, and values, which shows the Astley, Jeff. 2002. Ordinary Theology: Looking, Listening and complexity and amplitude of the topic under analy- Learning in Theology. Aldershot and Burlington, VT: Ashgate. sis. Here, the emphasis is placed on the attitudes of ———. 2007. “Crossing the Divide?” In Inspiring Faith in respect, empathy, openness toward the other, and the Schools: Studies in Religious Education, edited by Marius aspects linked to feelings (subjectiveOnly well-being) and Felderhof, Penny Thompson, and David Torevell, 175–186. emotions like joy, satisfaction, confidence—one’s own Aldershot and Burlington, VT: Ashgate. feelings—deriving from the pedagogical interaction ———. 2012. “A Theological Reflection on the Nature of Reli- in which these attitudes remain. Affective pedagogy gious Truth.” In Teaching Religion, Teaching Truth: Theo- is defined as being “as much about feelings and emo- retical and Empirical Perspectives, edited by Jeff Astley, Leslie tions as it is about learning outcomes. Indeed the J. Francis, Mandy Robbins, and Mualla Selçuk, 241–262. feelings and emotions are inseparable from the learn- Bern: Peter Lang. ing outcomes.”62 Carbalho presents a table listing the Wainwright, William J. 1995. Reason and the Heart: A Pro- emotional status of the pupil resulting from good or legomenon to a Critique of Passional Reason. Ithaca, NY: poor teaching (see table A.1).63 Cornell University Press. TheCopy affective pedagogy is evident in teachers who64 Wilson, John. 1971. Education in Religion and the Emotions. London, Heinemann. • value a discipline and its associated practices, —Jeff Astley • value imparting them to students, • challenge students’ learning achievements while re- specting their developing intellects, Affectivity • assess students’ academic progress transparently and constructively, Much of the praxis on teaching tends to bypass the affec- • encourage students to move beyond their knowledge tive and emotion realms, tending toward study designs comfort zones, and more influenced by structure and measurement. The • engage students in a friendship relationship in the affective domain looks at the values, attitudes, and emo- classroom. tions in the student. For this reason, it is crucial to supply the reference frameworks and methodological guidelines 59. Gaëlle Espinosa, L’Affectivité à l’École (Paris: Presses Universitaires that provide the background to this dimension of profes- of France, 2003). This author maintains that apparently student difficulties sional training of teachers and their praxis. This discus- in school place greater emphasis on the emotional relationship with the teacher, and the student who succeeds favors a more professional relation- sion flows from the conviction that, as well as other di- ship. mensions of the pedagogical relationship, it is necessary 60. Barbara Martin and Leslie Briggs, The Affective and Cognitive to recognize the relevant affective dimension of the lives Domains: Integration for Instruction and Research (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technologies Publications, 1986). of pupils in the process of teaching/learning. It is well 61. Espinosa, L’Affectivité à l’École, 37. Contributor 62. Allan Patience, “The Art of Loving in the Classroom: A Defence known that learning outcomes are influenced profoundly of Affective Pedagogy,” Australian Journal of Teacher Education 33, no. 2 by personal interactions between teachers and students. (2008): 57. 63. Elsa de Carvalho, Aprendizagem e satisfação: Perspectivas de alunos 58. Jeff Astley, “The Place of Understanding in Christian Education and do 2º e 3º ciclo do Ensinobásico. (Lisboa: Faculty of Psychology and Educa- Education about Christianity,” reprinted in Critical Perspectives, ed. Astley tional Sciences of the University of Lisbon, 2007), 163. and Francis, 112. 64. Patience, “Art of Loving in the Classroom,” 55. Affectivity 23

TABLE A.1 And the writer suggests another category: Emotional Status of Pupils In the case of good teaching 7. Before starting a class, the teacher should lead a time Satisfaction Pride of prayers with the students, asking them for prayer Confidence Self-esteem requests. Together, they will bring before God’s Motivation Happiness throne all their concerns, doubts, anxiety, fears, and In the case of poor teaching all kinds of emotions that they could be facing. Dissatisfaction Sadness Guilt Discouragement Rebellion Impatience These storms of emotions could be obstacles for students’ Fear Boredom learning experiences; therefore, if they could trust God in Lack of motivation Unhappiness their affective domain, then they would be ready for the learning process. Suggested approaches to working with in affective do- Good teaching and learning methodologies contrib- main with students in the classroom are presented in six ute profoundly to the making of good Christians. In major categories:65 this sense, to attain this, students need to embrace the human experience in all its complexities and possibilities 1. Establishing and continuing positive relationships. at the intellectual and emotionalOnly levels. This requires the The students describe good/bad educational experi- cultivation of purposeful, mature relationships between ences, whether the teacher “cared.” In this context, teachers and students. care does not mean the teacher has to form intimate Education involves interacting with strongly complex attachments with students, but that they know that dynamics, and these involve emotional, social, and com- the teacher sees them and is concerned about their municative interactions, not only giving information. learning, lives, fears, and concerns, and that it is safe The teacher has to take into account the students as a to ask questions and admit when they are struggling. whole as God created them. 2. Providing students sufficient class time to process Affective pedagogues know how the “art of love” will content and practice skills. Activities help them learn grace the students with the capacity to recognize valuable a skill, so that they are more confident and likely to thingsCopy within themselves: things students can trust, that persist in their independent class work, such as writ- will help them grow personally, emotionally, spiritually, ing a paper, studying for a test, or doing a project. culturally, and socially. In a congress on education, “it was 3. Providing regular opportunities for students to re- highlighted how love is ‘inscribed in the DNA of every flect on their own thoughts and the factors that in- man and woman on earth’ and for this reason, ‘it responds fluence their thinking. Students learn more deeply, to the needs of all times and of all human societies.’”66 It is and are more likely to be successful, when they are agape at the heart of affective pedagogy.67 conscious of what helps them learn and what slips When students discover that you care about them, that them up. you want them to succeed and grow and share with you, 4. Providing incentives and accountability for coming they will not only listen better, but will receive, absorb, to class and doing the work. Not all students arrive and treasure the teaching that you share with them. Then in class fully self‐motivated, and they need teachers the goal of learning, which is the transformation of life, to build structures into the classes that help them stay on top of things. 66. E. Fondi, “‘DioAmorenell’ esperienza di Chiara Lubich” (presented 5. Intrusively intervening when students show signs of at the Congress on Education, Rome, 2000). Presented in the first Congress struggle or disengagement. They need to be men- on Education, “Education as Love.” Also, Jesus offers an even more strin- gent formulation of the law of love in John 15:12 when He says, “This is my tored by their teachers. commandment, that ye love one another as I have loved you,” challenging 6. Maintaining a “growth‐mind-set” approach to what is most difficult: to overcome the natural human inclination toward rationalization and self-love in favor of a love for others, in this case, the feedback and grading. This involves being inten- students, attempting to model itself on Christ’s love for humanity. tional about how teachers grade and give feedback 67. Timothy Jackson, Love Disconsoled: Meditations on Christian Char- Contributor ity (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 11–15. Agape is a on their assignments. Greek word used in the New Testament, characterized by three interper- sonal features: (a) unconditional commitment to the good of others, (b) 65. Katie Hern and Snell, “Attending to the Affective Domain” equal regard for the well-being of others, and (c) passionate service open to (paper prepared for discussion at Summer Institute, June 2011), 4–8, http:// self-sacrifice for the sake of others. These three are essential to the task of cap.3csn.org/files/2012/02/Attending-to-the-Affective-Domain-outline teaching, especially if we are including the affective domain in the teaching/ -v21.pdf (accessed 9 July 2013). learning process. 24 Africa and Christian Education will take place, especially if you realize that as a Christian present-day national school systems in most of Africa. teacher, you are teaching for eternity. The missionaries also founded teacher training and min- isterial training colleges. Christian education has thus References and Resources left a strong legacy in sub-Saharan Africa. A prominent Carvalho, Elsa de. 2007. Aprendizagem e satisfação: Perspectivas example is Fourah Bay College, Sierra Leone, the oldest de alunos do 2º e 3º ciclo do ensinobásico. Lisboa: Faculty of university in sub-Saharan Africa, founded in 1827 by the Psychology and Educational Sciences of the University of Church Missionary Society (CMS) for the training of Lisbon. African nationals as teachers, catechists, and clergymen. Espinosa, Gaëlle. 2003. L’Affectivité à l’École. Paris: Presses However, despite the immense contributions of the Universitaires of France. European missionaries, the content of their teaching was Fondi, E. 2000. Dio Amorenell’ esperienza di ChiaraLubich. often not contextually relevant, the (cognitive) Western Rome: Congress on Education. educational methods did not fit the (relational) African Hern, Katie, and Myra Snell. 2011. “Attending to the Affective worldview, and the education was consciously aimed at Domain.” Paper prepared for discussion at California Ac- educating the Africans away from their culture (Fafunwa celeration Project: Community of Practice in Accelerated and Aisiku 1982; Ntamushobora 2012, 31). These factors Curriculum & Pedagogy Summer Institute, June. Accessed placed a limitation on the transformational nature of the 9 July 2013. http://cap.3csn.org/files/2012/02/Attending-to educational enterprise. Furthermore,Only colonialism had -the-Affective-Domain-outline-v21.pdf. both positive and negative impacts on the missions. Jackson, Timothy. 1999. Love Disconsoled: Meditations on The close association of the foreign missionaries Christian Charity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University with colonial authorities by Africans, as well as a grow- Press. ing self-conscious sense of identity among African Martin, Barbara, and Leslie Briggs. 1986. The Affective and Christians, led to the growth of African independent/ Cognitive Domains: Integration for Instruction and Research. initiate churches (AICs) by the mid-20th century. Some Edgewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technologies Publications, seceded from the mission churches in protest against 1986. perceived missionary domination, while others spon- Patience, Allan. 2008. “The Art of Loving in the Classroom: taneously arose around a prophetic-charismatic char- A Defence of Affective Pedagogy.” Australian Journal of acterCopy and gradually became so distinct from the other Teacher Education 33 (2): 55–67. church members that they formed another church. —Ana María E. Campos Examples are the Zionist Spirit churches in South Africa and the Aladura (people of prayer) in Nigeria. Similar cases were simultaneously unfolding in Belgian Congo, Africa and Christian Education Kenya, and Zimbabwe (Baur 1994; Isichei 1995). These prophet-healing AICs attracted and cared for Early Christian Education in Africa the needy, and culturally Africanized their theology Fifteenth-century Spanish and Portuguese Catholic at- and practice in ways that some considered heretical. tempts at evangelizing coastal Africa had a very limited This inevitably engendered tense relationships with the impact because of their sporadic and imperialist trade historic mission churches (Baur 1994, 355–358). While motivations. In the middle of the 19th century, European the AICs are frequently explained in sociological and missionaries began the earliest lasting and penetrating political terms, Bediako (1995) suggests a Christian rea- work of evangelization from the coastal areas. In West son for them. The Gospel had set the African man “free Africa, freed slaves from Sierra Leone were a major part from fear, fear of witches and the power of darkness, but of this missionary thrust. Apart from Ethiopia, an early above all conferring a freedom from an inner depen- “Christian nation,” this is how Christianity came to sub- dence on European tokens of grace or favor, to aim for Saharan Africa. The missions typically included a church, higher things” (204). In other words, the AIC trend in a school, and sometimes a hospital. itself was an unanticipated indication of success in the The missionaryContributor approach to Christian education (CE) missionary task of discipling and educating indigenous consisted of literacy, Bible translation, and catecheti- African believers! cal training. The mission schools were a critical part of the evangelistic enterprise and gave prominence to the Independence and Growth Bible, because education was “for the propagation of the The wave of political independence in Africa in the gospel—to win African souls for Christ” (Fafunwa and 1960s coincided with an explosion in numbers, both Aisiku 1982, 21). The mission schools laid the foundation in the independent churches and among the mission for formal education and served as forerunners to the churches, many of which now had indigenous leaders. Africa and Christian Education 25

With independence came the nationalization and take- of having expatriate institutional heads), self-supporting over of mission schools in the 1960s and 1970s. Conse- (instead of completely relying on Western funds), or quently, the Bible is no longer central in the curriculum, self-theologizing (instead of merely transmitting West- but “Christian religious knowledge/studies” is taught as ern theological scholarship). Yet there are innovative a formal subject in public schools in many countries. collaborative models, such as that of the graduate-level In Kenya, the syllabus and textbooks for this subject Mekana Yesus Theological College in Ethiopia. It serves are products of ecumenical cooperation among the dif- 4 lower-level regional colleges, which, in turn, serve 12 ferent churches in order to retain religious and moral lower-level local schools. influence in the education of youth. Many churches and The demand for university education has led sev- Christian entrepreneurs have also established primary, eral seminaries in East Africa to transition into private secondary, and lately tertiary institutions with a distinc- Christian schools in hopes that these programs would tive Christian identity. adequately fund the institutions. In Uganda, Democratic Judging numerically, the propagation of the Christian Republic of Congo, Ghana, and Nigeria, many churches faith has been a phenomenal success in sub-Saharan and individuals have recently founded private Christian Africa. This region has had the fastest growth rate of universities. The expectation is that these institutions will professing Christians over the past century, a roughly contribute solutions to the many challenges facing CE in sixtyfold increase, from fewer than 9 million in 1910 to Africa (Nwosu 2012). Only more than 516 million in 2010, accounting for about a Most countries in sub-Saharan Africa officially pro- quarter (24 percent) of the global Christian population. mote religious tolerance, and the states do not limit The percentage of the population that is Christian in sub- Christian education, even though they try to regulate its Saharan Africa also climbed, from 9 percent in 1910 to 63 incursion into government run public schools. Neverthe- percent in 2010 (Hackett and Grim 2011). less, in the specific local regions where radical Muslims are in the majority, CE efforts are restricted by violent at- Distinctives tacks on churches and Christians. In northern Nigeria for Unfortunately, societal transformation has not matched instance, where more than 10 states have adopted Sharia the oft-cited numerical growth, putting pressure on (Islamic) law, the radical jihadist group Boko Haram Christian educators to find effective contextual ways of (“WesternCopy education is sin”), seeking to create a pure bridging the theology-practice gap. Christian education Islamic state ruled by Sharia law, has since 2011 bombed can no longer be limited to the usual new believers/ churches and burned schools. Other challenges to CE members catechetical or Bible study/Sunday school in Africa include war and political instability, illiteracy, classes for different age groups. Storytelling, rural corn- HIV/AIDS, and ebola. The Western reader might wonder threshing activities in northern Nigeria (Ango 2008), what these have to do with Christian education, but in and rites of passage in Kenya are methods/avenues used the holistic worldview of the African milieu, education is for CE. Bible translation has continued as more people bound to these urgent realities. can read and hear God’s word in Africa’s myriad tribal The culture, metaphors, and symbols of the Bible are tongues. Africa is a “young” continent: 60 percent of the shared by many African cultures, and the world in which African population is under the age of 25 (Greene, Joshi, the apostles first propagated the Christian faith shares the and Robles 2012). It is therefore not surprising that para- religious pluralism of traditional African society. Perhaps church ministries such as Scripture Union, and national the greatest contribution of the African Christian educa- student movements associated with the International Fel- tor and scholar would be to look at the Bible and the lowship of Evangelical Students (IFES) play an important Christian faith with African eyes and not European eyes, role in Christian education. and interpret, then teach, it in ways that no European scholar can (Bediako 1995, 252). Theological and Christian Higher Education The rapid growth of the church, a significant part of References and Resources which hasContributor been among Pentecostals and charismatics, has Ango, S. P. 2008. “Opportunities for Christian Education in the also produced an acute challenge for pastoral and leader- Corn-Threshing Activities of the Lelna of Nigeria: A Case ship training, as many pastors have neither theological Study in Contextualization.” Christian Education Journal 5 training nor advanced formal education. Informal theo- (1): 154–170. logical education by extension (TEE) thrived in the past Baur, J. 1994. Two Thousand Years of Christianiy in Africa. but declined because of the desire for formal academic Nairobi, Kenya: Paulines. credentials. Most theological seminaries in Africa face the Bediako, K. 1995. Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a Non- sustainability challenges of being self-governing (instead Western Religion. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. 26 Aging

Fafunwa, A. B., and J. U. Aisiku, eds. 1982. Education in Africa: resources. The UN estimates that one in five people will A Comparative Survey. London: George Allen & Unwin. be 65 or older by 2035. Greene, M., S. Joshi, and O. Robles. 2012. State of World Popu- As baby boomers (born 1946–1964) reach conven- lation 2012. New York: UNFPA (United Nations Population tional retirement ages in historically large numbers, Fund). global attention is focused on aging in every domain of Hackett, C., and B. J. Grim. 2011. Global Christianity: A report their lives. The church is no exception. The interdisci- on the size and distribution of the world’s Christian popula- plinary field of gerontology has expanded to include spir- tion. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. itual development and to differentiate the needs of adults Isichei, E. 1995. A History of Christianity in Africa: From Antiq- who are 55 from those who are 85. All older adults are no uity to the Present. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. more alike than are all children from 5 to 18 years old. Ntamushobora, F. 2012. “From Transmission to Transforma- Aging adults have unique, God-given capacities in tion: An Exploration of Education for Holistic Transforma- the third chapter (Sara Lawrence-Lightfoot) or second tion in Selected Christian and Public Universities in Kenya.” half (Richard Rohr) of their lives. Research shows that PhD diss., Biola University, La Mirada, CA. many older adults experience less stress (Centers for Nwosu, C. C. 2012. “The Role of Christian Educational Insti- Disease Control) and demonstrate more wisdom than tutions in Improving Economic Self-Reliance.” Journal of younger cohorts (University of Michigan Ann Arbor Research on Christian Education 21: 24–45. and University of Texas, Dallas).Only According to Swedish —Agametochukwu Iheanyi-Igwe sociologist Lars Tornstam, a developmental stage occurs when an individual who is living into very old age shifts perspective from a materialistic and rational view of the Aging world to a more cosmic and transcendent one, normally accompanied by an increase in life satisfaction. Tornstam Aging is a reality of all species. It is the process of grow- describes this experience as gerotranscendence, when in- ing old, understood as the gradual change in an organ- dividuals are less self-occupied and more altruistic. They ism that leads to increased risk of weakness, disease, and have an increased feeling of affinity with past generations death. For humans, the experience of aging includes psy- and decreased interest in superfluous social interaction, chosocial dimensions lived out in cultural and economic characteristicsCopy also described by Erik Erikson in his eighth contexts. In the field of Christian education, aging has and final stage of human psychosocial development, late largely been associated with the needs and life situations adulthood. According to Erikson, old adults encounter of older adults, typically those approaching the end of the existential crisis between integrity and despair, and a life. Aging is often associated with “old” and therefore healthy resolution brings the individual satisfaction with ascribed to individuals identified for reasons of health a life well-lived and the virtue of wisdom. or lifestyle as less than fully independent and/or beyond According to pastoral theologian Carol Saussy, “Faith- the age of performing routine “work” (understood as ful aging is not simply aging; it is growing old. It is full-time employment or responsibility for the care of embracing not only the challenges of a long life, but others in a household). “Aging” often carries a wistful engaging the possibilities of creativity and depth of soul meaning, an implied sense of loss, and may communicate available to those who have acquired a wealth of experi- a pejorative judgment in dominant cultures that revere ence” (1998, 181). being young. Aging can, wrongly, be reduced to mean Christian education continues throughout the aging diminished capacity. process. To nurture faithful aging, it is wise to ask the The human maturation process is an extension of the following: lifelong developmental process. It is ordained by God and therefore good. Viewing aging through the lens of the life • How do we recognize, honor, and utilize the experi- course rather than exclusively as a stage in the life cycle ence, wisdom, and gifts of “older” adults? invites a greater appreciation of this complex process. • How do we develop ministries that integrate and In the secondContributor decade of the 21st century, according to weave multiple generations together spiritually? the United Nations (UN) Population Division, increased • How do we cultivate Christ’s message of hope and life expectancies and energetic life styles enable people to service for older adults, families, and their caregivers? live 20 to 25 percent of their lives in active retirement— • How do we examine, explore, and create innovative on average healthier, better educated, and more culturally and contemporary liturgical, spiritual, and service literate than ever before. In developed countries, aging ministries by, with, and for all generations in the adults have improved access to financial and material Body of Christ? Alcuin 27

References and Resources Bible schools established for training for ministry. The Lawrence-Lightfoot, S. 2009. The Third Chapter: Passion, Risk, Catholic Church has established a university, provides and Adventure in the 25 Years after 50. New York: Sarah some Christian education through online courses, and Crichton Books. has a well-developed program for religious instruction Rohr, R. 2011. Falling Upward: A Spirituality for the Two of children and youth. Evangelical congregations train Halves of Life. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. the younger generation through Sunday schools modeled Saussy, C. 1998. The Art of Growing Old. A Guide to Faithful after their Western sponsors. Living. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress. —Peter Kuzmic Tornstam, L. 2005. Gerotranscendence: A Developmental The- ory of Positive Aging. New York: Springer. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Alcuin Population Division. n.d. http://www.un.org/en/develop ment/desa/population/theme/ageing/index.shtml. Alcuin (Lat. Albinus, also Flaccus) was born c. 735 of —Elisabeth M. (Lisa) Kimball noble Northumbrian parentage, in or near York, York- shire, England; he died 19 May 804. Alcuin was educated at a young age at the famous Cathedral School at York Albania and Christian Education under the tutelage of ArchbishopOnly Egbert, who was a stu- dent of the Venerable Bede. Consequently, he achieved After the communist takeover in 1945, the Albanian the finest ethos of his time and became familiar with both educational system and policy were a faithful copy of the the Latin classics and the writings of the church fathers. Soviet atheistic model, and most of the textbooks were Alcuin became a teacher in 766 and, in 778, eventually translated from Russian. Later Soviet-Albanian tensions became headmaster of the renowned Cathedral School at led the country into isolation and even more aggressive York. Perhaps shortly before his departure from York, he imposition of atheism in all spheres of life, especially wrote a lengthy poem that commemorated the histori- in the completely controlled educational system and cally renowned men in that city. Alcuin was in Italy when media. Albania strictly outlawed all forms of religion, he met the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne in 781; at treating Christianity as an obsolete, prescientific, obscu- theCopy time, the emperor was seeking leading English, Irish, rantist, and harmful hindrance to the free development and Italian scholars of the era. Consequently, when the of human potential and building of a new society. With emperor desired someone to assist him in developing an extremely rigid application of the exclusively antire- an educational system in his domain, he invited Alcuin ligious worldview aiming at eradication of all religion, to assume the leadership of the famous Schola Palatina Albania claimed from 1967 to be the first “totally atheistic (School of the Palace), which consisted of the royal fam- state in the world.” ily and the leading nobles (in addition to being frequently Since the democratic changes of the early 1990s and attended by Charlemagne). The school generally re- strict separation of state and religion, public schools in mained at Aachen; however, it was moved periodically in the country are secular, and religious indoctrination is accordance with the needs of the royal residence. Alcuin prohibited by law. The Ministry of Education has the was thus an intimate friend of Charlemagne and an advi- right to approve private religious schools, while the sor on the ecclesiastical and political policy of the empire. implementation of their curricula is overseen by the State Assisting him in his work were Einhard, Paul the Deacon, Committee on Cults. and other adept scholars. Although Albania was radically secularized under Alcuin and others developed Carolingian minuscule communist rule, today it is the only European country script (or cursive writing) during this time. The script was with a Muslim majority (70 percent of the population), written with a pen held at an angle, and employed open, with significant Catholic (10 percent, in the North) rounded forms as opposed to the older nonspaced uncial and Orthodox (7 percent, mostly in the South) minori- script. Alcuin’s script was formative for the typeface of ties. AccordingContributor to 2008 statistics there are, in addition the modern Roman alphabet; the Carolingian script for- to 638 mosques, 694 Catholic churches, 425 Orthodox malized the notion of a nonpaired (twin) alphabet, which churches, and around 100 smaller and younger evan- is the basis for the modern upper and lower cases. The gelical congregations established by foreign missionaries. development of the minuscule script somewhat indirectly There are around 70 vocational training centers admin- influenced the history of mathematics, because it was istered by religious communities and several smaller easier to read than the uncial script; consequently, most religious schools, mostly established by Western de- ancient and extant works by Greek mathematicians were nominations. This includes several small seminary-type rewritten in the minuscule script. 28 Alexandria, School of

Education was kept vibrant throughout this era as a of Jacques-Paul Migne’s Partrologia Latina (Paris: apud J.-P. result of the scholarship of Alcuin, Bede, Einhard, and Migne editorem, 1844–1855), which is a reproduction of others. Alcuin was instrumental in reviving the late Frobenius, with the addition of Alcuin’s commentary on the Roman liberal arts in the school and thus led the revival Apocalypse (found in 1837). A total of 293 epistles (with the in- of learning known as the Carolingian Renaissance. He in- clusion of poems) of Alcuin may be found in the fourth volume troduced western Europe to the methodology of Anglo- of the edited work by Philipp Jaffé, Wilhelm Wattenbach, and Saxon humanism. Although he was the foremost teacher Ernst Ludwig Dümmler, “Monumenta Alcuiniana,” in Biblio- of his era, Alcuin was not particularly innovative (unlike theca Rerum Germanicarum (Berlin: apud Weidmannos, 1873), his inspired calligraphy); nevertheless, the influence of 132–897. Dümmler edited Alcuin’s poems as “Poetae Latini Alcuin and his school was foundational for the intellec- Aevi Carolini” (1881) in volume 1 of Monumenta Germaniae tual development of the modern world. Historica and published “Epistolae Aevi Carolini” (1895) in Alcuin returned to England in 786 as a consequence of volume 2 of the same compilation. Important works for the significant ecclesiastical matters, and returned again in study of Alcuin include the following: 790, on a delegation from Charlemagne. He attended the Synod of Frankfort in 794 and was influential in structur- Allott, Stephen. 1974. Alcuin of York, c. A.D. 732 to 804. York, ing the decrees that condemned adoptionism (a second- UK: William Sessions. century heresy that Jesus lived as an ordinary man until Browne, George F. 1908. Alcuin of YorkOnly. London: SPCK, 1908. His baptism, and was then adopted by God as His Son, Duckett, Eleanor S. 1951. Alcuin, Friend of Charlemagne. New and thus was conferred with supernatural powers as an York: Macmillan. exalted man), in addition to the subsequent efforts that Ellard, Gerald. 1940. “Alcuin and Some Favored Votive affected the submission of recalcitrant Spanish prelates. Masses.” Theological Studies 1: 37–61. Charlemagne appointed Alcuin as abbot of St. Martin at Gaskoin, C. J. B. 1904. Alcuin: His Life and His Work. London: Tours in 796, where he retired in 801 and taught until C. J. Clay and Sons. his death. Alcuin was probably a monk and member of Lorentz, Friedrich. 1829. Alcuin’s Leben. Halle: Pöltz. the Benedictine Order; however, it is possible that he was Marenborn, John. 1981. From the Circle of Alcuin to the School merely a member of the secular clergy. of Auxerre. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. In his declining years, Alcuin remained zealous and Monnier,Copy M. Francis. 1863. Alcuin et Charlemagne. Paris: Henri sought to establish a model monastic school. He gathered Plon. books and received students, as he had done previously Mullinger, James B. 1877. The Schools of Charles the Great and at Aachen and York, from both nearby locales and afar. the Restoration of Education in the Ninth Century. London: In his writings, Alcuin’s favorite appellation for himself Cambridge. was “Albinus, humilus Levita.” Alcuin appears to have Werner, Karl. 1876. Alcuin und sein Jahrhundert. Paderborn: served as a deacon; however, it is possible that he became Schöningh. a priest in his later years. Alcuin introduced noteworthy West, Andrew Fleming. 1892. Alcuin and the Rise of the Chris- reforms within Roman Catholicism in western Europe, tian Schools. New York: C. Scribner’s Sons. particularly in revising the liturgy of the Frankish church. —Ron J. Bigalke He introduced the Irish Northumbrian custom of singing creeds and arranged series of festal and votive masses. Al- cuin reedited the Latin Vulgate Bible and was a persistent Alexandria, School of writer, who produced poems, schoolbooks (arithmetic, astronomy, and geometry texts, and lessons written in Ancient “schools,” such as Aristotle’s lyceum and Plato’s question and answer format), and theological treatises academy, should not be confused with modern institu- (on education, philosophy, and theology). Alcuin also tions, for ancient schools revolved around one teacher wrote more than 300 letters in Latin, which remain valu- (e.g., a philosopher or rhetorician) and the gathering of able resources for the history of Charlemagne’s reign. his students. The use of the term “school” tends to em- Contributorphasize continuity in perspective from one teacher to the References and Resources next in a particular region. Thus, the School of Alexan- The first edition of Alcuin’s works appeared in 1617, in Paris, dria refers to a series of teachers whose perspective was published by Quercetanus (Duchesne), and then subsequently shaped by the importance of allegorical readings of scrip- by Frobenius Forster as Alcuini Opera, in two volumes (Re- ture, whereas the School of refers to a series of gensburg, 1777). With the exception of 63 epistles, a complete teachers whose perspective was shaped by a rejection of edition of Alcuin’s works may be found in volumes 100–101 allegory and an emphasis on historical and “plain” read- Alexandria, The Importance of 29 ings of scripture. The School of Alexandria is perhaps the Alexandria, The Importance of first “school” within the Christian perspective. Alexandria, with its famous Musaeum and library, Alexandria is a port city located on the northern coast of offered the greatest academic resources and attracted Egypt and the western portion of the Nile River delta. It the greatest scholars of the day. Two elements in par- was a leading city in the Roman Empire of the New Tes- ticular prepared the way for Christian scholarship here: tament era, second only to Rome. It became the center the translation of the Hebrew scriptures into Greek of learning in the Mediterranean world and the home of (the Septuagint) and the extensive writings of Philo (20 one of the leading churches and its catechetical school, an BC–AD 50), which exemplify an allegorical approach to early model for Christian higher education. the scriptures. Alexandrian scholars had developed an allegorical method of reading ancient Greek classics (e.g., The City of Alexandria Homer) that enabled those texts to continue speaking to The already extant Egyptian city Rhacotis was renamed contemporary readers, and Philo ingeniously applied that Alexandria in 331 BC by Alexander the Great. Alexander method to his Jewish texts. appointed the architect Dinocrates of Rhodes to redesign A Christian “school,” utilizing allegorical insight into the city, laying out streets, planning the sewer system and biblical texts, emerged in the second century with Pan- buildings, and so forth. Alexander’s intention was that taenus (d. c. AD 180), who is known to us through his the new city be a center of GreekOnly culture as well as the student and successor, Clement of Alexandria (c. AD port to connect upper Egypt with the Mediterranean Sea. 160–215), and achieved it heights with the prolific Ori- The transformation included building projects such gen (c. AD 185–254). Clement’s theological teachings as the Pharos Lighthouse, the Temple of Serapis, and an were motivated by the need to respond to the increas- academic complex the ancients referred to as a temple or ing prevalence of Gnostic views among Christians in house of Muses. This, the Museum, included an exten- Alexandria. His interpretive approach reveals four levels sive library, lecture halls, and so forth. The library rose of meaning in biblical texts: historical, ethical, priestly, to prominence under Alexander’s successors, the Ptol- and theological (Strom. I.23.176.1f.). The last two levels emies. After the first of several fires that would consume open up increasingly deeper meaning in the mysteries of the library over its several centuries of existence, it was God’s revelation. Origen’s writings are more systematic replacedCopy by a library in the Temple of Serapis. This aca- and thoroughgoing than Clement’s apologetic approach. demic center attracted scholars and teachers from around Using the analogy of the human body, soul, and spirit, the Mediterranean, who would teach in the lectures halls, Origen viewed the scriptures as having literal, moral, and so became the core of a university that would not and spiritual senses (De Prin. 4.2.4). The theory did not close until the sixth century AD. demand that every text have a threefold sense, but that By the New Testament era, Alexandria was already any text might suggest any of these approaches. Problems a center of the Jewish diaspora. The Jewish community arising from a literal reading suggested an alternative there descended from refugees from Judah during the sense. Since Christians were not bound by Old Testament Babylonian exile of the sixth century BC, The Septuagint, a covenant law, these texts should be read in a spiritual third-century BC translation of Jewish scripture into koine, way. Jewish history might offer moral and/or spiritual or “common,” Greek, is widely believed to have been the lessons, such as in Paul’s reading of the Hagar narrative scripture for most of the earliest Christians. Among this in Galatians 4:21–24. Later exegetes in this school include community was Philo (Judaeus) of Alexander, a Jewish Didymus the Blind and Cyril of Alexandria. philosopher who lived and taught in Alexandria during the New Testament era. His blend of Judaism and Greek References and Resources philosophy—especially his teaching regarding the logos Hansen, Richard P. C. 2003. Allegory and Event: A Study of the principle—would influence Christian doctrine and herme- Sources and Significance of Origen’s Interpretation of Scrip- neutics as well as the later Christian Alexandrian teachers. ture. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. Wiles, Maurice.Contributor 1970. “Origen as Biblical Scholar.” In The The Alexandrian Church Cambridge History of the Bible, volume 1, edited by P. R. Though the origins of the Alexandrian church are uncer- Ackroyd and C. F. Evans, 454–589. Cambridge: Cambridge tain, Jewish converts returning from journeys to Jerusa- University Press. lem almost certainly had a role in its founding. One of Young, Frances M. 1997. Biblical Exegesis and the Formation of its early bishops, Demetrius, claimed to have traced the Christian Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. establishment of the church to the apostle John Mark. As —Robert Keay did many of the early churches, the Alexandrian church 30 Alpha Course taught its catechumens, new converts who were being Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- trained in preparation for baptism. This catechumenal tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. school was for religious instruction only. Ulich, Robert. 1968. A History of Religious Education: Docu- ments and Interpretations from the Judeo-Christian Tradi- The Alexandrian Catechetical School tion. New York: New York University Press. Many in the second-century Christian church questioned —Ronnie Prevost the efficacy of secular education—especially the various Greek philosophies. Representative of these attitudes is Tertullian of Carthage, who doubted any truth was Alpha Course knowable apart from God. Moreover, Tertullian saw phi- losophy as the source of heresies. The Alpha course (www.alpha.org) is probably the most However, to Alexandria came Pantaenus, a converted popular course in “evangelistic adult education” world- stoic from Sicily. Already a teacher, around 179 Pantae- wide, and since its inception in the early 1990s, millions of nus became head of the Alexandrian church’s catechu- people have participated in it. Originating in charismatic menal school. He refashioned the school’s curriculum evangelical Anglicanism, it is used across a wide spectrum to include Greek academic disciplines in addition to the of churches, including the Roman Catholic Church. It is training in apostolic tradition. This catechetical (as op- self-identified as an “introductionOnly to the Christian faith,” posed to catechumenal, for it went beyond basic instruc- although there is debate about whether it is primarily tion for new converts) school became an important place and best used for evangelism with the unchurched or for of and prototype for Christian higher education. those with some prior knowledge of or commitment to the Clement (of Alexandria) succeeded his teacher Pan- Christian faith. Now translated into several languages, it is taenus as master of the Alexandrian catechetical school. available in most countries of the world. Clement regarded Plato as a Greek Moses and suggested The course normally consists of 15 sessions, which that God had used philosophy to prepare the Greeks for take 12 weeks to complete, with a residential weekend the Gospel much as the Law did for Jews. Clement was that covers three sessions on the work of the Holy Spirit important in leading the church to not fear Greek learn- and where charismatic experiences are introduced and ing and to understand that there was but one truth, and expected.Copy The usual format for each session is a meal finding that truth was the joint venture of philosophy and for the participants, a talk based on specific prepackaged Christian scholarship. material, and then an “open” discussion of the material in At the age of 18, Origen (184–254), one of Clement’s small groups. It is in this latter space that, one suspects, students, was appointed by Bishop Demetrius as leader good learning can potentially take place, with an expe- of the catechetical school. Origen’s writings had a broad rienced facilitator who can allow a variety of different impact on Christian doctrine and hermeneutics. He viewpoints (and even perhaps “heresy’) to be aired freely. continued the educational approaches of Pantaenus and Because the content of the material is fixed by copy- Clement and taught that philosophy and matters of faith right, the course fits into a linear model of educational can be reasoned. However, Origen insisted that faith practice that begins in theory (propositional theology must be based on scripture. such as substitutionary atonement as the “answer” to Under the leadership of Pantaenus, Clement, and Ori- the problem posed by human sin and fallenness) and gen, the Alexandrian catechetical school became a school ends in action (e.g., conversion and reception of the gifts the quality of which was widely seen as equal to that of the Spirit). This is in contrast to the action/reflection the secular universities. (Ironically, the Christian perse- model, which is a cyclical process, and questioning or cution of non-Christian teachers led to the closure of the imaginative approaches, which begin in other places than Alexandrian Greek university in AD 517.) propositional truth (see, e.g., http://www.livingtheques tions.com). Such a traditional approach might lead to the References and Resources question: Why is Alpha so successful? The answer gener- Elias, John ContributorL. 2002. A History of Christian Education: Prot- ally offered by commentators is the overt strategy of the estant, Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: course’s founder, Rev. Nicky Gumbel, to mold the pro- Krieger Publishing Co. cess of the course to particular sociological contexts. This Niehoff, Maren. 2011. Jewish Exegesis and Homeric Scholarship is why there are student/youth/seniors/Catholic/forces/ in Alexandria. New York: Cambridge University Press. prisons/workplace versions of the material available. Pollard, Justin, and Howard Reid. 2007. The Rise and Fall of The course is packaged and branded with a corporate Alexandria: Birthplace of the Modern World. New York: image, logo, and “strapline.” Brian (2003, 8) describes Penguin Books. the process by which this branding came about through Amalorpavadass, D. S. 31 key marketing people in the source church, Holy Trinity, the Second Vatican Council. After ordination and assign- Brompton, London. It utilizes the branding, group dy- ment at a regional catechetical center, Amalorpavadass namics, and the meal to welcome and hold participants. wrote two studies of the postcolonial Indian church The course has attracted writers and researchers rang- situation at the Institut Catholique de Paris. In 1966, he ing from the sympathetic to the highly critical. An was appointed to lead the new National Biblical, Cat- ecumenical set of analytical essays includes dialogue with echetical and Liturgical Centre (NBCLC) at Bangalore. Gumbel himself (Brookes 2007). Hunt (2001, 2004) takes The NBCLC produced the first non-Western catechetical a sociological approach based on interview data. Brian materials for children and youth in Catholic schools and (2003), who uses an educational paradigm, shows how parishes; ran residential and offsite teaching programs the course might de-Christianize those with an embry- that trained more than 10,000 catechists; and published onic or nominal faith. They can take a dislike to the faith the proceedings of regular consultations with Indian as presented in Alpha and therefore give up on any prior Catholic theologians. Besides speaking widely, Amalor- faith they had, assuming now that Alpha equals Christi- pavadass edited the NBCLC journal Word and Worship. anity. Rooms (2005) examines the course in three differ- A bibliography of his work lists 38 edited volumes and ent cultural contexts and finds a best fit in a prison, where more than two hundred articles. Amalorpavadass later the sin/salvation message can be easily received. His find- served as the first professor of Christianity at the Univer- ings about the lack of any attempt at true enculturation in sity of Madras and founded an Onlyashram where his concep- the material resonate with the most comprehensive work tion of indigenous Christianity was practiced. He died in done so far, by James Heard (2009). Heard researches an automobile accident at the age of 58. as an “insider” in the Alpha world, but nevertheless has Amalorpavadass became widely recognized after his trong criticism from many perspectives, including the keynote address at the International Catechetical Con- theological and the ecclesiological; for example, he be- gress in Rome in 1971. To him, renewing worship re- lieves that, like Evangelicalism as a whole, Alpha repre- quired a catechesis that would “give a new world view, sents a piety rather than an ecclesiology (2009, 228). set up a different hierarchy of values, cause a change Most of the research on Alpha has been UK based; of attitudes, form a whole person, educate his or her it is debatable, however, whether much new knowledge liberty, guide him or her toward Christian maturity, in- would be generated by examining the course elsewhere, tegrateCopy the person in the church community, guide that except perhaps by looking at what effect, if any, translat- person to commit himself or herself to the tasks of soci- ing the material into other languages would have. ety and integral development of humanity.” Catechesis is a ministry of the word that comes after responsible References and Resources adherence, aiming to awaken, nourish, and educate Brian, Stephen. 2003. “The Alpha Course: An Analysis of its faith. Being able to recite answers is not evidence of Claim to Offer an Educational Course on the Meaning of faith. The pattern that God used to establish the church Life.” PhD thesis, University of Surrey. as a new humanity awaiting consummation must be the Brookes, Andrew, ed. 2007. The Alpha Phenomenon: Theology, pattern for teaching. Thus catechesis must take account Praxis and Challenges for Mission and Church Today. Lon- of the personal and social situation of the one to whom don: Churches Together in Britain and Ireland. the faith is being passed on. Heard, James. 2009. Inside Alpha: Explorations in Evangelism. The development in his theology can be seen by com- Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. paring his master’s and doctoral theses. The first relies Hunt, Stephen. 2001. Anyone for Alpha? Evangelism in a Post- on a biblical history of salvation, influenced by Josef Christian Society. London: DLT. Jungmann, whose ideas had been presented in south ———. 2004. The Alpha Enterprise: Evangelism in a Post- Asia through catechetical study weeks in the late 1950s Christian Era. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. and early 1960s. Jungmann contrasted catechesis that Rooms, Nigel. 2005. “‘Nice Process, Shame about the Content’: is like a theology compendium with the teaching of the The Alpha Course in Three Different Cultural Contexts.” earliest churches, where details never obscure the joyful JournalContributor of Adult Theological Education 2 (2): 129–141. message. Jungmann urged priests to rely on scripture —Nigel Rooms and liturgy when catechizing. Historical approaches are vulnerable to relativization, and the hierarchy restrained them. However, Jungmann’s view of salvation history as Amalorpavadass, D. S. encompassing the present enabled catechumens to be not just subjects for propositions but persons in time. Duraisamy Simon Amalorpavadass (1932–1990) was a Amalorpavadass’s first study applies the salvation-his- leader and catechist of the Indian Catholic renewal after tory approach to an India working out its identity after 32 Amalorpavadass, D. S. colonialism. He argues that though culture and religion The “Four Point Programme” of Catholic schools in are distinct, they are interwoven: “Hinduism . . . has pre- Melbourne, Australia, still in use, relied on Amalorpa- dominantly, though not exclusively, shaped the Indian vadass’s theology. Amalorpavadass’s 1971 address out- culture . . . therefore (Catholic) [e]nculturation in India lined three stages of catechesis: “Evocation of a human involves incarnation chiefly in Hindu culture.” The Vati- experience, with reflection on it and interpretation of its can council seemed to authorize the approach when in significance at the human level; then interpretation and Ad Gentes it asked the church to “realize its insufficiency discovery of its fuller meaning and ultimate fulfillment and to borrow from other religions with the least possible in the light of God’s Word proclaimed; lastly, with the hesitation, shame and complex.” discovery of the relevance of the Word to life, reviewing Amalorpavadass’s doctoral dissertation differs from and reliving the human experience in full consonance the earlier study by an expanded idea of biblical theol- with faith.”71 ogy. Borrowing from Hans Urs von Balthasar’s Theology The diocese elaborated four stages: experience shared, of History, it posits that world history is set up to pro- reflection deepened, faith expressed, and insights rein- mote salvation. Amalorpavadass radicalizes Balthasar by forced. Note that “[t]he intention of the four-point plan drawing on Pierre Teilhard de Chardin: “The essence of is to ‘unveil’ for students the presence and action of God Christianity is . . . belief in the whole unification of the in life.” From the “evocation” stage onward, catechesis world, through the Incarnation. The whole history of the is situated and personalized so that historical and social 68 Only world is . . . one vast phenomenon of Christification.” context is taken seriously. God is the milieu of every life. Teilhard’s influence is plain when Amalorpavadass later The meaning of secular experience is to be augmented by writes that because the spirit of Christ “fills the universe. theological reflection in the stages to follow. . . . We have no right to exclude anything—especially Amalorpavadass’s innovations met resistance. The religions—from the object of salvation and [e]ncultura- contents of the “God-with-Us” curriculum raised a tion. . . . They should be recognized as the inheritance “hue and cry,” according to van Leeuwen (1990). The of Christ.”69 Shared recognition of “God-experience” can NBCLC’s proposal that nonbiblical scriptures be used help to start dialogue with Indians. Amalorpavadass’s in the opening portions of worship services had sup- master’s thesis had seen that India was prepared for port from the Indian hierarchy, but seems to have been the gospel in its own fashion—via the Upanishads, for opposedCopy by laypeople and by Rome: Dupuis mentions instance—where he maintained that “India wants union the concern of the Archbishop of Cochin that “the faith- with god but what is offered in the New Testament is ful are not yet prepared for such an innovation.”72 Van participation in the life of God.” The master’s thesis thus Leeuwen speaks of a notorious ban on liturgical use of holds up New Testament revelation as the hermeneuti- non-Christian scriptures. The Hinduized architecture of cal key of non-Christian expressions. Amalorpavadass the new NBCLC buildings raised comment. seems to maintain the same stance more than a decade Amalorpavadass was motivated by concern for the later, in 1978: “One should not indiscriminately admit future of Christianity in a vibrant, plural, yet troubled . . . everything from . . . the religions . . . as they are. society. He epitomizes a flowering of theology in the They should be . . . subjected to a Christian critique. . . former colonial centers. He drew on Vatican II’s un- . Nothing can be adopted unless . . . it acquires a Chris- derstanding of revelation and religions to promote a tian meaning through a Christian interpretation.”70 Less serious Catholic engagement with Hindu culture. The emphatic is the statement by the NBCLC’s Research result was a contextualized catechesis with a radical Seminar on Non-Biblical Scriptures (1974): “The Spirit of openness toward other religions. God is mysteriously leading all these religions to an ever growing realization of their inner dynamism and their References and Resources inter-relationship. Or, ‘Life with believers of other (r)eli- Works by Amalorpavadass gions invites us time and again to recognize the striking Amalorpavadass, D. S. 1982. “Biblical World-View and a Re- resonance of the same ineffable mystery which their (r) newed Holistic Spirituality.” In Indian Christian Spirituality, eligions embodied.’” Contributor edited by D. S. Amalorpavadass, 47–63. Bangalore: NBCLC. 68. De Souza located two sources of the combined Teilhard quote: Cyril de Souza, “The Catechetical Proposal of Fr. DS Amalorpavadass: A Study 71. D. S. Amalorpavadass, “Catechesis as a Pastoral Task of the Church,” of His Publications” (PhD thesis, no. 310, Salesian Pontifical University, in Sourcebook for Modern Catechetics, ed. Michael Warren (Winona, MN: Rome, 1993), 5.3.2, 31 n113. St. Mary’s Press, 1983), 357. 69. D. S. Amalorpavadass, Approaches in Our Apostolate Among Fol- 72. Jacques Dupuis, “Inculturation and Interreligious Dialogue in India lowers of Other Religions (Bangalore: National Biblical, Catechetical and Today,” in A Universal Faith, ed. Catherine Cornille, V. Neckebrouck, and Liturgical Centre, 1970), 67. Frank De Graeve (Louvain and Grand Rapids, MI: Peeters Press and W. B. 70. Ibid., 69, citing Ad Gentes 8. Eerdmans, 1992), 33. Ambrose 33

———. 1983. “Catechesis as a Pastoral Task of the Church.” In the provinces of Aemilia and Ligurin in northern Italy, Sourcebook for Modern Catechetics, edited by Michael War- an area that included Milan as its capital city. While serv- ren, 339–360. Winona, MN: St. Mary’s Press. ing in this capacity, Ambrose was surprisingly elected to the episcopacy during a time of intense conflict between Works about Amalorpavadass orthodox Christians and their Arian opponents, who Barla, John Berchmans. 1999. “Christian Theological Under- held that the Son of God was fully divine and was subor- standing of Other Religions According to D. S. Amalor- dinated to the Father. The qualities of character, or ethos, pavadass.” In Documenta Missionalia, 26. Rome: Editrice displayed by Ambrose in attempting to mediate this Pontificia Università Gregoriana. conflict contributed to his nomination for the priesthood De Souza, C. 1994. Catechesis for India Today. Bangalore: and immediate election to the office of bishop of Milan. Kristu Jyoti. The ongoing conflict with the Arian party, civil officials, De Souza, Cyril. 1993. “The Catechetical Proposal of Fr. DS and even the emperor would do much to shape his epis- Amalorpavadass: A Study of His Publications.” PhD thesis, copacy. His leadership of the church through a difficult no. 310, Salesian Pontifical University, Rome. time of doctrinal challenges and political turmoil is a Gaillardetz, Richard R. 1997. Teaching with Authority: A Theol- primary reason Ambrose is remembered as a saint and ogy of the Magisterium in the Church. Collegeville, MN: The doctor of the church. Liturgical Press. There is little doubt that the Onlybenefits of a classical edu- Ganeri, Martin. 2007. “Catholic Encounter with Hindus in the cation served Ambrose well in his ministry as bishop of Twentieth Century: In Search of an Indian Christianity.” Milan. He described what had happened to him as being New Blackfriars 88 (1016): 410–432. snatched into the priesthood, a position that required Gibbs, Philip. 1996. The Word in the Third World: Divine him to learn as he taught, to be led as he led, and to listen Revelation in the Theology of Jean-Marc Éla, Aloysius Pieris as he spoke. He is remembered as a gifted and moving and Gustavo Gutiérrez. Rome: Editrice Pontificia Università preacher and teacher whose manner of simple yet elo- Gregoriana. quent speech was pressed into the service of his congre- Jungmann, Josef A. 1962. The Good News Yesterday and Today. gation. In keeping with his classical training in rhetoric, Translated by W. A. Huesman. New York: W. H. Sadlier. he lived a life of moral virtue that was transformed and van Leeuwen, J. A. G. Gerwin. 1990. Fully Indian—Authenti- filledCopy by a deep faith and love for God. One of the most cally Christian: A Study of the First Fifteen Years of the significant events of his ministry in Milan was the bap- NBCLC, 1967–1982. Kerk en Theologie in Context. Kampen: tism of Augustine, who under the direction of Ambrose J. H. Kok. offered himself for the church’s catechetical preparation —Ted Newell and training. In the Confessions, Augustine would later remember Ambrose for the quality of his Christian char- acter and the illuminating power of his preaching. Ambrose Ambrose is an exemplar of pastoral leadership during the patristic period. He was most concerned with the Ambrose of Milan, who is remembered as one of the character, knowing that a life of deep faith and virtue four “doctors” of the Western Church (with Augustine, would shape and direct all these leaders said and did in Gregory the Great, and Leo the Great), was born in AD their ministries. To this end, Ambrose wrote his best 339 into a life of privilege and power. His father was the known work, De Officiis Ministrorum (On the Ministe- Roman governor of Gaul (southern France), so Ambrose rial Office), a handbook that followed the structure of was educated in the best of the ancient Roman system Cicero’s De Officiis for public servants. This work was of learning. He attended the grammar school in Rome, significant, providing one of the first Christian treatises where he studied the liberal arts and developed the im- dealing with the person and work of the pastor. Draw- portant skills of oratory. He also attended the school ing primarily from biblical examples, De Officiis is an of rhetoric, where he studied the works of Cicero and instructive and compelling portrait of pastoral character, Quintillian,Contributor masters of Roman rhetoric and the art of wisdom, and devotion to God in service of the church. persuasion. Five more years of training in law concluded Pointing to leaders in both the Old and New Testaments, his educational preparation for a career in civil service. Ambrose intentionally held up the priesthood as an ex- Joined to the moral excellence provided by the ancient emplary calling for the sake of others, a human witness to educational system were the formative influences of a God’s holiness, which is the way that leads to the fullness Christian family and the life of the church. Ambrose of salvation through participation in the life of the Triune distinguished himself as a skilled orator and legal mind God. We may yet learn from the godly wisdom displayed and was soon appointed to the position of governor over by Ambrose of Milan, in that technique and skill in 34 American Baptist Church Christian Education ministry may be necessary but will never be sufficient in views and instructed the faithful through confessions of light of God’s self-giving in Jesus Christ. faith that set forth the particular theological emphasis of specific congregations. In America, Baptist churches References and Resources were often constituted around three documents: a con- Frend, W. H. C. 1984. The Rise of Christianity. Minneapolis, fession of faith that said what they believed, a church MN: Fortress Press. covenant that committed members to particular behav- Ramsey, Boniface. 1997. Ambrose (The Early Christian Fa- ior, and “rules of decorum” that delineated how they thers). London: Routledge. conducted business. These documents were also sources Williams, D. H. 1995. Ambrose of Milan and the End of the Arian of instruction for church members. Some Baptist leaders Nicene Conflicts. Gloucester, England: Clarendon Press. even wrote catechisms for instructing the young in the —Michael Pasquarello III rudiments of the faith. Like other colonial Protestants, Baptists disagreed over the revivalistic methods that blossomed during the American Baptist Church Great Awakening. While many required a testimony of Christian Education faith before administering baptism, they differed over the “enthusiastical” outbursts that characterized some The Baptist movement began in Amsterdam in 1609 with revival services. Regular BaptistsOnly generally opposed a group of exiled English Separatist Puritans led by John revival enthusiasms, while Separate Baptists affirmed Smyth and Thomas Helwys. They formed a believer’s them. Regular Baptist preachers were often known for church, predicated on the idea that all who claimed mem- writing out their sermons, rather than demonstrating bership should testify to an experience of grace through the spontaneity of the Separates. Following the Ameri- Jesus Christ, followed by believer’s baptism. Helwys and can Revolution, Baptists lobbied hard for religious lib- a remnant of the group returned to England in 1612, erty through advocates such as Massachusetts minister where their more Arminian-oriented theology led to the Isaac Backus (1724–1806), appointed by the Warren formation of the General Baptists. By the 1630s other Association of Baptists to encourage the Continental more reform-oriented churches were founded, ultimately Congress to confront the issue, and John Leland (1754– known as Particular Baptists due to their belief that 1841),Copy a Virginia preacher who pressured Thomas Jef- Christ’s atonement applied only to the elect. By the 1640s, ferson and James Madison for what became the First both General and Particular Baptists made immersion Amendment to the Constitution. the normative mode of baptism. Baptists thrived on the American frontier, organizing The earliest Baptists in the American colonies were churches and participating in revivals and camp meet- often persecuted by Puritan and Anglican establish- ings, many led by Baptist farmer-preachers, individuals ments in New England and Virginia. Roger Williams with limited formal education who worked the land (1603–1683), exiled from Massachusetts for advocating weekly and preached on Sundays. Baptist congregation- fair treatment of Native Americans and religious lib- alism made it possible to found churches quickly when erty for both heretic and atheist, helped found the First believers chose to constitute a congregation. The conver- Baptist Church of Providence around 1638. Although sionism of the Second Great Awakening of the 19th cen- Williams’s Baptist sojourn was brief, his opposition to tury led Baptists to found their first missionary agency, religious establishments became a hallmark of historic the General Missionary Convention of the Baptist De- Baptist identity. Williams and Dr. John Clarke, founder nomination in the United States, in 1814. The Triennial of the First Baptist Church of Newport, worked to secure Convention (meeting every three years) spawned various a charter for the Rhode Island colony, the first to grant “societies” aimed at such collective needs of the churches complete freedom of religion for its citizens. as foreign and home missions, education, benevolence, Baptist identity centered in the concept of a believer’s and publications. Schools, literacy, and biblical transla- church, believer’s baptism, congregational polity (Christ’s tion were each sources of instruction used by the mis- authority mediatedContributor through the community of believers), sionaries across the denominations. Sunday schools were biblical authority, freedom of conscience, the priesthood founded in the late 18th century as a means for teaching of all believers, the ordaining of ministers, interchurch “slum-children” to read using the Bible as primary text. fellowship through congregational “associations,” and Divisions occurred over issues of theology and prac- the significance of religious liberty. Amid these common tice, often generating new Baptist churches and denomi- ideals, Baptists originated at both ends of the theological nations, many related to educational concerns. Primitive spectrum, with advocates of both Calvinist and Armin- and Old Regular Baptists promoted a staunch Calvinism ian approaches to the faith. Early Baptists declared their that rejected revivals and missionary activity as a form Amish Christian Education 35 of “works righteousness” that contradicted the idea that References and Resources God alone facilitated the salvation of the elect. They Leonard, Bill J. 2003. Baptist Ways: A History. Valley Forge, PA: denounced mission societies, church-related colleges Judson Press. and schools, Sunday schools, and an educated ministry. ———. 2005. Baptists in America. New York: Columbia Univer- (God-called preachers were given gifts of ministry and sity Press. interpretation by the Holy Spirit.) At the other end of Washington, James Melvin. 1986. Frustrated Fellowship: Black the theological spectrum, Free Will Baptists asserted that Baptist Quest for Social Power. Macon, GA: Mercer Univer- all persons were potentially elected, actualizing salva- sity Press. tion through repentance and faith. Missionary Baptists —Bill J. Leonard formed mission societies and reflected a more modified Calvinism, preaching as if all could be saved while assert- ing that God would use preaching to awaken the elect. Amish Christian Education Baptist influence and membership grew rapidly, and by the 1830s it was one of the largest Protestant denomina- History tions in the United States. Many 19th-century Baptists, The Amish grew out of 16th-century European Ana- North and South, founded educational institutions, baptists roots. Menno Simmons, after whom the Men- such as Brown University (1764), Newton Theological nonites are named, was a prominentOnly leader of the Seminary (1826), Bates College (1855), Colgate (1819), Anabaptists. It was from within the early Mennonites Richmond (1832), Wake Forest (1834), Furman (1826), that the Amish emerged as a separate group, following William Jewell (1849), and Baylor (1846). A major divi- the leadership of Jacob Ammann. In the 18th and 19th sion occurred in 1845 when the Southern Baptist Con- centuries, the Amish and the Mennonites began immi- vention was formed after the Baptist Missionary Society grating to the United States. refused to appoint a known slave owner as a missionary From the time of their immigration until the mid- to Native Americans. The northern societies eventually 20th century, the majority of Amish families sent their became the Northern Baptist Convention, now Ameri- children to one-room, rural public schools. In the 20th can Baptist Churches, USA. century, school districts began to consolidate, and states The American Baptist Home Missionary Society was beganCopy to mandate longer school years and additional instrumental in founding churches and schools for Afri- years of compulsory attendance. As a result, the Amish can Americans, aimed at the education of former slaves. began to create parochial schools for their children. One- African American Christians in the North and South had room schoolhouses were often bought from the state long been drawn to Baptist polity, and with the end of the after public schools consolidated into larger buildings. Civil War they founded their own churches and Baptist Often school would continue as it had been before con- denominations. The Northern Baptist Convention was solidation, using the same textbooks and curriculum, but formed in 1895, developing publication and education with an Amish instructor. programs early in its history. In 1915, a new National However, the inception of Amish parochial schools Baptist Convention, Unincorporated, was founded after a came at great cost. When parents refused to send children schism over ownership of the publishing house. Divisions to school past the eighth grade, many were fined or im- over denominational leadership led to the formation of prisoned. At times, when parents refused to pay fines, the the Progressive National Baptist Convention in 1961. state would confiscate Amish property, or even remove Baptist denominations provided educational programs Amish children from their homes. These sorts of actions and publications for Baptist churches that offered instruc- by various state governments incited a long legal battle on tion in scripture, doctrine, ethics, and Baptist identity. behalf of the Amish. Biblical education curriculum through Sunday schools William Lindholm, a Lutheran minister, founded and Bible studies contributed to a significant biblical the National Committee for Amish Religious Freedom literacy among active Baptists in multiple subgroups. De- (NCARF) in 1967 to defend the Amish’s right to parochial nominationsContributor shaped Baptist identity through networks schooling. The goal was to bring the plight of the Amish of churches, schools, seminaries, and collective practices. before the U.S. Supreme Court and solidify the right of the As denominational resources have become more diverse Amish to educate their children as they saw fit. This op- or declined in the 21st century, and as Sunday school portunity would come in Wisconsin v. Yoder (1971). has become a less consistent weekly observance in many Jonas Yoder was one of three Amish fathers in New families, Baptists across the theological spectrum are Glarus, Wisconsin, who refused to send his children to having difficulty providing basic biblical, theological, and school through age 16, which was the standing Wiscon- historical instruction for a new generation. sin law. The state won trials in lower state courts, but the 36 Amish Christian Education

Amish appealed to the Wisconsin Supreme Court, which goals and methods are shaped by each group’s beliefs ruled in their favor. The state of Wisconsin then appealed and level of interaction with the non-Amish world. the case directly to the Supreme Court in 1971. The following descriptions come from Karen Johnson- In the landmark case Wisconsin v. Yoder, the Supreme Weiner’s book Train Up a Child: Old Order Amish and Court ruled in favor of Amish parochial schools that end Mennonite Schools, which is a thorough ethnographic at the eighth grade. The court cited that such schools study of Old Order schools. were a part of the Amish religious beliefs of separatism and simplicity. The question of Amish education went Low beyond schooling, reaching into the fundamental right of The schools of the “lowest” Amish groups serve to rein- religious liberty. force the differences between the Amish community and the outside world. They help solidify the identity of the Common Characteristics of Amish Parochial Schools Amish community as distinctly separate from the non- Amish schools are traditionally one-room neighborhood Amish world. These groups have minimal interaction schoolhouses that have 20 to 30 pupils in eight grades. with the non-Amish and consider themselves “strangers Teachers are often young women with no formal train- and pilgrims” in this world. ing, who themselves are only a year or two out of school. Schools are unadorned, have only rudimentary ameni- Amish teachers have local meetings, regional confer- ties, and focus primarily on function.Only Posters on the walls ences, and a regular teachers’ publication, The Black- are purely functional with no decoration, the school yard board Bulletin, to provide a host of informal training. has no play equipment, and the school building has no Schools are operated by a school board, usually con- electricity or running water. The purpose of the school is sisting of three to five fathers of children attending the to prepare children for a life within the Amish commu- school. The board sets the teacher’s wages, hires the nity and equip them to complete only the most necessary teacher, collects the school tax, orders books and sup- and basic interactions with the outside world. plies, and maintains the school. Teachers are expected to transmit a knowledge of fun- The Amish speak a dialect of German commonly damental subjects—English language, spelling, penman- known as Pennsylvania Dutch. School instruction takes ship, mathematics, and German—in addition to teaching place in English, and school is often where children re- childrenCopy the basic character traits the Amish value: hard ceive their first introduction to and regular use of the work, integrity, and humility. There may be a daily Bible English language. passage reading and the recitation of the Lord’s Prayer, Amish schools generally use older curriculum or but the school is not the appropriate place to teach the Amish-produced curriculum from a handful of Old Bible. Bible teaching is done in the home by parents and Order publishers. Parents and teachers alike desire cur- during the church services by church leaders. riculum that reinforces Amish values. The Old Order “Low” Amish schools operate as a necessary, but iso- Book Society has bought the rights to reproduce many lated, part of the community. These schools rarely have older book series, including the Dick and Jane series. visitors, parental involvement in the school is minimal, Some Amish-produced materials are the Pathway Read- and no community events are focused on the school. ers, the Study Time Arithmetic Series, and textbooks by the Rod and Staff Publishers. Interestingly, it is not un- Mainstream common for Amish children to score higher in standard- Schools of “mainstream” Amish groups are more progres- ized testing than their non-Amish counterparts. sive, are more externally focused, and have a greater pres- A typical Amish school day will begin at 8:15 or 8:30 ence in the community. These schools must build a bridge and end between 3:15 and 3:30. Children will have a short for children from the Amish world to the secular world, as morning recess, a longer, midday lunch and recess, and many children in these communities will grow up to have a short afternoon recess. Children are taught to have a a great deal of interaction with non-Amish people. strong work ethic and high level of self-direction. While “Mainstream” Amish schools will have decorative the teacherContributor works with one grade on a subject, all the teaching elements, such as illustrated alphabet posters, other children are expected to be completing assign- charts to track children’s progress, and children’s art- ments. Older students are asked to assist younger stu- work displayed on the walls. Generally, these will still be dents who are struggling in a subject. Students know to one-room schoolhouses without electricity or running work quietly and complete the day’s assigned tasks while water. Some schools will have play equipment such as the teacher is working with other grades. swings, tetherballs, volleyball nets, basketball courts, or There is a surprising amount of diversity in education baseball fields. among Amish groups, ranging from traditional, “low” The basic subjects of math, English, spelling, penman- Amish to more progressive, “high” Amish. Educational ship, and German are sometimes supplemented with Anabaptist Christian Education 37 health, art, geography, or history. There often will be Hostetler, J. 1993. Amish Society. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hop- Bible passage reading, recitation of the Lord’s Prayer, and kins University Press. even scripture memorization, but little Bible teaching will Johnson-Weiner, K. 2007. Train Up a Child: Old Order Amish be done. and Mennonite Schools. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Uni- Parents and visitors are not only welcomed, but ex- versity Press. pected at these schools. Mothers will take turns bringing Peters, S. 2003. The Yoder Case. Lawrence, KS: University Press hot meals for the children, and parents of both genders will of Kansas. sit in on classes occasionally. The school has a high level of —Virginia Gray community involvement, with annual picnics, Christmas programs, and special activities for children and families. Anabaptist Christian Education High The most progressive Amish schools are often found The traditions identified as Anabaptist (Mennonite, in Amish groups that allow the greatest amount of in- Brethren, Amish, and Hutterite) have a long history of teraction with the outside world. Such Amish schools following and living for Jesus Christ. The Anabaptists’ consider themselves to be “Christian” schools in a much insistence on living the teachings of Jesus has often put broader sense than their “lower” counterparts. In many them at odds with other ChristiansOnly throughout his- ways beyond educational practices, these groups are tory. Despite persecution and martyrdom, Anabaptism more progressive than their “lower” counterparts. “High” survived, bringing with it a message of peace, love, and schools must prepare children for a significant possibility service. Anabaptists form strong communal bonds and of entering into the secular workforce and having regular are committed to living for God above all else. Fre- interactions with non-Amish society. quently described as a “third way,” Anabaptism remains These schools may have two or a maximum of three a strong voice for a just and peaceful world in service to classrooms in one building, with up to six instructors Jesus Christ. and sixty students. Some of these schools may even have indoor plumbing and gas lighting. “High” schools have Early History playgrounds and decorated classrooms, and will even AnabaptismCopy predates Luther’s Reformation, yet 25 Janu- take children on field trips. ary 1525 marks the formal beginning of the Anabaptist These schools also have Bible teaching in the class- story. In Zurich, Switzerland, young radicals, upset that room. They teach the broadest range of subjects, includ- Ulrich Zwingli’s reforms did not go far enough, took ing English, German, math, spelling, penmanship, art, matters into their own hands. Convinced that following history, geography, and Bible classes. Unlike “lower” Jesus was a voluntary decision, these radicals baptized schools, Bible is considered a necessary subject for pupils. one another, and from that action a new movement was These schools also have a strong community presence born (Kraybill and Hostetter 2001, 21). Anabaptists’ re- and welcome parents and visitors. fusal to baptize infants, support governments, and follow what was then considered “normal” Christian behavior Special Education resulted in much persecution. Anabaptists were accused Like other American schools, Amish parochial schools of subverting the social order because of their desire to have responded to the need for special education. Some establish separate volunteer communities unattached to areas with a large Amish population have opened a sepa- any government. Anabaptists’ egalitarianism also put rate school for special needs students. In other Amish them at odds with the larger society (Gonzalez 1985, 56). schools, a second teacher may be hired to work with The word “Anabaptist” originated as a derogatory two to four special needs students, and in small Amish term meaning “rebaptizers.” Despite severe persecution communities, a single special-needs student may be in- from both Catholics and Protestants, Anabaptism grew tegrated into the classroom, with extra attention given across Europe and eventually made its way to the New by the teacherContributor and other students. Some Amish parents World. As a diverse movement with no single leader, choose to send special needs children to public schooling, Anabaptists would form a variety of groups, including rather than Amish parochial schools. the four main forms of Anabaptism today: Mennonites, Brethren, Amish, and Hutterites. References and Resources Dewalt, M. 2006. Amish Education in the United States and Beliefs Common to Anabaptists Today Canada. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Anabaptists consider all of life an opportunity to wor- Fisher, S., and R. Stahl. 1997. The Amish School. Intercourse, ship God. Believing in Jesus is intimately tied to living PA: Good Books. for Jesus in service and humility. The primary founda- 38 Anabaptist Curriculum Outcomes tion for Anabaptist belief and practice is scripture. The The Anabaptist experience reminds Christian educa- story of Jesus is particularly important for Anabaptists, tors that knowledge is meant to be practiced. The mission and the rest of scripture is read through a Christocen- and purpose of Christian education should be oriented tric viewpoint. Anabaptists believe that all of Christ’s toward the practical needs of communities both local and teachings, particularly the Sermon on the Mount, must global. The counterculture model of Anabaptists demon- be followed by all Christians. Biblical interpretation is strates the uniqueness of Christian education. Christian a communal activity meant to be shared, studied, and educators are called to train young men and women to applied by all in Anabaptist communities. Scripture is be disciples of Jesus Christ. Becoming disciples of Jesus studied in order to know how to be disciples for Christ is never easy, or popular, but it is what makes Christian in the world (Roth 2005, 43–47). Therefore, the stories education unique and special. The Anabaptist commit- of scripture are embedded at an early age with the goal ment to serve one another in community, treat every per- of molding and shaping young Christians into disciples son equally and fairly, and remain faithful to the way of for Christ. peace and nonresistance exemplifies the mission of Jesus. The community is integral in Anabaptist life. The It is a commitment that Christian educators should share church is a community in which members share in daily and impart to others. activities and tasks in love and fellowship. Community life is also a spiritual experience that involves the work References and Resources Only of the Holy Spirit in the daily life of believers. Anabap- Estep, W. R. 1996. The Anabaptist Story: An Introduction to tists have a counterculture model of being church. The Sixteenth-Century Anabaptist. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. church should develop its own culture, in opposition to Finger, T. N. 2004. A Contemporary Anabaptist Theology: Bibli- the surrounding culture, that models the teachings of cal, Historical, Constructive. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Jesus (Kraybill and Hostetter 2001, 50). As a countercul- Press. ture community, Anabaptists serve as a visible witness Gonzalez, J. L. 1985. The Story of Christianity. Vol. 2, The Refor- of Jesus’s teachings. Anabaptists are also countercultural mation to the Present Day. New York: HarperCollins. in their strict adherence to nonresistance, peacemaking, Klaasen, W. 1981. Anabaptism in Outline: Selected Primary and love. Belief in the importance of peace has led to a Sources. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. commitment to nonviolence and service ministry (Shenk Kraybill,Copy D. B., and C. N. Hostetter. 2001. Anabaptist World 2003, 135–136). In addition, Anabaptist communities USA. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. remain committed to the authority of Jesus Christ above Roth, J. D. 2005. Beliefs: Mennonite Faith and Practice. Scott- all else, including governments. dale, PA: Herald Press. Anabaptist communities embrace simplicity and good Shenk, S. W. 2003. Anabaptist Ways of Knowing: A Conversa- work. These communities typically employ some stan- tion about Tradition-Based Critical Education. Telford, PA: dard of behavior and discipline for their members. Ana- Cascadia Publishing House. baptist communities can vary from traditional to pro- Weaver, J. D. 2000. Anabaptist Theology in Face of Postmo- gressive (Kraybill and Hostetter 2001, 56). Certain groups dernity: A Proposal for the Third Millennium. Telford, PA: continue to shun technology, use horse-drawn carriages, Pandora Press. and wear plain clothing. Other groups embrace technol- —Jonathan L. Best ogy, have traditional careers, and are involved in higher education. Despite the differences over what it means to be countercultural, Anabaptists share the commitment Anabaptist Curriculum Outcomes that the church should be a visible witness of Christ in the world. More progressive communities are committed The core principle of the Anabaptist tradition is em- to missions, while traditional groups are less so. All in all, bedding the life and teaching of Jesus in everyday life. Anabaptists remain a diverse, albeit small, countercul- Anabaptist educational outcomes model this principle tural voice in contemporary Christianity. through critical reflection, interpretation, and discern- Contributorment on how to best do this individually and com- Implications for Christian Education munally on a daily basis. Children are brought up in a Anabaptists remain committed to the same principles of family-based community culture in order to give them those first radical reformers of the 16th century. Their foundational precepts for living practically for Christ. core belief is still the importance of a voluntary accep- Education is centered on imparting habitual practices tance of Jesus Christ that influences one’s daily practice. that inform, shape, and mold Anabaptist students for Scripture remains the foundation and source for how life. Starting at an early age, scripture is used to shape the to live, work, and be a Christian in visible community. decision-making process of children. The community Analytic Philosophy and Theology 39 immerses or indwells children and adults in an educa- References and Resources tional system founded on scripture through the use of Kraybill, D. B., and C. N. Hostetter. 2001. Anabaptist World stories, songs, and symbols (Shenk 2003, 155). Scripture USA. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. is therefore the primary means of engaging the life of Roth, J. D. 2005. Beliefs: Mennonite Faith and Practice. Scott- Jesus, morally discerning what is right and wrong, and dale, PA: Herald Press. serving the community and outside world. ———. 2011. Teaching That Transforms: Why Anabaptist- Anabaptists have an incarnational approach to educa- Mennonite Education Matters. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. tion, by which the goal of education is making Jesus vis- Shenk, S. W. 2003. Anabaptist Ways of Knowing: A Conversa- ible in the world (Roth 2011, 86–87). Teaching on how to tion about Tradition-Based Critical Education. Telford, PA: be Christ in the local community and the world is as im- Cascadia Publishing House. portant as doctrinal teachings. Anabaptists take seriously —Jonathan L. Best the idea that what one knows has a direct impact on what one does. It is a faith-based education founded on the life of Jesus as presented in scripture. Knowing about Jesus Analytic Philosophy and Theology can never be done abstractly; instead, what is known is embedded, shared, and brought to others through prac- Like many descriptive terms in the history of ideas, “ana- tice. The most visible fruits of the educational system are lytic philosophy” is now used retrospectivelyOnly to embrace the relationships that are formed. a range of philosophical positions that possess family Anabaptists accomplish an incarnational approach resemblances rather than a single unifying idea. In its through several pedagogical techniques. They value primary sense, analytic philosophy is used to describe relationship in teaching and instructing; therefore stu- philosophy that focuses on the analysis of different types dents are treated as unique individuals with special of propositions and concepts, as well as the nature of lan- gifts to give to the community. Students receive special guage and language use. It typically proceeds in a piece- attention in a family-like environment that models the meal way, focusing on particular ideas and breaking them qualities of respect and love. Learning how to be a dis- into their constituent parts in order to clarify their nature ciple is especially important in Anabaptist education. and character; indeed, the task of clarification is central Discipleship is tied to a life of ethical practices, service toCopy analytic philosophy. In a secondary sense, analytic to others, and loyalty to God above all else. Anabaptist philosophy is used to distinguish 20th-century English- education is also passionate about shaping students who language philosophy from modern continental philoso- will be peacemakers and freely serve others throughout phy, which tends to focus more on the human condition the world (Roth 2011, 90–92). and attempts to make sense of reality conceived as a The curriculum outcomes of Anabaptist education are connected whole. Influential representatives of analytic many. Education is designed to help students understand philosophy are G. E. Moore, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig and see what God is doing and has done throughout his- Wittgenstein, Gilbert Ryle, John Austin, Willard van tory. Anabaptist educators also find it important to get Orman Quine, Donald Davidson, and Samuel Kripe. In students involved and active in the community by being the last decade or so, the term analytic theology has come attentive to the needs of others. Discovering how one to be used for theology that is self-consciously influenced may embody Christ to others also requires Anabaptist by and indebted to the orientations, methods, and broad educators to help students discover their own unique epistemic commitments of analytic philosophy. gifts and talents. Through the use of scripture, Anabap- Theology’s interaction with analytic philosophy can tists also help to pass on the skill of discernment to young be broadly divided into three historical periods. The students. Students are taught to discern what is right and first, which lasted from the 1930s until the 1960s, chiefly wrong, and what they can do to better impart the King- concerns the responses of theologians and Christian phi- dom of God to others (Roth 2011, 131–156). losophers to the challenge of logical positivism and the In conclusion, Anabaptist education is built on em- accusation that religious propositions and “God talk” are bodyingContributor the life of Christ. Scripture is the foundation literally meaningless. A. J. Ayer, the British philosophical of Anabaptist education and is applied to the daily popularizer of logical positivism, stipulated that a proposi- practices of the community. Education is never an in- tion is literally meaningful if and only if it is either analytic dividual endeavor, but rather a communal act joining or empirically verifiable. Religious propositions are obvi- the young and old together in service for those inside ously not analytic, which in this context means “true by and outside Anabaptist communities. Education helps definition,” and also, according to the logical positivists, Anabaptists discover how they can give Christ to others not empirically verifiable—for example, what sense expe- in practice and service. rience confirms the reality of God and the afterlife? The 40 Ancient World, Christian Education in the debate gradually evolved from verification to falsification ability theory, in particular Bayes’s theorem. Swinburne and the challenge, posed by Anthony Flew and others, that complemented his philosophical justification of theism religious claims “die the death of a thousand qualifica- with a series of philosophical studies of central Christian tions,” by which is meant that nothing that happens in the doctrines: revelation, providence, the incarnation of God world is allowed to count as evidence against the existence in Christ, and atonement. In this way, he anticipated the of God; in other words, the claim that God exists is actu- third period of the encounter of philosophy with religion ally unfalsifiable and therefore not cognitively meaningful. and theology, which increasingly includes philosophical Increasing familiarity with the “later” philosophy of Witt- expositions and analyses of specific Christian doctrines genstein in the late 1950s and early 1960s, coupled with and their relationship to other areas of knowledge and recognition that all empiricist criteria of meaning fail to experience alongside the usual themes of the philosophy fulfil their own requirement to be confirmable or falsifi- of religion. able by reference to sense experience, signaled the death The late 1980s up to the present have witnessed a of philosophical attempts to show that religious language broadening of philosophical interest in theology and is without cognitive meaning. The embarrassing aspect of religion that incorporates not just philosophical accounts this period is that there were Christian theologians who of Christian doctrine but also efforts to rethink the rela- proclaimed the “death of God” on the basis that all talk of tionship of theology and religious truth claims to other God failed to meet the required empiricist standard. On disciples, such as science (Plantinga)Only and psychology reflection, it is now seen how philosophically naive and (Jeeves). Underlying this is recognition by analytic phi- mistaken such a position was. losophers that many of our most important beliefs and The two decades that followed the collapse of logical commitments cannot be proved by an appeal to reason or positivism in the 1960s heralded the second period in on the basis of premises that everyone accepts. Another analytic philosophy’s dialogue with religion and theol- way of stating this is to say that philosophical arguments ogy. Much of the discussion of this period focused on about important issues are often “person-relative,” a the issue of the coherence of theistic beliefs and on what point originally made by George Mavrodes in 1970. This justification can be given for the existence of God. The represents some vindication of Plantinga’s position that accusation of incoherence takes two forms: either that the religious beliefs are rational for those with the relevant doctrine of God is internally incoherent, because certain orientationCopy and requisite experience. This broadening properties essential to the nature of God are incompatible of interest is reflected in important philosophical studies with each other, or that the existence of God is logically that bring a Christian perspective to bear on a range of incompatible with the existence of evil. A focus on the issues, such as religious pluralism (Griffiths, Netland), reasons for the existence of God saw a revival of natural ethics (Adams, Alston, Wainwright, Quinn), revelation theology and the emergence of new versions of the tradi- (Abraham, Mavrodes), justice (Audi, Wolterstorff), the tional arguments for the existence of God or the revival problem of evil (van Inwagen), and providence (Helm). of old versions, as in the Kalam cosmological argument, associated with William Lane Craig. Two of the most References and Resources influential Christian analytic philosophers of this period, Abraham, William J. 2012. Analytic Theology: A Bibliography. Alvin Plantinga and Richard Swinburne, responded to Dallas, TX: Highland Loch Press. both these challenges in different ways. In a series of Plantinga, Alvin. 2000 Warranted Christian Belief. New York: philosophical articles and books, most notably God and Oxford University Press. Other Minds (1967) and an essay entitled “Reason and Swinburne, Richard. 1977. The Coherence of Theism. Oxford: Belief in God” (1983), Plantinga defended the coherence Clarendon Press. of a traditional doctrine of God; showed to the satisfac- ———. 1979. The Existence of God. Oxford: Clarendon Press. tion of most philosophers that the existence of God is log- Taliaferro, Charles, and Chad Meister, eds. 2009. The Cam- ically compatible with the existence of evil; and presented bridge Companion to Christian Philosophical Theology. Cam- a novel case for the rationality of belief in God, which bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. concludes Contributorthat for the Christian (or theist), belief in God —L. Philip Barnes is properly basic, a belief that does not appeal, nor need to appeal, to evidence for its warrant (this position is now referred to as “Reformed epistemology” and is chiefly Ancient World, associated with Plantinga and Nicholas Wolterstorff). Christian Education in the Swinburne also defended the coherence of theism and argued that the existence of God can be justified by an Christian education in the ancient world was a synthesis appeal to the canons of scientific reason and use of prob- of distinctive heritages. First, Christianity derived from Ancient World, Christian Education in the 41

Judaic roots in the Levant. These New Testament roots highlighting the inappropriateness of Christ’s taking on are at the core of Christian identity. They would help a rabbinical role of religious leadership. The many other shape its ideals regarding education in later centuries. dramatis personae of the New Testament community Christian education also borrowed heavily from the are also invariably known by their occupations, which classical Greek heritage. Greek learning deeply shaped included livelihoods such as fishermen, tentmakers, car- virtually all elite education during the Hellenistic and penters, and various types of smiths (Acts 19:27). In the Roman imperial periods. The famous “schools of Athens” Second Epistle to Timothy, the writer encourages diligent were especially important in this regard. As Christianity study and preparation for life, both in matters spiritual moved out of its original setting in the Levant, it inevita- and in terms of earning a living (2 Tim. 2:15). bly came into contact with these “philosophical” Greek Today, the idea that every child should have a “use- approaches to knowledge. By the early fourth century, ful” occupation remains an important teaching in many Christian leaders were articulating their beliefs in lucid elements of Conservative Judaism, as well as the more theological treatises and creeds that showed the strong practical forms of Protestantism, especially Calvinism. influence of ancient Athens. In many Jewish traditions, even rabbis are expected to Finally, Christian education in the ancient world also have some practical livelihood, beyond their roles as gained from its presence in the Roman Empire, espe- spiritual and moral authorities. The ancient but timeless cially during the centuries of later antiquity. In particu- economic admonitions made famousOnly in the Proverbs at- lar, Christian learning benefited enormously from the tributed to Solomon reflect an industrious culture, one urban public infrastructure that was a legacy of Roman enriched by thoughtful frugality and common sense. imperialism. Thanks to the Roman Empire, Christian Famous passages like Proverbs 1:8–9 and 22:6 are espe- teaching and belief disseminated to an ever-increasing cially famous admonitions for education in this famous geographical base. The Romans’ imperial presence ac- book, but there are many others as well. This has also commodated travel, as well as the mailing of letters and been the case in certain forms of historical Protestant- the distribution of Christian writings. Roman urban in- ism. As demonstrated in Max Weber’s classic book frastructure also proved very advantageous to learning The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism in Christianity’s formative years. (1904), Protestantism’s—especially Calvinism’s—em- phasisCopy on a “calling” blended the notion of divine favor Ancient Judaism: Patterns of Learning and Training with economic and vocational life. This made Protes- Both versions of the “Great Commission,” recorded in tantism especially attractive to those whose lives were Matthew (28:20) and Mark (16:15), contain admoni- organized around business and industry. tions to teach. This established teaching and instruction At the same time, New Testament training and edu- as essential components of the missionary outreach of cation was not always limited to blue-collar trades and Christianity. Henceforth, teaching and education would handicrafts. Many famous occupations in the Bible always constitute a key aspect of any vital Christian faith reflected higher levels of literary and numeracy. Levy, community or evangelical outreach. Nonetheless, in the son of Alpheus—usually equated with the disciple Mat- early centuries of Christianity’s existence, what education thew—was a tax collector (Mark 2:13–14). However un- occurred borrowed heavily from the ancient world’s ex- popular this position might have been, it required facility isting models: Hebrew, Greek, and, later, Roman. with complex counting skills, as well as a degree of public The distinctively Christian educational patterns grew trust. In the Gospel of Matthew, Matthew is described seamlessly from Christianity’s roots in both Jewish and as sitting in the tax office, reflecting a position of higher classical heritages. In the ancient Hebrew culture of the official rank than the other disciples. Similarly, Luke 5:29 Old Testament, institutionalized education was rare, if depicts Matthew as a man of great wealth. The Gospel not unknown. Most male children learned the trades or writer Luke—author of both Luke and Acts—is usually skills of their fathers, serving for their formative years as equated with the physician referenced in Colossians 4:14. virtual apprentices, while learning the rudiments of the Still, while jobs such as accountant or medical doctor family occupation.Contributor Girls were taught to excel in the arts today usually connote higher education at quite elite lev- of maintaining hearth and home. els, it is important to remember that in the time of Luke Knowing a trade or artisanal craft was an extremely or Matthew, much of the training for these livelihoods important component of an ancient Hebrew upbringing. was based on the apprenticeship system and indeed, gen- This was the famous model provided by Christ, who was erally followed patrilineal patterns. taught carpentry by his father, Joseph, also a carpenter The apostle Paul probably best reflects ancient Juda- (Mark 13:55). Indeed, Jesus’s status as the son of a car- ism’s emphasis on scholarly learning, and practical train- penter is cited by the crowd in the Nazareth synagogue as ing. A rabbi, Paul possessed, as he himself boasted, the 42 Ancient World, Christian Education in the most respectable and proper of Jewish backgrounds, and the learned elders at the Temple, while still Himself a boy was a member of the most legally fastidious party of the (Luke 2:41–51). In general, Christ is invariably depicted Pharisees (Phil. 3:5). Moreover, Paul had been trained by as possessing great knowledge of the scripture, both for one of ancient Judaism’s finest teachers, the great rabbi teaching and for quotation purposes. In popular think- Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). Famed for his learning and wis- ing, the Gospel’s model of Christ the “Master” and 12 dom, Gamaliel famously argued in the Sanhedrin (the “disciples,” enshrined in the story of Jesus and His 12 core Jewish Senate of ancient times) for relative tolerance and followers, often seems to have the exclusive connotation a passive posture regarding the apostles in the church’s of a group of spiritual followers, but it also quite literally early days (Acts 5:24–39). Nonetheless, despite his elite referenced the ancient model of a great teacher and his theological training as a Jew, Paul still maintained a coterie of devoted students. Indeed, the word “disciple” foothold in his trained profession as a tentmaker. Acts usually meant “student” in both Latin and Greek and also 8:3 implies that he, along with Aquila and Priscilla, used is the etymological basis of the word “discipline.” the proceeds of their livelihood to support and nurture the growing faith. The famous “house-church” Aquila Hellenism and Higher Education and Priscilla began with Paul in Ephesus reflected a pros- The ancient Jewish traditions of learning mingled with perous couple with ample resources for travel and sup- the classical/Hellenic traditions that emerged during the porting ministries (Rom. 16:3). These house-churches years of cultural integration and Onlysynthesis following the not only provided havens for worship and fellowship, conquests of Alexander the Great. Christian education, but also served as centers of teaching and instruction in to the extent it even existed in the first, second, and the rudiments of the new faith (1 Cor. 14:16)—the first third centuries, increasingly absorbed Greek influences. Christian schools, as it were. Indeed, by the fourth century AD, Christianity had By the time of Christ, learning and education in Juda- emerged as the dominant perspective within the vener- ism reflected this rich blend of traditions. A literate class ated traditions of classical learning. It is therefore worth dominated cultural as well as political life. Several dis- briefly considering Greek education proper. tinct groups emerged, reflecting differing beliefs and ap- No networks of publicly sponsored, or even privately proaches to intellectual and religious life. These groups supported, schools existed during the heyday of the also somewhat resembled modern political factions. The classicalCopy Greek world. Admittedly, the oligarchy that Pharisees are the most famous. The New Testament vili- controlled the polis of Sparta exhibited some sense of fies the Pharisees as legalistic and inhumane. In point public education, with male Spartan citizens taken from of fact, they were the keepers of the law and dominated their mothers at young ages and educated by the state. the Sanhedrin. Also important were the Sadducees, a But while the Spartan model does correspond somewhat group somewhat comparable to the Pharisees, except to a rudimentary notion of public education, it must for their disavowal of the doctrine of eternal life and also be remembered that male Spartan citizens consti- heaven (Acts 23:6–8). Another important group were tuted a very small percentage of the population of the the Essenes, a monastic group of scholars whose rever- city, probably less than 5 percent. The children of slaves, ence for the scriptures led them to preserve old copies or the resident aliens who conducted what business the of the Bible in jars, as opposed to destroying them. In city permitted, were not included in the Spartan edu- 1947, vast numbers of these scroll-filled jars—the Dead cation model. The more prototypical Greek model of Sea Scrolls—were discovered at Qumran. These groups education was probably that of Athens, where “private” not only represented cultural and political subgroups models of education prevailed. within Judaism, but also generally reflected the finest Ancient Greek “private” education, for lack of a bet- scholarship of their time and place. ter term, was based on traditions of free association and Christ Himself was apparently learned, to some degree. collegial organizations. Traditional Greek upbringings While his common, humble origins are often emphasized, featured many such associations. The phratry (cf. fra- the New Testament also depicts Christ as being called ternity) was a group to which youth were assigned for “Teacher” Contributorby the people (Matt. 26:55; John 7:14–16). religious and moral instruction in their formative years. Proving his general literacy, Christ writes letters on the The gymnasia—which emphasized physical activity— ground while confronting the scribes and Pharisees (John and the symposia—where youth met in private homes 7:53–8:11) during the story of the woman caught in adul- for relaxed fun and intellectual debates—also played an tery. Christ also read from the scripture upon His ill-fated important role. Collectively, these sorts of practices were return to Nazareth, selecting passages from the prophet key elements of educational traditions that would emerge Isaiah (Luke 4:16–19). Perhaps most famously, Christ is later. A holistic model of education seems emphasized by depicted as a learned and precocious younger who taught the Greeks: mind, body, and spirit. Education also had Ancient World, Christian Education in the 43 a social component, with learning happening in various senior philosophers who were members of the various communities and associations of like-minded adherents. schools could go on to teach themselves, presumably There were no formally chartered universities in an- receiving payment from their students. Nonetheless, cient Greece that resembled modern or even medieval the ivory tower notion of higher learning as divorced universities. Nonetheless, the Greek heritage of learning from the pursuit of economic gain or vocation owes and training is a core component of Western education’s much to the Greeks. Perhaps paradoxically, the lack of a evolution over time. In particular, the Greek tradition vocational emphasis gave Greek philosophical learning of free associations of scholars grouped into guild-like a prestigious quality, since its was usually reserved for professional and social structures was highly influential. those who didn’t need to work for a living. In this sense, Greek education also featured a strong emphasis on the classical Greek education reinforced social elites. Social student-teacher relationship. In the ancient Greek sense, mobility, a concern in most modern education, seems to a school was literally a “school of people,” or a “school have been less emphasized. of thought,” not a building or a campus per se. Some Though the Greeks excelled in many of the arts and schools were closely tied to occupations. The Hippocratic sciences, it was probably the development of “philoso- school of medicine, for example, refers not to a physi- phy” that became their most enduring legacy. In terms cal medical school campus, but to the body of students of the development of Christian thought and Christian trained in the methods and perspectives of the great phy- learning, philosophy is an especiallyOnly important legacy sician Hippocrates (460–370 BC). of the Greek influence. It proved influential in early Not only was there a Hippocratic school in antiq- Christian thinking, especially as the early church fathers uity, in the sense of there being a Hippocratic “school sought to defend Christian beliefs from critics who had of thought,” there was also a ceremonial quality to the Greek backgrounds in philosophy. The careful systematic school. Students of the school swore a sacred oath—the theology that developed over time was, in actuality, a type famous Hippocratic oath—affirming the outlook, values, of philosophical approach. and practices of their teacher Hippocrates. The Hippo- The philosophical heritage from ancient Athens is a key cratic oath presaged the oaths sworn in many professions, element of the liberal arts tradition that developed in later ranging from lawyers and doctors to public officials. It centuries. It especially embodied the ideas of the “exam- also borrowed from the initiation rites common in many inedCopy life.” Such examination was especially suited to the ancient religions and fraternal orders. In the context of rich elites, who generally followed the philosophers. Freed learning and education, the Hippocratic oath gives some from the pursuit of a trade or working with his hands, vague sense of matriculation into the profession and has the philosopher—or “lover of wisdom”—devoted his life the feel of graduation ceremony rhetoric. to the pursuit of truth. Only then could the scholar focus Greek learning developed important “schools” des- on the larger epistemological questions that made Greek tined to play a vital role in higher learning in the West. philosophy famous: How does one really know anything to Among the scores of schools of philosophers and think- be the case? What is the relationship of humankind to the ers in the Greek world, Plato and Aristotle loom largest in cosmos? What moral and ethical principles exist, and how terms of their lasting legacy and influence on virtually all can human beings come to understand them? Such ques- subsequent Western philosophy. Indeed, with the great tions came to play a foundational role in virtually all sub- Athenian philosophical schools, education even acquired sequent Western thinking—even in periods when Greek a sense of place. Plato’s school “the Academy” referred philosophy was not specifically or consciously referenced. not only to his students collectively, the academics; it also referred to the famous grove of trees where Plato Jewish, Greek, and Christian Synthesis (427–347 BC) met his students for lessons, discourse, and In many ways, the Greek traditions of learning are by banter. Another Athenian location, the Lyceum, hosted no means unique to the ancient world. They reflect the famous school equated with Aristotle (384–22 BC). community-based learning across many peoples, times, Classical learning in Greece was geared toward the and places, including the Judaic traditions of the ancient “free man.”Contributor The “scholar” was, literally, a “man of lei- Levant. Nonetheless, there are reasons for the traditional sure.” The liberal arts, as they came to be called, were distinction between the classical and pagan worlds when best pursued by those whose economic or social stand- it comes to education. First, the ancient Greeks were ing had liberated them from the daily grind of earning a pagans, whereas the Hebrew faith espoused the ideals livelihood in common trades or business. In this sense, of monotheism. The idea of a singular, eternal Yahweh the elite Greek learning epitomized in many of the most (God) with unchanging moral values and principles prominent philosophical schools all but specifically dis- markedly distinguished Judaic traditions from the more avowed vocational or “practical” learning. Of course, the heterogeneous and arguably open-ended traditions of the 44 Ancient World, Christian Education in the broader pagan world. Rightly or wrongly, Greek learning broader arena of the Hellenistic and Roman worlds, is has traditionally been linked to important liberal arts one of the most important aspects—historically speak- heritages such as humanism and rationalism, more so ing—of its amazing record of growth and development than its counterparts in Judaism, or, indeed, the ancient in this crucial formative period. While the church would Near East as a whole. remain largely Jewish during its first two centuries, the Jewish learning was deeply affected by contact with growing blend of Jewish and Greek heritage in terms classical traditions in learning and scholarship. The Hel- of learning and outlook established patterns that would lenistic world that emerged in the wake of the conquests endure into the present. of Alexander the Great made an indelible albeit often Paul’s decision to spread Christianity to the gentiles controversial mark on Jewish scholarship. This was true of the classical world was a milestone in the history of both in terms of the Jewish diaspora community now Christianity’s early spread out of the Levant. In his famous inhabiting much of the ancient Near East and the Jewish sermon on Mars Hill, he challenged the Athenians to en- homeland of Judea/Israel. The tension between Greek counter the “unknown god” (Acts 17:16–34). Paul’s chal- and Jewish culture is vividly remembered in such nation- lenge to the Athenians reflected a very self-conscious, and alistic struggles as the Maccabees’ revolt. But the tension ultimately quite successful, attempt to present the Chris- between the two cultures was equally strong in terms of tian faith in a way that embraced the Athenian heritage of learning and scholarship. philosophical disputation and rhetoric.Only While in Athens, In the mid-third century BC, the famous Septuagint Paul also reportedly argued with Stoics and Epicureans, version of the Bible was produced, reflecting the rising again evidencing his familiarity with the great schools of influence of the Greek language in traditional Hebrew thought that were dominant at the time. Paul’s metaphors culture. Like the New Testament, the Septuagint was and imagery are also often said to show the influence of the written in koine Greek—the “common” Greek that be- classical philosophers. His comparison of faith to seeing came an important lingua franca in varying degrees for through a darkened mirror, in particular, has often been most of the ancient Near East. Important Jewish writers cited as containing Platonic overtones (1 Cor. 13:2). of the period also wrote in Greek and blended fine Greek By the second and third centuries, Christianity had educations with their Jewish backgrounds. Philo Judaeus developed intellectually sophisticated elites. A class of (c. 20 BC–AD 50) and Josephus, both of whom were ChristianCopy “apologists” emerged, trained in the Greek first-century AD writers, wrote in Greek in order to reach traditions of philosophy and reason, and used their back- a wider audience. The writings of Philo Judaeus, in par- ground to argue the tenets of their faith with Christian- ticular, are often described as reflecting Greek influence, ity’s many competitors and/or denigrators. Apologetics is particularly his use of the word logos (word), so reminis- derived from the Greek term apo-logia (to reason away; cent of the famous introduction to the Gospel of John. refute or defend), and the development of this important Early Christianity reflected its common origins in the heritage reflected an enormously influential blending. lower classes of Judean society. Nonetheless, the New Clement of Alexandria (150–216) and Origen (185–254) Testament bespeaks a well-educated base of Christian were among the most significant figures in this regard. leadership. The quality of Greek found in the New Both steeped in the best traditions of rhetoric and logic Testament is uneven at best. A few New Testament produced by the ancient pagan philosophers, Clement books, such as the Revelation of John on the Isle of and Origen defended and promoted Christian teach- Patmos, reflect Greek no doubt written by a non-native ing to the elites of the literate pagan classes. Another speaker. Gospels like Mark feature clipped, rudimen- important early apologist was Irenaeus (AD 130–202), tary sentence structure and relatively basic vocabulary. the famous bishop of Lyon, who used the approach of But overall, the writers of the New Testament certainly apologetics to refute the Gnostic heresies in his famous demonstrated generally high levels of literacy and Against Heresies. educational background, including familiarity with the The core message of the Gospels had emphasized sim- Greek language. Luke’s Gospel and Acts are generally plicity, humility, and maintaining childlike faith in the good GreekContributor and also reflect a sense of historical docu- face of unknowable truths. Therefore the rise of “apolo- mentation and perspective not always found in ancient getics,” with its withering and systematic methods of writings. The First Epistle to John is often cited as espe- argumentation and discourse, might seem a bittersweet cially refined late first-century Greek. form of “progress” to some. Nonetheless, it seems inargu- able that the development of a Christian intelligentsia, in- Christianity Moves out of the Levant creasingly on a par with the best the ancient pagan world Christianity’s adaptation of the Greek language, and its could muster, was an essential and invaluable stage in the geographical expansion out of the Holy Land into the growth and maturation of the Christian religion. Ancient World, Christian Education in the 45

Another important development in terms of ancient developed in fifth- and fourth-century BC Athens. Old education relating to early Christianity was the develop- Roman learning reflected the practical and simple virtues ment of the codex. The codex appeared sometime around of a farming people oriented around family and com- the time of the birth of Christ. Originally designed as munity. Probably a lot of education still occurred within parchments pressed and folded, then bound between two the close-knit confines of family in these early days. As covers (generally wood), the codex was a clear forerunner one might imagine, there is a fair amount of romanticized of the book, one of literacy and learning’s most important mythology and imagery surrounding the idyllic learning ancient innovations. While scrolls continued to serve for of the patricians in those Roman times. Plutarch relates many years as a primary means of preserving written that the saint-like mother of Tiberius and Gaius Grac- texts, the codex—with its advantages in terms of storage, chus was the primary educator of her two sons, who both filing, and ease of reading—steadily gained in popularity. would become renowned for their skills in eloquence and Even today, faiths like Judaism maintain the heritage of reason (Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus, 1). Similarly, the col- the scroll, keeping sacred copies of the Torah in scroll orful and folksy legacy of old-style Romans like Cato the form, for example. Elder, sometimes called the “Ben Franklin of the Roman By the late third century, Christian education and Republic,” recall this early quality of Roman learning—one training had largely developed the patterns and rhythms that could perhaps also be compared to some of the frugal that would characterize it for many centuries to come. It and time-tested Proverbs and wisdomOnly of Old Testament retained the core moral and theological principles derived Hebrews. Cato’s distaste for the disingenuous sophistry of from its roots in the movement coming out of first-century Greek intellectuals and the self-serving, oath-driven pro- Jerusalem. At the same time, it had moved into classical fessional exclusivity of the increasingly influential Greek culture and society. It had adopted many of the powerful physicians was popularized in ancient writings such as outlooks and approaches equated with the great pagan Plutarch’s famous biography of Cato (Plutarch, Cato, 23). philosophers—especially Plato—putting them to use in Nonetheless, the influence of Hellenic culture and intel- the service of the Gospel. Ultimately, the brilliance and lectual life proved an unstoppable force. refinement of the new Christian thought would help shape By the end of the first century BC, Rome had become the great “creeds” that defined, forever, orthodox Christian perhaps the last and largest of the Hellenistic states: a beliefs. The greatest and most important of these creeds worldCopy now transformed by the relentless influence, and was the definitive Nicene Creed, published in 325. Itself presence, of Greece in such critical areas as the arts, med- the product of the Arian heresy struggle, which forced the icine, law, and philosophy. Many Roman elites welcomed church into existential and disruptive debates about the Greek teachers into their homes, like the famous Polybius nature of Christ’s divinity, the Nicene Creed established (c. 200–118 BC). For several centuries to come, intellec- the doctrine of the Trinity. It also laid the foundation for tual elites in the West would generally know both Latin, many other core Christian teachings, including the histo- and Greek. Many traditional elements of Roman culture ricity of Christ’s birth, suffering, and resurrection. adopted the influence of the great philosophical schools of the East—some perhaps even imitated them. Hence, Roman Learning the Roman orator Cicero (106–43 BC) is described as Of course, Christian learning and education also de- having attended excellent schools in Rome, where fathers veloped in the larger context of the Roman Empire. seemed to supervise and observe, and where he obtained Christ was born in the Roman Empire, and the entire a classical education in both Greek and Latin, includ- New Testament is a product of the days of the Roman ing a strong emphasis on Platonism and the Academic Empire. Rome itself was something of a Hellenistic state, schools (Plutarch, Cicero, 1–3). This blend of strong having been enormously influenced by the learning of Hellenic and Roman traditions would become the new the Greeks in a range of areas—not only medicine and gold standard in education for the next several centuries philosophy, but also in the arts and fine literature. But in the Mediterranean world. Not everybody possessed it. even on their own terms, the Romans were great build- The famous Roman general Marius—champion of the ers andContributor administrators. Roman infrastructure facilitated common soldiers—had an educational background that cultural assimilation and the diffusion of ideas. It also was dismissed by Plutarch as of a lower nature, particu- helped provide suitable physical locations and amenities larly for not having had exposure to Greek. At the same for learning. Although Rome did not exactly possess a time, Plutarch writes that Marius’s education was in ac- “school system” per se, entities resembling schools ex- cordance with the ancient Roman traditions in the days isted in most of the great Roman cities. before the influence of Hellenism (Plutarch, Marius, 15). As was the case with Judaism, early Roman education His primarily traditional Roman background seemed to stands in stark contrast to the Hellenic educational models suit Marius just fine. 46 Ancient World, Christian Education in the

In the first century, the Spaniard Quintilian penned Roman Catholic as Hebrew was to a Jew, or as Arabic the most complete treatise on Roman education in the would be to a Muslim. empire’s heyday, the famous Education of the Orator, In the coming years, the Greco-Latin bilingualism published in AD 94. Greek influences like the emphasis that typified the empire’s intellectual elites gradually on rhetoric had made marked inroads in Roman culture diminished—a drifting apart that very much mirrored ever since the second century BC, but Quintilian’s work the growing cultural, and even military, separation be- is one of the clearest and most helpful descriptions of tween the empire’s eastern and western halves. For many Roman education. Its embrace of Hellenic approaches to centuries to come, a linguistic divide, as well as a political learning heavily influenced Latin readers during the em- one, separated the empire’s old halves. pire’s heyday. Quintilian acknowledged that much of the finest learning was owed to the Greeks. He emphasized, Recollections of Education by Augustine of Hippo among other things, that children be taught to read Greek St. Augustine of Hippo (354–430) provides a window first, then Latin. For children living in the Western half into the education of later antiquity—one that clearly also of the empire, this would ensure the acquisition of a re- shaped patterns going forward into the Middle Ages. In fined bilingualism at a relatively early age. Quintilian also Confessions, his autobiography written early in the fifth described a remarkably coherent curriculum with regard century, Augustine recounts his formative years. His to education in rhetoric. He advocated strict lessons in book provides one of later antiquity’sOnly most fascinating grammar at the beginning of study, followed by rigor- and telling views of the social and intellectual culture of ous reading in the great epics, poems, and philosophical the late fourth century, including schools. Augustine’s texts of both Greece and Rome. Quintilian also provided Confessions provide a relatively rare firsthand glimpse an extremely worthwhile discussion on whether it is best at what passed for educational institutions in later an- to remove children from their parents for training in the tiquity. Much of the text of the Confessions deals with larger schools that tended to characterize the great states Augustine’s educational background: his education as a of later antiquity, or to leave them in the home to learn youth and his career as a young academic in “university” privately, paying tuition to tutors or other mentors. More settings like Carthage, Rome, and Milan. generally, Quintilian favored ample time for play during In later antiquity, there were schools for young boys. childhood; he viewed rigorous physical activity as a criti- BornCopy in what is now Algeria, Augustine relates that his cal component of educational training. devoted mother Monica enrolled him in a “school” in Ta- gaste, where he was taught with other children. The 15th- Later Roman Antiquity century artist Benezzo Gozzoli’s frescoes in the Church By the heyday of the Roman Empire, the Mediterra- of Sant’Agostino in San Gimignano, Tuscany—produced nean’s Western Latin and Eastern Hellenistic halves had in 1464–1465—depict in cyclical format the main events evolved into a loosely knit “Greco-Roman” culture. And of Augustine’s life, many of which revolve around his while the Western half of the Mediterranean generally schooling. The cycle of frescoes is worth considering not maintained Latin, as opposed to the koine Greek pre- only for their depictions of Augustine’s experiences in the vailing in the East, in other ways the cultures blended later days of the Roman Empire, but also because they almost seamlessly. no doubt reflect at least somewhat Renaissance patterns From its humble, localized roots in first century Juda- of education, as well as Renaissance understandings of ism, Christianity quickly moved into the open geograph- later education. Gozzoli’s art characterizes the images ical framework of the Roman emperors. As it adopted a of Augustine’s boyhood that have entered the popular more classical veneer, it moved into not only Greek lit- imagination: a young boy whose mother is bringing him erature and language, but also Latin. Along with second- to nursery school. While the other young children are and third-century Greek “apologists” like Origen and rude and mischievous, young Augustine is depicted as Clement of Alexandria, Latin writers like Irenaeus and polite and studious. Tertullian reflected this rise in Latin Christianity. One of Augustine himself was originally a student training the most importantContributor developments in terms of the future for the law, a profession his father had encouraged, and of the Latin language was the translation of the Bible which was deemed a lucrative career (Augustine, Confes- into Latin by St. Jerome—the Vulgate. Produced during sions, III. 3). While Augustine would later loathe such the latter years of the fourth century, the Vulgate Bible men, equating them with the Greek sophists of ancient laid the foundation of the Latin Occident by providing a Athens (Augustine, Confessions, I. 16), the training he common sacred and canonical text in the Latin tongue, received in this regard was in many ways reminiscent of establishing Latin as a sacred language—as holy to a those ancient models, so it must have had at least some Ancient World, Christian Education in the 47 redeeming qualities. With the collapse of the empire in as campus-provided dorms, cafeterias, student centers, AD 476, the legal career—in the sense of a public official or even classroom buildings seem unlikely—meetings or lawyer—would largely vanish, replaced by, if anything, between teachers and their students probably occurred the various forms of ecclesiastical clerics. in private homes or in available public spaces—we do get As his writings such as Confessions and The City of a distinct sense of a university community in Augustine’s God gained in popularity and influence during coming writings. There is also something of a formal university generations, Augustine would be linked with many atti- governance structure. tudes and teachings that seemed hostile to the humanism, Augustine’s experiences at the universities of Carthage rationalism, and non-Christian perspective of the ancient and Rome have an uncanny resemblance to those of teachers and scholars. His emphasis on such themes as many modern students. Augustine relates that when it original sin and the depravity and fatally flawed nature was time for him to leave home and attend the University of human institutions such as the state would prove of Carthage, his father had to save money to pay for him enormously influential and shape many attitudes in the to attend there, indicating some sense of painful tuition Middle Ages that scholars commonly equate with mo- fees. Augustine also relates that the parents of many other nastic asceticism or even obscurantism. But the simple youths in his hometown also sacrificed for their children fact is that however much Augustine may have criticized to attend school, though he noted that the payments his own education, and however much of a transitional were particularly difficult for hisOnly father Patricius, due to figure he might be in terms of changes reshaping educa- the family’s relatively humble circumstances (Augustine, tion during the waning years of the Roman Empire, Au- Confessions, II. 3). gustine actually had an excellent education that borrowed These “tuition” payments Augustine describes raise heavily from the humanist heritage of the ancient world’s some interesting questions. While they seem to be like finest thinkers. modern fees and tuition payments to modern readers, During Augustine’s boyhood, Greek language and they more probably were paid directly to Augustine’s literature was still an emphasis. Nonetheless, his recol- instructors on an individual basis. In this sense, late an- lections about his educational upbringing seem to reflect cient schools still probably corresponded more closely the lessening presence of Greek language and culture in to private, guild-like associations of the earlier Greek western Mediterranean education. Augustine seems to andCopy Roman days than to the chartered universities have struggled with the Greek language (Augustine, Con- that appeared in the High Middle Ages. Students were fessions, I. 20). Though he was exposed to it as a boy, he more akin to apprentices or the association, or even the seems to have lacked the fluency with Greek that scholars individual teachers. Indeed, the nature of these fees for of his caliber would have exhibited only a few generations learning is still more clearly evidenced when Augustine before. He showed a clear preference for Latin, which moves on to Rome as a teacher. Here, he writes that was apparently all but his native tongue, even though he his students would learn in his classes, then switch to had been raised in provincial North Africa. Not only did another teacher when it was time to pay Augustine his Augustine chafe at learning alien Greek syntax and gram- fees (Confessions, V. 12). mar; he also evidenced a general distaste for the immoral This requirement of the teacher to solicit and collect and often seemingly frivolous nature of Greek pagan his own payments differs markedly from modern models. mythologies. Along with questioning the importance of Coupled with Augustine’s reference to gathering his stu- Dido’s and Aeneas’s love affair in the overall scheme of dents for classes in his own home, these anecdotes con- things, Augustine also railed against the sexual dalliances note “schools” largely bereft of physical or bureaucratic of Zeus/Jupiter, seeing in them a wholly inappropriate infrastructure. Nonetheless, there does seem to be some model of deity (Augustine, Confessions, I. 16). sense of educational incorporation/association, as well as Of perhaps even greater interest in Augustine’s Con- selectivity in terms of the school’s members. Augustine fessions is his fascinating window on higher education writes that he moved to Rome because he had heard the as it was understood and experienced in the late fourth students in Rome were smarter, more studious, and more century.Contributor Augustine writes fairly extensively about his professionally ambitious. Since Augustine’s own move to experiences at schools in Carthage, Rome, and Milan. Rome in order to teach school there can be regarded as Although none of these schools would much resemble at least somewhat typical, it follows that Roman educa- the modern images of a college or a university, they do tion was more prestigious. Augustine writes that he had clearly show practices that would evoke later traditions of to build his reputation in order to attract better students. higher education and will no doubt resonate with mod- When he had improved his reputation, he could charge ern students and learners. While modern fixtures such higher teaching fees. 48 Ancient World, Christian Education in the

While Augustine would come to regard the Roman The idea of state support for learning had antecedents, model of education as driven by greed and vainglory, it of course. The Hellenistic world was notable in this re- does reflect on ideas of academic excellence and status gard. The powerful monarchies who ruled the ancient and their link to specific places of learning. In a similar Near East following the conquests of Alexander the vein, Augustine recalled his student chums at Carthage Great often used their royal wealth to support cultural as drunken, mischief-making hooligans for whom seri- and intellectual life. During the reign of the Ptolemies in ous study was at best an afterthought. Augustine admits Egypt, the great library of Alexandria was founded. This that he lived with a group of such students for a time, became an iconic institution of ancient learning, one and for better or worse, even found their boisterous and that was apparently widely imitated. During the heyday vulgar antics amusing. Alas, reckless and drunken be- of the Roman Empire, the Roman rulers followed suit. havior has remained a notable aspect of student behav- While few ancient libraries were on the grandiose scale ior. For better or worse, such antics as those described of the famous Hellenistic library in Alexandria, public by Augustine remain a readily recognizable behavior funds during the days of the Roman Empire supported of many students, perhaps resembling something like a various libraries in numerous cities. Such libraries, even fraternity. Overall, the school at Carthage foreshadows if not directly attached to the various learning guilds and the modern notion of the “party-school” (Augustine, associations, provided an essential ingredient for higher Confessions, III. 3). learning during the empire’s waningOnly years. The Imperial Certainly the schools of later antiquity remained Forum at Rome housed both a Greek library and a Latin rooted in the ancient classical models of guild-like asso- library, for example. They were situated comfortably in ciations. Nonetheless, there does seem to have been some Trajan’s Imperial Forum, between the Basilica Ulpia and sense, however murky, of academic rank and processes. the Temple of Divine Trajan. Libraries were also found in The Gozzoli frescoes in San Gimignano, Tuscany, depict- private homes of elite figures, like the famous Greek and ing the life of Augustine show Augustine literally sitting Latin libraries found in Hadrian’s villa in Tivoli, on the in a throne-like chair surrounded by Roman students— outskirts of Rome. a rather literal depiction of the “chair” or, in modern Besides libraries, other cultural amenities publicly usage, the “endowed chair.” While this is perhaps a supported during the empire’s heyday also bespeak a Renaissance-era anachronism, it does reflect Augustine’s generalCopy commitment to supporting and fostering refined writings somewhat, which seem to outline something tastes. Theaters were invariably built at public expense in resembling an academic career and trajectories with re- virtually all of the empire’s major cities. These facilitated gard to hiring and promotion. As a teacher in Carthage, higher culture and learning, as well as public entertain- Augustine writes of his growing eminence and position ment. Today, a theater is an essential facility at virtu- in the School of Rhetoric, giving at least some sense of ally any liberal arts college or university. Similarly, the academic rank or promotion (Augustine, Confessions, charming, inviting public green spaces of the empire’s III, 3). Augustine also writes that while he was teaching downtown districts foreshadowed many amenities today in Rome, the “prefect” of Rome received a request from commonly equated with college and university living. Milan for a public speaker and teacher of rhetoric for the Even baths can be considered part of the support of city, a job Augustine ultimately accepted. The passage physical well-being that today would readily be found almost eerily reflects more modern ideas of a search and in most university or college settings: spaces devoted to hiring process. Moreover, the transportation from Rome exercise, bathing, and relaxation. to Carthage, Augustine reports, was to be paid for by Security provided by Roman power can also be consid- public funds (Augustine, Confessions, V. 13). ered a key supporting factor in ancient education—one that especially benefited the growth of Christian intellec- Roman Public Infrastructure and Education tual endeavors. Education cannot flourish in an insecure Centers of education and learning in late antiquity main- or violent environment. The empire’s famous infrastruc- tained the classical amenities commonly associated with ture of roads—and the relatively safe travel by sea in the higher culture.Contributor The famed public works of the Roman well-policed Mediterranean—greatly aided education. As emperors no doubt facilitated great learning in this was the case with missionaries like Paul, who spread the regard. If it did not necessarily support clearly defined Gospel through travel and letter-writing, education ben- “state universities” in the modern sense, Rome’s contri- efited enormously from the security provided by Rome’s butions in the way of public infrastructure—roads for relative success at policing both land and sea. Trans- communication, along with attractive public amenities portation and communication between intellectual vital found in the city centers—should be considered an im- population centers was a crucial dimension of ancient portant part of the educational heritage of later antiquity. education in its Roman heyday, just as it was with the Andragogy 49 spread of the Gospel. Writers like Augustine tell of “pub- simply accepting that the learning with have some po- lic speakers” and debates featuring traveling scholars, like tential value in the future. Similarly, they are more likely the famous Manichaean Faustus, who visited Carthage to respond to internal motivations rather than extrinsic during Augustine’s time there as a teacher (Augustine, motivators. Given this need for internal motivations, a Confessions, V. 3). common adult learning strategy is to design opportuni- With the fall of the western Roman Empire in AD 476, ties for learners to engage in self-reflection, affording the infrastructure of Rome that had provided an often them the chance to learn by previous and new experi- unsung basis for learning during the years of later antiq- ences, building on their prior knowledge as a means of uity also disappeared. It would be many centuries before developing new knowledge. Given that adults have more city centers again featured anything comparable to the life experience, the proponent of andragogy points out pleasant cultural and intellectual ambiance provided by that an effective strategy is to help leverage the adults’ the Roman emperors. Many of the comforts and ameni- significant life experience as a foundation upon which ties of public life all but disappeared. Some things, such they learn new things.74 as theaters, would largely vanish until the Renaissance, While andragogy is focused on the study of adult nearly a thousand years later. In addition, the security learning strategies, some argue that the distinction be- provided by public officialdom largely disappeared. Edu- tween andragogy and pedagogy is not primarily one of cation would continue in the early Middle Ages. But for age.75 Instead, it is a distinctionOnly between learner-centered years to come, much learning would be housed in private and teacher-centered strategies. Learner-centered strate- and often reclusive spaces, especially the monasteries that gies focus on the learner engaging in frequent reflection, arose beginning in the sixth century. problem solving, learning by experiences, and apply- ing knowledge to real-world circumstances. Teacher- References and Resources centered strategies, on the other hand, focus instead on Bickerman, Elias. 1990. The Jews in the Greek Age. Cambridge, the behaviors and practices of the teacher that produce MA: Harvard University Press. possible results in the learner. Brown, Peter, and Geoffrey, Barraclough. 1971. The World of Andragogical principles inform many current efforts Late Antiquity, AD 150–750. New York: W.W. Norton & in Christian education that focus on helping learners to Company. beCopy more involved in the educational process, everything Chadwick, Henry. 1967. The Early Church. New York: Penguin from establishing their own learning goals and engaging Books. in ongoing journaling and reflection about the learning Dupon, Florence. 1994. Daily Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford, process to learning through direct experiences (servant England: Wiley Blackwell. events, mission trips, acts of service in the community, Harris, William. 1989. Ancient Literacy. Cambridge, MA: Har- evangelism calls, etc.). At the same time, some note that vard University Press. many adult Christian education texts fail to provide a Pelikan, Jaroslav. 1987. The Excellent Empire: The Fall of Rome consistent application of andragogy to the teaching of and the Triumph of the Church. San Francisco: Harper & Row. adults in a Christian environment.76 —David Leinweber References and Resources Christian, Randy. 1989. “Andragogical Assumptions and Chris- Andragogy tian Education.” Christian Education Journal 9: 51–58. Knowles, Malcolm S. 1970. The Modern Practice of Adult Edu- Andragogy, in the broadest sense, is the field of study that cation: Andragogy versus Pedagogy. New York: Association focuses on methods and strategies for teaching adults. Press. This term is often used in contrast to pedagogy, which ———. 1984. Andragogy in Action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. focuses on the education of young people, whereas an- Knowles, Malcolm S., Elwood F. Holton, and Richard A. Swan- dragogy focuses on that which is distinct to the education son. 2005. The Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult of the adultContributor learner.73 Education and Human Resource Development. Amsterdam: Malcolm Knowles, an early proponent of the term, Elsevier. argued that there are a number of factors that are distinct to the education of adults. For example, adults most 74. Malcolm Knowles, Andragogy in Action (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1984), 284. often need a rationale for learning something, rather than 75. Sharan Merriam and Ralph Grover Brockett, The Profession and Practice of Adult Education: An Introduction (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997), 35–36. 73. Malcolm Knowles, The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andra- 76. Randy Christian, “Andragogical Assumptions and Christian Educa- gogy versus Pedagogy (New York: Association Press, 1970), 17. tion,” Christian Education Journal 9 (1989): 57–58. 50 Anglican Church Christian Education

Merriam, Sharan B., and Ralph Grover Brockett. 1997. The over the Viking Guthrum at the Battle of Eddington was Profession and Practice of Adult Education: An Introduction. a milestone in encouraging Christian learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. However, widespread education was not to take place Merriam, Sharan B., and Rosemary S. Caffarella. 1991. Learn- until after the Norman Conquest, when Christianity ing in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco: finally took root in new building projects, with stone Jossey-Bass. churches being available for use as schools as well as —Bernard Bull markets and places of worship. Alongside the churches, monasteries grew up as centers of Christian learning; these were to remain until the time of the Reformation. Anglican Church Christian Education Academic Programs for Education Anglican churches are part of the Anglican Communion More recently, the churches in England may claim to (which is an international association of national and have made an even greater contribution to “education for regional Anglican churches and a few other episcopal all” children by their establishment of societies with the churches). These churches are all in full communion with aim of widespread schooling, beginning with the foun- the mother church for the worldwide communion, the dation of the Society for the Propagation of Christian Church of England. This means that there is a particular Knowledge (SPCK) in 1698. Nineteenth-centuryOnly socie- relationship with its principal primate, the archbishop of ties contributed to the development of a wide curriculum, Canterbury (who has no formal authority outside that including religious education and the work of church col- jurisdiction, but is recognized as the symbolic head of the leges in training teachers. worldwide communion. Among the other primates, he is The Church of England’s society to develop schooling considered primus inter pares). There is no single “An- in England was The National Society for Promoting the glican Church” with universal juridical authority, as each Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established national or regional church has full autonomy. Church throughout England and Wales. The status of full communion means, ideally, that there is mutual agreement on essential doctrines and that Summary of Christian Philosophy full participation in the sacramental life of each church is WithCopy a membership currently estimated at over 85 mil- available to all communicant Anglicans. lion members worldwide, the Anglican Communion is the third largest Christian communion in the world, Historical Overview after the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Or- In terms of the Church in England, educational literacy thodox churches. Some of these churches are known as grew as a direct result of the spread of Christianity in Anglican, due to their historical link to England (Ecclesia England. Initially, Christianity was one cult among many Anglicana means “English church”). Each church has its arriving on British shores with Roman artisans and own doctrine and liturgy, based in most cases on that of traders, but when Constantine became a Christian in the Church of England, and each has its own legislative the fourth century, the faith became more visible, even process and overall episcopal polity, under the leadership surviving the departure of the Romans, until Augustine of a local primate. arrived in AD 597. The immediate result of the conver- The Anglican Communion considers itself to be part sion of King Ethelbert was for land to be offered on which of the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church and to Augustine built a monastery and subsequently a school be both Catholic and Reformed. For some adherents, it for training Anglo-Saxon priests. represents a nonpapal Catholicism, for others a form of Christianity then rose from being a minor cult to Protestantism. For others, their self-identity represents demonstrate its potential as a major religion, but it was some combination of the two. The communion encom- curtailed by Viking invaders. Particularly tragic was the passes a wide spectrum of belief and practice, including plundering of Lindisfarne in AD 871, exemplifying the evangelical, liberal, and Catholic. destructionContributor of the church, which was both the learning center and the focus of power. References and Resources King Alfred the Great (r. 871–899) noted that educa- Chadwick, P. 1997. Shifting Alliances: Church and State in Eng- tion and faith literacy declined after the initial conversion lish Education. London: Cassell. of the Anglo-Saxons. In his preface to his translation of Worsley, H. J., ed. 2012. Anglican Church School Education: Gregory I’s “Cura Pastoralis,” he set out his intention to Moving Beyond the First Two Hundred Years. London: Con- educate the people of England, not only by making them tinuum. literate but by getting the Bible translated. His victory —Howard Worsley Anselm 51

Anglican Curricular Outcomes Angola and Christian Education

The Church of England came into existence in 1534, Angola could be a wealthy nation, with rich agricultural breaking with the Roman Church under the leadership land, oil, diamonds, and other minerals. However, the of King Henry VIII. With the birth of the Church of country suffered deeply from the 1962–2002 civil war, England, many ecclesial changes quickly emerged. The an African reflection of the Cold War. The Soviet Union most well-known changes involved the authority struc- and Cuba supported the MPLA, while the United States tures and the rejection of the pope as head of the Church and white-ruled South Africa supported the anticommu- of England. But there were curricular changes being set nist UNITA. When the fighting finally ended, there were in place as long as 500 years ago. As the Church of reported to be more land mines in Angola than people. England broke from the Roman Church, both scripture During the colonial period, Protestant education con- and prayer were brought into the language of the com- flicted with the Portuguese colonial government and mon people. In 1549, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer the privileged Catholic schools. In fact, the leaders of completed the Book of Common Prayer, a guidebook to the independence movement were mostly products of prayer and worship. Cranmer also developed the lec- Protestant schools, which contributed to the closing of tionary, a weekly schedule for Bible reading, which was many Protestant missions. Opposition to church-based used in homes and churches alike. People flocked to the education continued in postindependenceOnly Marxist days, churches to hear the scripture read in a language that as the government hoped to do away with all Christianity they used on a daily basis. within 20 years. The lectionary and the Book of Common Prayer con- The church in Angola has grown significantly, es- tinue to guide Anglican religious education today. The pecially since 1990. However, it faces huge challenges. liturgy, or “the work of the people,” actively involves pa- The civil war divided denominations, and forgiveness, rishioners in every service of Holy Communion. Through reconciliation, and unity are needed among leaders and common worship of morning and evening prayer, Angli- denominations. Wisdom is needed in developing a right can belief is shaped. The regular recitation of the words relationship between church and state. For too many in the prayers and creeds (Nicene, Athanasian, and leaders, right “doctrine” is little more than petty legalism. Apostle’s) have a way of shaping the believer’s faith and CopyOnly a small percentage of churches have trained lead- changing the heart. ership. There are approximately 25 Bible schools func- Anglicans view baptism and Holy Communion as the tioning in Angola, along with various discipleship and sacraments of the church. Infant baptism is celebrated, TEE programs. There is a Catholic seminary in Malanje as children are “sealed by the Holy Spirit in baptism and and two Protestant seminaries: ISTEL, in Lubango, spon- marked as Christ’s own forever.” When children reach sored by the Angola Evangelical Alliance (AEA), and an age of responsibility, they are expected to undergo Emanuel United Seminary in Huambo, serving denomi- confirmation classes. Confirmation, a rite in the Anglican nations connected to the Council of Christian Churches tradition, is seen as an avenue to firm up the promises in Angola (CICA). made at the time of baptism. Confirmation classes are —Steve Hardy held for adolescents and adults alike. At baptism, classes are required for the parents of the children, since the responsibility truly lies with the parents and godparents. Anselm At confirmation, the adult is given the opportunity to profess his or her faith and connect with the historical Early Background and Education church, as a bishop lays hands on the confirmant and Anselm (1033–1109) was born into a noble family in the anoints him or her with oil. Kingdom of Burgundy in Aosta. While we know little of The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, adopted by the his early education, we know that in his early twenties church in 1563, contain a summary of Reformation he arrived at the Benedictine Abbey at Bec, where he theologyContributor and remain the basis for standard doctrinal would have studied under Lanfranc, who had a consid- belief among churches in the Anglican Communion. The erable reputation as a teacher of dialectic and a scholar. themes of the authority of the Bible, justification by faith, Lanfranc was very much exercised by the role of reason and the nature of the sacraments guide religious educa- and faith, resisting the antiphilosophical scruples of Peter tion in many confirmation classes to this day. Damian, but not ready to fully endorse the adequacy of —Kelly Langdoc philosophical reason in exploring the mysteries of faith. 52 Anthropology, Christian Contributions to

Anselm became a novice of the abbey in 1060 and was Most Notable Publications elected as abbot in 1078. He was elected archbishop of Monologium Canterbury in 1093 and served this high office during a Proslogion time of great conflict between the church and the crown De Veritate over jurisdiction and privileges. Cur Deus Homo —Charles Taliaferro Significant Contributions to Christian Education Three of Anselm’s contributions to Christian education are worth noting. Anthropology, First, if Anselm is right, religious and philosophical Christian Contributions to education can be carried out in a devotional context. An- selm articulated, explored, and refined the understand- A Living Paradox ing of God as unsurpassable excellence in the context of Secular anthropology is necessarily incomplete, because prayerful devotion, with which Anselm beseeched God man makes sense only in relation to God. As the great for illumination in his two best-known works, the Mono- Christian philosopher Blaise Pascal declared, man is a logion and the Proslogion. Anselm’s devotional approach riddle, a paradox, a “monster” that does not fit into the to God is captured in his commending “faith seeking world.77 Like a dispossessed king, he is wretched because Only78 understanding” (fides quarens intellectum). While subject he falls short of standards he knows are meant for him. to different interpretations, that precept may plausibly And yet he is also great, because he is aware of his wretch- be read as the claim that our approach to God should be edness79 and thus discerns the “infinite abyss” in himself motivated by the love (or the willing to have love) of God which can only be filled by an “infinite and immutable and the desire to be in communion with God. object . . . by God himself.”80 Pascal argues that the only Second, if Anselm is right, then religious education solution to this riddle is the scriptural one: that man was should be centered on values. Our coming to know made like God and yet fell into sin.81 This dual nature of of God should be guided by our grasp of great values, man has profound implications for Christian education. even values that are so great that none greater can be conceived. So, in thinking about God’s knowledge of The ImageCopy of God and Education the creation, for example, we should not think of God’s Citizens of the World knowledge in terrestrial or bodily terms, in which God Man is specially made in the triune image of God (Gen. would need to rely on sense organs. God’s cognition is so 1:26–27). Humans are nothing less than God’s repre- perfect that it requires no mediation. sentatives on Earth,82 appointed as stewards of the rest Third, Anselm calls on us to reflect on the reasons of creation. In the beginning, man, like everything else and purposes of God in salvation history. In Cur Deus God made, was made good. Yet even before the fall, he homo? (Why did God become man?), Anselm sets forth was incomplete, finding wholeness only in community reasons for the necessity of a God-man’s redeeming life with others (Gen. 2:18). So humans are by nature social and death as a means of restoring an atonement with God beings, and the ideas of family, society, and culture are for those who sin against God and their neighbors. The all part of God’s design for human flourishing. One goal central argument is that if there is a God of unsurpassable of Christian education is therefore to produce worthy excellence and goodness, yet creatures whom God creates parents, citizens, and workers who uphold this design. and sustains sin against Him, then certain steps must be As sin has turned people in on themselves, it has broken taken by God and sinful creatures for there to be atone- their relationships with God and others. Christian edu- ment. This is an argument that is not based on historical cators should therefore seek to build strong characters inquiry, evidence, or special revelation, but on a series of that counteract self-centered habits and behavior (e.g., premises that give us reason to look for what Christian through role models, heroic stories, and virtue ethics).83 scripture offers testimony has actually occurred: Jesus Christ as God incarnate, fully human and fully divine, has Contributor 77. Blaise Pascal, Pensées, trans. A. J. Krailsheimer (New York: Penguin offered His life as a means to redeem sinners and bring Books, 1966), #131, 64. about atonement (or at-onement) with God. Whether 78. Ibid., #116, 59. Anselm’s own philosophical argument is successful, he 79. Ibid., #114, 59. 80. Ibid., #148, 75. stands as an example of someone who boldly seeks to use 81. Ibid., #131, 66. reason in the philosophy of God and thus someone who 82. Luther called them larvae dei or masks of God: his eyes, ears, hands, and feet. invites a Christian education of questioning and reason 83. This is an important theme in C. S. Lewis’s The Abolition of Man in the formation of one’s relationship with God. (New York: Macmillan, 1955). Anthropology, Christian Contributions to 53

Disciples of Christ creativity as a powerful witness to the divine: Deo Humans are also creatures: they live in complete depen- Gloria, as Bach and Handel said of their compositions. dence on God for their existence, all of their faculties, and every gift and opportunity that makes their lives Science possible. Yet as Reinhold Niebuhr argued, the primal The idea that man is like God is one of many Christian sin of fallen humanity is denial of this fact: “The evil teachings that promoted the rise of modern science.89 in man is a consequence of his . . . unwillingness to ac- It affirms that the human mind and the laws of nature knowledge his dependence, to accept his finiteness and reflect the same divine logos. This gives scientists confi- to admit his insecurity.”84 So another goal of Christian dence that they can discover how the cosmos works, and education is precisely to reveal humanity’s dependence stewardship is a powerful motivation: science helps us on God. Prideful self-assertion must be broken to make develop nature to serve our neighbor. With the advent room for the new person in Christ that can walk in of Darwinism, science became dominated by materialis- humble obedience. tic assumptions, and today the new atheists90 use it as a weapon against the Christian faith. Christian education Holism should combat this trend by showing how congenial Scripture tells us we are complex beings (1 Thess. 5:23; Christian assumptions are to good science. For example, Heb. 4:12), consisting of body (soma), soul (psyche), and while Aristotle thought one couldOnly discern how nature spirit (pneuma). Yet we are made whole persons, and must operate by intuiting essences, the Christian assump- these faculties are designed to interact. God made the tion of divine voluntarism (God creates as He wills) sup- human body good and reaffirmed this by becoming a ported the modern empirical method (we must look and physical incarnation and bodily resurrection. The soul is see what God has written in the book of nature).91 The our active side, the seat of our reason and emotion, while crucial ideas of scientific fallibility and bias depended on the spirit is the passive recipient of the Holy Spirit. Chris- a frank recognition of creaturely limitations (Isa. 55:8–9) tian education should be mindful of the way the spiritual, and the effect of sin on our cognitive faculties.92 intellectual, emotional, and physical dimensions interact, and its approach should be holistic, so that the whole Morality person grows up in Christ.85 TheCopy world belongs to God, not humanity (Ps. 24:1), and God cares about all creatures, not just humans (Gen. Equipped to Be Stewards 9:8–11). So contrary to popular belief, humans are called As image bearers, humans are given the unique privilege to care for the world as a trust, not to exploit it as a dis- and responsibility of caring for the rest of creation. Yet posable gift.93 Environmental stewardship should be an God equips those He calls, and despite the Fall, we retain important emphasis in Christian education, not only remarkable powers of stewardship.86 because of our dependence on the natural environment, but because it was made good by God (Gen. 1). Creativity While humans have limited authority over the nonhu- Humans image God through their amazing creativity man environment, they do not have godlike authority in art, music, and literature. They are even capable of over one another. We may farm the land, eat meat, and what Tolkien called “sub-creation”:87 while they cannot develop nature into culture for human ends. Yet we are create a world ex nihilo like God, they can make second- not to treat other image bearers like those without that ary worlds accessible to the imagination (e.g., Tolkien’s image (Gen. 9:6). As Kant put it, we should never use a own Middle-Earth and the worlds of literature, movies, 88 video games, and virtual reality). While escapism and 89. See, e.g., Nancy Pearcey and Charles Thaxton, The Soul of Science self-deception are risks, Christian education should exalt (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1994); Peter Harrison, The Bible, Protes- tantism, and the Rise of Natural Science (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); and Stanley Jaki, The Savior of Science (Grand Rapids, MI: 84. Reinhold Niebuhr, “Man as Image of God and as Creature,” in The Eerdmans, 2000). Nature and Destiny of Man, vol. I: Human Nature (New York: Charles 90. These include Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett, Same Harris, and Scribner’sContributor Sons, 1943), 150. the late Christopher Hitchens. 85. For a discussion of the implications of holism for Christian educa- 91. For an in-depth study of the idea of the scientist as reader of God’s tion, see Joel D. Heck and Angus Menuge, eds., Learning at the Foot of the other book, see my edited collection, Reading God’s World: The Scientific Cross (Austin, TX: Concordia University Press, 2011). Vocation (St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 2004). 86. For a brilliant philosophical defense of this claim, see J. P. Moreland, 92. Francis Bacon provided an early analysis of scientific bias, distin- The Recalcitrant Imago Dei (London: SCM Press, 2009). guishing four idols of the mind. See Francis Bacon, The New Organon, ed. 87. J. R. R. Tolkien, “On Fairy Stories,” in The Tolkien Reader (New Lisa Jardine and Michael Silverthorne (New York: Cambridge University York: Del Rey, 1986). Press, 2000). 88. See Mark J. P. Wolf, Building Imaginary Worlds: The Theory and 93. See Richard J. Bauckham, The Bible and Ecology: Rediscovering the History of Subcreation (New York: Routledge, 2012). Community of Creation (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2010). 54 Antioch, Church of person as a mere means (as a thing). The doctrine of the Montgomery, John Warwick. 1986. Human Rights and Human imago dei provides a basis for distinctively human rights, Dignity. Dallas, TX: Probe Books. since the divine image is reflected in all people, regardless Moreland, J. P. 2009. The Recalcitrant Imago Dei. London: of their physical or mental condition.94 His teaching is re- SCM Press. inforced by Christ Himself, who called Christians to care Niebuhr, Reinhold. 1943. The Nature and Destiny of Man. Vol. “for the least of these” (Matt. 25:35–45). As Alvin Schmidt I, Human Nature. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. has shown, the ancient pagan world featured widespread Pascal, Blaise. 1966. Pensées. Translated by A. J. Krailsheimer. abortion, infanticide, and child abandonment, but no New York: Penguin Books. hospitals. Christ’s example and teaching were critical in Pearcey, Nancy, and Charles Thaxton. 1994. The Soul of Sci- humanitarian reforms.95 A vital component of Christian ence. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books. education is the promotion of a high view of the value Schmidt, Alvin J. 2004. How Christianity Changed the World. of human life, one that combats the secular notion that Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. humans are valuable only if they are “useful.” Tolkien, J. R. R. 1986. “On Fairy Stories.” In The Tolkien Reader, 362–397. New York: Del Rey. Politics Wingren, Gustaf. 1999. Luther on Vocation. Evansville, IN: Political leaders are also God’s representatives (Rom. Ballast Press. 13), but their authority comes from God (John 19:11). Wolf, Mark, J. P. 2012. Building ImaginaryOnly Worlds: The Theory Government is a noble calling to serve the needs of the and History of Subcreation. New York: Routledge. people, as Luther emphasized.96 Politicians sin against —Angus Menuge their vocation if they oppress the people for their own ends, and they cannot replace Christ’s role as savior (Ps. 146:3). Christians can encourage policies that support Antioch, Church of the common good of humanity, while opposing utopian ideologies as a denial of original sin. Christian education Antioch in first-century Syria (currently Antakya, Tur- should aim to form citizens with a realistic sense of the key), as distinguished from , was opportunities and dangers of public life and a strong once a major center of Christian faith and formation of sense of servant leadership. Jesus’sCopy disciples. The church of Antioch is described in Acts 11:19–30 and 13:1–12: “It was in Antioch that the References and Resources disciples were first called Christians (Acts 11:26). What Bacon, Francis. 2000. The New Organon. Edited by Lisa Jardine constituted Christian education in Antioch that sets a and Michael Silverthorne. New York: Cambridge University distinct pattern for consideration as a model for the ex- Press. pansion of the Christian faith? Bauckham, Richard J. 2010. The Bible and Ecology: Rediscover- In a significant way, the Church of Antioch departed ing the Community of Creation. Waco, TX: Baylor University from the pattern set by the Church of Jerusalem in rela- Press. tion to the makeup and functioning of the Christian Harrison, Peter. 1998. The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise community following the persecution of followers of the of Natural Science. New York: Cambridge University Press. way set by Jesus and his apostles in the first century. Acts Heck, Joel D., and Angus Menuge, eds. 2011. Learning at the 11:19 notes: “Now those who were scattered because of Foot of the Cross. Austin, TX: Concordia University Press. the persecution that took place over Stephen traveled as Jaki, Stanley. 2000. The Savior of Science. Grand Rapids, MI: far as Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Antioch, and they spoke Eerdmans. the word to no one except Jews.” Jewish followers of Jesus Jastram, Nathan. 2004. “Man as Male and Female: Created in came to Antioch fleeing persecution and became forced the Image of God.” Concordia Theological Quarterly 68 (1): immigrants, who shared with fellow Jews their faith. The 5–96. Acts account continues: “But among them were some of Lewis, C. S. 1955. The Abolition of Man. New York: Macmillan. the men of Cyprus and Cyrene who, on coming to An- Menuge, Angus,Contributor ed. 2004. Reading God’s World: The Scientific tioch, spoke to the Hellenists (or Greeks) also, proclaim- Vocation. St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. ing the Lord Jesus. The hand of the Lord was with them, and a great number became believers and turned to the 94. For a defense of Christian theism as the foundation of human rights, Lord” (vv. 20–21). Here was a first-century encounter see John Warwick Montgomery, Human Rights and Human Dignity (Dal- las, TX: Probe Books, 1986). with cultural and ethnic diversity that warranted the 95. Alvin J. Schmidt, How Christianity Changed the World (Grand Rap- church in Jerusalem sending Barnabas, a “good man, full ids, MI: Zondervan, 2004). 96. See Gustaf Wingren’s discussion of the vocation of the prince in of the Holy Spirit and of faith” to investigate. More peo- Luther on Vocation (Evansville, IN: Ballast Press, 1999), 98. ple became Christians, and Barnabas went and recruited Antioch, School of 55

Saul of , who worked along with him for a year Antioch, School of teaching in Antioch. Growth through diversity resulted in Christians sharing relief with those struggling in Judea The School of Antioch arose in the fourth century AD as under persecution. The formation of disciples resulted in a reaction to the allegorical approach to the scriptures as mission and service to others, affirming the importance practiced in the School of Alexandria. One of the earliest of service learning for Christian education. treatises from this school is On the Witch of Endor and The leadership team at the Antioch Church described Against Allegory by Eustathius of Antioch. The point of in Acts 13:1–3 is noteworthy for its multicultural makeup. this work, highlighting the inconsistency in the interpre- Thom Hopler, himself a missionary in Africa and inner- tive practices of Origen, is to emphasize the importance city Newark, noted that Simeon was black, Lucius was of contextual readings of scripture for maintaining con- Greek, and Manaen was Jewish. Here were an African, an sistency and faithfulness in interpretation. Antiochene Asian, and a Palestinian serving as coequals and provid- scholars emphasized literal and historical interpreta- ing leadership as prophets and teachers. Saul, later named tion and criticized allegorical excess, arguing that a text Paul (Acts 13:9), was a Hellenized Jew and Pharisee from could not mean or suggest anything more than what it Tarsus in Asia Minor (Phil. 3:5), and Barnabas was a Jew- explicitly stated. The leading teachers include Diodore ish Levite and native of Cyprus (Acts 4:36). All of these of Tarsus and two of his students: the exegete and com- leaders crossed cultural borders in serving together the mentator Theodore of MopsuestiaOnly and the great exposi- ethnic diversity of the Antiochian community as it broke tory preacher John Chrysostom. The literal emphasis is out of a Jewish-only stance as represented by Jerusalem. seen in Theodore’s straightforward exegesis of the Song For effective multicultural Christian education, it is es- of Songs as a hymn for marriage, in contrast to the in- sential that this model be studied. With all the differences terpretation that viewed the poem as revealing Christ’s noted, the structures of the church supported a unity love for His bride, the church. The historical emphasis and bond of love. From such a foundation, the church is seen in Theodore’s reduction of messianic prophecy at Antioch became an intentionally missionary-sending in the Psalms and Prophets; in his reading, there was congregation with the commissioning of Barnabas and almost none to be found. For example, Psalm 22 was not Saul on their first missionary journey. By supporting prophetic of Christ or His death, despite Christ’s use of diversity and forging unity, educational structures can it Copyas revealed in the Gospel narratives. Nevertheless, the incarnate the love God intends for all of humanity. It is Davidic Psalms do contain some hints of the messiah, for noteworthy that to this day there exists at Antioch an Theodore believed that David did actually see his own Orthodox Christian church. life as foreshadowing some aspects of the messiah. But in general, Theodore understood scripture to be revealed References and Resources through prophets in various discrete historical periods, Brown, Raymond E. 1983. Antioch and Rome: New Testament and therefore their interpretation must be rooted in those Cradles of Catholic Christianity. New York: Paulist. historical contexts. To read truths revealed later in time Conde-Frazier, Elizabeth, and Robert W. Pazmiño. 2007. “An- (e.g., in the New Testament) back into earlier periods tioch Revisited: Educational Implications.” In The Antioch (e.g., in the Old Testament) through allegory removes Agenda: Essays on the Restorative Church in honor of Orlando the chronological and developmental features of the text, E. Costas, edited by Daniel Jeyaraj, Robert W. Pazmiño, and thereby flattening the text and deemphasizing the new- Rodney Petersen, 54–81. New Delhi: Indian Society for the ness of the Gospel. Promotion of Christian Knowledge for Andover Newton The reputation of the Antiochene School and its inter- Theological School and the Boston Theological Institute. pretive matrix was greatly damaged later by its relation to Hill, Craig. C. 1992. Hellenists and Hebrews: Reappraising Divi- Nestorianism, which was condemned in the fifth century sion within the Earliest Church. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress at Ephesus (431) and (451). Press. Hopler, Thom. 1981. A World of Difference: Following Christ References and Resources beyondContributor Your Cultural Wall. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Greer, Rowan. 1961. Theodore of : Exegete and Press, 1981. Theologian. London: Faith Press. Slee, Michelle. 2003. The Church in Antioch in the First Century McLeod, Frederick. 2008. Theodore of Mopsuestia. London: CE: Communion and Conflict. New York: Sheffield Aca- Routledge. demic Press. Wiles, Maurice. 1970. “Theodore of Mopsuestia as Representa- —Robert W. Pazmiño tive of the Antiochene School.” In The Cambridge History of 56 Apologetics

the Bible, edited by P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans, 1:489–510. experiential, and prophetic. A common motif is a court- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. room, first seen in Thomas Sherlock’s The Tryal of the Young, Frances M. 1997. Biblical Exegesis and the Formation of Witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus in 1729. Proponents Christian Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. include Butler, Sherlock, James Orr, William Paley, Ber- —Robert Keay nard Ramm, Clark Pinnock, John Warwick Montgomery, Richard Swinburne, and Josh McDowell. Presuppositional apologetics (sometimes referred to as Apologetics reformed apologetics) defends Christianity by presup- posing the truth of Christianity. There are three main Derived from a Greek word meaning a speech given in de- streams of presuppositional apologetics: revelational, fense, apologetics is both the academic discipline of defend- rational, and systematic consistency. Revelational is a ing the faith and the work of defending the faith. A goal of two-step argument: non-Christian worldviews are unable apologetics is to challenge the worldview of the unbeliever to account for rationality and morality, and the Chris- while demonstrating the credibility of Christianity. Apolo- tian worldview is shown to be the only presupposition getics serves to strengthen the worldview of the believer. that leads to rationality and morality. This is called the transcendental argument. Proponents include Herman Apologetics in the Early Church Dooyeweerd, Cornelius Van Til, GregOnly Bahnsen, and John Justin Martyr (c. 100–c. 165) defended Christianity as Frame. Rational is based on the law of noncontradiction. an all-encompassing worldview with veracity in his two It argues that all other worldviews have internal contra- Apologies. Athenagoras (second century) addressed A dictions and cannot be true; only Christianity is inter- Plea for Christians to Marcus Aurelius around AD 177. nally consistent. Proponents include Gordon Clark, Carl Iranaeus (c. 130–c. 200) opposed the Gnostics in Against F. H. Henry, and Ronald Nash. Systematic consistency Heresies. Tertullian (c. 155–220) defended the faith in is similar to rational, with two tests added: worldviews Apologeticus, among other writings. Origen’s (c. 185– must comprehensively account for all other facts of life c. 254) Contra Celsum is an apologetic classic. Augustine and must be existentially relevant. Proponents include (354–430) is recognized as the most influential theo- Edward John Carnell and Gordon Lewis. logian of the early church and influenced apologetics OtherCopy systems are fideism, experientialism, historical through his City of God and other writings. apologetics, and integrative approaches (including the apologetics practiced by Francis Schaeffer). These may Systems of Apologetics overlap other approaches. Three main systems have been identified: classical, evi- dential, and presuppositional. Apologetics in Modern Christian Education Classical apologetics, the primary approach throughout Defending the faith has played a large role in Christian church history, contains two steps: rational arguments education. The Princeton School of Apologetics exerted for a theistic God, followed by evidential support for influence on CE at the turn of the 20th century. West- Christianity (with an emphasis on miracles). Classical minster Seminary was formed as a reaction to the mod- apologists trace their system back to the New Testament. ernist direction of Princeton and added a ThM in apolo- In the Middle Ages, Anselm developed the ontological getics in 1954. There has been a rise in graduate programs argument. Some classical apologists have gone on to in apologetics since 1990, with Southeastern Evangelical reject Anselm’s ontological argument, but most accept Seminary founded for apologetics in 1992. The Oxford some variation of the teleological argument, cosmologi- Centre for Christian Apologetics was formed in 2004 and cal argument, or moral argument. Proponents include added an MTh in 2012. An MA in apologetics was added Anselm, Thomas Aquinas, William Paley, John Locke, C. at Biola University (1997), Luther Rice Seminary (2009), S. Lewis, B. B. Warfield, R. C. Sproul, William Craig, J. P. and Denver Seminary (2012). The MDiv in apologetics Moreland, Norman Geisler, and Peter Kreeft. was added at Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary EvidentialContributor apologetics, the dominant modern approach, in 2004. Southern Baptist Theological Seminary added a emphasizes the need for evidence to support the truth PhD (2001) and an MDiv (2007) in apologetics. Liberty claims of Christianity. Unlike classical apologetics, proof University added a PhD in apologetics in 2008. for a theistic God is not a required first step, but frequently just one part of the eclectic evidentialist approach. It began References and Resources as a reaction to deism, and one of the seminal works was Boa, Kenneth D., and Robert M. Bowman Jr. 2005. Faith Has Its Joseph Butler’s Analogy of Religion. Evidentialists often use Reasons: An Integrative Approach to Defending Christianity. five types of evidence: rational, historical, archaeological, Waynesboro, PA: Authentic Publishing. Apologists 57

Bush, L. Russ, ed. 1993. Classical Readings in Christian Apolo- Gospel. This took place on two planes: on the one hand, getics A.D. 100–1800. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Christian writers responded to the allegations against the Elwell, Walter A., ed. 2006. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. new religion; on the other hand, they often began, on their Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. own initiative, a critique of polytheism and the cultural in- Geisler, Norman L. 2007. Baker Encyclopedia of Christian stitutions of the pagan world. Apologists refuted unjust ac- Apologetics. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. cusations and unmasked the Gentiles’ immorality and the —Stephen G. Lewis absurdity of polytheism, counterpointing with Christian monotheism and the doctrine of the resurrection of the body. They pointed out that pagan philosophy contains Apologists barely a part of the truth, unlike Christianity, which en- compasses its fullness and thus is the religion of truth. The Apologists refer to Christian writers (second–fifth centu- church was presented as a neither new nor a recent institu- ries) and their works whose aim was to defend Christian- tion. The New Testament is bound up with the Old by a ity against pagan, Jewish, as well as heretical accusations close inner union, an inherent relationship constituted by and persecutions. The second and third centuries are the prophecies of the Redeemer to come, and since Moses considered the classic period of apologetic literature; lived long before the Greek thinkers and philosophers, however, apologetics continued even after the official Christianity is the oldest and mostOnly venerable of religions recognition of Christianity by Emperor Constantine in and philosophies. AD 312 as religio licita (the admitted religion). The works of the apologists took the form of speech or The first document of Christian apologetic literature dialogue, in accordance with the rules of ancient rhetoric. was Apology, addressed by Quadratus to the Emperor They had to find a common ground with the Gentiles, if Hadrian circa AD 125. Among the early Christian apolo- they wanted to convey their arguments; this forced them gists (writing in Greek) were Aristides of Athens, with to take a more reasonable position, in order to allow oth- Apology; Aristo of Pella, with Discussion between Jason ers to join the academic discussion. The writers in their and Papiscus Concerning Christ from circa AD 140; St. apologies did not attempt to speak to the uneducated Justin the Martyr, with Apologies and Dialogue with the masses, rather to address those who could comprehend Jew Trypho; Tatian the Syrian, with The Discourse to the them;Copy they turned to them as the people of high culture Greeks; Miltiades, with Apology of Christian Philosophy (paideia), who wanted to approach the issues in a spirit of and Against the Greeks; Apollinaris of , with philosophy. Early Christian apologists did not seek to con- Against the Greeks, On the Truth, and Against the Jews; struct a coherent theological system, nor to interpret the Athenagoras of Athens, with The Supplication for the entire Revelation; their aim was to validate the rationality Christians from circa AD 177; Theophilus of Antioch, and reasonableness of the Christian faith, with the aid of with Ad Autolycum; Melito of ’s Apology; Hermias, the logical belief systems developed by pagan religion, yet with Satire on the Profane Philosophers; and the unknown basing their notions not on pagan mythology, but on their author of The Epistle to Diognetus. Among the apologists own philosophical idea of God as a transcendent Being, in later periods were (also writing in Greek) Clement of which consequently determined their specific cosmology, Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius of Caesarea, Athanasius anthropology, and ethics. Apologists and their apologies the Great, and Theodoret of Cyrus; writing in Latin were exemplify the search for a possible meeting of the man Minucius Felix, Tertullian, Cyprian, Arnobius of Sicca, of the epoch with the Gospel message and illustrate the and Lactantius. necessity for an invariable interpretation of the original, The majority of the apologists were well-educated con- evangelical faith experience in the new language of succes- verts. The novelty of a religious experience of the Christian sive epochs, adapted to the mentality of the people of each faith impelled them to confront it with pagan philosophy, epoch. Despite the fact that after the Edict of Milan the especially because the previously circulating oral rumors interest in apologetics declined, the apologetic literature and accusations concerning Christians (of their presumed still produced treatises, mostly fending off heresies and atheismContributor and immoral life) assumed a written slander in concerning the Church’s dogmas (e.g., Augustine). the second century (e.g., Lucian of Samosata’s De morte peregrini, Fronto of Cirta’s Oration, Celsus’s The True References and Resources Discourse). Thus, in the second century AD, Christians Danielou, J. 1974. Message évangélique et culture hellénistique faced a much harsher confrontation with the vaguely com- aux IIe et IIIe siècles. Paris: Desclée et Cie. prehended pagan culture, in addition to their resistance Edwards, M. J. 2008. “Apologetics.” In The Oxford Handbook during the time of persecutions and establishing the model of Early Christian Studies, edited by S. Ashbrook Harvey and of a religious life inspired by the Commandments and the D. G. Hunter, 549–564. New York: Oxford University Press. 58 Apostles’ Creed

Edwards, M. J., M. Goodman, and S. R. F. Price, eds. 1999. The Apostles’ Creed summarizes all the fundamental Apologetics in the Roman Empire: Pagans, Christians, and articles of the Christian faith in simple scriptural lan- Jews. New York: Oxford University Press. guage, following the biblical narrative from the Book of Ferguson, E., ed. 1993. The Early Church and Greco-Roman Genesis, with its portrayal of God and creation, to the Thought. Studies in Early Christianity no. 8. New York: Gar- Book of Revelation, with it description of “life everlast- land Publishing. ing, amen.” The creed begins with the declaration “I Grant, R. M. 1988. The Greek Apologists of the Second Century. believe,” not the Nicene Creed’s corporate confession Philadelphia: Westminster Press. “We believe,” because of baptism’s individual nature. Grecco, M. 1974. Metodologia e fonti della prima apologetica Personal faith and commitment is expressed “in” God cristiana. Lecce, Italy: Università del Salento Press. the Father, Maker of heaven and earth, and “in” Jesus Wysocki, M. 2010. Early Christian Apologists’ Arguments in Fa- Christ, God’s only Son, and “in” the Holy Spirit. Follow- vour of Christian Supremacy over Other Religions (Aristides, ing the earliest creedal patterns in the church, emphasis Justin, Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, The Epistle to is placed on Christ as “our Lord”—“conceived by the Diognetus). Lublin, Poland: Wydawnictwo KUL. Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, crucified under —Marcin Wysocki Pontius Pilate,” raised on the third day, exalted to “the right hand of God” in heaven, and coming again as judge. It concludes by stating otherOnly key teachings Chris- Apostles’ Creed tians believe: “the holy catholic church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the The antecedents of the Apostles’ Creed (from the Latin body, and life everlasting.” credo, “I believe”) are rooted in informal Christian confes- Historically, the Apostles’ Creed has functioned li- sions from the first 150 years of Christianity, centering on turgically as a personal declaration of allegiance to the the person and work of Jesus Christ. As early as the New Triune God in baptism and as a corporate confession of Testament, creedal statements are found on Christ’s death faith in worship, enabling the church member, regard- and resurrection (1 Cor. 15:3–6), His exaltation to the less of culture, age, social rank, and education, to profess right hand of God (Rom. 8:34), and His final judgment of concisely what all Christians believe. It has also played a the living and the dead (2 Tim. 4:1–2). Later, through the chiefCopy role in teaching Christian doctrine to new believers. influence of the baptismal formula “Father, Son and Holy Whether preparing for baptism, confirmation, or local Spirit” (Matt. 28:19), confessions began to take a more church membership, the creed has been used by Roman Trinitarian pattern. Beginning with concise and balanced Catholic and Protestant churches as the principal way to statements on the Triune persons, each article developed educate believers in the basics of Christian theology. as the church reflected on the Christian narrative and con- Notable examples of the creed’s use in catechetical in- fronted internal and external theological challenges. struction are The Catechism of the Council of Trent, The The Apostles’ Creed arose directly from a tripartite Baltimore Catechism, and the Catechism of the Catholic set of questions given to baptismal candidates in Rome Church (Roman Catholic); Luther’s Small Catechism at the beginning of the third century. Catechumens were and The Large Catechism (Lutheran); Catechism of The asked individually at baptism, “Do you believe in God the Church of Geneva and The Heidelberg Catechism (Re- Father Almighty?” Then, “Do you believe in Jesus Christ, formed); and The Anglican Catechism (Anglican). In each the only Son of God?” And finally, “Do you believe in the instance, these catechisms move methodically, article by Holy Spirit, the holy church and the bodily resurrection article, explaining the meaning of the creed and provid- of the dead?” To each question the person answered, “I ing a firm grounding in Christian doctrine. believe.” In the next two centuries, this Roman symbol expanded and developed, transitioning from its early References and Resources interrogatory form to become a baptismal confession. Barr, O. Sydney. 1964. From the Apostles Faith to the Apostles’ The creed’s present language was standardized by the Creed. New York: Oxford University Press. early eighthContributor century, appearing in a handbook for priests Kelly, J. N. D. 1972. Early Christian Creeds. London: Longmans. compiled by Pirminius of Reichenau. Through the efforts Pelikan, Jaroslav. 2005. Credo: Historical and Theological Guide of the Roman Catholic Church and Protestant reformers to the Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradi- like Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Heinrich Bullinger, tion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. it became the universal creed of the Western church and Young, Frances. 1991. The Making of the Creeds. Philadelphia: remains the unifying doctrinal standard in Christian Trinity Press International. ecumenical bodies. —Chris Bounds Archaeology, Christian Contributions to 59

Aquinas, Thomas self-revelation in history. Aquinas’s work on evil, natural law, virtues and vices, the sacraments, and other domains Early Background and Education is of enduring significance. Born in Roccasecca in the kingdom of Naples on the Ital- Aquinas’s method of inquiry has educational sig- ian peninsula, Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274) was edu- nificance as well. In the Summa Theologica, a question cated by Benedictines and Dominicans. When he joined is raised (e.g., is God composed of form and matter?) the Dominican order, his family sought to overturn his and Aquinas’s preferred reply is not given without first vocation by kidnapping him, but after keeping him con- offering reasons for thinking the opposite is true. This fined briefly, they relented. At the University of Paris, method reflects a high water mark of the art of debate Aquinas studied under Albertus Magnus, a philosophical (ars disputandi). theologian who translated into Latin work by Aristotle and the Islamic philosophers Avicenna and Averrooes. Most Notable Publications Aquinas’s own education included the trivium (gram- Great works by Aquinas include Summa Theologica, Summa mar, rhetoric, logic) and quadrivium (arithmetic, geom- contra gentiles, De Veritate, and De Anima. etry, astronomy, music), as well as the study of Aristotle —Charles Taliaferro and Islamic philosophers. Aquinas went on to teach in Paris, Orvieto, Rome, and Naples. Only Archaeology, Christian Contributions to Significant Contributions to Christian Education Aquinas is of special interest for educators addressing Introduction religious pluralism, for he lived at a time when reasons It is no secret that archaeology in the Near East began as a were needed to choose between religious traditions. The Christian enterprise. The academic communities—bibli- West was confronted by a powerful challenge from Arab cal scholars and theologians among them—of Europe and and Persian philosophy that was profoundly shaped by America viewed the late 19th-century rise of Egyptian, Greek philosophy. Can a Christian or Muslim who is a Mesopotamian, and Levantine archaeology as a means of follower of Aristotle believe in an afterlife for individuals? illuminating the biblical text as never before. While New Aquinas is the preeminent defender of the integrity and TestamentCopy scholars had always had the benefit of Greco- cogency of how one can know God and for there to be Roman classical studies as a backdrop, students of the coherence between reason and faith. Old Testament found themselves analyzing the Hebrew According to Aquinas, reasonable, impartial inquirers scriptures virtually in a vacuum. Although the OT itself can know God without the aid of appealing to special spoke with familiarity of kingdoms and empires across revelation. What has come to be called “the five ways” the Fertile Crescent, in the centuries leading up to and are five arguments, from our knowledge of this world including most of the 19th century, the cultures of the and values to knowledge of God. In the Anglophone ancient Near East lay hidden behind an impenetrable, world today, these arguments are rarely treated with the dark mist of mystery and ignorance. historical background necessary to appreciate their co- Napoleon’s exploits in Egypt around the turn of the gency. The best contemporary defense of Aquinas’s case 19th century cracked open the door to this previously for theism can be found in work by Brian Davies, OP (see unseen world, so that Christian scholarship and public his Thomas Aquinas on God and Evil). Aquinas’s view of alike were, with the unfettered optimism typical of the natural theology has implications for education insofar as era, attracted en masse to an irresistible illumination of he supports the ways in which the sciences and the study biblical narratives. Indeed, the Bible was the focus of the of values can be religiously significant vehicles of know- emerging . In the ensuing tidal wave ing God. (Although it is impossible to know, Aquinas’s of discoveries, conservative Christian scholars found experience of being kidnapped might have contributed seemingly innumerable proofs of the Bible’s historical to his commitment to inquiry that is free and not subject accuracy. However, the last 20 years of the 20th century to bruteContributor force.) Far from disparaging revelation, Aquinas were not so agreeable to the biblical archaeologists. argued that revelation is a bona fide way of knowing By the turn of the new millennium, a host of scholars more about God and values than can be achieved by were pontificating that biblical archaeology was now reason alone. He defended the reasonability of divine dead, and that the Bible had been justifiably removed revelation and believing that God is Triune, supremely from the archaeological tool bag. Seemingly discredited good, and eternal, and that God became incarnate as as a viable discipline, biblical archaeology became Syro- Jesus Christ and is manifested in the miracle of God’s Palestinian archaeology (also referred to as Levantine 60 Archaeology, Christian Contributions to archaeology). Those who persisted as biblical archaeolo- tions are based on one or both of the following criteria: gists were relegated to the margins of Ancient Near East (1) intrinsic importance to the development of archaeol- scholarship. It was—and mostly remains—archaeology ogy as a scientific discipline and (2) contributions to ANE for archaeology’s sake. and/or Levantine archaeology representative of various On the positive side, what for a brief historical moment approaches and perspectives.) appeared as biblical archaeology’s dark tomb has now Once the door to the ancient Near Eastern world—in- a glowing light at the end of a tunnel opening toward deed, the biblical world—began to open by the mid-19th a resurgence of the discipline. As a result of the Bible’s century, what had been the ancient Fertile Crescent was now-rising status within the archaeological community, overrun by professional scholars and amateur explor- scholars and the public should now recognize that the ers. Unfortunately, most of the early devotees of this OT, in particular, remains the best-preserved and most new field of inquiry, whether scholars or laypeople, reliable collection of ancient geographical and historical were little more than treasure hunters—some of them material at our disposal. However viewed, the OT is in glorified, well-funded treasure hunters who sent back fact a collection of documents from the ancient Near East to their respective countries vast quantities of ancient itself and belongs to that world. artifacts boxed in massive crates bound for the great The archaeological backdrop of the New Testament museums of Europe. was not so controversial, as the NT covers only a rela- Paul-Émile Botta (1802–1870),Only of Italian and French tively few decades of the early Roman period, and with background, and Englishman Austin Henry Layard generally recognized fidelity. While Christian contribu- (1817–1894), both from Christian families, did most of tions to NT archaeology are considerable, the issue of the early work in Mesopotamia. Like many of the most archaeology and the OT, particularly of the Pentateuch, influential 19th-century explorer-scholars, they lacked dominates the history of ANE archaeology. This is the formal education in archaeology and ANE history, for focus of this article. both disciplines were practically nonexistent during their careers. But like most of their similarly minded contem- The Foundations of ANE and Biblical Archaeology poraries, Botta and Layard were passive with regard to The early history of Near Eastern archaeology has a the Bible in their archaeological pursuits. While they distinctly Christian flavor. This is not true of ANE— generallyCopy took its history at face value, they made no principally Levantine—archaeology’s last half century, in overt attempts to prove the Bible with their discoveries. which Israeli archaeologists began to dominate in Israel. In reality, there was no pressing reason to do so, as most Certainly, both secular and faith-based individuals have of the 19th-century European populace and scholarly contributed significantly to ANE, Levantine, and even community accepted the Bible as authentic history. biblical archaeology. Unfortunately, space does not per- With the entrance of Sir William Matthew Flinders mit the introduction of every player on the archaeological Petrie (1853–1942), impeccable scholar and Christian stage; however, the inclusion of names such as Botta, La- (Plymouth Brethren), early archaeology took a decidedly yard, Petrie, Garstang, Albright, and Wright—Christians scientific turn. Self-trained in Egyptology, philology, and all—is proper because of their position as foundational survey methods, Petrie arrived in the Near East with a figures not merely of biblical archaeology, but also of critical eye. Seemingly unmoved by the lust for treasure ancient Near Eastern studies in general. It is also appro- that characterized so many of his predecessors and con- priate to add to these names those of significant individu- temporaries, he brought rhyme and reason to the exca- als who rose from this foundation—Glueck, Kenyon, B. vation process. Two important concepts formalized by Mazar, Yadin, Callaway, Biran—but who were not Chris- Petrie remain valid to this day: stratigraphy and ceramic tians, or left the Christian faith along the pathway of their typology. While he did not pursue his archaeological ca- careers. An overview of this historical sequence would be reer with the Bible specifically in mind, he believed it to incomplete without mentioning the recent and ongoing be historically reliable and saw his work as a backdrop for contributions of Dever, Ben-Tor, A. Mazar, Finkelstein, biblical stories. Thus, scientific archaeology had begun on Ortiz, Wood,Contributor Ritmeyer, E. Mazar, Mullins, Kitchen, and a substantial, pro-Bible footing. Collins, who run the gamut from biblical minimalism John Garstang (1876–1956), professor of archaeology (antibiblical bias) to maximalism (the Bible is historically at the University of Liverpool from 1907 to 1941, was credible) and represent diverse views within both the more aggressive when it came to the historicity of the liberal and conservative camps. (I must emphasize that I OT narratives and his own archaeological pursuits. As a have been highly selective, because there are literally hun- result of his 1920s excavations at Jericho, he announced dreds of individuals who have contributed significantly that he had discovered the walls of the city that had to ANE archaeology and biblical archaeology. My selec- fallen outward during its conquest by Moses’s succes- Archaeology, Christian Contributions to 61 sor, Joshua. Garstang was unabashed in his claim that Biblical versus Syro-Palestinian Archaeology: this find proved the factuality of the biblical story of Important Players Joshua’s conquest of the city. In this positive light, the Although many influential ANE and Levantine archaeol- respectability of biblical archaeology took a substantial ogists from the 19th century through the 1970s happened leap forward. to be, at least in a general sense, Christians, other person- It is safe to say that the careers of archaeological schol- alities also played important roles. Not a few Jewish and ars prior to and contemporary with William Foxwell Israeli scholars were active in the field during the era in Albright (1891–1971) pale in comparison to his genius. which the Bible was still held in considerable respect as Born to Christian (evangelical Methodist) missionary historically authentic. Some of these individuals held the parents, Albright maintained a healthy appreciation for Bible in high regard. Others used it in their work, but the historical authenticity of OT narratives—including cautiously or with reservations. the Pentateuchal stories—throughout his illustrious ca- Nelson Glueck (1900–1971)—American archaeolo- reer. With a PhD from Johns Hopkins University and a gist, Jewish rabbi, and president of the Hebrew Union subsequent, enduring professorship there, he positioned College—was hugely influential in holding up the Bible himself as the pontiff of both ANE and biblical archaeol- as a crucial set of documents in the study of ancient his- ogy—and not illegitimately. His then-unequaled acumen tory. Christian scholars viewed Glueck as a friendly ally in field archaeology (Gibeah, Tell Beit Mirsim, and Bethel in this regard, although he emphasizedOnly that he did not were among his excavations), ancient Semitic languages, take the Bible literally in the traditional sense. His was ancient Levantine ceramics, and ancient Near Eastern a positive—perhaps neutral—influence in the growing studies made Albright a giant among his peers. He also discussion vis-à-vis biblical historicity. gave rise to a host of world-class ANE and biblical schol- Dame Kathleen M. Kenyon (1906–1978), daughter of ars who either studied under him, studied with him, the renowned Sir Frederic Kenyon, became one of the or were signally influenced by him—G. Ernest Wright, pivotal archaeologists of the 20th century in scientific, Frank Moore Cross, David Noel Freedman, Kathleen systematic field methods. However, from the perspective Kenyon, and among them. of Christian interpreters of the Bible, she represents a At the center of Albright’s biblical assuredness was distinctly negative turn in the debate over OT historical his insistence that the stories of the OT Torah—includ- credibility.Copy In particular, Kenyon, armed with better ar- ing the patriarchal stories in Genesis—were historical chaeological methods in her 1950s excavations at Jericho, at their core. In support of this, he marshalled what found Garstang’s previous “evidence” of Joshua’s con- appeared to be incontrovertible evidence—much from quest to be in error. The stratum Garstang had assigned Mesopotamian cuneiform archives as well as excavations to the time of Joshua (c. 1400 BC), she insisted belonged in the southern Levant—that the narratives surrounding to the end of the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1550 BC). The biblical characters such as Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, word quickly spread that Kenyon’s evidence demon- Moses, and Joshua contained authentic Bronze Age strated that the Joshua story of Jericho’s destruction was, cultural elements and social practices. The sum of this, likely, an etiological legend. In relatively short order, this both for Albright and eager-to-believe evangelical Bible became the conventional wisdom in the archaeological scholars who hung on his every word, provided reason- literature—and for most it constituted a major blow to able proof that the biblical record was patently historical biblical historicity. on its face. Renowned Israeli archaeologists Benjamin Mazar Albright’s doctrinal idiosyncrasies—for example, he (1906–1995), Yigael Yadin (1917–1984), and Avriham was not entirely averse to OT higher critical theo- Biran (1909–2008) all made incalculably valuable contri- ries and was certainly not an evangelical himself—that butions to Levantine archaeology over their careers, and proved distasteful to more conservative evangelical Bible each had a healthy appreciation for the general historical students and scholars were tempered by his protégé, character of the OT narratives. From a Christian, par- George Earnest Wright (1909–1974). A considerable ticularly evangelical, point of view, however, many Israeli ANE scholarContributor and archaeologist in his own right, Wright archaeologists came up short in terms of the historicity became the archaeological “darling” of evangelical Bible of the patriarchal narratives preserved in the Pentateuch. commentators; Bible atlas, dictionary, and encyclopedia Even now, in the 21st century, most Israeli, American, editors; and professors at Christian seminaries and Bible and European archaeologists working in the Levant do colleges. Almost single-handedly, he brought biblical ar- not believe in what they call the “traditional Albrightian chaeology into a short-lived golden era. After his death, view” that biblical characters such as Abraham, Isaac, biblical archaeology as a distinct discipline began to fall Jacob, Joseph, Moses, and Joshua were, at the very least, out of favor with the next generation of archaeologists. based on kernels of historical truth. This difference of 62 Archaeology, Christian Contributions to opinion forged the current divide separating conservative evangelical background and pursued theological educa- Christian archaeologists and their more liberal (higher tion early in his career.) critical) counterparts, who comprise the vast majority of Amnon Ben-Tor (1935–), professor in the archae- the archaeological community. ology of Eretz Israel at Hebrew University, remains The career of Joseph Callaway (1920–1988) is instruc- another strong centrist in the debate over biblical his- tive, for he was personally caught in the middle of the toricity. A giant of Israeli archaeology, Ben-Tor has biblical historicity debate as a result of his excavations directed the excavations at Tel Hazor for more than 20 at et-Tell, the traditional site of Ai. His Southern Baptist years. Conservative archaeologists certainly appreciate background supplied him with a substantial belief in the the fact that he attributes the terminal Late Bronze Age historical reliability of the Pentateuchal narratives. Since destruction of Hazor to Joshua, likely due to the residual the book of Joshua included a detailed account of the influence of Albright. Israelite conquest of Ai sometime during the second half The archaeological career of Amihai Mazar (1942–) of the Late Bronze Age (c. 1400–1200 BC), he expected to has been nothing short of stellar. His excavations include find evidence of this event in an LBA destruction layer at Timnah, Bet She’an, and Rehov in Israel, and he is pres- et-Tell. That was a logical expectation for Callaway if, in ently professor in the Institute of Archaeology at Hebrew fact, the biblical account of the battle of Ai was accurate. University. Certainly a centrist in the minimalist/maxi- In his many years excavating at et-Tell/Ai, it became malist controversy, he maintains excellentOnly rapport among clear that there was not a scintilla of LBA material there. Christian and evangelical scholars. His willingness to The site had collapsed into ruins toward the end of the pursue dialogue with more conservative colleagues has Early Bronze Age (c. 2350 BC) and remained unoccu- positioned him as a pivotal figure in the debate over the pied until a small town sprang up during the Iron Age. use of the Bible in an archaeological context. According to the archaeological evidence, there was no Since the 1990s, Israel Finkelstein (1949–) has, by de- city at et-Tell/Ai for Joshua to conquer. To what extent fault at least, served as the figurehead of biblical minimal- his personal faith suffered in the process is debatable, but ism among Israeli archaeologists. He is currently professor it is certain that he jettisoned his belief in the historical of the at Tel Aviv University and co- authenticity of the Torah narratives. director of the Megiddo excavations. Since the Bible—he believes—providesCopy virtually no factual history regarding The Current Scene in Levantine Archaeology the evolution of ancient Israel, it is now incumbent upon To say that by the 1980s, the historicity of the Hexa- the emerging technologies to seek out a more accurate teuch (Gen–Josh) was hanging by a thread in the picture of Israelite origins. Finkelstein’s views, considered minds of most ANE and Levantine archaeologists, is an radical by not a few of his Israeli colleagues, have served as understatement. Generally steeped in German higher a wake-up call for more conservative scholars—including criticism, the community of Syro-Palestinian (Levan- archaeologists of Christian persuasion. tine) archaeologists had become convinced that the Reactions against Finkelstein and the minimalists have collective verdict of field discoveries had categorically motivated an avalanche of data from across the spectrum discredited the views of Albright—and certainly the of ancient Near Eastern studies and archaeology support- evangelicals—regarding the existence of the Hebrew ing the historical nature of the Pentateuch plus Joshua patriarchs, including Moses and Joshua. Indeed, during (Hexateuch). This wealth of recently assembled informa- the first decade of the 21st century, it seemed that even tion is even demonstrating the historical foundations of the concept of “biblical” archaeology was on the ropes the patriarchal narratives, not in the manner of Albright’s and threatened with imminent demise. failed attempts in this regard, but with substantive histor- Within the minimalist versus maximalist debate, the ical synchronisms and period-specific cultural elements. positions and opinions of William G. Dever (1933–), Leading this resurgent charge is inimitable ANE scholar often considered the dean of Syro-Palestinian archaeolo- Kenneth A. Kitchen (1932–), emeritus professor at the gists in the United States, have been significant. While University of Liverpool and an Anglican Christian. With Dever himselfContributor denies presiding over the “death of bibli- rigorous logic and weighty documentation, he continues cal archaeology,” he does take full credit for “writing its to demonstrate that the world of Abraham, Isaac, and obituary.” He has stated on more than one occasion, “No Jacob did not reside in the imaginations of late Iron Age responsible scholar goes out with a trowel in one hand Judahite priests, but authentically belongs to the Middle and a Bible in the other.” In fairness, Dever has most Bronze Age (c. 1900–1600 BC). often taken a centrist position on the historical authen- Steven Ortiz, who presently heads the archaeology ticity of the OT, but would categorically deny it for the program at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Torah books. (It is interesting that Dever came from an represents not only sound archaeological scholarship, Archaeology, Christian Contributions to 63 but also a vibrant evangelical faith. A protégé of Dever, happens to be a Christian, can make remarkable con- he currently directs the excavations at Tel Gezer in Israel. tributions to Levantine archaeology. His acumen in the His career demonstrates that academic rigor and conser- typology of ancient ceramics and field archaeology shows vative biblical beliefs can, in fact, exist side by side with- the ability of a faith-oriented individual to accomplish out conflict. This is also true in the remarkable work of impeccable, objective scientific work. Mullins’s current Leen Ritmeyer (1945–), widely recognized as the world’s excavation at the biblical site of Abel Beth Maacah in leading authority on the archaeology and architecture northern Israel shows how the Bible can be used respon- of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. During two decades sibly in an archaeological context, particularly in terms of working for B. Mazar, he became the chief archaeologi- ancient geography. cal architect for the south Temple Mount excavations in Steven Collins (1950–; this writer)—dean of the Col- Jerusalem. The historical reality of the Israelite/Jewish lege of Archaeology and Biblical History, Trinity South- Temple through time is manifestly present in the ancient west University— has spent more than a decade explor- architectural features examined in Ritmeyer’s work. ing the southern Jordan Valley north of the Dead Sea Israeli archaeologist Eilat Mazar (1956–), granddaugh- and directing the Tall el-Hammam Excavation Project in ter of B. Mazar, exhibits a solid commitment to the Jordan, which (at the time of writing) is in its ninth dig historical underpinnings of the OT. Although criticized season. The identification of Tall el-Hammam as biblical in some quarters for her insistence that she has found Sodom has opened up a historicOnly discussion concerning the remnants of King David’s palace by using informa- the factuality of the Abrahamic narratives in Genesis. tion from relevant biblical texts, she continues to make a reasonable case for her discoveries. She stands in stark Archaeology and Biblical Studies: contrast to the minimalists and demonstrates that the A Dialogical Approach reports of the death of biblical archaeology do not reflect The Christian contribution to archaeology, even biblical the reality of the situation “on the ground.” archaeology, has been a mixed bag. Although scholars American archaeologist Bryant G. Wood (1936–), with Christian roots and/or active personal faith have chief archaeologist for the Associates for Biblical Re- greatly advanced the discipline of ANE archaeology from search, is held in high esteem among Christianity’s most its 19th-century beginnings to the present day, unfortu- conservative evangelicals. With a doctorate in Syro- nateCopy examples of false leads, disproved theories, and even Palestinian archaeology from the University of Toronto, outright hoaxes abound. During the 1980s and 1990s, Wood has deftly carried the banner of biblical literalism early interpretations of texts from the cuneiform archives throughout his career. His excavations at Khirbet el- of Ebla in northern Syria excited the world of biblical Maqatir have challenged the traditional location of the scholarship with claims of “map lists” with the names of site of Ai destroyed by Joshua. Sodom and Gomorrah, other biblical cities, and a host The contrast between Wood and other scholars within of “authentications” of biblical characters and stories. By the Christian community—like Kitchen, Ortiz, Mullins, the turn of the 21st century, virtually every such link had and Collins—represents the fact that there is little con- evaporated in the light of advancing research. Sadly, Bible sensus among even conservative archaeologists and ANE educators had filled their literature with these now-failed scholars on issues like the date of and the na- connections—embarrassing, to be sure—and some are ture of biblical chronology (whether literal or figurative). still touted today. For example, Wood is intractable on the literal, base-10, With little or no familiarity with legitimate archaeol- arithmetic value of the patriarchal life-span numbers and ogy, the bulk of the Christian community remains naïve holds to an early date for the Exodus (c. mid-15th century in such matters and vulnerable to all manner of far-out BC). Kitchen, Ortiz, and Mullins posit an Exodus date in claims and out-and-out hoaxes. When the science of the 13th century BC (following Albright and Wright) and archaeology began to turn away from the Bible, rather are flexible in their interpretation of the patriarchal num- than answering back with rigorous archaeological re- bers. Collins (this writer) opts for an honorific, formulaic, search, much of the Christian community responded by and/or Contributorsymbolic understanding of the patriarchal num- seeing what they wanted to see and believing what they bers and argues for a middle date for the Exodus (c. 1400 wanted to believe from pseudo-archaeology and junk BC). Thus, there remains a wide range of approaches to science. However, this is an avoidable result. Thank- biblical chronology among Christian archaeologists. The fully, as a result of responsible biblical archaeology, the dialogue remains vigorous but friendly. tide is turning in favor of the historical authenticity The career of Robert A. Mullins (1952–), professor of of the Bible, and Christian educators would be well- archaeology and Old Testament at Azusa Pacific Uni- advised to keep up with the pace of discovery in the versity, demonstrates that an archaeologist, who also legitimate archaeological arena. 64 Architecture

If biblical archaeology is defined as the pursuit of ar- hands of educators who influence the minds of emerging chaeology with a view to illuminating the cultural context generations regarding the nature of Christian scripture of biblical texts, then it certainly has a proper place within and the importance of keeping the Bible connected to the the larger scope of ANA archaeology. In order for this ground of reality. relationship to be successful, the extremes of minimal- ism and maximalism must be avoided in favor of more References and Resources productive discussion. Those on the left extreme have Ben-Tor, Amnon. 1992. The Archaeology of Ancient Israel. New disallowed the Bible a voice in the pursuit of archaeol- Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ogy. Those on the right extreme have turned a deaf ear to Cline, Eric H. 2009. Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Intro- archaeology in the pursuit of biblical interpretation. Both duction. New York: Oxford University Press. of these mutually exclusive positions must give way to a Collins, Steven. 2005. Let My People Go: Using Historical Syn- more productive dialogue in which both text and ground chronisms to Identify the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Albuquer- are available to each other in substantive ways. que, NM: Trinity Southwest University Press. ———. 2013. Discovering the City of Sodom. New York: Howard Archaeology and Christian Apologetics Books/Simon and Schuster. Archaeologists must pursue their discipline without an Davies, Thomas W. 2004. Shifting Sands: The Rise and Fall of apologetic agenda; that is, as far as possible it must be Biblical Archaeology. New York: OxfordOnly University Press. objective and scientific. Archaeology does not exist to Feinman, Peter D. 2004. William Foxwell Albright and the Ori- prove or disprove the Bible. However, because both ar- gins of Biblical Archaeology. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews chaeological data and the biblical text originate from the University Press. same foundation in reality, their common ground is cer- Finkelstein, Israel, and Nadav Na’aman, eds. 1994. From No- tainly fair game in demonstrating the historical worth of madism to Monarchy. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. both archaeological and biblical data. If the geographi- Finkelstein, Israel, and Neil A. Silberman. 2001. The Bible Un- cal or cultural or sociopolitical or artifactual shoe fits, earthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the then the Bible has the right to wear it. Such evidences of Origins of Its Sacred Texts. New York: Free Press. historical authenticity, when reasonably confirmed by Hoerth, Alfred J. 1998. Archaeology and the Old Testament. rigorous scholarship, have a place in building a case for GrandCopy Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. the historical credibility of scripture in support of the Hoffmeier, James, K. 2008. The Archaeology of the Bible. Ox- Christian message. ford: Lion Hudson. Holden, Joseph M., and Norman Geisler. 2013. The Popular Archaeology and Christian Education Handbook of Archaeology and the Bible. Eugene, OR: Harvest If Christianity hopes to pass on a historically reliable House. Bible to the next generation, then by all means it must Kitchen, Kenneth A. 2003. On the Reliability of the Old Testa- make a substantive connection between that collection ment. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. of ancient books and the real, physical world. Rightly Lemche, Niels P. 1998. Prelude to Israel’s Past. Peabody, MA: associated with the biblical text, archaeology can link Hendrickson. biblical characters and events to physical, space-time re- Mazar, Amihai. 1990. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. New ality, a tangible world in which growing minds learn to York: Doubleday. distinguish between fact and fiction; indeed, fact-faith Ritmeyer, Leen. 2006. The Quest: Revealing the Temple Mount versus fiction-faith. in Jerusalem. Jerusalem: Carta and the Lamb Foundation. —Steven Collins The Future of Christian Involvement in Archaeology To be realistic, given the history of Christianity’s minus- cule investment in things archaeological, it remains to be Architecture seen whether or not it can become, once again, a major player in theContributor field. It is no secret that Christian archaeolo- The synagogue and the Temple were the two primary gists who make use of the Bible in their work have taken institutions of Judaism from 586 BC until AD 70. The more than their fair share of attacks and criticism from synagogue has endured as an institution of Judaism; scholars who are not so oriented. There are bright spots however, Christians were expelled from the synagogues for Christian archaeologists, to be sure, with evangelical throughout Palestine and the lands of the dispersion. scholars like Ortiz, Mullins, and Collins directing bibli- Consequently, the church either gathered in private cally significant excavations in the Holy Land. But the homes or met in the catacombs of Rome (often used for future of biblical archaeology, in particular, lies in the burial of the deceased). The catacombs could have miles Architecture 65 of various levels of underground passages. Archaeologi- ceilings, rounded arches, and a cruciform shape char- cal excavations have found various Christian symbols in acterized later Romanesque architecture. Romanesque these catacombs, such as a dove or fish. The Greek word structures retained the predominant form of the basilica for “fish” (ichthus) had an acrostic meaning Iēsous Chris- and remained massive until buttresses were introduced tos Theou Huios Sōtēr (“Jesus Christ, God’s Son, Savior”), (this change allowed the walls to be lightened). thus a graffito of a fish was a code sign for Christians. Architecture during the 15th and early 16th centuries A profound change in the history of the Christian faith was (in terms of formal analysis) a veritable rebirth of the occurred in the fourth century with Emperor Constan- vocabulary and partly the compositional forms of classi- tine’s “acceptance” of Christianity in AD 312. While the cal antiquity. The significance of these achievements can- early church was being persecuted, it anticipated the im- not be exaggerated, because the renaissance of rationality minent coming of Christ in power and glory at the end of and modularized building anticipated the prominence the age. As apocalyptic expectancy waned, the church still of rationality and the scientific method that are such longed for the second coming of Christ but not a glorious distinctive aspects of the contemporary age. The decline earthly millennium. As Christianity became doctrinally of the medieval church and empire and the weakening and organizationally institutionalized, Christians were no of the feudal system (with the rise of cities, nation-states, longer forced to worship in catacombs and homes. Chris- and languages) were ubiquitous changes occurring in tian architecture began with dissent toward apocalyptic the 14th and 15th centuries, Onlycombined with a further millennialism. The church members were free to worship individualistic and naturalistic conception of life. In in elegant basilicas and majestic houses of worship. terms of this conception, Renaissance architects inspired Early church architecture prior to Constantine can be ideas and principles of self-awareness for a new style of divided generally into three stages of development. Dur- architecture. If classical in character, post-Renaissance ing the first stage (AD 50–150), Christians assembled in architecture is correctly identified within any period suc- private homes (house-church). During the second stage ceeding the movement known as Renaissance proper. (AD 150–250), private homes were remodeled for the Neoclassic architecture was a movement that would exclusive needs of the assembled Christian community. include any style of a later time than the limitations of The gathering places were called domus ecclesiae (a “com- the Renaissance identified by custom in France and Italy munity center” or “meeting house”). During the third (andCopy may be properly classified as post-Renaissance stage (AD 250–312), private and public buildings and style). Ancient Greece and Rome, which were regarded halls were employed for Christian assemblies. When the as ideal cultures, were the inspiration for the architec- early church could begin erecting buildings, they were ture of this period. Neoclassical buildings had domed modeled after the Roman basilica, which were developed roofs, symmetrical forms, tall columns rising the entire as public buildings and used for either business or plea- height, and triangular pediments. Neoclassicism was a sure. The typical basilica for the church was an oblong reaction against the rococo style, and a desire for an- building with a narthex (porch) at the west end where tique simplicity. Rococo architecture originally began in catechumens worshipped, a semicircular apse at the east the French decorative arts of the early 18th century and end where the altar was situated (and bishop’s seat if the extended later throughout other countries (primarily building was a cathedral), and a long central nave with Austria and Germany). north and south aisles on earth side. The early basilica Architecture in the 19th century was more diverse style building was fairly simple, eventually becoming than it had ever previously been. The freedoms in archi- rather ornate after AD 312 (since the church was able to tecture that neoclassicism and romanticism introduced obtain favor with the state). stimulated renewals of diverse historical styles. Numer- The three major styles of medieval architecture that ous architects employed historical styles (due to their developed during this period were Byzantine, Gothic, associations) that were suggestive of the desire for tra- and Romanesque architecture (although it was not a ditional continuity and stability during the height of the primary style, Moorish architecture was used predomi- innovatory changes of the industrial age. Architects had nantly Contributorin southern Spain). Large domes supported by to devise plans for buildings, such as asylums, charities, pendentives and decorative mosaics characterized Byz- hospitals, public markets, and worker housing, which antine architecture. The Gothic cathedrals were expres- had never previously existed. Moreover, architects were sions of belief in the supernatural and manifested the offered iron, glass, and steel as new building materials. otherworldly outlook of the era. The university towers of Postmodern architecture is generally associated with the medieval period (representative of scholasticism) had the late 1970s. Although it represents an allusion to their counterpart in the spires of the Gothic cathedrals, historicism, postmodernism abstracts meaning in a sub- which were often regarded as a “Bible in stone.” Domed jectively expressive manner, which reflects the spiritual 66 Argentina and Christian Education nature of the age. Postmodern architecture employs a After Argentina achieved independence in 1816, its variety of historic styles, but simplifies and amalgamates political leaders adopted the ideas of the Enlightenment the historic forms. Architecture is an expression of a life and promoted mixed elementary, technical, and univer- attitude (particularly the human relation to the cosmos, sity education. Because of the lack of professionals in divine, and others); thus it is a fundamental representa- education, the government appointed the British Schools tion of the nature and spirit of an era. Society agent, Diego Thompson, as the general director of schools. He implemented the Lancastrian system of References and Resources education, using mentor students, and Bible excerpts as Bigalke, Ron J., Jr. 2011. “Architecture.” In The Encyclopedia the only teaching materials. of Christian Civilization, edited by George Thomas Kurian, In 1823, Protestant churches began to appear, and 1:103–108. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Protestant schools flourished. By 1916, about 700 el- Curl, James Stevens. 2003. Classical Architecture. New York: ementary schools had been opened, with biblical study Norton. as an essential part of the curriculum. By 1930 the situa- Fergusson, James. 1874–1893. A History of Architecture in All tion had changed, and general education passed into the Countries. 5 vols. London: John Murray. hands of the laity. Jordan, R. Furneaux. 1969. A Concise History of Western Archi- Regarding Christian education, from the conquest tecture. London: Great Britain: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. through the present day, the CatholicOnly Church has been Kimball, Fiske, and George Harold Edgell. 1918. A History of committed to formal and informal education. On their Architecture. New York: Harper & Brothers. part, since 1884 Protestants of diverse denominations Krautheimer, Richard. 1986. Early Christian and Byzantine have founded several institutions of theological and pas- Architecture. 4th ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. toral education. Since 1916, Sunday schools have been Long, Marshall. 2006. Architectural Acoustics. London: Elsevier the main method of Christian education of the popula- Academic Press. tion at large. MacDonald, William. 1962. Early Christian & Byzantine Archi- tecture. New York: George Braziller. References and Resources Moffett, Marian, Michael Fazio, and Lawrence Wodehose. Bastian, Jean-Pierre. 1986. Historia del protestantismo en 2004. A World History of Architecture. Boston: McGraw-Hill. AméricaCopy Latina. México City: Casa Unida de Publicaciones. Roth, Leland M. 1993. Understanding Architecture: Its Ele- Deiros, Pablo Alberto. 1992. Historia del cristianismo en ments, History, and Meaning. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. America Latina. Buenos Aires: Fraternidad Teologica Lati- Summerson, John. 1963. Heavenly Mansions: And Other Essays noamericana. on Architecture. New York: Norton. Dussel, Enrique. 1972. Historia de la iglesia en América Latina. Sutton, Ian. 1999. Western Architecture. New York: Thames Barcelona: Nova Terra. and Hudson. Fletcher, John y Alfonso Ropero. 2008. Historia general del Vasari, Giorgio. 1998. The Lives of the Artists. Translated by cristianismo. Barcelona: Clie. Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella. New York: Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman. 1940. La historia de la iglesia cristiana. Oxford University Press. San Antonio, TX: Casa Evangélica de Publicaciones. Watkin, David. 1996. A History of Western Architecture. 2nd Prien, Hans-Jürgen. 1985. La historia del cristianismo en ed. New York: Barnes & Noble. América Latina. Salamanca: Sígueme. —Ron J. Bigalke —Karina Casanova

Argentina and Christian Education Aristotle

Roman Catholicism was brought to Argentina with the Aristotle (384–322 BC) was born in Stagerios in Thrace, Spanish Conquest of the 16th century. Since then, Roman the son of Nichomachus, court physician of King Amyn- CatholicismContributor has been the official religion, although re- tas II. His father died when he was young, and he was ligious freedom exists. In 2008, about 76 percent of the raised by a guardian, Proxenus. In 367 BC, he entered population was Catholic, 9 percent Protestant/evangeli- Plato’s academy as a student, remaining there for 20 years. cals, and 11 percent indifferent. After studying with Plato, Aristotle went to Macedonia During the first years of settlement, education was cen- as the tutor of Alexander, who was destined to become tered on elementary school under Catholic religious or- historically famous as the “Great.” In 335 BC, Aristotle ders. In 1613, the Universidad de Cordoba was founded. founded a philosophical school in Athens, called the Ly- Aristotle 67 ceum, which was one of the most prestigious institutions that persons are endowed with form, defined as soul and of higher learning of its time.97 He authored books on a body. His monistic view unites the body and soul. variety of subjects, including physics, biology, ethics, psy- He held that the acquisition of knowledge comes from chology, logic, and metaphysics. He wrote more than 200 the five senses instead of empirical observation. Since treatises, of which only 31 survived. His most influential knowledge is outside the person, knowledge can be works include Nicomachean Ethics, which reflects the known through the senses. He placed trust in the careful highest ideas of Hellenistic life by emphasizing reason, observation and analysis of nature as our best hope of moderation, and harmony. In Politics, he examined the arriving at truth.101 human being’s social nature, the purpose of government, For Aristotle, the supreme good was happiness, but he and the most desirable kind of social order.98 After the knew that people disagree on what constitutes happiness. death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, anti-Macedonian He believed that the chief end of humanity is not merely sentiment overtook Athens, and the Lyceum fell into dis- to live, but to live a good life that manifests the rational favor. Aristotle fled the city, taking refuge in Chalcis on nature of humanity. The pursuit of happiness is a search the island of Euboea, where he died at age 62. for the good life, which is virtuous. That life that actual- ized the distinct human capacity, rationality, was for Educational Philosophy Aristotle the ultimate good. However, most people were Aristotle was the founder of Western philosophical real- not morally and intellectually trainedOnly for such a virtuous ism. He believed that all substances are composed of form life, so he concluded that few would or could pursue it. and matter, and that they exist independently of human knowledge of them. Humans have the capacity to know Character Formation: Habituation these objects by observing the patterns of regular interac- Aristotle argued that there are two kinds of virtues. First tion with these natural objects. He believed that humans, is virtues of thinking, which includes such virtues as wis- as rational beings, inhabit a rational and purposeful dom. Virtues of thinking need time and experience to be universe.99According to Aristotle, ideas (or forms), such cultivated and can be taught to a person simply by study. as the idea of God, can exist without matter, but there Second is virtues of character, things like temperance can be no matter without forms. Each piece of matter and courage. Virtues of character require habituation to has universal and particular properties. He argued that beCopy cultivated and cannot be taught to a person simply by the forms of things, the universal properties of objects, study. One must actually habituate oneself to doing the remain constant and never change, whereas particular right acts to have any chance of acquiring these virtues. components do change. For example, in terms of people, Thus, by the process of habituation, a person can come to though individual persons die, humanness remains. An- possess a virtue that he or she lacks. Through the process other example is the way a child develops. Children have of habit, people can be formed as good or bad. As people particular characteristics; their bodies change and they develop habits, they become a part of those people and grow into adults, but their humanness (essence) remains result in virtues. constant even though matter changes.100 Thus, there is a Aristotle believed that education (paideia) should cul- difference between essential and accidental properties. tivate those right habits that would develop moral and The properties themselves don’t change, but the sub- rational virtues. This ethical and intellectual training, or stance changes that forms its instantiates. character development, could only be achieved by daily Aristotle distinguishes between intellectual virtues practice (for moral virtue) and a liberal education (for and moral virtues. A moral virtue has to do with feeling, intellectual virtue).102 Education was for character devel- choosing, and acting well. For Aristotle virtue belongs opment a means to become a certain kind of person and to the soul, and his notion of the soul is closer to the citizen, and a pathway to a healthy society. notion of the mind. The soul is not viewed as some non- Aristotle suggested that an educated person unites mo- material thing that exists independently from the body, rality and reason in virtuous action. While the potential but includes our passions, faculties, and states of char- for such virtuous being is present at birth, that potential acter. AristotleContributor rejected Platonic dualism, which held must be nurtured through education if it is to be actual- ized. Humans achieve moral excellence by performing 97. Gerald L. Gutek, A History of the Western Educational Experience, 2nd ed. (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc., 1995), 48. 98. Ibid., 48. 101. Ronald F. Reed and Tony W. Johnson, eds., Philosophical Docu- 99. Ibid., 49. ments in Education, 2nd ed. (New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 100. Howard Ozmon, and Samuel Craver, Philosophical Foundations 2000), 17. of Education, 5th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill Publishing Company, 102. Glenn L. Smith and Joan K. Smith, eds., Live in Education: A Narra- 1995), 40. tive of People and Ideas, 2nd ed. (New York: Saint Martin’s Press, 1994), 28. 68 Armenia and Christian Education good acts and the development of good habits, which is Irwin, Terence, trans. 1999. Aristotle: Nicomachen Ethics. 2nd a critical part of education. The ultimate goal of educa- ed. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing. tion is to assist human beings in developing their unique Ozmon, Howard, and Samuel Craver. 1995. Philosophical capacity to contemplate the world and their role in it. Foundations of Education. 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Mer- Thus, human beings become ideal citizens ready and able rill Publishing. to perform their duties as rational members of society.103 Peterson, Michael L. 2001. With All Your Mind: A Christian Like Plato, Aristotle recognized that education di- Philosophy of Education. Notre Dame, IN: Notre Dame Uni- rectly related to both the healthy individual and the versity Press. harmoniously integrated society, or polis, and recom- Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- mended compulsory public education. This is reflected tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. in Politics, in which he drew attention to the good of the Reed, Ronald F., and Tony W. Johnson, eds. 2000. Philosophical individual and the good state. If the legislator neglects Documents in Education. 2nd ed. New York: Addison Wesley education, then the constitution suffers. For proper Longman. social functioning, Aristotle believed that education Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg, ed. 1998. Philosophers on Educa- should be in the hands of the city-state. Members of the tion: New Historical Perspectives. London and New York: large middle class should govern the city-state, because Routledge. they were the least likely to suffer from the extremes of Smith, Glenn L., and Joan K. Smith, eds. 1994. Live in Educa- 104 Only poverty and wealth. tion: A Narrative of People and Ideas. 2nd ed. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Influence on Christian Education —Mark Maddix The Christian tradition has relied heavily on Aristotle’s ethical philosophy to provide a conceptual basis for the articulation of its own ethical doctrines. He influenced Armenia and Christian Education the development of Christian doctrines such as medieval scholastic theology, including the proofs for the existence In the fourth century, Armenia became the first nation to of God, theory of the Eucharist, ecclesiology, and natu- adopt Christianity as its official religion, tracing its Chris- ral law. Aristotle greatly influenced Thomas Aquinas, a tian Copyheritage to St. Thaddeus in the first century. Saint Roman Catholic theologian. Through Aquinas, realism Gregory the Illuminator converted King Tiridates III in became basic to Western Catholic educational thought AD 301, resulting in the adoption of national Christianity. and the “classic” approach to general education. Chris- Operating semiautonomously until the fifth century, the tian education that stresses basic knowledge of scripture Armenian Church eventually severed its ties with Rome and doctrine has its roots in Aristotelian thought. and Constantinople in 554 over doctrinal differences. Aristotle’s view of character formation and virtue When Armenia was annexed by the Soviet Union in ethics is significant for Christian educators because it 1922, religious freedom was forcefully discouraged; semi- places value on the role of Christian practice in devel- naries and churches were closed down, and priests were oping habits that lead to virtues. Through continual arrested, exiled, or shot. In 1991, a year after Armenia’s engagement in Christian practice, by God’s grace, in declaration of independence, the Armenian Apostolic the context of Christian community, people internalize Church was reestablished as the official national church. beliefs and values that enable them to reflect the image Historically, Armenian religious affiliation has been and nature of Christ. associated with ethnicity. The ethnically Armenian popu- lation primarily identifies as Armenian Apostolic (94.7 References and Resources percent), the Kurdish population as Yezidi (1.3 percent), Curren, Randall R. 2000. Aristotle on the Necessity of Public and the remaining population as Catholic and Protes- Education. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. tant (4 percent). Legal proselytization is limited to the Everson, Stephen, ed. 1996. Aristotle: The Politics and the Con- Apostolic Church. All other religious organizations are stitution Contributorof Athens. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University required to register with the government and to acquire Press. additional permission to hold public meetings, travel, Gutek, Gerald L. 1995. A History of the Western Educational and invite foreign guests. Experience. 2nd ed. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Religious education classes are taught in schools by in- structors approved by the Armenian Apostolic Church or Apostolic priests and are optional. If registered with the 103. James E. Reed and Ronnie Prevost, A History of Christian Educa- tion (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1993), 32. government, other religious organizations can instruct 104. Smith and Smith, Live in Education, 28. their congregants’ children in private homes. Armenian Orthodox Church Christian Education 69

References and Resources Christian Education in the Armenian Apostolic Kurkjian, Vahan M. 2012. A History of Armenia. Stanford, CA: Orthodox Church Today Bibliotech. The Catholicosate of All Armenians, Mother See of Holy Panossian, Razmik. 2006. The Armenians: From Kings and Echmidzin, Armenia Priests to Merchants and Commissars. London: Hurst and His Holiness Vasken I conceived the need for a Christian Company. Education Center (CEC) in 1991, which became a reality —Sarita D. Gallagher in 1996, while His Holiness Karekin I was Catholicos. From its start the mission of the CEC was to preach the Gospel message and educate Armenian society by orga- Armenian Orthodox Church nizing religious education in schools, opening Sunday Christian Education schools, training Sunday school teachers, and publishing religious literature. In 1995, the Shoghagat television A Brief History of the Armenian Church station was established to spread the light of faith and The Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church traces its knowledge through broadcasting preaching and the pro- roots to the evangelistic missions of Jesus’s two apostles, duction of spiritual and cultural programs and films. St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew, who according to tradition preached the Gospel to Armenians in the first The Catholicosate of the Great OnlyHouse of Cilicia, Lebanon century AD. These apostles together are considered In 1929, a conference was organized by the International the first illuminators of Armenia. Saint Gregory the Il- Sunday Schools American Society in Lebanon, to which luminator is considered the second illuminator, during representatives of the Catholicosate of Cilcia were in- whose time King Tiridates III became Christian and was vited. During that conference, they came to a decision baptized. Tiridates declared Christianity the state religion to start Sunday school within the Apostolic churches. in AD 301. Armenia hence became the first nation with Deacon Levon Zenian was appointed as the first direc- Christianity as its national religion. In 406 St. Mesrob tor of Sunday schools, to organize and train teachers as Mashdotz created the Armenian alphabet for the sole well as work on curricula, and in the fall of 1929 the first purpose of translating the Bible into Armenian so as to Sunday school started in Aleppo, Syria. In 1930, in a pas- make it possible for the Armenians to hear and read the toralCopy encyclical, His Holiness Sahag I introduced Sunday Bible in their mother tongue. Throughout the following schools to all the churches in the Catholicosate. He was a centuries, Armenia became a battleground for many in- strong advocator for Christian education, as he saw it as vading nations and armies, who persecuted Armenians an essential need both in churches through establishing because of their Christian faith. Sunday schools, as well as in Armenian schools, where The Armenian Church since its establishment has through religious education classes students were to both aimed to help keep the Christian faith of its people receive biblical knowledge and learn about the church’s through teaching and preaching, as well as diakonal and traditions and history. evangelistic activities. In 1977 another milestone occurred: the establishment The Armenian Church today has two Catholicosate of the Christian Education Department under the pa- seats and two patriarchates: tronage of His Holiness Karekin II Sarkissian, coadjuster Catholicos, and under the chairmanship of His Holiness a. The Catholicosate of All Armenians, Mother See Catholicos Khoren I. The main goal of the Christian Edu- of Holy Echmiadzin, Armenia (established in the cation Department was to bring the people to understand fourth century by St. Gregory the Illuminator). more of the church’s spiritual and cultural inheritance b. The Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia, and to educate the youth in the faith. The first director Lebanon (established originally in Cilicia in the was Rev. Fr. Gaurun Babian. 13th century, but after the Armenian genocide In January 2008, His Holiness Catholicos Aram I, in during World War I moved to Lebanon and was his pontifical message, declared the year 2008 the “Year reestablishedContributor in 1930). of Christian Education.” He wrote, “Religious education c. The Patriarchate of Jerusalem (established by the St. means instilling individuals or communities with the James Brotherhood in the 14th century). truths and principles, values and traditions of the religion d. The Patriarchate of Constantinople (established to which they adhere. All these must be integrated into the in 1461 by Sultan Mehmet to organize the affairs modus Vivendi, modus operandi and thinking of those in- of the Armenian people living under the Ottoman dividuals or communities. In other words, the purpose of Empire). religious education is to make religion, with its beliefs and 70 Armenian Orthodox Church Christian Education teachings, its history and mission, a total, permanent and in 1853. The missionaries were also pioneers in opening living presence in the life of an individual or community schools for girls. As more churches and schools were following it through a process of spiritual and intellectual opened, a need arose for ministers and educators, and development and formation” (Aram I 2008, 9). many colleges and theological schools were established throughout . However, as a result of the Arme- The Armenian Catholic Church nian genocide, Armenians were forced out of Turkey Both the Roman and Byzantine churches tried to con- into Syria, Lebanon, and other Middle Eastern countries, vince the Armenian Apostolic Church to reunite with and many emigrated later to Europe, the United States, them, to no avail. However, there were some conversions and elsewhere. In the Middle East, the headquarters of to Catholicism, and there were a number of Armenian the Armenian Evangelical churches is called the Union Catholics living in Constantinople, Mardin, Aleppo, of the Armenian Evangelical Churches in the Near East. Jerusalem, Ispahan, Baghdad, Nakhitchévan, Crimea, The Armenian Evangelical churches have established nu- Poland, Transylvania, and Italy. merous churches and schools in the Levant region, where In 1740, a Catholic patriarchate was established in Christian education is an essential part of the educational Lebanon. And in 1830 another one was established in endeavor. There are also Armenian Evangelical churches Constantinople when Sultan Mahmoud recognized the and schools in Armenia, Europe, and the Americas. Catholics as a sect. After World War I, the patriarchate Only of Lebanon became the sole church authority for all Ar- References and Resources menian Catholics. Aram I, Catholicos of Cilicia. 2008. “Pontifical Message, Hask.” An important factor in the educational ministries of In Revue Mansuelle Armenienne Catholicosat Armenien. the Armenian Catholic Church is the Mekhitarist Fa- Antelias: Armenian Catholicosate of Cilicia. (In Armenian). thers’ monastic order, established in 1717 in St. Lazar, ———. 2011. Taking the Church to the People. Antelias: Arme- Venice. Through their many publications on Arme- nian Catholicosate of Cilcia. nian spirituality, culture, and history, Armenia’s Chris- Arpee, Leon. 1946a. A Century of Armenian Protestantism tian heritage has been preserved. The Mekhitarists also 1846–1946. New York: The Armenian Missionary Associa- opened many schools around the world to instill within tion. students both Christian and Armenian values, educating ———.Copy 1946b. A History of Armenian Christianity from the Be- the mind and heart. ginning to Our Time. New York: The Armenian Missionary The Armenian Catholic Church, through its many Association. schools and scout movements, provides Catholic reli- Dadoyan, Seta. 2003. The Armenian Catholicosate from Cilicia gious education as part of school curricula and programs. to Antelias. Antelias: The Armenian Catholicosate of Cilicia. Lang, David Marshal. 1981. The Armenians: A People in Exile. The Armenian Evangelical Church London: George Allen & Unwin. In the 19th century, there was an intellectual and spiri- Nersoyan, Hagop. 1963. A History of the Armenian Church, tual awakening in Constantinople. In 1829, under the with Thirty-Five Stories. New York: Delphic Press. patronage of the Armenian patriarchate, a school was Nersoyan, Tiran, Archbishop. 1996. Armenian Church His- opened, headed by Krikor Peshdimaljian, who was one torical Studies: Matters of Doctrine and Administration. New of the leading intellectuals of the time. The principal aim York: St. Vartan. of this school was to train qualified clergy to serve in the Ormanian, Malachia. 1955. The Church of Armenia: Her His- Armenian Apostolic Church. Within this school a society tory, Doctrine, Rule, Discipline, Liturgy, Literature, and Exist- was formed called the Pietistical Union, whose members ing Condition. London: A. R. Mowbray & Co. held Bible study meetings, during which questions were Stone, Michael E., Roberta R. Ervin, and Nira Stone, eds. 2002. raised about church practices and traditions that seemed The Armenians in Jerusalem and the Holy Land. Hebrew to conflict with biblical truths. University Armenian Studies no. 4. Leuven: Peeters. Patriarch Matteos Chouhajian excommunicated these Tchilingirian, Hratch. 1994. A Brief Historical and Theological reformists,Contributor and this separation led to the formation of the Introduction to the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church. Armenian Evangelical Church in 1846. Montreal: Diocese of the Armenian Church of Canada. Also in the early 19th century, missionaries of the American Board of Commissioners arrived in Tur- www.armenianorthodoxchruch.org key. Their most important contributions were Wil- www.armenianchurch.org liam Goodell’s Bible translation for Turkish-speaking www.armeniancatholic.org Armenians, which was published in 1842, and Elias www.mekhitar.org Riggs’s Modern Armenian Bible translation, published —Shake’ Geotcherian Art and Architecture, Instructional Use of 71

Art and Architecture, These new worship spaces were decorated in various Early Church Instructional Use of ways (paintings, mosaics, sculpture) with images of the majesty of God, enthroned on a seat of judgment, and During the time of the apostles, and for the next 200 perhaps representing His teaching of His people. From years, there was very little use of art or architecture by the fifth century on, as church building expanded, other Christians for instruction. In the early third century, biblical narratives, both Old Testament and New, were as the church grew and took in more Gentile converts, displayed on the walls, ceilings, and floors and in sculp- Christian visual art began to develop. Given the church’s tures as reminders of God’s salvation story. roots within Judaism and the commandments to not In addition to artwork incorporated into the architec- make images of God, early Christian art employed sym- ture of the church buildings, from the fifth century on il- bols, or pictograms, to convey ideas and remind people lustrations began to be employed in biblical manuscripts, of what God had done. One example, a fish, conveyed providing visual images of key events and ideas in the the ideas of Christians being fish that Jesus had caught scriptures, helping readers imagine and recall the events and the call for Christians to be fishers of men—that is, they were reading about. to share the Gospel with others to save their souls. In addition, ichthys, the common Greek word for fish, was References and Resources used as an anagram of the first letters of the Greek words Jensen, R. M. 2000. UnderstandingOnly Early Christian Art. Oxford: “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” Another symbol, the Routledge. dove, was used as a symbol of peace, as a reminder of Nees, L. 2002. Early Medieval Art. Oxford: Oxford University God’s salvation of Noah and his family and all animal Press. life through the flood, and as a symbol of the coming of Spier, J., ed. 2009. Picturing the Bible: The Earliest Christian Art. the Holy Spirit. Images of anchors, used by Romans as New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. symbols of naval victories, were used to convey Christ’s —Kevin E. Lawson victory over death on the cross. So too were images of crosses themselves. In all of these examples, and more, common images in Roman art were filled with new Art and Architecture, meaning and used to proclaim and remind believers of CopyInstructional Use of important truths of the faith. Tombs and catacombs used by Christians in this early In European history, the Middle Ages date from the col- period were often decorated not only with symbols, but lapse of the western Roman Empire in the fifth century also with artwork that reminded viewers of important to the fall of Constantinople in the 15th century; they Old Testament stories that connected with themes in the merged into the early modern period, which ended church’s teaching. Pictures of the story of Jonah conveyed around the end of the 18th century and the French Revo- God’s grace and mercy in forgiving those who repented. lution. The early Middle Ages were marked by unsettled It also recalled Jesus’s own death and resurrection after conditions as invaders from the north and Far East three days, similar to Jonah’s time inside the great fish, spread fear and confusion among the inhabitants of the and may also have connected with the importance of former Roman empire. Later during this period, famines, baptism, in the same way that Jonah came forth from the plagues, and wars continued to create difficult living con- water with new life. Art was used to help people recall ditions for the general populations. In this climate, the the teachings of scripture, pointing out their fulfillment Christian church, which had experienced sustained and in Christ’s life, death, and resurrection, and emphasizing phenomenal growth especially after its formal acceptance key themes that were important for their lives of obedi- by Emperor Constantine in AD 312, emerged as a center ence to God in the present. for refuge and learning throughout Europe. Up through the third century, there was no distinc- As the church emerged into the open as an official tive Christian architecture. Christians met primarily in organization, it began to build places of public assembly homes Contributorfor worship, instruction, and fellowship. Only that represented its theological development and aware- after the conversion of Constantine and his legalization ness of its place within the wider culture of the time. In and support of the church were buildings constructed the west, the church adopted the form of the basilica, specifically for the gathering of the church community. or “hall of the king,” which was a rectangular building One form of the new church building was the basilica, with side arcades that subdivided the interior; in the a large rectangular building with a raised central space. east, the church favored a more square form with an 72 Art and Architecture, Instructional Use of open and spacious central interior.105 In line with Win- the biblical story and the history of the church were made ston Churchill’s view that, “We shape our buildings, visible. These visual aids (both explicitly pictorial or and afterwards they shape us,”106 these early building symbolic111) were used to emphasize the spoken and the forms both reflected and shaped different approaches read word. Although ecclesiastical art and architecture to the Christian assembly: the east retained a more com- could be and were used for self-serving purposes by both munal understanding of the Christian community at patrons and church bureaucracy, they nevertheless com- worship, while the west developed a more hierarchical municated the biblical story. understanding.107 Over time, in the west, the separation The Protestant Reformation (the early modern pe- of a professional clergy from the laity became reified riod) inaugurated a sea change in the approach to and in stone, as interior church design increasingly created use of art and architecture in the religious life of Europe. physical barriers between the clergy and the rest of the A revolt against the more excessive forms of church worshipping community, thereby communicating a ornamentation, including imagery depicting saints, particular doctrine of the Eucharist to the faithful. resulted in widespread destruction of ecclesiastical art As construction techniques (e.g., flying buttresses) de- (iconoclasm) in those areas where the Reformation took veloped over the centuries, the era of the Gothic cathedral hold (England, Scotland, parts of Germany, and the Low emerged during the High Middle Ages. Sermons in stone, Countries). Among various Anabaptist groups, church these magnificent edifices were deliberately intended to architecture in the form of theOnly simple unadorned give people a taste of heaven through the extravagant “meeting house” taught a theology of Christian life that use of light, height, and the decorative arts. They served emphasized a simple lifestyle. However, this period also not only to draw people toward heaven, but also to draw led to a burst of new artistic endeavor as “poet, artist, the divine down among people.108 Both intuitively and musician, printer and pamphleteer allied with preacher intentionally, these structures taught that God deserved so that, in Luther’s words, the Gospel was not only the best that humans could offer, and in return God preached, but painted, sung, and . . . rhymed.”112 An ex- would indwell such places. When planning to renovate ample of religious art that was intended to inspire devo- the Abbey Church of St. Denis, Abbot Suger argued that tion to costly discipleship was found in the Martyrs Mir- “everything that is most precious should be used above all ror, a 17th-century compendium of Christian martyrs, to celebrate the Holy Mass.”109 especiallyCopy Anabaptist, from the time of Christ to 1660; Not only did the art and architecture of the Middle the second edition contained outstanding woodcuts by Ages reflect a theology of the nature of God, they were the iconographer Jan Luyken.113 also used more didactically to instruct the populace in the The era from the fifth century to the end of the 18th stories and doctrines of the faith. While scholars continue century saw a great diversity of styles of art and archi- to research and debate the definition, use, and extent of tecture, which the Christian church employed to reflect literacy (vernacular or Latin, reading and/or writing) on and to teach the theological perspectives current at during the Middle Ages in Europe,110 it can be asserted the time. that large portions of the populations throughout Europe were unable to read and write. Furthermore, during the References and Resources early Middle Ages many theological works continued to Churchill, Winston. 1943. Address to the House of Commons be written in Latin, the language of the former Roman (Meeting in the House of Lords), October 28. Accessed 22 empire, which would have made those treatises inac- July 2013. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/ cessible to many with only rudimentary education. The quotations. church’s buildings provided an immediate and invaluable Giles, Richard. 2004. Re-Pitching the Tent: Re-ordering the visual aid in religious instruction. Through carvings and Church Building for Worship and Mission. 3rd ed. Norwich, statuary, stained glass windows, textiles, and paintings, UK: Canterbury Press. Matheson, Peter. 2001. The Imaginative World of the Reforma- 105. Richard Giles, Re-Pitching the Tent; Re-ordering the Church Build- tion. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Publishers. ing for Worship and Mission, 3rd ed. (Norwich, UK: Canterbury Press, 2004), 35–40.Contributor 106. Winston Churchill, Address to the House of Commons (meeting 111. See Richard Taylor, How to Read a Church; A Guide to Symbols and in the House of Lords), 28 October 1943, http://www.winstonchurchill.org/ Images in Churches and Cathedrals (Mahwah, NJ: Hidden Spring/Paulist learn/speeches/quotations (accessed 22 July 2013). Press, 2005). 107. Giles, Re-Pitching the Tent, 40. 112. Peter Matheson, The Imaginative World of the Reformation (Min- 108. Robert A. Scott, The Gothic Enterprise: A Guide to Understanding , MN: Augsburg Fortress Publishers, 2001), 25. the Medieval Cathedral (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 153. 113. John D. Roth, “Dying to Live: The Martyrs Mirror and Its Compli- 109. Ibid., 155. cated Legacy in the Free Church Tradition” (lecture presented at the Acadia 110. See Rosamond McKitterick, ed., The Uses of Literacy in Early Medi- Centre for Baptist and Anabaptist Studies, Acadia University, Wolfville, aeval Europe (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Nova Scotia, 1 October 2012). Art and Mission 73

McKitterick, Rosamond, ed. 1990. The Uses of Literacy in Early how Christian visual culture can be used to transform the Mediaeval Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University local worldview to encompass Christianity. Press. Roth, John D. 2012. “Dying to Live: The Martyrs Mirror and Its Hybrid Styles of Christian Art Complicated Legacy in the Free Church Tradition.” Lecture The indigenous peoples of the various places Europeans presented at the Acadia Centre for Baptist and Anabaptist evangelized already had their own art forms and styles. Studies, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, 1 October. Usually, the European missionary would have a local art- Scott, Robert A. 2003. The Gothic Enterprise; A Guide to Un- ist create a likeness of an artwork brought from Europe, derstanding the Medieval Cathedral. Berkeley: University of and that likeness would contain some elements of the California Press. indigenous art forms or styles. Over time, local Christian Taylor, Richard. 2005. How to Read a Church: A Guide to Sym- art style tends to settle into a hybrid of European Chris- bols and Images in Churches and Cathedrals. Mahwah, NJ: tian art and local styles. Most parts of the world now are Hidden Spring/Paulist Press. comfortable depicting Jesus as looking like the people of —Carol Anne Janzen that culture. This is a way of making the art attractive and familiar to local people, thus inviting imitation of the Christian stories and concepts. As postcolonial Christi- Art and Mission anity grows in various parts ofOnly the world, Christian art- ists are exploring more deeply the local art traditions as European missionaries set off to evangelize the New vehicles for Christian expression. These contemporary World, sub-Saharan Africa, and the East beginning in expressions of Christianity can in turn be used to edu- the 1520s. At first they didn’t speak the languages of the cate others in the local community and in communities indigenous peoples of these places, so they brought with around the world. them artworks depicting the fundamentals of Christian- ity. Europeans at the time understood art to be a univer- Art Schools sal language. Many missionary groups established art schools in the The practice of evangelizing with art did not end with countries being evangelized as a way of spreading the the colonial era; it continues. One notable example from gospel.Copy In the 16th through 19th centuries, easy, afford- recent years is the Jesus Mafa project, which began in able forms of mass production of images were not widely West Cameroon, where villagers acted out Bible stories, available in mission territory, so local artists and artisans photographs were taken, and a French artist painted the were the only means of production. Well-regarded art scenes. Prints of the paintings then were used to spread schools were created in Cuzco, Peru, and in Japan. In the good news in other villages in West Africa. central South America, a network of artisan camps, reductions in English or reducciones in Spanish, were Art and Worldview established by the Jesuits in the 17th and 18th centuries. Art is similar to language, in that it contributes to and re- Smaller efforts are still common today, often as a way to flects the construction of worldview. The visual idiom of create an income stream for poor communities in the a culture reflects its understanding of space, time, nature, developing world. eternity, human purpose, relationships, and so forth. To introduce a new way of visualizing the world neces- References and Resources sarily challenges aspects of a culture’s self- and world- Association pour la diffusion de l’Evangelie. “Why Images?” understanding. For example, while Christians affirm the Vie de Jesus Mafa. Accessed 8 May 2013. http://www.jesus power of Christianity to reframe Dalit self-understanding mafa.com/?page_id=317&lang=en. in contemporary India, unintended consequences of Bailey, Gauvin A. 2001. Art on the Jesuit Missions in Asia and cultural reframing have not always been so well received. Latin America, 1542–1773. Toronto: University of Toronto Margaret Miles (1985), for example, asserts that white- Press. washingContributor hierarchical depictions of heavenly and eccle- Lara, Jaime. 2004. City, Temple, Stage: Eschatological Architec- siastical scenes in newly Protestant churches in the 16th ture and Liturgical Theatrics in New Spain. Notre Dame, IN: century contributed to the German Peasant War. University of Notre Dame Press. In any context in which Christianity presents a coun- Miles, Margaret R. 1985. Image as Insight: Visual Understand- tercultural worldview, Christian educators have to attend ing in Western Christianity and Secular Culture. Boston: to the visual structures that support the dominant culture Beacon Press. (whether it is a secular or faith-based culture) and discern —Eileen M. Daily 74 Art as Christian Practice

Art as Christian Practice On the other hand, the theologians of the Protestant Reformation, especially Calvin and Zwingli, discouraged Art, preceding written language, has existed since the the use of art (icons and images) in the church (Calvin’s beginning of ancient human civilization. Ancient art ap- Institute). Protestant theology focuses on the individual’s pears to express and to communicate human activities personal relationship with God, primarily through the and is assumed to have provided religious symbols. As Word. It emphasizes hearing the Word more than visual Bailey notes, “While it is not true today as it once was that arts for Christian education. Also, Luther encouraged all art is religious, it is always true that religion creates all believers, including children, to learn the Bible. He art” (1922, 13). Art, as symbols and images, has been used translated the Bible into German, which was made avail- as an effective communication tool in Christian educa- able to the common people by means of the invention of tion. Art includes many forms of expression, such as the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg. Consequently, music, dance, drama, and visual arts. This article focuses the use of art for educational purposes was drastically on visual arts, including painting, sculpture, architecture, reduced during the Middle Ages under the Reformation photography, and video. (Michalski 1993, 43–75). Outside of specific instructions for artistic images for In response to the Protestants’ iconoclasm, the Catho- the Tabernacles, ancient Hebrews were prohibited from lic Church in the 16th century deliberately used the arts making images in connection with their faith due to idol for its worship and theology and Onlydecreed in the Council worship, described in Exodus 20:22, 32 and other parts of Trent that the arts should serve the church as direct of the Old Testament. However, it is evident that the use and compelling in their narrative presentation. The of art for religious expression and education is prevalent Catholic Church also decreed that art was to provide an among Hebrew traditions, although only a few of them accurate presentation of the biblical narrative or a saint’s are in existence today: for example, the tabernacle, the life, rather than adding incidental and imaginary mo- two temples in Jerusalem, frescoes on the walls of Jewish ments. This was part of the Counter-Reformation and led synagogues (Dura Europas Synagogue in Syria), and the to the baroque period of art, which was adopted because Jewish catacombs in Rome (Brockman n.d.). of the Roman Catholic Church’s renewed interest in at- During the early development of the Christian faith, tracting the public to its worship centers and to embody when Christianity was undergoing persecution by the the artsCopy in its sacramental and pedagogical goals (Paoletti Roman Empire, drawn images were used to commu- and Radke 2005, 514). Rembrandt’s The Prodigal Son is nicate followers’ identity as Christian through symbols representative of the art of this period. such as a fish, a grapevine, or a shepherd with a lamb on During the 17th to 19th centuries, the use of art was his shoulder. From the period when Christianity was ad- discouraged in the church for educational purposes be- opted by Constantine, in the fourth century, through the cause of an emphasis on intellectualism. On the other medieval period, art became one of the primary means hand, the use of art and images was revived with Schleier- for Christian education; paintings, sculptures, mosaics, macher’s theological emphasis on personal experiences, and other symbolic figures were used to teach Christian feelings, and intuition (Thiessen 2004, 159). During the stories (Bailey 1922, 17). 20th century, the response to incorporating arts in theo- Christian art became the subject of theological dispute logical education was divided between those who sup- during the Middle Ages. In the this ported it (Paul Tillich, John Cobb Jr., and Mark C. Tay- became known as the “iconoclastic dispute.” The Eastern lor) and those who rejected it (Bultmann, Barth, Ogden, Orthodox Church incorporated icons (images and arts) and Kaufman) (Dillenberger 1985, 601–608). Among into the sacramental life of the church. A theologian contemporary theologians, major consideration of the who supported the use of icons in the church and en- subject of incorporating art in Christian theological edu- gaged in the theological debate was John of Damascus cation emerged and developed along the following lines: (AD 675–749), a Syrian monk and a priest, who was also “how art can function as a source of and in theology” considered one of “the last of the fathers” of the Eastern (Tillich, Rahner, Dillenberger); “the art work as a shaper Orthodox ContributorChurch. He argued that the proper veneration of meaning in today’s culture” (Brown, Cox, Kung); “the of religious images of Christ, the Virgin, or the saints was essential role of imagination in theology” (Lynch, Mc- a useful and important aspect of a living faith that took Intyre, Green), and the beauty of God (Van der Leeuw, the fact of the material incarnation of the divine Word Barth, Von Balthasar) (Thiessen 2004, 204–205). Today, seriously. His teachings heavily influenced the Eastern art is widely integrated in Christian education due to Orthodox world, where icons still play a far greater role the development of educational psychology as well as than in Western Christianity (McGuckin 2001, 145). the availability of high-tech media. Christian educators Art, Painting 75 must discern how best to use forms and images for those limited or not available. Painting has often provided a flooded by art. visual depiction of historic events in Christianity and Art, as an expressive tool in the teaching and learning continues to be utilized in both religious and secular processes, is integrated in Christian education in various educational contexts to provide a visual sense of real- ways. Art is often used as a visual aid, which helps illus- ity or as symbolic representations of actual historical or trate ideas. Art can also be used for an instructive func- eschatological events and to teach students the meaning tion, just as it was used to teach Bible stories during the and value of artistic expression. Middle Ages. Art, through the functions of emotion, can Material forms of visual expression through painting inspire and motivate people to experience and act toward are evident throughout the historical development of the goals of Christian education and living. Art encour- Christianity and continue to flourish in contemporary ages people, especially children and youth, to participate contexts of the Christian faith. Although painting is not in learning processes by allowing them to express their common to all historical and contemporary denomina- ideas about God and the Word. tions and groups, the church has used painting and other art forms as a means to mediate the Gospel’s message References and Resources in the ministry of evangelism and for the purposes of Bailey, A. E. 1922. The Use of Art in Religious Education. New religious catechesis and continuing education, through York, Cincinnati: Abingdon Press. visual means, for students in everyOnly level of both formal Brockman, J. S. n.d. A Brief History of Jewish Art. http://www and informal learning. Painting transcends certain learn- .myjewishlearning.com/culture/2/Art/History_and_Theory/ ing limitations. For individuals too young to read and for Jewish_Art_History.shtml. the hearing impaired, artistic presentations serve as edu- Dillenberger, J. 1985. “Contemporary Theologians and the cational resources and have the capacity to affect them Visual Arts.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion at intellectual, emotional, and spiritual levels of learning. 53 (4): 599–615. Individuals who are sight-impaired may also learn from Institutes of the Christian Religion. 2007. Book 1, Chapter 11, painting through the sense of touch. As a painting’s vi- Section 7. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers. http:// sual content is explained through verbal narration, an www.vor.org/rbdisk/html/institutes/1_11.htm. individual, by feeling the texture of an artistic work, gains McGuckin, J. 2001. The Eastern Christian Tradition. Edited by realCopy and immediate contact with the meaning and value G. Mursell. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press of the artistic work. Michalski, S. 1993. Reformation and the Visual Arts: The Protes- Paintings as expressions of religious faith were first tant Image Question in Western and Eastern Europe. London, found on Roman sarcophagi, with the earliest depiction New York: Routledge. apparently at Megiddo, circa AD 70. When Emperor Paoletti, John T., and Gary M. Radke. 2005. Art in Renaissance Constantine adopted the Christian faith, he initiated an Italy. 3rd ed. London: Laurence King Publishing. era of wider acceptance and use of paintings as expres- Thiessen, G. E. 2004. Theological Aesthetics: A Reader. Grand sions to depict religious subjects. The creation of art- Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. works in the medium of painting continues to provide a —Mariana Hwang full-time vocation or bivocational ministry in which the artistically gifted serve God and the community through the creation of meaningful works of art. Often these Art, Painting works are created with educational purposes in mind.

Development in Christian History Educational Contexts and Uses for Art as Painting Beginning with the period of early Christianity, from the Certain schools and programs in Christian educational time of the original 12 apostles until the fifth century; contexts provide training to prepare the artist for di- through the medieval period, from the fifth through the verse art-related vocations in the church, in religious or 15th centuries; through the early modern and Reforma- secular media, in business, in architecture, and in other tion periodContributor in the 16th and 17th centuries, and into the art-related vocations. A stellar example of artistic voca- modern period, including the 21st century, art forms, tion through painting is the Italian master Michelangelo including painting, have continued to function as visual (1475–1564), well-known for his frescoes depicting bib- mediators of the Bible’s message. Paintings, throughout lical themes from Genesis and the Last Judgment, as the history of the church, have served as a way of teach- painted on the ceiling and altar wall, respectively, of the ing biblical truth. Artistic mediation of the biblical mes- Vatican’s Sistine Chapel. sage has been an essential tool in the context of religious Art is a powerful visual aid in teaching history, religion, education, in particular when the written scriptures were and many other subjects. Historically, various forms of 76 Art, Sculpture artistic expression in the medium of painting have pro- References and Resources vided a visually powerful way to teach the Bible, includ- Barbe-Gall, Françoise. 2011. How to Look at a Painting. Lon- ing Judeo-Christian ethics, morality, theology, spiritual don: Francis Lincoln Limited. formation, and other subjects. In great cathedrals and Brown, Michelle P. 2008. The Lion Companion to Christian Art. churches worldwide, as well as in the humblest houses Oxford: Lion. built for Christian worship, painting is often evident in Drury, John. 2002. Painting the Word: Christian Pictures and the sanctuaries and other areas. Paintings are included in Their Meanings. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ecclesial contexts to inspire worship, devotion, reflection, Dyrness, William. 2008. Senses of the Soul: Art and the Visual in contemplative reflection on various biblical themes, and Christian Worship. Eugene, OR: Cascade. to meaningful educational resources to visually teach, in- L’Engle, Madeleine. 1980. Walking on Water: Reflections on form, and encourage the Christian’s knowledge and faith. Faith and Art. Wheaton, IL: Harold Shaw. Certain existing Christian colleges and seminaries pro- Lubbock, Jules. 2006. Storytelling in Christian Art from Giotto vide academic departments offering specific programs to Donatello. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. and courses for training artists in painting and other Ryken, Philip Graham. 2006. Art for God’s Sake: A Call to Re- artistic media. Study in the visual language of painting cover the Arts. Philipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing. provides a process for the inculcation of knowledge and Schaeffer, Francis A. 2006. Art and the Bible. Downers Grove, understanding that both supplements and enriches the IL: InterVarsity Press. Only essential learning tools of reading and writing. The use Valescchi, Marco, and R. Taylor, ill. 1962. Art of the Western of painting as an art form in educational contexts results World: Early Christian to Medieval Painting. New York: in students’ development of various skills and abilities, Golden Press. including visual, intellectual, and spiritual perception, —Mara Lief Crabtree as well as increasing their knowledge and understand- ing of God, the Bible, others, and the broader context of the world. Personal artistic expression through painting Art, Sculpture using acrylic, oil, or other types of pigment, usually ap- plied by brush on paper, canvas, or other materials, is Meaning and Use commonly found in art classes at all levels of formal and SculptureCopy as an art form provides a concrete visual, tac- informal education. For the student, painting personal tile, and three-dimensional context to evoke expressions works of art assists in the development of creativity, of faith, thoughts, and emotions related to biblical, theo- understanding of spatial perspective, color, texture, and logical, and historical concepts and events. Sculptural other values. Personal expression through painting also works often serve as icons to inspire reflection on the provides a means to express emotions and spirituality. possible literal and symbolic meanings of an artistic piece Appropriate engagement with the artistic form of and to encourage deeper levels of prayer, contemplation, painting integrates both intellectual and spiritual devel- and worship of God. In the context of Christian belief opment, bringing balance to the processes of learning and practice, a sculpture itself is never the object of rever- and spiritual formation. Art is essential to understand- ence, adoration, or worship, but always points the viewer ing Christian worship, since biblically and historically, beyond the sculpted object to the greater reality symbol- worship has included many outward visual symbols of ized by the artistic work. biblical truth: crosses, candles, liturgical vessels for Holy Sculpture provides options for contextual placement Communion, clerical vestments, baptismal fonts, and of a work not possible with one-dimensional art forms. other items meaningful to the practice of worship. These Sculptural works provide ample opportunities for use as symbols are concrete items that increase and deepen learning resources in diverse educational settings, from the knowledge of Christian faith through visual means. childhood education to graduate work. One benefit of Education in art, including painting, is needed for semi- using sculpture in educational settings is its ease of use narians who are training to lead congregations in the dis- by individuals at various levels of intellectual and physi- cipline of Contributorworship. Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper cal ability and training. Early childhood education in art (1498); El Greco’s The Miracle of Christ Healing the Blind often includes students’ practice in creating simple clay (c. 1570); Mattia Preti’s John the Baptist Preaching (c. forms of humans, animals, or inanimate objects. The 1650), Bartolomé Murillo’s Adoration of the Magi (1660), opportunity to sculpt even simple forms encourages cre- and numerous other classic works, as well as the plethora ativity, knowledge of dimension and scale, and practice of contemporary paintings with Christian themes, con- in visual-tactile coordination. Learning to sculpt at any tinue to be used in diverse educational contexts in both level of artistic knowledge and proficiency provides the the church and the academy. sculptor with practice in translating ideas into concrete Asbury Theological Seminary 77 representations through the use of various sculpting levels, from early childhood education, with students media and the tactile or tool-based manipulation of any forming simple clay sculptures, to the creation of sophis- medium for expressing an idea, object, or symbol. ticated sculptural forms in colleges, universities, seminar- A biblical example of sculpting, not for artistic ex- ies, and schools for art education and training. Education pression, but as a symbolic means to convey truth in an and training in the meaning, creation, and uses of sculp- instructive, visual manner, is the Ark of the Covenant ture are important to the Christian community because (Exod. 25:1–20) as used in the religious life of God’s of the demand for various three-dimensional and bas- people. Representations of the angelic cherubim, two relief pieces used in sanctuaries, other ecclesial spaces, figures with wings spread and facing one another on op- and educational settings, including indoor and outdoor posite sides of the ark, with faces turned downward to- environments. In these contexts, sculptural pieces be- ward the cover of the ark (vv. 17–20), were described as come part of the architectural and artistic ambience used being created through “hammered work” (v. 18, NASB), to convey truth through object and symbol. a type of sculpture. Sarcophagi, above-ground stone cof- fins of the early Christian centuries, often contained bas- References and Resources relief sculptures or carvings conveying certain meanings Christian, Kathleen Wren, and David J. Drogan. 2010. Pa- through artistic forms. As Christianity continued to tronage and Italian Renaissance Sculpture. Burlington, VT: increase in number of adherents, broadening its influ- Ashgate. Only ence throughout many countries and diverse cultures, Debidour, Victor, Henry. 1968. Christian Sculpture. Translated free-standing sculptures, often of biblical figures, were by Robert Cunningham. Portsmouth, NH: Hawthorn. included in various cathedrals and schools for higher Jung, Jacqueline E. 2013. The Gothic Screen: Space, Sculpture learning. Although the use of sculpture was not with- and Community in the Cathedrals of France and Germany. out its critics, who cited the commandment forbidding New York: Cambridge University Press. creation of representative images or idols (Exod. 20:4), McClinton, Katharine Morrison. 1962. Christian Church Art sculpture was viewed by many Christians not merely as Through the Ages. New York: Macmillan. a form of ecclesial art, but as an educational resource McCollough, C. R., and M. C. Tirabassi. 2000. Faith Made to represent biblical truths in visual, three-dimensional Visible: Shaping the Human Spirit in Sculpture and Word. forms. These representations were considered especially CopyCleveland, OH: United Church Press. important in eras when biblical texts were generally not Spier, Jeffrey. 2009. Picturing the Bible: Earliest Christian Art. available for the masses. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. The artistic medium of sculpture lends itself to a broad Van Zeller, Hubert. 1959. Approach to Christian Sculpture. range of materials, among them various kinds of stone, Lanham, MD: Sheed & Ward. including marble and granite; precious and other metals, —Mara Lief Crabtree including silver, gold, and bronze; many kinds of wood; and numerous types of modern synthetic materials. Sculptural forms are also used in diverse types of ceramic Asbury Theological Seminary creations, jewelry, cemetery headstones, ecclesial art, his- torical monuments, and ornamentation for gardens. The Introduction creation of each diverse type may be taught in specific ed- Asbury Theological Seminary is a multidenominational ucational settings and designed with an emphasis on vari- evangelical seminary in the Wesleyan tradition located ous themes relevant to the Christian faith. For example, in Wilmore, Kentucky. Currently, Asbury Seminary Michelangelo Buonarroti Simoni’s The Pieta (1499) and enrolls almost 1,600 students per year at its campuses Andrea del Verrocchio’s Christ and St. Thomas (1467– in Wilmore, Kentucky, and Orlando, Florida, and its 1483) have continued to serve as concrete educational extended learning (online) community. The seminary resources in sculpture, encouraging people’s connection remains committed to producing leaders for ministry with the reality and meaning of biblical events. in primarily Wesleyan denominations (though non- Contributor Wesleyan students number among its population) and Sculpture in Educational Contexts forming students spiritually through rich community Sculpture as a resource for education allows the learner formation experiences. to experience both visual and kinesthetic or tactile styles of learning. Sculpture’s three-dimensional qualities allow History works to be experienced through touch, which is espe- Rooted in the evangelical Wesleyan tradition, Asbury cially meaningful in educational settings for the sight- Theological Seminary was founded in 1923 in Wilmore, impaired. The art of sculpture may be studied at many Kentucky, by Henry Clay Morrison, sitting president 78 Asbury Theological Seminary of Asbury College. Morrison had received an abun- renamed Dunnam campus in his honor. Dunnam also dance of correspondence from Asbury College gradu- oversaw the expansion of the Beeson International Center, ates that made him concerned that many seminaries devoted to the training of global ministry leaders. From in the United States were straying away from historic 2004 to 2006, Dr. Jeff Greenway presided over Asbury Christian teaching, notably the divine inspiration of the Seminary, founding a new PhD program in biblical studies Bible, the atonement of Christ, and the second coming from a generous gift by Dan . of Christ. In 1920, Morrison announced plans for creat- In 2006, Greenway resigned his presidency due to ten- ing a graduate theological school that would hold tightly sions with the board of trustees. Dr. J. Ellsworth Kalas, a to orthodox theology. This announcement was met with professor of preaching at the seminary as well as a former significant support in the form of endorsements and United Methodist pastor, became interim president and financial contributions. Morrison enlisted the help of was then named president in 2008. Kalas oversaw new several of his friends in higher education and recruited building projects and led the seminary with his rich faculty members from reputable seminaries and divin- wisdom and preaching acumen. In 2009, Dr. Timothy ity schools. The seminary soon expanded in size and C. Tennent, a professor of missions at Gordon-Conwell repute, and Morrison resigned his position as president Theological Seminary, was appointed president of As- of Asbury College to assume the full-time presidency of bury Seminary. Tennent’s experience as a missionary and Asbury Theological Seminary. scholar of global Christianity broughtOnly issues of missions It became apparent to Morrison that for Asbury Theo- and evangelism in the 21st century to the forefront of As- logical Seminary to fully flourish, it must separate itself bury’s mission and focus. Under Tennent, the seminary from Asbury College. As a result of financial blessing, has added several new degree programs, buildings, and a growing student body, and the college’s concern over numerous faculty and staff members. As of 2013, Asbury its accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges Seminary enrolls approximately 1,600 students from and Schools (SACS), Asbury Seminary became an inde- more than 29 countries and nearly 90 denominations. pendent institution in 1940. After Morrison passed away, Dr. Julius McPheeters as- Notable Academic Programs sumed the presidency of Asbury Seminary in 1942. Under Asbury Theological Seminary currently offers several his leadership, the seminary rapidly expanded, adding the master’sCopy and doctoral level programs. At the graduate Henry Clay Morrison Administration Building, Estes level, the seminary offers a master of divinity (MDiv) Chapel, the B. L. Fischer Library, and new academic degree and a host of master of arts programs, with con- chairs. The seminary continued to enroll students at a centrations in aging and spirituality, biblical studies, pace faster than student housing could hold, leading to theological studies, Christian education, Christian lead- the construction of new apartments for students. Asbury ership, church planting, counseling, intercultural studies, Seminary was fully accredited through the Association spiritual formation, and youth ministry. The curriculum of Theological Schools (ATS) in 1946 after remarkable for graduate programs is broad, and students have the growth in faculty, students, and resources. The seminary opportunity to take courses in exegetical method, church temporarily lost accreditation in 1951 as a result of aca- history, Christian education, philosophy of religion, eth- demic controversy, but soon regained it, in 1960. ics, preaching, and leadership. At the postgraduate level, In 1962, Dr. Frank Bateman Stanger assumed the the institution offers ThM and PhD programs in biblical presidency. Stanger expanded Asbury in unprecedented studies and intercultural studies, as well as a doctor of ways, adding endowed lectureships and new degree pro- ministry (DMin) program with several concentrations. grams, expanding academic services, increasing enroll- ment, embarking on building projects, and implementing Mission and Philosophy overall restructuring. Stanger laid the groundwork for the The mission statement of Asbury Theological Seminary presidency of Dr. David McKenna, who helmed the semi- reads: “Asbury Seminary is a community called to prepare nary from 1982 to 1994. McKenna’s presidency oversaw theologically educated, sanctified, Spirit-filled men and advances inContributor educational technology, the founding of the women to evangelize and to spread scriptural holiness E. Stanley Jones School for World Mission and Evange- throughout the world through the love of Jesus Christ, lism, and the doctor of ministry program, made possible in the power of the Holy Spirit and to the glory of God by the financial gift of Ralph Waldo Beeson. the Father.” The defining values of Asbury Seminary are In 1994, Maxie Dunnam became president of Asbury, tenfold: (1) service to the global church, (2) providing overseeing the establishment of two new seminary cam- theological education faithful to God’s Word, (3) per- puses, a campus in Orlando, Florida, and the extended sonal and community formation, (4) pursuing a diverse learning (online) campus. The campus in Orlando was and missional student body, (5) lifelong learning for min- Asia and Christian Education 79 istry leaders, (6) equipping pastors for engagement with practices of mortifying the body. Indeed, many modern the global church, (7) serving emerging ethnic churches, interpreters of the medieval ascetics have pathologized (8) developing new constituencies, (9) serving the laity, these practices, linking them to contemporary diagno- and (10) strengthening the budget and developing a ses of anorexia or practices of self-harm such as cutting network of support. These defining values align with the or compulsive exercising. Hollywood movies often use seminary’s Wesleyan heritage, as well as its commitment the visual shock value of these practices to point to the to global Christianity. Students and faculty are required warped nature of the institutional church and those who to sign an ethos statement, which binds the community dedicated their lives to God in this period. To the con- together in principles of service, seeking the good, avoid- temporary mind, the denial of desires as natural as eating ing evil, and practicing the means of grace. The statement and sleeping evokes a troubling hatred of the body and is inspired by the seminary’s Wesleyan heritage. its desires, rather than a reorientation of those desires toward holiness. However, early Christian ascetical texts References and Resources both advocated moderation in practices of abstinence Asbury Theological Seminary. n.d. “Our Defining Values and and self-restraint and often understood the body in a Strategic Vision.” Accessed 30 March 2013. http://www markedly positive light.115 Before we join the dismissal of .asburyseminary.edu/about/our-theological-orientation/ten ascetics as self- and body-haters, we should take another -core-values-of strategic-vision/. look at the wisdom they embody.Only Kinghorn, Kenneth C. 2010. The Story of Asbury Theological Ascetics took seriously the notion that mind, body, and Seminary. Lexington, KY: Emeth Press. soul are inextricably linked, and therefore they were not —Benjamin Espinoza haters of the body, but rather understood its importance as an instrument in the life of the soul. The bodily forma- tion of engagement in ascetic practices made possible Asceticism new forms of knowing one’s self and God. In addition, ascetic practitioners understood their practices of prayer Asceticism has at its root the Greek word askesis, which through bodily self-discipline to benefit not only their initially referred to the training of athletes and later came personal salvation but also that of the broader commu- to refer to the spiritual training of Christians. Ascetics nity,Copy through defining a shared identity. This identity was leveraged the training of the body to influence the sancti- not grounded in the social practices and bodily trappings fication of the soul, seeking holiness and freedom through of the world, but attempted to free itself from this forma- disciplines of the body such as fasting, continuous prayer, tion to be put into God’s service more fully. voluntary poverty, and humble dress. Ascetics exist in —Katherine Turpin many religious traditions, including Buddhism and the group of traditions broadly categorized under the name Hinduism, but Christianity in the Middle Ages and mod- Asia and Christian Education ern period was particularly marked by ascetic practices. As religious studies scholar Gavin Flood notes, the goal of Christianity began in Asia and soon spread across much ascetical practice has at its heart a formational outcome: of the continent. Thriving Christian churches (Orthodox, “The ascetic conforms to the discipline of the tradition, Nestorian, and Monophysite) spread throughout the shapes his or her body into particular cultural forms over Middle East to India (the Mar Thoma Christians) and time, and thereby appropriates the tradition.”114 Rather China before the rise of Islam. Some of those churches than the post-Reformation emphasis on catechetical still survive, albeit under reduced circumstances. A sec- instruction of doctrine as the primary way for people to ond wave of Christianity came to eastern Asia during the learn the Christian tradition, medieval and modern ascet- 16th century as Catholic missionaries worked in India, ics came to take on the tradition through the intentional Indonesia, Japan, China, and most successfully in the practices of the body. Philippines. Yet another wave accompanied European WhenContributor we imagine ascetics in the Middle Ages, we trade and military expansion during the late 19th and often conjure up images of extreme bodily deprivation, early 20th centuries (though the missionaries were often such as medieval mystics who subsisted on only the Eu- at odds with their own governments on local matters, and charist for long periods of time, or monks who engaged the mission expansion can by no means be reduced to an in self-flagellation, the wearing of hair shirts, or other

115. Kallistos Ware, “The Way of the Ascetics: Negative or Affirma- 114. Gavin Flood, The Ascetic Self: Subjectivity, Memory and Tradition tive?” in Asceticism, ed. Vincent L. Wimbush and Richard Valantasis (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004). (Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 1995). 80 Asia and Christian Education aspect of colonialism). It is thus impossible to speak of a and internal cultures of these schools vary widely, they single process by which Christianity came to the conti- share both an interest in the formation of clergy and lay nent or its several parts. It is also impossible to generalize leaders and, in many cases, significant relationships to about the many forms in which Christianity exists cur- the worldwide church. The World Council of Churches, rently across the continent. along with other organizations, is working toward con- One can say, however, that today about 300 million sistent educational standards that will allow for greater Christians live on the continent, and demographers ex- international cooperation and shared learning. pect that number to double by 2050. The spread of the Second, within the congregational context, Christian religion is now in the hands of Asians working in their education occurs in many ways conditioned by local tra- own lands and others: for example, more than 15,000 ditions, the influence of pre-Christian religious practices, Korean missionaries work across the continent, while and societies’ social and economic needs. Frequently, the 40,000–80,000 Indians work with ethnic groups other methods of Western missionaries coexist with more tra- than their own. The largest Christian community re- ditional practices emphasizing memorization and recita- sides in the Philippines (86 million), and China, India, tion. The centuries-old educational traditions in many Indonesia, and South Korea each have at least 10 million Asian countries emphasize rote memorization of content adherents. The next wave of growth, then, promises to be through recitation as a way of honoring the role of the from Asians to Asians. teacher and the centrality of the collectedOnly wisdom of the At present, Christianity plays a range of roles in dif- past. This learning style has emphasized factual knowl- ferent regions of Asia. South Korea, for example, has a edge, recall of data, and respect for educators. In at least very large Christian minority, and a significant Christian some Asian countries, notably Korea, the culturally sanc- movement (both legally recognized and underground) tioned group orientation leads to high levels of commit- exists in China. Small Christian minorities exist in Japan, ment to building up the local church or denomination. Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, all in rela- Education thus includes orientation to the group and tive political freedom. In the Middle East, Malaysia, and learning how to work for it. some central Asian countries, one or another version of the medieval millet system, in which Christianity and Asian Theologies Judaism exist with recognized, if limited rights, still Just Copyas the structures supporting Christian education prevails. In short, the variations of legal and social re- both draw on Western models and seek to reflect local strictions (or their absence) on Christian practice across conditions, so too does the theological content. The the continent mean that one must study Christianity on spread of Pentecostalism in many parts of Asia, often regional or national bases rather than continent-wide. side by side with very ancient forms of Christianity, However, in most parts of Asia, Christianity remains the reflects a region-wide interest in versions of the faith fastest growing religion. that reflect a robust sense of the presence—and acces- sibility—of the spiritual in everyday life. For example, Educational Structures Korean minjung theology, a liberationist movement To prepare leaders for these fast-growing churches, theo- emphasizing the validity of the people’s collective view logical education in Asia takes several forms. First, semi- of God and self, has influenced thinkers across the con- naries on the Western model began with Serampore Col- tinent as they seek a postcolonial Christianity that can lege in India (1818), and postsecondary institutions for speak to the deep poverty and political oppression or the training of clergy now exist in many Asian countries. corruption of many countries while also respecting the These include Nanjing Union Theological Seminary, dignity of their peoples and traditions. Similarly, water reopened in China in 1981, as well as at least 19 regional buffalo theology in Thailand, Karma Marga in India, seminaries (as well as an unknown number of illegal and Pain of God theology in Japan are all ways of taking schools) in the same country. The ecumenical Associa- seriously indigenous Asian religious traditions while tion of Theological Schools in South East Asia counts 102 thinking about the world in Christian terms. Truly in- member institutionsContributor in 16 countries (including Australia digenous Christian theological work is underway across and New Zealand), while the Pentecostal Asia Pacific the continent, reshaping not only the content of theol- Theological Association has more than 50 schools in ogy but also the ways in which it is done. Asian theo- Asia and dozens more in Oceania. Organizations such logians dialogue with the Western traditions, but often as the United Board for Higher Christian Education in transform the older work into something distinctive to Asia provide extensive financial support and technical their own setting. indicating that, just as Christianity expertise to a range of schools. While the theologies, cur- began in Asia, it has returned there with worldwide ricula, faculty qualifications, educational prerequisites, ramifications. Or rather, it never left. Asia Graduate School of Theology 81

References and Resources The AGST was established with the following Evers, G. 2005. The Churches in Asia. Delhi: ISPCK. objectives:118 Griffith, S. H. 2007. The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. • To supply teachers for theological schools in Asia. Johnson, T. M., and K. Ross. 2009. Atlas of Global Christianity. • To curtail the “brain drain” to the West. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. • To provide economical training for Asians. Jongeneel, J. A. B., et al., eds. 2010. Christian Mission and • To encourage cultural adaptation of theological Education in Modern China, Japan, and Korea. Studies in education. the Intercultural History of Christianity no. 148. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. It was initially established in five countries: Philippines, Moffett, S. H. 1998. A History of Christianity in Asia. Vol. I, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, and India.119 Currently, there are Beginning to 1500. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. three regional AGSTs: AGST Philippines, AGST Japan, ———. 2005. A History of Christianity in Asia. Vol. II, 1500 to and AGST Alliance. AGST Philippines is a consortium 1900. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. of nine schools; different consortium members host dif- Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion and Public Life. 2011. ferent programs. AGST Japan has nine member schools Global Christianity 2011. http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/ with two study centers, in Tokyo and the Kobe area. 19/global-christianity-event-transcript/. AGST Alliance is made up of 10Only schools from Malaysia, Phan, P. ed. 2010. Christianities in Asia. London: Blackwell Singapore, Thailand, Myanmar, and Cambodia. Module Publishers. courses rotate around the campuses of member schools. Sanneh, L. 2007. Disciples of all Nations. Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press. Most Notable Academic Programs Werner, D., et al. 2009. “Challenges and Opportunities in The AGST offers postgraduate programs. First to be Theological Education in the 21st Century.” Joint Informa- offered by AGST Philippines in 1987 was the doctor of tion Service of ETE/WCC and WOCATI. religious education (now doctor of education). In 2005, —Samjung Kang-Hamilton AGST Alliance started offering a PhD in education. All three AGSTs offer PhD programs in Bible, theology, and churchCopy history. AGST Philippines also offers a PhD in Asia Graduate School of Theology holistic child development and peace studies. Some key Asian leaders today have received their Brief Historical Introduction degrees from AGST. They are serving as seminary presi- “Train Asians in Asia” was the mantra of the Asia dents, academic deans, faculty members, and leaders Theological Association (ATA) in the 1980s. “The of denominations and Christian organizations. AGST Asian Church had depended on western seminaries and programs are gaining wider acceptance and drawing churches for too long, and the time had come for us to students from around the globe. Currently, students in be independent from the West in theological education; AGST Philippines come from 16 countries in Asia, Af- otherwise we ourselves would not be able to grow.”116 rica, and North America. Instead of having many individual postgraduate degree programs that did not meet academic standards, a joint Christian Philosophy and Mission of Education cooperative program among evangelical seminaries in dif- Contextualization is at the heart of the AGST, as ex- ferent countries was proposed by the ATA Executive Com- pressed in its philosophy of theological education: mittee. On 28 December 1983, Dr. Bong Rin Ro, the first ATA general secretary, called a meeting of nine represen- An AGST education seeks to contextualize learning in tatives from Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, terms of communication, organization, theology and edu- and India at the China Evangelical Seminary in . cation. First, it focuses upon shaping message and minis- In this historic meeting, the ATA decided to establish its try informed by the contextual needs of the Asian people. Second, AGST develops educational forms and structures own postgraduate theological school. The Asia Graduate Contributor appropriate to the specific needs of Asia, including its School of Theology (AGST) was officially inaugurated as spiritual, socioeconomic, and political situation. Third, 19 delegates from 15 countries met at the China Graduate AGST emphasizes doing theology in ways appropriate School of Theology on 21–22 June 1984.117

116. Bong Rin Ro, “History of ATA, 1970–1990,” in New Era, New Vi- 118. AGST Philippines, 1987–1989 Doctoral Program in Religious Edu- sion: Celebrating 40 Years of the Asia Theological Association, ed. Bruce cation Catalog, 2–3. Nicholls, Theresa Roco Lua, and Julie Belding (Manila: ATA, 2010), 49. 119. For a comprehensive account of these regional AGSTs, see Ro, 117. Ibid., 52–53. “History of ATA,” 53–59. 82 Asia Theological Association

and authentic to the Asian situation. We seek to relate the Asia was renamed Asia Theological Association.124 Now timeless Gospel more directly to urgent issues of ministry it is the region’s largest association of theological institu- and service in Asia. Finally, AGST develops types of theo- tions, with 264 members in 32 nations.125 This movement logical training that are liberating and creative, avoiding was pioneered by outstanding theologians Dr. Saphir elitism and authoritarianism in our teaching. We seek to Athyal, Dr. Bong Rin Ro, and Dr. Bruce Nicholls, along bridge the widespread gap between academic study and with other Asian and Western missionary educators. practical application in the Asian context. To this end we seek to utilize more fully Asian resources, especially The ATA has been an influential movement for trans- faculty, research materials and texts. We seek to interact forming the training of Christian leaders in Asia. It has with Asian thinkers, theologians and practitioners from a helped pioneer theological education by extension (TEE), variety of perspectives.120 has conducted TEE consultations, and has helped develop TEE textbooks and materials.126 It also provided leadership The AGST provides students with the opportunity to to the Christian education (CE) movement in Asia. be equipped in their own context of ministry. An added advantage is that students educated in Asia tend to stay ATA’s Coordination of Christian Education in Asia in Asia. Brain drain is an ever-present threat for those The ATA has coordinated Asia-wide CE seminars. The students who go to Europe and North America for fur- first seminar, held in Singapore in 1978, focused on the ther studies. theme, “Asian Church: Called toOnly Teach.” The second The AGST “is a sterling example of cooperation among seminar, in 1987, focused on “Asian Church: Called to evangelical groups.”121 The collaboration of seminaries Ministry.” Another seminar was held in Korea in 1990, from a wide spectrum of denominations is a powerful which focused on “Christian Education and Current demonstration of unity in the Body of Christ. By working Trends in Asia.”127 together and sharing resources such as faculty, finances, In 1978, the ATA formed a CE committee for the pro- facilities, and library materials, AGST is able to offer motion of CE in Asia. It published Directory of Christian quality advanced theological degrees, making it possible Education in Asia and Christian Education Bulletin. Dr. to “train Asians in Asia.” Edith Woods, a missionary to Taiwan, was appointed as —Theresa Roco Lua ATA CE coordinator. She traveled to seminaries in sev- eral countriesCopy to give lectures and to acquire information on CE activities. She also became the first director of the Asia Theological Association doctor of education program at the Asia Graduate School of Theology (AGST) in Manila.128 Brief Historical Introduction, Including Christian Tradition Most Notable Academic Programs The Asia Theological Association (ATA) was founded The ATA’s major services are accreditation, consultancy, in 1970 as a direct outcome of the Asia-Pacific Congress theological consultations, publications, and postgraduate on Evangelism, held in Singapore in 1968 with 5,000 training through the AGST. participants. “During the congress some 50 evangelical church leaders and theologians discussed how to pro- Accreditation mote evangelical theological education and to formulate Accreditation is a key function of the ATA through its an evangelical theology in Asia.”122 It was first known as Commission on Accreditation and Educational Develop- TAP-Asia (Theological Assistance Program), the theo- ment (CAED). The accreditation process promotes excel- logical arm of World Evangelical Fellowship (now World lence in theological education and enables institutions to Evangelical Alliance). TAP aimed to “support the devel- achieve their own training objectives.129 opment of national theological commissions and societ- ies, and the interchange of faculty between theological 123 124. Bruce Nicholls, Theresa Roco Lua, and Julie Belding, eds., New schools.” TAP’s first consultation was held in Singa- Era, New Vision: Celebrating 40 Years of the Asia Theological Association pore on 5–7 July 1970. At the third consultation, in Hong (Manila: ATA, 2010), 18. Contributor 125. Joseph Shao, “ATA and New Zealand Connection,” ATA News Kong from 27 December 1973 to 4 January 1974, TAP- (October–December 2012): 1. 126. Bong Rin Ro describes ATA’s work in this area in “History of 120. AGST Philippines, Student Handbook (2012), 2. ATA,” 36–37, 61–66. 121. Floyd Cunningham, “Laying the Foundation for the Asia Graduate 127. Ibid., 66–69. School of Theology-Philippines” (unpublished manuscript, 2004), 1. 128. Ibid., 69. 122. Ro, “History of ATA,” 28. 129. Narendra John, “Message from the Accreditation Secretary” in 123. Ibid., 13. ATA Manual for Accreditation (Manila, Philippines: Asia Theological As- Assemblies of God Church Christian Education 83

Consultancy c. charting the way for local theological ministries in The ATA conducts seminars and provides consultancy Asia; services in areas such as organizational structure, cur- d. creating platforms to promote fellowship and coop- ricula and program development, vision, library develop- eration among evangelical theologians and theological 134 ment, faculty development, governance, finance, leader- schools in Asia. ship development, and teaching methodologies.130 —Theresa Roco Lua

Theological Consultations The ATA has been organizing consultations to discuss Assemblies of God Church issues in theological education and Asian contextual Christian Education theology. Papers in these consultations were later pub- lished in textbooks such as The Bible and Theology in Assemblies of God in the United States is part of an in- Asian Contexts: An Evangelical Perspective on Asian ternational denomination/ movement called the World 131 Assemblies of God Fellowship, which is the largest, most Theology, and The Church in a Changing World: An 135 Asian Response.132 well-known Pentecostal denomination in the world. In the early 20th century, there was a climate of revival Publications in America, and many Pentecostal groups formed. The Assemblies of God was organizedOnly in 1914 by Pentecostal The ATA seeks to develop Asian resources and enhance scholarship through publication and research. It pub- church leaders who recognized the need to provide ac- lishes books, journals (Journal of Asian Evangelical The- countability on doctrine, morals, and finances and also establish institutions such as schools, a publishing house, ology, Journal of Asian Mission), monographs, and the 136 Asia Bible Commentary series, specifically designed for and a mission agency. Assemblies of God churches readers in Asia. adhere to a conservative, evangelical theological position, which they formally describe in their 16-point “State- 137 Asia Graduate School of Theology ment of Fundamental Truths,” written in 1916. The To “train Asians in Asia,” the ATA formed the Asia core beliefs of the Assemblies of God include salvation Graduate School of Theology, a consortium of member throughCopy Jesus Christ, healing for the sick, the imminent institutions that offers postgraduate theological degrees. return of Jesus Christ, and baptism in the Holy Spirit as evidenced by speaking in tongues.138 Summary of Christian Philosophy and Mission of Education Christian Education and Assemblies of God “ATA is a body of theological institutions, committed to Within the wider Pentecostal community as well as in evangelical faith and scholarship, networking together, to the Assemblies of God, there is a unique emphasis on serve the Church in equipping the people of God for the spiritual gifts. Although there is great variation from one mission of the Lord Jesus Christ.”133 During its 40th an- group to another, the spiritual gift focus has often led to unwillingness to adhere to “creeds and other man made niversary celebration in Hong Kong in 2011, the ATA re- 139 affirmed its founding vision and mission for the new era: positions.” It has also led to a general reluctance to dis- cuss issues such as religious education.140 a. contextualizing the Gospel as a missiological necessity in Asia in response to the critical, urgent, contempo- 134. Benjamin Pwee, “Reaffirming Our Founding Vision for a New rary issues of the day; Era,” in New Era, New Vision, ed. Nicholls, Lua, and Belding, 61. b. championing an evangelical theology in Asia in re- 135. Assemblies of God (USA), “The Assemblies of God,” http://ag.org/ sponse to other theologies of the day; top/Press/organization.cfm. 136. Lois Olena, Stanley E. Horton: Shaper of Pentecostal Theology (Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House, 2009), 7. 137. Vinson Synan, The Century of the Holy Spirit: 100 Years of Pente- sociation, 2010), 12. http://www.ataasia.com/sites/default/files/resources/ costal and Charismatic Renewal (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, accreditation%20manual.pdf 2001), 129. 130. “ATAContributor Consultancy Services,” in ATA Manual for Accreditation, 138. Assemblies of God (USA), “Our Core Doctrines,” http://ag.org/ 78–79. top/beliefs/our_core_doctrines. 131. Bong Rin Ro and Ruth Eshenaur, eds. The Bible and Theology in 139. John R. Belcher, “Religious Education and Pastoral Counseling: Asian Contexts (Bangalore: ATA\AETEI, 1984). The Classical Pentecostal Experience,” Pastoral Psychology 53, no. 2 (No- 132. Bruce Nicholls, Theresa Roco Lua, and Julie Belding, eds., New vember 2004): 97. Era, New Vision: Celebrating 40 Years of the Asia Theological Association 140. Edith L. Blumhofer, Restoring the Fatih: The Assemblies of God, (Manila: ATA, 2010). Pentecostalism and American Culture (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 133. ATA Manual for Accreditation, 3. 1993), 114. 84 Assessment/Evaluation in Education

However, Christian education has always been a their youth.146 Sunday school continues to be the most priority in Assemblies of God philosophy and church popular forum for a systematic study of God’s Word in life. The founders of the Assemblies of God recognized the church. Sunday school has proven its effectiveness by from the beginning that youth and education were the teaching biblical principles and godly living to people at church’s biggest challenges. One of the reasons for con- every age and state of life.147 vening the first General Council in 1914 was to discuss Christian education is an integral part of the overall establishing a general bible training school to prepare philosophy of the Assemblies of God. The mission for the next generation for Christian service.141 In the 1940s, Assemblies of God higher education is to educate, nur- efforts began to expand the Assemblies of God perspec- ture, and disciple men and women for effective service tive on education to include the training of young people to Christ, His church, and the world. The Assemblies of in the churches who did not have a call to professional God seeks “to build bridges to succeeding generations ministry. Leaders recognized many new ministry op- and pass on the truths, values, and commitment that portunities during this tumultuous time period and compelled our Pentecostal forefathers.”148 “as a result of the mass mobilization of World War II, educators in the Assemblies of God began to devise ways References and Resources for the denomination to minister to servicemen.”142 This The Assemblies of God. n.d. Assemblies of God (USA) Official led ultimately to the development of the Department of Website. http://ag.org/top/Press/organization.cfm.Only Chaplaincy Ministries, which currently serves not only Belcher, J. R. 2004. “Religious Education and Pastoral Counsel- the military, but also the police/fire, health-care, and ing: The Classical Pentecostal Experience.” Pastoral Psychol- correctional fields. With a continued focus on higher ogy 53 (2): 97–106. education, a General Council resolution in 1953 au- Blumhofer, Edith L. 1989. Pentecost in My Soul: Explorations in thorized the establishment of Evangel College, the first the Meaning of Pentecostal Experience in the Early Assemblies liberal arts college in the Assemblies of God.143 When of God. Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House. Evangel College (now University) opened its doors in ——— . 1993. Restoring the Faith: The Assemblies of God, Pen- 1955, there were 87 students. Since that day, Evangel’s tecostalism and American Culture. Chicago: University of student body has grown to more than 2,000, and more Illinois Press. than 20,000 have graduated over the years. Champion,Copy Richard. 1989. “Sunday School Department— Evangelism, missions, and education have been cen- Teaching and Evangelizing.” In The Assemblies of God at 75, tral to the identity of the Assemblies of God and have 11–19. Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House. resulted in continuing denominational growth at home Lee, Sylvia. 2001–2002. “Marcus Grable ‘Mr. Sunday School’ and abroad. The highly focused mission programs of for the Assemblies of God.” Assemblies of God Heritage the church are designed to establish self-supporting and (Winter): 4–11. self-propagating church bodies in every country. Minis- Olena, Lois. 2009. Stanley E. Horton: Shaper of Pentecostal The- ters and leaders are trained in 2,000 training institutions ology. Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House. across the world with 100,000 students. The Assemblies Synan, Vinson. 2001. The Century of the Holy Spirit: 100 Years of God in the United States has 16 endorsed Bible col- of Pentecostal and Charismatic Renewal. Nashville, TN: leges, universities, and a seminary.144 Thomas Nelson Publishers. Sunday school has also played a significant role in Wood, George. 2007. Core Values: Serving Christ’s Cause with formal Christian education in churches in the Assem- Effectiveness and Excellence. Springfield, MO: Gospel Pub- blies of God family. In the early days of the denomina- lishing House. tion, founders recognized that churches needed “full —Stacie Reck and Marilyn Abplanalp gospel literature and teaching helps.”145 The leaders saw Sunday school as an ideal tool for evangelizing their communities, discipling converts, and indoctrinating Assessment/Evaluation in Education ContributorAssessment and evaluation in education, while some- 141. Olena, Stanley E. Horton, 7. times considered an administrative activity related to sat- 142. Edith L. Blumhofer, Pentecost in My Soul: Explorations in the Meaning of Pentecostal Experience in the Early Assemblies of God (Spring- 146. Richard G. Champion, “Sunday School Department—Teaching field, MO: Gospel Publishing House, 1989), 114. and Evangelizing,” in The Assemblies of God at 75 (Springfield, MO: Gospel 143. Olena, Stanley E. Horton, 7. Publishing House, 1989), 48. 144. Assemblies of God (USA), “Assemblies of God Colleges and Uni- 147. AG Discipleship Ministries, “Sunday School,” http://discipleship versities,” http://colleges.ag.org/resources/annual_stats.cfm. .ag.org/PROCESS/Methods/Sunday_School/index.cfm. 145. Sylvia Lee, “Marcus Grable ‘Mr. Sunday School’ for the Assemblies 148. George Wood, Core Values: Serving Christ’s Cause with Effective- of God,” Assemblies of God Heritage (Winter 2001–2002): 4. ness and Excellence (Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House, 2007), 6. Assessment/Evaluation in Education 85 isfying the requirements of external auditors, are in fact evaluation of selected formative and summative course vitally necessary components of the teaching and learn- assignments. Suitable summative assignments would ing process. Within the domain of education, assessment include such student work as capstone course projects, and evaluation are learning, informing, and reforming selected term papers from core courses, student portfo- activities, the goal of which is to improve the quality and lios, and supervisor evaluation reports. Selected faculty accomplishment of specific student learning goals. A serve as the primary participants in the evaluation of systematic, documented, and sustained assessment pro- a representative sample of student work. The samples cess provides an invaluable decision-making mechanism should be sanitized from student identity and scored by aimed at increasing the effectiveness of the teaching and a rubric designed to measure learning outcomes on a learning process and identifying areas of instructional programmatic level. Assessment findings are presented and curricular improvement. in summary form, indicating the aggregate and percent- Of primary importance is the assessment of student age scores of student learning outcomes related to the learning outcomes related to gains in knowledge, skills, program learning outcomes, and demonstrate the extent and abilities. Over the past 10 years, there has been an to which students have achieved the goals of the educa- ever-increasing shift toward emphasizing the need to tional program, providing indicators of educational ef- define in clear and measurable terms both student learn- fectiveness. The findings are then utilized by faculty and ing objectives (instructional goals) and student learning other academic leaders to identifyOnly goals and determine outcomes (what the student should know or be able to steps to make improvements in course instruction and do at the completion of the course of instruction). In the curriculum revisions. context of formal education, the assessment of student In the context of Christian pedagogy, assessment and learning outcomes is of two basic types: (1) classroom or evaluation seek to strengthen and improve the effective- course-level assessment and (2) program-level assessment. ness of faith development throughout the curriculum and At the course level, assessment and evaluation are the teaching/learning process. Christian education is not vital dimensions of effective teaching and learning. The focused solely on the quality of content and instruction, basic framework for instructional design consists of but also on the transformational outcomes of the learning (1) writing the instructional objectives in clear and mea- as demonstrated in the lives of the students. This requires surable terms, (2) defining the scope and sequence of the anCopy intentional integration of biblical knowledge and un- content (the breadth of concepts covered and the logical derstanding, personal growth and faith development, and sequence of how they should be taught incrementally the relevant application of biblical concepts and prin- throughout the course), (3) determining the appropri- ciples in the writing of instructional objectives, the design ate course activities and assignments, and (4) evaluating of assignments, and the utilization of assessment findings the actual student learning outcomes based primarily on at both the course and program levels. A comprehensive direct evidence of student work. For effective assessment approach to academic assessment in Christian educa- to take place, clear alignment is necessary throughout tion should attend to, support, and measure all of these the course design. The course activities and assignments dimensions as part of the assessment and evaluation pro- need to directly support the instructional objectives, and cess, in order to effectively promote the development of a the instructional objectives should be directly related to vital Christian worldview. and evaluated by specific course assignments, providing a clear evaluation of student learning outcomes. Course References and Resources assignments can be either formative or summative in Banta, Trudy W. 2011. A Bird’s-Eye View of Assessment: Selec- design. Formative assessments measure student learning tions from Editor’s Notes. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. outcomes at specific checkpoints, indicating learning Banta, Trudy W., Elizabeth A. Jones, and Karen E. Black. 2009. progression along the course of instruction. Summative Designing Effective Assessment: Principles and Profiles of assessments are used to evaluate the level of student Good Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. learning outcomes at the conclusion of the course. Se- Diamond, Robert M. 2008. Designing and Assessing Courses lected courseContributor assignments, capstone projects, and student and Curricula: A Practical Guide. 3rd ed. San Francisco: portfolios can all serve as representative samples of direct Jossey-Bass. summative student learning outcomes. Gronlund, Norman E., and Susan M. Brookhart. 2009. Gron- At the program level, specific course-level learning ob- lund’s Writing Instructional Objectives. 8th ed. Upper Saddle jectives should map back to the corresponding objectives River, NJ: Pearson. of the program (curriculum mapping). These program- Suskie, Linda. 2009. Assessing Student Learning: A Common level learning outcomes are then assessed through an Sense Guide. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 86 Association for Biblical Higher Education

Walvoord, Barbara E. 2010. Assessment Clear and Simple: A Experiential—facilitating hands-on ministry, service Practical Guide for Institutions, Departments, and General learning, and intercultural study opportunities with Education. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. an aim to help students discover and develop their —Gino Pasquariello unique God-given gifts, passions, and sense of calling. Missional—maintaining that an authentically bibli- cal worldview compels all believers, regardless of Association for Biblical present or future occupation, to understand their Higher Education personal vocation within the context of the Gospel mandate. The Association for Biblical Higher Education in Canada and the United States (ABHE; www.abhe.org) comprises The ABHE’s Commission on Accreditation is recog- a network of approximately 200 North American private nized by the U.S. Department of Education as a Title postsecondary institutions specializing in education for IV federal student financial aid gatekeeper agency (see ministry and marketplace professions. Founded in 1947 http://www.ed.gov/admins/finaid/accred/accreditation as the Accrediting Association of Bible Colleges, the asso- _pg10.html) and as a faith-related institutional accredi- ciation adopted its current name in 2004 to reflect more tor by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation accurately its expansion in scope to encompass graduate (CHEA; http://www.chea.org/Directories/faith.asp).Only degrees and to emphasize that, although accreditation The association is governed by a 12-member board of remains a primary activity of the Commission on Ac- directors elected to rotating four-year terms by an an- creditation, the association’s purposes are more extensive nual Delegate Assembly. The chief executive of Christian and varied. The ABHE Constitution states its mission as Higher Education Canada (CHEC; www.checcanada.ca) follows: “to enhance the quality and credibility of post- also serves as an ex officio member of the ABHE board. secondary educational institutions that distinctively en- The Delegate Assembly ratifies the appointments of the gage students in biblical, transformational, experiential, president and Commission on Accreditation director and missional higher education.” and adopts standards and major policies governing the The ABHE’s oldest member institutions formed during accreditation process. America’s post–Civil War Reconstruction era and the pi- TheCopy association has been headquartered in Orlando, etistic/revival movements of the Third Great Awakening. Florida, since 1998. In addition to its professional and Over the ensuing decades, others arose out of concern support staff, the ABHE is served by scores of volunteers over diminishing doctrinal purity and spiritual vitality of trained to conduct peer reviews, upon which the accredi- traditional theological schools during the fundamentalist/ tation process is inherently dependent. In recent years, modernist controversy. Biblical higher education institu- the ABHE has directed its efforts toward delivering an tions continue to emerge in surprising numbers across extensive array of member services and resources, includ- North America, flowing from various revival, restoration, ing institutional leadership development and training, church renewal, and church growth currents. student leadership development, member networking, For all its diversity, the movement coheres around a computer software and web platforms, and vendor prod- common educational philosophy and distinctives. ABHE uct and service agreements. The association publishes accreditation standards, peer review practices, and organi- annually the peer-reviewed Biblical Higher Education zational culture affirm mutual commitment to education Journal, a scholarly research and professional practice that is legitimately postsecondary and academically rigor- publication. It also developed and distributes a series of ous, challenging students to develop critical thinking skills psychometrically validated, normed Bible content exami- and leading them in the formation of a biblically grounded nations for use in individual student assessment and in- Christian worldview. Biblical higher education is distinc- stitutional benchmarking by member colleges, churches, tive in its intentional and pervasive fourfold emphasis: and ministry organizations. Biblical—requiringContributor extensive and serious study of the References and Resources text of scripture in a posture that honors it as the Eagen, John L. 1981. The Bible College in American Higher Word of God. Education. Fayetteville, AR: American Association of Bible Transformational—cultivating a life orientation to- Colleges. ward moral purity and self-denying discipleship in McKinney. Larry J. 1997. Equipping for Service: A Historical which students are called to live out Kingdom values Account of the Bible College Movement in North America. and Gospel priorities. Fayetteville, AR: Accrediting Association of Bible Colleges. Association for Hispanic Theological Education 87

Mostert, John. 1986. The AABC Story: Forty Years with the The ICETE Program for Academic Leadership (IPAL) American Association of Bible Colleges. Fayetteville, AR: has been successfully implemented in Latin America American Association of Bible Colleges. through AETAL. The three-year series of seminars for Witmer, S. A. 1962. Education with Dimension: The Bible Col- leaders of theological institutions has been completed lege Story. Manhasset, NY: Channel. in Joao Pessoa, Brazil; Guatemala City, Guatemala; and —Ralph E. Enlow Jr. Lima, Peru. Seminars for academic leaders have also been held in Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, and Manaus, Bra- zil. Since 2013 the program is offered in Mexico, Costa Association for Evangelical Rica, and Bolivia. Theological Education in Latin America AETAL has been able to make available consultancy services in areas such as library development and in- The Association for Evangelical Theological Education in stitutional administration. It publishes a news bulletin Latin America (AETAL) is one of eight regional associa- twice a year and also sends out occasional communica- tions affiliated with ICETE, the International Council for tions on topics of interest. More information is available Evangelical Theological Education. The association was at www.aetal.com. founded in 1992 to serve continental Latin America, in- —Pablo Sywulka cluding Brazil and the Spanish-speaking countries. Only AETAL is incorporated in Brazil. It functions under a board that is elected at the General Assembly every three Association for Hispanic years, along with the general secretary. Board chairs Theological Education have been Paulo Bronzelli, Josue de Campos, Dionisio Oliveira, and Márcio Matta, the current president. The Historical Introduction first general secretary was Izes Calheiros (1992–1998); The creation of the Association for Hispanic Theologi- she was followed by Vera Brock (1998–2007) and Pablo cal Education (AETH) is in many ways the response of Sywulka (2007–). a group of Hispanic American pastors and theological A continental conference is held every three years educators to the 1988 report by Dr. Justo L. González, along with the General Assembly. Venues have been “TheCopy Theological Education of Hispanics.” This report Águas de Lindóia near Sao Paulo, Brazil (1992 and 2007); resulted from a study undertaken on behalf of The Fund Valinhos, SP, Brazil (1995); Campinas, Brazil (1998); of Theological Education (FTE) and funded by the Pew Belo Horizonte, Brazil (2001); Lima, Peru (2004); and Charitable Trusts. After a comprehensive analysis of the Medellín, Colombia (2010). The 2013 conference was demographic, religious, and historical background of the held in Brazil. growing Hispanic population in the United States in par- In 2012, nearly 160 schools in 13 countries were af- ticular, the report looked at the status of the theological filiated with AETAL—over 100 in Brazil and over 50 in education of Hispanics near the end of the 20th century. most of the Spanish-speaking countries, from Mexico to That status very much reflected a lack of recognition Argentina. of Hispanic leadership by either Catholic or Protestant The purpose of AETAL is threefold: to provide a church authorities, a lack of cooperation among church platform for schools to relate to each other for mutual agencies and ministries, absence of opportunities for enrichment, to provide services in support of theological sound theological formation of Hispanic leadership at education, and to offer academic accreditation. the seminary level, and a range of mostly inadequate The accreditation program of AETAL is designed to programs at the Bible institute level. Thus, in 1991 and help schools reach a high level of excellence in every area. with the support once again of the Pew Charitable Trusts, Two institutions have received full accreditation from those pastors and theological educators met with the AETAL: Seminario Teológico Centroamericano in Gua- main purpose of finding ways to foster communication temala and Seminário Bíblico Palavra de Vida in Brazil. and cooperation among those involved in Hispanic theo- Two seminariesContributor in Bolivia were completing the process of logical education, including church-based Bible institutes accreditation in 2013, and several others throughout the as well as institutions of higher education. Under the region have expressed interest in beginning the process. theme Derramaré mi Espíritu (I shall pour my Spirit), One the services offered by AETAL has been a pro- the AETH held its first Assembly in Decatur, Georgia, on gram (PDB ) to provide books at a discount to libraries, 21–23 August 1992. The governing body of the AETH is professors, and students of affiliated schools in Brazil. the Assembly, which is made up of all its individual and Books have also been provided to Spanish-speaking institutional members. The Assembly convenes every schools through the Theological Book Network. other year and has the power to establish policy, guide- 88 Association for Hispanic Theological Education lines, and programs. Its executive council is composed The second initiative has been the development of of distinguished personalities in the field of Hispanic online courses written by Hispanic scholars and from theological education or ministry. Although the AETH a Latino perspective. These courses are available to was conceived in terms of responding to specific needs seminaries, Bible institutes, and denominations that and goals in Protestant theological education, member- may want to use them as part of the curriculum for the ship and participation is open to all Christians who share theological, biblical, and pastoral formation of Hispanic its goals and aims. The AETH’s geographically, politi- pastors and church leaders. They are also available to cally, culturally, and educationally diverse membership individuals who want to improve their preparation for represents and supports the full spectrum of churches, ministry. Courses and webinars targeted to churches denominations, and educational institutions. can be used in programs for the formation of leaders in local congregations. Also, they can be used in training Programmatic Areas events of a general interest organized by Bible institutes. Since its creation, the AETH has been at the forefront of Courses offered for Bible institutes are designed for two the discussion on the impact of the growth of the Latino types of audiences: denominational programs that have population and the Latino church on theological edu- established alternate routes of ordination for pastoral cation. Its main concern has been with the theological leaders in local congregations who, for different reasons, formation of Hispanic/Latino pastors and church leaders cannot register in theological programsOnly at seminary level, in the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico. Until re- and programs of theological formation that work under cently, most of its work focused on providing them with academic standards at the baccalaureate level. These pro- biblical, theological, and pastoral resources (printed and grams may function at Bible institutes or colleges. Finally, electronic materials) and with training and reflection op- there are courses being designed to be used for studies at portunities (regional workshops) as they minister to their the graduate level in seminaries accredited by ATS. congregations. Through its three book series in Span- The third initiative was the creation and development ish (Conozca su Biblia, Introducciones, Ministerios) and of the Justo González Center for Latino/a Ministries. other books it distributes, the AETH has provided to and The Justo Center was inaugurated in October 2011 and promoted among Bible institutes invaluable resources is named in honor of Dr. Justo González for his many for a more sound biblical, theological, and pastoral train- contributionsCopy to the AETH, to the theological forma- ing of Hispanic leaders. Through its regional workshops tion of Hispanic leaders, and to the Hispanic/Latino and (named Tertulias Pastorales), the AETH has connected worldwide theological enterprise. The center offers con- pastors across denominational lines around the country sultation services on issues of diversity, cultural training, to dialogue about critical issues for the Hispanic church and Hispanic/Latino theology and history as well as edu- and community. Beginning in 2010, the AETH under- cational services related to curriculum development from took three concrete initiatives to connect what happens a Hispanic perspective. Through its annual lecture series in theological education at the seminary level with the it gathers denominational leaders, seminary professors, growing needs for ministerial formation of leaders serv- directors of Bible institutes, and pastors for reflection on ing the growing number of Hispanic congregations in topics relevant to the Hispanic church and community. the United States in particular. First, in a joint effort with In addition, it offers opportunities for academic and pas- the Association of Theological Schools (ATS), the AETH toral research through its database of Hispanic churches embarked on the creation of certification standards for in the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico as well as interested and eligible Bible institutes so that they may through the hundreds of books and thousands of articles improve the quality of the pastoral training they offer and and sermons by Dr. Justo Gonzalez, which are available so that their graduates can be admitted at ATS schools at the center. to further their theological formation. In February 2013 the Board of Commissioners of the Association of Theo- Summary of Mission logical Schools (ATS) recognized AETH certification Through its well-established and newer programmatic standards Contributoras meeting the baccalaureate equivalency for initiatives, the mission of AETH is to develop leaders to admission in master’s programs at ATS schools. The radically transform the Latino church and community AETH’s efforts to implement the approved certifica- contributing to their vibrancy, health and growth. The tion standards will allow graduates from Bible institutes AETH exists to stimulate dialogue and collaboration certified by AETH to continue in theological studies at among theological educators, administrators of institu- the graduate level, at the discretion of individual ATS tions for ministerial formation, and Christian ministerial member schools. students in the United States, Puerto Rico, Canada, and Association of Christian Theological Education in Africa 89 beyond. Its distinct positioning, reputation, intellec- athletic tournaments. ACSI also has individual members, tual resources, and breadth of reach will continue to be administrators of member schools who use the asso- needed within the Latino church and community. The ciation for professional development and networking. AETH’s contribution to the development of Hispanic Although ACSI is not an accrediting agency for colleges church leadership has already been significant, and its and universities, it does offer membership and benefits full potential is yet to be fulfilled. to them. These benefits include ACSI approval and certi- fication for teacher education departments and graduate References and Resources administration programs, lists of ACSI Distinguished González, Justo. 1988. The Theological Education of Hispanics. Christian High School Students, and opportunities to New York: FTE, Inc. network with ACSI member schools. ACSI publishes several newsletters and magazines, and ww.aeth.org its publishing division, Purposeful Design Publications, www.thejustocenter.org produces textbooks, trade books, and other educational www.aeth.org/mission-aeth-bylaws-part-1/ resources. In addition to publishing its own materials, —Fernando Cascante Purposeful Design Publications offers Christian materials to ACSI members at discounted prices. In 2011–2012, the think tankOnly Cardus surveyed gradu- Association of Christian ates and administrators of North American Christian Schools International schools to measure the relationship between the schools’ objectives and the student outcomes in areas of spiritual The Association of Christian Schools International formation, academic excellence, and cultural engage- (ACSI) is a Protestant association with a membership ment. ACSI responded to the generally positive survey of 23,000 schools in more than 100 countries. Its stated and disseminated data specific to ACSI in a 2012 paper mission is “to strengthen Christian schools and equip by Philip Scott. Christian educators worldwide as they prepare students academically and inspire students to become devoted fol- References and Resources lowers of Jesus Christ.”149 AssociationCopy of Christian Schools International. n.d. www.acsi Begun in 1978, when several associations of Christian global.org. schools merged, ACSI was originally headquartered in Cardus. 2011a. “ACSI Accredited/Non-accredited Compari- La Habra, California. Since 1994, its headquarters have son. Report Breaking Out ACSI-specific Data from the Car- been in Colorado Springs, Colorado, with another 28 dus Education Survey.” Hamilton, ON: Cardus. regional offices around the world. Ten regional offices ———. 2011b. Cardus Education Survey: Phase 1 Report. Ham- in the United States serve 3,000 preschool to grade ilton, ON: Cardus. 12 schools. Another 18 regional offices assist 20,000 Learning Things. n.d. “Purposeful Design Publications.” www member schools internationally in Africa, Asia Pacific, .learningthings.com/articles/purposeful-design-publications Europe, Latin America, North America, and the Baltic .aspx. States and former Soviet Union. In addition to assisting Purposeful Design Publications. n.d. safe.acsi.org/eWeb/Start national schools in these global regions, ACSI provides Page.aspx?Site=PD. services for international schools that are distinct from Scott, Philip. 2012. Upon a Solid Foundation: The ACSI Re- the schools of their host countries. Many of the families sponse to and Expansion on the Cardus Education Survey. represented by these schools include Christian workers, Colorado Springs, CO: ACSI. from www.acsiglobal.org/ business families, and diplomatic families living abroad. about-acsi/why-acsi-schools. ACSI has three kinds of institutional members for —Wendy Widder preschool to grade 12 schools: U.S., international, and early education. Membership includes opportunities for professionalContributor development, accreditation, teacher certi- Association of Christian fication, school testing, and legal advocacy. Students in Theological Education in Africa member schools participate in a variety of association- sponsored sports, fine arts, and academic activities, such The Association of Christian Theological Education in as speech meets, Bible quizzing, music festivals, and Africa (formerly Accrediting Council for Theological Education in Africa) is a network and support service 149. ACSI, “Vision and Mission,” www.acsiglobal.org/about-acsi/vision that promotes quality evangelical theological education -and-mission. in Africa. The council does this by facilitating academic 90 Association of Christian Theological Education in Africa recognition for schools and programs, providing support Tite Tiénou, 1993–1994 (Burkina Faso); Dr. Jacob Kibor services to them, as well as fostering contact and collabo- (Kenya); and Rev Joe Simfukwe, 2004– (Zambia). ration among them. ACTEA is an agency of the Theological and Christian Purpose and Programs Education Commission (TCEC) of the Association of While ACTEA’s original emphasis was mainly on ac- Evangelicals in Africa (AEA). It was constituted in March creditation, that focus is now only a part of ACTEA’s 1976 by the executive council of the AEA at the instance mission. According to ACTEA’s 2006 constitution, its of Dr. Byang Kato, the AEA’s first African general secre- fourfold purpose is to promote quality evangelical theo- tary. Dr. Paul Bowers, a missionary with Sudan Interior logical education in Africa by Mission (SIM) then teaching at a seminary in Igbaja, Nigeria, was appointed the first chair of ACTEA, while 1. providing supporting services for theological edu- Dr. George Foxhall, another SIM missionary, was the first cation in Africa; ACTEA administrator. 2. facilitating academic recognition for theological education in Africa by providing accreditation; Structure 3. fostering continental and intercontinental coopera- The governing body of the organization is the council, tion for theological education in Africa; and which consists of 12–20 church and theological educa- 4. gathering, analyzing, and publishingOnly information tion leaders in the evangelical tradition, drawn from all about theological education in Africa. over Africa. The Theological and Christian Education Commission (TCEC) of the AEA originally appointed Support Services the council members (Breman 1996), but since the con- ACTEA support services throughout its existence have stitution was revised in 2006, the council now comprises included (1) regional and continental conferences; the heads (or designates) of institutions with ACTEA ac- (2) staff training seminars, workshops, and consulta- credited programs. The general secretary of the AEA and tions; (3) library development programs; (4) ACTEA the executive secretary of the TCEC are both ex officio Tools and Studies series, which publishes research on members of the council. A director, supported by admin- various subjects concerning theological education in istrative secretaries for accreditation, networking, and Africa;Copy (5) bulletins and newsletters such as ACTEA administration, runs ACTEA’s operations as an agency. eNews and ACTEA Librarians eNews; and (6) the The director and other senior officers are ex officio mem- ACTEA international lectureships, at which evangelical bers of the council if not already members appointed by leaders such as Drs. Carl F. H. Henry (1982), John R. their various schools. W. Stott (1984), and Tokunboh Adeyemo (1987) were The council conducts most of its business long dis- invited to lecture at member institutions to have some tance, either by mail or electronically, through official exposure to students and faculty. council business letters. It also convenes at meetings every 3–5 years, in Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire (1977); Miango, Accreditation Nigeria (1978); Chongoni, Malawi (1981); Ndola, Zambia ACTEA initially provided accreditation for primary, (1987); Limuru, Kenya (1990); Harare, Zimbabwe (1995); secondary, and postsecondary programs, including theo- Pietermaritzburg, South Africa (2003); Johannesburg, logical education by extension (TEE) programs. How- South Africa (2006); and Nairobi, Kenya (November ever, as many denominations and schools phased out 2011). Between council meetings, the ACTEA Execu- TEE programs and secondary level Bible schools, ACTEA tive Committee, comprising the ACTEA council chair, discontinued these forms of accreditation. Currently, the vice chair, select council members, and the director, ACTEA provides accreditation for postsecondary (typi- meets regularly, and is delegated to oversee the work of cally DipTh, BTh, BRE), postgraduate (PGD, MA, MDiv, the ACTEA staff on behalf of the council. MTh), and doctoral programs offered in both traditional residential and nontraditional formats. Available on the Officers ContributorACTEA website is the ACTEA Standards & Guide to Self- Dr. Paul Bowers (United States), 1979–1980; Dr. Tite Evaluation (ACTEA 2011), which specifies requirements Tiénou (Burkina Faso), 1981–1992; Dr. Titus Kivunzi for programs at each academic level. (Kenya); Dr. Cornelius Olowola (Nigeria); Dr. Jacob ACTEA’s accreditation focuses on the institution as a Kibor (Kenya); and Dr. Douglas Carew (Sierra Leone) whole, and allows it, based on its own stated objectives, to have chaired the ACTEA council. improve its quality. The focus of accreditation is not on Administrators/directors of the organization have in- the individual student but on the institution, and specifi- cluded Dr. George Foxhall, 1979–1993 (Canada); Dr. cally the program. In the words of Tite Tiénou (1991), a Association of Christian Theological Education in Africa 91 former council chair, “ACTEA is not in the business of before the institution is approved to host an ACTEA distributing credibility to graduates. Credibility must be visitation team. The visitation team’s report and recom- earned by the graduates as they perform their Christian mendations are again peer reviewed, and on the recom- ministries.” ACTEA accreditation proceeds in four steps mendation of the visitation team and peer reviewers, the with the institution, or theology and Bible departments of ACTEA council (or the executive committee acting on universities, relating to ACTEA as the following: its behalf) grants accreditation to qualifying institutions.

1. Correspondent: Institutions are listed as correspon- Networking dents when they submit an application, institutional ACTEA’s third mandate is to facilitate continental and prospectus, and fee, currently US$60, which grants intercontinental networking. It has promoted linkage the institution a three-year renewable membership. through the Consortium of Theological Colleges. Some Correspondents receive nonaccreditation services of the services in this initiative included placement ser- from ACTEA. Associations or similar networks of vices between member schools and expatriate theological theological institutions may also relate to ACTEA educators seeking opportunities in Africa, as well as staff under this category. exchange services. The cross-pollination of ACTEA insti- 2. Affiliate: These institutions meet core academic tutions is strengthened in the accreditation process by the standards in the areas of admissions, teaching staff fact that members of the visitationOnly teams and peer review qualification, and length of program. Affiliates also panels are drawn from other ACTEA-accredited schools. make a commitment to pursue ACTEA accredita- ACTEA is also engaged in international collabora- tion. Affiliates receive full (but provisional) ACTEA tion. In 1980, ACTEA was a founding member of academic recognition for up to four years. the International Council for Evangelical Theological 3. Candidate: When it is determined that the institu- Education (ICETE), which connects ACTEA with seven tion can meet ACTEA standards within a four-year other regional accrediting bodies around the world, period, the school is designated a candidate for including the Association for Biblical Higher Education accreditation. This status carries forward the pro- (ABHE) in North America.150 ACTEA also collaborates visional recognition of the named programs for up with other international organizations committed to to four additional years while the institution carries theCopy development of theological education in Africa, for out its self-evaluation in preparation for ACTEA’s the stewardship and maximizing of resources. These final assessment of these programs for full accredi- include Overseas Council International (OCI), Lang- tation (ACTEA eNews, 27 November 2011). ham Partnership International (LPI), Scholar Leaders 4. Accredited or Associate: ACTEA accreditation lasts International (SLI), and Global Associates for Transfor- 10 years, and by the eighth year, the institution mational Education (GATE). begins the renewal process by going through an- other self-evaluation and visitation. ACTEA re- Research and Publication cently began offering “associate” status to certain ACTEA’s fourth mandate involves research and publi- institutions with an evangelical ethos that hold cation. This is the least developed of its four purposes other academic recognition such as a government (Emedi 2012, 14). In the past, it has published extensive charter or have undergone credible assessment by directories of theological institutions and TEE provid- an independent accrediting agency (ACTEA 2012). ers. The ACTEA Tools and Studies Series publishes research on various subjects concerning theological The major part of ACTEA accreditation is the institu- education in Africa. tional self-evaluation, outlined in the ACTEA Standards & Guide to Self-Evaluation. Candidate institutions (and Distinctives institutions seeking to renew their accreditation) conduct ACTEA champions the contextualization of theological a comprehensive self-evaluation, which covers admin- education to the African context and promotes this in istration,Contributor teaching staff, facilities, educational program, African institutions. It promotes and espouses contextual and students, after which the institution submits a self- relevance of theological education programs in African evaluation report (SER) to ACTEA. This is “a process (not a document or a single event); critical (not defen- 150. The other six bodies are Asia Theological Association (ATA), Asso- sive), evaluative (not merely reflective), self-inquiry (not ciation for Evangelical Theological Education in Latin America (AETAL), externally determined), comprehensive (not limited to Caribbean Evangelical Theological Association (CETA), European Evan- gelical Accrediting Association (EEAA) for Western Europe, Euro-Asia the ACTEA Guide); and corrective (not merely descrip- Accrediting Association (E-AAA) for Eastern Europe, and South Pacific tive)” (Emedi 2012, 20–21). The SER is peer reviewed Association of Bible Colleges (SPABC). 92 Association of Classical and Christian Schools institutions. The ACTEA Standards & Guide to Self- national recognition through the formal statements of Evaluation (ACTEA 2011) specifies not only that Afri- recognition of ACTEA-accredited degrees issued by the cans must constitute more than half of the teaching staff, London School of Theology, the University of Stellen- but that for non-African staff, institutions must show bosch, and the University of South Africa (Breman 1996). evidence of adequate orientation in the African setting. One uniqueness of ACTEA is its stated desire to be References and Resources “not only a service TO the evangelical theological col- ACTEA. 2011. ACTEA Standards and Guide to Self-Evalu- leges of Africa, but also a service OF and BY these col- ation. 2011. Theological Education in Africa. http://www leges, operated by and answerable to its constituency” .theoledafrica.org/ACTEA/Standards/ACTEAStandards (ACTEA website). The composition of the council by GuideToSelfevaluation.pdf. scholars and leaders from all over Africa, mostly from ———. 2012. “Steps to Accreditation.” http://academic.sun.ac.za/ the very institutions served by ACTEA, makes this pos- tsv/netact/nigerie-2012/pdfs/ACTEA%20introduction.pdf. sible. Tiénou makes this goal clear: “ACTEA should Breman, C. M. 1996. The Association of Evangelicals in Africa: cease to be seen as an all-powerful external monitoring Its History, Organization, Members, Projects, External Rela- body. It must instead come to be seen, and welcomed, tions, and Message. Zoetermeer: Boekencentrum. as a constructive internal catalyst, fully owned by our Emedi, P. 2012. ACTEA and Quality Assurance in Evangelical churches in Africa and by their individual theological Theological Education in Africa. Ndola,Only Zambia: ACTEA. colleges” (1991, 4). “Joining.” n.d. Theological Education in Africa. Accessed 1 However, this laudable philosophy may contribute to March 2013. http://www.theoledafrica.org/ACTEA/Joining the challenges facing ACTEA and its programs. These .asp. challenges include financial difficulties and infrastruc- Tiénou, T. 1991. The Future of Africa. ACTEA Tools and Stud- tural limitation of office space (Emedi 2012). Another ies no. 10. http://www.theoledafrica.org/ACTEA/ToolsAnd challenge is a lack of personnel, since ACTEA leadership Studies/Tools%20and%20Studies%2010.pdf frequently consists of people still occupying leadership —Agametochukwu Iheanyi-Igwe positions in their churches or institutions. For example, Dr. Tiénou stepped down because the responsibilities at the young institution he was heading became demanding CopyAssociation of Classical (Breman 1996). However, Dr. Olowola, also heading an- and Christian Schools other institution, succeeded Tiénou. Another challenge is that ACTEA’s influence is perceived as limited to An- The Association of Classical and Christian Schools glophone Africa. Because of the differences between the (ACCS) arose through interest generated by the publi- educational systems in anglophone and francophone Af- cation of Douglas Wilson’s Recovering the Lost Tools of rica, the Bangui Evangelical School of Theology (founded Learning (1991). According to the organization’s website, by the AEA in the Central African Republic), in col- “The primary mission of this association is to promote, laboration with other francophone theological schools, establish, and equip schools committed to a classical started a parallel agency, CITAF (Conseil des Initiatives approach to education in light of a Christian worldview Théologiques en Afrique Francophone) as the accredit- grounded in the Old and New Testament Scriptures” ing body for francophone Africa. ACTEA is currently in (2012). Its membership includes more than 220 schools, collaboration with CITAF. with over two dozen meeting ACCS accreditation stan- In its three decades, ACTEA has played a significant dards; they educate more than 35,000 students. role in the movement from no graduate level evangelical The key characteristics of ACCS schools are adherence theological training to several solid doctoral level pro- to the ACCS Confession of Faith and practice of classical grams in Africa. It has stimulated renewal and growth pedagogy in the form of the trivium. The ACCS Confes- in African evangelical theological education. Its process sion of Faith incorporates a form of the Apostles’ Creed, of accreditation has prepared several Kenyan theologi- a “general evangelical confession of faith, . . . [and] an cal institutionsContributor seeking a government charter as private abridged version of the first two chapters of the West- Christian universities. These include the former Nairobi minster Confession of Faith” (ACCS 2012). Member Evangelical Graduate School of Theology, Nairobi Inter- schools must subscribe to the ACCS Confession of Faith. national School of Theology, and Scott Theological Col- Classical pedagogy is expressed through the trivium lege (Emedi 2012). of grammar, logic (or dialectic), and rhetoric. Inspired ACTEA has received broad recognition for its accred- by Dorothy Sayers’s (1947) address “The Lost Tools of ited programs in evangelical North American seminaries Learning,” and reaching back into the Middle Ages, this and liberal arts colleges. It has also gained further inter- pedagogical practice takes “advantage of natural inclina- Association of Theological Schools 93 tions of children at different stages of their development Wilson, D. 1991. Recovering the Lost Tools of Learning: An to maximize learning” (ACCS 2012). The grammar stage, Approach to Distinctly Christian Education. Wheaton, IL: corresponding roughly with the elementary years, takes Crossway Books. advantage of young children’s fascination with facts and —Katherine G. Schultz the ease and enjoyment they seem to experience when memorizing facts in every subject area, including such things as addition facts, states and capitals, Bible verses, Association of Theological Schools and Latin. The logic stage corresponds roughly with the middle The Association of Theological Schools (ATS) was founded school years. It capitalizes on the students’ interest in in 1918 and serves as the premier accrediting agency for questioning everything. For Sayers, that meant “how to graduate theological schools in the United States and Can- use language: how to define his terms and make accurate ada. ATS represents institutions that provide professional statements; how to construct an argument and how to de- and academic degree programs to prepare individuals for tect fallacies in argument (his own arguments and other service in local churches, religious nonprofit ministries, people’s)” (1947). and research in biblical and theological disciplines. More The rhetoric stage corresponds roughly with the high than 250 institutions hold membership in one of three school years. It capitalizes on students’ growing matu- categories (accredited, associate,Only or candidate). Member rity and desire to express their ideas articulately: “how schools include Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Ortho- to say what he had to say elegantly and persuasively” dox graduate schools from a diverse constituency of doc- (Sayers 1947). trinal, ecclesiastical, and theological backgrounds. The study of classical language is also an integral com- The board of commissioners serves on behalf of the ponent of ACCS schools. Accreditation standard B.3.b. Commission on Accrediting, which approves schools for requires “at least four years of Latin or Greek instruction, either candidate or accredited membership. The com- with at least two years in the dialectic or rhetoric stages” mission oversees accreditation, a practice of peer review (ACCS 2011). ACCS provides multiple reasons for in- and accountability to mutually agreed-upon standards struction in Latin, and empirical evidence supports it: of quality for ATS. Standards are broken down into gen- eralCopy institutional standards, educational standards, and In the 1970s and ’80s, the U.S. government funded Latin degree program standards. Both the Council for Higher classes in underperforming urban school districts. The Education Accreditation and the U.S. Department of results were dramatic. Children who were given a full year Education list the Commission on Accrediting as a rec- of Latin performed five months to a year ahead of control ognized accrediting body. groups in reading comprehension and vocabulary. The Latin students also showed outsize gains in math, history The mission of ATS is “to promote the improvement and geography. (Eskenazi 2009) and enhancement of theological schools to the benefit of communities of faith and the broader public” (ATS 2010). As Sayers (1947) notes, “the whole of the Trivium was The organization seeks to accomplish its mission by (1) in fact intended to teach the pupil the proper use of the providing professional development opportunities for tools of learning, before he began to apply them to ‘sub- administrative officers and faculty, (2) conducting applied jects’ at all.” ACCS exists to promote such learning in research and consultations in critical topics of theological light of a Christian worldview. education, and (3) disseminating information about trends and the current state of theological education. References and Resources The association is committed to four core values: di- Association of Classical & Christian Schools (ACCS). 2011. versity, quality and improvement, collegiality, and lead- “Accreditation Standards.” 31 March. Moscow, ID: Associa- ership. Diversity is embraced by the various expressions tion of Classical & Christian Schools. Accessed 28 January of theology, polity, social commitments, and historical 2013. http://accsedu.org/files/Documents/Accreditation%20 traditions of member schools. ATS models quality and Standards%20%283–11%29.pdf.Contributor improvement by a strong commitment to best practices ———. 2012. http://accsedu.org/about/confession_of_faith Ac- and standards in graduate theological education. It pro- cessed 17 December 2012. www.accsedu.org. motes collegiality by bringing schools of varied theologi- Eskenazi, M. 2009. “The New Case for Latin.” Time, 2 Decem- cal traditions together to collaborate on common issues ber. Accessed 28 January 2013. from http://www.http://www and challenges facing graduate theological education. .time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,90457,00.html. Finally, ATS values leadership as a core means for schools Sayers, D. L. 1947. “The Lost Tools of Learning.” Accessed 13 to accomplish their missions and provides educational October 2004. http://www.gbt.org/text/sayers/html. opportunities for administrators and faculty. Additional 94 Assyrian Orthodox Church information may be found at www.ats.edu or by contact- the four.”157 It contained the four Gospels and was carried ing the main office in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. out with great care. Two principles governed this work: the elimination of repeated pericopes and reconciliation Reference of divergences and contradictions in the words and order The Association of Theological Schools (ATS). 2010. Bulletin of deeds performed by Jesus.158 This was the first known 49. http://www.bostontheological.org/assets/files/trustees/10 product in the Syriac language and was the Gospel text _ATS_MembershipList.pdf. of the Orthodox Christians of Edess.159 The Diatessa- —Peter Osborn ron, also known as Evangelion Da-Mehallete (meaning “mixed Gospels”), continued to be used in the Eastern churches until the fifth century, when Rabbula, bishop of Assyrian Orthodox Church Edessa (AD 411–435),160 and Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus in upper Syria (AD 423–457) decided to put an end to the It is well established that Christianity flourished in Mes- use of this edition and replaced it with the separate Gos- opotamia—a land that marks the eastern borders of the pels.161 Around the same period when the Diatessaron Roman Empire—around the end of the first or the begin- was produced, the Old Testament was already translated ning of the second century AD. By AD 225, a revolution into the Peshitta, a text that no doubt stems from the in Mesopotamia had replaced the Arsacids of Parthia period between the mid-second andOnly early third centuries. with the Sassanids of Persia. When this new kingdom During this time, two main schools flourished, Edissa started to establish itself in the country, the Christian and the center in Arbela, east of the Tigris, in modern Church already existed and was organized on apostolic Iraq. Ephrem, born circa 306 at Nisibis on the borders of lines.151 The church was governed by more than 20 bish- the Roman and Persian empires, was the most prominent ops. It ran from the mountains of Kurdistan down to theologian and poet of that period. He is still the most the Persian/Arabian gulf and had many sees distributed celebrated father of the Syrian Church.162 He used the text throughout the country.152 The land of Mesopotamia and of the Diatessaron to write a commentary on the Gospels. Adiabene (modern-day Arbil, Iraq) received the Gos- He died in 373.163 The large community of Jews in Arbela pel through teachers whose headquarters was at Edessa motivated Christian missions in the region, as well as the (modern-day Turkey).153 Scholars agree that Christianity translationCopy of scripture into Syriac. 164 It was around this in Mesopotamia was founded through the evangelistic time that the Peshitta of the New Testament, or Syriac efforts of Mar Addai, one of the 70 disciples Jesus sent to version, was produced.165 It is known that the Peshitta preach the good news, and by his disciple, Mar Mari. 154 was used by the two branches of Syriac Christianity in the Others add Toma, one of the 12 apostles, to the story.155 Middle East and Asia, the Nestorians and the Jacobites.166 Nestorians where called after Nestorius, the patriarch Distinctiveness and the Two Early Branches of the of Constantinople in 428. He held a powerful position Church of the East in the early church. He studied under the famous Theo- Two main distinctions signal the Church of the East. dore of Mopsuestia.167 However, in 431 at the Council of First, it is a missionary church. Second, it is an educa- tional church that has a wealth of literature in Syriac. 157. Carmel McCarthy, Saint Ephrem’s Commentary on Tatian’s - Tatian, an Assyrian Christian born between AD 110 and tessaron (Oxford: Oxford University Press on behalf of the University of 156 Manchester, 1993), 3. 120 in Arbela, who was also a follower of Justin Martyr, 158. Ibid, 7. produced around AD 170 a harmonized edition of the 159. Kurt Aland and Barbara Aland, The Text of the New Testament, rev. Gospels called the Diatessaron, which means “through and enl., trans. Erroll F. Rhodes (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1995), 193. 160. McCarthy, Saint Ephrem’s Commentary, 4–8. 161. Ibid., 8. More than 200 copies of the Diatessaron were destroyed as a result of this endeavor. 151. W. A. Wigram, An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian 162. Ibid., 9. Church or the Church of the Sassanid Persian Empire 100–640 A.D. (n.p.: 163. Ibid., 12. Assyrian International News Agency, 1909), 6–8. 164. Geisler and Nix, General Introduction to the Bible, 514. 152. Ibid., Contributor8. 165. The date and origin of the Peshitta remain a controversial subject. 153. Ibid. Aland ascribes it with no doubts to Rabbula, among others; see Aland and 154. Suheil Qasha, Pages from the History of Arab Christians before Aland, Text of the New Testament, 197. Others, however, take the other Beirut: Manshorat Al Maktaba Al extreme, rejecting the Greek text as the base of the Peshitta; see George) [ المسيحيين العرب قبل اإلسالم صفحات من تاريخ] Islam Bolesiyah, 2005), 11. Lamsa, New Testament Origin (Los Gatos, CA: The Aramaic Bible Society, 155. Alber Abona, History of the Eastern Syriac Church: From the Spread 1947), 1–5. .This indicates a use of the Peshitta long before the split .166 الشرقية من انتشار المسيحية حتى مجيء اإلسالم] of Christianity until the Rise of Islam ,Part 1 (Beirut; Dar Al-Mashreq, 1999), 6. 167. J. D. Douglas, “Nestorius,” In Who’s Who in Christian History ,[تاريخ الكنيسة السريانية 156. Norman L. Geisler and William E. Nix, A General Introduction to ed. J. D. Douglas and Philip W. Comfort (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, the Bible, rev. and exp. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1986), 514. 1992), 502. Atonement 95

Ephesus, Nestorius was condemned of heresy because his the spread of Christianity until the rise of Islam]. Part 1. reluctance to accord the virgin Mary the title “Theoto- Beirut: Dar Al-Mashreq. kos,” meaning “Mother of God,” was taken as evidence Aland, Kurt, and Barbar Aland. 1995. The Text of the New Tes- of believing in two separate persons within Christ. He tament. Rev. and enl. Translated by Erroll F. Rhodes. Grand died in 451. In the decrees of the council, Nestorius was Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. called impious and his doctrines impious doctrines.168 By “Decree of the Council Against Nestorius.” 1900. In A Select rejecting the decrees of the council, Christians support- Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Chris- ing Nestorius expanded to the east and thus were called tian Church, Second Series. Vol. XIV, The Seven Ecumeni- Nestorians. Their main Christological doctrine stresses cal Councils. Translated by Henry R. Percival. New York: the reality of the humanity of Jesus, which distinguishes Charles Scribner’s Sons. his human nature from his divine nature. Nestorians were Douglas, J. D. 1992. “Nestorius.” In Who’s Who in Christian among the first missionaries to take the Gospel to Cen- History, edited by J. D. Douglas and Philip W. Comfort, tral Asia, to India,169 China,170 and even Mongolia.171 The 383–384. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House. modern Eastern Assyrians172 are scattered throughout the Geisler, Norman L., and William E. Nix. 1986. A General In- world, in Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Iran, Turkey Russia, India, troduction to the Bible. Rev. and exp. Chicago: Moody Press. China, Australia, Europe, and the United States. McCarthy, Carmel. 2000. Saint Ephrem’s Commentary on Ta- The Chaldean Catholic Church arose when Mar Shi- tian’s Diatessaron. New York: OxfordOnly University Press. mun IV Basidi (1437–1493) was appointed patriarch and Michael, E., and Sharon Rusten. 2005. The Complete Book of established a new hereditary line of succession. Dissent When & Where in the Bible and Throughout History. Whea- grew in the church’s hierarchy when a group of bishops ton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers. from the northern regions of Amid (modern Iraq) se- Missick, Stephen Andrew. 1999. “The Assyrian Church in the lected Mar Yohannan Sulaqa as a rival patriarch. Sulaqa Mongolian Empire.” Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies traveled to Rome in 1553, took the name Mar Shimun 13 (2): 1999. Pages] صفحات من تاريخ المسيحيين العرب قبل اإلسالم .VIII, and was granted the title of Patriarch of Mosul and Qasha, Suheil. 2005 Athur-Assyria.173 from the history of Arab Christians before Islam]. Beirut: The other branch of the Syriac-speaking church is the Manshorat Al Maktaba Al Bolesiyah. Jacobite, known also as the Syrian Orthodox. The name Wigram,Copy W. A. 1909. An Introduction to the History of the As- comes from Jacob Baradaeus, who was the bishop of syrian Church or the Church of the Sassanid Persian Empire Edessa from 543 until his death in 578. He rejected the 100–640 A.D. Chicago, IL: Assyrian International News teachings of Nestorius, believing that Christ’s human Agency. nature was insignificant and in fact was absorbed into Yana, George V. 2000. “Myth vs. Reality.” Journal of Assyrian His divinity.174 The Jacobites were also called Miaphysit- Academic Studies XIV (1): 78–82. ism (meaning one nature) as a response to Nestorianism. —Habil Yousif The Jacobites include the Armenian Church, the Syrian Orthodox Church, the Malankara Orthodox Church of India, the Coptic Orthodox Church, and the Ethiopian Atonement Orthodox Church. Standard introductions to the atonement, drawing on the References and Resources work of Gustaf Aulén, suggest that there are three main .theories: Christus victor, satisfaction, and exemplarism السريانية الكنيسة من انتشار المسيحية حتى مجيء .Abona, Alber. 1999 History of the Eastern Syriac Church: From This way of mapping the terrain suffers from significant] اإلسالم تاريخ الشرقية weaknesses (cf. Johnson 2012), but for our purposes it suffices to note that exemplarism was not a distinct theory of the atonement until the modern period (cf. Mc- 168. “Decree of the Council Against Nestorius,” in A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series, vol. Grath 1985), and that the church has always robustly af- XIV: The Seven Ecumenical Councils, trans. Henry R. Percival (New York: firmed the exemplarist insight that Christ’s atoning work Charles Scribner’sContributor Sons, 1900), 218. 169. Geisler and Nix, General Introduction to the Bible, 512. is significant for that which it teaches and inspires, along- 170. Douglas, “Nestorius,” 503. side other implications of His death and resurrection. In 171. Stephen Andrew Missick, “The Assyrian Church in the Mongolian short, the church has consistently appreciated the pro- Empire,” Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 13, no. 2 (1999): 85. 172. Nowadays most of the Assyrian Christians object to being referred found relationship between education and atonement: to as Nestorians. that Christ overcomes our culpable ignorance through 173. George V. Yana (Bebla), “Myth vs. Reality,” Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies XIV, no. 1 (2000): 80. His life, death, and resurrection, restoring us thereby to 174. Missick, “Assyrian Church in the Mongolian Empire,” 87. a saving knowledge of the Father and all things in Him. 96 Attitudes

Athanasius, for instance, states: “Since . . . human be- tion is salvation inasmuch as it is a matter of knowing ings had become so irrational and demonic deceit was God and in Him all things. thus . . . hiding the knowledge of the true God,” Christ “was both born and appeared as a human being, and References and Resources died, and rose again . . . so that from wherever human be- Athanasius. 2011. On the Incarnation. Translated by John Behr. ings were predisposed . . . he might raise them and teach Yonkers, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press. them of his own true Father” (De Incarnatione, §§13–15). Aulén, Gustaf. 1951. Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Calvin connects this knowledge of the Father to the spec- Three Main Types of the Idea of Atonement. Translated by A. trum of heavenly benefits, noting that when “Paul says G. Hebert. New York: Macmillan. that He was given to us as our wisdom [1 Cor. 1:30; cf. Calvin, John. 1960. Institutes of the Christian Religion. The Col. 2:3],” he means that “outside Christ there is noth- Library of Christian Classics, V. 20–21. Philadelphia: West- ing worth knowing, and all who by faith perceive what minster Press. he is like have grasped the whole immensity of heavenly Johnson, Adam. 2012. God’s Being in Reconciliation: The Theo- benefits” (Institutes, II.xv.2). This saving knowledge of logical Basis of the Unity and Diversity of the Atonement in the Creator in turn provides the key for learning from the Theology of Karl Barth. New York: T & T Clark. and fully appreciating creation generally (see Creation, McGrath, Alister E. 1985. “The Moral Theory of the Atone- Doctrine of), for atonement is best understood as an act ment: An Historical and TheologicalOnly Critique.” Scottish of re-creation by the same Creator. Journal of Theology 38 (2): 205–220. Underlying these reflections on the work of Christ —Adam J. Johnson is a vision of the Gospel revolving around epistemic categories. The Bible regularly defines sin as ignorance, darkness, foolishness, and exchanging the truth for a Attitudes lie. Christ himself is spoken of as “the Word,” wisdom and truth. Particularly interesting is John’s descrip- Belief and behavior influence a person’s being. Often tion of salvation: “And this is eternal life, that they neglected, building the interiority of one’s inner life is know you the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom imperative. Character development is important in all you have sent” (John 17:3). Christ’s reconciling work educationalCopy opportunities. Attitudes are affected over draws on these themes in two ways. First, in His death time, within community, by means of truth, through Christ takes upon Himself our sin and its consequences, story. Ethical standards that transform are considered thereby bearing and freeing us from the full conse- imperative worldwide. Since character and virtue are quences of ignorance, foolishness, and the like. Second, invisible, immaterial qualities, it seems the emphasis in Christ’s life, death, and resurrection are the revelation Christian education settings should be developing that of the Father and are therefore both the means to and which is unseen. beginning of our salvation. This aspect of Christ’s atoning work explains both Biblical Theology of Attitudes the significance of education within the Christian faith, The role of the Spirit in connecting truth with how people and, by derivation, the significance and dangers of live is dependent on their internal focus. The change education generally. Regarding the former, education is agent is not up to the person, but the Spirit; transforma- central to the Christian faith because it is by means of tion is impossible by oneself (Eph. 2:1–9). The Holy Spirit education that we witness to Christ’s role as the revela- initiates the ongoing sanctification process through His tion of the Father and anticipate the reality of our salva- indwelling and creates the possibility for change in the tion, which is knowing the triune God. For the church Christian (Rom. 8:5–9). The interior life of the learner to deny this vocation is for it to reject its salvation (a is built with the help of the Spirit, under authority of shamefully frequent occurrence). Regarding the latter, the Word of God, walking in God’s way (Gal. 5:13–6:5). the power of education generally lies in the fact that it Faulty desires are restrained and redirected through more or lessContributor directly partakes of the benefits of knowing control of God’s law—literally “teaching”—which directs the triune God, and in Him knowing all things. That is wise choices for living (Ps. 119:97; Prov. 3:1, 13:14). to say, at its best, education gains some knowledge of Jesus changes Christians (1 Cor. 1:30) through the the Creator and His creation, freeing, equipping, and work of the Holy Spirit at regeneration (Tim. 3:5). Sanc- otherwise offering a real but limited glimpse of salvation tification begins at one’s conversion; the process is life itself. Therein lies its danger, for inasmuch as salvation long (2 Cor. 3:18) and is completed “at His coming” and its benefits are divorced from the Savior, they are (1 Cor. 15:23; Phil. 3:21). Sanctification is progressive: a all the more prone to perversion and corruption. Educa- continuous, ongoing development of being conformed Attitudes toward Christianity 97 to the image of God’s Son (Rom. 8:29). God is at work in Christian Practice of Attitudes the lives of believers (Phil. 2:13) to wholly sanctify them A Christian life changed through salvation in Christ, a re- (1 Thess. 5:23). He equips (Heb. 13:20–21) through the newed spirit by His Spirit, and attitudes formed through Spirit, who indwells saved people (2 Thess. 2:13; 1 Pet. virtuous habits is intentional. Memorization of scripture 1:2), who are said to “walk in The Spirit” (Gal. 5:16–18). creates joy (Ps. 119:103; Jer. 15:13). Reading the histories The internal development of conformity to Christ looks and biographies of Christian leaders moves the reader forward (Phil. 3:13–14) but presently affects thinking to action. Internalization occurs in the study before the (Col. 1:10), emotions (1 John 2:15), will (Phil. 2:12), body teacher teaches in the classroom (Ezek. 2:9–3:3). The (2 Cor. 7:1), and spirit (1 Cor. 7:34). Christian teacher must teach as if the Christian view- But believers will not continue to struggle against sin point has already changed him (2 Cor. 3:2). The source (1 John 3:6, 9). Believers are to yield (Rom. 6:13), present of goodness focuses attention on God, whose Spirit is (Rom. 12:1), strive (Heb. 12:14), purify (1 John 3:3), and transplanted within us. A person becomes that which he make every effort (2 Pet. 1:5) to work out the sanctifica- loves—an affective directive. tion process before God. Self-disciplined effort on the Human beings are resistant to order. If there is a part of believers (Gal. 5:23; Tim. 1:8) is “keeping in step resistance to internal control, external controls will be with The Spirit” (Gal. 5:25). Motivation for pursuing necessary. All would like to have their own way, go their righteousness comes from love for God (John 14:15, 21), own way, and be their own person.Only Because people are fear of God (1 Pet. 1:17, 2:17), clear conscience (1 Tim. resistant to order and just laws that proceed from it, they 1:5, 19), and increased effectiveness in the use of God- look for distractions and fulfill selfish vices. Children are given gifts (2 Tim. 2:20–21). incapable of developing good attitudes by themselves. There is a need for discipline of mind and appetite. To Biblical Philosophy of Attitudes build virtuous attitudes, virtuous habits must be created Habits born of walking with the Spirit are developed, through the virtue of manners. Virtue is the ordering of directed toward a Christian way of life properly lived. the person toward what is good in life based on God’s Virtue is the proper ordering of one’s life after God- goodness. If pleasure is the end, goal, or focal point, the ordained ends. Virtue is the development of these good individual is robbed of a complete life. Right attitudes are habits. Virtue is creating a disposition toward the good. helpedCopy by the Christian community. Christian teaching To do good is first to think and be good. Since Christians helps attitude change by instilling virtuous stories. Ulti- are new creations in Christ (2 Cor. 5:17), good works mately, Christian attitudes show love for God as Chris- should result (Gal. 6:9–10; Eph. 2:10) based on virtuous tians love people. characteristics (2 Pet. 1:3–11). Character intention and motivation are internally con- References and Resources trolled by the governor of a life habitually connected to Boa, Kenneth. 2001. Conformed to His Image: Biblical and deliberation over what is good. A sanctified “conscience,” Practical Approaches to Spiritual Formation. Grand Rapids, then, is the brake or gas pedal properly applied in loving MI: Zondervan. God by loving others (Acts 23:1, 24:16; 2 Cor. 1:12, 4:2; 1 Scorgie, Glen G., et al. 2011. Dictionary of Christian Spirituality. Pet. 3:16, 21). In every case cited, one’s internal character Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. is directly tied to one’s external commendation before —Mark Eckel other people. A person’s attitude is changed—at times, through adverse circumstances (Rom. 5:4). Preparation of mind coupled with self-control and knowing one’s Attitudes toward Christianity eternal destiny should cause a person to live a life of obe- dience (1 Pet. 1:13–14, 4:1–2). The social scientific study of religion has helped to clarify Motivations and intentions can be self-centered (Prov. the dimensional nature of religion and the ways in which 16:2; Heb. 4:12–13; James 4:1–3). The thoughts of one’s these different dimensions of religion predict individual inner lifeContributor will be measured by God and seen in life. difference in personal and social values. The three di- (Num. 32:23; 1 Chron. 28:9; Ps. 44:21). The thoughts mensions most commonly employed in social scientific and intentions of a God-shaped attitude would include a research are self-assigned religious affiliation, religious heart tested with integrity, willingness, honest intent, joy, practice, and religious belief. loyalty, and wholehearted devotion (1 Chron. 29:14–19). Self-assigned religious affiliation is the dimension of The habits of one’s heart come from attitudes produc- religion that is most frequently accessed in a national ing actions, proved by deeds (Acts 26:20; James 1:22–25, census. It is considered to be a component of individual 2:14–26; Tim. 3:1, 9, 14). identity, like ethnicity. Self-assigned religious affiliation 98 Augustine is, however, a poor proxy for other dimensions of reli- Christianity and neuroticism, and an inverse relation be- gion. In England, for example, to self-identify as Church tween attitude toward Christianity and psychoticism. In of England does not necessarily imply religious practice other words, a positive attitude toward Christianity is as- or even religious belief. Self-assigned religious affiliation sociated with better mental health in terms of lower levels may predict some personal or social values, but it fails to of psychoticism. Within positive psychology, Michael get to the heart of an individual’s religion. Argyle’s Oxford Happiness Inventory has been employed Religious practice is most often accessed in terms of to test the association between attitude toward Christian- frequency of worship attendance. Worship attendance is ity and happiness. The data consistently show a positive a better predictor of personal and social values than self- connection between the two variables. In other words, a assigned religious affiliation, but worship attendance itself positive attitude toward Christianity is associated with can be subject to a range of social and contextual con- higher levels of personal happiness. straints, rather than a reflection of religious commitment. Religious belief is most often accessed in terms of References and Resources tests of religious orthodoxy, including belief in the vir- Francis, L. J. 1978. “Measurement Reapplied: Research into the gin birth, the physical resurrection, heaven, and hell. Child’s Attitude Towards Religion.” British Journal of Reli- Religious belief is also a better predictor of personal and gious Education 1: 45–51. social values than self-assigned religious affiliation, but Kay, W. K., and L. J. Francis. 1996. OnlyDrift from the Churches: religious belief (and the expression of religious belief) is Attitude toward Christianity During Childhood and Adoles- subject to cultural and developmental influences. cence. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. In light of these constraints, in the mid-1970s Leslie J. —Leslie J. Francis Francis identified the attitudinal dimension of religion as the dimension that gets closest to the heart of the mat- ter. According to Francis (1978), attitudes are concerned Augustine wholly with the affective dimension. It is the affective di- mension that serves as the clearest predictor of personal Aurelius Augustine was born of middle-class parents on and social values. AD 13 November 354 in the Numidian town of Thagaste In order to build up a secure body of empirical re- in theCopy Roman province of Africa (modern Souk Ahras, search concerning the personal and social correlates of eastern Algeria). He had an older brother (Navigius) and attitudes toward Christianity, Francis (1978) developed (at least) one sister. His father, Patrick (Lat. Patricius), and published the Francis Scale of Attitude toward and mother, Monica (Monnica), were meager landown- Christianity and invited colleagues to collaborate in ers. They made personal sacrifices to get the funds to pro- developing a tapestry of interrelated studies united vide Augustine with a classical education at an early age, through the common instrument. By the mid-1990s, and he received a Christian upbringing from his mother. Kay and Francis (1996) had identified over a hundred His father eventually converted to Christianity before his studies in this series and began the task of distilling a death in 371, and that same year, Augustine departed coherent pattern of findings. The number of indepen- for Carthage to pursue education in rhetoric. Augustine dent studies has grown considerably since then, and arrived at Carthage as a pagan, and despite his Christian the emergence of an international and cross-cultural rearing, he acquired an unnamed concubine, with whom body of knowledge concerning the correlates, conse- he lived faithfully for many years and who in 372 bore quences, and antecedents of positive attitudes toward him a son named Adeodatus. At the age of 19, he was in- Christianity has been facilitated through the translation culcated with a passion for philosophy (“wisdom”) upon of the Francis Scale into a range of languages, including reading Cicero’s Hortensius, and later, for a period of Arabic, Czech, Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Croat, nine years, he joined the Manichaeans (a sect that taught Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Romanian, Serbian, a form of dualistic Gnosticism and thus offered salvation Slovenian, Spanish, Swedish, and Welsh. by reason; their absolute cosmic dualism also seemed to Two examplesContributor of the body of knowledge built up by satisfactorily explain the problem of evil). this research program are rooted in personality psychol- In 375, Augustine returned to Thagaste to teach rheto- ogy and in positive psychology. Within personality psy- ric; within a year, he returned to Carthage after the death chology, Hans Eysenck’s model of personality has been of an unnamed friend. In 383, he decided to leave Africa employed to test the association between attitude toward and sailed for Rome to seek advancement by means of a Christianity and mental health, drawing on Eysenck’s career in oratory and public office. In 384, Augustine was measures of neuroticism and psychoticism. The data able to secure a professorship of rhetoric in Milan with consistently show no connection between attitude toward the assistance of the Manichaeans and the pagan prefect Augustine, Educational Contributions of 99 of Rome, Symmachus. Augustine met Bishop Ambrose at In particular, he emphasized the primacy of the will (ac- Milan and initially was interested only in his allegoricism, tion) as opposed to the intellect. (An example of the latter modesty, and oratory; during this time in 384, he was is his famous statement [Tractates on the Gospel of John becoming progressively disenchanted with Manichaean- 29.6.], “Therefore, seek not to understand so that you ism and became convinced that the Old Testament could may believe, but believe so that you may understand.”) be maintained by use of reason. In 385, Monica joined Philosophically, he maintained that knowledge (truth) Augustine in Milan; she arranged a socially advantageous is illumination from God. Educationally, he affirmed the marriage for Augustine and forced Augustine to dis- soul as one of two constituents that compose the human miss his concubine to become engaged. Augustine read being, and thus the rational soul (anima rationalis), as Neoplatonic philosophy in Milan, which helped resolve “mind” or “intellect” (animus), distinguishes humanity certain significant intellectual difficulties, and resolved from the animals. Augustine believed that the effects of to devote himself to studying and writing. In August 386, the Fall are pervasive, and that to refuse God is nonbeing he retired from teaching and withdrew to a villa at Cas- (or evil), so that evil pervades the world as a consequence siciacum (beyond Milan); from there, he began his career of humanity’s rejection of God. The ultimate purpose, as a writer with the dialogues Against the Academics then, of education is directed toward God by investigat- (Contra Academicos), On the Happy Life (De Beata Vita), ing within oneself with regard to truth, and by strenu- On Order (De Ordine), and the Soliloquies (Soliloquia). ously testing one’s own interiorOnly truth, which is when Augustine returned to Milan in early 387 and was the student truly learns. Consequently, he distinguished baptized by Ambrose on Easter Sunday, along with between knowledge (cogitare) and understanding (scire). his friend Alypius and his son Adeodatus. His mother Teaching is mere preparation for understanding, which died that same year and was buried in Ostia; Adeodatus is an illumination of the “inward teacher” (magister inte- died the next year. Augustine resided in Rome for the rior), who is Christ. majority of 388 and eventually returned to Thagaste to establish a monastic community with Alypius and other References and Resources friends. While visiting the port city of Hippo in 391, he Augustine: Later Works (trans. John Burnaby) is part of the was ordained against his will as a presbyter (priest). In Library of Christian Classics series (Philadelphia: Westminster, 395, he was consecrated bishop of Hippo. Augustine 1955);Copy it contains a selection of Augustine’s later writings, remained in Hippo until his death on 28 August 430; including On the Spirit and the Letter, sermons on the First while he lay dying, Augustine could hear the Vandals Epistle of John, and books 7–10 and 14–15 of On the Trin- besieging the city gates. ity. Philip Schaffs’s Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers contains Augustine began writing Confessions in approximately eight volumes of Augustine’s works in English. One of the best 397 (completed in 401), in addition to the majority of the translations of Confessions is by Henry Chadwick (New York: treatise On Christian Doctrine, and within a couple of Oxford University Press, 1991). years he began writing On the Trinity (which would be an almost 20-year endeavor). Augustine was instrumental in Bonner, Gerald. 1986. St. Augustine of Hippo: Life and Contro- the official suppression of the Donatists at the Council at versies. Rev. ed. Norwich, England: Canterbury. Carthage in 411 (a public debate between Donatist and Brown, Peter. 1967. Augustine of Hippo. Berkeley: University of Catholic bishops with regard to the legality of the Dona- California Press. tists as a parochial church). In 412, Augustine began writ- O’Donnell, James. 1985. Augustine. Boston: Twayne. ing against Pelagianism with the treatises On the Spirit TeSelle, Eugene. 1970. Augustine the Theologian. New York: and Letter and On Merit and the Forgiveness of Sins, and Herder and Herder. the Baptism of Infants, which began a prominent contro- Tilley, Maureen A. 1991. “Dilatory Donatists or Procrastinating versy that would engage him for the duration of his life. Catholics.” Church History 60 (March): 7–19. In 413, he began writing the City of God; he completed —Ron J. Bigalke the work in 427. It is a cultural and political response to the crisisContributor associated with the fall of Rome, in 410, to Alaric the Visigoth. In 427, he also began writing a final Augustine, Educational Contributions of series of treatises against Pelagianism, which included On Grace and Free Will and On the Predestination of the Saint Augustine (AD 354–430), North African bishop of Saints (the works addressed the relationship between free Hippo, prolific writer, and theologian, is one of the icons will, grace, and predestination). of Christian theology. However, Augustine also provides Augustine’s philosophical and theological thought a powerful model of the teaching bishop through both his made significant contributions to Christian education. publications and his practice. Augustine was born into a 100 Augustine, Educational Contributions of

Christian household, was schooled as a rhetorician, and they progress through the account.178 Augustine’s treatise embraced Manichaeism in his youth. Augustine’s own On Christian Teaching (known also as On Christian Doc- writings, the Confessions and the Testimony,175 detail his trine) is a comprehensive treatment of Christian doctrine personal journey, including his conversion in 386 to a via a baptismal creed, the nature of biblical interpretation robust Christian life; one that would ultimately see him based on factual and theological frameworks, and the in ministry and Christian leadership on his native, North teaching of Christianity primarily through the pulpit.179 African, soil. Augustine includes a treatment on the nature of knowl- While Augustine’s governance as a bishop might not edge and its acquisition through a treatise of semiotics normally warrant specific notice (in light of other bishops and hermeneutics, providing insight into the teaching of who shepherded their respective churches within their scripture and doctrine alike. In addition, Augustine pro- cities), his writings deserve particular note. As historian vides a theology of rhetoric for teaching bishops, using Garry Willis notes, Augustine employed stenographers rhetoric, or eloquence, “to teach, to delight, to sway.”180 and copyists to record and disseminate his sermons, let- ters, and books. His own incomplete review of his publi- Embodied Education cations numbered 93 books, 300 letters, and 400 sermons, Though Augustine thought little of his own childhood forming an extensive library.176 education, his early career included periods as a tutor and teacher of rhetoric, often withOnly mixed results. How- Significant Contributions to Christian Education ever, following his conversion and rise in leadership, Au- Augustine’s contributions to Christian education could gustine modeled the role of pastor as teacher. His most best be summarized in his written guidelines for cateche- notable skill was preaching and biblical interpretation, sis, including the content he provided, and his personal providing a rich resource of sermons focused on church emphasis on the teaching office through sermons and members, candidates (catechumens), and the pressing instruction. Augustine embodied his teaching and com- needs of the community.181 municated observations and precepts that mirrored his Augustine’s teaching involved a three-step process: (1) rhetorical style, as well as his passion for scripture and a longer evangelizing of the catechumenate (prospective patience with new students. members); (2) the focused catechesis of initiates at Lent priorCopy to baptism; and (3) mystagogy, or teachings about Written Guidelines the realities of the sacraments and other church matters Perhaps one of the strongest representative documents following baptism. During the earliest periods Augustine for Augustine’s own approach to catechetical instruction employed a broad array of biblical sermons, some exeget- is his letter (or treatise) De Catechizandis rudibus (known ical and others imaginative, to reach the diverse range of as “On the Instruction of Beginners or on Catechizing/ nonmembers within his congregation. When people took Teaching the Uninstructed”).177 In this text, Augustine a deliberate step of being initiated into the church, Au- addresses both the challenges of teaching for the in- gustine took personal direction. Even during busy times, structor as well as approaches and resources for teach- Augustine devoted his personal attention to the yearly ing. Augustine recommended varying teaching methods catechesis of Christian initiates to his church in Hippo. according to student interest and capability as well as These initiates, or competentes, would embrace an asceti- concentrating on key aspects of the biblical narrative as cal lifestyle during the Lenten journey, not as a Gnostic part of the teaching corpus. Other written theological rejection of the flesh, but as a disciplining of misplaced treatises provided a wellspring for later Christian educa- desire.182 This intense period of self-examination, biblical tion. Augustine’s autobiographical work, the Confessions, exhortation, and ritual practice integrated theology, spiri- provides a notable view of personal identity and selfhood tuality, and moral action to provoke a deep conversion. reflective of the later Enlightenment. The rhetorical skill demonstrated in this “testimony” to life reflects the goal of ancient philosophy to read and to live, providing a 178. Debra Romanick Baldwin, “Models of Teaching and Models of series of spiritual exercises to his reading audience as Learning in the Confessions,” in Augustine and Liberal Education, ed. Kim ContributorPaffenroth and Kevin L. Hughes (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2000), 15–24. 179. James J. O’Donnell, “Docrina Christiana, De,” in Augustine Through the Ages, gen. ed. Fitzgerald, 278–280. 180. Augustine, Teaching Christianity (De Doctrina Christiana): The 175. Garry Wills, Saint Augustine (New York: Penguin Books, 1999), Works of Saint Augustine—A Translation for the 21st Century, ed. John E. xiv–xvii. Rotelle, trans. Edmund Hill ( Park, NY: New City Press, 1996), 215. 176. Ibid., xii. 181. Daniel Doyle, “The Bishop as Teacher,” in Augustine and Liberal 177. Boniface Ramsey, “Catechizandus rudibus, De,” in Augustine Education, ed. Paffenroth and Hughes, 81–94. Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia, gen. ed. Allan D. Fitzgerald (Grand 182. William Harmless, Augustine and the Catechumenate (Collegeville, Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999), 144–145. MN: The Liturgical Press, 1995), 250–260. Australasia and Christian Education 101

In the final phase, mystagogy, 183Augustine focused on Australasia and Christian Education leading initiates through their baptism through Easter vigil and Easter morning baptismal sermons as well as Located in the southernmost region of Oceania, Aus- private instruction on the importance of the Eucharist. tralasia comprises the nations of Australia and Aotearoa William Harmless notes that one of Augustine’s key New Zealand. Although close in proximity, both coun- themes for the catechetical process came from the theme tries have distinct histories, peoples, and religious educa- of “baking bread” (for the sacrament of communion) tion systems. during the period of mystagogy: Introduction to Christianity This metaphor of baking bread served Augustine both During the 17th century European explorers began in- pedagogically and theologically. Pedagogically, it enabled vestigating the legendary southern continent of Terra him to give the neophytes an insight into their long Australis. Included on maps even before its discovery journey. Each stage had had its proper dynamic; each, its in 1606, the “South Land” soon drew explorers from proper meaning. Yet the whole fit together. This extended the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, and Britain. When metaphor integrated things much as the (Apostles) Creed did: that is, just as the Creed offered a way of survey- Australia was sequestered by Britain as a penal colony in ing the horizon of Scripture in a single glimpse, so this 1788, clergy from the Church of England were given the bread-baking metaphor offered a way of surveying the task of enforcing morality, in Onlyaddition to assisting with journey of initiation in a single glimpse. It linked diverse general health and education. This unfortunate marriage threads—evangelization and catechesis, asceticism and resulted in ministers such as the Reverend Samuel Mars- liturgy—within a single overarching framework. Theo- den (1765–1838), known as the “flogging parson” due to logically, it enabled Augustine to hold together Paul’s dual his dual role as minister-disciplinarian. The indigenous image of the Body of Christ—at once the people of God Australians were eventually displaced, and their numbers and sanctified bread—to show that the whole dynamic greatly diminished after the European arrival. Although moved one towards both a liturgical end—Eucharist— Roman Catholic, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches and an ecclesiological one—unity.184 were later established, the Church of England maintained Augustine’s approach to catechesis reminds Christian a position of power until the Church Act of 1836 officially educators of the holistic use of preaching, teaching, dis- enforcedCopy equality among the denominations. ciplined instruction, imagination, and shared learning by The first Catholic priests to arrive in Australia were teacher and student for the sake of the church. Collec- convicts incarcerated for their participation in the Irish tively, Augustine’s contributions to Christian education Rebellion of 1798. Father James Dixon, one of the priests, provide a window into early church efforts to inspire, was the first priest to celebrate mass with the Catholic educate, and form the faithful into the Christian life. colonists, who constituted about 10 percent of the popu- lation. The first priest appointed to serve in the colony References and Resources was Father Jeremiah Flynn (1788–1831). However, he Augustine. 1996. Teaching Christianity (De Doctrina Chris- arrived without official papers, and the Protestant gov- tiana): The Works of Saint Augustine—A Translation for ernor, Lachlan Macquarie, eventually forced Flynn to the 21st Century. Edited by John E. Rotelle. Translation and return to England, in May 1818. Although the Catholic notes by Edmund Hill. Hyde Park, NY: New City Press. Church eventually prospered in Australia, alternating Brown, Peter. (1967) 2000. Augustine of Hippo: A Biography. periods of persecution and partial toleration toward New ed. Berkley/Los Angeles: University of California Press. Catholics continued throughout the 19th century. Harmless, William. 1995. Augustine and the Catechumenate. In 1642, the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman was the Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. first European to encounter the islands of New Zealand. Paffenroth, Kim, and Kevin L. Hughes, eds. 2000. Augustine He faced a hostile reception from the local indigenous and Liberal Education. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. tribes, and it wasn’t until British Lieutenant James Cook Ramsey, Boniface. 1999. “Catechizandus rudibus, De.” In Au- returned to the islands in 1769 that Europeans began to peacefully communicate and trade with the Māori gustineContributor through the Ages: An Encyclopedia. Allan D. Fitzger- ald, general ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. people. Christian missionaries followed in the early 19th Wills, Garry. 1999. Saint Augustine. New York: Penguin Books. century, led by Samuel Marsden under the auspices of the —Dean Blevins Anglican Church Mission Society. Soon afterward, mis- sionaries and settlers to New Zealand founded Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, and Methodist churches. As the 183. Ibid., 300–336. British colony of New Zealand grew, many Christian 184. Ibid., 320–321. missionaries actively advocated for Māori land rights 102 Australia and Christian Education and tribal autonomy. The resulting Treaty of Waitangi mately 19 percent of all Australian elementary students was eventually signed in 1840, guaranteeing these rights. and 21 percent of secondary students were enrolled in Largely due to the missionaries’ social activism and Catholic schools. The Anglican Church also continues to education system, Christianity was widely accepted by operate approximately 145 schools in Australia, includ- the Māori people. In addition to traditional Christianity, ing the well-respected Geelong Grammar School, Mel- syncretistic expressions of Māori Christianity, Rātana bourne Grammar School, and King’s School in Sydney. and Ringatū, developed and still continue today. In New Zealand, Anglican missionaries with the Church Mission Society founded the first schools during the early Main Denominations and Institutions 19th century. Initially established to evangelize the Māori Since the 18th century, the predominance of Christianity people, these schools were endorsed by the European colo- among the Australian population has slowly decreased. nizers and native communities alike. In 1840, the Roman In the Census of 1911, 96 percent of the population Catholic Church launched its own Māori school, St. Peter’s identified as Christians, contrasted with 61 percent in the School, starting its own missionary enterprise. By 1847, 2011 census. The most prominent Christian affiliations numerous Protestant and Catholic European-style schools are Catholic (25 percent), Anglican (17 percent), Uniting existed among the Māori, teaching them English, Christi- Church (5 percent), Presbyterian and Reformed (3 per- anity, arithmetic, and industrial skills. cent), Eastern Orthodox (3 percent), Baptist (2 percent), In 1841, the first nonindigenousOnly Catholic school was es- Lutheran (1 percent), and Pentecostal (1 percent). tablished in Auckland by laypeople for the children of free While Christianity is still the primary religion of New settlers. When the government passed the Education Act Zealand, the nation as a whole is becoming increasingly in 1877, providing a free and secular primary education secular. According to the 2006 Census, 56 percent of system, the Catholic Church elected to start its own edu- citizens identify as Christians, while 35 percent of the cational system to preserve its religious ideals. From 1877 population is not religious. The largest denominations to 1975, Catholic schools were financially independent are Anglican (15 percent), Roman Catholic (13 percent), and were run almost exclusively by religious clergy. Since Presbyterian/Congregational/Reformed (11 percent), 1983 all Catholic schools in New Zealand, along with state Methodist (3 percent), and Pentecostal (2 percent). Re- schools, are being fully funded by the national govern- ligious freedom is constitutionally supported and prac- ment.Copy In 2012, more than 65,000 students in New Zealand ticed in both Australia and New Zealand. attended a Catholic school. Of the 238 Catholic schools, 189 are primary schools and 49 are secondary schools. Christian Education In the late 1770s, the Church of England in Australia References and Resources founded the first Christian schools in the colony. Initially Breward, Ian. 2001. A History of the Churches in Australasia. the entire colonial population, regardless of denomina- Oxford: Oxford University Press. tional background, was required to attend Anglican ser- Clark, Manning. 2006. A Short History of Australia. Melbourne, vices and their children had to attend Anglican schools. Australia: Penguin Books. During the subsequent decades, other denominations Piggin, Stuart. 1996. Evangelical Christianity in Australia: began establishing religious schools. Secular public edu- Spirit, Word and World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. cation only became a reality in 1872, when the Education Simon, Judith, and Linda Tuhiwai Smith, eds. 2001. A Civiliz- Act was passed in the state of Victoria and later in the ing Mission? Perceptions and Representations of the New remaining states. Zealand Native Schools System. Auckland, New Zealand: Despite initial governmental resistance, by 1833 there Auckland University Press. were also 10 Catholic schools in Australia. Although state —Sarita D. Gallagher financial assistance was fully retracted from all Christian schools by 1893, the Catholic Church chose to continue its educational endeavors. By 1871, the Sisters of St. Jo- Australia and Christian Education seph wereContributor operating 35 schools in both rural and urban areas. In 1900, there were also 115 Christian Brothers The first Australians have lived there for 40,000 years, teaching in schools around the nation. By 1910, more making them the oldest continuous civilization on the than 5,000 sisters from all the religious orders were teach- planet. In 1788, their lives changed irrevocably with the ing in Australian Catholic schools. arrival of the British First Fleet, which landed at an un- Today the Catholic Church is second only to govern- named location in Sydney harbor on 26 January 1788 and ment public schools in providing primary, secondary, raised the British flag over the country. Some 751 con- and tertiary education in Australia. In 2005, approxi- victs and their families disembarked, along with 252 ma- Australia and Christian Education 103 rines and their families. Among them were 17 children ensured a national system of education, sustained by gov- of convicts and 19 children of the marines. However, no ernment funding and under ministerial control. instructions were given to Captain Arthur Phillip about The lack of state aid for denominational schools was a the education of these children, for it was alien to the source of tension for decades, particularly in the Catholic official mind to be interested in the welfare of children. community, whose numbers increased rapidly with the “By 1809 the War Office had been persuaded to appoint postwar migration from traditionally Catholic countries regimental school masters, and by 1833 the Colonial in Europe. In 1962, the issue came to a head in the New Office was prepared to sanction an experiment in the South Wales town of Goulburn. Government health in- reformation of child convicts in Van Diemen’s Land, but spectors demanded that three extra toilets be installed at in 1788 the education of these children formed no part of a local Catholic primary school, Our Lady of Mercy. The the business of any department of State.”185 school principal, Sister Celestine, and the bishop, John The Church of England (Anglican) was effectively the Cullinane, said that there was simply no money to make established religion, and its pastors, under the direction of the required changes in the required time frame. Follow- the governor, controlled the first schools, although several ing a meeting with local Catholics, a decision was made other denominations established rudimentary schools to hold a strike. On Friday, 13 July 1962, six Catholic in the early decades of the 19th century. The attempts of schools in the Goulburn area closed, and the following Governor Bourke in the late 1830s and Governor Gipps Monday morning some 2,000 OnlyCatholic pupils presented in the 1840s to establish a national system based on that themselves for enrollment in the public school system, introduced into Ireland in 1831 by Lord Stanley, secretary which had only 640 vacancies. The “strike” was well of state for the colonies, were thwarted by denominational orchestrated and lasted for a week, during which time it rivalries. Governor FitzRoy was able to effect a compro- gained national media coverage. The wheels were set in mise by appointing two boards, a denominational board motion for the restoration of state aid to nongovernment and a national board. The first national school opened at schools, and in 1964 the Menzies Liberal government, Kempsey in 1848, and although development was slow, determined to retain office, began funding in the form of national schools coexisted with denominational schools. grants to upgrade the teaching of science. By the end of However, many of the schools lacked basic facilities, and the 1960s, the federal and state governments were offer- the standard of education was generally poor. ingCopy recurrent funding to nongovernment schools. Despite vigorous opposition from many of the clergy, Government funding of nongovernment schools con- who complained about elements of the proposed public tinues to the present, although the Howard government system, Henry Parkes was able to pass the Public Schools made two significant changes: abolishing the restrictive Act in New South Wales in 1866. The progress of a na- new schools policy in 1996 and in 2001 introducing a tional system and the marginalization of denominational new funding system. These two decisions made it easier schools continued at different rates as the now separated for new and independent nongovernment schools to be states worked on their own educational systems. Vic- established in addition to making available significant toria’s population expanded exponentially due to the increases in funding. discovery of gold in the 1850s, and the state’s 1872 Edu- These reforms have contributed to the diversification cation Act provided for the establishment of a Ministry of nongovernment schools, which though still dominated of Public Instruction and the cessation of government as- by the traditional Christian religions, has seen the estab- sistance for denominational schools. The law was known lishment of Islamic schools and schools associated with as the act for “free, compulsory and secular education,” new Christian religions. While there is some disquiet and the Catholic bishops determined that they would de- about the standards of education and religious indoc- velop their own independent education system, wherein trination in these schools, “there is little evidence that religion would not be relegated to a time slot in the cur- religious schools are the cause of any of the educational riculum but would suffuse the culture of the school. It or social ills attributed to them.”186 was a bold decision when they had few facilities and few teachers.Contributor Having made their decision, the bishops set References and Resources about inviting religious orders to send personnel to the Austin, A. G. 1972. Australian Education 1788–1900: Church, colony to staff their schools. Between 1872 and 1895, a State and Public Education in Colonial Australia. 3rd ed. succession of education acts in the six Australian colonies Carlton, Victoria: Pitman Pacific.

185. A. G. Austin, Australian Education 1788–1988: Church, State and 186. Jennifer Buckingham, The Rise of Religious Schools, Policy Mono- Public Education in Colonial Australia, 3rd ed. (Carlton, Vic: Sir Isaac Pit- graphs, http://cis.org.au/images/stories/policy-monographs/pm-111.pdf man (Aust) Pty. Ltd. 1972), 1. (accessed 25 March 2013). 104 Australian Catholic University

Buckingham, Jennifer. 2010. The Rise of Religious Schools. research, as well as promoting the dignity of all people Policy Monographs. http://cis.org.au/images/stories/policy and the common good. -monographs/pm-111.pdf. Australian Catholic University is a publicly funded —Michael A. Kelly university and welcomes staff and students of all beliefs and backgrounds. It is committed to providing equal ac- cess to education for all people. Community engagement Australian Catholic University is also a core part of every student’s experience at ACU, to the point where it is embedded within the courses. The arrival of the First Fleet in 1788 brought not only This allows students to give back to their communi- European convicts to Australia, but also three distinct ties and make a difference through opportunities such forms of Christianity: Catholic, Anglican, and evangelical as volunteer experience programs. Students undertake Protestant. These “three grand divisions of Christianity” professional placements and volunteer work throughout have maintained a major presence in Australian society their studies, with many securing excellent jobs before up to the present (O’Farrell 1992). Because it was a Brit- they graduate. ish penal settlement, the Anglican Church inherited a The university is founded on a long history of commit- preeminent place in the early colonial era due to its status ment to truth, in a spirit of freedom and service. It prizes as an established church in England, even though a sig- such key values as Only nificant number of the population were Catholic convicts (Dixon 2005). In the early 1800s, attempts were made • following the way of Christ and commitment to to establish schools. Up until the mid-1800s, schooling Christian values; systems across the settled parts of Australia were estab- • participating in the community and mission of the lished by the various Christian denominational churches church; with the support of state aid (Ryan, 1997). By the 1870s, • a continuing dialogue between faith and reason— the push for free and secular schooling systems resulted represented, for example, by the dialogue between in a wave of legislative enactments that secured their philosophy and science; establishment (O’Farrell 1969). With the founding of the • respect for truth in all its forms and collaboration in free and secular schooling systems in Australia state aid seekingCopy it through all the disciplines; to Christian schools ceased and this lead to the closure of • collaboration of all staff and students, whatever their many Christian denominational schools. beliefs, in the interests of a more decent and humane During the 19th century, teacher training colleges society; were established in various states to prepare teachers for • the promotion of teaching and research in ways that Christian service in Catholic school. These institutions best serve the ission of the university; and had their origins in the mid-1800s, when religious orders • respect for academic freedom. and institutes became involved in preparing teachers for Catholic schools and, later, nurses for Catholic hospitals. Australian Catholic University engages the Catholic Over the following century and through a series of amal- intellectual tradition to bring a distinct perspective to gamations, relocations, transfers of responsibility, and di- higher education. It explores cultural, social, ethical, ocesan initiatives, Australian Catholic University (ACU) and religious issues through the lens of that tradition in was established. It opened on 1 January 1991 following is teaching, research, and service. ACU is committed to the amalgamation of four Catholic tertiary institutions in fostering and advancing knowledge in education, health, eastern Australia. commerce, the humanities, the sciences and technol- The university is a member of the publicly funded na- ogy, law, and the creative arts. It contributes to its local, tional system of Australian universities, the Association national, and international communities. Graduates are of Commonwealth Universities, and the International skilled in their chosen fields and ethical in their behavior, Federation of Catholic Universities. The university’s with a developed critical habit of mind, an appreciation vice chancellorContributor is a member of Universities Australia. of the sacred in life, and a commitment to serving the ACU has six campuses around Australia and aims to common good. empower students to think critically and ethically and Australian Catholic University has high hopes and to bring about change in their communities and profes- great expectations of its graduates. An ACU education is sions. ACU is supported by more than 2,000 years of about teaching students to think critically and ethically Catholic intellectual tradition. It is Australia’s leading and to be guided by social justice principles. It’s about Catholic university and is devoted to communicating passing on the skills to bring about change in communi- truth in every field of knowledge through teaching and ties and in society. The university’s core curriculum lies Authority 105 at the heart of this vision. The goal is not just to pass on education is organized by the evangelical churches and knowledge, but to raise some of the most fundamen- also by the orthodox churches. At present, two hours of tal questions on human experience and meaning. The religious education per week are generally stipulated by core units emphasize critical judgment, clear expression, the state. The Roman Catholic Church and the Evangeli- ethical decision making, and concern for others, as in- cal Church maintain kindergarten and schools through dividuals and as a community. Above all, they provide the secondary level. There are also some Roman Catholic a common learning experience for students at ACU. educational institutions on the postsecondary level. A Undergraduate students will together address the same unique educational institution in Europe is the Univer- topics and tackle the same problems—bringing their own sity College of Teacher Education of Christian Churches views and experience to complex ideas and contempo- of Vienna/Krems (founded in 2007), maintained by five rary social issues. churches. In the area of education, the state covers the costs of five faculties of theology, which are part of state References and Resources universities, the costs of denominational religious edu- ACU. n.d. “About ACU.” http://www.acu.edu.au/about_acu. cation, as well as the personnel costs for teachers in the Dixon, R. 2005. The Catholic Community in Australia. Ad- denominational schools. elaide: Openbook Publishers. The state and the churches—as well as other religious O’Farrell, P. 1969. The Catholic Church in Australia: A Short communities—are considered Onlyindependent and autono- History 1788–1967. London: Geoffrey Chapman. mous partners of equal rank. Through legal recognition, ———. 1992. The Catholic Church and Community: An Austra- they receive the status of a public body, allowing them to lian History. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. perform duties of public interest, including social, cul- Ryan, M. 1997. Foundations of Religious Education in Catholic tural, and political duties. Schools: An Australian Perspective. NSW, Australia: Social —Martin Jäggle Science Press. —Michael T. Buchanan Authority Austria and Christian Education TheCopy source of authority matters. Experience, reason, culture, celebrity, tradition, self, and revelation—or some During the second century Christianity was brought to combination—may serve as the origin of authority for the area of Austria by Roman soldiers, but the Völker- everyone. Human starting points, however, may leave wanderung destroyed the first ecclesiastical establish- authority in the hands of the few who wield control. ments. In the seventh century Christianity came again, Authority’s reliability must be based on Someone who is from the West. The oldest monastery, St. Peter in transcendent (separate from, outside of) and immutable Salzburg, was founded in 696, and the oldest convent, (unchanging). God-given authority should be held onto Nonnberg in Salzburg, in 714. lightly. Leaders must remain committed in thought, In the 2001 Census, 73.6 percent of the population word, and deed to authority outside themselves. Rul- were Roman Catholic, 4.7 percent were Protestant, 4.2 ers are not above the law. Everyone from presidents to percent Muslim, and 2.3 percent Orthodox Christian people is held to the same standard. (12.0 percent had no affiliation). Since then the number of Roman Catholics has decreased, and there are more Biblical Theology of Authority Orthodox Christians and Muslims. Sixteen churches One’s authority comes from one’s person known through are members of the Ecumenical Council of Churches in one’s words. God’s initiative in communication should Austria; the Roman Catholic Church is a full member. be mirrored through clear, honest, and forthright words, Twelve churches are recognized by the state. Religious safeguarded for the future (2 Tim. 1:14); God’s Word education takes place in the public kindergarten (except must be clearly interpreted and honestly expounded so in Vienna)Contributor and is a compulsory denominational subject its message is clear to all (2 Thess. 2:15); All in the Chris- in the public schools (with few exceptions) for those tian community must admit their personal responsibility pupils who are members of a legally recognized church to know and understand scripture for themselves (Ps. (or religious community). Others can take religious 119:18; Acts 17:11). education as an optional subject. Every church (and reli- In the Old Testament, authority comes from the word gious community) is responsible for religious education “hand.” The metaphor indicated the source of authority, at school, designates the teacher, determines the cur- the action taken from one’s hand. Believers were to recog- riculum, and chooses the textbooks. A common religious nize that all abundance comes from God’s hand (1 Chron. 106 Autism

29:16), because His hands formed all things (Ps. 8:6, 95:5). privilege of learning and to the providers of that learning Humans, on the other hand, were to remember that what- (Prov. 23:12). Respect for God, His Word, and His leader ever they produced did not come from the strength of in the classroom demonstrates subservience to authority their hands (Deut. 8:17–18). God’s authority would not be (1 Pet. 2:17). compromised by any human authority. All parties (school, home, and church) share com- In the New Testament, authority meant freedom of mon, covenantal commitments. Resolved to honor those choice, how much ability one has to determine the free- spheres of authority, each group—home, church, and dom of action one has over one’s life or the lives of others school—will not overstep its response to any of the other (as in giving orders; Matt. 8:9; Luke 7:8, 19:17). Jesus had groups. Parents, teachers, administrators, and students authority to lay down His life of His own accord (John should all agree to follow clearly written philosophies, 10:17–18). Paul used his authority to build up others, not policies, and procedures based on a Christian authority tear them down (2 Cor. 10:8, 13:10). Ultimately Jesus’s structure. The church will maintain that God’s written authority comes from the origin of all authority, the Fa- revelation should be the final authority for evaluation of ther’s hand (Matt. 28:18), for others’ benefit (Matt. 5:17, all other written or spoken communication in textbooks, 9:6, 8; Mark 1.22). in-services, meetings, chapels, community traditions, and classroom teaching (1 Cor. 10:3–5; Heb. 5:11–14). Biblical Philosophy of Authority The source or origin of authorityOnly must always be known The Bible is God’s revelation of authority for all people, and always be based on biblical grounds. The words truth- all places, and all time (Matt. 5:17; John 10:35; 2 Tim. ful, reliable, faithful, accurate, trustworthy, and committed 3:16–17; 2 Pet. 1:20–21). God’s Word is the absolute should describe the Christian individual and institution (1 authority over human wisdom (1 Cor. 1:18–31). All John 2:4, 3:18–19). People consciously or unconsciously knowledge, then, will be brought under the examination accept authority (Matt. 7:13–14). Definitions for authority of the biblical lens (2 Cor. 10:3–5). Scripture declares that structures must be clearly established based on a Christian people should be responsive to change from the inside source (Neh. 13; Tim. 1:9–11). Ideas, institutions, or per- out by practicing truths found within it (James 1:19–27). sons accepted as authority must be interpreted through Herein is the basis for virtuous living within the context scriptural grids. Complaints about authority must come of the Christian community. fromCopy a source of authority other than itself. Faulty objec- There is a consistent concern from the Pentateuch to tions to biblical authority often can be traced to one source: Revelation that believers not be led astray by counterfeit rebellion through personal advantage (Gen. 4:23, 24; Jud. authority systems witnessed through the allure of idolatry 21:25). Inherent human corruption should teach people to (Deut. 4:15–19, 23, 25, 28), the distraction of persuasive admit wrongdoing (1 John 1:6, 8), rectifying by reconcil- speech (Deut. 18:20–22), or the seduction of ideas with a ing problems with others (Matt. 5:23, 24). Tolerance of semblance of truth wrapped around error (Deut. 13:1–5). people (acceptance and respect) is different than tolerance Other authority structures are based on a temporal, of belief (Ps. 51:13; 2 Tim. 2:25, 3:1, 7–8). The correction material, human-centered viewpoint antithetic to the of authority should be gentle, teaching the Truth in love Personal Eternal Triune Creator. (Eph. 4:15; 2 Tim. 2:25). In a culture of individualism—“no one tells me what to do”—and relativism—“no standard of certainty ex- References and Resources ists outside myself”—it is necessary to establish the Hunter, James C. 2012. The Servant: A Simple Story About biblical basis for authority in the Christian classroom. the True Essence of Leadership. 2nd ed. New York: Crown God has placed authorities in life to which humans are Publishing. accountable (Ps. 119:91; Rom. 13:1; 1 Pet. 2:13). Under Pazmiño, Robert. 2002. By What Authority Do We Teach? governance from God, any Christian school board and Sources for Empowering Christian Educators. Eugene, OR: administration, along with covenantal support from par- Wipf & Stock. ents, teachers bear a mandate from God to exercise the —Mark Eckel sanction givenContributor to them in their classrooms (1 Pet. 5:1–4). Christian Practice of Authority Autism The Christian teacher is God’s authority in the school’s sphere of influence (1 Thess. 5:11–12). Professors bear The term “autism” was introduced in 1943 by Leo Kan- the responsibility of clear commitment to and com- ner (Baltimore, MD). He called it “early infantile autism” munication of the “true Truth” of authority (Tim. 1:9). (Greek autos, meaning “self”). He described these chil- Students are under authority and accountable for the dren as “immersed in their own world,” which, despite Azusa Pacific University 107 extensive progress in research, is still a commonly used 8. Low functioning autism: This term refers to indi- description. viduals who experience autism together with intel- Autism is a vastly complicated, biologically condi- lectual disability. tioned development disorder that includes three basic 9. Autistic spectrum disorders: This is the term com- areas: (1) qualitative impairment in social interactions; monly used nowadays; it includes childhood (2) qualitative impairment in communication; and (3) autism, Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, restricted, repeated, and stereotyped patterns of behavior, childhood disintegrative disorders, and other de- interests, and activities. velopment disorders. Autism is currently diagnosed on the basis of the list of symptoms. However, indications vary because of the Christian education of individuals with autism means diversity of symptoms, their intensity, and the course of accompanying them in entering the Christian way of life. the disease. Moreover, clinical symptoms depend on the Applying a basic rule of being faithful to God and man, developmental age of the person with autism. The causes Christian educators may choose psychology and special of autism have not yet been fully discovered. Today it is pedagogical methods convenient for any individual and estimated that autistic disorders occur in at least 15–25 of for themselves; however, they need to remember that every 10,000 children. making use of the achievements of didactics does not Ewa Pisula (2010) identifies nine basic terms related absolve them from taking into Onlyconsideration God’s peda- to autism: gogy. Contemporary Christian education of individuals with autism must focus on the attempt at integrating 1. Classic autism/Kanner’s Syndrome: These are his- its actions with therapists, school, parish community, torical labels referring to Kanner’s descriptions or and—first and foremost—family. However, it must be used to describe severe autism (significant difficul- highlighted that “integrated” does not mean “placed ties with social development and inability to use inside” (e.g., a school or a special center), but rather con- spoken language). nected by a network of mutual relations reflecting love 2. Early infantile autism: This is also a historical term, that makes it possible to recognize students of Jesus. God which was eliminated by the World Health Organi- is not abstract but the Living, with whom we establish our zation (WHO) when it turned out that the symp- relation.Copy Individuals with autism cannot be perceived as toms of autism may appear slightly later than had strange and having no contact with reality. Their abilities been previously assumed. This term is still encoun- should be appreciated as they are. This is evangelical ser- tered in psychiatry textbooks and scientific articles. vice for the disabled so that they do not waste their talents 3. Autistic features/tendencies/behaviours: These but multiply them, since everyone, including a person terms tend to be used by diagnosticians. They are with autism, received them from God. related to the difficulties in diagnosing and the avoidance of clear definitions. In doubtful cases, the References and Resources term “autistic behaviors,” referring to the observed Grandin, T. 1995. Thinking in Pictures. My Life with Autism. behaviour and not to permanent features of a child, New York: Doubleday. is much more appropriate. Pisula, E. 2010. Autyzm—przyczyny, symptomy, terapia. 4. Childhood autism: This is the term used in the ICD Gdańsk: Harmonia. (International Classification of Diseases) WHO Volkmar, F. R., R. Paul, A. Klin, and D. J. Cohen. 2005. Hand- classification. It is criticized for suggesting that au- book of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders, tism occurs only in children, whereas in reality it is Diagnosis, Development, Neurobiology, and Behavior. Hobo- a lifelong disorder in the majority of cases. ken, NJ: Wiley. 5. Autistic disorders: This was the term describing —Andrzej Kiciński autism in the DSM classification of the American Psychiatric Association. 6. AtypicalContributor autism: This term is used in the ICD-10 Azusa Pacific University classification to describe an atypical course of au- tism. The atypical nature refers to a lack of disor- History ders in one of the three axis areas or to the age when Azusa Pacific University is located about 26 miles north- symptoms occur. east of Los Angeles; other regional centers are located 7. High functioning autism: This term is used to de- throughout Southern California. scribe individuals with well-developed intellectual The school was founded by a group of Quakers in Whit- abilities. tier, California, as a training school that would prepare 108 Azusa Pacific University young people for Christian service and missionary work. five religious organizations were officially affiliated with The first school of its kind on the Pacific Coast, its articles the university: Brethren in Christ, Church of God, Free of incorporation were approved in March 1900, and the Methodist Church, Missionary Church, and the Salva- Training School for Christian Workers began with two tion Army. students in the home of Mary Hill, the first president and teacher. The next three presidents were also women, re- Most Notable Academic Programs flecting the Quaker belief that women should have equal Offering liberal arts and professional degrees, APU has access to institutional and church offices. excelled in teacher education, nursing, and theology. In 1907, the school moved to Huntington Park because Currently the university houses the College of Liberal it had outgrown its Whittier location. By the time the Arts and Science, School of Behavioral and Applied Sci- school celebrated its 30th anniversary, it had 112 alumni ences, School of Business and Administration, School of serving as foreign missionaries. During that decade—the Music, School of Nursing, School of Theology, Center for 1930s—the school severed formal ties with the Quakers Adult and Professional Studies, an Honors College, and and operated without formal ties to any denomination, APOU (offering an AA online degree). There are also while representing many. The school became a college study abroad programs with more than 40 national and under the 36-year tenure of President Cornelius Hag- international venues. gard, which began in 1939, when the school’s name was Only changed to Pacific Bible College of Huntington Park. Christian Philosophy and Mission of Education Due to the need for expansion, the college moved to As stated in its catalogs, APU’s mission statement identi- its current location in Azusa in 1946; it was accredited fies it as “an evangelical Christian community of disciples for the first time the following year. Because the curricu- and scholars who seek to advance the work of God in the lum and faculty were evolving beyond the description of world through academic excellence in liberal arts and a Bible college to what was a liberal arts college, in 1957 professional programs of higher education that encour- the name of the school was again changed, to Azusa Col- age students to develop a Christian perspective of truth lege, and it was regionally accredited in 1964. In part due and life.” Toward that end, the university is also known to financial difficulties, a Free Methodist institution, Los for its Noel Academy for Strengths-Based Leadership and Angeles Pacific College, left its campus the following year Education,Copy which seeks to affect educational practices by and merged with Azusa College to form Azusa Pacific providing faculty and staff with the resources to identify College (APC). Another merger occurred in 1968, when and nurture students’ strengths so that they can engage in the college added graduate programs and invited Arling- the learning process more successfully. ton College, a small college associated with the Church of Significant catchphrases that capture the school’s ethos God, Anderson, Indiana, to join APC. include its motto, “God First,” which appears to have been In 1981, the college changed its status to that of a uni- adopted during the mid-19th century in a U.S. culture that versity and its name to Azusa Pacific University (APU). was less pluralistic. More recently, “Transforming Scholar- The School of Theology was formed in 1983. Founda- ship” succinctly identifies the university’s goal. tional to the newly named university was a commitment Near its beginning the school was committed to being to scripture, not just for information, but for application. evangelical in faith, having a concern for application of All students were and are required to take three courses what is learned to the spiritual life, maintaining inter- in Bible, one in doctrine, one in ministry, and a senior denominational ties, and training students for practical seminar in Christian ethics. Appropriate to the school’s service. From its “Essence Statement,” it now uses the beginnings, Christian service continues to be a require- descriptive nouns Christian, academic, developmental, ment for graduation. and service; these seem to correspond to what it calls its Since 1981, the university’s enrollment has been on four “cornerstones”: Christ, scholarship, sommunity, the increase; today the total count exceeds 9,000. Gradu- and service. ate programs were added, including master’s degrees and doctorates;Contributor in theology this includes an MDiv and Reference a DMin. Jackson, Sheldon. 1999. “Azusa Pacific University: One Hun- The school is intentional about its Wesleyan orien- dred Years of Christian Service and Scholarship, 1899–1999.” tation, but also retains some identity with its Quaker APU. Accessed 10 April 2013. http://www.apu.edu/provost/ (Friends) beginnings, such as a professorial chair that catalog/downloads/apu_ugradcat1213.pdf. was at one time occupied by Richard Foster. In 1998, —Dennis Okholm B Only Bacon, Roger dependence on Aristotle regarding matters of science (Elias 2002, 63; Anthony and Benson 2003, 165; Butts Roger Bacon (c. 1214–c. 1294) was an English philoso- 1947, 156–157). He proposed that neither reason nor au- pher, Franciscan friar, Oxford professor, and man of sci- thority could provide legitimate knowledge without the ence. He was born near Ilchester in Somerset, England. support of experimental research (Burns 1969, 377–378). As a celebrated theologian, scientist, and philosopher, the Furthermore, Bacon condemned scholastic wrangling scholastic accolade Doctor Mirabilis, meaning “wonder- and arguing as an outmoded method of teaching (Reed ful teacher,” was bestowed on him. Bacon was trained in and Prevost 1993, 186). the scholarly disciplines of logic and natural philosophy In addition to his philosophical reflections on science, at Oxford and as a philosopher and scientist, he “helped BaconCopy contributed to actual scientific accomplishments. to revolutionize the perception of man’s place in the His study and writings on optics served as an authorita- physical world” (Reed and Prevost 1993, 171). tive source for centuries, and in his experimental re- Upon becoming a Franciscan friar (c. 1257), he antici- search, “He discovered much about magnifying lenses, pated becoming a teacher, but that did not come to pass, and it seems more than probable that he invented the and he continued as an independent scholar (Hackett simple microscope. He demonstrated that light travels [2007] 2012). As an early witness to the revival of Aristo- faster than sound, and he was apparently the first scien- telian thought in European universities, Bacon is regarded tist to perceive the inaccuracy of the Julian calendar and as the originator of experimental research and often called to advocate its revision” (Butts 1947, 378). the “father of experimental science.” In 1265, Pope Clem- Bacon himself came under a certain amount of criti- ent IV commissioned Bacon to write on scientific matters, cism. According to Jeremiah Hackett ([2007] 2012), it and in a year and a half he completed a trilogy of works, appears that his own Franciscan order condemned him the Opus Majus, the Opus Minus, and the Opus Tertium. in 1278 “on account of certain suspected novelties,” pos- In the Opus Majus, he emphasized the need for including sibly due to his interests in astrology and alchemy. Bacon the study of science and nature within the curriculum (An- died at Oxford at the approximate age of 80. thony and Benson 2003, 165). Furthermore, he noted that science should augment the study of theology, the queen References and Resources of the sciences. He argued that both reason and authority Anthony, Michael, and Warren Benson. 2003. Exploring the could furnish valid knowledge only when supported by History & Philosophy of Christian Education. Grand Rapids, experimentalContributor research (Burns 1969, 377–378). MI: Kregel. Along with fellow Franciscans Duns Scotus and Wil- Burns, Edward M. 1969. Western Civilizations: Their History liam of Occum, Bacon challenged the system of inquiry and Their Culture. 7th ed. New York: W. W. Norton. promoted by St. Thomas Aquinas. He believed that Butts, R. Freeman. 1947. A Cultural History of Education: Reas- Aquinas did not allow for the knowledge of God to be sessing Our Educational Traditions. New York: McGraw-Hill. discovered through direct human experience or what Elias, John L. 2002. A History of Christian Education: Prot- came to be known as the scientific method. In Bacon’s estant, Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: mind, Aquinas had developed a harmful or unhealthy Krieger Publishing.

— 109 — 110 Baltimore Catechism

Hackett, Jeremiah. (2007) 2012. “Roger Bacon.” In Stanford En- However, in the wake of Vatican I, they achieved their cyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta. http:// goal with the Catechism of the Third Plenary Council plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/roger-bacon/. of Baltimore (1885). The text had 421 questions in 37 Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- chapters and the order of questions was as follows: creed tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. (1–135), sacraments (136–302), prayer (303–309), com- —Harley T. Atkinson mandments (310–407), Last Judgment and the Resur- rection, Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven (408–421). A 1941 revision by the bishops’ Committee of the Confraternity Baltimore Catechism of Christian Doctrine returned to the order of creed, commandments, sacraments, and prayer. The Baltimore Catechism, commissioned by the Third In an insightful article, Mary Charles Bryce notes that Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884) and published in there was less than unanimous enthusiasm for the Balti- 1885, became the standard catechetical tool in the United more Catechism, and quite a deal of criticism because of States for more than 80 years. While immensely influen- the lack of a practical pedagogy, which could only lead to tial as an instructional text, it was not in itself novel, as it rote learning of the text.3 There was also criticism of the built on the catechism genre that took definitive shape in lack of adequate theological treatment of certain aspects the Small and Large Catechisms (Der kleine Katechismus, of doctrine. The bishops’ meetingOnly in 1896 resolved to and Deutsch Katechismus, which became known as Der revise the catechism, but no progress was made over the grosser Katechismus) of Martin Luther, which appeared next six episcopal meetings. in 1529. The influence of Luther’s catechisms was en- The reason for the lack of progress appears to be that hanced by the fact that they were written in vernacular the committee couldn’t recommend a suitable alterna- German, and due to the availability of the printing press, tive, progress a revised text, or mandate it for use na- invented by Johannes Gutenberg in 1440, enjoyed a large tionally. The result was a proliferation of texts carrying distribution. In the preface to the Small Catechism, Lu- imprimaturs from a variety of bishops and censors. ther states that his works were directed to pastors and These new texts sought to adapt to the developments preachers, notably bishops, so that they might instruct in pedagogy and the social sciences. Some provided the uneducated laity and sometimes the lower ranks of developmentallyCopy sequenced learning texts; others aban- the clergy. Once they had mastered the basics of this text, doned the question and answer technique in favor of a they were to take up the Large Catechism and “use it to more narrative approach; and still others sought to use give them a broader and richer understanding.”1 catechisms suitable to the psychological development of Another significant contribution of Luther was to reor- young people, including illustrations, pictures, and sto- der the sequence to begin with the Ten Commandments ries that engaged the imagination of the young. followed by the creed, and instead of dividing them into Unfortunately, the 1941 revision of the Baltimore Cat- multiple articles he focused on three: the salvific work echism involved theologians who were not in dialogue of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit under the rubrics of with religious educators or the developments in learning, creation, redemption, and sanctification. Following treat- teaching, and the social sciences, especially psychology, ments of the Lord’s Prayer, baptism, confession, and the so their new text was more of the same but with an ex- Eucharist, as well as daily prayers and duties, were “Chris- panded number of questions (515). The reception of the tian Questions with Their Answers,” establishing the now- revised catechism was similar to that accorded the origi- familiar question and answer approach to basic catechesis. nal: cool and unenthusiastic. Numerous other catechisms appeared; influential One sympathizes with the desire of the bishops for a among them were those of St. Peter Canisius, St. Robert uniform national text, but this is not feasible in a society Bellarmine, and the Council of Trent, which surprisingly composed of people drawn from different cultures with did not have a reliable English translation until 1829, their own languages and traditions. The Roman Catholic more than 250 years after the Roman catechism, and Church, however, still wants to have a compendium of “was only Contributorpublished in the United States in 1905.”2 In the doctrine, and the latest effort in that direction is The United States, repeated efforts to formulate a national Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992), which is not catechism failed to meet with the approval of the bishops. written in the style of the Baltimore Catechism and is ad- dressed not to children but to the bishops and leaders of 1. Martin Luther, Luther’s Small Catechism with Explanation (St. Louis, the church. MO: Concordia, 1986), 246. 2. Berard Marthaler, “The Catechism of the Catholic Church in US Con- text,” in Source Book for Modern Catechetics, ed. Michael Warren (Winona, 3. Mary Charles Bryce, “The Baltimore Catechism—Origin and Recep- MI: Saint Mary’s Press, 1997), 2:279. tion,” in Source Book for Modern Catechetics, ed. Warren, 1:140–145. Baptism, Theology of 111

There is no doubt that there was value in the ques- More than 700 men and women from 21 French- tion and answer approach of the catechism(s), but in speaking nations have graduated from BEST. Graduates the contemporary world, where everything is subject to serve as pastors, missionaries, translators, teachers, di- scrutiny, answers without a deeper understanding of the rectors of theological schools, and hospital and military theological complexity of issues are no longer adequate chaplains. for an adult faith. However, such an approach does have The faculty comes from countries served by BEST, some enduring value in terms of Christian apologetics. enhanced by visiting professors from Europe and North America. All professors hold advanced degrees and bring References and Resources practical pastoral experience to the classroom from a va- Bryce, Mary Charles. 1983. “The Baltimore Catechism—Ori- riety of evangelical denominations. gin and Reception.” In Source Book for Modern Catechetics, Further information is available at http://best.fateb edited by Michael Warren, 1:140–145. Winona, MI: St. .net/index.html. Mary’s Press. —Steve Hardy Hennessy, J. 2002. “Baltimore, Councils Of.” In New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., 41–47. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Publishing. Baptism, Theology of Luther, Martin. 1983. Luther’s Large Catechism. Anniversary Only translation and introductory essay by Friedmann Hebart. The Bible and early church writings bear witness to the Adelaide, SA: Lutheran Publishing House. deep meanings and significance of baptism in antiquity. ———. 1986. Luther’s Small Catechism with Explanation. St. Readers of these texts should be aware of two interpre- Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. tive keys in relation to baptism. First, their authors were Marthaler, Bernard. 1997. “The Catechism of the Catholic steeped in poetic, metaphoric, and ritual/symbolic imagi- Church in US Context.” In Source Book for Modern Catechet- nation. Baptismal waters could mean life, death, awe, ics, edited by Michael Warren, 2:278–286. Winona, MI: St. peace, stillness, terror, power, judgment, and salvation Mary’s Press. all at once. Second, authors often layered water-related Sloyan, G. S. 2002. “Catechisms.” In New Catholic Encyclopedia, stories upon one another or used typological interpreta- 2nd ed., 239–246. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Publishing. tionsCopy to discern new theological possibilities for baptism —Michael A. Kelly through their association. In Matthew’s account of Jesus’s baptism by John, for example, we learn that baptism is about repentance for Bangui Evangelical School of Theology sin (3:2, 6, 11), the coming Realm of God (3:2), and more. Three significant ingredients in this baptismal The Bangui Evangelical School of Theology (BEST), story—water, Spirit, voice of God (3:16–17)—hearken known in French as Faculté de Théologie Évangélique de back to the opening verses of Genesis 1. Matthew is sub- Bangui (FATEB), was founded in 1977 by the Associa- tly signaling a link between God’s original act of creation tion of Evangelicals in Africa to train pastoral leadership and the baptismal “new creation” in Jesus. Strengthening for the French-speaking African church. The residential this link, the Spirit’s descent “like a dove” (3:16) evokes school is located on a 12-acre campus in the capital of memories of the dove’s return to Noah on the ark with the Central African Republic. The 20,000 volumes and the olive branch, “evidence of creation renewed.”4 This 60 periodicals make its Byang Kato Library a significant implicit reference to the Creation and Noah stories also resource center for French-speaking Africa. connects baptism with God’s covenant-making. Jesus’s The vision of BEST is to “see healthy African churches, identity, and therefore the identities of His followers, is rooted in the Scriptures, engaged in biblical mission and also revealed through baptism. Not only do we learn of in its consequent transformation of society through the Jesus’s relationship to Spirit in this account, we discover ministry of well trained leaders.” Theology and Bible that He is the “Son” with whom the voice from heaven is translationContributor are offered at both the bachelor’s and master’s “well pleased” (3:16–17). This pronouncement condenses levels, with a variety of research and leadership programs and combines two verses from the Old Testament: one at the master’s level. Doctoral study is available in sys- from a psalm of royal anointing (Ps. 2:7) and the other tematic theology. The women’s school offers training in from a servant song (Isa. 42:1). That the messiah (king) the Bible along with instruction in life skills. BEST hosts shall be “suffering servant” confounded the messianic an elementary school, initially started by BEST students for training their own children, but now serving more 4. Lawrence Stookey, Baptism: Christ’s Act in the Church (Nashville, TN: than 800 children from the community. Abingdon, 1982), ch. 5. 112 Baptist Curricular Outcomes expectations of the day. It also anticipates Jesus’s cru- • Mystagogy: reflection or teaching upon the initiation ciform question to his disciples: “Are you able . . . to experience, perhaps with a vocational emphasis. be baptized with the baptism that I am baptized with?” (Mark 10:38). The same Spirit that empowers Jesus at By the fifth century, however, this disciplined baptis- his baptismal commissioning for ministry now drives mal formation into salvation that had seemed necessary Him to the wilderness to do battle over the shape of that for a persecuted missional church proved too demanding ministry. Disciples, too, Mathew implies, must count the for the religion of empire. The ecology fell apart. Em- blessings and costs of their own baptismal identification blematic of its decline, baptismal fonts shrank from large with Jesus and of the ministries carried out in His name. pools to smaller basins. John’s Gospel does not mention Jesus’s baptism but is Christian educators should bear in mind three insights nonetheless infused with baptismal theology. John links with respect to early baptismal theology and practice. baptism with new birth and Spirit empowerment (3:1–7). First, as imagined through the scriptures and early tradi- By contrast, Paul views baptism as entry into the life, tion described above, baptism carried within it a polyph- death, and resurrection of Jesus (Rom. 6). For Paul the ony of meanings. The result, as Aiden Kavanagh observes baptized do not merely imitate Jesus’s crucifixion and so eloquently, was the recognition that the baptismal wa- resurrection through their baptisms; they are incorpo- ters flow like a “fugal theme” through salvation history, rated into Christ’s paschal mystery. Elsewhere in the ritual practice, and church theology.Only7 Second, knowing Pauline Epistles those baptized (“in Christ” is code for and doing were embedded in one another; hence per- this) are made members of Christ’s Body, the church, forming ritual symbols was self-evidently a necessary di- where sharing their spiritual gifts is essential to the health mension of formation into Christian life. Third, the ritual of the community (Rom. 12:4–8; 1 Cor. 12), past markers practices of baptism were perceived to be zones for both of social status are relativized (Gal. 3:26–30), and they divine action toward human transformation and graced are called to share in Jesus’s “ministry of reconciliation” human response. Educators must decide whether these (2 Cor. 5:17–20). insights are anachronisms of a distant past or exceedingly Baptism in the pre-Nicene church was marked by relevant to their current ministerial tasks. both ritual elaboration around the water bath and —Fred P. Edie theological consolidation. In the Christian East, where Copy the paradigm for baptism was Jesus’s baptism by John and thus associated with Spirit birth and incorporation Baptist Curricular Outcomes into messianic identity, anointing with oil appeared prominently.5 Submersion or immersion in water re- From their beginnings in the 17th century, Baptists have mained primary in the Roman West (though anoint- maintained a variety of formal and informal approaches ing was practiced as well), where the primacy of the to Christian education curricula. Christian education bath heightened baptism’s association with entry into served to promote evangelism by setting out the process Christ’s paschal mystery.6 Ultimately, many Christian of salvation; it also provided church members with basic communities adopted a “both and” view of baptism that information about the nature of Christian discipleship brought these two paradigms together. and the basics of Christian/Baptist identity. Early instruc- By the mid-fourth century, baptismal initiation had tional data were passed on through confessions of faith become an interwoven ecology of rites carried out over that said what Baptists believed; church covenants that months or years. It often included the following: set forth their commitments to God and one another; and “rules of decorum” that delineated how churches • The catechumenate: a period of preparation that would conduct business. Churches looked to pastors as included cleansings, exorcisms, vigils, scrutiny, and teachers who instructed the faithful in sermons, doctrine, more, all intensified during a formalized Lenten and biblical studies. Many Baptist ministers published season. books of sermons and theological reflection for use by • BaptismalContributor rites: some variation of creedal recitations, the membership. Some ministers wrote catechism books water bath, anointing, laying on of hands, and first for teaching children and new converts the rubrics of the Eucharist, often staged at Easter Vigil or Pentecost. faith. “Associations” of Baptist churches often produced “Circular Letters” that were sent to member congrega-

5. Maxwell Johnson, The Rites of Christian Initiation, rev. and exp. ed. (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2007), 49–55. 7. Aidan Kavanagh, The Shape of Baptism: The Rite of Christian Initia- 6. Ibid., 112. tion (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1991), 31 . Barth, Karl 113 tions, dealing with specific questions of doctrine and churches. Independent Baptists also rejected denomina- polity. Members could add comments and questions tional organizations and boards, often insisting that the for extended dialogue. By the 19th century, as Baptists scriptures be studied without the aid of denominationally began to send out missionaries at home and abroad, they produced curricular materials. developed strategies for presenting the gospel that in- By the 21st century, as Baptist denominations lost in- volved translating scripture into native languages, print- fluence and funding from congregations, and as Sunday ing scripture for use by native peoples, and establishing school attendance plummeted in many churches, many schools for the instruction of indigenous children. Baptists sought new curricular methods, including on- As Baptist denominations took shape in the 18th and line resources, PowerPoint presentations of sermons and 19th centuries, more formal efforts at developing curricu- lectures, and other forms of technology. Churches that lum got under way. Denominational publishing houses once utilized denominational publications have learned and tract societies became major sources of curriculum to “shop the web” for multiple age-specific resources or for clergy and laity, churches, and Baptist-related schools. to publish their own materials. As Sunday schools became a venue for providing basic biblical instruction, denominational publishing and edu- References and Resources cational societies began to make curriculum available to Baker, Robert A. 1954. The Story of the Sunday School Board. churches. Many followed the common curriculum of the Nashville, TN: Convention Press.Only Sunday School Union or the International Sunday School Leonard, Bill J. 2003. Baptist Ways: A History. Valley Forge, PA: series utilized by numerous Protestant denominations. By Judson Press. the 20th century, many Baptists were using “graded cur- Maring, Norman H., and Winthrop S. Hudson. 1991. A Baptist riculum” developed for various age groups from children Manual of Polity and Practice. rev. ed. Valley Forge, PA: to adults. The strong commitment to providing basic bib- Judson Press, 1991. lical studies served to inculcate significant knowledge of —Bill J. Leonard the Bible for generations of Baptists. Mission studies were aimed at energizing church members in the knowledge and support of missionary and evangelistic endeavors. Barth, Karl In the 19th and 20th centuries, many Baptist congrega- Copy tions formed women’s missionary unions or laymen’s Karl Barth (1886–1968) was born in Basel, Switzerland. mission movements to raise financial support for mis- This Swiss-German pastor and professor is widely recog- sionary programs. Children’s programs such as summer nized as one of the most significant modern theologians, vacation Bible schools served as conduits for evangelizing whose influence in church, theology, and social ethics and instructing children in biblical content and Chris- continues to be paramount. The education Barth received tian values. As Baptist-related colleges, universities, and in Bern, Berlin, Tubingen, and Marburg was primar- seminaries were founded in the 19th and 20th centuries, ily in the tradition of Protestant liberalism, which was professors became important resources for writing de- still at its height in early 20th-century Germany. While nominational curriculum. By the 20th century, churches serving as a pastor (1911–1921), Barth became increas- affiliated with a variety of Baptist denominations began ingly disillusioned by not only the bourgeois religious hiring staff members, who had primary responsibility for ethos of his teachers, but also their unwavering support Christian education in the congregation. Baptist schools for and submission to the nation’s ideology of war and ultimately created courses in Christian education. This the ensuing World War I. Eventually Barth denounced was particularly evident in institutions affiliated with the foundations and trajectory of German Protestant the Southern Baptist Convention, the American Baptist liberalism and its entire system of theological exegesis, Churches, USA, the General Conference Baptists, and the ethics, dogmatics, and preaching. Instead, he returned to National Baptist Convention, Incorporated. scripture, especially studying and publishing a commen- Not all Baptist groups approved of these more inten- tary on the book of Romans. With the publication of his tional approachesContributor to educational curriculum. Primitive Romans commentary, Barth’s prominence grew, result- Baptists, for example, issued the Black Rock Address in ing in a teaching career at the universities of Gottingen, 1832, denouncing Sunday schools, theological seminar- Munster, and Bonn in Germany until 1935, and then ies, revivals, and mission efforts as outside the purview at the University of Basel until his retirement in 1962. of New Testament churches, which were called to pro- After being expelled from Germany for his resistance to claim the Gospel and rely on God to awaken sinners. the Third Reich and his major role in the writing of the Instruction was necessary, but only as a ministry of local Barmen Declaration of 1934, Barth continued to be the 114 Barth, Karl intellectual leader of the German Confessing Church. On the one hand, this situates his redemptive history Among his enormous corpus of books, sermons, and es- in a common history, and on the other hand, it situates says, the multivolume Church Dogmatics (nearly 10,000 God’s people in what Barth called the “strange new world pages) distinguishes itself as Barth’s magnum opus. In within the Bible.” this unfinished work, Barth painstakingly rehearses the The church, then, is characterized as a community doctrines of the Word of God, the Trinity, the incarna- whose task is not that of making effective Jesus’s reality tion, and the humanity of God. but of attesting to its inherent effectiveness. Barth is quick For Barth, the freedom of God was God Himself; to point out that the divine imperative, God’s command, thus no ideology, no pious postulate, and especially no is ultimately rooted in the divine indicative, Jesus’s real- theological concept should or could ever serve as prior ity. Christian vocation, then, is to joyfully testify to Jesus’s knowledge toward understanding God. The genius of his reality and its inherent effectiveness by following divine theological method was that there was and ought to be imperative. Divine imperative is not merely a command, none, in that God is who He is. He speaks for Himself. He however, but is actually God’s permission—the granting reveals Himself. Thus, any anthropological abstraction or of a very definite freedom—through which Christians philosophical treatment of God contradicts the character can experience a genuine sense of integrity and find iden- of revelation as God’s grace. Speaking of the study of tity in Jesus’s reality. scripture, Barth insisted that Christians must not fall into Barth’s contribution to religiousOnly education is primar- the trap of trying to master the text, but allow the God ily to the subsequent generations of practical theologians of scripture to master them and claim their entire being. whose aim was to recover the nature and function of Yet the God of scripture, for Barth, does not derive from the church’s educational ministry. They were reacting or appeal to isolated proof-texts, but rather from an un- against the paradigmatic influence of the foundational derstanding of the Gospel as a whole—that is, focused on approach to scripture and to universal human experi- God’s self-disclosure in Jesus Christ, which then becomes ence in various social science disciplines. Ray Anderson the prolegomenon for Barth’s theological reflections. (2001) underscores his indebtedness to Barth’s insistence Thus, the preliminary question should not be an episte- on the dynamic interrelation between theory and praxis mological or apologetic one, such as “How do we know in his approach to practical theology. The understanding God?” but an existential or ethical one, such as “Who is of JesusCopy Christ being the true witness of God—servant of this God who effects knowledge of himself?” Theology, God and Lord of humanity—can be understood only as then, has a regulative function as it seeks to critically a theory that has its origin and goal in praxis. The task of appropriate and access the church’s obedience to God’s theology for Barth, then, is to clarify the presuppositions own Word of self-communication. In this way, faith is of church praxis, which is the grateful Christian response described as an act of human decision corresponding to to God’s gracious election of God’s people. the act of divine decision. In Barth’s theology, the act of divine decision is References and Resources closely aligned with divine election. Radically reshaping Anderson, Ray. 2001. The Shape of Practical Theology. Downers the Reformed theological notion of double predestina- Grove: IVP. tion, Barth asserts that Jesus Christ is both electing and Barth, Karl. (1932–1967) 2010. Church Dogmatics. Edited by G. elected, where the former is God’s self-election and the W. Bromiley and T. F. Torrance. Translated by A. T. Mackay latter God’s election of humanity, both actual in Jesus and T. H. L. Parker. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. Christ. On this point, many have accused Barth as a Volume I.1 & 2: The Doctrine of the Word of God, Parts universalist. However, Barth is clear about the enormity 1 & 2. of sin and its consequences. For Barth, if to be human Volume II.1 & 2: The Doctrine of God, Parts 1 & 2. is to be united to Christ, then sin cannot be constitutive Volume III.1, 2, 3 & 4: The Doctrine of Creation, Parts 1, of human being, because it is a contradiction of what it 2, 3 & 4. means to be human. Sin then is an impossible possibility Volume IV.1, 2, 3.1, 3.2 & 4: The Doctrine of Reconcilia- in which humanContributor beings decisively act against or contrary tion, Parts 1, 2, 3 First Half, 3 Second Half & 4. to the act of divine decision, thus choosing not to live by faith. Conversely, those who respond affirmatively to Busch, Eberhard. 2004. The Great Passion: An Introduction to divine election by faith are those who acknowledge God’s Karl Barth’s Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. covenant: the ordered mutuality of God and humanity in Webster, John. 2000a. Barth. New York: Continuum. which God elects a people to have their being in obedient ———. 2000b. The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth. Cam- consent to their election. Because the divine covenant bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. means “God with us,” it also means “we with God.” —S. Steve Kang Basil the Great 115

Basil the Great answers to questions from his monks), with a proem; and the 313 Lesser Rules, in the same form. Among Basil the Great was born toward the end of AD 329 at his writings on education is Exhortation to Youths as Caesarea, the capital of Cappadocia, to a wealthy Christian to How They Shall Best Profit by the Writings of Pagan family. His father, Basil, son of St. Macrina the Elder, was Authors, containing a positive judgment of Greek clas- a renowned teacher of rhetoric, and his mother, St. Emilia, sical literature. was the daughter of a martyr. She gave birth to 10 children, Basil, talking about bringing up children, passed on three of whom became bishops: St. Basil, St. Gregory of his experience as a child growing up in a large Christian , and St. Peter of . Basil’s brother Naucratios family. His first instructors in the religious life were his became a monk and a saint. Macrina the Younger was mother and his grandmother, Macrina the Elder, who famous for her ascetic lifestyle. Basil was educated first at instilled in him the primary moral principle: inclina- Caesarea, then in Constantinople. From AD 352 to 356, he tion to live in God and by the Christian model of life. A studied chiefly under the Sophists Himerius and Prohaere- number of suggestions on education are found as well sius, in Athens, where he became friends with Gregory of in his homilies, commentaries, letters, and moral rules. . His time in Athens gave Basil the opportunity According to Basil, the purpose of education is to enable to encounter and build a bond with a fellow student, Ju- the pupil to achieve the ultimate goal: eternal life after lian, the nephew of the emperor Constantius. The future death. The immediate purposeOnly of education is to work emperor developed a warm attachment for the young out in the child’s soul virtues that will facilitate his return Cappadocian, with whom—as the latter remembered to the original nature, uncontaminated by sin, to restore when their relations had so sadly changed—he not only the internal balance, to eradicate sin, and to establish a studied best patterns of literature, but also meticulously permanent relationship with God. The goal of education analyzed the sacred scriptures. Basil’s Athenian reputation is achieved by mortification, self-denial, and self-control had preceded him, and he was received with much honor (apatheia). The obligation to educate children is primar- by the people of Caesarea, where he consented to settle as ily incumbent upon parents, who should create at home a rhetorics teacher. He practiced the profession of a rheto- an atmosphere of love to achieve the best results. Basil rician with great celebrity for a considerable period, but encourages starting children’s education as early as pos- the warnings and counsels of Macrina guarded him from sible,Copy when the child is absorbent and easy to form. To the seductions of the world and eventually induced him to achieve the goal of education, one should turn to science, abandon it altogether and devote himself to a religious life. which comes from the Holy Scriptures and secular works Around AD 358, Basil was baptized and began leading a of the classics. According to Basil, a study of the classical hermit’s life in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and Mesopotamia; pagan authors can be useful as a preparatory stage to ac- after returning to Cappadocia, he gave his wealth away and cept the truth of the Gospel. The teacher is likened to a settled in the hermitage over the river Iris. Later he was spiritual mother, who by transferring knowledge shapes joined by other monks and set up a monastic community, the child’s spirit in her womb. Children’s upbringing founding a monastery and a school for young people, in should make use of punishment, even corporal. which the program combined Christian reflection with the integral humanist culture. Throughout Pontus and Cap- References and Resources padocia, Basil was the catalyst for the erection of numerous Fedwick, P. J., ed. 1981. Basil of Caesarea: Christian, Human- hospitals for the poor, houses of refuge for virgins, orphan- ist, Ascetic. 2 vols. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval ages, and other homes of beneficence. His monasteries Studies. welcomed as their inmates children he had taken charge Garnett, S. 1981. “The Christian Young and the Secular World: of, married persons who had mutually agreed to live asun- St. Basil’s Letter on Pagan Literature.” Greek Orthodox Theo- der, slaves with the consent of their masters, and solitaries logical Review 26: 211–223. convinced of the danger of living alone. In 364 Basil was Hildenbrand, S. M. 2007. The Trinitarian Theology of Basil of ordained a priest and became an advisor of the bishop Caesarea: A Synthesis of Greek Thought and Biblical Truth. EusebiusContributor of Caesarea, succeeding him after his death in Washington, DC: Catholic University of America. AD 370. Basil died on 1 January 379. He was an adamant Jacks, L. V. 1922. St. Basil and Greek Literature. Washington, fighter against Arianism, strove for the unity of the church, DC: Catholic University of America. and is considered the founder of Eastern monasticism. Katz, P. B. 2007. “Educating Paula: A Proposed Curriculum for Basil’s main works are Hexaemeron—Nine Homilies Raising a 4th-Century Christian Infant.” Hesperia Supple- on the Six Days’ Work of Creation, the most celebrated; ments 41: 115–127. the 55 Greater Monastic Rules (taking the form of Basil’s —Marcin Wysocki 116 Baxter, Edna

Baxter, Edna through her teaching, service on national and interna- tional boards and committees, and writing and editing of Early Background and Education professional journals. Baxter had a holistic and student- Edna May Baxter (1890–1985) was born in Nichols centered philosophy of education; her teaching was Township, New York, on 30 June 1890, and moved to characterized by innovative teaching approaches that Athens, Pennsylvania, in 1899, where she graduated from included drama, storytelling, games, crafts, and creative Athens General High School in 1909.8 She attended Folts worship in her classroom and written curriculum. “I have Mission Institute, a Methodist Bible college in New York tried to connect Church education with all areas of life, (1912–1915), and received degrees from Boston Uni- especially where human relationships were concerned. versity (BARE 1921), Northwestern University (MARE . . . To me, the Christian faith is related to all of life.”11 1923), and Garrett Theological Seminary (BD 1926). In 1927, Baxter founded the Knight Hall Nursery She was granted PhD candidacy at Hartford Theological School, the first nursery school in Connecticut, to help care Seminary in 1929. Her dissertation was accepted, “but for children of missionaries studying at Hartford Semi- one or two colleagues felt that awarding the doctorate to nary, as well as to provide a laboratory for her students a fellow professor was somehow unprofessional and that to learn creative teaching techniques. She later added the such a degree would lack academic credibility,”9 so she Saturday School of Religion as an extension of Knight Hall, was denied her PhD at that time. Baxter pursued other which provided ministry to the childrenOnly and their parents graduate studies at a number of institutions, including on weekends. Knight Hall Nursery School became a na- the University of Chicago (1927), Yale (1928), Columbia tionally known model for preschool and early childhood University (1929), and the School of Drama and Speech educational methods and is still in existence today. in London, England (1937). She later received a master of divinity from Garrett Theological Seminary (1972) and International and Social Justice Emphases was posthumously awarded a doctorate of divinity from Baxter had a deep compassion for children worldwide Hartford Seminary in 2010.10 and felt it important to travel in order to better under- stand different cultures and develop educational strate- Significant Contributions to Christian Education gies for their varied contexts.12 She traveled extensively Baxter devoted her life to teaching children. She attended throughoutCopy her life, lecturing in many countries in the Methodist Episcopal Church as a child and took seri- Asia, Europe, the Middle East, and Australia, as well as ously her minister’s challenge to Christian service. She studying archaeology, religious development, and inter- began leading youth ministry in her church and studying religious relationships at the American School of Oriental to be a teacher while in high school, and received her Research in Jerusalem. She incorporated her experiences teaching certificate shortly after graduation (1909). For into her classroom that introduced children to social three years she taught at a public school, and she spent justice issues, including child labor practices and families her summers volunteering with Fresh Air Children, a living in poverty, through curriculum such as Children program that brought children from inner-city New and Labor Problems13 and Living and Working in Our York to experience God in nature (1909–1912). She was Country.14 She emphasized intercultural and interfaith consecrated as a deaconess in religious education in the concerns through such curriculum as Friendship Enter- Methodist Episcopal Church (1916) and served as youth prise with Our Jewish Neighbors15 and developed a teach- director at Boston’s Church of All Nations until 1921. ers’ guide to the Middle East.16 “She designed courses that brought together the best of biblical scholarship, archaeo- Innovative Professor logical research and sound educational methodology.”17 Baxter taught at Hartford Theological Seminary from 1926 to 1960 and was the first full-time female profes- 11. Helen Sheldrik, Pioneer Women Teachers of Connecticut, 1767–1970 (Hartford, CT: Alpha Kappa State, Delta Gamma Society International, sor of Christian education in the United States. She had 1971), 115. a strong concern for the professionalization of the field 12. Ibid. of children’s religious education, raising the standard 13. Edna M. Baxter, Children and Labor Problems (Boston: Pilgrim ContributorPress, 1935a). 14. Edna M. Baxter, Living and Working in Our Country (Boston: Pil- grim Press, 1935c). 8. Unless otherwise noted, all biographical information was drawn 15. Edna M. Baxter, Friendship Enterprise with Our Jewish Neighbors from Edna M. Baxter, Ventures in Serving Mankind: An Autobiography (Boston: Pilgrim Press, 1935b). (Allison Park, PA: Pickwick Publishing, 1984). 16. Edna M. Baxter, Junior Teacher’s Guide in Bible Lands Today (New 9. “Professor Edna Baxter Awarded Posthumous Doctor of Divinity York: Friendship Press, 1951). Degree,” Praxis: Hartford Seminary Newsletter (August 2010), http://www 17. Boardman W. Kathan, “Edna M. Baxter,” Talbot School of Theol- .hartsem.edu/sites/default/files/about-us/ . . . /Praxis_August_2010.pdf. ogy, http://www2.talbot.edu/ce20/educators/view.cfm?n=edna_baxter (ac- 10. Ibid. cessed 16 March 2013). Baxter, Richard 117

Baxter is credited with empowering hundreds of stu- shire, the only son of Beatrice Adeney and Richard Baxter dents at the lay and university level who went on to lead Sr. Due to his father’s gambling addiction and debts and many significant ministries worldwide. She served on his mother’s poor health, Richard lived with his maternal numerous national and international educational coun- grandparents until he was 10 years old. cils, was honored as one of the “Pioneer Women of Con- When his father was converted through “the bare read- necticut” by Delta Kappa Gamma Society International, ing of the Scriptures in private,” Richard returned to his and won numerous Who’s Who awards throughout her parents’ home (Autobiography, 4). Richard admitted that career. Hartford Seminary annually grants the Edna Bax- God made his father “the instrument of my first convic- ter Award for proficiency in religious education. tions, and approbation of a holy life” (Autobiography, 4). After an earthquake in 1626, Richard’s father com- Most Notable Publications manded him to read the “historical part of the Scripture” Baxter was a prolific writer of over 100 books, journal (Autobiography, 5). It was at this time that Richard ac- articles, reviews, and curriculum. Significant works in- quired his great love for the Bible. From 1629 to 1632, clude Ventures in Serving Mankind: An Autobiography,18 he attended the Wroxeter grammar school and demon- The Beginnings of Our Religion,19 Teaching the New strated intellectual promise. Testament,20 and “The Place of Content in Christian In 1633 he went to London, where he acquired Puritan, Teaching.”21 Baxter also served many years on the edi- or Nonconformist, sympathies.Only He returned home in torial staff of the Journal of Bible and Religion and the 1634 to care for his sick mother, who died in May 1635, Religious Education Journal. and spent the next four years privately studying theology. In 1638, he became master of the free grammar school at References and Resources Dudley and was ordained an Anglican deacon. In 1641, Baxter, Edna M. 1935a. Children and Labor Problems. Boston: he was elected minister of Kidderminster. Only two years Pilgrim Press. later, he was forced to flee to Coventry due to local unrest ——— . 1935b. Friendship Enterprise with Our Jewish Neighbors. preceding the civil wars. He began service as a chaplain in Boston: Pilgrim Press. the Parliamentary Army in 1645, and in 1647 he returned ——— . 1935c. Living and Working in Our Country. Boston: to Kidderminster after recovering from an illness that Pilgrim Press. endedCopy his army chaplain career. ——— . 1951. Junior Teacher’s Guide in Bible Lands Today. New At Kidderminster, Baxter focused his main efforts on York: Friendship Press. writing, and he considered preaching and preparing for ———. 1968. The Beginnings of Our Religion. Valley Forge, PA: it to be his recreation (Autobiography, 78). During this Judson Press. time, Baxter also set aside two days a week for catechiz- ———. 1984. Ventures in Serving Mankind: An Autobiography. ing families. Allison Park, PA: Pickwick Publishing. In The Reformed Pastor (1974), Baxter outlines his mo- Kathan, Boardman W. n.d. “Edna M. Baxter.” Talbot School of tives and methods for catechizing. There he describes cat- Theology. Accessed 16 March 2013. http://www2.talbot.edu/ echizing as “a most hopeful means of the conversion of ce20/educators/view.cfm?n=edna_baxter. souls; for it unites those great things which most further Sheldrik, Helen. 1971. Pioneer Women Teachers of Connecticut, such an end.” As for the matter, catechesis should include 1767–1970. Hartford, CT: Alpha Kappa State, Delta Gamma “the most necessary things, the principles or essentials Society International. of the Christian faith.” He did this, with the help of an —Brenda Snailum assistant, in private conferences with families. He and his assistant met with 14 families every week. The family members would first recite the Westminster Catechism. Baxter, Richard Baxter would then provide explanations. Next, he would inquire “modestly into the state of their souls,” and then Richard Baxter (12 November 1615—8 December 1691) exhort them. Each meeting took about an hour (Baxter was an ContributorEnglish Puritan pastor, theologian, poet, hymn 1696, 1.II, 41). writer, and polemicist. He was born in Rowton, Shrop- He believed these private meetings were a marvelous help to the propagating of godliness among the families: 18. Baxter, Ventures in Serving. “for thereby truth that slipped away were recalled, and 19. Edna M. Baxter, The Beginnings of Our Religion (Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1968). the seriousness of the peoples minds were renewed; and 20. Edna M. Baxter, Teaching the New Testament (Philadelphia: United good desires cherished; and hereby their knowledge was Church Press, 1960). 21. Edna M. Baxter, “The Place of Content in Christian Teaching,” Reli- much increased; and here the younger sort learned to gious Education 47, no. 5 (1952): 347–352. pray, by frequent hearing others . . . I was usually present 118 Baylor University with them, answering their doubts, and silencing objec- Packer, J. I. 2003. The Redemption and Restoration of Man tions, and moderating them in all.” in the Thought of Richard Baxter. Carlisle, PA: Paternoster Family catechizing and writing consumed the bulk of Press. his time. His successive assistants made his pastoral work Schlatter, Richard. 1957. Richard Baxter and Puritan Politics. easier, helping him in catechizing and relieving him of New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. other duties (Nuttall 1965, 62–63). —Kevin P. Emmert In 1660, Baxter was elected chaplain to Charles II and was forced to give up his position at Kidderminster. In the same year, he was offered a bishopric by Lord Chan- Baylor University cellor Edward Hyde but declined. In 1661, he served as a member of a royal commission to advise upon and review Baylor University is a private Christian university with the Book of Common Prayer. In 1662, he married Mar- historic ties to the Baptist General Convention of Texas garet Charlton, and in 1669 he was arrested under the in Waco. Baylor reported an enrollment of about 16,000 Five Mile Act of 1665, an act of Parliament that sought to students in 2012, with approximately 12,575 students enforce conformity to the established Church of England enrolled in undergraduate programs and another 2,620 and to expel any who did not conform, forbidding cler- enrolled in graduate programs. The university is a mem- gymen from living within five miles of the parish from ber of the Big 12 athletic conference.Only which they had been expelled. Until his death in 1691, he lived a quiet life, in which he spent most of his time Historical Overview writing. He wrote more than 140 books, and Dean Arthur Baylor was founded in 1845 at Independence, Texas, by Stanley (1815—1881) has called him “the chief of English Baptist leaders who wanted to train young people for Protestant Schoolmen.” He was a leading writer in his Christian service. It was named for Texas circuit court own day and a pioneer in Protestant catechesis. judge R. E. B. Baylor, one of the leaders who suggested its founding. The school was split into male and female References and Resources institutes in 1851. The female institute would later be- Baxter, Richard. 1696. Reliquiae Baxterianae. Edited by M. come the foundation for the creation of the University of Sylvester. London. Mary-HardinCopy Baylor in Belton, Texas. Baylor’s campus ———. 1825. A Call to the Unconverted to Turn and Live. New was moved to Waco in 1885 and combined with Waco York: American Tract Society. University. The school became coeducational again in ———. 1928. The Saints Everlasting Rest. London: Old Royalty 1887. In 1903, Baylor acquired a medical school in Dal- Publishers. las, which became the Baylor College of Medicine. It ­­———. 1974. The Reformed Pastor. Edinburgh: Banner of Truth was eventually moved to Houston and became an inde- Trust. pendent entity in 1969, while still maintaining close ties ———. 2008. A Christian Directory. Grand Rapids, MI: Soli Deo with Baylor University. Baylor continued to select a small Gloria Publications. percentage of the Baylor College of Medicine’s governing Beeke, Joel, and Randall J. Pederson. 2007. Meet the Puritans: board. Baylor University was granted accreditation by the With a Guide to Modern Reprints. Grand Rapids, MI: Refor- Southern Association of Colleges and Schools in 1914. mation Heritage Books. The university enjoyed a close working relationship Black, William J. 2004. Reformation Pastors: Richard Baxter with the Baptist General Convention of Texas for the first and the Ideal of the Reformed Pastor. Carlisle, PA: Paternos- century of its existence. Until 1991, a majority of its trust- ter Press. ees were appointed by the Baptist General Convention. Copper, Tim. 2001. Fear and Polemic in Seventeenth-Century President Herbert Reynolds moved to make Baylor’s board England: Richard Baxter and Antinomianism. Burlington, of trustees more autonomous in 1991 because of concerns VT: Ashgate. about theological conflicts between moderates and con- Keeble, N. H. 1974. The Autobiography of Richard Baxter. servatives in the Southern Baptist Convention, which had AbridgedContributor and edited by J. M. Lloyd Thomas. Introduction caused problems at other Baptists institutions. Reynolds by N. H. Keeble. London: England: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd. led the Baylor board to create a self-perpetuating board of ———. 1982. Richard Baxter: Puritan Man of Letters. Oxford: regents, which provided for the appointment of 75 percent Clarendon Press. of the regents by the board, while 25 percent continued to Ladell, A. R. 1925. Richard Baxter: Puritan and Mystic. London: come from the Baptist General Convention. This structure S.P.C.K. enabled the university to maintain its relationship to the Nuttall, Geoffrey F. 1965. Richard Baxter. London: Thomas Baptist General Convention while also protecting the au- Nelson and Sons. tonomy and academic freedom of the university. Behavior Management 119

Baylor launched an ambitious plan in 2000 to become faith and learning at Baylor, particularly since the adop- a major research university, in addition to maintaining tion of Baylor 2012 in 2000. Baylor seeks to be a leader in an excellent undergraduate program. This plan, known innovative research done from a faith perspective. as Baylor 2012, was conceived under the leadership of The teaching philosophy of the institution corre- President Robert Sloan and adopted by the campus com- sponds to its research goals by seeking to significantly munity. It sparked a great deal of opposition from some explore the essential questions of human existence from faculty and alumni, who felt that the historic emphasis of a faith perspective within the expertise of each discipline. the school on undergraduate education was being under- Professors at Baylor are encouraged to relate their teach- mined by the emphasis on hiring persons with research ing and scholarship to their faith in a substantial way. agendas rather than strong commitment to the classroom. Students are encouraged to explore questions of faith in Baylor’s visibility as a Christian research institution rose every discipline. Baylor embraces an integral model of over the next decade, and the undergraduate program Christian education wherein rigorous pursuit of intel- continued to expand. A number of research institutes, lectual and professional excellence is ideally coupled with such as the Baylor Institute for the Study of Religion and a genuine and committed faith. These philosophical and the Baylor Institute for Faith and Learning, were estab- theological commitments guide the curriculum and mis- lished as a result of initiatives supported by Baylor 2012. sion of the university. The implementation of Baylor 2012 continued under the Only presidency of Dr. John Lilly, who succeeded Robert Sloan References and Resources in 2005. Baylor’s board of regents recently adopted a new Baylor University. n.d. Home page. Accessed 29 March 2013. vision for Baylor’s future expansion, called Pro Futura or www.baylor.edu. Baylor 2020. This vision statement calls for the further Hankins, Barry G., and Donald D. Schmeltikopf, eds. 2007. The expansion of Baylor’s undergraduate and graduate offer- Baylor Project: Taking Higher Education to the Next Level. ings while also including plans for major campus expan- South Bend, IN: St. Augustine’s Press. sion. The crafting and presentation of Pro Futura was Schmeltikopf, Donald D., Diana Vitanza, and Bradley Toben, initiated by current Baylor president Dr. Kenneth Starr. eds. 2003. The Baptist and Christian Character of Baylor. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press. Significant Programs Smith-Murray,Copy Lois. 1972. Baylor at Independence 1845–1886. Baylor University boasts several programs that have Waco, TX: Baylor University Press. earned national distinction. Several of its graduate pro- —Scott Culpepper grams are nationally ranked. Among Baylor’s nationally ranked programs is the Baylor School of Law, which also has excelled in debating competition. Baylor’s Hankamer Behavior Management School of Business and graduate program in social work have also achieved national ranking. Graduate programs Introduction in the sciences and education were among the top 100 In a recent poll, 34 percent of teachers agreed or strongly graduate programs in their respective fields. agreed that student misbehavior interfered with their The university has successfully launched a number of teaching. Student verbal abuse of teachers had increased research institutes. These include the previously men- 12 percent and nonverbal disrespect as much as 18 per- tioned Institute for the Study of Religion and Institute cent (U.S. Department of Education 2010). The problem for Faith and Learning. The J. M. Dawson Institute of is not as severe in Christian education settings, but class- Church State Studies supports the study of the interac- room behavior is a concern in this setting as well (De- tions between religions and the public sphere around muth and Demuth 1995; Kennedy 2012). One answer to the world. The Department of Religion at Baylor has such challenges is better behavior management. launched a number of initiatives intended to explore the Baptist heritage of Baylor, including a project to explore Definitions Baptist Contributorapproaches to biblical interpretation. Behavior management relates to how the classroom rou- tines are structured to foster organization and smooth Philosophy of Education transitions from place and activities. There is usually a Baylor’s official motto is Pro Ecclessia Pro Texana (“For system of rules, rewards, and negative consequences for church, for Texas”). The motto emphasizes the uni- following or breaking the rules (Selig and Arroyo 1996). versity’s goal to train effective leaders to serve both the Zirpoli defines behavior management as “understanding Christian church and the public sphere. A great deal of why individuals behave the way they do and how behav- emphasis has been placed on the integration of Christian ior may be taught, changed, or modified” (2012, 3). 120 Behavior Management

Approaches and Schools of Thought techniques like walking around the room and using non- There are several schools of thought and approaches verbal cues are all that is needed to manage behavior. As concerning behavior management. One approach comes children mature, they become more self-managed and from the work of B. F. Skinner (1948) and the field of controlled if adults prayerfully use the best behavior man- applied behavior analysis, also known as behaviorism. agement approach for individuals and groups. Behaviorism is the belief that an individual is controlled Selig and Arroyo (1989, 1996) recommend that Chris- almost exclusively by his or her environment. This school tians utilize an array of behavior management techniques, of thought maintains that people must be taught and depending on the individual child’s needs and level of managed through rewarding positive behavior and ap- development. Following are guidelines for behavior man- plying negative consequences for undesirable behavior, agement based on research and biblical principles: as defined by those who manage the environment. Another common school of thought is humanism, in 1. Make sure the individual or class knows the rules which the focus is on the emotions, attitudes, values, and and consequences and is able to perform the de- choices of individual students (Yount 2010). Proponents sired behaviors. of a humanistic approach are John Dewey (1916), and 2. Act quickly to stop misbehavior, but do so without Carl Rogers (1982). The underlying principle is that anger or harshness. humans, including children, have the innate ability to 3. Use the least intrusive methodOnly that is likely to work. make the right decisions if given freedom to experi- For example, if a child talks out of turn, a simple ment and explore their environment with a minimum redirection to an appropriate activity may be all he of adult supervision and imposed restraints. Christians or she needs to return to a productive activity. Then have successfully used both behavioral and humanistic if the behavior continues, more intrusive strategies techniques, as well as other approaches, under various such as removing the child temporarily from the circumstances when applied to the right person, at the classroom or consultation with the parents may be right time, and for the right reasons. necessary. 4. Make redemption and restoration your goals in Christian Perspective behavior management, as opposed to control and While behavioristic approaches to behavior management Copypunishment being the main aims. emphasize control over the individual’s environment, 5. If correction is needed for student misbehavior, the and humanistic approaches emphasize individuals’ con- episode should conclude with the teaching of the trol of themselves, biblical Christian approaches focus on correct behavior. One approach is to solicit answers the goal of behavior management: teaching people to be from the student, either orally or in writing, to the mature. The words disciple and discipline come from the following questions: What did you do? Why was it same root word, which means to teach. Secular society a problem? What should you do the next time the has put discipline in a negative context, but to discipline same situation arises? or “ train up a child in the way he should go” (Prov. 22:6) 6. End the corrective episodes in prayer when the stu- will tend to have the result of the child making the right dent is receptive. choices in life once he or she becomes an adult. The Bible, when read in its totality, strikes a balance between References and Resources an authoritarian style for adults involved in education, Demuth, D. M., and C. M. Demuth. 1995. Christian Schools: which behaviorism seems to suggest, and a permissive How to Get a School Going and Keep It Going. Tulsa, OK: style leaving individuals to their own devices, which hu- DEL Publications. manistic approaches tend to fall into. Dewey, J. 1916. Democracy and Education. New York: Free The operative term from a Christian perspective is Press. “love.” We are admonished: “Be patient, bearing with Kauffman, J. M., P. L. Pullen, M. P. Mostert, and S. C. Trent. one another in love” (Eph. 4:2). A balanced, authoritative 2011. Managing Classroom Behavior: A Reflective Case Ap- approach Contributoris needed wherein the adults guide the child proach. Boston: Pearson. through the maturation process, which begins with tight Kennedy, S. 2012. “Sunday School Classroom Behavior Man- control by authority figures and ends with self-regulation. agement Choices.” 10 December. http://www.ehow.com/ Sometimes more intrusive adult-administered behavior info_7855102_sunday-classroom-behavior-management management strategies are needed, such as the administra- -choices.html#ixzz2GI5AtWOZ. tion of rules, rewards, and negative consequences. At other Rogers, C. 1982. A Personal Approach to Teaching: Beliefs That times, depending on the student’s maturity, less intrusive Make a Difference. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Behaviorism 121

Selig, W. G., and A. A. Arroyo. 1989. Loving Our differences: have been classically conditioned by a previous negative Building Successful Family Relationships. Virginia Beach, experience in a large body of water. Now, the previous VA: CBN Publishing. neutral stimulus of water causes the same physiological/ ———. 1996. Handbook of Individualized Strategies for Class- emotional response of fear that the original, uncondi- room Discipline. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Ser- tioned, negative incident did. vices. Skinner, B. F. 1948. Walden Two. New York: Macmillan. Operant Conditioning U.S. Department of Education. 2010. National Center for The subcategory operant conditioning is attributed to Educational Statistics, Indicators of School Crime and Safety. B.F. Skinner, who developed his theory while at Harvard, http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED512901. reading works by Watson and Pavlov. Operant condi- Yount, W. R. 2010. Created to Learn: A Christian Teacher’s tioning is similar to classical conditioning, in that they Introduction to Educational Psychology. Nashville, TN: B & both posit that human nature is conditioned by the envi- H Publishing Group. ronmental context, and that there is a stimulus-response Zirpoli, T. J. 2012. Behavior Management: Positive Applications association that causes the conditioning. However, oper- for Teachers. Boston: Pearson. ant conditioning involves a choice, which is the response —Alan A. Arroyo and W. George Selig and which precedes the stimulus. According to Skinner, humans choose to engage inOnly behaviors that are rein- forced, or rewarded, and that move the animal toward Behaviorism greater likelihood of survival and/or pleasure, and choose to avoid behaviors that are punished, or harmful to the Secular behaviorism is a branch of the discipline of psy- survival and/or pleasure of the animal. For example, a chology that states that human behavior, like that of - reason that students submit homework assignments in mals, is influenced by the environment, mainly through a timely fashion (the response) might be that they be- systems of stimuli and responses (Berger 2009). John B. lieve they will receive a higher grade or teacher praise Watson (Behavorism, W.W. Norton, 1970) described be- (reinforcement) or that they will avoid point deductions haviorism as a response to mentalism or psychoanalytical or parents’ or teachers’ disapproval or disappointment theory, which sought to explain human behavior through (punisher).Copy Skinner also identified more specifically types an examination of thoughts, memories, and psychologi- of reinforcers (positive/negative) and punishers (presen- cal crises. Instead, behaviorism is concerned with defin- tation/removal) depending upon whether something is ing humans—and animals—by virtue of their outward being added or subtracted from the environment. He actions or responses. Two subcategories of behaviorism also identified schedules of reinforcers for individuals to include Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning and B. F. use who hoped to condition others to behave in specific Skinner’s operant conditioning. ways that were dependent on either time (intervals) or behavior (ratio). However, it should be noted that rein- Classical Conditioning forcers and punishers are defined, not by the addition to Classical conditioning occurs, according to Ivan Pavlov or subtraction from the environment, but by the resultant (1849–1936), when a formerly neutral stimulus is associ- behavior of the animal. Those elements that increase the ated with an unconditioned stimulus to become a condi- likelihood that a behavior will recur are defined as rein- tioned stimulus. This conditioned stimulus, then, results forcers, and those elements that decrease the likelihood in the same or similar response that the unconditioned that a behavior will recur are defined as punishers. Skin- stimulus evoked. Pavlov’s example with dogs epitomizes ner claimed that the only difference between a thief and this theory. A ringing bell is the identified neutral stimu- a lawyer was the environmental conditions, or systems of lus, which does not cause any response in the dog, until it reinforcers and punishers, used to condition their behav- is paired with the unconditioned stimulus of food, which ioral choices and resultant human nature. causes the response of salivation. Now, instead of being neutral,Contributor the ringing bell has been conditioned to evoke Christian Perspective the salivation response in the same manner as the food. Early Christian response to behaviorism was on the Pavlov claimed that this conditioning occurs not only whole strong and negative (Berman 1927; King 1930; with dogs but also with all animals, including people, Wicklam 1928).22 The main concerns have been the ap- with the response being involuntary and emotional and/ or physiological in nature. For example, an individual 22. For a survey of responses to behaviorism in early religious literature, see Huckaby (1975), which articulates the lack of or negative early pastoral who feels fear of being near large bodies of water may and Christian education responses to the behavioral sciences. 122 Belarus and Christian Education parent disregard that behaviorism has for the dignity of Bufford, R. K. 1981. The Human Reflex: Behavioral Psychology human persons and the claim that human nature and in Biblical Perspective. San Francisco: Harper & Row. behavior is solely a result of the environmental contexts Crick, F. 1994. The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific and is aligned with the behaviors of all animals. In his Search for the Soul. New York: Scribner. text Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner claimed that Evans, C. S. 1977. Preserving the Person: A Look at the Human everything we were and became as humans was a result Sciences. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. of the conditioning effects of the environment, either in Green, J. B. 2010. In Search of the Soul: Perspectives on the Mind terms of reinforcers or punishers; the Christian perspec- Body Problem. 2nd ed. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. tive denied this and claimed that our identity as humans Hasker, W. 1983. Metaphysics: Constructing a World View. was found in God’s creation, in the very likeness of the Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Godhead (Gen. 1:27), as well as with a specific place in Huckaby, P. 1975. “Survey of the Response to Behavioral Psy- the created hierarchical order (Gen. 1: 28–29). In addi- chology in Recent Religious Literature.” Journal of Pastoral tion to being created in the very image of God, mankind Care 29 (4): 262–270. has been redeemed by the incarnate God, Jesus Christ, King, W. P. 1930. Behaviorism: A Battle Line. Nashville, TN: with the promise that we will be resurrected with Christ, Cokesbury. receive spiritual bodies (1 Cor. 15), and reign with Christ Marcus, G. F. 2004. The Birth of the Mind: How a Tiny Number (Rev. 20:6). The position of behaviorism, that humans are of Genes Creates the Complexities Onlyof Human Thought. New equal to animal, negates the claim of scripture. A second York: Basic Books. criticism of behaviorism is that it claims humans develop Pavlov, I., W. A. H. Gantt, and G. V. Folbort. 1928–1941. in response to environmental stimuli, not, as scripture Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes. New York: International states, in response to God’s work within us. Throughout Publishers. the New Testament, we are told that God Himself offers Pavlov, I. P., and G. V. Anrep. 1927. Conditioned Reflex: An In- the gift of the Spirit for those who will accept it and be vestigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. filled (e.g., Luke 11:13; John 20:22; Acts 2:4). The Spirit London: Oxford University Press. Himself provides the power for humans to grow into Skinner, B. F. 1953. Science and Human Behavior. New York: Christlikeness and have communion with the Father. Macmillan. In the late 1970s and 1980s, behaviorism was reintro- ———.Copy 1969. Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical duced into the dialogue of Christian education and the Analysis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Christian faith (Atkinson 1993; Bufford 1981; Evans 1977; ———. 1971. Beyond Freedom and Dignity. New York: Knopf. Hasker 1983). Today, the conversation surrounding stim- ———. 1974. About Behaviorism. New York: Knopf. ulus/response behavior and the existence and participation ———. 1984. “The Operational Analysis of Psychological of the Christian soul has been moved from the psychologi- Terms.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7 (4): 547–581. cal field of behaviorism into the developing psychological Wicklam, H. 1928. The Misbehaviorists: Pseudo-Science and the field of neuropsychology (Crick 1994; Green 2010; Marcus Modern Temper. New York: Dial Press. 2004). Among the questions Christian educators must ask —Laura Barwegen themselves is whether they see behavioral science applied throughout scripture, such as in the rewards and punish- ments to the Israelites for following or not following the Belarus and Christian Education Lord, or the eternal reward of life everlasting for the ac- ceptance of Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior, or the reward Christianity was introduced to Belarus after the Chris- of the verbal praise “Well done, good and faithful servant” tianization of Kievan Rus’ in 988 by Byzantine Christian- (Matt. 25:21). Have the secular scientists simply uncovered ity. In the 16th century, the Reformed Church, Catholic a small part of the way that God is at work within His cre- Church, and Uniate Church (Byzantine-rite Catholic ation and in leading the Imago Dei? Church) dominated. Evangelical Christianity arrived at the end of the 19th century. ReferencesContributor and Resources Today the dominant religion is Eastern Orthodoxy. Atkinson, H. T. 1993. “Reinforcement in Learning: Integrating Belarusians also belong to the Roman Catholic Church; Skinner and Scripture.” Christian Education Journal 14 (1): are evangelical Baptists, evangelicals, Seventh-Day Ad- 58–72. ventists, and Jehovah’s Witnesses; and practice Judaism Berger, K. S. 2009. The Developing Person: Through Childhood and Islam. and Adolescence. 9th ed. New York: Worth. Theological education is provided at Minsk Theologi- Berman, L. 1927. The Religion Called Behaviorism. New York: cal Academy, the Saints Methodius and Cyrill Institute Boni and Liveright. of Theology at Belarusian State University, the Interdi- Belgium and Christian Education 123 ocesan Higher Seminary of St. Thomas Aquinas in Pinsk, for boys from the nobility and upper-class families. This the Higher Seminary in Grodno, Christ for the Nations congregation focused on publishing and popularizing the Bible College, and Minsk Theological Seminary. catechism. Every parish had its schools, and teachers had The constitution protects religious freedom, but the to be examined about their religious convictions. Sunday government restricts religious freedom through other school was compulsory. laws. In 2002, the Belarusian Parliament adopted a law One of the practical effects of the Napoleonic Concor- about freedom of conscience and divided the religious dat (1801) was the recognition of the Roman Catholic groups into traditional (primarily Orthodoxy, Catholi- religion. Cardinal Caprara, the papal legate, approved of cism, Judaism, Islam, and evangelical Lutheranism) and the Imperial Catechism for use in all churches; however, untraditional (others). This limits the activities of the only the dioceses of Mechelen and Gent (1807) adopted theological institutions of “untraditional” faith. Theo- it. This gradually opened the way for state subsidies for logical institutions are registered as religious institutions other “recognized religions” in the second half of the 20th and do not have a license to officially provide an educa- century. At present the Catholic, Anglican, Protestant, tion. The government does not accredit their diplomas and (Greek) Orthodox churches; the Jewish community; and gives no guarantees of employment in churches. the humanist movement; and the Muslim community are —Leonid Mikhovich subsidized at the federal, regional, and municipal levels. The government pays for the Onlyconstruction, renovation, and upkeep of religious buildings. It supports religious Belgium and Christian Education broadcasts and schools and pays the salaries of the teach- ers provided by the recognized religions. Historically the tribes living between the North Sea The extent of church intervention in education split and the river Meuse (now referred to as Belgians) Belgian politics from the middle of the 19th century were converted to Christianity by missionaries from through 1959, when it was settled. Until then the sacra- France (Aquitain). The evangelization (de kerstening) was ments had been refused to teachers in state schools and started by Amandus (c. 675), a missionary bishop with- to parents who sent their children there. Many parish out a fixed diocese who brought the Christian God to the schools were founded, supported by the funds of the pagans living on the banks of the river Scheldt. Under his faithful.Copy Each municipal borough was allowed to organize supervision, two important abbeys were erected at Ghent; its own primary school, and teachers no longer needed a they played an important role in the development of agri- state diploma, which again allowed the church to draw culture and culture. A native literary tradition to promote on its large reserves of manpower. Each borough could Christianity began in the 12th century with the mystic decide on religious education, and if 20 fathers asked for and didactic writings of the nun Hadewijch (Antwerp) an alternative, it had to be provided. In Flanders, church and the chaplain John of Ruusbroec (Brussels). schools were immediately restarted by the boroughs. The Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466–1536) came big increase of grammar school pupils after 1944 caused to Leuven, where the Catholic University (founded in a “school war.” State schools received higher subsidies 1425) taught theology. Erasmus supported a new institute than church schools. In 1954, the government dismissed separate from the university, the Collegium Trilingue more than 100 teachers who held Catholic diplomas from (1518), dedicated to the study of three languages (Greek, state schools—about half of them were later reinstated. Latin, and Hebrew) to permit a scientific investigation of Catholic children were to be sent before a jury rather biblical texts. His intention was to work as a humanist than receiving their school-leaving diplomas from their within the framework of the Catholic Church. Erasmus’s own schools. The three political parties (Catholic, social- attempts to obtain reforms from the inside never spread ist, and liberal) agreed to sign an armistice, the “School widely. In the 16th century, the center of Protestantism Pact of 1958,” and the School Pact Law (1959) formed the was Antwerp because of its trade relations with Germany. legal basis for reform. It provided for free choice among In 1585, 45 percent of the population of 100,000 were several religious education subjects and an alternative Catholic,Contributor 15 percent Lutheran, 28 percent Calvinist or subject at the community schools. Each single confession Anabaptist, and 12 percent unknown. Edicts against the chooses its own RE teachers. The Ministry of Education Lutherans appeared in 1520. Charles V limited the free- employs and pays them. dom of printing, burned heretical books, and censored In 2003, the Flemish government decreed that only spe- school curricula. Anyone settling in the Low Countries cifically trained RE teachers could teach RE in the commu- was expected to have a certificate of good Catholicism. nity and municipal schools. In order to become a teacher In 1626, there were 1,574 Jesuits (2,962 in Spain) in of RE in primary (ages 6–12) and lower secondary (ages the Low Countries; they established secondary schools 13–15) grades, one must complete a three-year bachelor 124 Belief training at a Catholic university college in combination want to believe, especially about a matter in which they with another subject. In order to teach Catholic RE in the are emotionally involved. upper secondary level (ages 16–18), long-term university All of this has tremendously important implications studies (5 years) at the Catholic University of Leuven are for educating in faith. For example, some believe some- required. To become a Protestant teacher, one must study thing can be interpreted as assigning a higher than not with the faculty of theology in Brussels, the successor to the probability that something is true. This is described from Reformed Academy founded in Gent (1578–1584). a school of epistemology called evidentialism, which says that certainty should be proportional to the correspond- References and Resources ing evidence. This approach, of course, smacks only of Carson, Patricia. 2001. The Fair Face of Flanders. Tielt, Bel- human reason and eschews faith and the nonempirical gium: Lannoo. realities of the Christian story.25 Nissen, Peter, ed. 2004. Geloven in de Lage Landen. Scharnier- Is one’s belief in Christianity justifiable in as far as it momenten in de geschiedenis van het christendom. Leuven, can be proven by evidence? 26 Kierkegaard thought Chris- Belgium: Davidsfonds. tian education was the main obstacle to Christian belief. —Hugo Verkest “A belief is a lever that, once pulled, moves almost every- thing else in a person’s life. Are you a scientist? A liberal? A racist? These are merely speciesOnly of belief in action. Belief Your beliefs decide your vision of the world; they dictate your behavior; they determine your emotional responses Belief is assent to a proposition. Belief in the psychologi- to other human beings.”27 cal sense is a representational mental state that takes the Social psychologists have described why people believe form of a propositional attitude. It is considered propo- and why they stop believing.28 Altemeyer and Hunsberger sitional in that it is an assertion, claim, or expectation surveyed thousands of young adults for stories of conver- about reality that is presumed to be either true or false, sion and apostasy.29 even if this cannot be practically determined, such as a “Amazing believers” are those without a religious belief in the existence of a particular deity. background who became strong Christians. They tended What are we to make of a certain belief in a supernatu- towardCopy religion for emotional and psychological reasons; ral God? The age of science has provoked equal and op- many reported very difficult pasts, including substance posite reactions to notions beyond rational explanation. abuse, psychological problems, death of loved ones, As Peter Berger warns, “the wonder of the supernatural is dysfunctional families, and criminal behavior. Religion lost when science seeks to explain all phenomena in natu- offered them comfort, security, friends, sympathy, a help- ral terms.”23 And as much as well-intentioned theists may ing hand. Conversely, “amazing apostates” are those with wish to defend religious belief, all would do well to admit strong religious backgrounds who abandon the faith. what Bavinck urges: “We must be aware of the depth of They left religion for primarily intellectual reasons. In the mystery that confronts us. Man must hesitate when the end, they simply could not believe the religion they he is about to say something about God’s being.”24 had been taught, and turned instead to science and logic. Certainty tempered with ambiguity might make us all Some Jews, Christians, and Muslims admit that what- slightly more humble and a bit slower to speak about our ever particular evidence or reason they may possess that most strongly held beliefs. God exists and is deserving of trust is still not ultimately

Belief and Christian Education 25. In Discovering God: The Origins of the Great Religions and the Evolu- In the religious sense, belief refers to a part of a wider tion of Belief (San Francisco: HarperOne Publishing, 2007), 1, Rodney Stark charges: “Contempt is not a scholarly virtue, and most . . . scholars openly spiritual or moral foundation, generally called faith. presume that gods exist only in the human imagination, that religion arises Some philosophers hold the view that belief formation mainly from fear, and that faith is sustained only by ignorance and credu- is to some extent spontaneous and involuntary. One can lity. Richard Dawkins’ title tells it all: The God Delusion.” 26. William Sloane Coffin counters that faith is not acceptance without choose to investigate and research a matter, they say, but proof, but trust without reservation. Contributor 27. Sam Harris, The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of one cannot choose to believe. On the other hand, in some Reason (New York: W.W. Norton, 2004), 12. This author has no theistic cases people do not believe things because they do not belief, but nicely grasps the implications of belief. 28. Robert Altemeyer and Bruce Hunsberger, Amazing Conversions: 23. See Peter Berger, A Far Glory: The Quest for Faith in an Age of Cre- Why Some Turn to Faith and Others Abandon Religion (Amherst, NY: dulity (New York: Macmillan, 1992), 37. Prometheus Books, 1997). 24. J. H. Bavinck, Faith and Its Difficulties (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerd- 29. See also Ruth Tucker, Walking away from Faith: Unraveling the Mys- mans, 1959), 156. tery of Belief and Unbelief (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002). Belief 125 the basis for their believing. Thus, in this sense faith G. K. Chesterton is famously noted as having quipped, refers to belief beyond evidence or logical arguments, “Christianity has not so much been tried and found sometimes called implicit faith. Another form of this kind wanting, as it has been found difficult and left untried.” of faith is fideism: one ought to believe that God exists, University of Southern California philosopher Dallas but one should not base that belief on any other beliefs; Willard agrees: one should instead accept it without any reasons at all. Faith in this sense is grounded simply in the sincerity of For at last several decades the churches of the Western faith, belief on the basis of believing.30 world have not made discipleship a condition of being a An inescapable correlation, to be sure, must be en- Christian. One is not required to be . . . a disciple in order dorsed in Christian education for the seamless interac- to become a Christian, and one may remain a Christian without any signs of progress toward or in discipleship. tion of belief and action. But the tendency has been to . . . Discipleship is clearly optional.35 observe the lockset sequence of a belief leading to an ac- tion. In other words, to know something must be in place This phenomenon of “undiscipled disciples” is the prior to being and doing. While this may be legitimate, it reason for a post-Christian nation in which four of five is not definitive. In fact, human experience teaches that adults believe they are Christian. The requirement for to do is also a powerful instructor in being and knowing. being a Christian has become that one believe the proper The Christian and Jewish faiths seem to have variant things about Jesus: merely a mentalOnly assent to orthodoxy. understandings of interaction of theological belief and Christians have heard, especially from Dietrich Bon- religious practice. Consequently, Winner observes, “doing, hoeffer, about the cost of discipleship, but consider the action, sits at the center of Judaism. Practice is to Judaism cost of nondiscipleship. Besides thwarting the teaching 31 what belief is to Christianity.” Practices shape religious of Jesus, nondiscipleship lacks abiding peace, a life pen- beliefs, but religious beliefs also shape practices. It is a etrated throughout by love, faith that sees everything tensive relationship, which means beliefs influence, but are in the light of God’s overriding good, hopefulness that 32 not reducible to, certain actions, attitudes, and interests. stands firm in the most trying circumstances, and the One might rightly ask which is more important in power to do what is right. the spiritual life of an adherent: belief or practice. While The only acceptable endgame of Christianity springs Judaism may have adherents with much less theological fromCopy the apt interplay of orthodox belief and faithfully acumen and a greater facility for proper practice, quite executed practice. For the Gospel to seep into any soci- the opposite can be said to be the case for Christians. ety, believers must attentively act on the precepts of the historic faith. If the Christian religion overemphasizes Belief and Practice belief without enough concern for practice, it becomes Some religious believers use the term “faith” as the af- a verbally oriented dogma that focuses lopsidedly on firmation of belief without a test of evidence, and even cognitive understanding to the exclusion of its ethical despite evidence apparently to the contrary. Data from dimension. It then sadly lacks the moral example to a study in Canada and the United States show that a salt society. Correspondingly, if the Christian religion Christian’s lifestyle is not discernibly different from overemphasizes action-oriented practice without due 33 that of non-Christians. William Hutchison, American concern for cogent theology, it becomes too experien- church historian at Harvard, says in many Western tially based and loses its groundedness. It then appears societies there is a gap between profession of belief and lamentably devoid of the requisite absolute truth and committed Christian practice, but it is most striking in moral authority necessary to guide society.36 34 the United States. Three profound errors appear when belief and practice are wrongly related (see table B.1). The tragic results are 30. See Soren Kierkegaard, Fear and Trembling (London: Simon & manifested in unintended outcomes, curious inventions, Brown, 2013). and misshapen creatures, but most alarmingly, a repug- 31. Lauren Winner, Mudhouse Sabbath (Brewster, MA: Paraclete Press, 2004), ix. nant distortion of the Christian message to the surround- 32. For an excellent discussion of this, see Amy Plantinga Pauw, “At- ing culture. tending toContributor the Gaps between Beliefs and Practices,” in Practicing Theology: Beliefs and Practices in Christian Life, ed. Craig Dykstra and Dorothy Bass (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing, 2002), 33–48. 33. George G. Hunter III, “Can the West Be Won?” Christianity Today, 35. The Spirit of the Disciplines: Understanding How God Changes Lives 16 December 1991, 43–46. (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1988), 258–259. 34. Referenced in Robert Wuthrow, The Struggle for America’s Soul: 36. See Mark A. Lamport, “Excellent Belief, Congruent Practice: Juxta- Evangelicals, Liberals and Secularization (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, positions of Promise and Peril in the Educational Mission of the Church,” 1989). in Thy Brother’s Keeper (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2010), 237–257. 126 Bellarmine, Robert

TABLE B.1 the Roman College as the chair of controversies and to Juxtapositions of Religious Belief and Practice teach theology. He remained there until 1588. Common Characteristic Corresponding Tendencies Inferences Results Significant Contributions to Christian Education Right Belief/ Betrays True Meaning Unintended As spiritual director at the Roman College, Bellarmine Wrong Practice of Gospel Outcomes taught the catechism to lay brothers and students. He Wrong Belief/ Seduces from True Curious wrote several popular catechisms for adults and children, Wrong Practice Meaning of Gospel Inventions including Dottrina Cristiani (Brief Christian doctrine, Wrong Belief/ Confuses True Misshapen Right Practice Meaning of Gospel Creatures 1597) and Dichiarazione piX Copiosa della Dottrina Cris- Right Belief/Right Exposes True Faithful tiani (a catechism for teachers, 1598) (Van Helden 1995). Practice Meaning of Gospel Disciples Notable Publications There is a demonstrable incongruence of stated belief In addition to writing catechisms, Bellarmine was in- and corresponding practice in the lives of many Chris- volved in untangling the various heresies and controver- tians. Are orthodox beliefs a satisfactory educational goal, sies that erupted as a result of the Protestant Reforma- or are faithful practices based on statements of belief? The tion. His Disputantiones de Controversiis Christianae most obvious lifestyle behavior related to unbelief is that Fidei Adversus Hujus Temporis HaereticosOnly (Disputations of living as if there is no god, a common malady of mate- about the controversies of the Christian faith against the rialistic Western society. The threat to Christian faith is heretics of this time) was the seminal work on heresy of not as much the way of atheism, but living independently his age (Van Helden 1995). The church used Bellarmine’s from God. This rebellion, then, this sin, is tantamount to work to return Catholics to the fold, with his effective ar- the anti-Christian mood. Blaise Pascal hauntingly asks guments. The strength of De Controversis against Protes- and answers: “Why is it so hard to believe? Because it is tantism prompted German and English schools to found so hard to obey.” special chairs to refute Bellarmine. He engaged King James I in arguments over the power References and Resources of the papacy. Bellarmine used pamphlets and books to Allen, Diogenes. 1989. Christian Belief in a Postmodern World: supportCopy his theory of the primacy of the indirect power of The Full Wealth of Conviction. Louisville, KY: Westminster the pope in temporal matters as well as spiritual ones. He John Knox Press. is also reported to have initially admonished Galileo on Grenz, Stanley J. 1996. A Primer on Postmodernism. Grand his defense of Copernican theory, arguing that it should Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. only be advanced as a hypothesis (Smith 1907). Kinnaman, David. 2011. You Lost Me: Why Young Christians Bellarmine maintained an admirable simplicity of life Are Leaving Church . . . and Rethinking Faith. Grand Rapids, in a time of auspicious ecclesial excesses. He was once MI: Baker Books. under consideration for the papacy after the death of Plantinga, Alvin. 2000. Warranted Christian Belief. New York: Pope Sixtus V in 1590, but a letter was written to King Oxford University Press. Phillip III of Spain warning that Bellarmine —Mark A. Lamport is beloved for his great goodness, but he is a scholar who lives only among books and not of much practical abil- Bellarmine, Robert ity. . . . He would not do for Pope, for he is mindful only of the interests of the Church and is unresponsive to the reasons of princes. . . . He would scruple to accept gifts. Early Background and Education . . . I suggest that we exert no action in his favor. (Van Robert Bellarmine was born to an Italian nobleman in Helden 1995) Montepulciano in 1542. He was a professor, a theolo- gian, and a Jesuit priest and cardinal who attracted both The king was persuaded against Bellarmine as a can- Catholics Contributorand Protestants with his preaching style. He didate for pope. In 1627, the process of canonization was died in Rome in 1621. begun for Bellarmine. His cause was delayed for over Bellarmine studied at the Roman College after joining three centuries due to his association with the doctrine the Jesuit order and then studied Thomistic theology of papal authority, which was opposed by the politicians at the University of Padua. In 1569, Bellarmine taught of the French court. He was finally canonized in 1930 by theology at the University of Louvain, becoming the first Pope Pius XI and later declared a doctor of the church. Jesuit to do so. Pope Gregory XIII returned Bellarmine to He is a patron saint of catechists. Benedict, Educational Ideas of 127

References and Resources are imperatives drawn from scripture. They include ad- Smith, Sydney. 1907. Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Robert Bellar- monitions to renounce self, to love Christ before all else, mine. Accessed 26 May 2013. http://www.newadvent.org/ to refuse to repay evil with evil, to resist being called holy cathen/02411d.htm. before one really is, and so forth. The bottom line is that Van Helden, Al. 1995. Robert Cardinal Bellarmine (1542–1621). spiritual maturity and personal transformation develop Accessed 26 May 2013. http://galileo.rice.edu/chr/bellar as we appropriate truths of scripture and live them out mine.html. in a community that provides mutual accountability, —Angelique Montgomery-Goodnough opportunities for service, and the challenge of close rela- tionships with others. Implied in what has been said, one of the vows the Benedict, Educational Ideas of Benedictine monk takes is stability—the commitment to stay in the community, since conversion and growth When he was about 50 years of age, Benedict of Nursia in character happen when we remain, not when we run. (c. 480–547) established a monastery at Monte Cassino Benedict despised gyrovagues—monks who roamed from in Italy, approximately 60 miles south of Rome. While monastery to monastery (not unlike Christians who shop spending the rest of his life there, he wrote the “Benedic- from church to church). tine Rule” for the community: a practical guide for living This conversion is referred Onlyto as conversatio—a daily the Christian gospel and for cultivating Christian virtue “turning around” as one engages in the ongoing effort of in the company of fellow monks. About the size of Mat- a lifetime race toward God, propelled by the attraction of thew’s Gospel, it passed on a tradition of wisdom from God’s love for us. As Benedict stated in the prologue, “as the lived experience of monastic life, translating the gos- we progress in this way of life and in faith, we shall run on pel into daily communal Christian living, or, as he puts it the path of God’s commandments, our hearts overflow- in the prologue of the “Rule,” living in community “with ing with the inexpressible delight of love.” the Gospel as our guide.” In this “race” in the coenobium (i.e., the monastery), He describes this community in the prologue (v. 45) the monk practices a disciplined and balanced life of as “a school (schola) for the Lord’s service.” It was to be work, study, and prayer. Work usually entails manual a community in which one could learn the trade or skill laborCopy to fight off sloth. Study especially entails lectio di- of discipleship as a Christian apprentice who desires to vinia, a practice of reading scripture that involves various seek, know, and love God and to be conformed to the stages of meditation on a short passage or phrase. Prayer image of Christ. is referred to as the opus dei or “work of God”—the most In the Benedictine tradition, there is no monastic life essential activity of the day, which takes place in com- without the community. Benedict was part of the ceno- munity at certain intervals, referred to as the “divine bitic tradition (cenobitic deriving from the Greek words office” or the “liturgy of the hours.” Benedict prescribed koinos bios, meaning “common life,” and similar to koi- eight times of communal prayer each day, though most nonia), which others (such as Augustine) had developed Benedictine monasteries today meet just three or four before him. The tradition held that spiritual formation times each day. could occur only in communal living. Only in the coeno- These practices and others (such as fasting, poverty, bium can one grow into deeper awareness of God’s will chastity) that Benedict prescribed are not wholly unique for one’s life. Otherwise, we are left to our own fancy, or to him. They are part of a larger monastic tradition we do not experience transformation because there is no involving ascetic disciplines. Ascesis referred to the dis- stable community that acts as a mirror to reflect our true cipline an athlete engaged in to prepare for the Olympic identity and spiritual condition. Character traits such as games and to the training soldiers received in what would obedience, charity, and humility are virtues that can only be the equivalent of “boot camp”; in the same way, as- be formed in the constant presence of other people; it is ceticism in this monastic context refers to the training or impossible to obey someone, love others, and be humble exercise that a Christian disciple (or disciplined student when oneContributor is alone. This is probably one reason Benedict of Christ) engages in, empowered by the Spirit of God, in did not encourage eremitic monasticism (a way of life order to win the contests against sin. In some respects, related to what we refer to as hermits, the word deriving Benedict incorporated the ascetic outlook recommended from the Greek eremos topos, meaning “desert place”). in the writings of Evagrius Ponticus (of the fourth cen- Elsewhere in the “Rule” (4.78), Benedict describes the tury) and John Cassian (of the fifth century). monastery as a “workshop” for the salvation of the whole Ascetic disciplines were not an end in themselves. person (not just for communicating ideas to the mind) They were meant to lead to apatheia, the ordering and using “tools,” which he lists in chapter 4. These “tools” control of the passions, so that one might excel in agape, 128 Berryman, Jerome the kind of self-giving love that Christians are com- tion, established in late 2007. This is the research and manded to practice. The monk who is controlled by his development part of the foundation. passions (such as gluttony, lust, anger, or avarice) is not Godly Play teaches children the art of using Christian free to be outwardly focused on love for others. language—parable, sacred story, silence, and liturgical action—helping them become more fully aware of the References and Resources mystery of God’s presence in their lives. The educational The Benedictine Handbook. 2003. Collegeville, MN: The Litur- theory of Godly Play is rooted in the prehistory of our spe- gical Press. cies with respect to the use of ritual, story, and the creative Fry, Timothy, ed. 1981. RB1980: In Latin and English with process. Montessori’s approach to education has been Notes. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1981. adapted to Godly Play in order to stimulate children’s ac- Kardong, Terrence. 1988. The Benedictines. Wilmington, DE: tive participation in story and ritual and to awaken their Michael Glazier. creativity for the learning of the language, sacred stories, ———. 1996. Benedict’s Rule: A Translation and Commentary. parables, liturgical action, and silence of the Christian tra- Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. dition. When Christian language is learned by the Godly Okholm, Dennis. 2007. Monk Habits for Everyday People: Bene- Play approach, it is as a means to know God and to make dictine Spirituality for Protestants. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos meaning of life. Inspired also by the work of Cavalletti, this Press, 2007. approach aims to locate each lessonOnly in the whole system Robinson, David. 2010. Ancient Paths: Discover Christian For- of Christian language and to involve the creative process mation the Benedictine Way. Orleans, MA: Paraclete Press. of discovering the depths of meaning in both Christian —Dennis Okholm language and the creative process. Godly Play respects the innate spirituality of children and encourages curiosity and imagination in experiencing the mystery and joy of Berryman, Jerome God. These factors enable children (and adults) to become “playfully orthodox.” They become rooted in their own Jerome W. Berryman is an ordained American edu- tradition and at the same time open to others, new ideas, cationalist who has spent close to 40 years creating a and the future, in creative ways. methodology (constructed of pedagogy and supported by EncouragingCopy participants to make meaning for them- a theology) known as Godly Play. He has written numer- selves, Godly Play invites them into stories and provides ous articles and books. the opportunity for them to connect the stories with He was born in 1937 and educated at the University their personal experience. It works from a curriculum of Kansas (BA, 1959), Princeton Theological Seminary of scripted stories with a given formula of storytelling. (MDiv, 1962 and DMin, 1996), and University of Tulsa The participants (often children) are welcomed into the Law School (JD, 1969). He also read theology at Oxford room. When everyone is ready, the storyteller begins, University’s Mansfield College during the summer of drawing objects from a bag or a box and wondering about 1966 (certificate, 1966), graduated from the year-long each item that is revealed. Throughout the process of program at The Center for Advanced Montessori Stud- the telling, the storyteller continues to wonder about the ies in Bergamo, Italy (diploma, 1972), and was awarded meaning of the tale. At the end, the listeners are invited three postdoctoral residencies in theology and medical to respond through discussion and then by creative art. ethics at the Institute of Religion in the Texas Medical Godly Play is a noncoercive way to encourage people Center in Houston (1973–1976). In 1991, he was awarded to move into larger dimensions of belief and faith a Lilly Endowment grant for study in Italy related to the through wondering questions and open-ended response history of the Montessori approach to religious educa- time. It can be a means of preparing children to join in tion, and in November 1997 he received the Kilgore the worship and life of their congregations as they de- Creative Ministry Award from Claremont School of velop a deeper understanding of stories, symbols, and Theology in Claremont, California. He has been awarded rites. Although it was originally developed as a resource several honoraryContributor doctorates in divinity. for children, Godly Play is now being used with a wide From 1998 to 2007, Rev. Dr. Jerome Berryman was range of age groups in a variety of settings. the executive director of the Center for the Theology of Childhood in Houston, Texas, and (from 1994) has References and Resources been an active consultant in areas related to the moral Berryman has written a dozen books, including the following: and spiritual development of children and Godly Play. In 2007, he retired as director. At the time of writing, Dr. Berryman is senior fellow at the Center for the Theology Children and the Theologians: Clearing the Way for Grace. 2009. of Childhood, which is part of the Godly Play Founda- Denver, CO: Morehouse Education Resources. Beza, Theodore 129

The Complete Guide to Godly Play. 2012. Vol. 8. Denver, CO: Trained as a humanist, he valued classical and biblical Morehouse Education Resources. languages. In philosophy, he embraced Renaissance Aris- totelianism, but focused on the original classical writings He has edited the following: of Aristotle, rather than their medieval appropriation by Thomas Aquinas. The list of famous humanists and Life Maps: Conversations on the Journey of Faith, James W. reformers in his Icones (1580) demonstrates his belief in Fowler and Sam Keen, Nashville, TN: W Publishing Group the close relationship between Renaissance scholarship and Reformation theology. Nonetheless, he did not reject His greatest written record is the many chapters and articles all elements of scholastic methodology; instead, he was in the field of children’s nurture and education, including sev- a pivotal figure between Calvin’s rhetorical approach eral publications especially for children. to theology and the Protestant scholasticism of 17th- —Howard Worsley century Reformed Orthodoxy. Despite the assertions of some older scholarship, more recent studies show that he did not stray from the core content of Calvin’s original Beza, Theodore ideas, but rather consolidated these original teachings and set them forth in a technical manner. For Beza, Born Théodore de Bèze, in Vézelay, France, Beza (1519– good educational method dependedOnly on the context: with 1605) is most associated with the foundation of Swiss undereducated people, perplexing questions should be Protestant theological education, since he served as the avoided; he only allowed advanced systematic discus- first rector and chief curricular architect of John Calvin’s sions when the audience comprised advanced students. Genevan Academy. From this intellectual center, he Even then, scholastic tools were not to devolve into use- influenced Christian theology and its academic transmis- less speculation, but were meant to prepare students for sion throughout France, Scotland, England, Hungary, polemic encounters with Roman Catholic, heretical, and Poland, Germany, and North America. When Protestant Lutheran adversaries. exiles fled Mary Tudor’s persecution (beginning in 1533) Beza’s humanistic commitments remained important to Geneva, they drew from the Genevan tradition and throughout his career. This is apparent in the care- later brought it back to England. Beza’s chief contribu- fulCopy attention he paid to his annotated New Testament, tion was his formal expression of Calvin’s teaching in a major influence on the Geneva Bible. Moreover, he an academic setting, with philological acumen, and in a likely eliminated several medieval scholastic books from polemically defensible manner. His clearest explanation Calvin’s library after the reformer’s death. Some contend of his philosophy of education was in his inaugural ad- that Beza did a disservice to Christian theological train- dress to the academy in 1559. In this speech, he defended ing by separating biblical and theological curricula in the dignity and value of the liberal arts, arguing that it pastoral training. At first, there was no distinct theology supports justice in society and provides an essential foot- course at Geneva—only exegetical study—but a distinct ing for further study in law, theology, and medicine. He doctrinal course eventually took shape as longer theo- believed that theologians ought to champion the value logical excurses on Romans became the basis for a topical of other scholarly disciplines; one of his first acts as rec- theological course that resembled the structure of Philipp tor was to establish a program in law, and he worked Melanchthon’s (1497–1560) Loci Communes (1521). hard to establish a chair in medicine. His treatise on the Beza opened the door for future generations of Gene- plague (De Peste, 1579) advocates an empirical approach van students to venture into detailed scholastic work, to the science of contagious disease as opposed to the but he never abandoned his humanistic commitment to idea, found in some Roman Catholic tracts, that plague understanding the biblical texts through solid training in outbreaks indicated God’s direct chastisement for sin. He languages and engagement with ancient authors. argued that naïve use of the Bible to understand infection was inappropriate, and instead advocated study of Hip- References and Resources pocrates,Contributor Galen, and contemporary natural philosophy Backus, Irena Dorota. 1980. The Reformed Roots of the Eng- as the proper approach to medicine. He believed that lish New Testament: The Influence of Theodore Beza on the the Christian academy should seek to understand God’s English New Testament. Pittsburgh Theological Monograph relationship with the natural world, but he did not keep Series. Allison Park, PA: Pickwick. science on a short theological leash. This was so impor- Baird, Henry. (1899) 1970. Theodore Beza: The Counselor of the tant to him that, when a military siege negatively affected French Reformation 1519–1605. New York: Burt Franklin. Geneva’s budget, he defended the importance of funding Beza, Theodore. 1986. A Little Book of Christian Questions and education; he even offered to forgo his own salary to keep Responses. Translated by Kirk Summers. Allison Park, PA: faculty from other disciplines in place. Pickwick. 130 Bible as Literary Genre, Roots of the

Mallinson, Jeffrey. 2003. Faith, Reason, and Revelation in Theo- During the 15th and 16th centuries, Christian human- dore Beza 1519–1605. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ists emphasized recovering original languages and ap- Wright, Shawn, and John Farthing. 2007. Our Sovereign Refuge: plying classical principles of grammatical and rhetorical The Pastoral Theology of Theodore Beza. Studies in Christian analysis to the Bible. Humanism inspired generations of History and Thought. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. reformers to insist that a literal meaning of biblical text —Jeff Mallinson was available to the faithful through the Holy Spirit’s guidance. Reformers’ emphasis on historical origins, lan- guage, grammar, and the techniques of interpretation was Bible as Literary Genre, Roots of the pushed to the extreme during the Enlightenment, with ironic consequences. For the Enlightenment of the 17th– Critic Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) coined the phrase 18th centuries, taking the Bible literally meant the biblical “Bible as literature” in the late 19th century, inviting a text was replete with events and accounts that were ratio- host of questions about the possibility of a systematic nally implausible and therefore inaccurate. Subject to the study of the Bible using methods in literary studies. specter of reason, literal interpretations presented flaws Today, Leland Ryken (b. 1942) and Robert Alter (b. 1935) irreconcilable with a rational God, thereby casting doubt represent two major camps for interpreting the Bible as on divine authorship of the biblical text. literature. Ryken, who insists the biblical writers were Between the 18th and 19th centuries,Only the emphasis on literary artists, is associated with literary-textual interpre- human authorship and history of the biblical writings in- tation, in which he argues that reading the Bible in terms spired biblical and literary critics to use pseudo-scientific of its artful literary elements gets the reader closer to the interpretive methods of historical-criticism. Historical- intended meaning of the text.37 Alter, in Literary Guide critical emphasis on authenticity stands in contrast to late to the Bible, claims that the value of analyzing the Bible 18th-century romanticism’s valorization of the aesthetic, as literature stems not from such a method’s ability to literary value of the Bible. Romanticism, however, was locate sacred truth as much as its ability to offer a deeply uninterested in the Bible as a sacred text and culminated insightful interpretive lens. The modern academic study in an inherently secular approach to biblical interpreta- of the Bible as literature has transformed in relation to tion. On the other hand, despite its disruption of divine the evolution of techniques for literary analysis; however, authorship,Copy historical-critical analysis continued to find the notion that one can read the Bible as literature has its favor in biblical scholarship’s search for the true meaning roots in early Christianity. of the text. Though they often spurned the relevance of secular Modern literary-critical analysis, rooted in Ferdinand Greek and Roman education for Christian education, the de Saussure’s (1857–1913) linguistics, at once designates early church fathers, including Tertullian, Jerome, and a continuation of and challenge to the primacy of histori- Augustine, relied on the classical techniques of literary cal analysis. For theorists following Saussure’s theory of analysis, including allegorical interpretation and gram- language as a system of meaning-making in which the matical and rhetorical analysis, to interpret the Bible. relationship between signs and the things they are meant For Augustine, the Bible represented the highest form of to signify is arbitrary, linguistic relationships could be literature, demonstrating eloquence only attributable to studied with scientific precision to unveil the meaning of divine authorship and wisdom.38 the text. Literary-critical theorists and critics, like their Allegorical interpretation of the Bible continued historical-critical counterparts, persisted in the search throughout the Middle Ages, emphasizing multiple for certainty through systematic, “scientific” inquiry (see meanings of the text as presented through its metaphori- Literary Criticism). cal language and imagery. The highly figurative and even Saussure’s emphasis on the referential structure of lan- erotic language common to medieval secular literature guage laid the foundation for Jacques Derrida’s (1930– opened multiple levels of imaginative possibilities for 2004) famous assertion that linguistic relationships are interpreting the biblical text, from the most literal to the infinitely variable, and therefore, the thing to which a most metaphorical.Contributor Such figurative interpretations of the sign refers is never static. An absolute or transcendental biblical text that hailed the Bible’s literary prowess were signified does not exist. Derrida’s works and the works reciprocated by a rise in biblical allegories in literature, of literary critics he inspired have demonstrated that lan- including Dante’s Divine Comedy. guage resists efforts to locate a singular meaning or truth of a text. Associated with the postmodern dismantling of absolute truth claims, Derridean currents in literary 37. A Complete Literary Guide to the Bible, ed. Leland Ryken and Trem- per Longman III (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1993), 50. theory have harnessed shifting historical, social, and po- 38. Ibid., 52. litical contexts to reimagine biblical interpretation. Bible as Literature, The 131

Despite concerns over postmodernity’s tendencies complementary words and ways that help the reader to relativize truth claims, many Christian educators see understand what is being said by the way it is being said. within these developments in literary theory, and their The Bible is God’s verbal revelation through human permutations in Marxist, feminist, and transcultural instrumentality. That means literary conventions are an analyses, the opportunity for disinherited voices to illu- essential aspect of how the Bible was crafted and should minate truths from the biblical text that might otherwise be a necessary component of accurate interpretation. have remained buried by traditional interpretations. Compared to the claimed origins of the sacred texts In her article in the Christian Education Journal, Janet of the major non-Judeo-Christian religions, the Bible B. Sommers writes, “Utilizing all three contemporary stands in stark contrast as scripture that unashamedly methods of interpreting the Bible as literature—literary attributes its development to the confluence of human textual, literary-historical, and literary-critical—will help and divine activity. The defenders of the Koran and us interpret the Scriptures with greater skill and precision Book of Mormon, for example, proclaim divine superi- and to defend our interpretations from a broader, more ority for their texts over the Bible due in part to the be- informed perspectives.”39 lief that their “Bible” came directly from Heaven, apart As Sommers notes, the question facing Christian from human contamination. But the biblical authors educators is not whether or not to acknowledge devel- were convinced their words were inspired, although opments in literature and literary theory, but how to they were consciously involvedOnly in a literary enterprise. acknowledge these innovations as part of the larger dy- Important to realize is that the Bible we know today namism of Christian history. is not a book, although it physically appears as many pages between two covers. The Bible is an anthol- References and Resources ogy of sacred texts of various lengths and literature, A Complete Literary Guide to the Bible. 1993. Edited by Le- spanning a thousand years and involving scores of land Ryken and Tremper Longman III. Grand Rapids, MI: authors. The literary genres of scripture, inter alia, are Zondervan. legal, epistolary, narrative, verse or poetry, prophecy, The Literary Guide to the Bible. 1987. Edited by Robert Alter psalms or sacred songs/poems or hymns, apocalyptic, and Frank Kermode. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. parables, proverbs, wisdom, perhaps legends, gospels, Sommers, Janet B. 2007. “Interpreting the Bible as Literature: andCopy salvation history. Even one so-called Bible book Historical and Contemporary Contexts with Implications for may contain several of these. How to understand and Christian Education.” Christian Education Journal, Series 3, use the information contained in each is inseparable 4 (1): 78–99. from its communicative character. For example, the —Wesley Nan Barker person hearing a parable knows by its very nature its purpose is not to recount a historical event. A poem is more concerned with feelings or functional, rather than Bible as Literature, The factual, knowledge. One would no more use a technical manual to communicate romantic feelings than poetry Theological and biblical education, especially in more to explain how to repair a toaster. Proverbial speech conservative schools, has only in recent decades begun does not present the absolute air of legal language. Bib- to stress the literary nature of the Bible as an essential lical “books” were not written to modern people, but component of the interpretation and application of they certainly are intended for our edification. The au- scripture. Unfortunately, due to its traditional vertical thors of these ancient texts chose forms of communica- versification, the Bible has often been read as a compen- tion familiar to their audiences and in their languages. dium of rules, like a laundry list. Approaching the Bible A huge time and cultural gap exists between modern as literature means recognizing that the human authors, Bible believers and its original audiences. To read the while guided by God in some manner, wrote with the Bible, we have to bridge that gap with knowledge about creativity to employ literary genres according to their their literary and linguistic methods. purposes.Contributor The medium is the message. All human com- Contemporary Christian educators should envision munication relies on forms that inform the function teaching Bible survey and book studies as a means not of what is being written. For example, repair manuals, only to train students in biblical history and content, love letters, and legal documents use characteristic and but also to enhance their understanding of the Bible’s ancient literary cultural context. The Bible was not composed in a literary vacuum. The authors made use 39. Janet B. Sommers, “Interpreting the Bible as Literature: Historical and Contemporary Contexts with Implications for Christian Education,” of the styles and symbols with which their audience was Christian Education Journal, Series 3, 4, no. 1 (2007): 92. familiar in a given historical period (just like we use 132 Bible College Movement, Evolution of the conventional forms of communication or media and il- ministry in which they were already involved. It wasn’t lustrations from classic or popular publications, poems, until the 1980s that Moody Bible Institute began award- or plays with which our audiences can identify). So, ing baccalaureate degrees. for example, the Old Testament psalms employ poetic The Bible institute movement represents a distinct forms and expressions typical of the Canaanites while sector of theological education. Bible colleges were not presenting a polemic against their theology. The New trying to train professional clergy for mainline denomi- Testament addresses a Hellenized and Roman world in nations, like seminaries and divinity schools. Rather, they terms and texts it appreciates to proclaim an unknown were trying to train missionaries, pastors for nonmainline and unexpected truth. Fully apprehending and applying churches, and others who were active in the ministries of biblical revelation requires literate Christians educated the churches and parachurch agencies. in ancient and modern literature. The movement transitioned into the Bible college movement as higher education developed in North References and Resources America. As academic institutions became stronger Harwell, Charles W., and Daniel McDonald. 1975. The Bible: A and academic credentials became more meaningful in Literary Survey. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill. culture, Bible institutes gradually became Bible col- Longman, Tremper. 1987. Literary Approaches to Biblical Inter- leges that focused more on granting degrees. The main pretation. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. characteristic that distinguished Onlya Bible college from a Ryken, Leland. 1984. How to Read the Bible as Literature: And Christian college was the requirement of the equivalent Get More Out of It. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. of a Bible major for all students, even if they majored in Ryken, Leland, and Tremper Longman. 1993. A Complete Liter- some other area of ministry. An additional difference ary Guide to the Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. is that Bible colleges tend to limit themselves to Bible —W. Creighton Marlowe and ministry studies, whereas Christian colleges offer a wider array of programs, among which Bible and min- istry studies are included. Bible College Movement, Evolution of the The Bible college movement became more formalized with the founding in 1947 of the Accrediting Associa- The Bible college movement in North America began tion Copyof Bible Colleges (AABC, now known as the Asso- with Bible institutes (also called Bible schools). The first, ciation of Biblical Higher Education). As an accrediting The New York Training School (later called The Mis- agency, AABC provided a mechanism for establishing sionary Training Institute), was founded in 1882 by A. B. standards and granting recognition of quality in Bible Simpson to serve the needs of the Christian and Mission- colleges, provided collegiality and support for accred- ary Alliance. The most famous is Moody Bible Institute, ited and unaccredited Bible schools that sometimes which still bears the label “Bible institute,” even though struggled independently, and provided a significant link it offers undergraduate and graduate-level theological to the broader world of higher education. By 1960, there degrees. More than 100 Bible schools had been founded were 35,000 students enrolled on the campuses of 250 in North America by 1945. Bible schools. Bible institutes were so called because of their com- Some of the same cultural forces that brought AABC mitment to the Bible as the inerrant Word of God. Most into existence, especially the growing role of higher Bible institutes founded in the early 20th century were education in North America, have continued to push part of the fundamentalist movement in reaction to Prot- Bible colleges to develop. As some Bible colleges have estant liberalism. However, their purpose was not just broadened their curriculum and have sought to facilitate to teach the Bible as an academic subject, but also to use transfer of credit between institutions and admission the Bible’s teaching in practical ministry. D. L. Moody into graduate programs in nonministry areas, they have referred to this as training for “gap-men,” who stand be- sought regional accreditation. tween the laity and the ministers. It should be noted that The Bible college/institute movement also has mani- most earlyContributor Bible institutes served both men and women. festations not so closely identified with academic ac- A core dimension of the curriculum was practical creditation. Ethnic groups in urban centers often have Christian work assignments. Accordingly, many Bible Bible institutes for the training of their ministers and institutes developed correspondence, evening, and exten- laypeople. These Bible institutes usually offer classes in sion programs to make this practical ministry training the evening, provide an entire program of training, and more accessible to those who needed it. Even those who award their own certificates in relation to recognition came to the residential campuses stayed only for limited within their denominations and church networks. Bible periods of time to obtain specialized training, often for institutes are found throughout the global South to train Bible College Movement, Impetus for the 133 leaders for the new churches that are being planted. dered a literal biblical understanding of immediate and Training often takes place for a few months at a time in recent divine creation intellectually untenable. Moreover, conjunction with active church planting ministry. These a growing number of evangelical churches and denomi- Bible institutes are focused on the same missionary pri- nations have embraced dispensational premillennialism orities as the very first Bible institutes of North America, as popularized in the Schofield Reference Bible, resulting which trained missionaries for the global South more in greater emphasis on eschatological urgency and prag- than 100 years ago. matism in Gospel proclamation. Most Bible colleges began entrepreneurially. In form References and Resources and function, they reacted to arid intellectualism and ac- Brereton, Virginia Lieson. 1990. Training God’s Army: The ademic convention. Their curricula, typically developed American Bible School, 1880–1940. Bloomington: Indiana by academy outsiders, emphasized devotional disposi- University Press. tions and development of practical ministry. They often McKinney, Larry J. 1997. Equipping for Service: A Historical had little in common other than a staunch commitment Account of the Bible College Movement in North America. to make the Bible the central subject and object of study Fayetteville, AR: Accrediting Association of Bible Colleges. and to motivate and mobilize Christian witness. As a Ringenberg, William C. 2006. The Christian College: A History reactionary movement, their curricula typically varied of Protestant Higher Education in America. 2nd ed. Grand greatly from the curricular conventionsOnly of their secular Rapids, MI: Baker Books. and Christian liberal arts college counterparts, most of Vincent, James. 2011. The MBI Story: The Vision and World- which were rooted in scholastic European and colonial wide Impact of Moody Bible Institute. Chicago: Moody notions of intellectual breadth and liberal education. Publishing. Beginning with Johnson Bible College (TN) and Co- —Steve Kemp lumbia Bible College (SC), informal and noncollegiate Bible institutes gradually evolved into degree-granting postsecondary institutions. The establishment in 1947 Bible College Movement, Impetus for the of the American Association of Bible Colleges (see As- sociation for Biblical Higher Education) further shaped Bible colleges are institutions of postsecondary education theCopy movement through collective adoption of curricular that feature extensive study of the Bible, accompanied by norms and conformity to external quality standards curricular and cocurricular emphasis on personal devo- associated with postsecondary education. Beginning in tion and consecrated service. The Bible college move- the 1960s, Bible colleges began to earn regional accredi- ment originated during the time of North America’s tation. This achievement ironically marked the degree Third Great Awakening. Early Bible institutes emerged to which Bible colleges had earned academic legitimacy as both products of and catalysts for revival and mission- and launched evolutionary currents affecting the mis- ary movements. The first such institutions include Nyack sion and curricula of many Bible colleges. By the 1980s, Missionary Training Institute, founded by A. B. Simpson many notable Bible colleges had begun to disassociate in 1882, and Moody Bible Institute, founded by D. L. themselves from the movement. Many of today’s North Moody in 1886. These earliest Bible institutes typify the American Christian liberal arts institutions have roots character and origin of scores of other such institutions in the Bible college movement. that proliferated across the North American continent Research, although sporadic, has consistently found during the latter two decades of the 19th century and the that Bible college graduates comprise a disproportional first three decades of the 20th century. percentage of North American evangelical protestant Bible college founders were fueled by a variety of cul- missionaries and clergy. Moreover, a variety of student tural and ecclesiastical currents responding to theological outcomes research has consistently disproven the percep- drift, spiritual malaise, and secularizing influence. By the tion that Bible colleges are academically inferior to other late 19th century, North American theological school- Christian and secular higher education sectors. Bible col- ing andContributor theological scholarship had embraced European lege graduates consistently gain admission to and excel scholasticism and Enlightenment rationalism as exempli- in advanced degree studies. Although many perceive that fied by Wellhausen’s documentary hypothesis. Higher the movement has waned, conservative estimates suggest criticism and its accompanying a priori rejection of the that as many as 1,000 Bible colleges and Bible institutes miraculous, including the miraculous nature of divine currently operate in North America, enrolling more than revelation, became the new epistemological and method- 100,000 students. Jack Hayford, Francis Chan, Wayne ological orthodoxy. The scientific community rushed to Cordeiro, John Piper, and R. C. Sproul represent just a assert that Darwin’s theory of natural selection had ren- few of the notable contemporary instruments of biblical 134 Bible Conference Movement revival, cultural renewal, and missional reorientation out to promote dispensationalism, the invited speakers often of whose ministries a new wave of institutions of biblical preached from a dispensational perspective. higher education is emerging. The Northfield Conferences (1880s) were an out- growth of the ministry of Dwight L. Moody and fol- References and Resources lowed a format similar to that of other Bible conferences Brereton, Virginia L. 1991. Training God’s Army: The Ameri- of that era. Northfield Conferences did not emphasize can Bible School, 1880–1940. Bloomington: Indiana Uni- dispensational theology, as they were more devotional versity Press. in character and stressed the doctrine of the Holy Spirit. Eagen, John L. 1981. The Bible College in American Higher Leading speakers of the day were Rev. G. H. C. Mac- Education. Fayetteville, AR: American Association of Bible Gregor, Rev. G. Campbell Morgan, Rev. F. B. Meyer, Colleges. and Rev. J. G. Cunningham. The gathering increased Ferris, Robert W., and Ralph E. Enlow Jr. 1997. “Reassessing from 35 people in 1880, the first year, to more than Bible College Distinctives.” Christian Education Journal 1NS 1,500 at the final annual meetings in the 1940s. The em- (1): 5–19. phasis of each conference was Pentecostal in its power, McKinney. Larry J. 1997. Equipping for Service: A Historical and the spiritual refreshing, which came at that time Account of the Bible College Movement in North America. to many believers, continued to display the impact of Fayetteville, AR: Accrediting Association of Bible Colleges. the conference in whatever theyOnly did. The spirit of the Witmer, S. A. 1962. Education with Dimension: The Bible Col- second conference was less devotional than the first, but lege Story. Manhasset, NY: Channel. was given more to doctrinal and practical study. —Ralph E. Enlow Jr. The Winona Lake Bible Conference (1895) built on the foundation of the Niagara and Northfield confer- ences and was influential in attracting leading evangeli- Bible Conference Movement cal conservatives such as William Jennings Bryant, who served as president, and Billy Sunday, the popular and Influenced by the Keswick Conferences in England, the effective evangelist. Winona Lake was a very desirable Bible conference movement began in the United States vacation spot in northern Indiana and, in addition to the during the 1870s through the Niagara Bible Conference evangelicalCopy preaching, offered a wide variety of sightsee- (1876–1897), American Bible and Prophetic Conferences ing locations. (1878–1914), and the Northfield Conferences (1886). The Sea Cliff Bible Conference (1901–1906) was orga- These annual conferences taught the Bible and provided nized in Sea Cliff, New York, on land provided by John T. a vacation experience for believers in a conference set- Pirie. Rev. C. I. Scofield attended this conference, which ting. In 1895, the Winona Lake Bible Conference became met in a tent seating 600. It was at Sea Cliff that work on a regular part of the Bible conference movement. These the Scofield Reference Bible was begun, with the support conferences were influential in spreading dispensational of Alwyn Ball Jr., John Pirie, and Francis Fitch. Arno C. theology to large and diverse groups of believers. Gaebelein further encouraged Scofield to begin the pro- The annual Niagara Bible Conference (Believers’ Meet- cess to produce the Scofield Bible in 1909. ing for Bible Study) began in 1876. In 1878, the Niagara Bible Conference Creed, a 14-point statement of faith, Most Notable Academic Programs was adopted with a dispensational theological perspective The Bible conference movement was not primarily an and stated the verbal and plenary inspiration of the Bible, academic program as such, but led to the establishment total depravity of man, necessity of a new birth, a premi- and growth of other evangelical academic institutions. llennial return of Christ, and substitutionary atonement. Moody Bible Institute and Dallas Theological Seminary After 1883, the conference was held at Queen’s Royal grew out of the dispensational theological positions Hotel and Pavilion, located at Niagara-on-the-Lake, On- preached and promoted during this movement. The tario, Canada. James H. Brookes, a Presbyterian pastor, Bible conference movement and the Chautauqua move- spearheadedContributor the conference and provided leadership in ment were contemporaries and used similar teaching an organizational and program capacity. The weeklong methodologies for religious instruction. conferences brought popular, influential speakers to teach, preach, and lead Bible studies, while men such as Summary of Christian Philosophy and Mission Charles Erdman, James H. Brookes, A. J. Gordon, and of Education C. I. Scofield were regularly present. Messages were doc- The movement’s philosophical and theological base was trinal in nature, emphasizing Jesus, the Holy Spirit, the early dispensational theology that stressed the need for Bible, prophecy, and missions. Although not designed believers’ total surrender to Christ. With its antecedents Bible Stories 135 in the Keswick movement, an emphasis on personal holi- Abraham ready to slit Isaac’s throat, and Joseph sexually ness was taught. These conferences built on each other and importuned by his master’s wife” (xii). contributed to new institutions. Overall, these conferences Many Christian organizations have been commit- energized evangelism, created new missionary organiza- ted to bringing the Bible into the hands of children, tions, and encouraged the development of Bible institutes and foremost among these has been Scripture Union, and colleges. Through these conferences, concentrated an international organization that started in London in Bible study became the norm for fundamentalism, and lit- 1867 to nurture children into the Christian faith through erature-emphasized missions, the work of the Holy Spirit, encounters with the Bible. Earlier in the United Kingdom the work and person of Christ, and prophecy were written were the rise of the Sunday school movement (1780) and and distributed through fundamental churches. Another the birth of church schools (via the National Society in outgrowth of the movement was an appreciation of the 1811), both of which relied heavily on using Bible stories conference format to teach and train students and youth to educate children. by Christian youth and student organizations. In the 1960s, influential research was carried out in Ultimately, theological dissension, aging facilities, UK schools by Ronald Goldman (1964, 1965), who con- and changing tastes in both leisure time and worship cluded that many Bible texts should not be used with styles among evangelicals contributed to the decline of children under the age of 12 because their cognitive the conference movement. With the advent of Christian reasoning was inadequate. In hisOnly words, they required a radio, preachers once limited to annual conference at- greater readiness for learning, intellectualism, emotional- tendees were able to reach a far broader audience with ism, and physicalism. their message. Goldman’s Readiness for Religion (1965) summarized his attitude to children and the Bible: References and Resources Beale, David O. 1986. In Pursuit of Purity: American Funda- I have called attention to both the wasteful effort of mentalism Since 1850. Greenville, SC: BJU Publications. teaching the Bible too early and also the difficulties this Sandeen, Ernest R. 1970. The Roots of Fundamentalism: British makes for children of limited development. I would like and American Millenarianism, 1800–1930. Chicago: Univer- to correct the widespread misconception that I advocate no Bible teaching before the age of twelve. [This was a sity of Chicago Press. Copymisunderstanding based on his earlier book, Religious Vlach, Michael J. 2008. Dispensationalism: Essential Beliefs and Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence (1964)]. I do Common Myths. Los Angeles: Theological Studies Press. suggest a drastic reduction of Bible material in syllabuses —Stephen K. McCord before this age, but the difference does not lie so much in the quantity of Bible material used as the way in which we use it. (70) Bible Stories He suggested that the way in which the Bible was to be As the key text for the Christian faith, the Bible has been used was by “a severe pruning of Bible content in the early crucial to the transmission of the Christian tradition to years,” so that children hear stories that relate to their the next generation. Around 1000 BC, the psalmist wrote: experience and do not get confused by their literalism. Goldman was greatly influenced by the Swiss education- God commanded our people who lived before us to teach alist Jean Piaget (1886–1980), who was originally trained His laws to their children. Then those born later would as a biologist, and became intrigued by the way young know his laws. Even their children yet to come would know them. And they in turn would tell their children. humans construct their understanding of the world. (Ps. 78:5–6) Piaget’s writings were based on his detailed observations of his own three children as they encountered reality and Many attempts to make the Bible accessible to children developed through various key stages of comprehension. have been made since the invention of the printing press, His works include, The Moral Judgement of the Child a studyContributor of which has been made by Ruth Bottigheimer. (1948), The Origins of Intelligence in Children (1952), and In the introduction to her detailed study of the hundreds The Construction of Reality in the Child (1954). of Children’s that have been printed since the 16th It needs to be noted that Piaget’s insights give insuf- century, The Bible for Children (1996), she notes that not ficient emphasis to the developmental role of language, all the literature has been wise. She describes her shock that his notion of stage theory has the unfortunate effect when reviewing one 18th-century child’s Bible: “I could of discouraging some education from stretching the gifted hardly believe my eyes. Here in a book for children, and talented child, and that his implication that young was lot offering his virgin daughter to a rapacious mob, children lack logic does not take into account how they 136 Bible Study as Christian Practice were affected by the nature of the tests. In short, Piaget fails there is also evidence that the high status of the text can to recognize the significance of the cultural context for the lead to “a too reverential attitude among readers,” who growing child, because he believed the development of the may become passive, feeling they need to hold the text’s mind to be independent of the early environment. meaning rather than interpret it. These assumptions flowed into Goldman’s research on However, more recently there has been research into children encountering the Bible. They need to be con- how the Bible is understood by the child and how it is sidered, as they have left an enduring mark on how the used in the home context. Attempts have been made to Bible has been used with children. More recent research identify a child’s hermeneutic of scripture, seen when (Worsley 2006, 2009) suggests that the Bible is in fact a child encounters the Bible (e.g., Worsley 2006). This far more valuable as a text to be used with children than article comments on the meaning-making process used Goldman suggested. by children at different stages of development: “At one Since the 1960s, it has been acknowledged that the level, it seems that what the child brings to a story is at Bible has been increasingly neglected in most schools in least as important as what the story brings to the child. the United Kingdom. Research by Lesley Francis (2000) At another level, it seems that the cognitive structure of detailed a high level of adolescent lack of interest. It is a child’s developing mind, is only one strand to consider becoming increasingly acknowledged that despite its alongside the structure of the child’s nurturing home and literary and cultural value, the Bible is being neglected in personal, construing of reality.” Only most state schools. This research shows that the Bible is never read by two-thirds of 13- to 15-year-olds in British References and Resources secondary schools. Bottigheimer, R. 1996. The Bible for Children. London: Yale This ambivalence was also noted by the Biblos Project, University Press. which researched the uses of the Bible in British schools Copley, T. 1998. Echo of the Angels. The First Report of the from 1998 to 2004. Funded by the Bible Society and Biblos Project. Exeter, UK: School of Education, University directed by Exeter researcher Terence Copley, the Bib- of Exeter. los Project published three volumes: Echo of the Angels Copley T., S. Lane, H. Savini, and K. Walshe. 2001. Where An- (1998), Where Angels Fear to Tread (2001), and On the gels Fear to Tread. The Second Report of the Biblos Project. Side of the Angels (2004). The reference to angels is to Exeter,Copy UK: School of Education, University of Exeter. the “traces of God” that are perceived particularly by Copley T., R. Freathy, S. Lane, and K. Walshe. 2004. On the Side children, but which culture and society can succeed in of Angels. The Third Report of the Biblos Project. Exeter, UK: oppressing. At the end of the final report in 2004, the School of Education, University of Exeter. Biblos Project noted: Francis, L. J. 2000. “Who Reads the Bible? A Study among 13–15 Year Olds.” British Journal of Religious Education 22 Despite the processes of secularisation which have re- (3): 165–172. sulted in the decline of institutional religion, UK society Gobbel, R., and G. Gobbel. 1986. The Bible: A Child’s Play- has not written off religious beliefs and values. The ma- ground. London: SCM. jority of people appear neither enthusiastically theistic Goldman, R. 1964. Religious Thinking from Childhood to Ado- nor atheistic. Therefore it was no surprise that the most lescence. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. common attitude among young people towards the Bible ———. 1965. Readiness for Religion. London: Routledge & was ambivalence. Yet a challenge is presented to the faith communities, RE teachers and publishers by a demon- Kegan Paul. stration that a more positive attitude toward the Bible is Pike, Jeffrey. 2000. Here Lies the Bible. Bloomington, IN: Xlibris associated with greater knowledge of biblical characters, Corporation. stories and theological meanings, and as well as the im- Worsley, H. 2006. “Insights from Children’s Perspectives in portance of the Bible for other faiths and for modern Interpreting the Wisdom of the Biblical Creation Narrative.” society. (Copley et al. 2004, 8) British Journal of Religious Education 28 (3): 249–259. ———. 2009. A Child Sees God. London: Jessica Kingsley Pub- WritingContributor with a research background in how adoles- lishers. cents access previous literary genres, Pike (2000) has —Howard Worsley turned his attention to considering the Bible as an es- sential text for both understanding wider literature and educating in morally and spiritually significant encoun- Bible Study as Christian Practice ters. However, Pike is careful to point out that although there is “a compelling case for encouraging children to Bible study generally refers to groups of people gather- read such an influential text to ensure cultural literacy,” ing together to read, or individuals reading, biblical texts Bible Study as Christian Practice 137 with the goal of increased understanding of its content, Historical Critical Methods and Recent Theologies meaning, and application to life. The biblical Word is The rise of rationalism and the Enlightenment brought central in the Jewish and Christian traditions, and for about the development of the critical historical method of both, religious education entails a hearing of the Word. interpretation. This superseded the long-held traditional Bible study is primary among Christian practices and understanding of four modes of biblical interpretation: has been crucial in the task of faith formation. Christians the literal, the allegorical, the moral, and the typologi- participate in Bible study all over the world to learn about cal. The historical criticism of scholars like Hermann God and the story of God’s people and to gain wisdom Samuel Reimarus (1694–1768) and Albert Schweitzer for living a Christian life. (1875–1965) changed the landscape of biblical interpreta- Biblical study is also an academic discipline drawing tion. Twentieth-century scholars like Rudolph Bultmann on archaeology, history, philosophy, and social science. and Karl Barth affirmed that theology and Bible study are Pastors are trained in hermeneutics or biblical interpre- closely related, with one impacting the other, and helped tation and in exegesis for teaching and preaching in the Christians understand the meaning of scripture in the church. The Bible has also been studied outside religious context in which it was written. Theologies in the latter settings, such as in courses on the Bible as literature. part of the 20th and 21st centuries, such as liberation and feminist theologies, emphasized human experience as Early Background an authority for understandingOnly scripture and the Chris- The Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek in the third tian faith. The diverse standpoints from which people century AD. St. Jerome produced the Vulgate, which begin their study of scripture shape their understanding. was a Latin translation, the language of the educated Contextual study is the practice of African Americans, classes in the fourth century. Church fathers such as women, and persons who come from places on the mar- Irenaeus, Clement, and Origen exegeted and interpreted gins of society to investigate the Bible out of the context the scriptures as a means of establishing the teach- of their experience. ings of the church. Augustine sought to standardize a metaphorical understandings of scripture (Grant and Methods of Study and Curricula Tracy 1984, 69, 71). The Bible was read liturgically in Bible study has taken many forms and used a variety of ancient times and depicted in art and drama. In the methods.Copy German educator Johann Friedrich Herbart early centuries of the church, catechetical sermons were (1776–1841) emphasized a four-step approach of - preached on biblical texts, such as those of Cyril of Je- ration, presentation, explanation, and application. The rusalem (Cully 1995, 2). Catechumens participated in Uniform Lesson Plan series began in 1882 and was the the hearing of the Word and heard exhortation on the foundation for Protestant Christian education for many scripture and were dismissed before the Mass. Much of years. The series provided themes that covered major the population of the ancient world was not literate, so portions of the Bible over a seven-year cycle (Cully 1995, biblical understanding came from hearing the lection 3–4). Inductive Bible study dates at least from the early read and preached upon and from paintings, stained 1900s; it involves looking at the whole of a text and then glass windows, and icons. Scholastic theologians such as moving to individual words or phrases. Rather than Aquinas moved away from allegorical understandings beginning with principles to prove, the student looks to of scripture (Grant and Tracy 1984, 87–90). the text first. Bible study fellowship was begun in 1959 by Audrey Wetherell Johnson, a British missionary to Influence of the Reformation China; it is an international parachurch movement ini- At the time of the Reformation, Catholics and Protes- tially started to provide Bible study to converts from a tants disagreed about the role of scripture in the church. Billy Graham crusade. Luther argued for scripture alone (sola scriptura) as In the 1980s, Walter Wink introduced “Transform- authoritative for the faith. The invention of the print- ing Bible Study,” which used the brain research on ing press made the Bible more available. There was a left-brain/right-brain thinking to de-emphasize a cog- movementContributor toward translating the Bible into vernacular nitive approach to the Bible in favor of an affective or languages (advocated by reformers like Martin Luther experiential approach. Robin Maas’s Church Bible Study and John Wycliffe), and by the 1500s, the Bible had been Handbook taught church Bible study leaders basic ex- printed in at least six languages (Wright 2001, 193–194). egetical and word study methods and advocated using a In early America, the Bible was part of school curriculum, variety of translations and study resources, such as Bible including Bible stories and religious instruction. Roman dictionaries, concordances, atlases, and commentar- Catholics set up their own schools to transmit their own ies. Interest in child development in the 20th century, religious tradition (Cully 1995, 3). including the theory of Jean Piaget, was brought to 138 Bible Study Software

Christian education for helping children understand Bible Study Software and experience the Bible. Theories on how people learn emerged in psychology, which were applied to Bible Bible study software represents the latest blending of study. Recently, the multiple intelligence theory of How- ancient revelation with modern technology. Just as the ard Gardner has been employed. This involves the use movable type was harnessed for the printing of Bibles, so of seven forms of intelligence—visual, spatial, logical- too have computers been employed for the development mathematical, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal and of electronic Bibles and digital theological libraries. From intrapersonal—to illuminate biblical texts (Bruce 2000). Greek language software developed for mainframe com- The advent of computers has brought software such as puters in the 1970s, to searchable Bibles and theological BibleWorks, Bible Gateway, and Verse Search for bibli- libraries on personal computers in the 1980s and 1990s, cal scholars and lay students. An increasing number to social and mobile Bible apps in the present, Bible of “apps” for mobile devices let people read and study software has kept pace with the changing technological the Bible on the go. Among some Christian Bible study times, to the benefit of Christian education. groups, there has been a revival of the ancient Benedic- tine practice of lectio divina, a contemplative approach History of Computerized Bibles that involves meditation on the reading of scripture to One of the earliest uses of computers for biblical study promote communion with God. Bible study today also was Project GRAMCORD, founded in 1976 at Indiana 40 Only uses the arts and popular culture such as music and film, State University. The intention was to develop a mecha- because these demonstrate the relevance of the biblical nism for computer-assisted analysis of biblical languages, message and stimulate emotional involvement with the in particular a tool to assist with grammatical and syntac- text (Roncace and Gray 2007, 8). tical analysis. As James A. Boyer noted in a 1980 article about Project GRAMCORD, “For many years I have felt References and Resources the need for a new tool for Greek exegesis, a concordance Boys, M. 1990. “Bible Study.” In Harper’s Encyclopedia of Reli- which will do for the study of syntactical construc- gious Education, edited by I. V. Cully and K. B. Cully, 72–73. tions what a word concordance does for the study of San Francisco: Harper & Row. word meanings.”41 Over time the GRAMCORD project Bracke, J. M., and K. Tye. 2003. Teaching the Bible in the expandedCopy to include both Greek and Hebrew tools for Church. St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press. personal computers. Bruce, B. 2000. 7 Ways of Teaching the Bible to Adults. Nash- In the 1980s and 1990s, with the emergence and ville, TN: Abingdon Press. popularity of personal computers, Bible study software Brueggemann, W. 1982. The Creative Word: Canon as Model entered the mainstream. In particular, the availability for Biblical Education. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. of CD-ROMs (which could hold the equivalent of hun- Cully, I. 1995. The Bible in Christian Education. Minneapolis, dreds of floppy disks) as a means of distributing software MN: Fortress Press. meant that a Bible software package could move beyond Grant, R. M., and D. Tracy. 1984. A Short History of the Inter- merely a searchable Bible to include additional connected pretation of the Bible. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. resources such as concordances, lexical codes, commen- Hestenes, R. 1983. Using the Bible in Groups. Philadelphia: taries, parallel passages, and other resources. Although Westminster Press. numerous Bible software applications, both commercial Maas, R. 1982. Church Bible Study Handbook. Nashville: and public domain, were released for personal comput- Abingdon Press. ers, a few milestones stand out. In 1988, Ellis Enterprises Rogerson, J, ed. 2001. The Oxford Illustrated History of the released The Bible Library CD-ROM, which contained Bible. New York: Oxford University Press. 9 Bible versions and 21 reference sources.42 Around the Roncace, M., and P. Gray, eds. 2007. Teaching the Bible same time, Parsons Technology released QuickVerse, a Through Popular Culture and the Arts. Society of Biblical low-cost, floppy-disk based, searchable Bible program.43 Literature, no. 53. Edited by S. Ackerman and J. R. Wagner. Atlanta: SocietyContributor of Biblical Literature. 40. The GRAMCORD Institute, “What Is The GRAMCORD Institute?” Wink, W. 1980. Transforming Bible Study. Nashville, TN: 2010, http://www.gramcord.org/whatis.htm. Abingdon Press. 41. James A. Boyer, “Project GRAMCORD: A Report,” Grace Theologi- cal Journal 1, no. 1 (1980): 97–99. Wright, D. 2001. “The Reformation to 1700.” In The Oxford 42. Ellis Bible Library, “About Us,” http://www.biblelibrary.com/ee Illustrated History of the Bible, 192–217. New York: Oxford _aboutus.htm. 43. Craig Rairdin, “QuickVerse/Parsons Technology History,” Craig’s University Press. World, 4 April 2013, http://www.craigr.com/2013/04/04/quickverseparsons —Susan Willhauck -technology-history/. Bible Translation 139

By 1993, IBM had entered the field and partnered with online, and mobile Bible software programs are robust Ellis Enterprises to release The New Bible Library. theological research systems capable of academic re- In 1992, two major companies were founded to pro- search, original language translation, sermon prepara- duce Bible software programs: BibleWorks and Logos tion, or personal devotions. Research Systems. BibleWorks was primarily focused on Users can search across multiple books (Bibles, com- providing “a complete package containing the tools most mentaries, lexicons, etc.), often by keyword, phrase, essential for the task of interpreting the Scriptures in the topic, or complex query. Searches can be simple, like original Greek and Hebrew, and to do it at a price that finding every use of “God” in the New International Ver- poor pastors and students can afford.”44 Accordingly, sion translation of the Bible; more complex, such as hunt- BibleWorks combined the graphical user interface of ing down discussions of justification in not only the Bible Microsoft Windows with a robust bundle of resources but all of the reference books (dictionaries, commentar- to enable users to engage with the original Greek and ies, etc.) in your collection; or truly detailed, including Hebrew texts in a powerful and accessible format. Logos locating all perfect indicative occurrences of τελεω (teleo, Research Systems focused more on the development of to finish) in the Greek text. Clicking on individual words a comprehensive biblical and theological library system, often brings up relevant lexical definitions, morpho- again on the Microsoft Windows platform. In 1995, logical analysis, cross-references, or additional resources. Logos released version 2.0 of its software, which “intro- Most Bible study applicationsOnly also include graphics, duces the ‘library’ concept to Bible software. The LLS maps, audio, and video related to the textual resources. is the first Bible software platform designed to support Bible apps for mobile devices differ from their personal hundreds of electronic books delivered, or unlocked, as computer counterparts primarily in the social dimension. separate products.”45 Over time, many Bible software Both computer software and mobile app Bible products packages moved toward a model that combined Bible generally permit highlighting, bookmarking, note tak- search, original language integration, and an intercon- ing, and other such study activities; however, mobile nected resource library. Bible apps also enable users to view that content across The rise of the Internet and World Wide Web saw the a variety of devices, share their study materials with oth- release of online searchable Bibles and biblical resources. ers, and engage in online social networking around their Perhaps the most significant of these was The Bible Gate- biblicalCopy studies. As mobile devices grow in popularity, way, started by Calvin College student Nick Hengeveld, it will be interesting to see whether Bible apps supplant which became the cornerstone of the Gospel Commu- their desktop competitors or are used in parallel to them. nication Network’s Gospelcom.net website.46 With the Given that it’s not unusual to see a pastor using an iPad emergence of mobile and tablet computing, Bible study as an alternative to sheaves of paper for sermon notes, software was reborn as apps. In addition to mobile or digital Bibles will likely grow in popularity in seminaries app versions of existing computer-based programs, new and churches in the years to come. apps written specifically for the mobile market emerged, —Jason Baker including LifeChurch.tv’s Bible app, Bible+ by Olive Tree Bible Software, and the FaithLife Study Bible from Logos Bible Software. In addition to many resources and search Bible Translation features found in the computer and online Bible pro- grams, many mobile Bible apps integrate social network- The authors of the Old and New Testaments wrote to ing, so users can interact with one another in virtual Bible communicate, so they used the mother tongues of their study communities, both public and private. target audiences—Hebrew and Aramaic for the OT, and Greek for the NT. Today, most people read Bible transla- Features of Bible Software tions rather than the ancient originals—in English alone, The ability to search the full text of multiple versions of hundreds of translations exist. the Bible is the core but far from the only feature found in BibleContributor study software. Contemporary computer-based, Why Translate? The first OT translation was the Septuagint (LXX), a Greek version of the third century BC. By Jesus’s day it 44. BibleWorks, “What Is BibleWorks?” 2013, http://www.bibleworks .com/content/. was read aloud in Jewish synagogues around the Roman 45. Logos Bible Software, “History of Logos Bible Software,” 2012, empire in Greek-speaking cities, such as Corinth and http://www.logos.com/about/history. 46. BibleGateway.com, “About the Bible Gateway Searchable Online Rome, since many Jews primarily spoke Greek. NT au- Bible,” http://www.biblegateway.com/about/. thors mainly use the Septuagint when citing OT scripture. 140 Bible Translation

In Israel-Palestine, although Jewish teachers learned Issues in Bible Translation Hebrew, most people spoke Aramaic. Hence, the Tar- Translations vary in style and content, because of their gums were produced in Aramaic and were read aloud contrasting foci. Some focus on the original (or source) in Palestinian synagogues. They often paraphrase and language, translating “word by word,” aiming to use expand the Hebrew quite freely. the source language’s sentence structure as far as pos- NT translation sprang from missionary motives: the sible (e.g., in English, NASB, ESV). These are sometimes early Christians expressed their faith in people’s mother (wrongly) called “literal” versions, but all versions involve tongues so that they too could learn to follow Jesus. By some changes to make the translations understood in AD 300, versions existed in Latin (c. AD 150–200), Syriac the target language (Strauss 2005). Others focus on the (c. AD 160), and Coptic, the Egyptian language (c. third target language, translating “thought by thought,” aim- century AD). The number of translations grew rapidly in ing to convey the original’s meaning using the structures the following centuries. This Christian missionary mo- of the target language. Strongly target-language-focused tivation for Bible translation contrasts with Islam, since versions are paraphrases, sometimes offering striking mainstream Muslims believe that the Qur’an should not phrasing (e.g., in English, The Message). Many versions be translated from Arabic. use a mediating approach, aiming to convey the mean- ing clearly in the target language without distorting the The Growth of Bible Translation original (e.g., in English, NIV, HCSB,Only NRSV). By the 15th century in Europe, the main Bible was the Another focus is the target audience: some versions Latin Vulgate, and church services were in Latin. How- aim at children (e.g., Living Bible), or second-language ever, only educated people understood Latin, so the readers (e.g., Good News Bible). In some languages, “in- desire to have the Bible and church services in people’s clusive” language is important—for example, in English, own language was a driver of the 16th-century Reforma- when both women and men are included in the original, tion. The Catholic Church hierarchy of the day opposed “people” and “humanity” are better than “men” and this, fearing they would lose control of what people be- “man” (Carson 1998). Translating terms for people with lieved. But those who translated the Bible into English, disabilities sensitively is also important (Wynn 2001). German, Dutch, French, and so forth wanted the Bible’s Human language keeps changing, so Bible translation transforming message accessible to everyone. The Dutch neverCopy ends, continuing to convey God’s Word in con- scholar Erasmus wrote: temporary human words, to enable the church to learn and grow. Christ wishes his mysteries to be published as widely as See also Learning Biblical Languages possible. . . . I wish they were translated into all languages of all Christian people, that they might be read and References and Resources known, not merely by the Scotch and the Irish, but even Beekman, J., and J. Callow. 1974. Translating the Word of God. by the Turks and the Saracens. I wish that the husband- man may sing parts of them at his plough, that the weaver Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. may warble them at his shuttle, that the traveler may with Carson, D. A. 1998. The Inclusive-Language Debate: A Plea for their narratives beguile the weariness of the way. Realism. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Fee, G. D., and M. L. Strauss. 2007. How to Choose a Transla- Thus the Bible is a major tool in Christian education tion for All Its Worth. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. today, for reading in public worship, group study, indi- France, R. T. 1997. Translating the Bible. Grove Biblical no. 3. vidual devotions, and theological study. Cambridge, UK: Grove. United Bible Societies and Wycliffe Bible Translators Sheeley S. M., and R. N. Nash Jr. 1997. The Bible in English make the Bible available in new languages. As of 2013, of Translation. Nashville, TN: Abingdon. the more than 6,800 languages known in the world, only Strauss, M. L. 2005. “Form, Function, and the ‘Literal Mean- 518 have the whole Bible. Other languages have the full ing’: Fallacy in English Bible Translation.” Bible Translator OT or NT, or at least one Bible book, meaning that about 56: 153–168. 90 percentContributor of the world’s population has at least some Wynn, K. H. 2001. “Disability in Biblical Translation.” Bible of the Bible in a language they know. About 209 million Translator 52: 402–414. people still lack any scripture in their own language (the world population is about 7 billion); they are primar- United Bible Societies. http://www.unitedbiblesocieties.org/. ily located in Central Africa and Nigeria, mainland and Wycliffe Bible Translators. http://www.wycliffe.org/. Southeast Asia, and Indonesia and the Pacific islands. —Steve Walton Bible, Early Vernacular Translations of the 141

Bible, Early Vernacular and the completion of a revision of the complete Bible Translations of the in 1560, a task taken on by several scholars. The Geneva Bible was based primarily on the Great Bible for the Old Since the ordinary reader cannot read the Bible in the Testament and Tyndale’s translation of the New Testa- original Hebrew and Greek languages, there has long ment (Vos 1975, 578; Bruce 1978, 86–92). been a need to translate the scriptures into the lan- Two lesser-known translations appeared between the guages of the world. While the Latin Bible, particularly publication of the Geneva Bible and the widely embraced the Latin Vulgate created by Jerome between AD 383 and yet to come King James Version. The Bishop’s Bible and 405, remained dominant through the early centu- (1568) was produced by the bishops of the Church of ries of Christianity, other translations in the vernacular England and ceased printing in 1602. The authorities began to appear in England and continental Europe in of the Roman Catholic Church approved the Rheims- the early part of the Middle Ages and went hand in hand Douay Bible, made from the Latin Vulgate. The Old with the Reformation. Testament (1610) was published at the University of Douay in northern France, and the New Testament was English Translations produced at Rheims, France (1582) (Vos 1975, 578; Bruce The first translation of the complete Bible into the 1978, 113; Metzger 2001, 67–69). English language was undertaken by John Wycliffe (c. The most enduring EnglishOnly translation of the Bible 1330–1384) and his colleagues and was completed in from the Renaissance is the King James Version (1611). 1382 (Metzger 2001, 56). A second version was made by Unhappy with the existing translations, King James I Wycliffe’s secretary, John Purvey, a short time later. Both called for a new version of the Bible, to be prepared by were literal renderings of the Latin Vulgate. It is unlikely 47 of the best scholars in England. The translators used that Wycliffe himself took part in the actual work of the other translations (primarily the Bishop’s Bible) as a translation. Rather, it was under his inspiration that his basis, but it was translated out of the original tongues. friends and coworkers completed the work (Bruce 1978, Commonly called the Authorized Version, the KJV is 12–15; Vos 1975, 575; Cairns 1996, 245–246). still the most popular and widely read English Bible (Vos The first English translation of the New Testament to 1975, 578; Bruce 1978, 96–100). be printed was that of William Tyndale (c. 1494–1536). Copy Translated from Erasmus’s Greek New Testament, it Translations in the Languages of Continental Europe was published in two editions at Worms in 1525 and In Germany, Martin Luther (1483–1546) completed the was significant because it had such a great influence on translation of the New Testament in 1522, based on Eras- subsequent translations (Metzger 2001, 60). However, mus’s edition of the Greek New Testament. The complete Myles Coverdale (1488–1569) is credited with publish- Bible, including the Apocrypha, was published in 1534 ing the complete Bible in English in 1535. Known as the (Cairns 1996, 285; Green 1974, 127). The German Bible Coverdale Bible, it was translated from the Latin Vulgate, did not just put the scriptures into German; it began a rather than directly from Hebrew and Greek (Vos 1975, critical epoch in the Reformation. J. H. Merle d’Aubigne 576). In 1537, a volume by John Rogers (c. 1500–1555) noted, “It worked an entire change in society . . . . When appeared, known as Matthew’s Bible. About two-thirds the Bible began to be read in the families of Christendom, of the translation is the work of Tyndale (Bruce 1978, 25; Christendom itself was changed” (1832, 78). In Switzer- Cairns 1996, 321; Vos 1975, 576). land Luther’s New Testament was adapted to the Swiss With two versions being freely circulated and read in dialect in 1524; the whole Bible was published in 1530 England, Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658), Lord Protector (Schaff [1910] 1988, 63–64). of the British Commonwealth, encouraged the revision In France, Jacques Lefevre (1455–1536) completed of the Matthew Bible to make it more acceptable to the a translation of the Bible into French, based largely on public. The task of the revision was entrusted to Cover- the Latin Vulgate, in 1525 (Cairns 1996: 309); he also dale and published in 1540. It became known as the Great worked from an earlier version of a French Bible (Lind- Bible becauseContributor of its size, the largest English Bible pub- say 1907,142). Lefevre’s version was disregarded by some lished to that point (Vos 1975, 576; Bruce 1978, 67–71). Christians, and Pierre Olivetan (c. 1506–1538) wrote a Roman Catholic persecution of Protestants in England new translation based on the Hebrew and Greek texts in the mid-16th century made further translations im- (Cairns 1996, 308–309). possible in that country; thus several Protestant scholars The first New Testament written in the Dutch lan- fled to Geneva, where they worked on another revision guage was published in 1523 (Cairns 1996, 315). The of the Bible. William Whittingham (1524–1579) began earliest version of the complete Dutch Bible was the the work with the revision of the New Testament in 1557 Mennonite Bible (1558), later known as the Biestkens 142 Bible, Relationship of Education to the

Bible (Lane 1977, 372). The first complete Czech Bible raises educational questions concerning adaptation to translated from Hebrew and Greek was the Kralice Bible the needs and abilities of particular learners. The Bible (1593), published by the Unity of the Brethren in six vol- has also acted as an impetus to education, for example, umes (Evans 1996, 185–186). The Danish Bible was the through its calls to believing parents to teach their chil- Christian III Bible, translated by the Danish Reformed dren carefully, or through the emphasis on literacy that Church in 1550 (Lane 1977, 372); Juan Perez de Pineda accompanies an emphasis on Bible study. (c. 1500–1568) completed translating the New Testament The Bible may, however, also play a more directive role into Spanish in 1556, while the first complete Spanish as a source of, or controlling framework for, particular Bible appeared in 1569 (Lane 1977, 372); the first Finnish educational approaches. This involves reflection on what Bible was completed in 1642 (Liechty 1996, 107). it might mean for educational approaches to be biblically directed, rather than on the insertion of the Bible into References and Resources existing educational approaches. Bruce, F. F. 1978. History of the Bible in English. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Main Approaches Cairns, Earle E. 1996. Christianity Through the Centuries. 3rd In the history of interaction between the Bible and educa- ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. tion, the Bible has been brought to bear on education in D’Aubigne, J. H. Merle. 1832. History of the Reformation of the various ways. Prominent among theseOnly are the following. Sixteenth Century. Vol. III. Translated by H. White. New York: American Tract Society. Character Evans, R. J. W. 1996. “Bohemian Brethren.” In The Oxford The Bible teaches a normative view of character, some- Encyclopedia of the Reformation, Vol. 1, edited by Hans J. times specifically in connection the teaching role (2 Tim. Hillerbrand, 185–186. New York: Oxford University Press. 2:22–25). This may be applied both to the character of the Green, V. H. H. 1974. Luther and the Reformation. n.p.: Men- Christian teacher and to the character that educational tor Books. efforts seek to encourage in learners, inviting biblically Lane, Tony. 1977. “A Flood of Bibles.” In Eerdmans’ Hand- informed reflection on how character is formed and on book to the History of Christianity, edited by Tim Dowley, moral aspects and effects of broader pedagogical choices. 368–372. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Copy Liechty, Daniel. 1996. “Finland.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia Doctrine/Worldview of the Reformation, vol. 2, edited by Hans J. Hillerbrand, Approaches to education necessarily assume particular 106–108. New York: Oxford University Press. views of human nature and flourishing, the nature of Lindsay, Thomas M. 1907. A History of the Reformation. Vol II. knowledge and truth, the nature of reality, what knowl- New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. edge is important, and the ends to which skills are to May, Herbert Gordon. 1965. Our English Bible in the Making. be applied. The Bible is a source of theological teach- Philadelphia: Westminster Press. ing on such topics, and biblical teaching in these areas Metzger, Bruce M. 2001. The Bible in Translation. Grand Rap- can inform and critique education. This is approached ids, MI: Baker Academic. sometimes through direct appeal to what the Bible is Schaff, Philip. (1910) 1988. History of the Christian Church. held to teach about education, and sometimes through Vol. VIII. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. the Bible’s shaping of a broader worldview that is then Vos, J. G. 1975. “Bible, English Versions.” In The Zondervan related to educational thinking. Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, vol. 1, edited by Merrill C. Tenney, 571–582. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Narrative Wegner, Paul D. 1999. The Journey from Texts to Translations. Narrative theology has pointed to the importance of nar- Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. rative in the Bible, both its small stories and its overall —Harley T. Atkinson narrative shape. Similarly, some educational theory has approached curriculum and the shaping of students’ Contributorworldviews in terms of both subject content stories and Bible, Relationship of Education to the overarching narratives. This has suggested approaches to Christian education in terms of resonance with biblical The Bible often functions as educational content—in narrative patterns and emphases. both church and formal schooling settings, it has been an important part of what is taught, not only in theologi- Imagination cally focused classes, but also, for example, as a literary The Bible is rich in patterns of imagery that can inform text and source of literary allusions. Such use of the Bible not only theological, but also educational, imagination. Bible, Use of the 143

The role of metaphors (e.g., learners as containers) in church, school, or any other context in which teaching shaping educational thought and practice is generally and learning take place. A very common approach to acknowledged. Biblical imagery (including, e.g., gardens, relating the Bible to education moves by deduction from light, pilgrimage, bread, foundations) used to think about the statements of scripture or from basic beliefs derived teaching and learning has linked education to biblically from the Bible to conclusions for educational practice. informed patterns of seeing. Our basic Christian beliefs about human nature and rela- tionships and about the nature of reality can have a deep Canon/Modeling impact on our thinking about educational issues. The formation of the canon of scripture implies a process However, it is important to note that pure deduction and a final arrangement of materials intended to serve the is not the only possible relationship between Christian educational and intergenerational continuity of the faith beliefs and educational practices. For example, biblical community. Some have looked to the various pedagogical presuppositions may commend or permit rather than emphases modeled in the Bible and their canonical ar- require certain practices, and they may exclude others. rangement as offering a basis for approaching education They may function in the manner of a “filter” rather than biblically. A related approach looks to the pedagogy dis- as the “pump” of logical entailment. cernible in Jesus’s teaching, as represented in scripture, as There may also be fewer formal relationships between a model for education. beliefs and practice. ClassroomOnly methods and techniques may be patterned as a result of a teacher being shaped by Practices a whole set of beliefs rather than by following a particular The Bible is a source not only for Christian doctrine, but strand of biblical teaching. also for a range of Christian practices, such as Sabbath, One way in which this patterning relationship can take hospitality, or intentional community. Some approaches effect is through metaphors. Metaphors can generate dif- to Christian education explore the formational intent and ferent patterns of belief and practice, and they therefore pedagogical insights of these practices against their bibli- function far more centrally than would the mere literary cal background and in relation to educational practice. adornments they are sometimes taken to be. These approaches may be adopted singly or in com- Similar-sounding metaphors may have very different bination. The list is not exhaustive and is complicated roots.Copy The Christian educator John Amos Comenius further by questions of the degree to which the Bible is saw teaching as gardening. He derived this from the approached as an unproblematic authority or in light of biblical idea of a garden as being originally God’s good its use to support stances seen as needing critique, as in creation but corrupted by the Fall and in need of God’s some postcolonial and feminist contexts. Even this brief redemptive activity. This differs quite radically from map may indicate some of the complexity of the relation- Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s later use of a similar-sounding ship between the Bible and education. metaphor, which saw the teacher’s role as a matter of bringing up the child in a natural state free from harmful References and Resources adult influences. Badley, Ken. 1996. “Two ‘Cop-outs’ in Faith-Learning Integra- The Bible may shape us through metaphors that are tion: Incarnational Integration and Worldviewish Integra- drawn directly from the Bible (e.g., teacher as shepherd) tion.” Spectrum 28 (2): 105–118. or those that fit well with what it teaches. Parker Palmer, Brueggemann, Walter. 1982. The Creative Word: Canon as a for example, proposes that in place of our Western view Model for Biblical Education. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. of knowing as power and mastery, we should see know- Melchert, Charles F. 1998. Wise Teaching: Biblical Wisdom ing in more biblical terms, as loving. and Educational Ministry. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press The Bible comes to us mainly in narrative form and International. with an implicit meta-narrative of creation, fall, and Smith, David I., and John Shortt. 2002. The Bible and the Task redemption. It shapes us as we seek to live and to teach of Teaching. Nottingham, UK: The Stapleford Centre. in that big ongoing story rather than in the alternative Contributor—David I. Smith meta-narratives of consumerism, humanism, rational- ism, and so forth. Both the big story and the little stories that we tell in Bible, Use of the our living and in our teaching will be biblical if there is a “fittingness” to the biblical meta-narrative. There is a range of ways in which the Bible can shape the The Bible also provides us with models for teaching life and thinking of Christian educators and thereby make and learning, in the teachers that it portrays—especially a difference to how they fulfil their calling in the home, Jesus—and in the ways of teaching that it exemplifies. 144 Biblical Education by Extension

Walter Brueggemann (1982) said that the three main di- Mobilization, Slavic Gospel Association, and Taking visions of the Old Testament exemplified three modes of Christ to the Millions. teaching. The Torah gives us an orderly, trustworthy life- Before the political upheaval in the area that occurred world, a framework of accepted meaning. The Prophets from 1989 to 1991, BEE trained leaders across various focus on the critiquing of received understandings and denominations in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Ger- the imagining of alternatives. The Wisdom books explore many, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union. the potential and limitations of everyday life relationships The educational materials were produced in English and and communal experience. All of these can be seen as translated into seven languages of the geographic region. necessary and complementary dimensions of education. The instructional tools included textbooks and self-study Jesus himself taught in all three of these modes. guides, coupled with covert seminars to thwart govern- The lives and teaching of Christian educators can be ment opposition. The focus of the training was studying shaped by the Bible through its principles, metaphors, the Bible, theological doctrine, and pastoral care. The grand narrative, and models of teaching. As a result, they overall purpose of BEE was to establish educational cen- become in their persons and actions “living letters” to be ters in churches that would train leaders to reproduce the known and read by those they teach. program throughout their own nations. By the late 1980s, several thousand church leaders had connected with the References and Resources BEE program. Only Badley, Ken, and Harro Van Brummelen, eds. 2012. Metaphors After the Cold War ended in 1992, denominational We Teach By: How Metaphors Shape What We Do in Class- leaders in Eastern Europe established their own train- rooms. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. ing institutions of theological learning. This became a Brueggemann, Walter. 1982. The Creative Word: Canon as a catalyst for BEE in the mid-1990s to adopt strategies Model for Biblical Education. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. to meet the changing educational needs. BEE materials Palmer, Parker J. 1983. To Know as We Are Known: A Spiritual- were incorporated in national training programs, and the ity of Education. San Francisco: Harper & Row. institution moved toward educational consultancy and Smith, David I., and John Shortt. 2002. The Bible and the Task the supply of resource materials. By 1994, the BEE board of Teaching. Nottingham, UK: The Stapleford Centre. of directors had authorized the formation of BEE World, —John Shortt a newCopy ministry that would utilize the same philosophy, curriculum, and discipleship strategy to expand the BEE training model to other restricted access countries in Af- Biblical Education by Extension rica, Asia, and the Middle East. BEE World, headquartered in Colorado Springs, Colo- Biblical Education by Extension (BEE) was originally rado, continued under the leadership of Jody Dillow founded in Vienna, Austria, in 1979 by five mission to address the growing worldwide leadership crisis by agencies working in Eastern Europe to train church providing biblical training to pastors and church leaders leaders in creative access countries where formal theo- who otherwise would have no access to biblical educa- logical education was restricted. Due to the oppression tion. BEE World follows the methodology of sending of the communist governments, Protestant denomina- teachers to the various restricted access countries to start tions were unable to provide adequate theological train- discipleship groups, which study BEE’s curriculum trans- ing for their clergy or initiate new institutions for theo- lated into the national language. The facilitation involves logical leadership development. BEE was a cooperative modeling the teaching method itself, so that each student educational mission whose informal extension program can potentially multiply the process by having his or her offered biblical education to ecclesiastical leaders be- own training group. BEE World partners with the Inter- hind the Iron Curtain. net Biblical Seminary to publish seminary-level doctrinal The first general director was Joseph (Jody) C. Dillow curriculum that students can access via printed book, (1979–2011), with Al Bridges as the managing director, CD-ROM, or online study. These courses include studies and Lois ContributorMcKinney and Fred Holland as educational of the Old and New Testaments, books of the Bible, and advisors. The new organization worked with staff and issues of Christian living such as marriage and parenting, resources from the following organizations: Campus business leadership, and church relations. Crusade for Christ, Church Resource Ministries, the Since 1979, more than 50,000 students in 15 countries Conservative Baptist Foreign Mission Society, East Euro- have taken BEE courses, and at least half of them have pean Bible Mission, European Christian Mission, Grace completed the curriculum and continued on to train Community Church of Sun Valley California, Interna- others. In 1998, the first BEE Women’s Ministry track tional Teams, the Navigators, Open Doors, Operation was launched in several countries of southeastern Asia, Biblical Models of Education 145 emphasizing the equipping of women in ministry to de- Biblical Processes: Philippians 4:9 velop their roles as wives, mothers, and Christian leaders. “Whatever you have learned or received or heard from This has resulted in more than a thousand women leaders me, or seen in me—put it into practice. And the God of being trained in East Asia, Myanmar, Nepal, northern peace will be with you” (Phil. 4:9). India, and Vietnam. Concise yet comprehensive, this summary of the pro- —Robert L. Gallagher cesses of education anticipated by the apostle suggests a three-phase strategic model for the education process. (1) The proclamation of pertinent information, (2) the Biblical Models of Education provision of an appropriate model to imitate, and (3) the promotion of practical experience and life change pro- In exploring their discipline, educators employ the terms vide a framework for an effective procedure upon which theory and model to distinguish between why something every educational endeavor and teaching-learning expe- works and how it works. In proffering an answer to rience can be constructed and implemented. In essence, the “Why?” question, a theory answers, “Because.” In every educational experience must include these biblical proffering an answer to the “How?” question, a model processes: instruction, illustration, and implementation. responds, “Like this.” While the theoretical question “why” is a legitimate investigative concern, the focus of Proverbs 2: A Teaching-LearningOnly Process Metamodel this article is on identifying biblical models that describe If Philippians 4:9 provides a telescopic model of educa- “how” education occurs. tion, the metamodel of Proverbs 2 provides the micro- scopic model. Here we find the details of the teaching- Distinguishing between Biblical Models learning process suggested by the wisest man who ever “Biblical models of education” can refer to models that lived, thus providing ancient wisdom for contemporary incorporate scripture or models that emanate from the education. text itself. Using Solomon’s advice on education in Proverbs 2, we find that first (v. 1), the pupil must choose to participate in Models That Incorporate Scripture the learning and “accept my words.” The tutor obtains the There is no denying the value and validity of educational student’sCopy attention and motivates the individual to learn. models that incorporate scripture to inform and inspire. Second (v. 2a), the learner engages in “turning your ear”— Within this category, we find models such as Yount’s the process of receiving the intended message. Utilizing a (2010) discipler’s model and Beechick’s (2004) model of variety of methods and materials, the teacher stimulates the learning. These, and others like them, are supported by senses. Third (v. 2b), the student participates in critically scripture and have “proved quite workable for setting reflective listening, thinking, emoting, and making choices down a biblical theory of learning” (Beechick 2004, 47). by “applying your heart.” The instructor will inspire the individual to study intently and master the content. Fourth Models That Emanate from Scripture (vv. 5, 9), the scholar will “then . . . understand”—raising It is when educators turn to the scriptures as the source the learning levels beyond knowledge to understanding of, not just a resource for, their models that the power and wisdom (vv. 5, 6, 9, 10, 12). The mentor utilizes prob- and practicality of a Bible-based educational theory ing questions and stimulating exercises and experiences is fully experienced. A number of educational models to encourage growth. Fifth (v. 20), the educated follower emerge from scripture as instructional templates. Two experiences life change and “walk[s] in the ways of good popular and frequently utilized models for curricular men.” Learning has occurred when the disciple is a “doer development and design can be found in the Shema of of the word,” which is affirmed by the prophet Isaiah in Deuteronomy 6 and the early Church’s program, re- 6:8–10, confirmed by the apostle in John 12:37–41, and corded in Acts 2:42ff. Paul’s prayers for the Philippian illustrated by the missionary in 1 Thessalonians 2:13, 14. and Colossian congregations (see Phil. 1:9–11 and Col. These five stages constitute a biblical model of Christian 1:9–12)Contributor provide a model for teachers and leaders as they education that can be implemented in any venue, at any construct lesson plans and select methods of instruction age, and for any audience. for their charges. In addition to these popular biblical models, two other References and Resources passages also provide a framework for a disciple-making Beechick, R. 2004. Heart and mind: What the Bible Says about ministry. The rest of this article focuses on the biblical Learning. Fenton, MI: Mott Media. “how” of education as it is identified in Philippians 4:9 Groome, T. H. 1980. Christian Religious Education: Sharing and Proverbs 2. Our Story and Vision. San Francisco: Harper & Row. 146 Biblical Theology

Mitchell, M. R. 2010. Leading, Teaching, and Making Disciples: they can lead the reader away from a biblical text rather World-class Christian Education in the Church, School, and than into its spiritual depth. Home. Bloomington, IN: CrossBooks. The term biblical theology has been attributed to an Richards, L. O. 1975. A Theology of Christian Education. Grand inaugural address by Johann Philipp Grabler in 1797. In Rapids, MI: Zondervan. his introductory oration as professor of theology at the Westerhoff, J. 1994. Spiritual Life: The Foundation for Preach- University of Altdorf, De justo discrimine theologiae bibli- ing and Teaching. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox cae et dogmaticae regundisque recte utriusque finibus (On Press. the Proper Distinction between Biblical and Dogmatic Wilson, J. A., M. D. Robeck, and W. B. Michael. 1969. Psycho- Theology and the Specific Objectives of Each), Grabler logical Foundations of Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. describes the uniqueness of this theological discipline. Yount, W. 2010. Created to Learn. Nashville, TN: B&H Pub- Thus, the designation of biblical theology as a distinct lishing. and specific approach to theological study is of relatively —Michael R. Mitchell and Benjamin K. Forrest recent origin, yet biblical theology can claim to be as an- cient as the New Testament. While most frequently associated with theologians Biblical Theology from a Reformed tradition, who have maintained the most consistent usage of the term,Only some Catholic and The study of the Bible is essential to all Christian the- many Lutheran theologians understand the term simi- ology and a central activity in all Christian education, larly. For example, Martin Luther taught biblical theol- since the Bible is the only reliable source for under- ogy in Wittenberg, following his training at the Eremetic standing God and His world. Jesus testified (Luke 24:27; Augustinian monastery in Erfurt, Germany. As such, he John 5:39) that the scriptures were centered on Himself followed the medieval practice of studying the sacred and thus have a unified, purposeful theme. This is the page (sacra pagina) of scripture. The ancient church fa- focus of biblical theology. thers, such as Augustine and Bernard, followed a similar Biblical theology understands that the Bible is God’s approach to the text of scripture as the object of historical self-revelation. He is the Author of the sacred scriptures, and grammatical scrutiny. even as He used almost 40 writers over 15 centuries. Methodologically,Copy biblical theologians ask the simplest The goal of biblical theology is to discover, describe, of questions: “What does the Bible say?” The historical organize, and clarify distinctive theological themes from context of the biblical passages is considered, yet there the Hebrew and Christian scriptures. Because biblical is a sense of continuity with all of scripture. Some spe- theologians recognize the Bible as presenting a divinely cialists will focus on Old Testament or New Testament authoritative message, the biblical text and biblical ter- theology or the theology of St. Paul or the theology of minology are essential to the enterprise. Biblical theology the Gospel of John. However, even these special studies always reflects the diversity of the biblical material while contribute to the larger field of biblical theology. also espousing the deeper truths and unity of the Bible, Engaging in biblical theology is fairly easy, at least ini- especially as being Christo-centric and salvific. tially. After reading a passage of scripture in the original Identifying the specific characteristics of biblical language or in a translation, questions may be addressed theology is not difficult, although it remains a subject to the text: What does this passage say about God? What of discussion and debate even among its practitioners. does it say about humanity and the world? What does this Biblical theology is a subcategory of Christian theology section of scripture say about God’s plan of salvation in between exegetical theology and systematic theology. It Christ Jesus? A more focused question on a specific topic grows out of exegetical theology and is foundational for may also be asked, for example: What does Paul mean systematic theology. Although its exclusive focus is on by “grace”? If the student desires a more topical study, a the Bible and its proper interpretation, biblical theology concordance may be used to determine where there are is (aside from practical theology) the most collaborative other references in the Bible to the same subject. Or, if of theologicalContributor approaches. Historical studies are used the scholar wishes to limit study to one book or selected in seeking the Sitz im Leben (situation in life) of the books or testament, thematic threads may be discovered, biblical material. Systematic theology’s organizational assembled, and synthesized into a coherent whole. classifications or structures are frequently followed, and Ultimately, biblical theology is a foundational exer- dogmatic topics are often the thematic subjects of study. cise for both the expert scholar and the general Bible Only philosophical speculation and scientific (both reader. The goal is to hear God speak a word that con- natural and social) are eschewed for the most part, since victs the reader of sin, or assures the reader of God’s Bibliodrama 147 gracious love in Christ, or directs the reader to Christ’s in the context of the World Council of Churches, leading saving promises. to a reconsideration of biblicism that attempts to reframe the idea in ways that would more adequately respect the References and Resources plurality of voices in the Bible and the hermeneutical as- Childs, Brevard. 2002. Biblical Theology: A Proposal. Minne- sumptions and contextualization issues lying behind con- apolis, MN: Fortress Press. temporary appropriations of the sacred text. Evangelical Hafemann, Scott. 2002. Biblical Theology: Retrospect and Pros- responses to the Edinburgh 2010 missions conference pect. Wheaton, IL: InterVarsity Press. of the World Council of Churches, for example, have Mead, James K. 2007. Biblical Theology: Issues, Methods, and emphasized the role of the Bible as the leading theologi- Themes. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. cal resource for the church, not one among many, while Scobie, Charles. H. H. 2003. The Ways of Our God: An Ap- seeking to eliminate literalism and disrespect for other proach to Biblical Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. religious traditions. Still other thinkers have sought to Vos, Geerhardus. 1975. Biblical Theology: Old and New Testa- distance Evangelicalism from biblicism by arguing for a ments. Carlisle, PA: Banner of Truth. more robust role for the church and its traditions in the —Timothy Maschke understanding of scripture. In many conservative churches, however, biblicism is a necessary underpinning forOnly theological formation, Biblicism because the doctrines of those churches draw upon a par- ticular, allegedly literal, reading of the biblical text. Ideas Biblicism is a theory of scripture that understands the such as creationism, as well as more theologically weighty Bible to be exclusively authoritative, free from error, and topics such as notions of atonement or providence, often comprehensively relevant to human life. Commonly, depend on a strategy of reading the Bible that denigrates biblicism involves ideas of the Bible’s exclusive authority, knowledge from other sources. Biblicism is thus part of a infallibility, perspicuity, self-sufficiency, internal consis- larger network of ideas that function together to create a tency, universal applicability, self-evident meaning, and thought world and so cannot easily be separated from the other features understood to be corollaries of a doctrine experiences of communities espousing it. of sola scriptura. In emphasizing a literal reading of the Copy Bible and adopting a negative stance toward most ver- References and Resources sions of historical criticism, most modern forms of the Barr, J. 1978. Fundamentalism. Philadelphia: Westminster view differ from ancient and medieval strategies of bibli- Press. cal interpretation, which saw the Bible as fundamentally Malley, B. 2004. How the Bible Works: An Anthropological cryptic and thus needing to be interpreted spiritually Study of Evangelical Biblicism. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira (often by means of allegory or typology). Press. Although, as H. Richard Niebuhr (1956) pointed out, Niebuhr, H. R. 1956. The Purpose of the Church and Its Minis- liberal Protestantism’s emphasis on a particular view try. New York: Harper & Bros. of the historical Jesus was a form of biblicism, most Noll, M. 1994. The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind. Grand instantiations of it function as an aspect of Protestant Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. fundamentalism or conservative evangelicalism, often Smith, C. 2012. The Bible Made Impossible: Why Biblicism Is providing an intellectual basis for theological construc- Not a Truly Evangelical Reading of Scripture. Grand Rapids, tion in those traditions. Biblicism usually involves a MI: Brazos Press. weak emphasis on the diversity of the forms and inten- —Samjung Kang-Hamilton tions of scripture or its uses in the church historically or in the present. Biblicists often claim to be reading the Bible inductively, simply to be drawing from it what Bibliodrama it clearly states, without the interference of the reader’s prejudices.Contributor Yet the plurality of positions on major Bibliodrama is a role-playing, exegetical pedagogy in theological topics (e.g., free will and divine sovereignty, which the roles are taken from the biblical text. While theories of atonement, creation and evolution, marriage it is often done in traditional educational settings, it can and divorce, eschatology) among biblicists seems to also be used with any group desirous of engaging a sa- belie this self-understanding. cred text. Peter Pitzele, in his book Scripture Windows: The limits of the viewpoint have informed recent at- Toward a Practice of Bibliodrama, is widely viewed as the tempts by evangelicals to engage in ecumenical dialogue authoritative voice in bibliodrama. 148 Bibliodrama

Goals session unless proper care is taken by all involved. “Our The goal of bibliodrama is to interact with the text in hermeneutic analysis has indicated that it is a technique ways that engage the entirety of the person. Bibliodrama that is much more weighted towards relevance than au- instructors desire their participants to gain a deeper under- thenticity” (Sinclair 2004, 71). standing of the original story or pericope through a more comprehensive examination of experiential and cognitive Practice learning modalities. Whereas most exegetical methods are Even with the challenges mentioned above, bibliodrama purely intellectual, bibliodrama requires participants to in- can be an effective tool to explore biblical stories and find teract emotionally and physically in order to provide new application and relevance for today’s Christian. The ways insights into the text. According to Pitzele: that bibliodrama can manifest are many. Participants traditionally take on the role of a biblical character in There is a traditional Jewish commentary that talks a specific portion of biblical text, but this is not always about the Bible as having been composed in black and possible or necessary. Other options might be playing white fire. The black fire is seen in the form of the the part of objects, such as Moses’s staff, or the role of printed or handwritten words in the page or scroll; the the author of a certain text in order to examine possible white fire is found in the spaces between and around the black . . . . Bibliodrama takes place in the open spaces reasons for writing in a certain style; everyone may play of the text for the black fire, the black letters, are the the same character to examine differentOnly motivations or boundaries. (1998, 23–24) reactions; or participants may “sculpt” a human picture of an instant frozen in time. The intention of bibliodrama These open, or white, spaces are areas that allow for in- is to examine what is happening in the story around the terpretation of the text to occur. Bibliodrama thus moves text. Therefore there is no “right” way to do bibliodrama, beyond a literal reading of the biblical material and allows as long as hermeneutical considerations are addressed participants to think, act, and move as if they were part of throughout the exercise. the original story. A typical bibliodrama exercise may have the follow- ing structure: the director determines how a portion of Challenges biblical text is going to be played and what questions Bibliodrama poses several challenges that are not com- will beCopy asked; the director then communicates the in- monly addressed in a typical academic classroom. tention to the class, who then add additional goals or Whereas traditional exegesis requires texts and desks, questions; this is followed by the acting phase, in which bibliodrama requires space to move. It may also require participants role-play the story; and finally the session is that participants be willing to engage in theatrical con- completed by a reviewing phase, which includes getting ventions that may be unfamiliar or uncomfortable to out of character, sharing about the experience of being them, such as improvisation, stage movement, and emo- a character, exegeting and comparing what was done tional recall. Further, instructors using bibliodrama must with the biblical text, consulting other sources such as be able to maintain order and prevent participants from commentaries, and processing and talking about how moving too far afield from the biblical source text. the bibliodrama was conducted. From an exegetical standpoint, because of its interpre- tive nature bibliodrama can quickly move away from the References and Resources actual biblical text and place extended attention on the Erlenwein, Peter. 2002. “Bibliodrama: A Modern Mind-Body “white” spaces of interpretation. It also runs the risk of Hermeneutics.” Asia Journal of Theology 16 (2): 327–340. devolving into an examination of motivations that may Krondorfer, Björn, ed. 1992. Body and the Bible: Interpreting be impossible to verify. Finally, bibliodrama interpreta- and Experiencing Biblical Narratives. Philadelphia: Trinity tions have the potential to merely mirror a preexisting Press International. hermeneutic. Through his own experiences, Alex Sinclair Pitzele, Peter A. 1998. Scripture Windows: Toward a Practice of (2004) determined that there are four hermeneutical ap- Bibliodrama. Los Angeles: Torah Aura Productions. proaches toContributor engaging in bibliodrama: conservative, which Rogers, Frank. 2011. Finding God in the Graffiti: Empower- stays closest to the biblical text; moderate, which may ing Teenagers Through Stories. Cleveland, OH: The Pilgrim seek to identify participant biases; radical, which denies Press. meaning can come from the text; and critical, which seeks Sinclair, Alex. 2004. “An Exercise in the Theory of Practice: The to release the reader from the ideologies of the text. These Hermeneutics of Bibliodrama in the Sinclair Classroom.” approaches, borrowed from S. Gallagher, seem to pro- Journal of Jewish Education 70 (3): 61–73. gress from conservative to critical through a bibliodrama —Jeffrey Tirrell Billy Graham Library 149

Billy Graham Center and Library of the center. The center’s library collection is housed on the third floor and includes books, periodicals, dis- The Billy Graham Center (Wheaton, IL) and The Billy sertations, microforms, and historical publications on Graham Library (Charlotte, NC) were both named for missions and evangelism worldwide. The administrative William Franklin “Billy” Graham Jr. (1918– ). Graham offices for the center’s archives are located on the fourth is an American Christian evangelist who was shaped floor. This floor also houses a collection of archives, the by the fundamentalism of his southern upbringing and focus of the joint vision of Wheaton College and BGEA, that of the institutions he attended: Bob Jones College in which started in 1973 when Wheaton College offered to Cleveland, Tennessee; Florida Bible Institute in Temple serve as the repository of Graham’s personal papers and Terrace; and Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois, BGEA records after it was determined that a center was where he graduated with a degree in anthropology needed to serve the combined roles of a historical society, (1943). Graham was the pastor of several congregations training center, and research institute for the Protestant and served as president of Northwestern Bible College. evangelical movement. The center has continued to serve However, unlike many evangelists, he had very little churches, providing new resources concerning trends theological training and no advanced degree. He was and needs of the present and future. These archives rec- famous for his crusades, student ministry, international ognize the broader impact of the Protestant evangelical ministry, and involvement outside the church serving as churches of America and houseOnly not only the work of an advisor to various national and international leaders. Graham but also that of other 20th-century interde- He progressively shaped the evangelical movement of nominational, Protestant evangelical leaders, workers, the 20th century in three ways. First was taking a stand and organizations, in this way providing a repository for against racial discrimination through his association documents that would otherwise be lost, as evangelicals and work with Martin Luther King Jr., by eliminating have been more concerned with the advancement of the segregated seating for his own crusades, and through Gospel than with preserving the movement’s history.47 the hiring of a significant number of black Americans The center has a current website with up-to-date infor- for his own staff. Second was when he crossed theo- mation at www.wheaton.edu/bgc. logical lines to work ecumenically with Roman Catho- —Jeffrey Tirrell lic, neoorthodox, and mainline Protestant movements. Copy Third was taking the Gospel message internationally through his crusades. “Taking the gospel message to Billy Graham Library the world” has been the central focus of his lifelong ministry and mission. This focus continues to live on The Billy Graham Library is located in Charlotte, North intentionally in both the Billy Graham Center and The Carolina, near where Graham was raised. It is a crusade Billy Graham Library. of its own as visitors tour the library, which is modeled after a dairy barn, and tour the restored family home, Billy Graham Center reminiscent of his family life and humble boyhood. The While the Billy Graham Center serves as the repository library was dedicated in 2007. In attendance with Billy of many of Graham’s materials, its boarder purpose is to Graham were former Presidents Carter, Clinton, and G. accelerate global evangelism. The center was dedicated in H. Bush. Following Graham’s wishes, the library’s core September 1980 and opened its doors in 1981. Since then, experience is the Gospel and the transforming power it the vision and mission of the center have been fulfilled by has on a life that says “yes” to Jesus Christ. providing strategic programming and resources through The entrance to the library is in the shape of a cross, the work of 50 ministries that reach around the world a visual reminder to visitors that it is only through the and by housing program materials that benefit schools, Cross of Christ that we can be reconciled to God. The pri- churches, and the general public. The first floor of the mary focus of the site is the delivery of the Gospel of Jesus center is dedicated to the history of Protestant evangelism Christ and an invitational call, which is delivered through in AmericaContributor and to the work of Billy Graham’s Evangelis- a multimedia presentation. The library is organized tic Association (BGEA). around the themes of the man (Graham), the ministry, In keeping with Graham’s ministry, the center conveys the message, and the mission, with the message (Gospel the Gospel message in a simple graphic presentation. of Jesus Christ) being preeminent. Its Journey of Faith The Wheaton graduate school departments of theologi- cal studies, Christian ministries, psychological studies, 47. R. Shuster, “Library and Archival Resources of the Billy Graham Center,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 5, no. 3 (1981): and communications are all located on the second floor 124–126. 150 Bioethics, Christian Contributions to tour focuses on what God did in the life of a young farm and dignity, have often been less opposed to abortion, boy who grew up in rural North Carolina, who ultimately provided there are serious reasons. committed his life to Jesus Christ at a local revival, and Voicing great concerns about many of the develop- who then through God’s grace became America’s pastor ments in medicine in this and the last century, the Roman and evangelist to the world. Catholic Church has made significant statements about There is a year-round calendar of events for men, reproductive technologies, embryo research, and eutha- women, and children and group tours that are ministry nasia, in addition to voicing its traditional objections to oriented and supportive of the mission and vision of the abortion in Declaration on Abortion, published by the library. Many events include special guest and speakers, Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF) in 1974. especially those who have had an impact on Graham Contraception was denounced by Pius XII in his 1930 and have partnered with him in ministry. The site has encyclical Casti Connubi, following the Anglican Com- a bookstore for visiting tourists, which often announces munion’s sanction of contraception that year. When Paul book signings by Christian authors. The library has its VI in 1968 repeated the condemnation in his encyclical own website: www.billygrahamlibrary.org. Humanae Vitae, he declared that the unitive (relational) and procreative aspects of spousal sexual intercourse References and Resources must never be separated. It was because of this declara- Hopkins, J. 2011. “The Legacy of Billy Graham: Critical Reflec- tion about the inseparable connectionOnly between spousal tions on America’s Greatest Evangelist.” Fides Et Historia 43 intercourse and procreation that the CDF was later, in (1): 113–114. Donum Vitae of 1987, to speak out against reproductive Shuster, R. 1981. “Library and Archival Resources of the Billy technologies bypassing spousal sexual intercourse. In Graham Center.” International Bulletin of Missionary Re- vitro fertilization (IVF) was also condemned to the extent search 5 (3): 124–126. that it involves destruction of human embryos. This was Vajko, R. J. 2012. “The Surprising Work of God: Harold John on the understanding that human life must be protected Ockenga, Billy Graham and the Rebirth of Evangelicalism.” from the time of conception, which likewise rules out Mission Studies 29 (1): 132–133. research involving embryo destruction. The teaching of Donum Vitae was reiterated in the CDF’s instruction The Billy Graham Center at Wheaton Center. www.wheaton DignitasCopy Personae of 2008, in which the church cautioned .edu/bgc against germ-line gene therapy and condemned human The Billy Graham Library. www.billygrahamlibrary.org cloning as contrary to human dignity. Euthanasia was —Karen L. Estep denounced by the CDF in its Declaration on Euthanasia of 1980. And in 1995, Pope John Paul II published his encyclical Evangelium Vitae, upholding the traditional Bioethics, Christian Contributions to doctrine of the sanctity of human life as a gift from God. While speaking out against euthanasia, as well as against Gradually developing in the aftermath of World War destruction of embryonic and fetal human life, John Paul II, bioethics is a relatively new discipline that originated II distinguished euthanasia from “medical procedures in interdisciplinary discussions about medical issues. which no longer correspond to the real situation of the The first centers for the study and teaching of bioethics patient, either because they are by now disproportionate emerged in the United States in the 1970s. The Hastings to any expected results or because they impose an exces- Center was founded in 1970, and the Kennedy Institute sive burden on the patient and his family” (para. 65). at Georgetown University opened in 1971. Both have Also taking also a strong pro-life stand, the Southern housed eminent theologians of different denominations. Baptist Convention (SBC), the largest Protestant denom- While basing their understandings on biblical teach- ination in the United States, stated in its 2008 resolution ings and a tradition dating back to the first centuries directed against Planned Parenthood, America’s largest of Christianity, Christian theologians have, however, abortion provider, that “Scripture speaks to the sanctity not spokenContributor with one voice on the issues at the center of of human life in the womb (Psalm 139:13–16).” And Christian bioethical dialogue and teaching. The Ortho- defending human life from the time of conception, the dox churches have taken a strong pro-life stand against Resolution on Human Embryonic and Stem Cell Research abortion and euthanasia, as has the Roman Catholic of 1999 records the SBC’s “decades-long opposition to Church, basing itself not only on Holy Scriptures and abortion except to save the physical life of the mother and tradition, but also on natural reason. Strong pro-life posi- their opposition to destructive human embryo research.” tions have also been adopted by many of the evangelical By implication, this statement also rules out IVF, inas- churches. Other churches, while defending human life much as it is linked to embryo wastage. In the Resolution Bioethics, Christian Contributions to 151 on Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide of 1992, the SBC also of the primitive streak. While Anglicans take different rejected any other action which of itself or by intention views on abortion, most would allow it in case of rape or causes death. This declaration was followed in 1996 by serious risk to the mother’s life or health. On the question another against assisted suicide. Organ donation after of euthanasia, the Anglican churches take the same view death is allowed provided the deceased or relatives have as the Roman Catholic Church. The Lambeth Conference given their permission for the procedure. of 1998 declared that euthanasia is not compatible with The Lutheran churches, however, have not presented Christian faith and should not be permitted in civil legisla- a united front in the case of abortion. The Evangelical tion. Futile treatment can, however, be withdrawn or with- Lutheran Churches in America (ELCA), the largest Lu- held, allowing a person to die with dignity. theran grouping in America, allows abortion in the case The Orthodox churches, like the Roman Catholic of threat to the woman’s life, rape, and “extreme fetal Church, are conservative in their views, but generally tend abnormality,” as explained in the teaching statement to adopt a more pastoral approach. While not an official Abortion of 1991. There is no firm consensus on embryo statement, the document Marriage, Family, Sexuality and research. And use of reproductive technologies is left to the Sanctity of Life, published by the Holy Synod of Bish- the conscience of couples. Euthanasia and assisted sui- ops of the Orthodox Church in America in 1992, provides cide are denounced in the social teaching statement End a comprehensive account of Orthodox thinking on bio- of Life Decisions, published by the Church Council of ethical issues. Orthodox views onOnly bioethics are also spelled the ELCA in 1992. As explained in its earlier statement, out at length in the official statement Basis of the Social Death and Dying (1982), however, ELCA allows with- Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church, adopted at the drawal of life-sustaining treatment that is overly burden- Sacred Bishops’ Council of the Russian Orthodox Church some or disproportionate to expected benefits. in 2004. Declaring that life begins at conception, both doc- The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A) (PCUSA), the big- uments describe abortion as an act of homicide and a grave gest Presbyterian organization in America, also expresses sin. The Russian Orthodox document expresses, however, divided opinions on abortion, as witness the Report of the a forgiving view if the woman is repentant. And while not Special Committee on Problem Pregnancies and Abortion supporting the general use of contraception, the Orthodox of 1992. As regards euthanasia, it might be justifiable in churches may, it is explained in the 1992 OCA Synod extreme cases, according to the PCUSA document Life document,Copy allow it for the sake of the woman’s health. and Death Belong to God: Euthanasia, Assisted Suicide Moreover, the 2004 Russian Orthodox statement makes and End of Life Issues (1995). On the other hand, the it clear that clergy should not coerce or induce couples more conservative Orthodox Presbyterian Church is op- to refuse conjugal relations. While denouncing gametal posed to abortion, as declared in its Report of the Com- donation and surrogacy as violations of personal integrity mittee to Study the Matter of Abortion (1971). The same and of the exclusiveness of marriage, both documents position is taken in the 1987 Report of the Ad Interim declare that the Orthodox churches accept artificial in- Committee on Abortion, adopted by the Sixth General semination by the husband. Since the Orthodox churches Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of America. see conception as the beginning of life, they can, however, Having sanctioned responsible use of contraception at not allow embryo research or IVF if it involves destruction the Lambeth Conference of 1930, the churches of the An- of human embryos. Cloning is also denounced in the Rus- glican Communion allow procreation to be separated from sian document, as are germ-line manipulations. Faithful to sexual intercourse. Speaking for the Anglican churches, the commandment not to kill, the Orthodox churches also the Church of England’s Board for Social Responsibil- reject euthanasia and assisted suicide, as stated both in the ity (BSR) has adopted a different approach to medically 1992 OCA Synod document and in the 2004 document by assisted conception than that of the Roman Catholic the Russian Orthodox Church. Futile life-prolonging treat- Church. In a report in 1984 the BSR welcomed IVF and ment may, on the other hand, be halted, the OCA Synod artificial insemination, both with and without gametal explains. And both documents sanction organ donation, donation. But “to promote good family relationships,” the provided the donor has given informed consent. BSR recommendedContributor openness with the donor child from the start. This report was a response to the work of the References and Resources Warnock Committee, set up by the UK government; its Board for Social Responsibility, Church of England (BSR). recommendations led to the globally trendsetting Human 1975a. Dying Well: An Anglican Contribution to the Debate Fertilisation and Embryology Act of 1990. Arguing that on Euthanasia. London, UK: Church Information Office. unborn life gradually deserves more respect as it grows, Board for Social Responsibility, Church of England (BSR). the BSR accepted the Warnock proposal to allow embryo 1975b. On Dying Well: An Anglican Contribution to the Debate research up to 14 days after fertilization or the appearance on Euthanasia. London, UK: Church Information Office. 152 Biola University

Board for Social Responsibility, Church of England (BSR). tive reads: “for the teaching of the truths, for which the 1984. Human Fertilisation and Embryology: The Response institute stands, its doors are to open every day of the of the Board for Social Responsibility General Synod of the year, and all people, without reference to race, color or Church of England to the DHSS Report of the Committee of class will ever be welcome to its privileges” (Biola, n.d., 90 Inquiry. London, UK: Church Information Office. Years of Following in His Steps, 49). Renowned Christian Board for Social Responsibility, Church of England (BSR). educator Dr. Reuben Archer Torrey pioneered the insti- 1985. Personal Origins: The Report of a Working Party on tution’s vision as the first dean. Human Fertilisation and Embryology of the Board for Social In response to changing societal needs over the past Responsibility. London, UK: Church Information Office. 106 years, the university has expanded its academic mis- Church Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Churches in sion and programs, first from a Bible institute to a Bible America (ELCA). 1992. End of Life Decisions. Available at college, then as a Christian college with an associated www.elca.org. theological seminary, and most recently as a Chris- Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF). 1974. Decla- tian university. The Bible Institute program eventually ration on Abortion. Available at www.vatican.va. became a four-year course with degrees in theology, Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF). 1980. Decla- Christian education, and sacred music. In a bid to ac- ration on Euthanasia. Available at www.vatican.va. commodate non-Bible courses, the Bible Institute was re- Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF). 1988. named Biola College. The ChristianOnly educational standard Donum Vitae. Available at www.vatican.va. maintained by Biola opened the door for many students Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF). 2008. Digni- to choose the institution. Striving to accommodate the tas Personae. Available at www.vatican.va. vast number of students and the vision of the institu- Evangelical Lutheran Churches in America (ELCA). 1982. tion toward a more broadened Christian teaching, Biola Death and Dying. Available at www.elca.org. College became Biola University. Biola’s foundation has Evangelical Lutheran Churches in America (ELCA). 1991. remained the same: commitment to Jesus Christ, the Abortion. Available at www.elca.org. inerrancy of scripture, and biblical Christianity (within Holy Synod of Bishops of the Orthodox Church in America. an evangelical Protestant framework), as well as the 1992. Marriage, Sexuality and the Sanctity of Life. Available spiritual, academic, and holistic growth of those who are at www.oca.org. personallyCopy committed to Him (Biola, 21). John Paul II. 1995. Evangelium Vitae. Available at www.vatican As a Christian institution of higher education with- .va. out any denominational affiliation, Biola’s terminal and Office of the General Assembly, Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). preparatory programs lead to service in church-related 1992. Report of the Special Committee on Problem Pregnan- vocations and the many other vocations and professions cies and Abortion. Available at www.pcuse.org. embraced by the present curricula. The university is Paul VI. 1968. Encyclical Letter Humanae Vitae. Available at composed of the following schools: Talbot School of The- www.vatican.va. ology, Cook School of Intercultural Studies, Rosemead Pius XII. 1930. Encyclical Letter Casti Connubi. Available at School of Psychology, Crowell School of Music, School of www.vatican.va. Arts and Sciences, School of Education, School of Profes- Sacred Bishops’ Council of the Russian Orthodox Church. sional Studies, and School of Business. 2004. Basis of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Biola states its mission as “biblically centered education, Church. Available at http://orthodoxeurope.org/page/3/14 scholarship and service, equipping men and women in .aspxSacred. mind and character to impact the world for the Lord Jesus Southern Baptist Convention (SBC). 1992. Resolution on Eu- Christ” (Biola, n.d., 90 Years of Following in His Steps, 11). thanasia and Assisted Suicide. Available at www.sbc.net. The school exists for committed Christian students with Southern Baptist Convention (SBC). 1999. Resolution on a quest to graduate followers of the Lord Jesus Christ as Human Embryonic and Stem Cell Research. Available at competent professionals in their respective fields. With www.sbc.net. the mission of teaching and learning, all students invest at Contributor—Agneta Sutton least 20 percent of their course hours in biblical studies and integration of their academic discipline with theology. The university seeks to nourish faculty and students alike in a Biola University Christian environment that prizes research of the highest quality, in addition to dialogue and critical thought within The Bible Institute of Los Angeles (Biola) was established the context of common faith. in 1908 by Lyman Stewart and T. C. Horton to fulfill a The mission statement comes alive through the uni- specific need in Christian higher education. Its set objec- versity’s annual conferences (the Missions Conference Bishops, An Overview of the Teaching Role of 153 and Torrey Memorial Bible Conference), aimed at inspir- commitment to evangelical orthodoxy. The objective is ing students toward missionary activity and providing displayed through effective classroom teaching, student information about missionary work. The Torrey Memo- mentoring, world of ideas and scholarship, and interper- rial Bible Conference is devoted to students’ spiritual sonal sensitivity and skill. The school provides discerning growth, with specific topics aimed at their spiritual needs. evangelical biblical/theological scholarship and instruc- Another conference is the Biola Media Conference, a tion, as well as facilitating integration, in order to inter- one-day event that aims to advance the integration of pret orthodoxy in the pursuit of knowledge and to equip faith and the arts, bringing together Christian media lay and vocational Christian leaders for the challenges of leaders and other Christians for education, inspiration, significant and meaningful ministry (Biola, n.d., 90 Years and networking. of Following in His Steps, 12). Biola’s high educational standards and desire to foster One of the objectives in the philosophy of general edu- strong moral character require students to attend 8 con- cation for Biola University is “the enabling of students ference sessions and 30 chapel services each semester or to become thinking Christians” (Biola, 1995, 36). To ac- face a penalty. Undergraduate students at Biola are also complish this objective, faculty members and programs required to take 30 units of Bible classes, irrespective engage students in dialogue and critical assessment of of their major; this requirement constitutes a minor in beliefs and practices prominent in the contemporary theological and biblical studies. In meeting the four-year world. The faculty and administrationOnly of the school are general education requirements of Biola University, the committed to academic freedom within the framework of great book program of Torrey Honors Institute equips historical commitment to the Christian faith. students to pursue truth, goodness, and beauty through intellectual and spiritual community, enabling them to References and Resources become strong Christian leaders. Biola University. n.d. 90 Years of Following in His Steps. La The mission of Biola University is based on the as- Mirada, CA: Biola University Publications. sumption that God is truth, the beginning of wisdom is to Biola University. 1995. Joint Self-Study and Joint-Visit. Biola know God, and the quest for knowledge and truth cannot University, Association of Theological Schools. La Mirada, be separated from our individual and collective quest to CA: Biola University. know God. The university recognizes the authority of the BiolaCopy University Archives. n.d. Connections: The Institutional Bible as revealed in Holy Scripture and seeks to evaluate Magazine of Biola University. Vols. 1–11, 1990–. all human knowledge in light of the Bible’s teaching and Henry, J. O. 1977. “A History of Biola University” (The manu- authority. script of the historical account of Biola University since Biola’s education program for students is geared to- 1908). ward preparing them to become effective teachers in Talbot School of Theology. 1995. Self-Study Report of Talbot either the elementary or secondary classroom in a Chris- School of Theology, a Graduate School of Biola University. tian or public school setting. The institution prepares Biola University, Association of Theological Schools. La Mi- prospective Christian teachers with a biblically centered rada, CA: Biola University. teacher education program, providing integration semi- —Ogechukwu Ibem nars designed to allow students to search the Bible and literature of education. Students discover how the Word of God and the discipline of teaching are integrated. Bishops, An Overview Upon completion of the teaching credential program, of the Teaching Role of students gain satisfactory subject matter knowledge, ethi- cal standards, and sound Christian philosophy of educa- The teaching ministry of bishops in the early church was tion (Biola, n.d., 90 Years of Following in His Steps, 126). a life-encompassing activity. As pastors charged with The School of Intercultural Studies serves the mis- shepherding God’s people, their teaching was primarily sion of the university with the objective of providing rooted in the church and done for the sake of building educationalContributor opportunity at the graduate level, for mature, it up. This wide range of teaching was characterized by experienced students to reflect on their cross-cultural both profound learning and deep devotion, with the ministry. This is made possible through exposure to mis- words of scripture, or the language of faith, pervad- siological concepts, social science methodologies, and the ing everything that was done. Moreover, instruction in refinement of ministry-related research skills. Christian faith and virtue was grounded in the liturgical Talbot School of Theology is a structural entity of life of the church, so that knowledge and devotion, prayer Biola University. Its mission is to develop a community and learning, worship and ethics were united. Bishops of colleagues who desire to make an impact through presided at the rites of baptism and the Eucharist, which 154 Bishops, New Testament Foundations of the Teaching Role of gave their teaching a spiritual, moral, and catechetical renewal of humanity, on the way from Pentecost to the scope. They also gave catechetical lectures, talks that return of Christ. introduced both inquirers and those preparing for ini- tiation into the body of Christ to the church’s teaching References and Resources as confessed in the creed, the distinctive narrative of Greer, Rowan A. 1986. Broken Lights and Mended Lives: Theol- scripture, and the particular form of life received in the ogy and Common Life in the Early Church. University Park: sacrament of baptism. In their teaching bishops sought to Penn State Press. form Christian identity, grounded in the truth of reality, Harmless, William. 1995. Augustine and the Catechumenate. as revealed by God’s Word. This teaching engaged the Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press. whole person; the mind, affections, and will. The cultiva- Wilken, Robert Louis. 2003. The Spirit of Early Christian tion of human wisdom and virtue was inseparable from Thought. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. learning to worship God. Young, Frances M. 2003. Biblical Exegesis and the Formation Arguably, the most important means of teaching was of Christian Culture. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers. preaching, as bishops offered biblical expositions in the —Michael Pasquarello III Sunday liturgy and in services of the Word that were conducted during the week. Scripture served as more than a source book for sermons, providing a larger world, Bishops, New TestamentOnly Foundations an intellectual and linguistic framework for unfolding of the Teaching Role of the realities of Christian revelation and for instructing Christian assemblies about God, Christ, the world, the The Greek term episkopos, the root of our contemporary church, and the spiritual and moral life. Because those term for bishop, is generally translated as elder, overseer, who were charged with elaborating technical theology or guardian, and it appears five times in the New Testa- were also preachers, their aim was to articulate and shape ment (Acts 20:28; Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:2; Tit. 1:7; 1 Pet. the experience of ordinary Christians. The church’s wor- 2:25). These references indicate a position of leadership ship was not simply an appropriation of the past but a within the early Christian community, and it is some- present, corporate experience of God articulated by the times used interchangeably with the term presbyteros (See church’s faith. The preacher’s task was to put into words Tit. 1:5;Copy 1 Pet. 5:1–3). the wisdom of what the church was being given to ap- New Testament evidence paints this leadership role prehend and know: its present appropriation of the risen in broad strokes, indicating general oversight of the Lord and his saving work in the world.48 community. This general oversight is frequently associ- The intimate connection of theology and life in the ated with guarding against false teaching or handing early church was significant since, according to patristic on the right teaching to the community. Acts 20:28–30 wisdom, holy lives are the best apology for the truth and warns the episcopos to guard the community against goodness of the Gospel. There was little room for the those “speaking perverse things, to draw away the dis- modern divisions that have contributed to a separation ciples after them” (v. 30). First Timothy 3:1–7 and Titus of theological convictions and the life of the church. Pas- 1:5–16 both list the ideal qualities of the episcopos, spe- toral and church practice was tested by Christian wisdom cifically naming teaching among these. First Timothy that was the fruit of reading scripture, while the study of notes the “ability to teach” as a specific skill, inserted scripture was informed by the wisdom of pastoral and in what is otherwise a list of character traits (Tim. 3:2). ecclesial practice. Faithful preaching of the Gospel re- Titus gives the most elaborate description for the role quires and leads to a reconciliation of theology and prac- of episcopos, following a list of character traits with tice grounded in, and demonstrated by, truthful witness the specific skill of teaching: “holding fast the faithful to Christ, which is manifested by the concrete reality of word which is in accordance with the teaching, so that the church. The Christian vision is meant to be translated he will be able both to exhort in sound doctrine and to into virtue: the faith that apprehends God’s gratuitous refute those who contradict” (v. 8). This description forgivenessContributor in Christ must be translated into joyful obedi- provides a glimpse of the New Testament period of ence and sanctified living. Such teaching cultivates a form parallel Christian communities emerging and seeking of life that is shaped by the Gospel and enlivened by the to appropriate and interpret the Gospel message, while Spirit to participate in, and witness to, the restoration and sometimes being at odds with each other in doing so. In this context, those who preached or taught the Gospel message in multiple contexts had to be tested and found 48. Rowan A. Greer, Broken Lights and Mended Lives: Theology and the Common Life in the Early Church (University Park: Pennsylvania State authentic. The Didache (first century) gives a similar Press, 1986), 1–20. impression, as it describes in detail how to spot a false Blind, Current Trends in the Education of the 155 teacher or prophet (chapter 11), while also encouraging quences—physical and health, orientation and cognitive, the community to appoint bishops and deacons to serve psychosocial and ecclesial—are taken into consideration. as prophets and teachers for them (chapter 15:2). Poverty of the blind is still a challenge for Christian com- In this early period, leaders who could authentically munities. Both in poor and developed countries, poverty interpret and hand on the content of faith preserved the is manifested by an unequal access or no access to goods community’s association with the Christ event, and thus and values making it possible for an individual to par- validated the identity of the community as Christian. ticipate fully in social life. This is also connected with The teaching role of the episcopos to hand on the faith economic poverty, namely the lack of access to necessary thus protected the community against false or mislead- material goods. Blind people are to a greater or lesser ing teachings and preserved the authenticity of the com- extent touched by cultural poverty, which prevents them munity as rooted in the life, death, and resurrection of from fully making use of intellectual and spiritual values. Jesus Christ. In this sense, the episcopos was a guardian These challenges shows the maturity of the church. of the identity of the community, a role that would re- Concern about the blind means recognizing in them the main manifest in teaching and administration, as well as dignity of the children of God created in His image, after in the concern for “apostolicity” in forming what consti- His likeness. Nowadays, pastoral service is not limited to tuted canonical scripture and orthodox doctrine during giving alms or providing help, even in an organized man- the first centuries of the Christian church. In a parallel ner. Pastoral care develops inOnly the direction of creating fashion, the teaching role of bishops as guardians of interpersonal relations with blind people, and taking into communal identity would also emerge sacramentally consideration their distinctness and weakness, is mani- as bishops presided over the initiation process of new fested by accompanying them in everyday life. However, Christians, from teaching the content of faith to admin- it is not only interpersonal relations that matter here. Pas- istering the sacraments, to breaking open the word in toral care aims at helping a blind person to create a bond mystagogical catechesis. with Jesus Christ. Therefore, the Bible, the catechism, and other aids are continually printed in Braille, which makes References and Resources it possible for the blind to prepare well for meeting Jesus in Sullivan, Francis. 2001. From Apostles to Bishops: The Develop- sacraments and to conduct a continuous dialogue. ment of the Episcopacy in the Early Church. Mahwah, NJ: CopyContemporary Christian education takes into consid- Paulist Press. eration a multidimensional formation of the family of a Wood, Susan, ed. 2003. Ordering the Baptismal Priesthood: blind person. It supports parents from the beginning of a Theologies of Lay and Ordained Ministry. Collegeville, MN: child’s life, when there may be doubts concerning defects The Liturgical Press. in the fetus. The teaching of the church draws attention —Daniella Zsupan-Jerome to the aim of the potential prenatal tests, which should always be favorable for a child and a mother and cannot lead to abortion. Nowadays, not only parents are edu- Blind, Current Trends cated about this, but also doctors, and other health-care in the Education of the employees are taught to provide information concerning the state of the fetus and support concerning the desire Contemporary Christian education perceives blind and for a child as the only, unique human being. Also, later on visually impaired people in the light of ecclesiology of the parents are supported and formed in truth that a family communion. Through baptism they become members is the most natural environment providing multidimen- of the church. By the sacrament of confirmation, they sional development to a blind child. are more perfectly bound to the church and are enriched Nowadays, pastoral efforts go in the direction of inte- with a special strength of the Holy Spirit. Hence they are, grating blind people into parish communities. Attempts as true witnesses of Christ, more strictly obliged to spread have been made to overcome their confinement to spe- and defend the faith by word and deed. The Eucharist is cialist ministry, which is significant in itself because it has the efficaciousContributor sign and sublime cause of that commu- qualified staff and all the necessary facilities. Volunteers nion in the divine life and that unity of the people of God help the blind get to the Sunday Eucharist and participate by which the church is kept in being. The sensory deficit in pilgrimages and other open religious meetings. With- does not lower their dignity as children of God. out doubt, contemporary media, such as the Internet, At present, the suffering of the blind is not idealized, enable them to access religious literature and contact denied, or underestimated. The consequences of the members of a big Christian community. damaged sight are reliably studied in various sociopo- Present centers for the blind make use of the most litical contexts. In the pastoral work, various conse- contemporary achievements of typhlopedagogy, but they 156 Blind, History of the Christian Education of the do not forget that their main aim is redemptive teaching Jesus with the blind, which may be summarized in the re- and compliance with the teaching of Christ. Therefore, it sponse Jesus gave to the question of the disciples of John is more and more common that patronage is withdrawn the Baptist: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the when the centers founded by convents and congregations blind regain their sight . . . and the poor have the good are taken over by private owners or by the state, and news proclaimed to them” (Matt. 11:2–6). However, a catholic teaching is endangered. Of course, blind people very significant meaning for the history of the Christian in these centers are not left without pastoral care, but it is education of the blind is carried by the story of a man a clear sign of being faithful to the Gospel in order not to blind since birth being healed by Jesus (John 9:1–41). The become spiritually blind, which was mentioned by Jesus: disciple’s question is still repeated all over the world, in “Woe to you, blind guides” (Matt. 23:16). different cultural contexts: “Rabbi, who sinned, this man The concept of disability and the way disabled people or his parents, that he was born blind?” What Jesus re- are perceived are being transformed in societies. These plied was and still is surprising: “It was not that this man changes are accompanied by changes in the ministry for sinned, or his parents, but that the works of God might the blind and, in order to ensure pastoral activity ade- be made manifest in him.” Jesus rejected a commonly quate to their needs, many theological departments in the accepted opinion that blindness is a punishment for sins world carry out scientific research devoted to this topic. and at the same time showed a mystical role of the dis- abled in the life and activity of theOnly church. References and Resources Disciples of Jesus shared brotherly love especially with Axelrod C. 2006. And the Journey Begins. Washington, DC: the poor and the disabled. The first caring institutions Gallaudet University Press. created in Christian ancient times also took the blind Secretariato Nacional de Catequesis. 1995. Annunciar a los po- under their roof. The first houses for the blind were bres la Buena Noticia. Magisterio de la Iglesia y minusvalías. founded as early as in the fourth century in the area Madrid: Edice. of Jerusalem, Caesarea, and Damascus. According to United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. 1989. Pastoral Theodoret (†460), the hermit Limnaeus created a settle- Statement of U.S. Catholic Bishops on Persons with Disabili- ment for the blind where they could get education, pray, ties. Washington, DC: USCCB. and work. Also, convents created hospitals and special Walthers R. 2003. Einführung in die Blinden- und Sehbehinder- caringCopy homes for the blind. In the Middle Ages various tenpädagogik. München: Reinhardt Verlag. places were founded by magnates. The most famous was —Andrzej Kiciński the fund set up by King Louis IX of France. In 1256, he set up Hospice des Quinze-Vingts in Paris, where 300 blind people made their home. Smaller homes were set Blind, History of the up by various fraternities for the blind. Juan Luis Vives Christian Education of the (1492–1540)—the pioneer of social pedagogy and a devout believer—created the concept of the system of When analyzing the history of the Christian education social pedagogy and working with disabled children. He of the blind, one should get to know the Old Testament based it on the conviction that God accepts the existence approach to the blind. Disability was then perceived as of both able and disabled people so that they enrich one either God’s punishment for sins or a test. The first ap- another. He demanded education for visually impaired proach may be found in the words: “The Lord will strike children, both boys and girls. However, it was not until you with madness, blindness and panic” (Deut. 28:28), the 18th century that education of the blind was de- while the second one can be found in the biblical story of veloped. In 1749, Valentin Haüy set up Institution des Tobit, who was deprived of eyesight for four years (Tob. Jeunes Aveugles in Paris, which became the model and 2:10) and then regained his sight (Tob. 11), which carries inspiration for schools, workshops, and dormitories a message that suffering is a temporary test sent by God, for the blind. At the same time, Abbé Charles Michel who rewards it with much bigger prosperity. The basis de l’Epée (†1789) organized education for the deaf and for variousContributor approaches in the OT is categorical prohibi- blind. In 1849, Pauline von Mallinckrodt (1817–1881) tion of hurting the blind and the disabled in general, founded the Sisters of Christian Charity in Paderborn. included in the words: “You shall not curse the deaf, or This congregation still works with the blind in South put a stumbling block in front of the blind” (Lev. 19:14). and North America, Europe, and the Philippines. Father Jesus of Nazareth brought a radical change in the ap- Yves Mollata (1896–1934) influenced the contemporary proach to blind people. He met them everywhere, like ministry for the blind. He emphasized the need for the two near Jericho whose sight was restored by Him providing spiritual support to the blind and founded (Matt. 9:27–31). Evangelists report frequents meetings of the Croisade des Aveugles (Crusade of the Blind). In Board Governance 157 the United States, Father J. Stadelman founded Xavier (presidents/head masters/principals and their executive Society for the Blind, which still helps the spiritual de- teams) carries the primary responsibilities for imple- velopment of the blind. In the last few decades, specialist menting the mission, boards are strengthening their organizational structures of the ministry for the blind commitments to both the explicit duties (as defined by both in the Episcopal conferences and in particular dio- accrediting, certifying, best practices, and governmental ceses have sprung up. Many convents and congregations requirements) and their implicit promises (holding in in developed countries run their own education centers trust the mission and integrity of the organization on or support religious education of the blind in state struc- behalf of its stakeholders). Guarding and guiding the or- tures. In poor countries, they often provide the only ganization is the highest responsibility of a faith-based educational structures for the blind. nonprofit board of trustees. Unfortunately, there is a tendency among some References and Resources faith-based boards not to manage closely and hold ac- Brown, N. 1972. Pastoral Care of the Blind. Great Wakering countable their CEOs. There are numerous reasons for Essex, England: Mayhew-McCrimmon. this. In some cases, there is a theological resistance to Paukowitsch, W., and E. Schmid. 1980. “Die Katechese bei touching God’s anointed, a feeling that the leader was Blinden.” Christlich-pädagogische Blätter 93: 240–243. brought to the organization by a divine call, so full Reynolds, T. 2008. Vulnerable Communion: A Theology of Dis- support and trust is needed ratherOnly than close scrutiny ability and Hospitality. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press. and questioning. In some organizations, the boards Szagun, A. K. 1983. Behinderung: Ein gesellschaftliches, consist of the close friends and confidants of the CEO, theologisches und pädagogisches Problem. Göttingen: making it difficult to exercise the oversight required. Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht. Faith-based boards also recognize that their leaders are —Andrzej Kiciński serving sacrificially, so they tend to make allowances for idiosyncrasies and inconsistencies. In addition, board members are busy with their own obligations and are Board Governance only able to contribute limited attention and time. Fi- nally, many CEOs discourage in-depth oversight, mak- One of the most significant and frequently overlooked ingCopy it difficult for boards to fulfill their moral as well as influences on institutional effectiveness for Christian ed- fiduciary responsibilities as overseers. ucation and other nonprofit organizations is the role and function of the group charged with the legal oversight of A Biblical Basis for Board Governance the organization: the governing board. When mission Accomplishing such an important task in guiding and drift, operational dysfunction, or other crippling crises governing the Lord’s mission of Christian education is occur in organizations, it is not unusual to find the root a serious and demanding assignment for boards. Those causes to be with the board’s approach to governance. who govern Christian schools and colleges have an obli- In the United States, there are about 1.6 million non- gation to ensure that the spiritual, moral, fiduciary, and profit organizations. An estimated 15 percent, or about legal requirements of their sacred calling are addressed. 40,500, of these organizations are intentionally Chris- The early church recognized that organizing God’s tian in nature and motivation. The first educational people in ways that best deployed their gifts and guided enterprises in the United States were faith-motivated their activities was essential to achieving their high call- and sustained. The Council for Christian Colleges and ings in Christ Jesus. The apostle Paul (1 Tim. 3) high- Universities represents about 120 national and nearly lighted two basic categories of workers, those we have 50 international institutions. Another organization that come to call servant leaders. Elders carried the oversight plays an important role in promoting Christian educa- responsibilities of the work, ensuring that the spiritual tion is the Association of Christian Schools Interna- foundations were sound and the fundamental principles tional. Founded in 1978, it has 28 regional offices world- of Christ-centered life and work were practiced. These wide, servingContributor 23,400 member schools in more than 100 were the trustees charged with the effective governance countries. of the mission and ministry. Deacons administrated In light of their growing influence, greater scrutiny and did the day-to-day work, using their abilities and by donors and government groups at the state and fed- resources to serve the people performing their functions eral levels of these organizations is taking place—par- under the oversight and within the nurturing of the ticularly in the areas of board governance. This makes governing/ruling elders. it necessary for governing entities to be more proactive For many of today’s most effective faith-based institu- in supervision. While the administrative leadership tions, similar patterns of governance and administration 158 Board Governance are evident. While often relegated to local church or governance that apply to the board member’s functions denominational formats, the model of elders who gov- and attitudes. Purity of purpose and motivation guides ern and deacons who administrate provides clarity of the most reliable board members in their work. They purpose and a connection to the history of the Christian avoid personal agendas and hobbyhorses that are not in movement. In Christ-centered education, the elders are keeping with the mission of the organization. These wise the boards of trustees. The deacons in these institutions governors are gentle peacemakers who make decisions are the senior administration, led by the chief operating for the greater good in ways that promote and preserve officer, who serves as the primary liaison between the unity. Deeply committed to the essential principles and trustees and the institution. practices of the organization, they yield to the collec- Scripture uses other titles to describe these oversight tive wisdom of their colleagues and are merciful to those functions, including bishops, overseers, and stewards. whose opinions and actions may conflict with their own. Here the concepts of overseer and steward are used, The decisions they make are without partiality and are since Jesus highlighted these in His teachings. Our Lord consistent with their true character and convictions and used stories of responsible and irresponsible, faithful thus without hypocrisy. In their dealings with one an- and unfaithful stewards, in His parables (Matt. 25:14– other, and with the staff, they model a servant’s heart and 30; Luke 19:11–27). demonstrate the good fruit of the Spirit-filled life of love, Jesus referred to Himself as the Good Shepherd who joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness,Only and faithfulness gives His life for the sheep (John 10:10)—the ultimate (Gal. 5:22, NIV). illustration of someone who takes seriously the stew- Board members who are called work, faithfully at- ardship oversight of another’s flock, in this case His tending committee and board meetings. They come fully Heavenly Father’s. This Good Shepherd model contrasts prepared to understand and contribute to the essential with hirelings who, in difficult times, flee and abandon processes of governance. These board members under- their trust because they are motivated only by that which stand that their position carries with it a duty to be well benefited them (John 10:12–13). Jesus demonstrates the equipped and meaningfully involved. They study board attitude and actions of the ideal steward-overseer, sacri- meeting materials thoroughly, taking particular note of ficing what is necessary to protect and advance what has those aspects that address the mission of the organiza- been entrusted to Him. tion, Copysupport the staff responsible for implementing the mission, and speak to their fiduciary responsibilities as A Profile of a Steward Overseer Trustee overseers of a tax-exempt charity. Outside of board meet- In light of these biblical principles and examples, what ings, they work on behalf of the organization’s needs. characteristics and commitments are needed for trust- They help with fund-raising campaigns and special pub- ees to lead faith-based organizations in the most effec- lic relations events and willingly mentor staff, deploying tive use of the people, resources, and opportunities God their talents and passions for the advancement of the has entrusted to their governance? Robert Andringa organization’s vision and mission. identified five key qualities that characterize the most Called board members share their wealth by being effective Board members: wisdom, work, wealth, wit- donors of record. They model sacrificial giving. More- ness, and wallop.49 While not every board member will over, they willingly encourage others in their circles of possess every quality equally, those who understand influence to be financial contributors. Given challenging that they have received a divine call to serve in such a financial times, board members sacrificially give to moti- capacity have a commitment to the full development of vate others to support. Their giving adds credibility to the these qualities within the limits of their own potential. organization’s requests for support. Good governance begins with good character, out of Such board members are witnesses, integrating pre- which grows good actions. cepts with practice in setting policies and monitoring Called board members demonstrate wisdom by help- processes that are consistent with the highest standards ing formulate and monitor wise policies. They are avail- of the Christian faith. They recognize that since the orga- able to adviseContributor staff when called upon and offer sugges- nization represents a ministry of Christ, only the highest tions to the administrative leadership team. This wisdom standards of ethics and performance are acceptable. They comes out of a lifetime of professional experiences, as set an example for staff as well as students and supporters well as spiritual growth. The apostle James (3:17) sug- about following Christ in the marketplace, at home, and gests several hallmarks of the wisdom needed for effective in the church. Finally, called Board members exercise wallop, bring- 49. The Engstrom Institute, “Board Governance: A Downloadable Re- ing their knowledge and experience to bear on their source,” www.engstrominstitute.com, pg. 11 (2008). work in ways that only they can do. They ask themselves, Board Governance 159

What one thing could my position and network accom- • A description of the core values needed to guide the plish that others on this board could not? As serious organization in fulfillment of its stated mission and Christians, they sense that God has a unique and distinc- implied promises. tive contribution for them to make to the life, culture, • A clarification of the moral owners to whom the or- and mission of the institution. Effective governance is ganization feels accountable and responsible, along anchored to the character and the quality of those who with a description of the organization’s beneficiaries. govern, particularly in faith-based institutions. • An overview of the major functions as well as the primary strategies the organization uses to serve Policy-Based Governance its beneficiaries, keep faith with its moral owners, Recognizing that good governance begins with good and fulfill the promises implied in its declaration people, we conclude this review with a focus on good of mission. practices. Is there a best approach to developing board • A summary of both short- and long-term goals to governance that honors and exemplifies these prin- achieve its stated objectives, along with the monitor- ciples? For many of the most effective institutions, a ing tools (key performance indicators) to measure form of policy-based governance has been helpful. John success and validate results. Carver developed the policy governance model in 1990. • Clear delineation of executive parameters that guide Most who use the Carver model, however, adapt rather the CEO and administrationOnly in the implementation than adopt it. The key is for the board to understand the of programs and services to fulfill the missional strategic differences between governing and managing promises of the organization. the organization. What distinguishes governing from managing and Board members of faith-based organizations often feel administering is the board’s delegation of responsibility unprepared personally, spiritually, and theologically to to the CEO and senior staff for operating the business give direction, viewing the staff as superior in professional of the organization within clearly established, approved, experience, spiritual condition, biblical knowledge, and and monitored policies. Governing boards are policy vision. The fact that many who choose to lead these orga- focused, using clearly defined parameters to guide the nizations do so at significant personal sacrifice causes the operating and oversight of their own and the staff’s work. boardCopy to resist unnecessarily burdening or limiting their However, a full implementation of a policy versus the already overworked staff. Charismatic, visionary leaders administration style of governance is often challenging may view a policy approach as restricting their ability to in faith-based settings. lead the organization aggressively and entrepreneurially. It is not unusual for faith-based organizations to have And some CEOs may view such a policy-guided direction boards that function more like working or managing as an expression of a lack of trust and confidence. boards than governing boards. Sometimes the lack of In reality, however, policies that are thoughtfully devel- resources and sudden changes in leadership personnel oped and wisely administered free the CEO and staff to require board members to be implementers—to both ad- give more time to the ministries of the ministry, knowing minister as well as govern. There is a significant potential that the important parameters that govern the business for conflicts of interest without clearly defined policies of the ministry are in place. The policy-guided approach and procedures. Policies protect as well as guide, clarify- minimizes confusion and limits conflicts, helping boards ing the differences between the governance role and the and CEOs understand their functions, responsibilities, implementer role for those who work across the two are- and expected outcomes. The policy approach also allows nas of service. A well-documented and regularly updated the board to focus on the larger issues of strategic vision- board policy manual establishes the parameters that help ing, since many of the administrative necessities that too navigate in both the best and worst of times with wisdom, often consume board agendas are routinized. grace, humility, and courage. Effective board governance for faith-based schools But what policies are most important for effective and colleges requires that trustees be steward-overseers governance?Contributor Robert Andringa has a helpful template for doing God’s work God’s way for His ultimate glory. a board policy manual, available at www.TheAndringa Policy-based governance uses the scriptural concepts of Group.com/pages/bob_andringa. It is important that collaboration, discernment, consensus, and responsible particular attention be paid to the following items needed oversight to guide the effectiveness and guard the in- for policy formulation and monitoring: tegrity of the important work these organizations do to advance Christ’s Kingdom through Christian education. • Clear, compelling statements of organizational vi- When Christian character and clear policies join forces, sion and institutional mission. good governance is the likely result. 160 Bolivia and Christian Education

References and Resources primarily focus on missionary kids. Some MKs are home- Andringa, R. C. 2007. The Nonprofit Board Answer Book: A schooled. Missionary kids schools include Carachipampa Practical Guide for Board Members and Chief Executives. San Christian School (Cochabamba), Santa Cruz Learning Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Center (Santa Cruz), and Highlands International School Laughlin, Fredrick L., and Robert C. Andringa. 2007. Good (La Paz). In recent years, five Christian universities have Governance for Nonprofits: Developing Principles and Policies been founded. for an Effective Board. New York: AMACOM Press Ameri- can Management Association. Religious Freedom The Christian community enjoys religious freedom. The www.policygovernance.com present government, however, is requiring churches to www.policygovernanceassociation.org be involved in a social program of their choosing, such http://www.christianleadershipalliance.org/?page=engstrom as Compassion, which helps local children with nutrition _institute and homework while providing Bible classes. http://www.ecfa.org/KnowledgeCenter.aspx http://www.cccu.org/ Unique Methods of Educating Christians http://agb.org/knowledge-center Semiliterate believers learn Bible study methods through http://www.ats.edu/Resources/Pages/default.aspx the Mobile Bible School, a ministryOnly of Mosoj Chaski. http://www.abhe.org/resources Entering remote mountainous communities, they teach —David Gyertson Bolivia’s largest group in Quechua. For the first time, these believers are studying the Bible individually and corporately. Bolivia and Christian Education Reference The Origin of Christianity in Bolivia Wagner, Peter. 1970. The Protestant Movement in Bolivia. After the Bible Society in the early 19th century, the South Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library. Gospel came to Bolivia primarily through faith missions. —Michael W. Wheeler The first included the Brethren Assemblies (1895), Cana- Copy dian Baptists (1898), Methodists (1901), Bolivian Indian Mission (1907) (later Andes Evangelical Mission, which Bonhoeffer, Dietrich merged with SIM), and Seventh-day Adventists (1907). Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945) was a German scholar, Major Denominations and Institutions educator, theologian, and Lutheran pastor who became The largest protestant denomination in Bolivia is the well known for his opposition to the Nazi regime. He Assemblies of God, followed by the Evangelical Chris- is considered to be one of the most influential modern tian Unión (established primarily by the Andes Evan- theologians.50 gelical Mission), Seventh-day Adventists, Bolivian Bap- tist Unión (founded by the Canadian Baptists), and Background and Education Methodists. Bonhoeffer was born in Breslau, Germany, but he grew Although Bolivia boasts some 65 seminaries and up in Berlin, where his father was a professor of neu- Bible institutes, most are very small. In 2012 the largest, rology and psychiatry at the University of Berlin, from based on number of students pursuing degrees of four which Dietrich earned a doctorate in theology at the age years or more (listed with the number of students in of 21. His doctoral dissertation was praised by Karl Barth programs of shorter duration), were the Bible Seminary as a “theological miracle.”51 After serving at a vicarage in of the Evangelical Christian Unión (127/64 students, Co- Barcelona, Spain, he was admitted to the theology faculty chabamba), Hebron Theological Seminary (64/54, Santa at the University of Berlin. Bonhoeffer spent one year at Cruz), SouthernContributor Theological Seminary (42/40, Sucre), Union Theological Seminary in New York for postgradu- Evangelical Bible Seminary (20/270, La Paz), and Baptist ate study and then returned to Germany to give lectures Theological Seminary (15/85, Cochabamba). Only the first two seminaries have master’s programs. 50. Neil Holm, “Classroom Formation and Spiritual Awareness Peda- gogy Based on Bonhoeffer’s Life Together,” Journal of Education and Chris- tian Belief 12, no. 2 (2008): 159. Typical Means of Educating Christians 51. Geffrey B. Kelly and F. Burton Nelson, Editors’ Introduction to A Testament to Freedom: The Essential Writings of Dietrich Bonhoeffer, ed. Most Christians attend public school, but there are pri- Geffrey B. Kelly and F. Burton Nelson (San Francisco: HarperCollins, vate Christian schools that either educate Bolivians or 1990), 7. Bonhoeffer, Dietrich 161 in systematic theology in Berlin. He was ordained on 15 undertaking, demanding in turn a rare combination of November 1931. scholarship, a passion for the principles of the Reforma- Adolf Hitler’s rise to power had a dramatic impact tion, and a certain fearlessness in those who would direct on Bonhoeffer’s career. In February 1933, two days after those seminaries.”56 Bonhoeffer believed that the proper Hitler became chancellor, Bonhoeffer broadcast a lecture way to educate seminarians “could only be done in com- over Berlin radio in which he criticized the German pub- munity shaped by Christian service and sustained by lic for blindly following a “leader” who would inevitably regular spiritual exercises and worship.”57 become a “misleader” if he did not cease holding himself Holm uses Bonhoeffer’s work Life Together as a way up as an idol to be worshipped. Before Bonhoeffer could of discovering proper forms of classroom practices, and finish, the broadcast was interrupted.52 he notes that Bonhoeffer’s words offer encouragement In 1935, Bonhoeffer received a call from the Confessing to Christian teachers who work in isolation in secular Church to head a clandestine seminary in Finkenwalde, classrooms and those who are disillusioned by working in Pomerania. The Confessing Church stood in opposition faith-based schools that seem to lack true Christian unity to the Nazi regime. The Nazis kept him under surveil- and depth.58 From Bonhoeffer, educators can learn that lance, however, and in 1937 the seminary was closed by allowing time for silence, meditation, and reflection is the Gestapo. “From then on his life was devoted to tasks beneficial for schoolchildren. Holm fittingly summarizes assigned by the Confessing Church and the Resistance.”53 Bonhoeffer’s approach to ChristianOnly education: He moved around the country, speaking to covert groups and acting as a courier between them. Ultimately, Christian teachers seek to prepare students, in With the help of his sister Christel’s husband, Bon- Bonhoeffer’s terms, to throw themselves utterly into the arms of God and to participate in God’s suffering in the hoeffer joined the Abwehr, a German military intelli- world, to find their true selves as existing for humanity, to gence organization that secretly worked against Hitler. take their part in the social life of the world, not lording it Ostensibly, Bonhoeffer’s international contacts would be over others, but helping and serving them to live in Christ useful to the German war effort. In reality, he was part of and to exist for others.59 the resistance movement and carried communiqués to and from the Allies during his travels. On 5 April 1943, Bonhoeffer was arrested and imprisoned; during this MostCopy Notable Publications time, guards often did him favors and preserved his pa- Bonhoeffer’s major works include The Communion of pers. After the failed assassination of Hitler in July 1944, Saints (published as Sanctorum Communio in 1930); Act documentation was discovered linking Bonhoeffer with and Being (1931); The Cost of Discipleship (1937); Life the German Resistance. At the age of 39, he was martyred Together (1939); Letters and Papers from Prison (written in Flossenburg prison, on 9 April 1945.54 1943–1945); and Ethics (which was unfinished and was published posthumously in 1949). A comprehensive, Significant Contributions to Christian Education 16-volume collection of Bonhoeffer’s works, translated Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s contributions to Christian educa- into English, is available from Augsburg Fortress Press. tion still have impact today. “He studied with Adolf von Harnack, the greatest liberal theologian of his time, but he References and Resources was shaped more decisively by Karl Barth. Barth believed, Doberstein, John W. 1954. “Introduction.” In Life Together, and Bonhoeffer stressed, that the preaching of the Word by Dietrich Bonhoeffer, translated by John W. Doberstein, of God in Holy Scripture was at the very heart of what 7–13. San Francisco: Harper & Row. it means to be a faithful follower of Jesus Christ.”55 He George, Timothy. 2013. “Bonhoeffer Today.” In Life Together: taught students from all levels of ability, from catechu- Walking with Bonhoeffer, Community Worship, by the Sam- mens to university students. Probably he would consider ford University Beeson Divinity School, 3–4. Birmingham, his crowning educational achievement the organization AL: Samford Office of Communication. of the Confessing Church seminary, which “was a new Holm, Neil. 2008. “Classroom Formation and Spiritual Aware- Contributor ness Pedagogy Based on Bonhoeffer’s Life Together.” Journal 52. John W. Doberstein, Introduction to Life Together, by Dietrich Bon- of Education and Christian Belief 12 (2): 159–175. hoeffer, trans. John W. Doberstein (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1954), Kelly, Geffrey B., and F. Burton Nelson. 1990. “Editors’ Intro- 10. It was speculated that the Nazi regime was behind the interruption. 53. Ibid., 12. duction.” In A Testament to Freedom: The Essential Writings 54. Ibid., 7. 55. Timothy George, “Bonhoeffer Today,” in Life Together: Walking 56. Kelly and Burton, Editors’ Introduction, 25. with Bonhoeffer, Community Worship, Spring 2013, by Samford University 57. Ibid. Beeson Divinity School (Birmingham, AL: Samford Office of Communica- 58. Holm, “Classroom Formation,” 162. tion, 2013), 3. 59. Ibid., 163. 162 Book of Kells

of Dietrich Bonhoeffer, edited by Geffrey B. Kelly and F. Bur- Christ; and narrative episodes such as Christ’s temptation ton Nelson, 3–46. San Francisco: HarperCollins. by the Devil and His arrest in the garden. —Kevin Voss Lavish creativity exudes in the interlacing of humans, animals, birds, and fanciful beings coiled in geometric patterns throughout the text. Emblems of vines, dragons, Book of Kells fish, serpents, and the cross are combined exquisitely in the most delicate manner, without any irregularity or The Book of Kells is an ornately illustrated manuscript repetition. For instance, archivists have counted more of the four Gospels, with several historic records and a than 158 interlacings of “white ribbon with a black bor- limited glossary of Hebrew names. Around AD 800, the der on either side” in the space of one square inch. The book was translated from Jerome’s Latin Bible (com- aim of the decorations was to glorify Christ’s life and pleted in 384) and intermixed with readings from the teachings by keeping His attributes and symbols ever earlier Old Latin translation, as well as a concordance before the reader. This may be seen in the repeated im- of Gospel passages compiled in the fourth century by ages of the face of Jesus, the cross, the Eucharist (with its Eusebius of Caesarea, summaries of the Gospel narra- grapes, chalices, and communion hosts), and the symbols tives, and prefaces characterizing the evangelists. Named of the resurrection (the lion, peacock, and snake). after the Columban monastery of Kells in County Meath, Various historic mentions of theOnly book occur, such as Ireland, tradition holds that the work was begun at the in the Annals of Ulster, which described the manuscript scriptorium of the island monastery of Iona (Argyllshire), as “the chief treasure of the Western world” and recorded off the western coast of Scotland, to honor Columba (d. that in 1006 it was stolen from the stone church of Colum 597). After a Viking raid in 806, the Columban monks Cille at Kells, the gold was removed from the ornate fled to Kells, taking the manuscript with them, where it cover, and it was buried in the ground. It remained at was completed. Kells for eight centuries and was fairly well preserved. Medieval monks had an eternal perspective of time Then, in the interest of its safety, Henry Jones, scoutmas- as they lived under God’s providence, and wrote their ter general to Oliver Cromwell’s army in Ireland, when books as an act of worship and a hallowed custody for he became bishop of Meath in 1661 presented the book future generations. “The pages are ploughed by the di- to theCopy library of Trinity College in Dublin, where it is on vine letters and the seed of God’s word is planted in the permanent display. parchment, which ripens into crops of completed books.” Some archivists see the Book of Kells as purely a sacred References and Resources work of art—an altar book intended to be displayed and Calkins, Robert G. 1983. Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages. viewed rather than read and designed for ceremonial Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. use on special occasions such as Easter, rather than for Farr, Carol. 1997. The Book of Kells: Its Function and Audience. daily services. This is possible given the number of un- London: British Library. corrected errors throughout the text (letters and whole Henderson, George. 1987. From Durrow to Kells: The Insular words omitted and already copied texts repeated), as well Gospel-Books, 650–800. London: Thames and Hudson. as the size and splendor of the book. Or was it a liturgical —Robert L. Gallagher document used at the altar within the religious calendar’s public reading of scripture, with the decoration used to emphasize important points of the biblical reading? The Borromeo, Charles question remains of how the images and graphically ar- ticulated texts made the liturgy more meaningful. Early Background and Education The script is one of the finest examples of Irish hand- St. Charles Borromeo was born in Castle Arona in Italy writing in existence, the creation of three artists and four in October 1538. While he may be best remembered as a major scribes. It has 340 pages, each a 13-by-9½-inch major figure in the Catholic Counter-Reformation and as piece of glazedContributor parchment, with many of the letters an organizer of the Council of Trent, Borromeo should adorned with a variety of colors, such as the opening serve as an inspiration to all Christian educators. His words of each of the Gospels, which were decorated and legacy is Christian “Sunday school,” which grew out of fill a whole page. There were also full pages of decoration his zeal for education in Christian principles. Borromeo for the symbols of the evangelists Matthew (the Man), was a cardinal-priest and archbishop of Milan. He died at Mark (the Lion), Luke (the Calf), and John (the Eagle); the age of 46, in 1584, and is the patron saint of catechists the Virgin and child surrounded by angels; a portrait of and catechumens. Bosnia/Herzegovina and Christian Education 163

Borromeo became a monk, receiving the tonsure at the hospital. Understanding the gravity of his actions, he had age of 12, and studied in Milan. He later attended the Uni- already prepared his own will. Believing that the illness versity of Pavia, studying civil and canon law and earning was punishment for sin, he walked the streets in proces- a doctorate in 1559. That same year his uncle was named sion, barefooted, with a rope around his neck to do pen- Pope Pius IV; he appointed Charles the secretary of state ance for his people. Many were reported to be comforted for the Vatican. At the age of 22, Borromeo helped orga- by his presence. Even the clergy who so opposed his re- nize the continuation of the Council of Trent (1562–1563). forms were persuaded to return to the city and assist him (Glancey 1908). He ordered that decorative fabrics from Significant Contributions to Christian Education the churches be used to clothe the poor and incurred per- Borromeo was a fierce reformer, who believed that the sonal debt in an attempt to feed over 60,000 people each Protestant Reformation and attendant heresies were a day (Swetnam n.d.). result of the people’s ignorance of orthodox Christian Borromeo was canonized in 1610 by Pope Paul V. beliefs. In Milan, he supported the establishment of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine (CCD) for the teach- References and Resources ing of children and adults by priests and laity, which Catholic News Agency. 2013. “St. Charles Borromeo.” 4 Novem- survives today in Catholic religious education and in ber. Accessed 26 May 2013. http://catholicnewsagency.com/ Protestant Sunday schools. saint.php?n=645. Only Prior to this time, bishops and priests were required Glancey, Michael. 1908. “New Advent.” In The Catholic Ency- only to teach the basic precepts of the Apostles’ Creed clopedia: Confraternity of Christian Doctrine. Accessed 25 and the Lord’s Prayer, and only a few times each year. May 2013. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03711b.htm. Borromeo required that all priests in every parish of Swetnam, Susan. n.d. “Saint Charles Borromeo 1539–1584.” his diocese give instruction on Sundays and feast days, Loyola Press: A Jesuit Ministry. Accessed 26 May 2013. http:// either themselves or through trained and morally up- www.loyolapress.com/YourPrintPage.aspx. right members of the laity. In Milan, Borromeo trained —Angelique Montgomery-Goodnough 3,000 catechists, who in turn instructed up to 40,000 of the faithful in an expanded and codified curriculum of church doctrine (Glancey 1908). CopyBosnia/Herzegovina and During the Council of Trent, Borromeo used the Christian Education opportunity to compile a comprehensive summary of doctrine into the first printed version of the Roman Cat- Bosnia and Herzegovina is located in Central Europe, echism (Catholic News Agency 2013). He also established east of Italy across the Adriatic Sea. The estimated popu- an Academy of Literature in Rome, as well as numerous lation is close to 4 million. The primary ethnic groups are colleges and seminaries for the education of the clergy. Bosniak, Serb, and Croat.

Reformer and Healer Arrival of Christianity As archbishop of Milan, Borromeo undertook an uncom- Bosnia and Herzegovina lies along the religious fault line promising and ultimately dangerous systematic reform of where three cultures converge. The Croat people have the clergy and monastic orders. A man of integrity, Bor- strong ties with Roman Catholicism from the West, the romeo began with his own house first, banishing most Serbs have equally strong ties to Orthodox beliefs from of the staff and selling off family properties to support the East, and the polytheistic Slavic peoples who origi- feeding the poor. He forbade the selling of indulgences nated from the north were easily converted to the Islamic and purchase of clerical positions, which had prompted faith (beginning in 1463) during the Turkish Ottoman much of the fervor of the Protestant Reformation. In Empire’s conquest from the south. Within the country, 1569, his reforms prompted one group, The Order of the religion was often based on politics and culture rather Humiliati, to try to murder him while he was at prayer than a personal relationship with Christ and was loosely in his chapel.Contributor Struck by a cannon ball, he instructed his held. A determination of when Christianity arrived in household to continue at prayer as he prepared himself Bosnia and Herzegovina depends, in large measure, on for death. When prayer ended, he was found to have a which ethnic heritage is being considered. There has relatively superficial wound (Glancey 1908). long been some Christian presence, at least at a superfi- During an outbreak of the plague in 1576, Borromeo cial level. On the other hand, the Bosniaks are one of the became a healer, personally attending to parishioners least-evangelized groups in the world; for them, Christi- who were infected, in their homes and at St. Gregory anity has not yet arrived. 164 Bosnia/Herzegovina and Christian Education

Religious Identity in Modern Bosnia nism, religion was treated as an irrelevant nuisance rather Ethnic identity is complicated, determined more by than a mortal enemy of the state. family history and political circumstances than by race, During the communist years, under the dictatorial lead- language, or place of origin (Vanderwerf 2008). The Bos- ership of Josip Tito (1945–1980), Bosnians prided them- niaks, who account for 48 percent of the population, are selves on their religious tolerance. In Sarajevo, the Catholic predominantly Muslim. Only an estimated .03 percent cathedral, an Orthodox church, a Muslim mosque, and are Christian (Joshua Project 2013). a Jewish synagogue stood within a few blocks of one an- The next largest segment of the population (37 per- other, and worshippers attended them peacefully. cent) is the Bosnians of Serb ethnic origin. Approxi- After Tito’s death, however, political factions wrestled mately 80 percent are Orthodox, while 18 percent have for control of Yugoslavia until the 1990s, when the repub- no religious affiliation (Joshua Project 2013). lics broke apart. The republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Among the Croats (14 percent of the population), 95 with a history dating back to at least the 12th century, percent are Roman Catholic, and 5 percent have no reli- declared its independence in 1992. The vicious war that gious affiliation (Joshua Project 2013). followed was waged on religious grounds, although the people are of the same racial ethnicity. Neighbors who Methods of Christian Education had barely known one another’s cultural religious affilia- As is true in many European countries, children study tion were suddenly divided in bloodyOnly conflicts of ethnic religion in the public schools. International oversight has cleansing and genocide. helped to create Catholic, Orthodox, and Muslim cur- An international peacekeeping force intervened and ricula that provide basic religious education (beliefs and froze the position of the combatants along the then-ex- history) without inciting animosity toward other faiths. isting dividing lines. The three ethnic nationalities, which However, a large percent of the public schools now have took refuge in separate areas during the fighting, have students of only one religious faith, due to the demo- been segregated to a large extent since the war. graphics of the communities they serve. Following the war, evangelical agencies, other Chris- There are private religious schools in the country, op- tian organizations, nongovernmental agencies, and rep- erated by the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church. resentatives of other faiths poured humanitarian aid and In the seven Catholic schools, enrollment is open to all personnelCopy into the country. Islamic funds also poured faiths, and multicultural tolerance is actively encouraged into the country, and mosques were built. People who (www.reliefweb.int 2013). Evangelicals have one school were nominally affiliated with the three major religions in Mostar and one in Sarajevo. There are also educational have a heightened sensitivity to their religious identity. opportunities at various evangelical centers scattered Tensions remain, even more than a decade after the around the country. Evangelicals who wish to pursue war’s end. While daily life is generally peaceful, there theological studies or Christian vocational studies need is the constant possibility of militant religious activity. to go outside of the country (e.g., to Croatia, Hungary) Religious freedom is guaranteed under the constitution, for higher education. but incidents do occur, and governmental response is not Evangelicals among the Bosniaks use a wide variety of always even-handed. Bosnia-Herzegovina is considered a methods to reach and teach the people. They have used high-security area for evangelical Christian workers. English as a Second Language (ESL) classes, backyard Bible clubs, day camps, sports camps, music ministry, References and Resources puppet ministry, women’s groups, small group studies, “Catholic Schools an Oasis in Bosnia’s Ethnic Strife.” n.d. Ac- chronological Bible storying, mentoring, home Bible cessed 30 April 2013. http://reliefweb.int/report/bosnia-and studies, and more. -herzegovina/catholic-schools-oasis-bosnias-ethnic-strife. In 2002, a translation of the New Testament into the Fletcher, Richard. 1997. The Barbarian Conversion: From Pa- Bosniak dialect was published. It continues to be distrib- ganism to Christianity. New York: Henry Holt. uted and used for study. Joshua Project. 2013. “Bosniaks, Croats, Serbs.” Accessed 17 Contributor April 2013. http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php. Religious Freedom Spinka, Matthew. (1933) 1968. A History of Christianity in the Religious freedom today must be understood within the Balkans: A Study in the Spread of Byzantine Culture among context of the war that took place from 1992 to 1995. the Slavs. Hamden, CT: Archon Books. After World War II Yugoslavia, of which Bosnia and U.S. Department of State. 2011. Bosnia and Herzegovina: Ex- Herzegovina was a part, became a communist country. ecutive Summary 2011. Accessed 30 April 2013. http://www Unlike in many Central European states under commu- .state.gov/documents/organization/193003.pdf. Bounds, E. M. 165

Vanderwerf, Mark. 2008. “A Missiological Examination of Na- of God’s reign of justice, peace, and fullness of life for all tional Identity in Bosnia-Herzegovina.” PhD diss., Western as inaugurated in Jesus Christ. Seminary, Portland, OR. The institute became distinguished for its pedagogy, World Factbook. n.d. Accessed 30 April 2013. https://www.cia which maintains a dialectical unity between theory and .gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bk.html. praxis to encourage both the knowing and living of faith. Its overall curriculum has consistently reflected commit- http://www.joshuaproject.net/interactive-map.php ment to academic rigor, spiritual formation, and pastoral —Carol Olsen preparation. Committed to such holistic education for all functions and forms of religious education, ministry, and faith-based service, the IREPM has been a leader in the Boston College’s Institute of Religious emerging movement of lay ecclesial ministries in the U.S. Education and Pastoral Ministry Catholic Church and beyond. Though distinctly Catholic in commitment and ethos, it has been ecumenical in its Boston College’s Institute of Religious Education and faculty and outreach. Pastoral Ministry (IREPM) was founded as a summer Over time, Boston College’s IREPM has come to enjoy institute in 1971, adding an academic year faculty and an international as well as a national reputation, attract- curriculum the following year. Residing within the Bos- ing students from throughout theOnly world. Its thousands of ton College Department of Theology and in partnership graduates serve as leaders in religious education and in with the university’s School of Education, it first offered every conceivable function of ministry and faith-based MEd and CAES degrees in religious education. It soon service. In particular, the graduates of its small but highly added a PhD in religious education (1977) and an MA regarded PhD program (now in theology and education) in pastoral ministry (1978). are among the most prominent scholars and leaders in The IREPM entered into innovative partnerships with contemporary religious education. other schools of Boston College to offer joint and dual de- On 1 June 2008, the IREPM merged with the Weston grees, enabling people to prepare for vocations that com- Jesuit School of Theology to form the Boston College bine competence in religious education and ministry with, School of Theology and Ministry (STM). It continues its for example, social work, counseling psychology, church distinguishedCopy service and defining commitments as the management, nursing, or Catholic school leadership. It has Department of Religious Education and Pastoral Minis- also offered programs of sabbatical renewal and continu- try (DREPM) within the STM. ing education and has more recently added a rich curricu- —Thomas H. Groome lum of noncredit online Christian education (CE) courses. The institute’s cofounder (with Richard McBrien) and first director was Prof. Jack McCall; subsequent Bounds, E. M. directors were Professors Richard McBrien, Philip King, Robert Imbelli, Claire Lowery, Mary Ann Hinsdale, E. M. (Edward McKendree) Bounds was an American and Thomas Groome. Its distinguished faculty (regu- Methodist author and minister. He was born on 15 Au- lar summer adjuncts and academic year) has included gust 1835, in Shelby County, Missouri. Bounds was the Richard McCormack, George McRae, Gabriel Moran, second youngest child in a family of three sons and three Bernard Cooke, Bernard Anderson, Maria Harris, Walter daughters. Originally from Maryland, his parents were Brueggemann, James Fowler, Henri Nouwen, Gustavo married in 1823 and subsequently moved westward in Gutierrez, Paulo Freire, Raymond Brown, Dan Har- search of greater opportunities for their young family. rington, Michael Himes, Maryanne Confoy, Shawn Co- Bounds’s father served as a county clerk, and the fam- peland, Richard Gaillardetz, John Baldovin, Mary Boys, ily was relatively prosperous. Bounds was educated in a Padraic O’Hare, Jane Regan, John Shea, Colleen Griffith, one-room schoolhouse in Shelbyville (where his father and many others. worked). He was 14 when his father died of tuberculo- The IREPMContributor was founded in response to the movement sis, and although the family was financially stable, they of renewal and reform launched by the Second Vatican were emotionally adrift. Consequently, he and his older Council (1962–1965); it has continued in the Council’s brother Charles traveled westward in search of gold in spirit of resourcement and aggiornamento. Its defining California. The brothers returned home four years later, commitment has been to prepare and renew religious and Bounds decided to study law. He passed the bar at educators and pastoral minsters who will enable the 18 and had a successful legal practice in Shelby County church to be an effective instrument of the in-breaking for five years. 166 Boys, Mary

At the age of 24, Bounds sensed God’s call upon his rejected the office of evangelist, he resigned his position life. In 1859, he experienced a “second blessing,” which and moved his family to Washington, Georgia. resulted in his devoting himself entirely to Christian Bounds dedicated the last 17 years of his life to writing ministry. (Wesleyan perfectionism is the notion that devotional works, such as the classic work Power through sinlessness is possible, and this “second blessing” is sub- Prayer (1902; originally published as the Preacher and sequent to a struggle and decisive act of faith. Similar to Prayer). During this time, Bounds would wake every the Wesleyan notion is that of the Keswick victorious morning at 4:00 a.m. to pray for several hours. He also life, wherein the believer experiences the complete con- wrote a series on heaven, entitled The Resurrection trol of the Holy Spirit and struggle with the flesh ceases; (1907). His other works were compiled and edited by however, the sin nature is not completely eradicated as in Homer W. Hodge, including Essentials of Prayer (1925), the Wesleyan view.) Bounds became an ardent reader of The Necessity of Prayer (1929), Prayer and Praying Men scripture and an avid admirer of John Wesley’s sermons, (1921), Purpose in Prayer (1920), Reality of Prayer (1924), in addition to the biographies of David Brainerd and and Weapon of Prayer (1931). Although only two of his John Fletcher. books were published in his lifetime, a definitive collec- Bounds closed his law office and began evangelizing tion is available: The Complete Works of E. M. Bounds. and preaching. Early in 1860, he was licensed to preach Wilder Publications, 2009. The definitive biography is by the Hannibal Station Quarterly Conference of the E. M. Bounds: Man of Prayer, byOnly Lyle Wesley Dorsett Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and he pastored his (1991). Bounds died on 24 August 1913 at his home in own congregation in Brunswick, Missouri. When the Washington, Georgia. American Civil War officially began in 1861, the state of Missouri was a border state politically. Union martial References and Resources law was imposed upon Missouri in September 1862, and Dorsett, Lyle Wesley. 1991. E. M. Bounds: Man of Prayer. Bounds was imprisoned by Union troops and charged as Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. a Confederate sympathizer. He was a prisoner of war for Irvin, Willis. 1983. The Prayer Warrior: A Mini-biography of a year and half; early in 1863, the 26-year-old was trans- Dr. E. M. Bounds. , GA: Author. ferred to Tennessee and was eventually released in Ar- King, Darrel D. 2009. E. M. Bounds Speaks to the Modern kansas (although the Union Army forbade his return to ChurchCopy. Alachua, FL: Bridge-Logos. Missouri). During his imprisonment, Bounds ministered Perry, Howard W. 1952. “A Comparative Study of Views of to others who had been arrested. He was never provided Prayer as Held by E. M. Bounds, Andrew Murray and George the opportunity to swear allegiance to the Union and was Arthur Buttrick.” BD thesis, Western Evangelical Seminary not a slaveholder. Bounds was spiritually committed to Portland, OR. the Confederate prisoners and thus allied himself with Riddle, John. 2003. For God and Country: Four Stories of Coura- the Confederacy as a chaplain in February 1863. He min- geous Military Chaplains. Uhrichsville, OH: Barbour. istered courageously in definitive battles at Atlanta (GA), Zylstra, Cornelius. 1981. The Best of E. M. Bounds. Grand Rap- Franklin (TN), and Vicksburg (MS). He also preached ids, MI: Baker Books. messages of restoration and revival to the civilian popu- —Ron J. Bigalke lation who experienced devastation from the Civil War. Bounds pastored churches in Alabama and Tennessee after the war. In Selma, Alabama, he met Emma Barnett Boys, Mary (daughter of a prominent Methodist minister), and the couple married in 1876; both were 41 at the time and had Early Background and Education never previously married. Emma gave birth to three chil- Mary Boys was born on 4 November 1947 in Seattle, dren; she died in 1884. Nineteen months later, Bounds Washington, and grew up steeped in the Latin Mass of honored Emma’s wishes and married her cousin, Harriet the pre–Vatican II Catholic church. Her early experi- Barnett, with whom he also had children. ences in the richly varied neighborhoods of Seattle meant In 1883,Contributor he became associate editor of the St. Louis that she was regularly in conversation with youth from Christian Advocate, and in 1888, he began work as the diverse religious traditions, as well as those with no faith associate editor of the Nashville Christian Advocate (the tradition at all. The Second Vatican Council was begun official paper of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South). in 1962 and generated a significant and exciting degree of Bounds wrote passionately against the liberal “New The- new openness in the church. In August 1965 Boys joined ology” and to promote revival within his own beloved a Roman Catholic women’s religious order, the Sisters denomination. In 1894, when the General Conference of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary, a community to Boys, Mary 167 which she professed final vows in 1972. She has noted and theology), when paired with a series of foundational that the promulgation of the Vatican II document Nostra questions in education (about the goal(s) of education, Aetate in 1965, which initiated a revolution in relations the understanding of knowledge, use of the social sci- between Catholics and Jews, was always a key stimulus ences, definition(s) of curriculum and teaching, and a for her thought. tradition’s stance toward education as a political term), After completing a BA in religion and humanities could offer a clear picture of religious education within at Fort Wright College of the Holy Names in Spokane, a specific tradition. In doing so, she provided a means Washington, Boys began her teaching career as an in- by which diverse religious educators could engage in structor in religion and in English at the Holy Names thoughtful and respectful conversation about what mat- Academy. She completed an MA in religion and educa- tered to their individual communities without ignoring tion in 1975 and an EdD in religion and education in the particular differences between them. 1978, both at Columbia University and Union Theologi- Her commitment to these conversations grew into a cal Seminary in New York City. From 1977 to 1994, she substantial and foundational project exploring Jewish was on the faculty of Boston College, progressing from and Christian history and practice in mutual relation- instructor to full professor. In 1994, she returned to her ship within religious education. One of her books from alma mater, Union Seminary, as the Skinner and McAl- that research, Has God Only One Blessing? Judaism as a pin Professor of Practical Theology, a chair she continues Source of Christian Self-UnderstandingOnly, first published in to hold. On 1 July 2013, she assumed the position of dean 2000, was awarded a Catholic Press Association’s Award of academic affairs at Union. in Theology in 2001. This book offers an alternative ac- count of Christian origins, replacing the supersessionism Significant Contributions to Christian Education that has so permeated Christianity with an accessible nar- Boys’s earliest contributions to the scholarship of Chris- rative for Christian life and thought that remains rooted tian education were centered in deep attention to bibli- in scripture and practice. cal texts in the context of religious formation. Engaging historical critical scholarship, which was only then taking Awards root in the Catholic context, she wrote numerous articles, Boys received the International Council of Christians chapters, and eventually a book, Biblical Interpretation in andCopy Jews Sir Sigmund Steinberg Award in 2004, the Religious Education (1980). That contribution had a sig- Eternal Light Award from the Center for Catholic-Jew- nificant impact in the community of Christian religious ish Studies at St. Leo University in 2012, and the Ann educators and drew her more deeply into the work of the O’Hara Graff award from the CTSA Women’s Consul- Association of Professors and Researchers in Religious tation on Constructive Theology in 2013. She has hon- Education, an association that would later become the orary doctorates from four institutions and has given host for her remarkable scholarly collaboration with Dr. endowed lectures at multiple colleges and universities, Sara Lee in Christian-Jewish learning and dialogue. including the Madeleva Lecture at St. Mary’s College, Her most significant and lasting contributions to Notre Dame, Indiana, and The Cardinal Willebrands the field of Christian religious education have been her Lecture in Amsterdam, Netherlands. She was a Henry work on “learning in the presence of the other.” She has Luce fellow in 2009–2010. fundamentally reshaped not only Christian-Jewish dia- logue, but also the scholarship of learning in multifaith References and Resources contexts across myriad traditions. The recipient of mul- Boys, Mary. 1980. Biblical Interpretation in Religious Education. tiple large grants, she has been a senior advisor to several Birmingham, AL: Religion Education Press. national projects, including the Valparaiso Project in the ———, ed. 1981. Ministry and Education in Conversation. Wi- Education and Formation of Faith, the Catholic-Jewish nona: St. Mary’s. (Editor) Colloquium, Educating for Religious Particularism and ———. 1989a. Educating in Faith: Maps and Visions. San Fran- Pluralism, and the ATS Project on Christian Hospitality cisco: Harper & Row. Sheed & Ward. and InterreligiousContributor Education. ———, ed. 1989b. Education for Citizenship and Discipleship. New York: Pilgrim. (A Korean translation was published in Most Notable Publications 1999.) Boys’s Educating in Faith: Maps and Visions gave the ———. 1997. Jewish-Christian Dialogue: One Woman’s Experi- field its first thorough framework for mapping the ence. New York/Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. history of religious education in the U.S. context. She ———. 2000. Has God Only One Blessing? Judaism as a Source of wrote that a series of foundational questions within Christian Self-Understanding. A Stimulus Book. New York/ religion (about revelation, conversion, faith and belief, Mahwah: Paulist Press. 168 Braille, Louis

———, ed. 2005. Seeing Judaism Anew: Christianity’s Sacred body rests in the Pantheon in Paris, “the highest honor Obligation. A Sheed & Ward Book. Lanham, MD: Rowman that France can bestow upon its dead” (Spungin 2009, 6). & Littlefield. Braille’s revolutionary alphabet system gives people ———. 2013. Redeeming our Sacred Story: The Death of Jesus who are blind a medium for literacy. Braille literacy and Relations between Jews and Christians. A Stimulus Book. gives them access to written culture and is also positively New York and Mahwah: Paulist Press. correlated with increased academic achievement and Boys, Mary, Philip A. Cunningham, Joseph Sievers, Hans Her- employment opportunities. Moreover, Braille literacy mann Henrix, and Jesper Svartvik, eds. 2011. Christ Jesus provides individuals who are blind with personal access and the Jewish People Today: New Explorations of Theological to read and study God’s written word. There are multiple Interrelationships. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. versions of the Bible (e.g., New King James Version, New Boys, Mary, and Sara S. Lee. 2006. Christians and Jews in Dia- International Version) available in Braille in multiple logue: Learning in the Presence of the Other. Woodstock, VT: languages, as well as children’s Bibles, concordances, and SkyLight Paths Publishing. Bible dictionaries. —Mary Hess Most Notable Publications Braille’s alphabetic code was first published in 1834, Braille, Louis was universalized in 1950 by UNESCO,Only and is presently used by people who are blind across the globe. His mu- Early Background and Education sical notations were published in 1839. Perhaps most Louis Braille was born on 4 January 1809 in a small town remarkable, “for over two centuries Braille’s system has near Paris, France, called Coupvray. When Braille was remained essentially as he designed it” (Spungin 2009, 6). three years old, he injured an eye while playing with a sharp tool in his father’s workshop. The wound became References and Resources infected, the infection spread to his other eye, and by the Mellor, Michael. 2006. Louis Braille: A Touch of Genius. Boston: age of five Braille was blind in both eyes. Though it was National Braille Press. challenging, Braille adapted to being blind, refusing to Spungin, Susan Jay. 2009. “Louis Braille Celebration: Past and allow his disability to slow him down or keep him from PresentCopy Remembrances of Louis Braille.” Journal of Visual doing things his peers were doing. In addition to learn- Impairment and Blindness (January): 5–6, 64. ing to play the cello, piano, and organ, Braille was also an avid student and at the age of 10 received a scholar- National Braille Press. http://www.nbp.org/ic/nbp/aboutus/ ship to attend the Royal Institution for Blind Youth in index.html. Paris. Braille’s school had 14 books with raised letters —Lucinda S. Spaulding that students could read by tracing over them with their fingers. However, this method was slow and difficult for students to master. Brazil and Christian Education

Significant Contributions to Christian Education Christianity is the predominant religion in Brazil, and the Braille’s inspiration for the code that bears his name today Roman Catholic tradition played a strong and definitive came from a retired military officer in Napoleon’s army role in the process of diffusion of the Christian religion named Charles Barbier de la Serre (1767–1841). Barbier in the country from the time of Portuguese colonization. developed a “night writing” system using 12 raised dots Currently, 64.6 percent of the population is Catholic, a for the mostly illiterate soldiers to communicate without significant decrease over the last few decades. Protes- light or sound to avoid alerting the enemy of their posi- tants make up 22.2 percent, and the predominant trend tion. While the code was not well embraced by the army, in this group is the Pentecostals. Pentecostal churches Barbier was invited to demonstrate it at Braille’s school. are religiously dispersed in Brazilian culture. They are Braille, 12 Contributoryears old at the time, recognized the potential characterized by a strong element of religious syncretism of such a system and spent the next three years revising from Afro-Brazilians, currently totaling only 0.1 percent it into a more efficient reading and writing system using of the population. However, even though the majority of combinations of 6 dots. While Braille’s system was largely Brazilians do not declare themselves members of an Afro developed by the time he was 15 years old, he continued to religion, there is a strong religious influence of these tra- refine it throughout his lifetime, even adding mathemati- ditions, including Spiritism. cal and musical symbols. Braille died on 6 January 1852, at There are three main aspects of Christian education the age of 43, after a long struggle with tuberculosis. His in Brazil. First is the family and its capacity for intergen- Brethren Church Christian Education 169 erational religious transmission. Second is the efforts by Brethren Church Christian Education religious institutions to transmit the Christian message by means of evangelization. Third is the current debate Throughout Christian history, but especially since the in the country about confessional religious education rise of Protestantism, many distinct movements have in public schools. Regarding the first aspect, some re- identified themselves simply as “brethren” or similar bib- search demonstrates that inside the family, the mother lical terms. One such arose in Ireland and Britain in the has a determinative role in the religious formation of first third of the 19th century. It soon came to be called the children. But there has been a decrease in intergen- (by others) after the English port of Plymouth, where a erational religious transmission, a consequence of the large congregation had assembled. (In recent years there modernization of Brazilian families, who give religion a has been increasing willingness to accept the designa- secondary status as an institution able to educate chil- tion “Christian Brethren.”) Major causes for this new dren. This trend expresses the desire to assure freedom movement were distress over denominational divisions, of choice for children. the close linkage throughout Europe of the majority of Regarding the second aspect, there is a dispute be- the church with the civil government, and the sharp dis- tween Catholics and Protestants, mainly the Pentecostals. tinction between clergy and laity. None of these factors Christian education in the Catholic Church occurs inside seemed to these Brethren to have been envisaged for the the parishes, through traditional catechism; through church in the New Testament.Only (Interestingly, about the Catholic TV and radio, with a strong emphasis on char- same time, across the Atlantic, an unrelated movement ismatic Catholic renewal; and through mass events, such arose known as “Restorationism,” which was quite simi- as World Youth Day, directed at the public, which has in- lar in some ways, but distinct in others.) creasingly abandoned Catholic identity in recent decades. Within a couple decades after the founding, Brethren Among the Protestant churches similar strategies are congregations had spread into many countries of Europe used, including a strong presence in the media to guar- and a few beyond. They also began what has continued antee the diffusion of the Christian message with acute to be a very extensive foreign missions outreach. When proselytizing. However, the Pentecostals have continued combined with emigration from Europe, the result is to use Afro-Brazilian religious symbols, reactivating and that today there are some 28,000 Brethren congregations resignifying the figure of the demon. inCopy about 130 countries, with approximately 2 million Finally, Christian education in Brazil has been dis- regular adult attenders. Wherever they are found, except persed in the traditional Catholic and Protestant con- on some small islands, the Brethren are only a minority fessional schools (private), with a strong emphasis on within Evangelicalism. In some countries, however, they human values and formation of character, and also in are a significant part of the non-Pentecostal/charismatic public schools. The Brazilian states have autonomy to wing of Evangelicalism. form their own educational policies regarding religious Their doctrinal distinctives have been in the areas of education, but the Christian traditions, and particularly ecclesiology and eschatology. In the former, they stressed the Catholic Church, have been privileged in this process. the spiritual giftedness of all true believers, not just clergy, In 1997, the Brazilian government instituted religious and this is now widely accepted in Evangelicalism. But education in the public schools. Although the Brazilian while Brethren have always had those who were minister- state is secular, there are three models of religious educa- ing full-time at home or abroad, they have not considered tion that can be followed. First is confessional education, them “ordained” as a separate class, and instead place a with an emphasis on an exclusive religious tradition, strong emphasis on “lay” leadership and ministry. In the usually Catholic or traditional Protestant. Second is in- 19th century, education even for leadership was to take terconfessional religious education, in which the Bible is place within the framework of the local congregation, used in the study of Christian traditions for comparative and this practice continues for some. Also, until recent analysis. The third model understands religion as a social generations most full-time ministers were itinerant, but phenomenon. Its theoretical approach comes from the in recent decades more have functioned locally. Brethren social sciencesContributor and the phenomenological perspective also traditionally observed the Lord’s Supper weekly and and aims at the development of a pluralistic point of view. separately from the preaching service, though this also is The model most often applied is confessional religious changing, at least in some countries. Eschatologically, the education, in which each Christian tradition in the coun- view known as dispensationalism was developed within try fortifies its own doctrine and religious message. the Brethren (though not held by all of them). How- —Sílvia Regina Alves Fernandes ever, it soon was adopted and spread widely throughout 170 Brethren of the Common Life

Evangelicalism by means of teachers from other denomi- other evangelical groups. These schools are to varying de- nations who did not accept Brethren ecclesiology. grees part of the higher education systems of their respec- After its first two decades, the Brethren divided into tive countries, but they have long functioned in the way two categories: “Open” (essentially congregational, hence that numerous other Bible and missionary and ministry varying in practice) and “Exclusive” or “Closed” (unof- training schools have done—both within the Brethren ficially but tightly connected with each other, hence very as well as in countless other evangelical groups. Such similar). Initially most of the members and prominent schools arise in response to the recognition that, though Bible teachers sided with the Exclusives, affirming that not essential for Spirit-empowered ministering, they can they best expressed the intended unity of the body of be very helpful preparations for beginning or improving Christ. The more evangelistically and missionary minded it. Unlike other denominational families of European were generally with the Opens. The widely traveled origin, Brethren have not developed liberal arts colleges, John Nelson Darby (1800–1882) was unofficial Exclusive much less comprehensive universities. leader. Within a generation of his death, the Exclusives The most significant educational contribution from had divided into seven distinct factions. Subsequent Brethren has been the development since the 1940s of subdivisions, partial reunions, and the tendency of many Emmaus Bible correspondence courses, for a long time in Exclusives to evolve into Opens mean that now probably conjunction with the aforementioned school that started 90 percent of all Brethren are historically linked with the in Canada, but now functioningOnly separately under the latter. But given their strong congregational emphasis, in name ECS Ministries and reaching far beyond Brethren countries where Open Brethren have a long history and boundaries. These courses are generally on a secondary large numbers, there is clearly a spectrum of belief and level and are both evangelistic and instructional. By the practice. This of course would be true of all Protestant de- 1960s there were some 35 courses, with at least one in nominations, except that the Brethren range stays within each of 80 languages and some three million courses in the evangelical spectrum. circulation. A special focus has led to some four million Educationally, the Brethren have functioned much as courses being used in 3,000 prisons around the world. have other evangelical congregations, educating children Overall, Emmaus courses are available in 120 languages and youth with Sunday schools and the like. Sometimes in 90 countries, administered from some 1,200 centers. Brethren produce their own teaching materials, but many Copy —Donald Tinder are content to use interdenominational ones. When it comes to Bible training programs for older youth and adults, Exclusives and the more conservative Opens still Brethren of the Common Life prefer to handle training within the congregation. But in most countries where Open Brethren are well established, Brethren of the Common Life, a late 14th- to early 16th- they do create schools and training programs in which century fraternity in Deventer and Zwolle in north Hol- students can come together for a few weeks for one or land after 1384, was inspired by the life and teaching of more years or even for a longer period of time. This is Gerard Groote (see Groote, Gerard), whose preaching not seen as preparing clergy, although many who attend and example advocated renewal of church and society. become full-time Christian workers at home or abroad. The Deventer and Zwolle houses, and a handful of others, Possibly the earliest still functioning Brethren tertiary commissioned members to found new houses and hos- school began in Berlin in 1905; it relocated after World tels, so that by the end of the 15th century Brethren were War I to the village of Wiedenest, near Cologne. It is found in towns across the Netherlands, Flanders (modern also a missionary service agency, along with performing Belgium and northern France), and northern Germany. other functions for many German Open Brethren, but Brethren houses generally consisted of two priests aided many students come from other groups. Tilsley Col- by two or more clerks—often priests in training—and lege in Scotland arose from an Australian initiative after one or two lay folk. Brethren were neither laymen, nor World War II and has been primarily associated with a pursuing a religious life in a monastery, but living in vol- Brethren missionsContributor agency. In Australia itself there is the untary poverty and serving others in the midst of society. small Emmaus Bible College, while French Switzerland In the decades before the invention of printing, Brethren has the older Emmaus Institute, dating from the 1920s. houses earned their living by copying books on commis- The small and now bachelor’s-granting Emmaus Bible sion and operating hostels for students at municipal Latin College was started in Canada in 1945, but in 1954 it schools. After the invention of printing, some Brethren merged with its Chicago branch and then was relocated became printers, while others made direct contributions to Dubuque, Iowa, in 1984. Though its faculty remains to schooling. Groote saw spiritual work with students as Brethren, presently the majority of the students are from important, because the piety of a generation of leaders Brethren of the Common Life 171 would bring wider renewal. The earliest Groote-inspired Hostels, though, could have a significant influence. community was Sisters of the Common Life, organized in The priest or clerk in charge of the hostel would not his house in Deventer in 1379; female houses also spread only provide room and board, give devotional messages, around Flanders and the lower Rhine basin, but since and hear confession—a privilege claimed early on and students were nearly always male, the Sisters had few or maintained by the Brethren—but also assist the boys no hostels and little connection to education. with schoolwork. Hostel overseers came to know school- The late 14th and early 15th centuries witnessed masters well for the sake of their mutual charges, so the church scandal and calls for reform. Two popes claimed division between school and hostel was not watertight. leadership of the church and established rival courts. Hostels had some tendency to evolve into schools in their Financial and sexual compromises, abuse of privilege, own right; for example, the Sorbonne was first a resi- and pursuit of luxury touched both the higher clergy and dence for University of Paris students. However, because monastics. Yet recurrent plague heightened awareness of even those Brothers who were ordained as priests lacked the brevity of life, the closeness of judgment, and Hell. theological training beyond the basics, Brethren hostels The Brethren’s motivation for working and living in did not have the intellectual wherewithal to evolve. But common was based on Acts 2:32–35, in which the earli- the influence of godly Brothers on students could be and est church members sold personal possessions to live, was marked: the Brothers were highly successful recruit- preach, and serve together. The Brethren’s communal life ers for vocations in monastery Onlyand priesthood. confessed a committed faith to often less-than-welcom- Earlier scholars believed that the Brethren’s educa- ing townspeople. Brethren wore the distinctive hairstyle tional contribution was humanistic learning that pre- (“tonsure”) indicating full religious commitment, and a pared reformers such as Luther. The lack of evidence gray habit to below the knees; at some times and places for school sponsorship, administration, or teaching, plus they wore overlarge shoes to emphasize humility. They the Brethren’s lack of training for any such influence, attracted curiosity from laypeople and jealous attention however, means that they have to be seen in the light of from established monastic orders, which saw them as broader intellectual and spiritual trends. While Groote undermining their own reasons for being. The Brethren’s himself did postgraduate study at the University of Paris work was provocative enough that it was investigated and and was a noted bibliophile, humanistic (classical Greek exonerated by the Council of Constance in 1415. andCopy Roman) learning was not a mark of the Brethren While earlier scholars thought that the Brothers made houses. Humanism’s growing influence was apparently a significant educational impact through administration not connected to Brethren student work. Casting the of schools and teaching, that assertion was questioned by net more widely, the philosopher Charles Taylor notes R. R. Post’s The Modern Devotion (1968). Post’s archival that the late medieval drive to reform was manifested research revealed that no house ever sent a man to uni- in “attempts to bring a more intense devotional life into versity—yet a master’s degree was essential for other than niches of personal and social existence where they had auxiliary teaching. While the Brothers, later in their his- hitherto been absent,” marked especially by “mediae- tory, sponsored the main school of a town such as Liege val movements like the Brethren of the Common Life, or Maastricht, for the most part city or church leaders which aim(ed) precisely to integrate the life of prayer tended to prevent or harass private schools in order to more closely into everyday life” (2007, 144). The growing maintain the town school’s reputation and viability. Only orientation to individual piety tended to devalue church when a town such as Utrecht was larger than a single par- ceremonies as primary ways of staying right with God, ish was it possible to establish a private school. Even then, and Martin Luther’s Reformation from 1517 onward shortages of masters or pupils would lead to one school confirmed the nonritualistic tendency. Luther attended possessing rights denied to its competitors. a Brethren-connected school at Magdeburg. The Breth- John Cele, the effective schoolmaster of the Zwolle ren were perhaps responsible for bringing Luther to a Latin school, was a close friend of Groote and adher- focus on God in everyday life. But neither Groote nor the ent of his movement. Cele’s influence passed via John Brethren departed from church teachings. Based on the Sturm’sContributor academy at Strassburg to John Calvin’s widely current understanding of the Brethren, their widespread admired Geneva Academy. Sturm expressly credited Low Countries work for church and social renewal was Cele’s model for his organization. However, Post, also not unlike that of a present-day denominational ministry the author of a history of Dutch medieval schooling, on a university campus. showed that the Zwolle school was unusual only in hav- ing two higher levels than most Latin schools. Groote’s References and Resources influence on Cele appears to have been less educational Fuller, R. 1995. The Brotherhood of the Common Life and Its than it was personal and religious. Influence. Albany: State University of New York Press. 172 Brothers of the Christian Schools

Hamilton, D. 1989. Towards a Theory of Schooling. London: church declared him the patron saint of teachers of youth Falmer Press. in 1950. La Salle was trained in the classical subjects of Henkel, J. S. 1968. “School Organizational Patterns of the grammar, syntax, Latin, Greek, and philosophy at the Brethren of the Common Life.” In Essays on the Northern College de Bon-Enfants, and in 1678 the archbishop of Renaissance, edited by K. A. Strand, 35–50. Ann Arbor, MI: Reims ordained La Salle. Shortly after his ordination, he Ann Arbor Publishers. looked after the Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus. This com- Hyma, A. 1950. The Brethren of the Common Life. Grand Rap- munity’s principal mission was to educate poor young ids, MI: Eerdmans. girls. Through this work, La Salle met Adrien Nyel, who ———. 1968. “Introduction: The ‘Devotio Moderna’ and the Hu- intended to start a school for young boys. After opening manists.” In Essays on the Northern Renaissance, edited by K. three schools, de La Salle found that the logistics of run- A. Strand, 9–31. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Publishers. ning these schools and the training necessary for instruc- Jacob, E. F. 1952. “Gerard Groote and the Beginnings of the tors needed official structure. The young laymen brought ‘New Devotion’ in the Low Countries.” Journal of Ecclesiasti- in to teach at these schools had little education and no cal History 3 (01): 40–57. formal instruction in teaching pedagogy. To address this King, S. 1992. “The Sisters of the Common Life at Deventer, issue, in 1681 La Salle formally brought these teachers to 1374–1418: A New Beginning?” Mystics Quarterly 18 (4): live with him in his home, forming the first community. 120–130. With a community of teachers Onlynow living together, La Post, R. R. 1968. The Modern Devotion: Confrontation with Salle formalized the community’s prayer life, kept regular Reformation and Humanism. Leiden: E. J. Brill. hours, and provided formal teacher training. The edu- Strand, K. A. 1968. “The Brethren of the Common Life and cational methods built on experience working with the Fifteenth-Century Printing.” In Essays on the Northern Re- poor boys in “charity schools.” During this time, these naissance, edited by K. A. Strand, 51–64. Ann Arbor, MI: laymen also formalized their attire to an unadorned black Ann Arbor Publishers. robe and collar, similar to what is worn today. In 1686, Taylor, Charles. 2007. A Secular Age. Cambridge, MA: Belknap La Salle insisted that the Brothers of the Christian Schools Press of Harvard University Press. take formal vows of obedience and recognize a superior Van Engen, J. 2008. Sisters and Brothers of the Common Life. for each teaching community. The Devotia Moderna and the World of the Late Middle Ages. ManyCopy scholars have noted that there are some key fea- Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. tures of La Sallian education rooted in the French school Weiler, A. G. 1999. “The Dutch Brethren of the Common Life, of spirituality. These theological themes are “Christocen- Critical Theology, Northern Humanism and Reformation.” trism, theocentrism, reliance on Providence and the ac- In Northern Humanism in European Context, 1469–1625: tion of the Holy Spirit” (Koch, Calligan, and Gros, 2004, From the “Adwert Academy” to Ubbo Emmius, edited by 21). Notably, the reliance on providence was one of the Fokke Akkerman, Arie Johan Vanderjagt, and Adrie H. founding theological principles during the life of La Salle, Laan, 307–332. Brills Studies in Intellectual History, no. 94. as he referenced it in times of widespread poverty and Leiden and Boston: Brill. institutional famine. While the Brothers of the Christian —Ted Newell Schools may have expanded their theological aims, it is clear that La Salle’s emphasis on educating poor students continues to this day. Current core principles include Brothers of the Christian Schools “Faith in the Presence of God,” “Proclamation of the Gospel,” “Inclusive Community and Respect for all Per- The Brothers of the Christian Schools, also known as sons,” “Quality Education,” and “Concern for the Poor the De La Salle Brothers and Institute of the Brothers of and Social Justice.” the Christian Schools, are the largest group of religious Located in nearly 80 countries worldwide, the Broth- laymen in the Catholic Church dedicated to education. ers of the Christian Schools continue the legacy of their With close to 800 Brothers in the United States and To- founder, dedicating their lives to the education of young ronto andContributor nearly 5,000 Brothers around the world, they men. They are not to be confused with the Congrega- are dedicated to an educational ministry, particularly for tion of Christian Brothers (Christian Brothers), whose the poor. In the United States, there are 6 colleges and founder is Irish Catholic, Blessed Edmund Rice. universities, 54 high schools, 16 middle schools, and 15 education centers led by the Brothers of the Christian References and Resources Schools (Christian Brothers Conference 2008). Brothers of the Christian Schools. n.d. Lasallian Core Prin- St. John Baptist de la Salle (1651–1719) was the ciples. Accessed 17 December 2012. http://www.brothers founder of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. The vocation.org/pdf/BrosVocation_StarofFaith.pdf. Bugenhagen, Johannes 173

Christian Brothers Conference. 2008. Brothers of the Christian tenberg’s Protestant reformers; Philipp Melanchthon Schools United States/Toronto Region: 2007–2008 Statisti- suggested that Bugenhagen substitute teach a class on cal Report. Accessed 15 January 2013. http://www.brothers the Psalms for Luther while he was away at the Diet of vocation.org/getinvolved/resources/pdf.asp. Worms. In 1525, Bugenhagen initiated conversation on Gerard, H., ed. 1963. LaSallian Panorama History of the In- Huldreich Zwingli’s Eucharistic theology and largely put stitute of the Christian Schools: Beginnings. The Christian forth a distinctively Lutheran theology of the Eucharist. Brothers National Public Relations. Accessed 1 January 2013. In 1533, he earned a doctor of theology degree from the http://www.brothersvocation.org/pdf/printresources/Lasal University of Wittenberg (now Martin Luther Univer- lianPanoramaVol1Beginnings.pdf. sity), among the first to do so. The following year, Bugen- Koch, C., J. Calligan, and J. Gros. 2004. John Baptist de la Salle: hagen assisted Luther in translating the Bible from Latin The Spirituality of Christian Education. New York: Paulist into Low German, and he continued to establish himself Press. as a leading authority on biblical exegesis. In 1535, after —Patrick Bruner Reyes teaching at Wittenberg, Bugenhagen was made a profes- sor and continued to pastor in the region. Bugenhagen later organized numerous Protestant Bugenhagen, Johannes churches and church schools in northern Germany and Scandinavia. He developed ministryOnly regulations for sev- Introduction eral churches, including congregations in Braunschweig, Johannes Bugenhagen (1485–1558), a native of the duchy Hamburg, Hildesheim, and Luebeck, and in Denmark, of Pomerania, was a theologian, church organizer, and where he crowned King Christian III in 1537. In 1539, educator responsible for introducing the Protestant Ref- he became the superintendent of the Lutheran Church ormation to Denmark and his homeland, as well as in Saxony. He proved himself to be an effective leader founding numerous churches and church schools in and organizer, earning the title “Second Apostle of the north Germany. He was a theological companion of Mar- North.” After Martin Luther passed away in 1546, Bu- tin Luther and contributed greatly to the advancement of genhagen cared for his widow and children up until his the Reformation cause. deathCopy in 1558. Early Life and Education Contributions to Christian Education Bugenhagen was born in Wollin (now Wolin), duchy of For the majority of his adult life, Bugenhagen served both Pomerania, on 24 June 1485. His father, Gerhard, was a educational institutions and the church. He diligently member of the city council, and ensured that Johannes devoted himself to educating the church and future received an excellent education. Bugenhagen studied church leaders, maintaining this practice until his death. humanism at the University of Greifswald from 1502 to As Martin Luther’s colleague and theological compan- 1504 and became rector of a local Latin school at Trep- ion, Bugenhagen sought to educate a new generation tow an der Rega (now Trzebiatow) after concluding his of church leaders who ministered under a commitment studies at Greifswald. He was ordained a priest in 1509 to Reformation principles, such as the priesthood of all at St. Mary’s Church in Treptow, despite never having believers, the authority of scriptures, and justification received a theological education. In 1517, Abbot Johann by faith alone. Luther allegedly proclaimed Bugenhagen Boldewan appointed Bugenhagen as a lecturer to canons to be the greatest theology professor in the entire world, at the Premonstratensian Abbey of Belbuk, just outside next to Philipp Melanchthon. Bugenhagen assisted in Treptow. He taught an introductory course on scripture the translation of the Bible from Latin into Low Ger- with emphasis on the Psalms and Pauline epistles, and his man, demonstrating a desire to educate the masses of scholarly reputation spread among humanist circles. In German-speaking Christians. He also founded two lec- the same year, the duke of Pomerania, Bogislav X, com- toriums, learning institutions for adults unable to attend missioned Bugenhagen to compose a history of Pomera- university, in Hamburg and Luebeck. These lectoriums nia in theContributor Latin language. sought to educate laypeople in various subjects, including In 1520, Bugenhagen encountered Martin Luther’s theology and philosophy. Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church and Bugenhagen’s years spent as a church reformer and at first rejected Luther’s arguments. However, he came organizer led to many educational efforts in northern to agree with Luther, supported the Reformation, and Germany and Scandinavia. Though the university oc- moved to Wittenberg to study theology in 1521. In Wit- cupied his focus and time, he introduced numerous tenberg, Bugenhagen became a trusted companion of schools for young boys and girls to learn their native Luther and established himself as a leader among Wit- language and attain religious instruction. Bugenha- 174 Bulgaria and Christian Education gen proved himself an effective administrator of these the Bible, teachings on the church, life and Christian schools, devising their administrative structure, ensur- traditions, main Christian denominations, and other re- ing financial solvency, and crafting curriculum. He, ligions. It also has an ethical and social as well as historial like Melanchthon, believed firmly in the need for Latin and philosophical dimension (Andonow 2007). schools. However, he sought to provide education to In Bulgaria one can study theology at the four faculties the masses, as evidenced by his German translation of of theology; religion teachers are trained at Velikoturn- the Bible and founding of schools for children taught in ovski Universitet ‘Sv. Kiril i Metodii’ in Sofia and the their native tongue. Bugenhagen thus not only sought to Spiritual Academy in Sofia under the authority of the form and educate the laity, but also to instruct the next Bulgarian Orthodox Church. generation of church leaders and ministers. References and Resources References and Resources Andonow, B. 2007. The Criteria for Good Religious Education Hendel, Kurt Karl. 1975. “Johannes Bugenhagen’s Educational Classroom Text Books in Bulgaria, Good Practice in Religious Contributions.” PhD diss., The Ohio State University. Education in Europe. Edited by P. Schreiner, F. Kraft, and A. LeRoque, Noel C. 1997. Martin Luther’s Friends. Franklin, TN: Wrigt, 31–41. Berlin: Münster. Providence House Publishers. Berov, H. P. 2011. Religion in the Public Education System of Lockhart, Paul Douglas. 2007. Denmark, 1513–1660. The Rise Bulgaria, [w:] Religion in Public EducationOnly. Red. G. Robberts. and Decline of a Renaissance Monarchy. Oxford: Oxford Trier: Otto Sagner Verlag München-Berlin. University Press. Kielian, A. 2010. Modele nauczania religii rzymskokatolickiej w Lohrmann, Martin J. 2012. Bugenhagen’s Jonah: Biblical Inter- krajach europejskich. Kraków: UNUM. pretation as Public Theology in the Reformation. Minneapo- —Marian Zając lis, MI: Lutheran University Press. —Benjamin Espinoza Burroughs, Nannie

Bulgaria and Christian Education Early Background and Education NannieCopy Helen Burroughs was an American educator Christianity was introduced in Bulgaria c. AD 52, when and champion of the interests of African American the apostle Paul visited the area (Rom. 15:12). After women during the first 60 years of the 20th century. Born the Edict of Milan of 313, there was a rapid growth of around 1879 to former slaves in Virginia, she grew up in Christianity in that area. After the Muslim domination, Washington, DC, where she and her mother moved for which lasted from 681 to 852, the Bulgarian king Boris I Nannie’s education. Burroughs graduated with honors in accepted baptism from the Byzantine Empire, and with 1896 from the M Street High School, a school known not the help of Greek clergy he proceeded to christianize the only for the quality of its faculty, but also for the achieve- nation. In 1767, the Church of Bulgaria was subordinated ments of many of its graduates. to the jurisdiction of Constantinople. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church dominates in the Early Adult Experiences religious structure, which is 82.6 percent Orthodox, 12.2 Turned down for a teaching position with the Washing- percent Muslim, 1.2 percent other Christian denomina- ton schools, Burroughs took a position as associate edi- tions, and 4 percent other religions (Kielian 2010). tor at The Christian Banner, a Philadelphia newspaper. In public schools in Bulgaria, Christian classes are She also worked part-time for Lewis G. Jordan, the cor- conducted as part of the curriculum; however, these responding secretary of the new National Baptist Con- classes mainly focus on knowledge from the Orthodox vention (NBC) Foreign Mission Board. He asked her to tradition. Therefore, they can be called supraconfes- collaborate with the Southern Baptist women’s auxiliary sional. In the school year 1998/1999, religious education in organizing the women of the NBC. When the NBC was introducedContributor as a facultative subject of a confessional moved its offices to Louisville, Kentucky, Burroughs took character: the Orthodox one. Under the Education Act a job with Jordan. of 2003, religious education is carried out in all types of In Louisville, Burroughs founded the Association schools—primary as well as junior and senior secondary of Colored Women, one of many women’s clubs she schools through final examinations—and its funding is organized over the years. It grew into a well-received the responsibility of the state. Teaching takes place once school, offering evening classes in business and domes- a week for one hour. The program covers the basics of tic subjects. Burroughs, Nannie 175

At the NBC convention in 1900, Burroughs delivered a institutes to prepare local leaders for service in their speech entitled, “How the Sisters Are Hindered from Help- communities and churches. In her nationally syndicated ing,” the climax of a five-year struggle to establish a wom- columns, she addressed a myriad of social issues, includ- en’s convention. The men voted in favor of the Women’s ing but not limited to racial struggles. She brought noted Convention, auxiliary to the National Baptist Convention. African American leaders such as Thurgood Marshall, Burroughs was elected as corresponding secretary, a posi- Booker T. Washington, and Martin Luther King Jr. to tion similar to a modern-day executive director. address the women during the annual meeting of the The Women’s Convention (WC) had no salary or WC. Her collaboration with Annie Armstrong and the budget, but Burroughs traveled and corresponded relent- Women’s Missionary Union of the Southern Baptist lessly for the next year from her position with Jordan. She Convention continued for decades and benefited the organized 12 societies, traveled 22,125 miles, and wrote members of both organizations. 9,234 letters (Washington 2006, 33). The first women’s Burroughs never let go of her vision of community convention authorized a salary and expenses for Bur- service–oriented churches. For her, Christian beliefs had roughs’s work. to be lived in everyday life. Her contact with women across the convention and her experience with the women’s classes in Louisville Notable Publications led Burroughs to propose that the WC sponsor a school The papers and publications ofOnly Nannie Helen Burroughs for African American women. It took persistent ap- represent a sizable collection at the Library of Congress. peals and her personal fund-raising efforts to finally Her contribution to the literature of Christian education persuade the 1907 convention to create such a school. lies in the extent of her writing (reaching individuals and The National Training School for Women and Girls, into homes and churches around the world, crossing bar- Inc. opened in 1909 in Washington, DC, with Nannie riers of class and color) and its timeliness to the issues of Burroughs as president. the day. Her positions with the school and with the Women’s The following publications are most often cited and Convention, leading African American Baptist women, considered relevant even today: established a national platform for the next 50 years. She served as corresponding secretary until 1948 and then 12Copy Things The Negro Must Do for Himself (written in the early took the official helm as president, until her death in 1900s) 1961. She came into the national (and even international) 10 Things Whites Must Stop Doing to the Negro (written in spotlight at a point in history when “uplift” ideology for response to the bus boycotts during the civil rights protests) the formerly enslaved race and the “women’s clubs move- The Worker (magazine) ment” were at their zenith. annual reports to the Women’s Convention “How the Sisters Are Hindered from Helping” (address to the Significant Contributions to Christian Education National Baptist Convention) Burroughs fought for equal opportunities and equal address to the initial meeting of the Baptist World Alliance, rights, but her weapon of choice was Christian educa- London, 1905 tion, teaching women how to make a difference in every arena of life, beginning with the local church. She was References and Resources instrumental in training and mobilizing African Ameri- Easter, Opal V. 1992. “Nannie Helen Burroughs and Her can women in the church through her speaking and Contributions to the Adult Education of African-American writing, which was prolific. She emphasized the value Women.” EdD diss., North Illinois University. of education for African American women to train for Harrison, Earl L. 1956. The Dream and the Dreamer: An Ab- service in whatever capacity they might find themselves breviated Story of the Life of Dr. Nannie Helen Burroughs and in. With this goal always in her mind, she structured the Nannie Burroughs School at Washington, D.C. Washington, National Training School (NTS) as a mix of industrial DC: Nannie Helen Burroughs Literature Foundation. educationContributor (business and domestic arts) and liberal arts, Washington, Sondra. 2006. The Story of Nannie Helen Bur- with a strong component of black history and inculcation roughs. Birmingham, AL: WMU. of racial pride. Wolcott, Victoria W. 1997. “Bible, Bath and Broom”: Nannie Through the Women’s Convention, she wrote and Helen Burroughs’s Training School and African-American disseminated materials that walked even the least experi- Racial Uplift.” Journal of Women’s History (22 March): enced church volunteer through the process of organiz- 18–36. ing and leading church activities. She also set up summer —Carol Olsen 176 Bushnell, Horace

Bushnell, Horace Significant Contributions to Christian Education Horace Bushnell has the dual distinction of being consid- Early Background and Education ered the “father of the Christian education movement” Horace Bushnell (1802–1876) was born in Bantam, Con- and the “father of American religious liberalism.”65 His necticut, the oldest of six children, to a Methodist father pioneering efforts to move beyond the impasse between and Episcopalian mother who both were of Huguenot rigid Calvinistic theological rationalism and naturalistic descent and rejected Calvinistic predestination and total theological liberalism eventually earned him the disap- depravity.60 Bushnell grew up on the family farm and was proval of both camps, resulting in charges of heresy greatly influenced by the piety of his mother. Despite his from the former and opposition to his getting the Hol- youthful religious doubts, Bushnell joined the New Pres- lis Professorship in Divinity at Harvard from the latter. ton, Connecticut Congregational Church that his parents Bushnell’s contribution to Christian education found attended at age 19 and entered Yale College three years expression in his most famous work, Christian Nurture. later.61 After completing his baccalaureate degree, he Easily misunderstood if not read within the context of worked as a journalist before returning to Yale to study 19th-century American revivalism, Bushnell famously law, tutor, and successfully pass the bar examination. declared “that the child is to grow up a Christian, and When a revival swept Yale, Bushnell experienced conver- never know himself as being otherwise.”66 sion and turned from law to enter Yale Divinity School.62 Bushnell never intended his wordsOnly to deny the human He came under the influence of Nathaniel William Tay- inclination for sin, undermine belief in the need for lor and the New Haven theology, but was impacted even Spirit-initiated transformation, or even represent a re- more by Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s Aids to Reflection, jection of the need for revival. Bushnell had actually led which he read as a Yale undergraduate, and by the works revival services for his North Church congregation and of Friedrich Schleiermacher.63 affirmed the reality of miracles and spiritual gifts in the When Bushnell assumed the pastorate of North Church New Testament and in his time.67 His own words demon- in Hartford in 1833—where he would serve until his re- strated his belief in the depravity of human nature: “The tirement—the last major influence that would shape his natural pravity of man is plainly asserted in the Scrip- theology and understanding of Christian formation was tures, and, if it were not, the familiar laws of physiology in place. Within the context of pastoral responsibility for wouldCopy require us to believe, what amounts to the same an urban, middle-class congregation and the challenges of thing.”68 What Bushnell argued against was “an extreme responding to revivalism’s exaggerated emphasis on crisis individualism” that sees children as sinners needing dra- individual conversion experience and Princeton theolo- matic conversions regardless of godly parental influence. gian Charles Hodge’s charges of heresy, Bushnell would He posited an organic view of family, church, state, and articulate a theological perspective mediating between society and the idea that Christian education “begins with New England Calvinism and American romanticism and nurture or cultivation.”69 craft an organic understanding of the Christian education His contribution to Christian education was a vision- of children. His approach was an attempt to blend differing ary theological and psychologically positive view of chil- emphases into a larger vision of Christian faith: a theology dren. He especially saw family and church as the main of comprehension. Bushnell argued for the centrality of social influences for the Christian formation of children. human experience in knowing God; an integrated view of While his broader theology represented efforts at inte- God’s ordinary and extraordinary presence and work; and grating how God works supernaturally and naturally, he an understanding of biblical and theological language as clearly believed the work of the Spirit and the grace of poetic, aesthetic, evocative, organic, and lacking scientific God were central to Christian nurture. He helped to draw or logical precision. He believed the appeal of Christianity attention to the educational needs of children as children was primarily to the heart and spirit.64 and anticipated the 20th-century emphasis on socializa- tion as a primary means of formation. While he em- 60. James E. Reed and Ronnie Prevost, A History of Christian Education (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1993), 314; and John M. Mulder, Introduction Contributorto Christian Nurture, reprint ed., by Horace Bushnell (Grand 65. See Alhstrom, Religious History of the American People, 613; Reed Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1979), viii. and Provost, History of Christian Education, 319; and Mulder, Introduc- 61. Reed and Prevost, History of Christian Education, 315. tion, vii. 62. Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People 66. Horace Bushnell, Christian Nurture, reprint ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1972), 610. Baker Book House, 1979), 10. 63. Mulder, Introduction, xvi; and Ahlstrom, Religious History of the 67. Reed and Provost, History of Christian Education, 316; and Ahl- American People, 610. strom, Religious History of the American People, 612. 64. Mulder, Introduction, xv; and Ahlstrom, Religious History of the 68. Bushnell, Christian Nurture, 22. American People, 611. 69. Ibid., 30. Byzantine Medieval Church 177 phasized the role of the family in Christian nurture, his Byzantine Medieval Church categorization as a theological liberal caused much of his work to be ignored by evangelicals. His understanding of The Byzantine Empire, according to most historians, the cognitive capacities of children anticipated the work came into being when the city of Constantinople (or new of Piaget and other developmental theorists and the use Rome) was established in AD 324 and ended when the of developmentally structured programs and curriculum. Ottoman Turks besieged that same city in 1453. During those 11 centuries, the empire experienced significant Most Important Publications political and geographical transformations (Mango 1980, Without doubt, Horace Bushnell’s Christian Nurture 1). For the most part, its geographical center was between was his most important publication in Christian educa- the Black Sea and the eastern part of the Mediterranean tion and theology. His basic purpose in that book was to Sea. At times, the empire existed as far west as Italy and refute the idea that children remain outside the grace of Spain and embraced parts of North Africa. While mul- God until they are old enough for a conversion experi- tiple groups and languages existed in the expansive terri- ence. Bushnell’s God in Christ was his explanation of his tory, Greek and Latin were the languages that predomi- view of the Trinity (modalistic) and his understanding nated, and the Greek population eventually survived as of the atonement (moral influence theory). His proposal the core group. In reality, there never was a Byzantine in that work that biblical and theological language is Empire, which is a contemporaryOnly scholarly term of refer- poetic and evocative as opposed to scientific and logi- ence; rather, it was an ever-evolving Roman Empire. cal led to an apologetic for his understanding of God in From its onset, Christianity spread throughout the Nature and the Supernatural, as Together Constituting region that would ultimately be known as the Byzantine the One System of God. His other works include The Age Empire. Christians, however, were widely persecuted, of Homespun, an idealized perspective on the family; and and by the end of the third-century persecution of Women’s Suffrage: The Reform Against Nature, express- Christians peaked under Diocletian and Maximian. ing his opposition to women’s having the right to vote. With the Edict of Milan (313), toleration for both pagan Late in life, he also published The Vicarious Sacrifice and and Christian subjects was proclaimed, and in 381 The- Forgiveness and the Law, both works arguing against odosius I declared Christianity to be the state religion. penal substitution atonement theory. Bushnell’s death DiscordCopy and theological differences plagued the empire left a final work on the Holy Spirit incomplete.70 and church until the Great Schism occurred in 1054. At this point, the church divided into the Eastern (Greek) References and Resources and Latin (Roman) branches. The Eastern faction even- Ahlstrom, Sydney E. 1972. A Religious History of the American tually became known as the Eastern or Greek Orthodox People. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Church (also known as ) and the Western Bushnell, Horace. (1861) 1979. Christian Nurture. New York: faction was the Roman Catholic Church (Anthony and Charles Scribner; reprint ed., Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Benson 2003, 136). Books. Byzantine society, at least its middle and upper classes, Eavey, C. B. 1964. History of Christian Education. Chicago: was an educated society (Hussey 1961, 145), and as Chris- Moody Press. tianity triumphed over paganism, liberal education con- Gangel, Kenneth O., and Warren S. Benson. 1983. Christian tinued unchanged since the Hellenistic period (Mango Education: Its History and Philosophy. Chicago: Moody 1980, 125). The instruction of boys (and occasionally Press. girls) comprised three stages: primary, secondary, and Mulder, John M. (1861) 1979. Introduction to Christian Nur- higher education. Education in the primary school in- ture, by Horace Bushnell. New York: Charles Scribner; re- cluded the rudimentary subjects of reading, writing, print, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. counting, and knowledge of the alphabet. The secondary Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- stage was supervised by a more qualified teacher who tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. taught basic grammar as well as a select number of classi- Stratham,Contributor Todd. 2011. “Bushnell, Horace (1802–1876).” In Dic- cal authors, especially the works of Homer. The method tionary of Christian Spirituality, edited by Glen G. Scorgie, of studying the texts included four operations: (1) cor- Simon Chan, Gordon T. Smith, and James D. Smith III, 325. rection, (2) reading aloud (recitation of the text), (3) Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. explanation, and (4) criticism (identifying the moral les- —James P. Bowers sons). Higher education, available only to students from wealthier families, included rhetoric, philosophy, science, 70. Mulder, Introduction, xii. medicine, and law (Mango 1980, 125–126). 178 Byzantine Medieval Church

In the early Byzantine years, catechetical schools domi- According to John Elias, the theology that characterized nated Christian education. These schools emerged out of a the Byzantine church emerged as monastic theology, need to equip able men to lead the church and supplied the since the monks were the defenders and proponents of early church with some of its greatest minds and apologists Orthodox teachings (2002, 228). He also suggests that (Eavey 1964, 88). Chief among the catechetical schools was the Christian education that developed in this period the one at Alexandria, though others developed at centers had liturgical, spiritual, mystical, and formative marks of such as Caesarea, Edessa, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Nisibis. monasticism (228). The methods and teaching strategies of the catechetical schools differed greatly from those of the contemporary References and Resources schools. While some instruction occurred in groups, much Anthony, Michael, and Warren Benson. 2003. Exploring the of the teaching took place on an individual basis and in History & Philosophy of Christian Education. Grand Rapids, the homes of the tutors and instructors (Mulholland 2001, MI: Kregel. 111). In the universities that evolved from the catechetical Eavey, C. B. 1964. History of Christian Education. Chicago: schools, classical literature prevailed, whereas the monas- Moody Press. teries were dedicated more to the investigation and study Elias, John. 2002. A History of Christian Education: Protestant, of Christian writings (Elias 2002, 231). Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: Krier Perhaps no other aspect of Byzantine education was Publishing. Only more important than the monastic schools. Monasticism Gangel, Kenn, and Warren Benson. 1983. Christian Education: was a lay movement and emerged in two forms, the soli- Its History and Philosophy. Chicago: Moody Press. tary and the communal. Regarding the former, these mo- Hussey, J. M. 1961. The Byzantine World. New York: Harper nastics were ascetics or solitaries who took up residence & Row. in the mountains and deserts. This type of monastic life Mango, Cyril. 1980. Byzantium: The Empire of New Rome. New was modeled by St. Anthony (251–356), an early leader York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. of Eastern monasticism, who “often went without sleep, Mulholland, D. A. C. 2001. “Catechetical School of Alexan- never washed and never anointed his body with oil” dria.” In Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, (Mango 1980, 106). The communal form of monasticism edited by Michael Anthony, 110–111. Grand Rapids, MI: brought together religious men with like desires to retreat BakerCopy Academic. from the evil effects of society. Early Byzantine monas- Treadgold, Warren T. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State teries often formed around learned teachers such as St. and Society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Basil the Great (329/330–379) and Pachomius (d. 346). —Harley T. Atkinson

Contributor C

elements, and then weaving themOnly together by reason and Caesarea, School of going over the nature of the entire universe and each of its The school at Caesarea was established by Origen (AD parts . . . . In the end he brought us, by his clear teaching 184/185–254/255) after he was expelled from the school and the arguments . . . to the point where a rational won- der replaced the irrational one in our souls. (109) at Alexandria and subsequently made Caesarea in Pales- tine his home (AD 234). While sometimes called a cat- Gregory gives a further clue to Origen’s methodology: echetical school (Anthony and Benson 2003, 111), it may “He would trip us up in speech, challenging us in thor- have been less so than others in that in addition to clerics, oughly Socratic fashion, every time he saw us fighting the pagans and neophytes frequented the school. Nonethe- reins like unbroken horses, veering off the road and run- less, according to church historian Philip Schaff ([1858] ningCopy aimlessly every which way” (1998, 107). He taught 1996), this new philosophical and theological institution by example and was concerned that his students become soon outshone his former one at Alexandria (789). masters not only of doctrine, but of impulses, deeds, and One of the early church fathers who advocated an virtues as well (113). Curriculum or content was taught integrative approach to Christian education, Origen according to the division of philosophy at the time, in- promoted the study of disciplines beyond theology. In cluding logic (a blend of dialectics and criticism), physics his letter to St. Gregory (AD 213–270), one of his most (above all geometry and astronomy), moral doctrine, and renowned students, he writes: theology (Crouzel 1963, 1044–1045). But I am anxious that you should devote all the strength The school at Caesarea was a place of learning not of your natural good parts to Christianity for your end; only for St. Gregory Thaumaturgaus, but for many and in order to this, I wish to ask you to extract from other early church leaders as well, including St. Basil the the philosophy of the Greeks what may serve as a course Great (AD 329–379) and Gregory of Nazianzusas (AD of study or a preparation for Christianity, and from 325–389). Here also, Origen and Pamphilus (d. AD 309) geometry and astronomy what will serve to explain the built the famous library that boasted the most extensive sacred Scriptures, in order that all that the sons of the clerical collection of sources at that time, approximately philosophers are wont to say about geometry and music, 30,000 rolls. grammar, rhetoric, and astronomy, as fellow-helpers to philosophy, we may say about philosophy itself, in rela- References and Resources tion to Christianity. (Origen 1989, 393) Anthony, Michael, and Warren Benson. 2003. Exploring the GregoryContributor (1998), in a letter to Origen, provides insight History & Philosophy of Christian Education. Grand Rapids, into the practices and methods of the teacher at Caesarea, MI: Kregel. bringing his students from the irrational to the rational: Crouzel, H. 1963. “School of Caesarea.” In New Catholic Ency- clopedia, edited by William J. McDonald, 1044–1045. Wash- He raised us up and put us straight with other lessons, ington, DC: The Catholic University of America. those in physics, explaining each existing thing, and ana- Gregory. 1998. “Address of Thanksgiving to Origen.” In St. lyzing them with great wisdom down to their most basic Gregory Thaumaturgus: Life and Works, edited by Thomas

— 179 — 180 Calvin College

P. Halton et al., 91–126. Translated by Michael Slussor. the preparatory program in 1924. Calvin awarded its first Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press. bachelor of arts degree in 1921. Origen. 1989. “A Letter from Origen to Gregory.” In The Ante- Between 1926 and 1930, the college appointed its Nicene Fathers, vol. 4. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. first female professor and dedicated its library semi- Schaff, Philip. (1858) 1996. History of the Christian Church. nary building. The institution grew very slowly in its Vol. 2. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers. early years, but experienced radical growth by 1930, —Harley T. Atkinson when it enrolled approximately 350–450 students. Due to the need for additional campus space, the synod of the Christian Reformed Church allowed the college to Calvin College purchase a farm in 1956, which expanded its original space from 100 to 390 acres. In 1960, President William Introduction Spoelhoef, eager to expand the institution, oversaw the Calvin College is an evangelical, Christian liberal arts construction of a new building for Calvin Theological college affiliated with the Christian Reformed Church in Seminary. The seminary began holding classes in 1962. North America, located in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The During this time, the institution was operating on both college enrolls approximately 4,300 students from mostly the Knollcrest and Franklin campuses. In 1973, it con- the United States, but also from many countries around solidated at the Knollcrest campus.Only the globe. Offering numerous programs in the liberal In 1975, Anthony Diekema became president; he arts, sciences, and professional fields, Calvin College re- embarked on successful fund-raising campaigns, cur- mains a bastion of evangelical and Reformed scholarship. riculum restructuring, and the expansion of the student body to just over 4,000 members. Under Diekema, Cal- History vin College and Calvin Theological Seminary became Calvin College is affiliated with the Christian Reformed separate institutions. In 1995, Gaylen Byker was elected Church in North America (CRCNA), which traces its president of Calvin College. Under his leadership, theological heritage back to the work of Abraham Kuyper Calvin College added numerous buildings, including (1837–1920). At the core of Kuyper’s theology was the a communications and political science building, and sovereignty of God in all spheres of human life. The expandedCopy the fieldhouse. Calvin’s enrollment was ap- CRCNA is evangelical, is Reformed, and places a priority proximately 4,300 in 2013. on engaging culture with a distinctively Christian world- view. It holds to three confessions of faith: the Belgic Notable Academic Programs Confession, the Heidelberg Catechism, and the Canons Calvin College remains committed to a rigorous liberal of Dort. These theological underpinnings bear on the arts curriculum, offering programs in the arts, literature, work of those affiliated with Calvin College. history, government, anthropology, philosophy, sociol- Founded in 1876 by the CRCNA with only seven stu- ogy, languages, economics, and much more. The institu- dents, the college’s primary purpose was to train men for tion offers more “professional” programs as well, such pastoral ministry. Initially Calvin adopted a six-year cur- as business, ministry studies, recreation, education, and riculum, consisting of four years of liberal arts studies and social work. In addition, it offers strong science-based two years of theological studies. By 1894, the college had programs, including biology; biochemistry; engineering; expanded the curriculum to include nontheological stud- mathematics; and numerous programs offering prepara- ies, and in 1900 it expanded further to train students for tion for further study in medicine, dentistry, optometry, nonministerial careers. In 1906, the institution’s literary and veterinary medicine. department became known as John Calvin Junior Col- Beyond offering a myriad of degree programs, Calvin lege and held its first commencement the same year. In College also houses numerous centers of research and 1907, the student newspaper Chimes was first published. learning. The Calvin Institute of Worship seeks to pro- In 1910, the cities of Muskegon and Kalamazoo offered mote thorough research into the theology, history, and the institutionContributor $10,000 and a tract of land to have the practice of Christian worship and renewal of worship in institution be relocated to their cities. However, Grand Christian communities across the globe. The H. Henry Rapids, eager to maintain the institution, also offered it Meeter Center for Calvin Studies is devoted to the study $10,000, causing the college to remain in Grand Rapids. of John Calvin, the Reformation, Reformed theology, and It moved to the Franklin Street Campus in 1917. In 1919, early modern studies. The Kuyers Institute for Christian the college elected its first president, J. J. Hiemenga, a Teaching and Learning is devoted to the study and pro- Dutch American minister, under whom the institution motion of teaching and learning from a distinct Christian gradually became a full, four-year college, eliminating perspective. The Nagel Institute for World Christianity Calvin, John 181 studies Christian movements across the globe. Other in- at the University of Paris; from 1528 to 1532, he studied stitutes study free enterprise, business management, and at Orléans as a law student. Calvin was divided from Christianity and politics, among other interests. Each in- Martin Luther by a generation, but though they never stitute offers lectures and events while promoting critical met, Calvin was introduced to Luther’s teachings in study of its disciplines. Paris. The majority of his biographers date his sudden and unexpected conversion to 1533. By 1536, he had Mission and Philosophy disengaged himself from the Roman Catholic Church Calvin College seeks to be an agent “of renewal in the and planned to leave France permanently. However, war academy, church, and society” and “pledge[s] fidelity to between Francis I and Charles V took him to Geneva. In Jesus Christ, offering [its] hearts and lives to do God’s 1599, Calvin founded a school of theology, the Geneva work in God’s world.” The institution embraces rigorous Academy, which was modeled on Johannes Strum’s scholarship and a commitment to teaching and learning, earlier Protestant school at Strasbourg. Geneva Acad- but also emphasizes the importance of being a commu- emy was divided into two components: (1) the schola nity of worship. Calvin College has three stated purposes: privata (“private school”) was devoted to the teaching of (1) “to engage in vigorous liberal arts education that Greek and Latin, in addition to grammar and dialectic promotes lifelong Christian service,” (2) “to produce sub- as preparation for university study; and, (2) the schola stantial and challenging art and scholarship,” and (3) “to publica (“public school”) wasOnly originally designed as a perform all our tasks as a caring and diverse educational seminary for the training of Protestant ministers but community.”1 As a community, Calvin College is com- eventually was enriched with faculties of medicine and mitted to justice, compassion, discipline, and humility, as law (later gaining renown as the University of Geneva). well as the renewal of hearts and minds for expansion of Calvin remained in Geneva until his death on 27 May the Kingdom of God. The institution’s mission and pur- 1564. Theodore Beza (1519–1605) succeeded Calvin as poses fall in line with its distinct Dutch Reformed theo- leader of the Genevan church. logical roots, emphasizing the submission of all spheres Calvinism is a theological system of thought developed of life under the sovereign reign of Christ. from the work of John Calvin (1509–1564). Calvin’s thought was articulated most clearly in Institutes of the References and Resources ChristianCopy Religion (1536), which was dedicated to King Calvin College. n.d.-a “History.” Accessed 29 March 2013. Francis I. Institutes formed the basis of the historical de- http://www.calvin.edu/about/history.html. velopment of Calvinism. ———. n.d.-b “Our Mission.” Accessed 30 March 2013. http:// Arminianism is a theological system of thought devel- www.calvin.edu/about/mission.html. oped from the work of Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609). Calvin College Heritage Hall. n.d. “The Presidents of Calvin Arminianism was primarily a response to Lutheranism College.” Accessed 30 March 2013. http://www.calvin.edu/ and the Calvinist doctrine of predestination. Calvinists hh/calvin_college_presidents/pres_mainpage.htm. and Lutherans taught that predestination was God’s eter- Kromminga, John H. 1983. Perspectives on the Christian Re- nal decree before the creation of the world to elect un- formed Church: Studies in Its History, Theology, and Ecu- conditionally some individuals to salvation, and this was menicity: Presented in Honor of John Henry Kromminga at solely by the grace of God and according to His sovereign His Retirement as President of Calvin Theological Seminary. good pleasure. Arminius argued that predestination was Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. based on God’s foreknowledge in seeing through the cor- Ringenberg, William C. 2006. The Christian College: A History ridors of time those individuals who would either accept of Protestant Higher Education in America. 2nd ed. Grand or reject the free offer of salvation in Christ Jesus. Armin- Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. ian teaching also asserted that salvation freely accepted —Benjamin Espinoza could be freely lost, which was also contrary to Calvinist and Lutheran teachings. The followers of Arminius out- lined their opposition to Calvinism in 1610, issued as five ContributorCalvin, John doctrinal articles collectively called the “Remonstrance.” Intense controversy arose among the churches in the John Calvin was born 10 July 1509 at Noyon in Picardy, Netherlands. The Synod of Dort (Dordrecht) convened France. His father was an attorney who practiced both in 1618–1619 to resolve the controversy and formulated canon and civil law. In 1523, John Calvin matriculated the standard summary of the essential elements of Cal- vinism. Arminianists (i.e., the Remonstrants) were con- 1. Calvin College, “Our Mission,” http://www.calvin.edu/about/mission demned point by point in a fivefold set of decrees (can- .html (accessed 30 March 2013). ons). Theological students have used the acronym TULIP 182 Calvin’s Geneva, the Educational Principles of as a mnemonic device for remembering these doctrines: in the development and growth of Western capitalism Total depravity, Unconditional election, Limited (par- and civilization, even though it was not the intent of the ticular) atonement, Irresistible grace, and Perseverance reformers, who strove only to preach justification before of the saints. The sovereignty of God was fundamental to God in Jesus Christ alone. the theology of Calvin. Although the Protestant Reformation began officially References and Resources on 31 October 1517 with Martin Luther posting his Boettner, Loraine. 1932. The Reformed Doctrine of Predestina- “95 Theses” on the church door at Wittenberg, Calvin tion. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed. was the systematic theologian of the Reformation. His Boice, James Montgomery, and Philip Graham Ryken. 2002. thought and practice were the foundation for several Re- The Doctrines of Grace: Rediscovering the Evangelical Gospel. formed confessions: the Gallican Confession (1559), the Wheaton, IL: Crossway. Belgic Confesssion (1560), the Scots Confession (1560), Bouwsma, William J. 1988. John Calvin: A Sixteenth Century the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England Portrait. New York: Oxford University Press. (1563), the Heidelberg Catechism (1563), the Second Calvin, John. 1960. Institutes of the Christian Religion. 2 vols. Helvetic Confession (1566), the Second Scots Confession Edited by John T. McNeill. Translated by Ford Lewis Battles. (1581), the Canons of the Synod of Dort (1619), and the Louisville, NY: Westminster John Knox Press. Westminster Confession (1647). Consequently, the term Hancock, Ralph C. 1989. Calvin and theOnly Foundations of Modern Reformed is broader than the term Calvinistic. Calvin’s Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. theology also formed the basis for ethical, political, Hoekema, Anthony A. 1989. Saved by Grace. Grand Rapids, and social beliefs that profoundly impacted Protestant MI: Eerdmans. cultures and have continued to influence Western civi- Hopfl, Harro. 1982. The Christian Polity of John Calvin. New lization. The doctrine of the sovereignty of God, which York: Cambridge University Press. so permeated his Institutes, emphasized human respon- Koetsier, L. S. 2003. Natural Law and Calvinist Political Theory. sibility and activity. Calvin repudiated any notion of Victoria, BC: Trafford. separation between the so-called sacred and the secular, McNeill, John T. 1954. The History and Character of Calvinism. regarding all aspects of life as equally significant spheres New York: Oxford University Press. for divine and human activity. Niesel,Copy Wilhelm. 1980. The Theology of Calvinism. Grand Rap- Calvinism was the doctrinal foundation for both Eng- ids, MI: Baker Books. lish and American civil liberties and rights. The deeply Palmer, Edwin H. 1972. The Five Points of Calvinism. Grand respected Harvard historian George Bancroft esteemed Rapids, MI: Guardian Press. Calvin as one of the foremost republican pioneers. “He Pelikan, Jaroslav. 1983. The Christian Tradition: A History that will not honor the memory, and respect the influ- of the Development of Doctrine, Volume 4: Reformation of ence of Calvin, knows but little of the origin of Ameri- Church and Dogma (1300—1700). Chicago: University of can liberty.” The profound German historian Leopold Chicago Press. von Ranke asserted boldly: “John Calvin was the virtual Schreiner, Thomas R., and Bruce A. Ware, eds. 2000. Still Sov- founder of America.” The second president of the United ereign: Contemporary Perspectives on Election, Foreknowl- States, John Adams, even esteemed Geneva as the “first edge, and Grace. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Puritan state.” At the time of the American Revolution, Steele, David N., and Curtis C. Thomas. 1963. The Five Points Adams exhorted, “Let not Geneva be forgotten or de- of Calvinism: Defined, Defended, Documented. Phillipsburg, spised. Religious liberty owes it most respect.” Calvinism NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed. was the social and political ethic for the early Ameri- Van Til, Cornelius. 1963. The Case for Calvinism. Philadelphia: can colonies. When German sociologist Max Weber Presbyterian and Reformed. (1864–1920) wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit Webster, William. 1997. The Gospel of the Reformation. Battle of Capitalism in 1905, he articulated the Protestant ethic Ground, WA: Christian Resources. as a moral standard emphasizing asceticism, hard work, —Ronald J. Bigalke and servingContributor God as the logical organization of one’s life. Weber argued that capitalism developed in Protestant countries because they instilled virtues within the people Calvin’s Geneva, that ultimately encouraged it. Both colonial virtues and the Educational Principles of belief in predestination contributed to the end of serfdom and establishment of a free economy and politic. The Although his name would forever be identified with Protestant revival of biblical theology and virtues in the the city of Geneva (in Switzerland), John Calvin was sixteenth century was highly regarded as a major factor a Frenchman, born in 1509. He received a liberal arts Cambridge Platonism 183 education in Paris and legal training at Orléans and which was followed by a Latin version in 1538 (revised Bourge that would later make an indelible mark on both in 1545). The French catechism became an integral part Geneva’s church and the state. After his conversion to of church life for centuries, and it was taught weekly on Protestantism sometime in 1533 and his implication in Sunday afternoons to children and sometimes adults.3 the Cop Affair, Calvin fled the city of Paris. The following Though in 1537 Calvin envisioned parents as the pri- year, at the instigation of royal persecution in response to mary educators, with clergy serving merely as examiners, the Affair of the Placards, he headed to the city of Eras- by 1541 he began to identify the education of children mus. There he published the first edition of Institutes of as the responsibility of the church and the work of the the Christian Religion, which was only the beginning of clergy. Parents were expected to read scripture at home, his successful and fruitful contributions to Protestant- attend sermons, and frequent Sunday catechisms in order ism. When a window of opportunity opened to return to provide adequate teaching for the household. Public to France, Calvin settled his affairs and left his native catechesis and recitation was particularly encouraged in country for the last time in 1536. On his way to Basel, preparation for the quarterly administration of the Eu- Calvin was unexpectedly diverted to stay overnight in the charist. Meanwhile, Calvin’s theology shaped the liturgy, city of Geneva. By then Geneva had already embraced and the congregation became familiar with the psalms the Reformation under the leadership of Guillaume Farel; through singing. His theological companion to the Bible, nevertheless, Farel believed that Calvin’s contributions the Latin Institutes, was translatedOnly into French in 1541 to would be critical to the next steps for the city. With a assist a wider audience of readers. In addition, beginning sense of providence at work and at Farel’s behest, Calvin with Romans in 1540, Calvin published commentaries on chose to stay. His first task was to provide public educa- almost every book of the Bible, and over the course of his tion on the New Testament, and with this work, Calvin lifetime nearly 800 of his sermons were printed. embarked on what would be one of the most enduring In these ways, Calvin educated Christians in the right and important contributions of his pastoral ministry; the understanding of scripture. By 1559, his dream for education of Christians. equipping future leaders of the church and state through In his capacity as Protestant reformer of Geneva, Cal- higher education was realized with the establishment of vin made numerous contributions to the education of the Geneva Academy. Calvin’s contribution to Protes- current and future pastors as well as the laity, both chil- tantismCopy reached well beyond the bounds of Geneva and dren and adults. Upon his return to Geneva in 1541 from the 16th century. Strasbourg, Calvin drafted the first of his Ecclesiastical —Jennifer McNutt Ordinances, in which he presented a vision for universal education: “[B]ecause it is necessary to raise offspring for time to come, in order not to leave the church deserted to Cambridge Platonism our children, a college should be instituted for instruct- ing children to prepare them for the ministry as well as Early Background and Education for civil government.”2 Taking a page out of Luther’s The English philosophers and theologians Benjamin book, Calvin advocated for the public education of both Whichote (1609–1683), Henry More (1614–1687), boys and girls. In fact, the city council had already ruled Ralph Cudworth (1617–1680), John Smith (1618–1652), in favor of mandatory elementary education when it and Nathaniel Culverwell (1618–1652) are well known adopted Protestantism in May 1536. The Collège de Rive as the Cambridge Platonists. They were the seminal was created that year, but the Latin and Greek education figures in a movement of philosophical theologians offered there was only available to a minority of boys. By (and More, a poet) who were educated and then taught 1541, a separate primary school for vernacular education at Cambridge University, mostly at Emmanuel College was opened for girls, which was a crucial step toward the and Christ’s College. They are distinguished by their Protestant vision of forming all Christians in scripture. advocacy of a Platonic (and neoplatonic) tradition Education was also closely tied to catechesis. Calvin within Christianity that stressed the inherent, essential was awareContributor of this widespread need by 1537, when he goodness and beauty of God and the indispensable role noted the ignorance of Genevan families in Articles Con- of reason as a God-given faculty they frequently de- cerning the Organization of the Church. Consequently, he scribed as “the candle of the Lord.” They firmly stood developed a French catechism that year (revised in 1542), against deterministic and mechanical views of human

3. Randall Zachman, “Building up the Faith of Children: Calvin’s Cat- 2. John Dillenberger, “Draft Ecclesiastical Ordinances—1541,” in John echisms, 1536–1545,” in John Calvin as Teacher, Pastor, and Theologian: Calvin: Selections from His Writings, ed. John Dillenberger (Collegeville, The Shape of His Writings and Thought (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2006), MN: Scholars Press, 1975), 234. 131–146. 184 Campus Ministry nature and instead advocated understanding human their philosophy, an education in religion would include persons as free, purposive beings who are called by God the study of science and vice versa. to live a life of redemption and reconciliation through Finally, they practiced philosophical theology in public Jesus Christ and the power of the Holy Spirit. They venues, such as in Cudworth’s address to the House of fully embraced the emergence of modern science (More Commons. They would not have limited education to and Cudworth were members of the Royal Society of the university or academy. They believed Christian phi- Science) and yet resisted an exclusive adherence to sci- losophers can help inform public reflection on justice and ence that precluded appeals to our grasp of eternal and other vital areas. immutable ethical truths and to conscious awareness. They saw Thomas Hobbes as a prime example of how References and Resources a mechanistic worldview may lead one to undermine Cudworth, Ralph. 2004. The True Intellectual System of the the reality of consciousness, freedom, and values. They Universe. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. argued for toleration during a time of great violence, the More, Henry. 1671. Divine Dialogues, Enchiridion Metaphysi- English Civil War (1642–1651), and often spoke against cum, and the Immortality of the Soul. London: J. Flesher, and the capricious use of political power. Cudworth is prob- for William Morden, Cambridge. ably the only professor or minister to instruct a major —Charles Taliaferro political body on the right answer to Plato’s Euthyphro Only dialogue. On 31 March 1647, Cudworth delivered a sermon in which the main message was that God loves Campus Ministry that which is good because it is good. Goodness is not the result of God’s arbitrary power. Throughout history, Christians have regarded campus The Cambridge Platonist writings will be quite familiar ministry as “an integral part of the Church’s mission to to those who study contemporary philosophy of religion, the world” (Shockley 1989, 2). However, ministry to the as many of their topics and terminology have become academy has changed in many ways over time. The apos- standard. They introduced terms such as “theism,” “phi- tle Paul interacted with scholars on his missionary jour- losophy of religion,” and “consciousness,” and they were neys (Acts 17:16–34) and established what appears to have the first philosophers in English to develop what have been Copya school of Tyrannus (Acts 19:8–10). Many early come to be known as ontological, cosmological, moral, church fathers resided in the city of Alexandria to pursue and teleological theistic arguments, as well as a theistic their research and writing (Pedersen 1997, 17), while argument based on religious experience. others worked tirelessly to unite philosophy and religion (Olson 1999). During the medieval period monasteries, Significant Contributions to Christian Education cathedral schools, and universities provided education for First, the Cambridge Platonists held that a good educa- missionaries, scholars, and teachers (Gonzalez 2010, 172). tion cannot take place in a moral or spiritual vacuum, but The first universities were established in Bologna (law), must be informed by both personal virtue and a virtuous Paris (philosophy and theology), and Oxford (monastic) community open to divine wisdom. In keeping with around the 10th and 11th centuries (Zonta 2006, 28). In Plato and the Platonic tradition, they held that learning New England, most of the colonial colleges were founded required the exercise of virtue. To learn of wisdom, one for the express purpose of training Christian leaders. The must pursue it wisely; to assess the value of love, one vast majority of these appointed ordained clergy as presi- must do so lovingly; to assess courage, one must pursue dents and hired faculty on the basis of their theological it courageously; and so forth. The vices tend to atrophy or persuasion and Christian character. tarnish learning and the practice of philosophy. Clarence Shed (Shockley1989, 12) identified two types Second, the Cambridge Platonists, especially Cud- of early campus religious programs that emerged in the worth, put an enormous stress on history as a source United States that likely paralleled campus ministries of wisdom and knowledge. They believed that divine in other countries: student-centered church work and wisdom canContributor be found in many non-Christian sources. In church-centered student work. Examples of the first in- this, they followed the tradition of Florentine Platonism, clude the Christian Society at Harvard in 1706; the Holy especially the work of Marsilio Ficino. Club at Oxford, which included John and Charles Wesley; Third, they held that religion without reason can be and the “haystack prayer meeting” at Williams College in subject to disordered fantasy. A religious education 1806, which gave birth to the student missionary society. should highlight the role of reason. By the mid-19th century, student Christian associations Fourth, they identified the relationship of religion and such as the YMCA, the YWCA, and the World Student science as important and fruitful. From the standpoint of Christian Federation (harbinger of the World Council of Canada and Christian Education 185

Churches) had gained prominence. The significance of Pedersen, Olaf. 1997. The First Universities: Studium Generale these as lay-led movements and movements giving voice and the Origins of University Education in Europe. Cam- to women in higher education was monumental. Typi- bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. cally these groups were formed to deepen the devotion Shockley, Donald G. 1989. Campus Ministry: The Church Be- of their members through prayer, theological discussion, yond Itself. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. and engagement with mission (Shockley 1989, 12–24). Van Dyke, Paul. 1926. Ignatius Loyola, the Founder of the Jesu- After World War I, a second type of campus religious its. New York: C. Scribner’s Sons. program developed. Land grants allowed universities Zonta, Claudia A. 2006. The History of European Universities: to become public institutions, unmooring them from Overview and Background in Sanz, Nuria, and Sjur Bergan. denominational loyalties and governing boards. As the The Heritage of European Universities. Strasbourg: Council role of the college presidents changed, college chaplains of Europe Publishing. were hired and became the spiritual leaders of the cam- —Chris Kiesling and Viktor J. Rozsa pus community. Black colleges were founded, typically retaining a relationship with the church and focusing on service much like the early colonial colleges. Gradu- Canada and Christian Education ates of these schools became instrumental in the civil rights movements. Mainline denominations established The first Europeans to inhabit Onlywhat is now Canada came campus ministry foundations to “keep their own within from Norse countries about AD 1000 to spend at least the flock” and to protect against the fierce secularity of two winters at L’Anse aux Meadows, on the northwest- modern culture (Shockley 1989, 24–37). ern tip of Newfoundland. No evidence remains of any Campus ministry faces new challenges today. On many Christian religious activity on the part of these occupants. measures young adulthood is now the “least religious” During the age of exploration, Europeans from many time in the life span. With little biblical or theological nations came to Canada for various reasons, including foundation, students are taken captive by cultural forces trade, political expansion, and Christian missions to the and “meander” in the journey toward adulthood and faith First Nations peoples already living in Canada. As a result (Arnett 2006, 122). On a more hopeful note, some cam- of such mission work and the replication or expansion of pus ministries are thriving. For example, Cru (Campus churchesCopy from the European countries of origin of im- Crusade for Christ) is present in 191 countries around the migrants, church-sponsored education was widespread world; it focuses on the simple strategy of “preaching the by the time Canada gained nationhood in 1867. Gospel, discipling converts, and training them to convert When Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Sco- others to evangelical Christianity” (Balmer 2002, 106). tia became the first four provinces to form the Canadian Many ministries may fit under the umbrella of campus Confederation, the British parliament included Section 93 ministry, including chaplains at hospitals and military in the 1867 British North American Act (by which Canada bases, Christian government fellowships, homes for the was legally created). This section guaranteed provincial aged, ministries in jails and prisons, home school co-ops, control over education and gave members of the Protestant and many other outreaches “beyond the church” (Shock- minority of Quebec and of the Roman Catholic minority ley 1989), each of which extends the influence and the of Ontario the right to operate their own tax-supported scope of Christian education. schools. This protocol and the funding it implies were later extended to some other territories as they became prov- References and Resources inces and were also recognized in Section 15 of the Con- Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen. 2006. Emerging Adulthood: The Winding stitution Act of 1982 (Canada’s constitution). In the case Road from the Late Teens through the Twenties, New York: of Manitoba, which joined Canada in 1870, the funding Oxford University Press. of Protestant and Catholic school systems was guaranteed Balmer, Randall H. 2002. The Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism. in the Manitoba Act. But the Manitoba provincial govern- Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ment created a single public school system in 1890, over- Collins, ContributorKenneth J. 2003. John Wesley: A Theological Journey. turning the guarantees to the denominations. This action, Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. now known as the Manitoba Schools Question, led to a Gonzalez, Justo L. 2010. Story of Christianity. Vol. 1, The Early constitutional crisis, eventually settled by the Privy Council Church to the Dawn of the Reformation. New York: Harper- in London in favor of funded denominational schools. Collins. Section 29 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Free- Olson, Roger E. 1999. The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty doms (1982) recognizes the right of all Canadians to pro- Centuries of Tradition & Reform. Downers Grove, IL: Inter- vide for their children the kind of education they desire, Varsity Press. including religious education. Various courts have made 186 Canonical Criticism, Educational Model of clear since 1982 that the Charter does not give parents Brennan, T. K. 2011. “Roman Catholic Schooling in Ontario: the right not to educate their children; children must be Past Struggles, Present Challenges, Future Direction?” Cana- educated. In 1995, the Supreme Court of Canada (in Bal dian Journal of Education 34 (4): 20–33. v. Ontario) declined to rule on an Ontario Court of Ap- Clarke, P. 2005. “Religion, Public Education and the Charter: peals finding that Section 15 of the 1982 Constitution Act Where Do We Go Now?” McGill Journal of Education 40 did not imply that the Ontario government was required (3): 351–381. to fund religious schools other than member schools of ———. 2012. “Religion and Public Schools in Quebec: The Su- funded Catholic boards. That is, the Charter’s right to preme Court of Canada Has Spoken . . . at Least for Now.” choice in education does not imply the right to funding. Education & Law Journal 21 (2): 167–183. Secularization in Canada has brought about changes. LeBel, L. 2006. “Supreme Court of Canada Case Law Regarding Protestant school boards in Ontario, Alberta, Saskatch- Fundamental Rights in Education.” Education & Law Jour- ewan, and Manitoba have become secularized “public” nal 16 (2): 137–157. school boards. Religious practices and religious instruc- Peters, F. 1998. “Religion and Schools in Canada.” Catholic tion disappeared in Ontario public schools after land- Education: A Journal of Inquiry & Practice 1 (3): 275–294. mark court cases in the 1980s and 1990s. Through a Stewart, A. 2008. “Funding, Religious Education, and Multi- constitutional amendment in 1999, Quebec replaced its culturalism in Canada.” Religion & Education 35 (2): 42–58. denominational school systems with linguistically based Sweet, L. 1997. God in the Classroom:Only The Controversial Issue school boards, thereby ending nearly four centuries of of Religion in Canada’s Schools. Toronto: McClelland & full or partial church control over education. Newfound- Stewart. land, which had a denominational school system begin- —Ken Badley ning in 1843 but only joined Canada in 1949, abolished its denominational system in 1998 over the protests of Roman Catholic and Pentecostal churches and educators. Canonical Criticism, Parents and churches have established independent Educational Model of Christian schools in all provinces of Canada. Many of these hold membership in one of two major Christian school Attempts to relate the Bible to education via a focus on organizations (Christian Schools International and Asso- the implicitCopy pedagogy of the canon grew out of canoni- ciation of Christian Schools International). Membership in cal criticism in biblical theology. Canonical criticism these organizations is highest in Ontario, British Colum- developed in reaction to historical criticism and its bia, and Alberta. Other schools are connected to Lutheran, focus on identifying earlier redactions, settings, and Seventh-Day Adventist, Mennonite, or other church de- sources of biblical texts. A canonical approach focuses nominations. Some independent schools, sponsored by on the final form of scripture, prioritizing theology over individual church congregations, have no affiliation. A few historical antecedents. elite academies, mainly in Ontario and British Columbia, are associated with mainline churches. Since the turn of Canon and Education the 21st century, some Roman Catholic educators and par- Some have sought to use canonical criticism as a frame- ents in Ontario have formed independent schools, eschew- work for educational investigation. Walter Bruegge- ing tax support in favor of greater independence. mann, whose book The Creative Word offers a program- Government funding of independent schools varies matic statement of this approach (albeit focused only from province to province, ranging from zero funding in on the Old Testament), argues that the formation of some provinces (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario) authoritative scriptures that are to be handed on through to partial operational support in others (Alberta, British the generations is a confessional and an educational act.4 Columbia), depending on levels of teacher certification Examining the modes of knowing and the substance to be and adherence to provincial curricula. Some independent known in the constitutive parts of the canon may suggest schools have become alternative schools within public the contours of a biblical approach to education. boards (notablyContributor in Alberta and Saskatchewan), thereby Brueggemann approaches the Old Testament canon receiving full support for operations and salaries, but not in terms of the threefold division in Jeremiah 18:18 that for capital projects. distinguishes the Torah of the priest, the counsel of the wise, and the word of the prophet. A canonical emphasis References and Resources invites both exploring the particular pedagogies implicit Bouchard, N. 2009. “Living Together with Differences: Que- bec’s New Ethics and Religious Culture Program.” Education 4. Walter Brueggemann, The Creative Word: Canon as a Model for Bibli- Canada 49 (1): 60–62. cal Education (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982). Cappadocian Fathers 187 in each division and considering how the whole canon the margins, often against the priests and kings who places each in context. guard the traditional ways, and confront the community with the suffering of people and of God. Working with Torah parable and poetic speech, they interrupt the commu- The Torah is the foundational canonical layer, offering nity’s consensus, positing the need to nurture openness the basic narratives, promises, and commands that au- to voices that come from outside normal expectations. thoritatively frame the ethos of the community of faith. The pedagogy here evokes fresh imagination, disrupts old The teachings of the Torah are not offered for debate certainties, and calls to obedience. or creative elaboration. When children ask what the practices of Israel mean (e.g., Exod. 12:26, Deut. 6:20, References and Resources Josh. 4:6) there is a stable, communally shared answer Brueggemann, Walter. 1982. The Creative Word: Canon as a that is to be passed on without change through the Model for Biblical Education. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. generations. The acts, commands, and promises of God Childs, Brevard S. 1985. The New Testament as Canon: An In- are to be faithfully recited and remembered, and this troduction. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. shared knowledge of the community is placed higher Melchert, Charles F. 1998. Wise Teaching: Biblical Wisdom than individual, private insight or personal experience. and Educational Ministry. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press Torah and its pedagogy establish and maintain core International. Only communal identity. Sanders, James A. 1984. Canon and Community: A Guide to Canonical Criticism. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Wisdom Spina, Frank A. 1989. “Revelation, Reformation, Recreation: The wisdom writings (a frequent target of efforts to de- Canon and the Theological Foundations of the Christian rive pedagogical insight from the form of scripture) do University.” Christian Scholar’s Review 18 (4): 315–332. not appeal to the authority of the Torah or of a direct —David I. Smith word from God, but rather to experience and the patterns to be discerned within creation during daily living. Wis- dom writing relies on the order of what God has given, Cappadocian Fathers while also remaining playful and insisting on the persis- Copy tence of mystery. Pedagogically, it invites attentiveness to The Cappadocian Fathers are the three early Christian the world combined with a proper humility. theologians, the church fathers from Cappadocia—St. This brief schema is open to further elaboration in Gregory of Nyssa, St. Gregory of Nazianzus, and St. Basil relation to the Old Testament, considering, for instance, the Great—of whom only the latter two received a full the psalms as a distinct canonical element. Spina applies classical education. Though united by common interests it to the pedagogy of higher education under the headings of mind and spirit as well by the bonds of brotherhood of revelation, reformation, and re-creation.5 Further con- or friendship, each had a different type of personality: sideration of how the New Testament adds to the canon Basil is known as a man of action, Gregory of Nazianzus as a model of education is also needed; some explorations as a rhetorics master, and Gregory of Nyssa as a thinker. of the pedagogy of Jesus as represented in the Gospels Their teachings were a continuation of Origen’s school, may have affinities with a canonical approach. The basic who found in them conscious defenders of his virtues and trajectory of the approach is to explore how the canon as extremes, and although they sometimes disagreed with a whole models a variety of approaches to knowledge, the Origen, they kept his spirit. The three scholars set out to creative tension between them, and their configuration demonstrate that Christians could hold their own in con- into a theologically normative whole. versations with learned Greek-speaking intellectuals and that Christian faith, while it was against many of the ideas Prophets of Plato and Aristotle (and other Greek philosophers), The prophets build upon and appeal to the Torah, was an almost scientific and distinctive movement, hav- but alsoContributor proclaim God’s judgment on institutions and ing at its center the issues of healing man’s soul and his practices held sacred by the community and poetically reunion with God—illustrated best by monasticism. announce an inbreaking newness rooted in God’s grace They made major contributions to the definition of the rather than past precedent. Prophetic voices speak from Trinity finalized at the First Council of Constantinople in AD 381 and the final version of the Nicene Creed. In this splendid theological triad the work of Athanasius 5. Frank A. Spina, “Revelation, Reformation, Recreation: Canon and the Theological Foundations of the Christian University,” Christian Scholar’s found its continuation and reached its climax. However, Review 18, no. 4 (1989): 315–332. the Cappadocian Fathers emphasized for the first time 188 Caribbean Evangelical Theological Association (CETA) the significance of culture and stated that the Christian logical training to more than 4,000 students enrolled in religion in their times had not developed; instead they diploma, bachelor’s, and master’s degree programs. revealed in their works ideas showing that the doctrine The association is governed by an executive commit- proclaimed by them was a part of an entire civilization; tee, chaired by the president, and a biennial association the theology was a marvelous science based on the high- meeting with an independent chairman, which is its est erudition and philosophical work of the mind. The highest authority. The association maintains offices in Cappadocians intended to unite the Christian man with Maracas, St. Joseph, and Trinidad and Tobago. the entire intellectual culture, utilizing in this endeavor The Caribbean Evangelical Theological Association their best education, conspicuous in their writings. Re- maintains strong ties with significant international and gardless of religious beliefs contradicting the rebirth of regional bodies. Internationally, it is a charter member the classical Greek religion, the Cappadocian Fathers did of the International Council for Evangelical Theological not hide their great appreciation for the cultural heritage Education (ICETE), a global network of eight regional of ancient Greece. Thanks to them, Christianity appears accrediting associations covering all five continents as an heir to what in the Greek tradition is worth saving. and more than 100 countries. ICETE is affiliated with They had a lasting influence on the universal church the World Evangelical Alliance (WEA), a network of through their contribution to the progress of theology, churches in 121 nations, with more than 100 interna- the restoration of peace, the expansion of monasticism, tional organizations joining togetherOnly to give a world- and especially the solution of the problem of relations wide identity, voice, and platform to more than 335 between Hellenism and Christianity. In the latter issue, million Christians. education and educational values were their concern. Several continental networks sponsor ICETE, includ- None of the fathers composed a philosophy of education ing the Accrediting Council for Theological Education or an educational manual (only Basil wrote a brief essay, in Africa (ACTEA), Asia Theological Association (ATA), for young people), yet their educational model—the act Caribbean Evangelical Theological Association (CETA), of schooling a human being into a cultivated person, European Evangelical Accrediting Association (EEAA), whose ultimate goal is the formation of a godlike ikon— Euro-Asian Accrediting Association (E-AAA), Asso- became the lasting model for the future generations. ciation for Evangelical Theological Education in Latin AmericaCopy (AETAL), Association for Biblical Higher Edu- References and Resources cation (ABHE) of the USA, and South Pacific Association Gregg, R. C. 1975. Consolation Philosophy: Greek and Christian of Bible Colleges (SPABC). Paideia in Basil and the Two Gregories. Cambridge, MA: The The association is also a member of several regional Philadelphia Patristic Foundation Ltd. bodies. It holds membership in the Evangelical Asso- Howard, N. D. 2004. “Classical and Christian Paideia in Fourth- ciation of the Caribbean, which it helped establish in Century Cappadocia.” Medieval Perspectives 19: 195–222. the late 1970s. It is a member association of Caribbean Jaeger, W. 1965. Early Christianity and Greek Paideia. Cam- Tertiary Institutions (ACTI) and of the Caribbean Area bridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University. Network for Quality Assurance in Tertiary Education Van Dam, R. 2003. Families and Friends in Late Roman Cap- (CANQATE), which is part of the International Network padocia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (IN- —Marcin Wysocki QAAHE). Through its membership in ICETE, ACTI, and CANQATE, CETA maintains strong links with the world of higher education internationally, both on the theologi- Caribbean Evangelical cal and nontheological fronts. Theological Association (CETA) CETA Services Background The Caribbean Evangelical Theological Association ful- The Caribbean Evangelical Theological Association fills its main objective, the development and promotion (CETA) isContributor a Caribbean-wide association of evangelical of standards of excellence among member institutions, theological institutions formally launched at Victory through several means, including consultations, gradu- Heights, Trinidad and Tobago, in 1973. Its 46 member ate education, accreditation services, and a theological schools are scattered throughout the English-, French-, journal. and Spanish-speaking Caribbean. The schools are af- filiated with some 15 church groups, making CETA an Consultations interdenominational and theologically diverse organiza- Since 1971, CETA has held biennial educational consul- tion. Presently the CETA member schools offer theo- tations designed to strengthen theological education in Carolingian Renaissance 189 the Caribbean. These consultations focus on critical is- particularly Alcuin of York and Theoldolf of Orleans. sues related to theological education. Nineteen consulta- This emphasis on Christian learning emerged within tions have been held so far throughout the three linguistic monastic settings but also in the cities under the direc- groups that make up the association’s membership. tion of cathedrals. Charlemagne himself established a palace school that was significant in that it provided a Caribbean Graduate School of Theology classical education to laity. This involved the seven liberal The Caribbean Evangelical Theological Association es- arts (grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, music, geom- tablished and sponsors the Caribbean Graduate School etry, and astronomy), learning the psalter, chanting, and of Theology (CGST), founded in the mid-1980s to fur- grammar. The long-term influence of these schools was ther strengthen theological education. A fully accredited seen in the eventual emergence of the university, a form institution of higher learning, the graduate school (soon of Christian education that widened the curriculum while to become the Caribbean Christian University) has pro- separating from the monastic context if not completely duced graduates who teach at and lead CETA-affiliated from its wisdom and spirit. schools in the region, as well as other Christian institu- The Carolingian dynasty was named after its most tions and denominations. well-known representative, Charles “the Great” (Char- lemagne or Carola Magnus). He ruled over what today Accreditation Services are France, Saxony, Switzerland,Only Bavaria, and Italy north As a result of the absence of accreditation services in the of Rome. His importance in the development of medieval Caribbean region in the early 1970s, graduates of many institutions was far reaching. By assuming supremacy theological institutions in the region found the creden- over the Western church, he was able to influence and tials accepted by their denominations had no currency in give direction to its leadership, polity, doctrine, and lit- the wider society and internationally. Only a handful of urgy. Perhaps his most important contributions were his theological schools affiliated with the mainline churches decrees related to education. He directed that every par- had their degrees recognized by the University of the ish should provide a school for all children of the church West Indies. The formal accreditation movement in the regardless of class. He also mandated legislation affecting Caribbean is relatively recent, beginning with the Joint matters of theology, discipline, liturgy, and education. He Board of Teacher Education, established in the 1980s; the devotedCopy particular attention to legislation for the educa- University Council of Jamaica, established in 1987; and tion of clergy, charging bishops and monasteries with the the Trinidad and Tobago Committee for the Recognition responsibility for teaching those priests who were capable of Degrees (CORD) and later the Accreditation Council of learning. of Trinidad and Tobago, in 2004, and similar agencies Charlemagne viewed religion as the basis of culture elsewhere. Thus CETA emerged to provide this critical and believed that faith and learning were inseparable service to the vast majority of theological institutions in partners. As in the patristic period, preaching was the the Caribbean. most important means of Christian evangelization and catechesis. While his vision of a united Christian culture, Caribbean Journal of Evangelical Theology (CJET) a Holy Roman Empire, was carried out by nobles, civil CJET is an annual academic journal designed to pro- servants, and armies, Charlemagne also looked to the mote scholarly study and research, provide a forum for church, its leaders, its schools, and its monastics. The the expression of ideas and opinions from a Caribbean monks in particular provided the intellectual and spiri- evangelical theological perspective, and stimulate the tual vision of a new culture that had been inherited from application of this research to the Caribbean region. An the fathers. In addition to promoting missionary preach- agreement was recently reached to include CJET in the ing among rival barbarian tribes, Charlemagne and Al- EBSCO host research database. cuin regularized preaching in parish churches as an offi- cial policy of church reform. Attendance on Sundays and Reference holy days was decreed, while bishops were responsible http://www.cetaweb.info/Contributor for seeing that parish priests preached each Sunday and —Errol E. Joseph holy day. This was a significant step, in that many parish priests were not sufficiently educated in literary, biblical, or theological studies. Carolingian Renaissance To advance the implementation of this educational goal required establishing schools and libraries. Alcuin also The Carolingian Renaissance, during the reign of Char- regulated the lectionary, the scripture lessons appointed lemagne (768–814), was led by educational advisors, for reading and preaching in the liturgy according to the 190 Catechesis/Catechism

Christian calendar. This move was accompanied by col- The one who is taught the word is to share all good things lections of sermons and other educational aids for use by with the one who teaches him. Do not be deceived, God priests. Preaching was to be scriptural in its substance and is not mocked; for whatever a man sows, this he will also catechetical in its aim, covering Christian doctrine, the reap. For the one who sows to his own flesh will from the creed, the Lord’s Prayer, and Christian virtues. In addition flesh reap corruption, but the one who sows to the Spirit will from the Spirit reap eternal life. (NASB) to this strong emphasis on increasing Christian knowledge, the Carolingian Renaissance was a major factor in preserv- At some point very early in the church’s life, instruction ing extant writings of the classical authors of antiquity and in the faith (catechesis) became an important part of the thus played an essential role in the transmission of the period preceding baptism. Many feel these first catechisms Western intellectual tradition. Just as important, however, were modeled after Jewish forms of instruction found in was the manner in which this tradition was assimilated for the synagogue. Oral catechisms, repositories of knowledge the understanding of Christian learning and the scriptures. and wisdom from elders and teachers, were passed down to new believers through stories and sayings. The Sermon References and Resources on the Mount in the Gospel of Matthew may be an ex- Fichtenau, Heinrich. 1978. The Carolingian Empire. Translated ample of such a teaching of the oral torah given to disciples by Peter Munz. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. from a rabbi (teacher). Some books, such as the Didache, Keefe, Susan A. 2002.Water and the Word: Baptism and the served as an early transcript of sortsOnly in the early church for Education of Clergy in the Carolingian Empire. Notre Dame, these teachings on faith and wisdom.9 IN: University of Notre Dame Press. The process of catechesis is not simply a time to dis- Thomson, John A. 2002. The Western Church in the Middle seminate information, but also to assess the intentions Ages. New York: Oxford University Press. and character of the catechumen. By the third century —Michael Pasquarello III AD, we see this period of instruction and assessment prior to baptism lengthened considerably compared to the New Testament (almost immediate baptism), to Catechesis/Catechism perhaps as much as three years.10 The catechetical pro- cess during this time includes a conference between the Catechesis is the religious and/or spiritual education of personCopy who desires to follow Christ and leaders from the children or adults. In general, it includes the teaching of congregation. This potential catechumen is confronted Christian doctrine in a systematic yet conversational way 6 with the implications of discipleship before beginning the as part of an initiation into Christian life. A catechism is process. Throughout the process, he receives instruction the summary or collection of the teachings and questions on the faith as well as how to live. Both orthodoxy and used in the catechesis. Many catechisms are in the form orthopraxis were important in the early church and are of a series of questions and answers that a catechumen still an important part of catechesis today. (student/disciple) will progress through with the help of Periods of renewal in the history of the church have a catechist (teacher or guide). also included moments of catechesis. Cyril of Jerusalem, The term “catechesis” is derived from the Greek word John Chrysostom, Ambrose, and Augustine all wrote catechein, originally meaning “to echo.” This etymology catechetical works that served as models for many Chris- helps in understanding catechesis as the essence of our 11 7 tians. But not all Christians had easy access to printed faith, as it is echoed or passed on from person to person. materials or the ability to read them. In the New Testament the word “katecheo” means to Prior to the ability to easily print catechisms, oral teach- resound, learn, or instruct. Again, it is the handing down ing and preaching remained essential to passing down the of what has been learned from another. To be a catechist faith. Religious art, in the form of paintings, statues, and is to receive the teaching of the faith and pass along 8 what has been received. Paul uses this word (in italic) 9. Phillip Carrington, The Primitive Christian Catechism: A Study in in Galatians 6:6–8 and emphasizes that the process of the Epistles (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1940), 5. Car- catechesis in the New Testament is indeed one of sowing rington will also mention the popular Jewish theme of the “Two Ways” Contributoror the “Way of Life,” which was present in the Gnomai, and embodied, and reaping: in his opinion, in the Didache, the Epistle of Barnabas, and the Mandata of Hermas. 10. Robert E. Webber, Common Roots: The Original Call to an Ancient- 6. John Paul II, “Catechesi Tradendae,” Apostolic Exhortation 18 (1978). Future Faith (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), ch. 11 (e-book). Web- 7. Colin Brown, ed., The New International Dictionary of New Testa- ber cites Hippolytus of Rome (AD 215), who writes, “Catechumens will ment Theology (London: Paternoster Press, 1978), 3:771–772. hear the word for three years. Yet if someone is earnest and perseveres well 8. Pierrer De Cointet, Barbara Morgan, and Petroc Willey, Catechism in the matter, it is not the time that is judged, but the conduct” (17.1). of the Catholic Church and the Craft of Catechesis (San Francisco: Ignatius 11. David Bordwell and The Vatican, Catechism of the Catholic Church Press, 2008), 62. Revised (New York: Continuum, 2002), 8. Catechesis in the Early Church 191 stained glass that depicted stories from the Bible, became a Sherrill, Lewis Joseph. 1950. The Rise of Christian Education. visual catechetical tool. During the Middle Ages in Europe, New York: Macmillan. “mystery” or “miracle” plays developed, which dramatized Webber, Robert E. 2009. Common Roots: The Original Call to events like the Nativity, Holy Week, Easter, and other an Ancient-Future Faith. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. popular stories. Sometimes these plays were quite elabo- —James P. Bowers and Michael McMullin rate and imaginative.12 Even today, many still find visual tools an important and effective part of catechesis. Upon the arrival of the printing press, catechisms Catechesis in the Early Church could now be standardized and present the teachings in a more consistent and uniform way. This was done partly Catechesis is the instruction of the fledgling believer or to combat the ignorance of some clergy as well as to en- convert in the basics of Christian doctrine and faith. It is sure that all believers received instruction consistent with one of the most important contributions of the Christian the church’s teachings. Martin Luther was a great propo- Church to pedagogy. It means to teach orally, especially nent of this and published several of his own catechetical to echo something that has already been spoken. In this writings. His Kleiner Katechismus (Small catechism) was case it means that the catechist is echoing God’s Word published for laity and children in 1529; 40 years later, that has already been proclaimed. In the Acts and the more than 100,000 copies had been printed.13 Epistles there are many passagesOnly that are didactic in na- Today, catechesis is still an important time in the life ture. Catechesis continued the Jewish tradition in which of a new believer. While they may not use the term “cat- great truths are repeated again and again until they be- echesis” or “catechism,” many churches still have classes come part of a believer’s consciousness. Also included in for new believers and offer a spiritual mentor to guide this tradition are early Christian works such as Didache them through the process. All Christians need to be a and Epistle of Barnabas. part of the catechetical process; that is, all should have With Irenaeus and Tertullian catechesis became a sys- received teaching and instruction (both orthodoxy and tematic literary genre. The former’s Demonstratio and the orthopraxis), and all should be a part of the process that latter’s De Baptismo expounded the stages of salvation his- echoes or passes down the teaching that has been given. tory in catechetical form using typology to interpret sacra- The goal of catechesis is to help the new believer to grow ments.Copy The Passio Perpetuae relating to visions has been and mature. This initial growth is but the starting point; considered a sacramental catechesis. Hippolytus speaks catechesis should also prepare believers to communicate of instruction imparted to catechumens for three years by their faith to others. This ability to echo what has been an elder, and Eusebius speaks of extensive catechetical ac- spoken about the faith throughout generations is an im- tivities in Alexandria, where Pantaenus was the rector of a portant element of discipleship and evangelism. school. There the catechesis had genuine exegetical content, and catechumens were trained also as apologists defending References and Resources the faith against pagan philosophers. Origen’s Homilies ex- Bordwell, David, and The Vatican. 2002. Catechism of the pounded the truths of baptism, Easter, and other holy days Catholic Church Revised. New York: Continuum. and sacraments. During Easter the neophytes and initiates Brown, Collin, ed. 1978. The New International Dictionary of listened to the so-called mystagogues, who explained the New Testament Theology. London: Paternoster Press. mysteries of the faith and the meaning of the sacraments. Carrington, Phillip. 1940. The Primitive Christian Catechism: A The sacraments were generally conferred before they were Study in the Epistles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University explained, since they were experienced as events before Press. they were explored doctrinally. In the catechism preached De Cointet, Pierrer, Barbara Morgan, and Petroc Willey. 2008. by Cyril of Jerusalem in 348, the Protocatechesis is followed Catechism of the Catholic Church and the Craft of Catechesis. by 18 catecheses on oral preparation, penitence, God’s San Francisco: Ignatius Press. mercy, baptism, summary of the dogma, confirmation, John Paul II. 1978. “Catechesi Tradendae.” Apostolic Exhorta- the Eucharist, and various elements of the creed. Another tion 18Contributor (Vatican). series consists of eight catecheses by John Chrysostom on Kelly, Liam. 2000. Catechesis Revisited: Handing on Faith baptism, exorcism, and anointing. They are addressed to Today. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. neophytes as well as others and explain the Eucharist as well as the obligations of the new life after baptism, wit- 12. Liam Kelly, Catechesis Revisited: Handing on Faith Today (Mahwah, nessing, moderation, continuous conversion, veneration NJ: Paulist Press, 2000), 20–21. of relics, prayer, almsgiving, and the way to plan one’s day 13. Ibid., 21–23. Luther would also publish other catechisms, including A Brief Form of the Ten Commandments, The Creed and the Lord’s Prayer, in the morning. Another series of 16 catechetical homilies and his Grosser Katechismus (Greater Catechism) for clergy. by Theodore of Mopsuestia explains the creed, the Lord’s 192 Catechesis of the Good Shepherd

Prayer, baptism, Eucharist, anointing, and confession. Am- sensory rich, specially prepared environment. This work brose of Milan has left a number of clues whereby we can began in Rome, Italy, in 1954, and has spread to 37 coun- follow his work as a catechist. He devotes his early work to tries on five continents. The first training for CGS in the salvation history and to sacraments associated with Easter. United States was held in 1975. There are at least 1,000 In Milan, unlike in Africa, the Lord’s Prayer or Pater was churches in the United States that participate in CGS, pri- reserved for neophytes during the Easter week, and they marily, but not exclusively, within the Roman Catholic, were encouraged to pray at all times. The tradition of the Episcopal, and Lutheran traditions.14 Pater after the creed signified the unity of the faith. The Pater was considered a summary of the Gospel and thus History was the subject of many catecheses by Tertullian, Cyprian, The origin of CGS was unintentional. In 1954 Sofia Caval- Augustine, Ambrose, and Gregory of Nyssa. letti, a notable Italian Hebrew and biblical scholar, was With Augustine, the contents of a catechesis become asked to meet with a reluctant seven-year-old to help him more organized. His treatise Catechizandis Rudibus is understand the Bible. To Cavalletti’s astonishment, the addressed to an audience hearing the Gospel for the first boy was so enthralled with what he was hearing that they time. The central event is the Resurrection, and radiating spent two hours on the first page of Genesis. This experi- around it are Creation, Old Testament Covenant with ence planted a seed for the beginning of CGS, even though Abraham, and David. Strangely, Exodus does not figure Cavalletti had no prior experience Onlywith children. Cavalletti in this order. Elsewhere his Enchiridion develops moral sought the help of Gianna Gobbi, who was skilled in the precepts and explains the creed in the context of the great Montessori Method. (See Montessori, Maria, in volume heresies of the day: Manichees, Modalists, Arians, Gnos- 2.) Using concrete materials for children from ages 3 to 12, tics, Docetists, Montanists, Donatists, and Luciferans. Cavalletti and Gobbi worked together for the next 50 years Augustine’s use of the catechesis differs according to his developing and refining biblical content and the liturgy. audience and according to their needs and the extent of their exposure to heresies. To fortify their faith he explores Development and Structure the various interpretations of elements of the dogma. In Catechesis of the Good Shepherd unfolded through the 404 Rufus of Aquileia wrote Commentary on the Creed, careful observation of children. It was grounded in scrip- aimed less at catechumens than at catechists. It gives a list ture Copyand in the experience of the child. “If the children of canonical books of the Bible and a list of heresies. In were captivated by the subject and repeatedly drawn to 385 Gregory of Nyssa wrote Oratio Catechetica Magna, the materials that made it concrete, Cavalletti and Gobbi addressed to Neoplatonic intellectuals who needed a more concluded that the children’s religious needs were being systematic exposition of the Gospel. Egeria’s Peregrinatio met. The interest, activity, and, most of all, the joy of describes the use of catechesis in Jerusalem toward the end the children guided and refined the curriculum.”15 They of the fourth century. The instructions covered salvation noticed that younger children found it easier than older history, creed, and sacramental rites. These instructions children to begin to know God as loving and were espe- were addressed solely to those who were baptized or those cially responsive to that love.16 who were due to be baptized. The catechetical homilies As Cavalletti and Gobbi searched to find essential themes of Chromatius of Aquileia refer to baptisms at the Easter and elements corresponding to the needs of the children, vigils and also to the presence of the Holy Spirit. In the fifth they made many mistakes and had to discard some of the century Peter Chrysologus of Ravenna refers to the prac- materials, keeping only those that aroused interest and tice of Disciplina Arcani, who forbade the writing down of deep joy. They were seeking the most essential, simplest the creed lest it fall into the hands of heretics. materials that would help the personal work of the children to grasp the message of the scripture and the liturgy. There- References and Resources fore, anything that was not essential was removed from Riley. H.M. 1492. Christian Initiation (Studies in Christian the atrium—whether materials or spoken words. Their Antiquity). Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of ongoing quest was to “‘know, love, and serve the child,” America ContributorPress. especially in regard to his or her relationship with God.17

—George Thomas Kurian 14. National Association of Catechesis of the Good Shepherd, United States, www.cgsusa.org. 15. Tina Lillig, “The History of the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd,” NAMTA Journal 24, no. 2 (1999): 31. Catechesis of the Good Shepherd 16. This insight is supported by the fact that Atrium Level I (for three- to six-year-olds) is the most frequently occurring level. 17. Gianna Gobbi, Listening to God with Children: The Montessori Catechesis of the Good Shepherd (CGS) is an approach Method Applied to the Catechesis of Children (Loveland, OH: Treehaus, to the spiritual formation of children that happens in a 1998), viii. Catechetical Directories (Post–Vatican II) 193

The children themselves led Cavalletti and Gobbi to Contribution to Christian Education develop the design of CGS. Wooden materials for the Christian educators will benefit from four observations parable of the Good Shepherd became a pillar of the Jerome Berryman made about CGS: (a) It is an experi- work: a sheepfold, shepherd, and 10 sheep. Cavalletti first ence that is spontaneous rather than prompted by an thought that the children were drawn to the Good Shep- adult; (b) it is complex, involving feelings, thoughts, and herd for the protection represented by the shepherd but actions; (c) it is not limited to cultural conditioning; and came to realize that it was the relationship, and their se- (d) the experience is deep rather than simply sensory.20 curity within that relationship, that was so appealing. The In an atrium, a child’s spiritual growth may include a children showed such respect for the materials as they deep joy, “mysterious” knowledge or insight that does used them that the figures, made by the women them- not come from the adult, awareness of meaning in the selves, lasted for decades. For older children the parable environment that is apart from the material itself, and a of the Vine and the Branches became the pillar because capacity for deep prayer of praise and gratitude.21 of the life-giving relationship between the branches and the vine. References and Resources As in Montessori’s approach, materials in the atrium Berryman, J. 1983. Preface to the English edition of Religious were characterized by simplicity and order, everything Potential of the Child, by S. Cavalletti, 3–20. New York: having its place. It included a baptism area, an altar, a Paulist Press. Only geography area, and a prayer corner. The children were Cavalletti, S. 2007. “Annual Report from the Italian Associa- shown how to walk slowly and speak softly. Even though tion.” Catehesi Del Buon Pastore, no. 6, 4–11. everyone was busy, the space was filled with rich silence. Gobbi, G. 1998. Listening to God with Children: The Montessori For older children the atrium became like a refuge; they Method Applied to the Catechesis of Children. Loveland, OH: responded with deep joy, reflection, and contemplation.18 Treehaus, 1998. It was as if the spirit of the child had met the Spirit of God. Lillig, T. 1999. “The History of the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd.” NAMTA Journal 24 (2): 29–37. Impact and Influence May, S. 2007. “Sofia Cavalletti.” Christian Educators of the 20th Catechesis of the Good Shepherd has an impact not only Century. http://www.talbot.edu/ce20/educators/catholic/so on the children who participate but also on those who Copyphia_cavaletti/ are trained as catechists for the atria. The training is pro- longed, often a year long for each level. Each person must National Association of the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd. then develop her or his own plan for the lesson presenta- n.d. http://www.cgsusa.org/history.shtml/ tions. Consequently, there are no published materials for —Scottie May CGS. The intentional pace and experiential process of the training become spiritually formative for the trainees. Catechists testify to “falling in love with the Good Shep- Catechetical Directories herd” in a whole new way through this process. (Post–Vatican II) Not surprisingly, as CGS spread, modifications of the work developed. Some of these variations are known as No document directly dedicated to catechesis was pre- Godly Play (developed by Jerome Berryman), Young pared at the Second Vatican Council. However, after Children and Worship (Sonya Stewart and Jerome Ber- the Council two General Directories for Catechesis 1971 ryman), Beulah Land (Gretchen Wolff Pritchard), and and 1997 addressed to the entire Catholic world were The Way of the Child (published by Upper Room). The published. Some countries also prepared their own cat- development of these newer approaches is obvious: Mon- echetical directories. tessori, to CGS, to their current forms. Modifications are evident for Protestant churches. General Catechetical Directory Tina Lillig, a director of CGS, notes: “Though guided Several years after the Council, on 18 March 1971, the by the sameContributor principles, atriums around the world are no- Vatican Congregation for the Clergy issued a docu- ticeably different. They reflect the conditions and charac- ment entirely devoted to the directory, entitled General teristics of the place and culture, as well as the economic Catechetical Directory. This document was addressed capacities of the parishes that organize them. But all carry to those responsible for catechesis and was intended to the vision of the child’s dignity and desire to come closer provide guidance for individual countries and dioceses. to God.”19

20. Jerome Berryman, Preface to the English edition of Religious Po- 18. Lillig, “History of the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd,” 34. tential of the Child, by Sofia Cavalletti (New York: Paulist Press, 1983), 10. 19. Ibid., 37. 21. Ibid., 11. 194 Catechetical Schools in the Early Church

The directory comprises a detailed presentation of the the elderly, as well as the disabled and marginalized. cultural context in which the church functioned at the What is more, tasks for different entities responsible for turn of the 1960s and 1970s and discusses the nature catechesis in the church were specified in this document. of catechesis, its purpose, and its functions, as well as The directory recommends that individual dioceses and forms and methods. It presents the basic principles of the episcopal conferences perform an analysis of the situa- transfer of catechetical contents; that is, the principle of tion and of their needs and develop a program of action integrity and hierarchism. The directory is also, to a large and practical tools for catechization (Congregation for extent, devoted to the issue of the addressees of catechesis the Clergy 1998, 279–285). (GDC no. 92–97) as well as the formation of catechists and organizational matters of catechesis. Local Directories for Catechesis While implementing the guidelines of the “General Di- General Directory for Catechesis rectory for Catechesis,” some countries have developed On 15 August 1997, the same Vatican Congregation for their own catechetical directories, including, inter alia. the the Clergy issued a new catechetical directory entitled United States (2005) and Poland (2001). The directories General Directory for Catechesis. The motivation for the issued by episcopal conferences of individual countries issuance of this document was the changes occurring in focus on the presentation of the specific nature of cat- the church and in the world and the adaptation of cur- echetical activity in the context ofOnly the local culture. They rent catechetical guidelines to the documents published also develop guidelines adequate to those conditions and in 1971, primarily those such as Pope Paul VI’s encyclical relating both to content and the form of catechesis. Evangelii nuntiandi of 1975, John Paul II’s apostolic ex- hortation Catechesi tradendae of 1979, and the Catechism References and Resources of the Catholic Church of 1992. Cardinal Avery Dulles Congregation for the Clergy. 1998. General Directory for notes: “The General Directory does not simply go back Catechesis. Washington, DC: United States Conference of to pre-Vatican II models. . . . [I]t takes advantage of the Catholic Bishops. reforms of catechesis in the past forty years” (2002, 25). Dulles, A. 2002. “The Catechetical Process in the Light of the Directory for Catechesis places catechesis in a widely General Directory for Catechesis.” In Hear, o Islands: Theol- understood evangelization; it distinguishes it, however, ogyCopy & Catechesis in the New Millennium , edited by J. Red- from the first proclamation of the Gospel. It argues that ford, 24–35. Dublin: Veritas Publications. the first proclamation of the Gospel is addressed to those United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. 2005. National who do not believe or who have a neutral attitude to faith, Directory for Catechesis. Washington, DC: USCCB. while catechesis “promotes and matures initial conver- —Paweł Mąkosa sion, educates the convert in the faith and incorporates him into the Christian community” (Dulles 2002, 25). According to the authors of the directory, it is neces- Catechetical Schools sary to “distinguish clearly between religious instruc- in the Early Church tion and catechesis” (Congregation for the Clergy 1998, 73). Teaching religion at school is “called to penetrate a In the rudimentary educational system of the ancient particular area of culture and to relate with other areas world, each school was linked to a philosopher or teacher of knowledge” (73), while the purpose of the catechesis (magister), but it had no ties to the state or the social or is to “put people not only in touch, but also in commu- political unit in which it existed. Students were drawn nion and intimacy, with Jesus Christ” (80). The tasks of mostly from the upper class, and the subjects of study catechesis understood in the above manner comprise the varied according to the interests of the teachers. There following: Promoting knowledge of the faith, Liturgical were no textbooks, and pedagogic methods varied from education, Moral formation, Teaching to pray, Education teacher to teacher. Some schools were headed by peripa- for Community Life and Missionary initiation (85–86). tetic or itinerant teachers whose students followed them In the directoryContributor one can observe the distinction between from town to town. There were no buildings specifically mistagogic catechesis (introducing the sacramental life designated as schools. The only exceptions seem to have and deepening it) and continuous catechesis, in which been Maeceniae Scholae of Autun, described by Eumenes the transfer of the whole deposit of the Catholic faith in 298 in his speech to the emperor, and the great scholae takes place. of Mactar in Ostia and present-day Tunisia, which were The authors of the directory devoted a lot of place to actually youth clubs that served occasionally as class- the addressees of catechesis, enumerating adults at the rooms. Ancient schools were organized on three levels. first position, followed by children, young people, and The ludus literarius or primary schools enrolled pupils Catechetical Schools in the Early Church 195 from ages 7 to 12 and taught them to read, write, and Though the classical world continued to influence learn- count. The Grammaticus taught students the great classi- ing, it became heavily Christianized as idioms of thought cal writers, and the third level taught rhetoric to students and learning shed their classical flavor. over the age of 18. At this level, students learned ars But even as Christian schools supplanted classical grammatica, or grammatical theory, based on the great schools, another development became a permanent fea- grammarians Donatus, Servius, and Priscian. Initially in- ture of Christian education. Gradually the catechetical struction was in both Greek and Latin, but Latin replaced schools, which trained catechumens in the fundamentals Greek in the West, while Greek remained the language of the faith and prepared the clergy for their theological of instruction in the East until the time of Justinian. roles, became separate from the Christian schools that Teachers received little or no pay but lived on stipends trained common people in academic subjects. Here both or contributions from their pupils. Often pupils never Christians and non-Christians received training in the paid or haggled with their teachers or left school without basic arts and sciences from Christian teachers, usually paying. Corporal punishment was universally accepted with some biblical teaching. This division still exists. as a method of correction and was considered an appro- The effort to reconcile the best of classical culture with priate pedagogical tool. Augustine records with anguish Christian thought persisted through the first millennium. his memory of his teacher’s rod or the ferula. Ostian and Justin, Clement, and Origen, all of whom studied in pagan Horace also record their experiences with the plagosus in schools, felt no incompatibilityOnly between Christianity and school. To the ancients childhood and adolescence were Hellenism, and they made a fairly easy transition from thankless ages that had no purpose other than to prepare the classical modes of thinking to the Christian. However, a person for adulthood, or legitima or aetas perfecta. Girls there was clear opposition to Hellenism in Tertullian, were excluded from all schools. Arnobius, and Lactantius, who wrote that Christian edu- Early Christian schools were created ab ovo and had cation must be limited to the scriptures. Basil the Great’s little connection to the Greek or Roman schools of the Exhortation to the Young on the Way to Profit from Pagan time. There were designed principally as instruments of Literature has been wrongly seen as a defense of Greek evangelism, and there was no attempt to set up an insti- culture; he clearly warns readers to disavow all ideas from tution that competed with pagan schools for the training Hellenism that are contrary to the scriptures. Likewise, of the young. But with the decline of the Greek world, TheodoreCopy of , in On the Way to Cure Hellenic Christian schools became by default the centers for the Maladies, pointed out the harmful errors of Hellenism in transmission of knowledge. Christian students were contrast to the luminous clarity of Christianity. There were trained to fill ecclesiastical offices rather than to serve as also attempts to define the role of Christian pedagogy in administrative state officials. For a period during the de- the spiritual growth of Christians. Chrysostom in De Inani cline of the ancient world, Christian training academies Gloria et de Liberis Educandis and Jerome in Ad Laetam de did not emulate secular schools and offer secular and Institutione Filae addressed the task of Christian teachers classical instruction or the sciences, but confined them- in terms and ideas drawn from the scriptures. The ques- selves to scriptural studies. They did not initially intro- tion they raised was how to remain faithful to the Gospel duce any new system of pedagogy or innovation except while living in a pagan world. for the emphasis on memorization, by which children There was, however, considerable interaction between were taught passages of the Bible. Christian and pagan teachers, although initially Chris- But gradually the church grew accustomed to its new tians were discouraged from teaching in pagan schools. role as schoolmaster as part of its magisterial function. Origen taught grammar in a pagan school in Alexandria, Learning and teaching were integral parts of Christian where Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea, also taught. Many growth, and teaching itself was a ministry as defined Christian teachers were esteemed by pagans and vice by Paul. The transmission of the Gospel to succeeding versa. The pagan rhetor Libanius had many Christian pu- generations as well as evangelization could not be accom- pils and was a friend of Basil the Great and Chrysostom. plished except through teaching. Education thus entered Prohaeresius was a Christian rhetor who was esteemed by the greatContributor armory of the Christian faith designed to combat pagans and listed in the Lives of the Sophists, while The- paganism and secularism, and this function continued to mistus, a pagan, was the tutor of Emperor Theodosius I. govern the church’s mission as a schoolmaster. Christian- An attempt to marginalize Christian teachers was made ity became a learned religion wherein knowledge was a by Julian, but it was short-lived. handmaiden of faith. Early Christian writers like Melito From the middle of the second century Christian of Sardis, Theophilus of Antioch, and Athenogoras, them- schools were flourishing in all cities and in all parts of selves educated in pagan schools and academies, helped to the Roman Empire. Justin, after teaching for a while in establish the Christian school as an adjunct to the church. Ephesus, founded a school in Rome in or about 165. A 196 Catechetical Sermons catechetical school known as Didaskaleion was founded leaders to determine if this desire was genuine; if so, they in Alexandria by Pantaenus. In 189 Clement became its were welcomed into portions of the church’s worship director and wrote the Pedagogue, which expresses his experience, where they would hear teaching from scrip- ideas clearly. The School of Alexandria reached its apogee ture and be encouraged to turn away from sin and live a under Origen, who assumed its direction in 204 at the age righteous life. During this phase, which might last three of 18. He taught secular literature and philosophy. He or more years, they were viewed as catechumens. When founded another school at Caesarea. In Thanks to Ori- there was sufficient evidence that they were ready to be- gen, Gregory Thaumaturgus left a record of this school, come members of the church with all of its responsibili- which taught astronomy, geometry, and natural science ties, and that their lifestyle was marked by obedience to in the context of the scriptures. In a letter that appears as God, church bishops set aside a special time of teaching chapter 13 of his Philocalia, Origen invites his students to to prepare these believers for their baptism and entry take from Greek philosophy all that can serve encyclical into the church. During this time they were identified teaching and is useful for the interpretation of the Holy as competentes, and they would hear a series of didac- Scriptures. In addition to these institutions, many church tic sermons on the basics of the faith. The time for this fathers, such as Apollonaris of Antioch, Didymus the instruction was often during the season of Lent, leading Blind of Alexandria, and Gregory Nazianzen of Constan- up to baptism on Easter Sunday. In the week following tinople, held lectures attended by many disciples baptism, additional sermons (termedOnly mystagogy) were From the middle of the fourth century many monas- shared with these “neophytes” to explain the meaning teries had schools attached to them, where the novices and significance of the baptism and Eucharist they had were instructed not only in the scriptures but also in just experienced and other aspects of moral living. These basics of spiritual life. Monasteries also had large collec- sermons during Lent and following Easter were “cat- tions of books on a variety of subjects not limited to the echetical sermons,” teaching the basics of the faith that scriptures. All the initiates were taught to read and write every Christian was expected to know and understand, under the direction of a literate monk and were provided and to live out. with books, tablets, and pens. Examples of catechetical sermons include those by Church schools continued to exist even after the disso- John Chrysostom, archbishop of Constantinople (late lution of the empire and the eclipse of Greek and Roman 300s,Copy early 400s), which were designed for 30 days of culture. Parochial schools took over many of the functions instruction leading to baptism, and additional instruc- of the schools and were open to boys who were destined tion on the meaning of baptism in the week after the for a clerical career and many who were not even Chris- sacrament. He saw this time as like being in a wrestling tians. The Council of Vaison of 529 decreed that parish school, providing exercise and practice in the battle priests should double as teachers. This decree marked the against Satan, learning how to overcome sin. Cyril, birth of the parochial school. Throughout the Dark Ages archbishop of Jerusalem (mid- to late 300s) developed a that lasted until the 15th century, these schools served as series of 18 sermons for instruction in the faith leading feeble beacons of light, preserving and transmitting knowl- to baptism, seeking to help competentes put off the old edge and training men and women in the most elementary life of sin and put on a new life of righteousness, and arts and sciences as well as reading and writing. Alongside five sermons for the week following baptism. Cyril’s a great mass of illiterati there survived an elite class of cler- prebaptism sermons focused primarily on an explana- ics and monks. In the East the Christian school survived tion of the creed, and the postbaptism sermons focused until the Turkish conquests sounded its death knell. on baptism, the Eucharist, and the Lord’s Prayer. Other examples of catechetical sermons for various settings References and Resources are The Great Catechism by Gregory of Nyssa, First Bonner, S. F. 1977. Education in Ancient Rome. London: Catechetical Instruction and On Christian Doctrine by Metheun. Augustine of Hippo, and De Principiis by Origen, given Marrou, H. I. 1964. History of Education in Antiquity. New at the catechetical school in Alexandria. York: NewContributor American Library. Catechetical sermons provided orientation to a Chris- —George Thomas Kurian tian understanding of the nature of God, the world, the human condition, and salvation, often in stark contrast to the religious and philosophical backgrounds of those Catechetical Sermons who wanted to join the church. Having this time of focused instruction that all competentes and neophytes In the early church, as people identified that they wished experienced contributed to a common understanding to become Christians, they would be brought to church of the faith and what it meant to participate in the life Catechism 197 of the Church and to pursue obedience to God in daily and consisted of three parts: Of the Misery of Man, Of life. These catechetical sermons of the early church era the Redemption of Man, and Of the Gratitude Due from influenced the scope and content of catechetical work in Man. In 1693, the British Baptists published Keach’s Cat- the Church through the medieval period and the Refor- echism (aka The Baptist Catechism), which some Baptist mation and continue to influence catechetical instruction churches also used in the United States in the 1700s. In today in many church traditions. 1892, some congregations of the Southern Baptist Con- vention (founded in 1845) used A Catechism of Bible References and Resources Teaching, authored by John A. Broadus. Dujarier, M. 1979. A History of the Catechumenate: The First American Presbyterian bodies have also used cate- Six Centuries. New York: Sadlier. chisms, including the Presbyterian Church in the United Harmless, W. 1995. Augustine and the Catechumenate. Colleg- States of America, the Presbyterian Church in America, eville, MN: The Liturgical Press. the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, and the Orthodox Westerhoff, J. H., III, and O. C. Edwards Jr. 1981. A Faith- Presbyterian Church. These bodies have both a shorter ful Church: Issues in the History of Catechesis. Wilton, CT: and a longer catechism. Some Methodist congregations Morehouse-Barlow Co. in the 19th century used The Short Scriptural Catechism, published in 1811. But in the 20th century, given Meth- Note: Copies of the various catechetical sermons mentioned odism’s increasing acceptanceOnly of theological liberalism, in the article are readily available online. its congregations rarely used catechisms for Christian —Kevin E. Lawson instruction. Regarding the Roman Catholic Church, the Council of Trent (1545–1563), apparently in response to Luther’s Catechism two popular catechisms, decreed that the Tridentine Catechism should be published, but it did not appear The word “catechism” is derived from the Greek word until 1566, two years after the Council of Trent ended katecheo. It appears in Acts 21:21, 24, where it is its sessions. In 1885, the Third Plenary Council of Bal- translated as “informed.” In the early church katecheo timore published The Baltimore Catechism for Catholics referred to teaching by oral instruction, as Christians inCopy the United States. The Roman Catholics revised this prepared non-Christians for baptism and membership catechism in the 1960s. This revision is known as St. in the church, and it soon it took on the meaning of Joseph Revised Baltimore Catechism. However, this is teaching by using questions and answers. Individuals not the only catechism used in Catholic churches today. instructed were known as catechumens, and the in- The Roman Catholic Church published Catechism of structors were catechists. By the early Middle Ages the Catholic Church in 1994. It is not an instructional some catechists used written materials for Christian manual with questions and answers; rather, it sets forth catechizing. After the invention of the printing press in the principal doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church in the mid-15th century, Martin Luther’s Small Catechism several hundred pages and bears the imprimatur of Pope (1529) became the first printed catechism. Consistent John Paul II. with catechism meaning teaching with questions and In the realm of America’s numerous denominations, answers, Luther’s catechism used that format. He wrote Lutherans and Catholics have made the most consistent it primarily for fathers to instruct their children and use of catechisms. Hence, the word “catechism” is usually servants in basic Christian doctrines. It consisted of a familiar word in Catholic and Lutheran circles, because five parts; in 1531 Andrew Osiander, a Lutheran pastor, most Catholics and Lutherans learned from one, usually added the sixth part to Luther’s catechism. before they attained adulthood. Luther also published Large Catechism in 1529. But The content of Christian catechisms varies, given unlike his Small Catechism, it was an instruction manual that they usually reflect the doctrinal emphases of their only for pastors and teachers. It contained no questions respective denominations. Most consist of parts. The six and no Contributoranswers. Luther’s two catechisms soon prompted parts of Luther’s Small Catechism are the Ten Command- other Protestant reformers to write catechisms. In 1537, ments, the Apostles’ Creed (divided into three articles), John Calvin published his Geneva Catechism. In 1549, the Lord’s Prayer (spelled out in seven petitions), the the Church of England included a catechism in its Book Sacrament of Baptism, Confession, and the Sacrament of of Common Prayer, and in 1563 the German Reformed the Altar (Lord’s Supper). Catechisms of other denomi- churches adopted the Heidelberg Catechism (aka the nations also consist of several parts. The Heidelberg Cat- Palatinate Catechism), authored by Zacharias Ursinus echism, for example, has three parts: Man’s Sin and Guilt, and Caspar Olevianus. It had 129 questions and answers Man’s Redemption and Freedom, and Man’s Gratitude 198 Catechism and Catechizing Practices, Development of the and Obedience. The St. Joseph Revised Baltimore Cat- ficial printed catechism in the vernacular in England was echism of the American Catholic Church has four parts: created under the leadership of Artchbishop Thoresby. the Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Sacraments, and Other printed catechisms followed, some in dialog form Prayer. Eastern or Greek Orthodox churches tend to use (e.g., Life of Soul). more than one catechism, also laid out in several parts. During the Reformation, instruction in the basics of the faith was again a major concern. Luther borrowed a References and Resources question and answer format from Kindergragen (Chil- Catechism of the Catholic Church. 1994. Liguori, MO: dren’s interrogatory) and used it to develop both a simple Copeland, David A. 2001. Benjamin Keach and the Develop- Small Catechism that addressed the Ten Commandments ment of Baptist Tradition in Seventeenth Century England. (showing our sin), the creed (showing God’s provision), Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press and the Lord’s Prayer (showing how to ask for grace), Graebner, Theodore. 1928. The Story of the Catechism. St. and a more thorough Large Catechism for the instruc- Louis: Literary Licensing. tion of priests, to prepare them for their responsibilities Harnack, T. H. 1856. Der Kleine Katechismus D. Martin Luthers for teaching their parishioners. Most Protestant tradi- in seiner Urgestalt. Stuttgart: Esefeld & Traub. tions followed suit. In the Council of Trent (1545–1563), Reu, Michael. 1918. Catechetics. Chicago: Kessinger. the Catholic Church responded to the Protestant use of —Alvin J. Schmidt catechisms by developing its own,Only which had four main parts: (1) faith and the Apostles’ Creed; (2) the sacra- ments; (3) the Ten Commandments and divine law; and Catechism and Catechizing Practices, (4) the nature and necessity of prayer, the Lord’s Prayer. Development of the Catechetical publication and instruction flourished in both the Catholic and Reformation churches, with many In the early church, when people came seeking to different catechisms being developed and used in the become Christians, their baptism was preceded by a established church and in mission settings. Catechizing, period of instruction in the basics of the faith, both in which in previous centuries had been connected first doctrine and in how to live in obedience to God. This with baptism and later with preparation for confession, early instructional effort was called catechumenal in- becameCopy a major part of preparing for the rite of confirma- struction, and the person receiving it was a catechumen. tion. In the Protestant traditions, catechizing tended to After infant baptism became standard practice in the take place in three different settings. First, parents were church, instruction in the basics of the faith became the to teach the catechism to those in their household, which responsibility of godparents, parents, and priests. This included their children and any young servants. Second, process became known as catechizing, and the content in the local schools, the catechism was often included in of instruction was the “catechism” (Greek katechizo, to the primers used to teach reading and writing. Finally, in sound down or to make hear). some church traditions, the priest or pastor devoted time Throughout most of the medieval period, the cat- to teaching, reviewing, and explaining the catechism to echism was in an oral form, learned by memory from parishioners, either at the church on Sunday afternoons those responsible for the child’s or adult’s spiritual care. or Holy Days, or in their homes. Catechisms were devel- The exact content of the catechism changed over the oped for children and youth (ages 6 to 20), moving from centuries, at times being limited to the Apostles’ Creed rote learning, to explaining the meaning of the doctrines and the Lord’s Prayer, later expanding to include the that had been memorized, to checking the understand- Ave Maria, Ten Commandments, seven deadly sins, ing of the youth regarding what they had learned, to seven principle virtues, and seven sacraments. During encouraging catechumens to put their knowledge and the time of Charlemagne (eighth to ninth centuries), understanding into practice in their lives. Catechisms godparents took on primary responsibility for instruct- were also developed in Greek, Hebrew, and Latin for ing their godchildren in the more limited form of the use in university settings, providing familiar content as a catechism.Contributor By the 13th century, as a result of the Fourth means for learning the languages. Lateran Council’s requirement that all Christians receive Though the use of catechisms has declined in many communion at least once a year, catechizing became an church traditions out of concerns over the limitations important priestly activity to prepare people to make a of this instructional method, it continues today, par- good confession in preparation for communion. In 1281, ticularly in those traditions that practice infant baptism Archbishop Peckham, in York, England, required priests and confirmation of adolescents. It serves as a means to teach their parishioners the content of the more ex- to teach the foundational aspects of Christian faith and panded catechism four times a year. By 1357, the first of- life, preparing the young to take on responsibility for Catholic Reformation, The Educational Principles of the 199 the faith they have been raised in and their participation were prohibited because they involved sexual immorality, in the life of the church. idolatry, magic, divination, or bloodshed and the taking of human life (see, e.g., ps.-Hippolytus Trad. apost. 16). References and Resources In some cases, a sponsor who was already a member Green, I. 1996. The Christian’s ABC: Catechisms and Catechiz- of the church may have been required to vouch for the ing in England c. 1530–1740. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. character and sincerity of the person requesting baptism. Marthaler, B. L. 1995. The Catechism Yesterday & Today: The Admission to the catechumenate could be marked by Evolution of a Genre. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. various ritual gestures such as receiving the sign of the Van Engen, J., ed. 2004. Educating People of Faith: Exploring the cross, laying on of hands, exorcism, and the offering of History of Jewish and Christian Communities. Grand Rapids, salt to the candidate (which the candidate was supposed MI: Eerdmans. to taste). Catechumens were then allowed to attend the Westerhoff, J. H., III, and O. C. Edwards Jr. 1981. A Faith- worship service and listen to the scripture readings and ful Church: Issues in the History of Catechesis. Wilton, CT: the sermon, but were commonly required to leave before Morehouse-Barlow Co. the anaphora or Eucharistic prayer. —Kevin E. Lawson During Lent the catechumens were expected to com- mit the baptismal creed to memory and to attend regular (often daily) instruction. ThisOnly typically consisted of a Catechumenate synopsis of the history of salvation drawn from the Old and New Testaments and a popular exposition of basic From the Greek verb katēcheo, meaning to inform or Christian doctrines, loosely structured around the ele- instruct, the catechumenate is the period during which ments of the baptismal creed. people receive elementary instruction in the Christian The catechumenate fell into disuse after the fourth faith prior to baptism. century, although survivals remain in later liturgies. The It is not clear when a formal pattern of instruction Second Vatican Council revived interest in the catechu- began to precede baptism. It has been debated whether menate, leading to the development of the Rite of Chris- this practice is already attested in the New Testament tian Initiation of Adults (RCIA). itself. In Acts 18:25, Apollos is described as having been Copy “instructed in the way of the Lord,” while Hebrews References and Resources 5:12–6:2 lists certain elementary teachings received at the Conversion, Catechumenate and Baptism in the Early Church. beginning of the Christian life and distinguishes these 1993. Edited by Everett Ferguson. New York: Garland. from further instruction given to the mature. Dujarier, Michel. 1979. A History of the Catechumenate: The The evidence from the second century AD is also First Six Centuries. New York: Sadlier. ambiguous. In 2 Clement 17:1 (an anonymous homily Finn, Thomas M. 1992. Early Christian Baptism and the Cat- dating from AD 130–160), Christians are commanded echumenate: Italy, North Africa, and Egypt. Collegeville, MN: “to draw people away from idols and instruct them,” but The Liturgical Press. there is no explicit connection with baptism. Justin Mar- Harmless, William. 1995. Augustine and the Catechumenate. tyr (1 Apol. 61.2) asserts that those preparing for baptism Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. are “taught to pray and entreat God with fasting . . . while Harmless, William M. 1999. “Catechesis, Catechumenate.” In we join in their prayer and fasting,” but it is not clear that Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia, edited by Allan this involved any form of systematic or extended instruc- Fitzgerald and John C. Cavadini, 146–149. Grand Rapids, tion in the faith. MI: Eerdmans. Catechumens (i.e., a distinct class of persons receiv- Turner, Paul. 2000. The Hallelujah Highway: A History of the ing formal instruction prior to baptism) are first attested Catechumenate. Chicago: Liturgy Training Publications. around AD 200 in North Africa (Tertullian Haer. 41; —Byard Bennett De corona 2; Marc. 5.7). Origen (Contra Celsum 3.51), writing Contributornearly 50 years later in Palestine or Syria, reports that when people requested baptism, their motives and Catholic Reformation, the character of their lives were examined, and they were The Educational Principles of the given private instruction. Those who manifested a serious commitment to the Christian life were then introduced to Origins the congregation as candidates for baptism. Later texts The Catholic reformation had deep roots in the human- give further information about the vetting of candidates ist learning of the Renaissance and built on the flowering for baptism, sometimes including lists of professions that of the Middle Ages (Roest 2004), even as it reflected the 200 Catholic Reformation, The Educational Principles of the development of new technologies such as the printing religious, who opened schools for young women, as in press, the expansion into new lands far from Europe, and the case of the Ursulines and Vistation sisters. the rise of powerful, centralized states. While it was in Jesuit colleges were not about the specialized learning part a response to the emergence of new, separate com- of the universities but rather the humanistic learning for munities of Christian faith north of the Alps, the Catholic service to society of well-formed leaders who would see reformation was far more than that (Gundani 2005). their civic and social responsibilities hand in hand with The Council of Trent (1545–1563) was a part of these their religio-moral responsibilities (Coleman 1995). Edu- developments, but developments sometimes associated cation in religion, arts, literature, and rhetoric was seen as with the Council, such as the catechism (Boer 2013) and mutually supportive and critically important for faithful the form of the mass, were not products of the Council and virtuous leadership (McGuinness 1995). Reflecting in themselves (O’Malley 2012). A direct result of the the twin goals of religious knowledge and a religious Catholic reformation, however, was a new kind of focus aesthetic characteristic of the Catholic reformation, Je- on religious education (Bireley 1999). suit college architecture had much in common with the features of baroque churches, and they were often side by Goals side. The complex typically included a space for theater Two goals emerged as particularly critical for religious as well, since artistic expression was an important part of education as a result of the Catholic reformation. The college life (McCabe 1983). With Onlya vision of education of first was a wider and deeper level of instruction of the whole person and seeing God in all things, the schools children. Village schools came to be opened under the tended to emphasize arts and humanities, particularly leadership of the church to provide catechetical training, classical languages and literature, but also devoted at- often under the direction of the local priest or school- tention to emerging fields within natural philosophy, master, depending on the context (Carter 2011; Grendler particularly mathematics and science. 1984). The second goal was growth in personal spiri- The underpinning of the educational system came tuality. This was the era of the great baroque churches, from two principles: the magis and the cura personalis, with all their exuberant color, paintings, and statuary, both of which were adapted from the spirituality behind and their attendant processions, incense, and pageantry the training of those becoming Jesuit priests (Cesareo (Soergel 2007). Such sensuous surroundings were meant 1993).Copy The term magis refers to a seeking for more, in the to invigorate a markedly sacramental imaginary (Mc- sense of always demanding more of oneself. This is coun- Brien 1981), complementing the increased emphasis on terbalanced by the concept of cura personalis, the care of preaching, reading spiritual books, and being a part of the person. Thus, educators were to inspire their students specifically spiritually oriented religious organizations to do more while caring for them as persons. The origin such as sodalities. of these principles was within Jesuit spirituality itself, as Emblematic of the approach to Christian education may be seen within the Jesuit Constitutions and particu- characteristic of the Catholic reformation were the new larly the Spiritual Exercises (O’Malley 1993). These prin- educational institutions established throughout the ciples and the overall convictions of the Society of Jesus Catholic world (Grendler 1990). These colleges, which animated life in the schools. Thus, the ratio studiorum typically spanned from the later years of grammar school of 1599, the plan of studies that guided Jesuit school life through the early years of what would later be seen as for centuries (Duminuco 2000), could be dry and techni- undergraduate studies, were critical in forming educated cal, since the mission itself resided in the spirituality and leaders deeply formed in the Catholic faith. The schools ethos of the religious order. sponsored by the Society of Jesus are the classic example. Teaching methods included recitation as a means to Initiated at the start of the Catholic reformation, Jesuit ensure that each student personally absorbed the mate- schools began in 1548 in Sicily and at their peak in this rial—and ultimately developed strong rhetorical skills. period had about 700 schools worldwide, all of which The underlying vision was education that led to the cul- were, following the guidelines of Ignatius, the founder of tivation of virtue, and skills of leadership and persuasive the Jesuits,Contributor tuition-free and open “to rich and poor alike, argumentation were seen as key. All was directed toward without distinction” (O’Malley 1993, 211). The success the greater glory of God—ad maiorem dei gloriam was of the Jesuits inspired numerous others to open similar woven into the architecture, written on the daily assign- schools, or ones specialized to meet particular needs, ments, and otherwise built into the culture. This includes such as those in the poorest parts of the city, as in the case all aspects of education—including but by no means ex- of the Brothers of the Christian Schools (Calcutt 1994). clusively the reading and hearing of scripture, the study Jesuit spirituality and its educational mission also served of church history and teaching, the lives of the saints, and as the model for numerous new communities of women practices of prayer and worship. With this profoundly Catholic Schools 201 religious education, graduates of the schools in Europe, ———. 1990. “Schooling in Western Europe.” Renaissance the Americas, and Asia went on to become civic leaders— Quarterly 43 (4): 775–787. and more than a few entered the religious order them- Gundani, P. 2005. “‘Catholic Reformation’ or ‘Counter-ref- selves, thereby continuing the spiritual formation process ormation’: Historiographical Implications of the Debate.” in which they had already in some measure participated. Studia historiae ecclesiasticae 31 (1): 39–50. McBrien, R. 1981. “The Reformation: A Catholic Reflection.” Trajectory Theology Today 38 (3): 298–304. While quite different in context from the experience of McCabe, W., SJ. 1983. An Introduction to Jesuit Theater. St. religious education in the Middle Ages or the patristic Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources. period, there are some important constants. Religious McGuinness, F. 1995. Right Thinking and Sacred Oratory in education, as always, was a matter of acquiring informa- Counter-reformation Rome. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni- tion and cultivating spiritual practices (Elias 2002). These versity Press. were uniquely combined within a culture informed by a O’Malley, J. 2012. Trent: What Happened at the Council. Cam- Renaissance-inspired love of learning and art and took bridge, MA: Belknap. place within specific institutional and personal environ- O’Malley, J., SJ. 1993. The First Jesuits. Cambridge, MA: Har- ments. Though suppressed in 1773 by the Franciscan vard University Press. pope Clement XIV as a result of pressure from absolutist ———. 2000. “How the First JesuitsOnly Became Involved in Edu- Catholic monarchies, the Society was restored in 1814, cation.” In The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum: 400th Anniversary after the power of those monarchies had dissipated. The Perspectives, edited by V. Duminuco, SJ, 56–74. New York: approximately 3,000 Jesuit schools in the world today Fordham. continue this trajectory, though in a considerably dif- Roest, B. 2004. Franciscan Literature of Religious Instruction ferent context. Nonetheless, the link between knowing before the Council of Trent. Leiden: Brill. and acting remains an animating feature of this vision of Soergel, P. 2007. “Ritual and Faith Formation in Early Modern Christian education. Catholic Europe.” In Educating People of Faith: Exploring the History of Jewish and Christian Communities, edited by John References and Resources van Enger, 314–329. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Bireley, R., SJ. 1999. The Refashioning of Catholicism, 1450– Copy —Bryan T. Froehle 1700: A Reassessment of the Counter Reformation. Washing- ton, DC: Catholic University of America. Boer, P. 2013. Catechism of the Council of Trent for Parish Catholic Schools Priests. Issued by Pope St. Pius V. Translated by J. McHugh, OP, and C. Callan, OP. Edmond, OK: Veritatis Splendor Children’s right to an education in accordance with their Publications. parents’ religious convictions has been enshrined in the Calcutt, A. 1994. De La Salle: A City Saint and the Liberation United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the Poor Through Education: A Figure for Our Times (1948) and reaffirmed in subsequent UN Declarations from the Age of Louis XIV. Manila, Philippines: De La Salle and Conventions, including the Declaration of the Rights Publications. of the Child (1959) and the International Covenant on Carter, K. 2011. Creating Catholics: Catechism and Primary Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966). Education in Early Modern France. Notre Dame, IN: Univer- However, international law, while recognizing such sity of Notre Dame Press. parental rights, does not place an obligation on any sig- Cesareo, F. 1993. “The Collegium Germanicum and the Igna- natory state to provide or support schools with a specific tian Vision of Education.” Sixteenth Century Journal: The religious character. Some choose to do so, such as the Journal of Early Modern Studies 24 (4): 829–841. United Kingdom, with slightly differing arrangements in Coleman, D. 1995. “Moral Formation and Social Control in the the country’s constituent parts. In a similar way, state- Catholic Reformation: The Case of San Juan de Avila.” Six- provided schools in the Netherlands—special (religious) teenthContributor Century Journal: The Journal of Early Modern Studies and general-special (i.e., neutral)—are government fi- 26 (1): 17–30. nanced, all of them receiving equal financial support if Duminuco, V., SJ., ed. 2000. The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum: 400th certain criteria are met. Other jurisdictions, for example, Anniversary Perspectives. New York: Fordham. the United States, allow religious denominations their Elias, J. 2002. A History of Christian Education: Protestant, own schools but do not support them financially with Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: Krieger. revenue generated from general taxation. Grendler, P. 1984. “The Schools of Christian Doctrine in 16th Catholic schools are subject both to the appropriate Century Italy.” Church History 53 (3): 319–331. civil laws of particular jurisdictions and the laws of the 202 Catholic Teaching Orders

Catholic Church. Catholic canon law is one of the major firmed the position that local education authorities have world legislative systems. It comprises the norms and only those powers specified in legislation. Any powers regulations underpinning the structure of a universal not mentioned in statute as being the responsibility of church. The essential purpose is to define and protect the any particular body remain with the individual governing rights of individuals with respect to the rights of others body of the school. and the community as a whole. The current 1983 Code Legislation enacted in 2010 and 2011 established a is constructed to be in conformity with the decrees of the new type of independent state school funded directly Second Vatican Council and recognizes the principle of by the state, named academies, which are run by a trust, subsidiarity, leaving as much latitude as possible for the a charitable company limited by guarantee. The estab- local bishop. The relevant sections are in Title III (Catho- lished statutory framework does not apply to them, being lic Education) of Book III (The Teaching Office of the replaced by charity and company law and a contractual Church), canons 793–806. relationship with the secretary of state. In theory the Under those provisions a Catholic school is one legal safeguards for voluntary schools with a religious operating under the supervision and/or control of the character (which currently can continue to coexist with local bishop, either directly or through a religious order academies) should transfer if such a school changes its operating in the diocese, and has been given his specific legal status. However, in practice those safeguards are consent to bear that title (canons 803, §§1, 3; 806, §1). extremely difficult to secure. The OnlyCatholic sector in Eng- Acting through its dioceses and various religious orders, land generally has been very wary of relinquishing the the Catholic Church is the world’s largest nongovern- statutory protections that voluntary aided status provides mental agency providing education. It runs 67,848 kin- for the financial advantages of fully funded academies, dergartens with 6,383,910 pupils; 93,315 primary schools despite the capital costs incurred by the church in build- with 30,520,238 pupils; and 42,234 secondary schools with ing the schools and keeping them in good repair. 17,758,405 pupils. The church also cares for 1,968,828 high school pupils and 3,088,208 university students. References and Resources In many jurisdictions, Catholic schools are popular Barber, Paul. 2013. “Nineteen Forty-Four and All That: Christian and successful in meeting the educational and social Schools and the Political Settlement.” In Re-Imagining Chris- aspirations of parents, both Catholic and non-Catholic, tianCopy Education for the 21st Century , edited by Andrew B. Mor- though the overall numbers hide considerable variation ris, 9–28. Chelmsford, England: Matthew James Publishing. in different countries depending upon their local demo- Caparros, Ernest, Michael Thériault, and Jean Thorn, eds. 2004. graphics and the nature of state/church relationships. For Code of Canon Law Annotated. Montreal: Wilson & Lafleur example, in countries such as the Republic of Ireland, Limitée. where the overwhelming majority of people are (nomi- Judge, Harry. 2001. Faith-based Schools and the State, Catholics nally) Catholic, approximately 90 percent of schools are in America, France and England. Oxford: Symposium Books. owned and managed by the church. In contrast, though McLaughlin, Terence, J. O’Keefe, and B. O’Keeffe, eds. The France has a significant Catholic population, Catholic Contemporary Catholic School: Context, Identity and Diver- schools serve just 10 percent of the school population. sity. Washington, DC: Falmer Press. In Wales, where Catholics form a significant minority of Schuttloffel, Merylann J. 2012a. “New Models for a New Era.” the general population, approximately 6 percent of pupils In Catholic Education: Universal Principles, Locally Applied, attend Catholic schools. edited by Andrew B. Morris, 139–148. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Press. Church/State School Relationships ———. 2012b. “Traditional Catholic Schooling in the United in England and Wales States of America.” In Catholic Education: Universal Prin- Successive Acts of Parliament first set up and subse- ciples, Locally Applied, edited by Andrew B. Morris, 66–76. quently confirmed a “dual system” of education, recog- Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Press. nizing a distinction between schools provided by the state Storr, Christopher. 2011. Serving Two Masters? Catholic School under statuteContributor and those voluntarily provided by non- Governors at Work. Leominster, England: Gracewing. statutory groups, such as churches. The legislative con- —Andrew B. Morris cept is of separate but collaborating bodies. This means that, for the Catholic sector, dioceses are coordinate with, not subordinate to, local education authorities, whose Catholic Teaching Orders responsibilities and powers in relation to each other are clearly delineated in civil law. In relation to individual In Christian history, teaching orders are established Catholic voluntary aided schools, the courts have af- corporate bodies, ordained especially for the purpose of Catholic Teaching Orders 203 teaching. Members are typically bound by a set of rules childhood education in Tagaste, Algeria. His career and a governing hierarchy. During its long centuries of included prestigious teaching appointments—he taught existence, the Catholic Church has produced many such the ancient discipline of rhetoric—at the “universities” teaching orders, especially from monasticism. Some of in Rome and Milan. Upon his conversion to Christian- these groups have served more local or regional areas, ity in 386, Augustine returned to North Africa, where he while others have played hugely formative roles in the founded a monastic community. The Augustinian com- development of Western education as a whole. munity also prominently featured a school. His hugely Many of the most famous Catholic teaching orders influential book The City of God (425) became a classic of come from the medieval and early modern eras. And the Christian literary canon. even though they perhaps originated in other times, or in Though somewhat overshadowed in the early Middle other lands, the study of Catholic teaching orders none- Ages by the growth of Benedictine monasticism, Au- theless offers insights into pedagogical and philosophical gustine’s approach to faith and intellectual matters was issues confronting modern educators today. A broader highly influential. In the 11th century, a new “Augustin- consideration of some of the most important Catholic ian” movement revived Augustine’s old order. The order teaching orders can be highly instructive in this regard. emphasized intellectual acuity and the austere approach to living favored by Augustine. In this, the revived Au- Catholic Teaching Orders and gustinians contrasted with theOnly more easygoing and by Early Monastic Endeavors then arguably corrupted approaches of the Benedictines. The word “order” derives from the latin ordo, a quite The Augustinians were especially prevalent in education. straightforward cognate with the English equivalent Martin Luther served as an Augustinian monk prior to word, meaning “ranking” or “class.” Arguably, the first his break with Rome. On a related note, the Cistercian formal teaching “order” really began with the Cluny order gained sanction in 1098. Somewhat like the Au- reforms of Benedictine Rule starting in 910. Because it gustinians, the Cistercians chafed at the growing wealth involved specific papal sanction and the enforcement au- and worldliness of the Benedictine order. They were thority that came with it, the Cluniac movement is often often highly educated, with Saint Bernard of Clairvaux described as the first “formally recognized” order. On the (1090–1153) as one of their most prominent founders. other hand, earlier monastic movements in the Catholic ButCopy their sublime learning heavily emphasized the seclu- West—especially the Benedictines—certainly founded sion of the cloister. orders. They also were generally approved, albeit less formally, by the early medieval popes. The Benedictine Rule From ancient times, “monks” (cf. the Greek word The true “father of monasticism”—at least in Western “monos,” meaning “single” or “alone”) helped foster the Christianity—was Saint Benedict (c. 480–c. 550). Living close bond between faith and the contemplative life that in Italy during the unsettled years after 476, Benedict has played such a vital role in Christian thought ever founded the famous monastery at Monte Cassino in since. In the East, the ascetic movement of the third and AD 529. Perhaps most significant in this regard is that fourth centuries produced famous “hermit saints,” like Benedict promulgated the famous “Benedictine Rule,” a Saint Anthony (c. 251–356) and the “Hairy Mary,” Mary written document establishing an “ordered” way of life of Egypt (c. fifth century), the saint equated—like Mary for the adherents of Benedictine communities. Rule by Magdalen—with being a reformed prostitute and hermit, an “abbot” (from the Syrian abba, meaning father) estab- one whose long, unkempt hair covered her famished lished a system of self-governance, therefore promoting and otherwise naked body. Both Anthony and Mary of more orderly societies. Under the authority established Egypt featured quasi-legendary hagiographies that em- by the Benedictine Rule, Benedict’s way modified the ex- phasized lives of seclusion, prayer, and physical depriva- tremes characterizing ascetic saints, channeling them in tion. (The tonsured scholars of Europe’s first universities an arguably more constructive and controlled direction. often found inspiration in this model of self-deprivation The Benedictine Rule called for each Benedictine com- and inwardContributor intellectual focus.) Austere communities of munity to establish a school. Along with each Benedictine like-minded followers soon arose along the lines of the school, the monks usually created a library. In this way, hermit-saint model. the Benedictines made their famous contributions to ed- In the West, Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430) ucation. From their origins in Italy, Benedictine commu- helped blend education with monastic living. A teacher nities spread throughout the Catholic West. They eagerly by profession, Augustine’s famous autobiography The employed their scholarly abilities with such invaluable Confessions recounts his early years of schooling, includ- tasks as the teaching and training of initiates, the writing ing some fascinating insights and glimpses into early and copying of manuscripts (there was as yet no printing 204 Catholic Teaching Orders press), and the articulation of Christian theology. They Another interesting observation is that monastic schol- also made enormous contributions to Western culture in arly activities more closely resembled the sorts of activi- the arts, especially in such areas as liturgical music, eccle- ties pursued in a modern research university, as opposed siastical art and architecture, and written prayers. to the more basic teaching of a “teaching institution.” The “system” of Benedictine monasticism that devel- There was relatively little emphasis on teaching as the oped all across Catholic Europe was highly decentralized. term might be understood by a modern teacher. To the Each abbot presided over what was essentially a self- extent that “teaching” occurred, it was largely focused on governing community of like-minded adherents. Many training younger initiates for the monastic life—perhaps of the monasteries were in almost unbelievably remote not unlike the sort of teaching that senior doctors pro- geographical locations, making interference from outside vide to interns, or that senior lawyers provide to junior authorities not only illegitimate in an institutional sense, lawyers. Certainly there were great and beloved teach- but practically impossible. Of course as the years went ers. But this teaching largely belonged to a rarified circle by and the monasteries grew richer, with vaster landed of discipleship and apprenticeship. More generally, the estates, lay involvement inevitably increased. scholars of the early Middle Ages pursued numerous ac- Perhaps the only significant counterpart to Benedic- tivities besides teaching, like the copying of manuscripts. tine monasteries in Western Christianity was in Ireland, While they provided an invaluable service to society and where abbeys like the one begun by Saint Finnian (c. culture, they were not, strictly speaking,Only teaching. Teach- 549) at Clonard flourished. Irish monasticism was a vital ing was not necessarily their main job. With the rise of brand of Christianity that similarly fostered learning and universities and the lecture hall, this changed somewhat, education. Irish monks were key in bringing Christianity but not necessarily a lot. to the Picts of Scotland, as well as in encouraging literacy Finally, another way in which the teaching orders of and training for the peoples they found there. the early Middle Ages resembled modern private schools It must also be remembered that the early monastic is in their relatively elite nature and their inevitable em- movements fostered a female-centered counterpart, the bracing of worldly riches and status. Though derived convent. Nuns and convents appear as early as the sixth from ascetic roots, monasteries soon became victims of century and seem to have been established alongside with their own success. They grew increasingly wealthy and their male counterparts. Nuns were the most educated even Copyprestigious. In a world governed by primogeni- women of medieval times, arguably until the Renais- ture with regard to titles and inheritance, nobility often sance. They have played a vital, indeed an essential, role placed second- and third-born children in monastic or in Catholic education ever since. ecclesiastical roles. Placement in a monastery generally required a generous grant of land from the family to the Elite Private Schools? abbey, further increasing the monastery’s role as a haven Catholic teaching orders raised many larger philosophi- for the privileged and the affluent. Not unlike private cal issues that still resonate with modern educators. What schools and universities, monasteries began to boast of was the basic purpose of teaching, and who should be substantial “endowments,” permanent bases of wealth. taught? Such important and ongoing questions are hinted Like many private schools today, they became top-heavy at in the study of medieval teaching orders. In fact, many with the children of the rich and well-connected. Notori- of the most important teaching orders of the Middle Ages ous and widespread abuses like simony and nepotism corresponded more to modern notions of elite private became increasingly common in this period. education than to a modern Western “teaching school.” Mass public education was by no means a medieval goal Teaching Orders and the Challenge of the or even an ideal. Learning was a specialized enterprise. Carolingian “Palace School” Movement If one wanted to be a teacher or a scholar (occupations During the famous “Carolingian Renaissance” under practically monopolized by clerics and monks), literacy Charlemagne (r. 768–814), a movement arose for the was necessary. Otherwise, it was probably not. A black- first time that challenged the monopoly of the Benedic- smith no moreContributor needed to read than a scholar needed to tine order on teaching and learning: the “palace schools” know how to work iron. Illiteracy was rampant, even movement. Despite his lack of a formal education, Char- among the nobility. After all, the nobles in these years lemagne’s founding of “palace schools” became one of still reflected their ancestors, the Germanic “barbarians” the most famous features of his reign. This movement who had overrun the Roman Empire. The Frankish ruler encouraged an arguably somewhat broader notion of Charlemagne (r. 768–814) himself was largely illiterate, teaching and education. As their name implies, palace according to his personal biographer Einhard. There schools—sometimes called cathedral schools—were edu- seems to have been no particular shame in that fact. cational institutes housed in palaces or cathedrals and Catholic Teaching Orders 205 generally supported by Charlemagne and the Frankish Dominic’s group played a vital role in intellectual life, ruling establishment. deeply shaping learning in the Middle Ages for many Palace schools constituted a significant alternative years to come. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), perhaps to the increasingly insular and lucrative monopoly on the High Middle Ages’ most supreme intellect, was a learning enjoyed by the teaching orders. Admittedly Dominican. Responding to the special challenges facing monks still dominated palace schools—an example being Christian doctrine in the wake of Aristotle’s reintroduc- the great Alcuin (735–804), brought in from England tion to Western learning, Aquinas’s magisterial treatise to serve in Charlemagne’s palace school at Aachen. But Summa Theologica ushered in a sophisticated new doc- palace schools nonetheless represented a broader range trinal and intellectual framework, often called Thomism. of focus, in both topics taught and student clienteles. It formed the basis for much learning and religious teach- While by no means representing the modern ideals of ing in future centuries. universal education for all children, palace schools did An arguably even more important development with educate a broader cross-section of students than had the regard to mendicant teaching orders was that of the monasteries. They also fed directly into the development beloved Saint Francis of Assisi (1182–1226). Born into a of the universities that occurred during the High Middle well-to-do family of merchants, Francis began his life as Ages. Like palace schools, universities were still heavily did many privileged young men of the day, even serving interwoven with monastic traditions in education. But in the military for a time. WhileOnly still a young man, Fran- they also began to manifest Europe’s move away from cis received a divine vision, after which he renounced his reclusive religious education to a broader curriculum and family’s wealth and background and began to live on the a more diverse base of students. outskirts of Assisi, occasionally appearing in the streets of town as a beggar. According to the “legends” of Saint Mendicant Teaching Orders Francis, he was mocked by his former compatriots for his During the High Middle Ages (1000–1300), other extremes. But he eventually won over hearts and minds teaching orders arose in Catholicism, many more di- with his consistently simple example of love, faith, and rectly responding to the new challenges confronting service. He acquired a small group of followers. In 1210, western Europe. To the extent they existed at all, cities, Francis approached Innocent III seeking recognition relatively depopulated in the early medieval period, ofCopy his group as a formal order. Innocent balked at first, began to flourish. Along with the growing urban popu- but approval finally came. Subsequently, Francis’s group lation came many of the attendant problems, including spawned one of the most important movements of the disease, poverty, and a growing urban underclass of un- Middle Ages. lettered masses. In this period, newer orders dedicated The Franciscan movement played an important role to teaching featured a greater emphasis on serving all in education. They emphasized the learning and teach- the people, following the example of Christ and the ing of the highest theology. At least initially, Franciscans New Testament church. Such movements generally es- eschewed the trappings of wealth and exclusive social poused leaving the “cloister,” literally and figuratively, status that so many learned people had adopted by the and living among the people, often even going to the 13th century. In each city where the Franciscans estab- extreme of living as “beggars.” Called “mendicant” lished a presence, they founded a house that served as a orders, these movements injected an important new residential center, as a mission of sorts, and as a school. element of reform into the church. Among their other Often this house operated in conjunction with the local activities, they were heavily involved with teaching as a university, if the city had one. While the Franciscans basic form of outreach. became noted for learned doctrinal treatises, Francis One of the new mendicant orders was that of Saint himself envisioned his schools as operating primarily for Dominic (1170–1221). Dominic was a Spaniard. Alarmed the poor and the disenfranchised, including children. He at how the Cathar heresy was spreading through neigh- also envisioned more practical approaches to education, boring France, Dominic approached Pope Innocent III believing that basic training in crafts and trades could (r. 1198–1216),Contributor obtaining papal sanction for a new order. help alleviate the wretched poverty found in many Ital- Often called the Black Friars, the Dominicans took vows ian cities of the day. Indeed, the hagiographical tale of of poverty and lived among the poor. Dominic’s group Francis building a dilapidated Byzantine church on the also emphasized teaching, especially since refuting the outskirts of Assisi enshrines a core belief in the human powerful heresies of the 13th century required careful dignity and value of manual labor. teaching and instruction. As battlers against heresy, the As would some humanists in the years following Saint Dominicans began the first Inquisition Court in South- Francis—notably Thomas à Kempis, credited with writ- ern France, helping to defeat Catharism. ing The Imitation of Christ, a treatise on simple Christian 206 Catholic Teaching Orders humility—Francis loathed the intellectual arrogance of excellence with zeal for service to others (no small feat!). his time. Unfortunately, by the end of his life some of Their efforts produced one of the most effective of all his followers were exploiting the popularity of the saint responses to the Protestant challenge. By the beginning and the status of the Franciscan order as approved by the of the early modern period—usually considered to have pope, moving the Franciscan houses and schools in what begun around 1648, following the conclusion of the was often a more worldly direction. Thirty Years’ War—Jesuits presided over some of the finest schools in western Europe. The Years of “Counter-Reformation” The Jesuits were noted for their outreach and mission- In the final years of the Middle Ages, the Reformation ary zeal. Saint Francis Xavier famously took the gospel to defined many of the most important themes and issues Asia, living in various southern Indian locales, including of the day, both internationally and at the local level. Ceylon. He also lived for a time in Malacca, where he won The Catholic Church responded to the Protestant chal- the favor of the pearl-diving inhabitants. He later went lenge with a vital reformation of its own, often called the to Japan, where he was afforded the use of a deserted “Counter-Reformation.” The Counter-Reformation saw monastery to begin his evangelical activities. Xavier had the establishment of many new teaching orders, uniquely a true gift for learning languages, and his ability to gain chartered to respond to the special challenges of the proficiency in the Asian dialects where he traveled made times. In the true spirit of the Catholic reformation, many his efforts at teaching and ministryOnly much more effective. of these new orders deeply affirmed the deepest values Similarly, in the New World, the famous and quite suc- and teachings of the ancient church, while simultane- cessful missionary journeys of Jacques Marquette (1637– ously addressing many of the abuses, hypocrisies, and 1675) and Louis Joliet (1645–c. 1700) also exhibited the injustices that Protestant reformers had so vehemently classic Jesuit traits of physical vigor, intellectual curiosity, attacked. The result was a revitalized Catholic spirit in and relating to the people on human terms. Marquette education and training. Moreover, many of these new and Joliet were among the most important figures in orders played a critical role in spreading Catholicism in expanding the French presence in upper North America. the New World, as well as in Africa and Asia. Many new teaching orders emphasized education of the Early Modern Developments young, especially those who were disadvantaged. Some of The earlyCopy modern era—described as beginning sometime these orders arguably foreshadowed more directly mod- in the mid-17th century—continued to see the impor- ern Catholic schools and the emphasis on education of tant development of teaching orders within the Catholic children. The Ursuline order of nuns was named for the Church. St. Vincent De Paul and his followers (1581– legendary fourth-century Saint Ursula, martyred in Co- 1660), known as Vincentians, founded the order known logne, Germany, reportedly along with thousands of her as the Sisters of Charity. Serving both young males and sisters. Saint Angela Merici (1474–1540) established the females, the Sisters of Charity helped bring education order. In 1564, almost 25 years after her death, the order to the young in France in the years prior to the French received papal sanction. Angela was a Franciscan who had Revolution’s upheavals. devoted her services especially to the education of poor The Frenchman John Baptist de la Salle (1651–1719) women. In an important break with established traditions, is another important figure in the founding of teaching the Ursuline sisters did not take vows or wear religious orders during the baroque era. Ordained a priest in 1678, attire. They also lived in the city, “unenclosed,” and were his early assignments included founding two schools for able to move freely from place to place without special poor boys in Reims, France. A teacher’s teacher, de la permission. In 1575, still another important new order was Salle became convinced of the need for education among added to Catholic Christendom, the Oratorians, founded the children of the poor—both boys and girls. He was on the austere teachings of Saint Philip Neri (1515–1595). also appalled at the snobbery toward the children of the A Florentine by birth, Saint Philip’s teachings emphasized poor that he encountered in conversation with members a humble and austere social outreach, making this order an of his own class. In these years, there was still no concept especially Contributorimportant source for Catholic schooling going of mass public education, so he was something of a vi- forward, especially in poorer urban areas. sionary in this regard. He had soon founded the famous The Jesuits emerged as arguably the most impor- order Brothers of the Christian School. Schools on the de tant of the Counter-Reformation’s new teaching orders. la Salle model soon appeared in numerous French areas Founded by the Spaniard Ignatius Loyola (1493–1556) and even in England. In addition to emphasizing practi- during the height of the Counter-Reformation, the Jesu- cal education in vernacular languages, the order also its successfully combined high standards of educational encouraged young boys to learn a trade. Catholic Youth Organizations 207

References and Resources Curran over his public support for women’s reproduc- De la Salle, John Baptist. 2004. The Spirituality of Christian tive rights are paradigmatic of the university’s efforts to Education. Edited by Carl Koch, Jeffrye Calligan, and Jeffrey address this tension. Gros. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. De Paul, Vincent, and Louise de Marillac. 1995. Rules, Confer- References and Resources ences and Writings. Edited by Frances Ryan and John Rybolt. A Brief History of Catholic University. 2013. January. http:// New York: Paulist Press. www.cua.edu/about-cua/history-of-CUA.cfm. Haskins, Charles Homer. 1923. The Rise of Universities. Ithaca, Catholic University of America. 1991. “Statement on Academic NY: Cornell University Press. Freedom.” Origins 21 (June): 103–104. Southern, R. W. 1970. Western Society and the Church in the Nuesse, C. J. 1990 The Catholic University of America: A Cen- Middle Ages. New York: Pelican Books. tennial History. Washington, DC: Catholic University of —David Leinweber America Press. White, J. 2010. “A Seminary for the Nation’s Pontifical University: The Founding of Theological College of the Catholic University of America Catholic University of America.” U.S. Catholic Historian 28 (3): 19–42. Established in 1887 by the United States Conference —TheodoreOnly James Whapham of Catholic Bishops (USCCB), Catholic University of America (CUA) is the national university of the Catholic Church. It is sponsored by the Catholic bishops of the Catholic Youth Organizations country with the approval of the Holy See. It seeks to offer a comprehensive Catholic and American education Catholic Youth Organization (CYO) began in 1930 as an that is dedicated to the unity of truth in all of its forms. athletic program for elementary and high school youth It aims to further the dialogue between faith and reason in the Archdiocese of Chicago. Bishop Sheil founded as a free and autonomous center of study that serves the CYO as a parish-based program. His experiences as nation and the church in light of the Christian faith. a prison chaplain taught him the benefits of athletic Located in the northeast quarter of Washington, DC, programs.Copy The organization emphasized training young CUA is adjacent to the offices of the USSCB and is home people in boxing and later expanded to include other to the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate sports. In 1932, the CYO Center was established in Conception. The National Shrine is the largest church Chicago, and in 1937 the Catholic Youth Bureau was in North America and one of the 10 largest churches established in Washington. in the world. This Byzantine-Romanesque cathedral is In 1940, the bishops united the separate groups “in a center for pilgrimage, worship, evangelization, and order to better promote Christian ideals and better safe- reconciliation. guard the young from the many pitfalls they encounter.”22 As a research university, in 2013 CUA was home to 13 The National Council of Catholic Youth included a col- distinct schools and 21 research faculties. Its School of lege and university section and a diocesan section. The Theology and Religious Studies has been offering gradu- first convention was held in Cincinnati in 1951. ate degrees since 1889. The School of Canon Law was In 1961, the NCCY Diocesan Section was renamed founded in 1923, and a separate School of Philosophy was the National CYO Federation, with teenage and young established in 1937. Each of these ecclesiastical faculties adult sections. Staff from the United States Catholic offers canonical degrees, adding to its distinctive status Conference (USCC) organized the biennial conventions. among American Catholic universities. The National CYO Federation, primarily a federation At the time of writing 17 current cardinals and more of youth councils, served diocesan youth offices with than 40 current Catholic bishops are graduates of the uni- programming suggestions and resources for establishing versity. Notable faculty scholars include John Tracy Ellis, a local CYO, adult training programs, and examples of Avery Dulles,Contributor Fulton Sheen, Charles Curran, Raymond other diocesan activities. E. Brown, Joseph Fitzmeyer, Joseph Komonchak, and Youth ministry was growing in other denominations. Bernard Marthaler. Some youth programs within the Catholic Church focused Like many other Catholic universities, CUA has strug- on social events to the exclusion of sports or catechesis; gled to balance its commitment to freedom of academic others focused exclusively on sports. Scouting also has a inquiry and its Catholic character. The circumstances surrounding the firing of moral theologian Charles E. 22. http://www.nfcym.org/about/history.htm. 208 Cavalletti, Sofia religious component. To address this diversity, the USCC sional network. The National Catholic Committee on Department of Education wrote “A Vision for Youth Min- Girl Scouts and Camp Fire was a founding member of istry” in 1976, stating that “no one aspect of youth minis- NFCYM. The Catholic Youth Foundation USA (CY- try is independent of others; they are all interdependent FUSA), a subsidiary of the federation, assures “a faithful elements of a unified total vision.” The bishops reaffirmed future”23 by providing financial resources for the devel- that vision in their 1997 document, Renewing the Vision— opment of youth ministry. A Framework for Catholic Youth Ministry. The original charter for CYO, back in the 1930s, stated In 1980, two youth-serving structures operated sepa- that the purpose of the organization was “to promote rately in the USCC. The bishops decided that any group among Catholic youth a recreational, educational, and that could fund a staff should become independent. On 20 religious program that will adequately meet their physi- January 1982 in Malvern, Pennsylvania, a unanimous vote cal, mental and spiritual needs in their after-school hours of the adult advisory board brought to life the National . . . [and] to inspire, direct, and guide the natural creative Federation for Catholic Youth Ministry, Inc. (NFCYM). instincts of young people into those worthwhile chan- Its office opened at the College of St. Paul in Washington nels, which permit the widest expression of personality, and sponsored the first National Conference on Catholic individually or in groups, while instilling in their minds Youth Ministry (NCCYM) in November 1982. and hearts a true love of God and country.”24 In many Sport was one aspect of a much larger vision for ways, through the unifying powerOnly of vision, many “youth ministry with youth. In 1987, NFCYM published Sports organizations” are working together to realize Bishop Psychology for Youth Coaches, along with the parish and Sheil’s dream. diocesan resource guides for The Challenge of Adolescent —Donald R. McCrabb Catechesis document. Eventually, NFCYM developed professional standards for youth ministry, launched the New Diocesan Directors Institute (NDDI), and sup- Cavalletti, Sofia ported World Youth Day in Denver (August 1993). Throughout the 1990s NFCYM continued its focus A lifelong resident of Rome, Italy, Sofia Cavalletti on publications and conferences. In 2003 more than (1917–2011) was a Roman Catholic master Hebrew 24,000 people attended the National Catholic Youth scholar.Copy In 1954 she developed a Montessori-based ap- Conference (NCYC) in Houston, Texas. In 2004, 2,200 proach to religious education called Catechesis of the people attended the National Conference on Catholic Good Shepherd (CGS). The intent of CGS is to enable Youth Ministry (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). In that same children as young as three years of age to experience year, due to the significance of sports as one aspect of a awe and wonder as they encounter the God of the bibli- comprehensive youth ministry, NFCYM established the cal story—as if the child might say, “Help me to come National Center for Catholic Youth Sports as a service closer to God by myself.” center within the federation. The national structure of the federation as a member- Background and Education ship organization for dioceses, and a common vision Sofia spent her entire life in a magnificent home in the for youth ministry, spawned the development of nu- center of old Rome, not far from the Vatican. The house merous “youth organizations.” Life Teen, for example, had been in her family for over three centuries. There her was founded in 1985 and has become a parish-based, mother taught her to read and write. Sofia attributed her Eucharist-focused approach to youth ministry. Fran- own Christian formation to her loving family, who pro- ciscan University of Steubenville launched a summer vided a solid base on which she was certain of God’s love. youth conference in 1978. The Center for Ministry De- Being from a privileged background, Sofia was tutored velopment, founded as the Northeast Center for Youth in her home. When finally permitted to attend school, Ministry in 1978, provides formation and programming she learned Latin and Greek “with great joy and pride,” for youth ministry. These organizations are collaborating though these were otherwise unsatisfactory years.25 members ofContributor NFCYM. Cavalletti later discovered a love for ancient languages, The NFCYM celebrated its 30th anniversary in 2012 particularly Hebrew, and became an expert consultant to with 170 affiliated dioceses and 60 collaborating mem- bers. The National CYO Sports Center provides forma- 23. CYFUSA Mission Statement. tion programs for Catholic coaches and connects parish 24. As quoted by Rev. Msgr. Francis G. Weldgen in “A Brief Look at athletics to a comprehensive youth ministry. Another the Growth of Catholic Youth Work in the United States,” in Hope for the Decade—A Look at the Issues Facing Catholic Youth Ministry (Washington, service center in NFCYM, the National Association of DC: National CYO Federation, USCC, 1980). Catholic Youth Ministry Leaders, is the national profes- 25. Sofia Cavalletti, electronic personal correspondence, 24 May 2007. Cavalletti, Sofia 209 various ecumenical groups in Rome. For more than 50 ing in the carefully prepared environment of the atrium. years she went to the library daily to study, consistently Joy comes from what appears to be fulfillment of the reading Hebrew. The extent of her scholarship is evident child’s deep needs. Dignity results when the child is in from a bibliography created in 1978, which contains 165 relationship with God—a freedom, independent of the entries for her works. In addition to ancient languages, adult. A third quality is efficiency of words and materi- she also spoke five modern ones. Due to her family’s no- als. Nothing is superfluous.29 The intent of CGS is also bility, Sofia was a marchesa, a title akin to baroness. significant for Christian parents, for the approach can be modified for home use. Birth of Cavalletti’s Life’s Work Several assumptions influenced Cavalletti’s thinking. In 1954, through interaction with a seven-year-old boy First, a child is able to experience God. Second, it is a named Paolo, Cavalletti began her catechetical work. holistic experience for the child, in that it touches the Using only her Bible, she began unfolding to Paolo the child’s entire being. Third, a person is not fully develop- first page of Genesis. His response was one of pure joy. ing as a human unless “religious potential is stimulated They spent two hours on that page, using the way of read- and growing.” Fourth, the Judeo-Christian tradition has ing scripture she had learned from Rabbi Zolli. “Everyone language that is a powerful agent—evocative, descriptive, is seated with open Bibles, as co-listeners to the Word of and expressive—for experiencing God.30 Note her Chris- God. Each phrase is pondered and wondered about with tocentric focus: 26 Only utter fidelity to the text.” Paolo’s response led to the development of CGS. Cavalletti said, “We started without Cavalletti believes that the child’s first exposure to the knowing we started,”27 for she had never worked with faith should be centered in the person of Jesus Christ. children and had no background in human development. From her research, the aspect of Christ that most speaks Gianna Gobbi, who had assisted Maria Montessori, to the young child is Jesus the Good Shepherd, who calls his sheep by name creating a personal relationship with soon was recruited to work with Sofia. The two were him, who lays down his life for the sheep, nurtures and co-laborers until Gobbi’s death in 2003. As Gobbi taught protects them.31 Sofia the principles of Montessori, Cavalletti began read- ing about the unfolding work of Erikson and Piaget. This Spread of Catechesis of the Good Shepherd reading, along with her interactions with Paolo, became FromCopy its simple beginnings, CGS has spread to 37 coun- the impetus for her life’s work and calling. tries on five continents. The first CGS training course in the United States took place in 1975. There are now more Development of Catechesis of the Good Shepherd than 130 leaders who train catechists and more than Soon a systematized approach began unfolding, orga- 1,000 atriums of various levels in the United States.32 The nized around three levels or atriums, a Montessorian 28 majority of participating churches are Roman Catholic, term. Three rooms of the Cavalletti home were used for Episcopal, and Lutheran. The following modifications of this purpose, each for a different age level for learning the CGS have spread the approach even further: Jerome Ber- scriptures and liturgy. For younger children, the pillar of ryman’s Godly Play, Sonya Stewart’s Young Children and their work became the Parable of the Good Shepherd; for Worship, and Upper Room’s Way of the Child. older children, it was the Vine and the Branches. These pillars remain because scripture, as Cavalletti stated, Contributions to Christian Education does not change. In the third-level atrium, children ages Cavalletti’s observations can help educators, practitio- 9 to 12 focus on the unity of salvation history, includ- ners, and parents alike become aware that “God and the ing Jesus’s miracles and “hard sayings.” The setup in an child get along well together,”33 and that a child may “find atrium immediately shows the influence of Montessori’s the full realization of himself only in the world of the approach. Simple wooden materials were made for the transcendent, a world in which he has shown he moves children to use while reflecting on the scripture they had completely at his ease.”34 just heard. It would seem that Cavalletti fulfilled Mon- tessori’s desire to return her method to the church as a Contributor 29. Sofia Cavalletti, “Discovering the Real Spiritual Child,” The NAMTA means of religious education. Journal 24, no. 2 (1999): 7. As Montessori had done before her, Cavalletti found 30. Berryman, Preface, 9. that children responded with joy and dignity when work- 31. Scottie May, “Sofia Cavalletti,” 2007, http://www2.talbot.edu/ce20/ educators/view.cfm?n=sophia_cavaletti. 32. National Association of Catechesis of the Good Shepherd, www 26. Ibid. .cgsusa.org. 27. Lillig, “History of the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd,” 32. 33. Sofia Cavalletti, Religious Potential of the Child (New York: Paulist 28. Dr. Cavalletti continued to work with children in the atria of her Press, 1983), 44. home into her late eighties. 34. Ibid., 178. 210 Celebration as Christian Practice

Her approach emphasizes qualities that are missing lar intervals. Second, celebration is a spiritual discipline in many churches and homes: reflection, contempla- that enables believers to joyfully express their faith through tion, meditation, awe, wonder, and mystery. When these worship. In both respects, celebration can be understood qualities are present, they affect not only the children but to be an activity or event that allows a community to ex- also the adults who are involved.35 (See CGS for a fuller press pleasure in marking a special occasion or important description.) occurrence. The biblical concept of celebration is rooted in the Lord’s “feasts” or “festivals,” which are observed Relevant Published Works throughout the year by the Jewish people (Lev. 23:1–2). Though many of her works have not been translated into In the Old Testament, two primary words are trans- .(חג) and chag (מעד) English, including all of her commentaries, following are lated as “feast” or “feasts”: mo’ed two relevant books for Christian educators: Mo’ed means “appointed season or an appointed time, place, or meeting.” The word is first used in Genesis 1:14 The Religious Potential of the Child. 1983. Translated by Patricia to describe the purpose of the sun and the moon—signs Coulter and Julie Coulter. New York: Paulist Press. to distinguish the seasons and the day from the night. In The Religious Potential of the Child 6–12 Years Old: A Descrip- Leviticus 23:1, mo’ed is translated as “feasts.” In contrast, tion of an Experience. 2002. Translated by Rebekah Rojce- chag means “a festival gathering, a feast, or a pilgrim wicz and Alan Perry. Chicago: Liturgy Training Publications. feast.” Chag is associated with leaping,Only dancing, moving in a circular pattern, and giddiness. In Leviticus 23:6, References and Resources chag is translated as “feast.” Berryman, J. 1983. Preface to the English edition of Religious In Exodus 12:14–32, we read an account of the first occa- Potential of the Child, by S. Cavalletti, 3–20. New York: sion that Jews celebrate even today: the Passover. Through Paulist Press. Moses and his brother Aaron, God sought to liberate the Is- Cavalletti, S. 1964. “The ‘Maria Montessori’ School of Religion raelites from the Egyptians, who had held them in captivity (Rome).” In The Child in the Church, edited by E. M. Stand- for many generations. In Exodus 12:14, the Lord instructs ing, 124–139. St. Paul, MN: Catechetical Guild. the Israelites to establish the day of the Passover as a “me- ———. 2006. Electronic personal correspondence with author, morial day” to “keep . . . as a feast to the Lord” throughout October 21. all generationsCopy in order that future generations will know ———. 2007. Electronic personal correspondence with author, of God’s protection and provision in Egypt on the evening May 24. of the Passover, when the Lord “passed over” the homes of Lillig, T. 1999. “The History of the Catechesis of the Good the Israelites when bringing the 10th plague—the death of Shepherd.” NAMTA Journal 24 (2): 29–37. the firstborn—upon the land of Egypt. ———. 2007. Electronic personal correspondence with author, God appoints seven festivals in three seasons through- May 20. out the year. In Nissan, the first month of the Jewish May, S. 2007. “Sofia Cavalletti.” Christian Educators of the 20th calendar, the Israelites celebrated the Passover, the Feast Century. http://www.talbot.edu/ce20/educators/catholic/so of Unleavened Bread, and the Feast of First Fruits. In phia_cavaletti. the third month of the year, Sivan, Israelites celebrated —Scottie May the Feast of Pentecost, also called the Feast of Harvest or Feast of Weeks, to commemorate the giving of the law on Mount Sinai (Exod. 34:22). In the seventh month, the Is- Celebration as Christian Practice raelites celebrated the Feast of Tabernacles, also known as the Feast of Ingathering to remember the Israelites stay- For many contemporary evangelicals, the word “celebrate” ing in tents during their 40 years in the wilderness. The conjures up images of birthday parties, anniversaries, wed- Feast of Trumpets and the Feast of Atonement were also dings, and holidays such as New Year’s Eve. While we do celebrated in this month. In addition to the annual feast, in fact “celebrate” on joyous occasions such as these, the Israelites were to celebrate a weekly mo’ed by observing concept ofContributor celebration as it relates to Christian ministry the Sabbath, a regular interval of rest that reminds us of and Christian education practice is much more profound. our reliance on the Lord. Properly understood, the concept of biblical celebration is Although the Old Testament is clear that the “feasts” comprised of two distinct but related meanings. and “festivals” are the Lord’s and can be observed by First, celebration is a form of commemoration to remind anyone (Deut. 16:11), these feasts have not been widely believers of God’s provision and redemptive work at regu- celebrated by Christians. Rather, Christians annually celebrate Christmas (the birth of Christ) and Easter (the 35. May, “Sofia Cavalletti.” death and resurrection of Christ). In recent years, there Celtic Monastic Movement 211 has been a growing emphasis on celebrating Advent and 30 years of his mission.37 While Patrick acknowledged Lent, the spiritual preparatory seasons preceding Christ- monasteries,38 he promoted a diocesan structure and mas and Easter. Along with the growing interest among parish-based formation of church because of his experi- Christians in celebrating Advent and Lent is the burgeon- ence in Britain.39 With local leadership under priests and ing desire to revive the historic practice of celebrating the bishop as the most significant leaders, this structure the Sabbath, a respite greatly needed from the hustle and failed in Ireland, since bishops needed towns and con- bustle of 21st-century life. nected villages from which to rule.40 Unlike other parts In these ways, to celebrate means to commemorate, to of the world during this era, Ireland was comprised of remember. But celebration is also described as a spiritual mobile, tribal settlements along coastal lands. There were discipline in which one expresses jubilation over God’s few roads.41 Subsequently, the formation of monasteries works and words. Christians have historically been hy- among tribal settlements actually became the more ef- peraware of the toils, dangers, and sorrows of the world, fective missional impetus, rather than parish churches and this, along with their reserved, intellectual approach with priests. This meant abbots and abbesses were to the Christian faith, causes them to be hesitant to prac- conferred with more spiritual authority than bishops or tice joyful celebration as a spiritual discipline. There are even Rome,42 which greatly influenced the education of indeed many reasons in the world to be disheartened. people living in the settlements. This mission focus also The Bible neither dismisses these reasons to be down- contrasted with Eastern monasteries,Only which formed to cast nor turns a blind eye to the evil in the world. Yet escape materialism or other corruptions of society and throughout the scriptures, believers are enjoined to joy- therefore were built in remote regions where no people fully celebrate the Lord with gratitude for who He is and lived. In other words, the Celtic monasteries served and what He has done for us. promoted society by living among rather than apart from There are several things we can do to celebrate the people.43 The rapid spread of monasteries in Ireland, with Lord as a spiritual discipline. First, we can write or repeat their outward focus, formed one of Christian education’s prayers and songs that celebrate the goodness of God. Sec- first and most influential models. ond, we can enthusiastically participate in worship each Finnian of Clonard “established the scholastic tradi- week at church or at home during our devotional time. tion of the monasteries,”44 from which Columba and Third, we can keep a gratitude journal in which we record otherCopy contemporaries, such as Columbanus, were sent. the many gifts God brings us on a daily basis. This can be Columba is thought to have been one of the most prolific done as a family or as individuals. Finally, we can attune founders of monasteries throughout Ireland and eventu- ourselves to God’s presence and the way God is working in ally Scotland (Iona).45 From a noble family and educated our lives each day. The discipline of celebration serves as a in Latin, the scriptures, history of Ireland, and po- meaningful corrective to a world characterized by apathy etry at the monastery of Clonard, Columba reproduced and pessimism, reminding us that the joy of the Lord is monasteries with an educational impulse for people in greater than the evil and sorrows of the world. the surrounding settlements. Local monasteries became central institutions “in the life of the tuath (small ethno- References and Resources political group, loosely ‘tribe’).”46 As central shapers of Booker, Richard. 2008. Celebrating Jesus in the Biblical Feasts. society, monasteries welcomed children of commoners Shippensburg, PA Destiny Image. and nobility alike for studies in Latin, the Greek classics, Calhoun, Adele. 2005 Spiritual Disciplines Handbook. Downers and the scriptures, without the requirement that they Grove, IL: Intervarsity Books. Strong, James. 2010. The New Strong’s Expanded Exhaustive 37. Brendan Lehane, Early Celtic Christianity (New York: Continuum, Concordance of the Bible. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. 2005), 48. —Halee Scott 38. He is known to have said, “The sons of the Irish and the daughters of their kings are monks and brides of Christ” (http://www.earlychristian ireland.org/special_pages/irish_monasticism.html; accessed 4 June 2013). 39. Lehane, Early Celtic Christianity, 48. Celtic Monastic Movement 40. Ibid., 101. Contributor 41. http://www.earlychristianireland.org/special_pages/irish_monasti cism.html (accessed 4 June 2013). By the fifth century, under the “organizing genius”36 of 42. Irivin and Sunquist, History of the World Christian Movement, Patrick, Christianity was established in Ireland after just Kindle locations 7194 and 7223. 43. http://www.earlychristianireland.org/special_pages/irish_monasti cism.html (accessed 4 June 2013). 44. Lehane, Early Celtic Christianity, 59. 36. Dale T. Irvin and Scott W. Sunquist, The History of the World Chris- 45. Ibid., 113. tian Movement, Vol. I, Earliest Christianity to 1453 (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis 46. John T. Koch, gen. ed., and Antone Minard, ed., The Celts: History, Books, 2007), Kindle location 7194. Life, and Culture (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2012), 1:589. 212 Censorship become monks or nuns. “Permeable walls” and mutuality fourth century, texts that were heretical or seditious in marked Celtic monasteries, as people from the commu- nature tended to be of most concern to censors, and nity—teachers, craftsmen, artists, farmers, families, etc.— these remained their most prominent issue for almost a moved in and out of the monastery property, offering millennium. Pope Gelasius II established the first official and receiving knowledge. The community also partici- list of banned books in AD 496. By the 12th century, pated in the life of the monastery by farming and tending ecclesial clashes with dissident ideologies had become animals alongside the monks. Scholars suggest that by the frequent, with the first Inquisition occurring in France, end of the sixth century, an extensive proportion of the which involved the censorship of subversive views, the few hundred thousand Irish would have had advanced burning of books that promoted them, and the persecu- education, and these likely passed on their education to tion of the heretics who wrote them. By the 15th century, “a smattering of those who [did] not.”47 with the invention of the printing press, the availability —Shelley Trebesch of objectionable books increased with the population of literate readers, and the church’s control of printed ma- terial became more difficult to maintain. In the middle Censorship of the 16th century, the Sacred Congregation of Roman Inquisition became a powerful ecclesial body with the ex- Controversy regarding censorship in education has oc- pressed purpose of opposing ProtestantismOnly and censoring curred for millennia, emerging during the classical era. objectionable print material. In 1559, the Index Librorum Plato viewed censorship as a constructive and even es- Prohibitorum (Index of Forbidden Books) severely limited sential aspect of education, arguing that students should the intellectual freedom of most European residents, ban- only receive exposure to positive models of citizenship, ning the scientific writings of Nicolaus Copernicus and both real and fictitious; therefore, students should not be Galileo Galilei. And during the 17th century, works by exposed to stories depicting cruel behavior, which should other famous writers—including Voltaire, Hugo, Kant, be banned entirely. Aristotle, on the other hand, asserted Descartes, and Milton—appeared on the list. In the 19th that fictional characters should be believable rather than century, the church turned its attention to limiting public be model citizens, allowing for a greater level of freedom access to salacious or lascivious materials. And in the 20th and individual responsibility as it pertains to the process century,Copy pornography and obscenity dominated popular of discerning deficiencies in characters. As the church debates on censorship, particularly in Christian circles. accommodated the tradition of classical education, it Censorship in the United States dates back to 1650, inherited this debate. when the first recorded book burning in colonial Mas- Generally defined as the suppression or modification of sachusetts occurred; the object of controversy was a public language, in spoken and written forms, censorship theological treatise written by William Pynchon that occurs when content is deemed unacceptable according challenged Puritan Calvinist doctrines, dominant at that to the standards or preferences of an authoritative body. time. Religiously motivated censorship has remained With the rise of individual political rights, censorship a powerful force in America ever since, particularly as has become an increasingly significant issue. Reasons for it pertains to the public education system. In the 20th censorship typically include political, religious, moral, century, a textbook boycott in Kanawha County, West and other ideological objections to the content of the of- Virginia, became the most violent protest over school fending language. Although the debate between freedom curricula in the history of the country. When fundamen- and censorship has remained relatively constant in many talists rejected the proposed list of 325 books to be taught fundamental ways throughout the history of the church, in Kanawha County in 1974 because of their purportedly the specific issues and materials in question at any given anti-Christian, immoral, and unpatriotic content, and the time are likely to change. school board approved of the books anyway, bombs were Historically, both Roman Catholic and Protestant placed in the schools and violence broke out in the streets. churches have been involved in censorship, going all the In the end, the conflict gave rise to the private Christian way back toContributor the origins of Christianity. For example, the school movement in the state, largely in response to secu- Book of Acts mentions the burning of sorcery scrolls by lar and progressive educational trends. Similarly, in 1984 new converts who formerly practiced occult magic (Acts the Hatch amendment to the Education for Economic 19:19). Also, the Nicene Creed (AD 325) established Security Act recognized a concern related to the teach- standards of right Christian belief to prevent or counter ing of secular humanism in public schools by denying ideas that threatened orthodoxy. Starting around the funding to any such instruction. This led to widespread debate and increased resistance to the literature and text- 47. Lehane, Early Celtic Christianity, 101. book choices of education boards; pressure from parents Center for the Study of Global Christianity 213 primarily, but also from fundamentalist and conservative Kincheloe, Joe L. 1983. Understanding the New Right and Its political organizations, caused many teachers, librarians, Impact on Education. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa. and school administrators to withdraw challenged ma- Ravitch, Diane. 2003. The Language Police: How Pressure terials without litigation. However, due to the vagueness Groups Restrict What Students Learn. New York: Knopf. of the term “secular humanism,” the Hatch amendment Smith, Gregory A. 2004. “Intellectual Freedom and the Bible was deleted within the year. Still, the reaction against in- College Library.” Christian Higher Education 3 (3): 241–259. struction in secular humanism continued to characterize Accessed 15 January 2013. doi:10.1080/15363750490433269. censorship at the local level in schools, although religious —Jeffry Davis and ideological objections then had, and continue to have, little success in affecting government policy. Today, questions about the acceptable content of books in edu- Center for the Study of cational curricula include topics of sexuality (particularly Global Christianity homosexuality), profanity, violence, the occult, political ideology, racism, and evolution, which remain points of The Center for the Study of Global Christianity (CSGC) contention between education professionals and protes- produces research publications and online databases to tors. Nevertheless, consensus has largely been reached assist Christian organizations in research and strategic on decisions to legally censor obscene and pornographic planning. The CSGC creates manyOnly partnerships to en- material from schools, as well as content deemed by the hance the research knowledge base and increase overall law to be harmful to minors. In 2000, the Children’s In- effectiveness; it has key relationships with Gordon- ternet Protection Act provided public schools with fund- Conwell Theological Seminary and Boston University. ing for Internet filtering to ensure student safety. These partnerships provide world-class research profes- The American Library Association’s definition of sionals with the opportunity to collaborate on Christian “intellectual freedom” frequently serves as a starting education, demographics, and other church-related point for debate about censorship, especially as it relates topics. Globally, the CSGC also provides research to to educational institutions, calling it “the right of every scholars and laypeople who are studying aspects of individual to both seek and receive information from all global Christianity. points of view without restriction.” Some suggest that CopyThe CSGC was originally founded by David Barrett in Christian educational institutions have a responsibility to 1965 in Nairobi as the World Evangelization Research their particular mission, which logically leads to restrict- Center (WERC). In 1985 the WERC relocated to Rich- ing the materials to which they allow their faculty and mond, Virginia, to partner with the Southern Baptist students access. Thus, Christian educators can justify International Mission Board. Barrett created the Global the protection of their given community from texts that Evangelization Movement (GEM) and joined WERC with might have deleterious spiritual or emotional influence, it. In 2003 Todd Johnson, the current director of CSGC, while simultaneously investing in resources that further relocated the GEM to the Gordon-Conwell main campus their schools’ specific goals and aims. Yet others claim as the Center for the Study of Global Christianity. that practices of censorship function to stifle the earnest The CSGC has actively provided Christian scholar- pursuit of wisdom for the sake of maintaining peace and ship and statistics to support churches, mission organi- accord among members of the academic community. zations, and institutes of higher education. Its published books are Atlas of Global Christianity (Edinburgh References and Resources University Press, 2009), World Christian Encyclopedia American Library Association. n.d. “Freedom and Censorship (Oxford University Press, 2001), and World Christian Q & A.” Accessed 15 January 2013. http://www.ala.org/of Trends: Interpreting the Annual Christian Megacensus, fices/oif/basics/ifcensorshipqanda. AD 33–AD 2001 (William Carey Library, 2001). The Atlas, James. 1992. Battle of the Books: The Curriculum Debate CSGC also maintains the World Christian Database in America. New York: Norton. and the World Religion Database, along with various Delfattore,Contributor Joan. 1992. What Johnny Shouldn’t Read: Textbook individual global data sets. Censorship in America. New Haven, CT: Yale University The Atlas of Global Christianity depicts more than 100 Press. years of status changes to global Christianity. This atlas Diekema, Anthony J. 2000. Academic Freedom and Christian shows the shift of Christianity to the global South along Scholarship. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. with Christian affiliations and traditions in every coun- Heins, Marjorie. 2001. Not in Front of the Children: “Inde- try. Contextual maps cover world issues and major reli- cency,” Censorship, and the Innocence of Youth. New York: gious traditions (Todd Johnson and Kenneth Ross, Eds. Hill and Wang. 2009. Edinburgh University Press). The book has five 214 Centering Prayer as Christian Practice distinct parts, separating facts into logical units. The five The CSGC scholarship is a tool for these entities to use to parts are included for a deep comprehension of countries, make strategic decisions about their future. Demographic languages, data, and thematic maps on world issues and trends provide organizations and planning teams with major Christian traditions. growth patterns for church planting and expansion plan- The World Christian Encyclopedia (WCE) offers an ning. Researchers can mine the WCD and the WRD to extensive survey of Christianity and religion in general. discover historical and forecasted data. It covers every country in the world, with statistical tables focusing on the status of Christianity. The research References and Resources includes a breakdown of the Christian population, Chris- “About the World Christian Database.” n.d. Accessed 16 tian denominations, languages, cities, and provinces of March 2013. http://worldchristiandatabase.org/wcd/about/ the world. more.asp. The World Christian Trends (WCT) is a companion to Atlas of Global Christianity. n.d. Accessed 16 March 2013. the World Christian Encyclopedia that includes an em- http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/CSGC-Resources pirical survey of Christian martyrdom, historical trends, .cfm. future projections, and finance. The trends can be viewed Barrett, David, George Kurian, and Todd Johnson, eds. 2001. in charts, tables, and lists. These demographics and data World Christian Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford Uni- provide an overview of Christian history focusing on versity Press. Only specific key transitions. Barrett, David, and Todd Johnson. 2001. World Christian World Christian Database (WCD) is a massive col- Trends: Interpreting the Annual Christian Megacenus, AD lection of more than 400 categories of information. The 33–AD 2001. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library. CSGC staff weekly evaluates new sources in order to Center for the Study of Global Christianity. n.d. Accessed refine and improve the WCD. The WCD sources in- 16 March 2013. http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/ clude approximately 5,000 statistical questionnaires, field Center-for-the-Study-of-Global-Christianity.cfm. surveys and interview in over 200 countries, a mass of Johnson, Todd, and Kenneth Ross, eds. 2010. Atlas of Global unpublished materials, and more than 5 million distinct Christianity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. and separate book titles. The statistics have three primary “Status of Global Mission—Updated for 2012.” n.d. Accessed uses: to assist in understanding the past, to provide analy- 16 CopyMarch 2013. http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/ sis of the present, and to provide assistance with planning CSGC-Resources.cfm. for the future. “World Christian Database Methodology.” n.d. Accessed 16 The World Religions Database (WRD) offers estimates March 2013. http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/doc of world religion demography for the period 1900 to uments/WCD_methodology.pdf. 2050. Source materials and best estimates for every reli- “World Christian Database Source Information.” n.d. Accessed gion are included. The user can search detailed statistics 16 March 2013. http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/ on religious affiliation for every country of the world. documents/WCD_sources.pdf. The WRD is continuously updated by key researchers, World Religion Database. n.d. Accessed 16 March 2013. http:// making it a great tool for Christian organizations or indi- www.worldreligiondatabase.org/wrd_default.asp. viduals attempting to understand past, current, or future —Steve Yates religious trends. The CSGC offers “Global Data,” consisting of “Global Diagrams,” “Global Commentary,” “Global Maps,” and Centering Prayer as Christian Practice “Global Tables and Lists.” The “Global Diagrams” display one-page snapshots of data such as martyrdom, global While the concept and practice of centering prayer is rela- religious change, deployment of missionaries, human tively new (an emphasis and invitation after Vatican II for need, and enumerating Christian traditions. The “Global Roman Catholics to renew their spirituality and spiritual Commentary” contains documents about trends and pursuits),48 its origin is based in contemplative prayer de- world evangelism.Contributor The “Global Maps” reveal trends in scribed in the 14th-century classic The Cloud of Unknow- evangelism and Christianization. The “Global Tables and ing and developed by Christian mystics such as Teresa of Lists” denote the world’s 19 major distinct religions and Avila, John of the Cross, Therese of Lisieux, John Cassian, global top 10 lists on 145 major missiometric categories. Francis de Sales, and Thomas Merton. Extending beyond Christian education has been impacted by CSGC’s the emphasis after Vatican II, contemplative prayer also research and statistics, which have provided resources for mission boards, denominational leaders, Christian 48. “History of Centering Prayer,” http://www.contemplativeoutreach institutions of higher education, and local church leaders. .org/history-centering-prayer (accessed 1 March 1, 2013). Chambers, Oswald 215 encourages correction to modern, Enlightenment-focused thinking or to combat thoughts as they arise, but rather to theologizing (Roman Catholic and Protestant)—with its let them go gently so they can pass through one’s aware- emphasis on rationality and the mind—and calls for theo- ness. Thus the believer can return with his or her whole 56 logians to embrace contemplative prayer to build the life being to an awareness of God. of the mind into union with God. “In early Christianity a After years of teaching the method in retreat settings, theologian without spirituality was not considered a theo- Thomas Keating offers four simple guidelines: logian. One had to have the experience of the divine union as well as the capacity to articulate it.”49 Prayer, conversa- 1. Choose a sacred word as the symbol of your inten- tion with God, is the way one enters into union with the tion to consent to God’s presence and action within. “Ultimate Reality. God is Reality, the source and presence 2. Sitting comfortably with eyes closed, settle briefly of everything that exists.”50 and silently and introduce the sacred word as the In the 1970s, three Trappist monks from St. Jo- symbol of your consent to God’s presence and ac- seph’s Abbey in Spencer, Massachusetts (Father Wil- tion within. liam Meninger, Basil Pennington, and Thomas Keating) 3. When you become aware of thoughts, return ever developed this “simple, easy to learn” practice of silent so gently to the sacred word. prayer for “noncontemplative” people.51 Their method 4. At the end of the prayer period, remain in silence became known as “centering prayer,” for Thomas Mer- with your eyes closed for Onlya couple of minutes.57 ton’s description of contemplative prayer “centered en- tirely on the presence of God.”52 Centering prayer is Ultimately, centering prayer opens one to the presence “the opening of mind and heart—our whole being—to and activity of God and thus to transformation into the God, the Ultimate Mystery, beyond thoughts, words, image of Christ. Practicing centering prayer enables free- and emotions.”53 Here, one focuses on deepening one’s dom as one sheds the domination of busyness, entertain- relationship with God, moving beyond conversation into ment, or addictions. “Interior silence is one of the great communion and union. Therefore it involves silence ways of undermining our over-dependence on thoughts and stillness and contemplating a word or phrase, which and feelings.”58 In this sense, one sheds aspects of a false acts as an icon or gateway into the conscious presence of self and uncovers and/or calls forth the true self united God.54 The retreats at St. Joseph’s Abbey sparked a move- withCopy God. “The true self emerges little by little in silence. ment of centering prayer in the United States, extending . . . Humans especially manifest who God is.”59 to other countries. Research addressing the outcomes and benefits of Based on Jesus’s command, “But when you pray, go centering prayer is on the rise. Studies demonstrate that into your room, close the door and pray to your Father, centering prayer reduces physiological anxiety60 and daily who is unseen. Then your Father, who sees what is done stress61 and even increases emotional well-being in cancer in secret, will reward you” (Matt. 6:6), centering prayer is patients undergoing chemotherapy.62 a relatively simple method, which brings monastic con- —Shelly Trebesch templation into two 20- to 30-minute prayer periods each day. “This is an invitation to withdraw form the external world and open ourselves to the spiritual level of our Chambers, Oswald being . . . to . . . stop being dominated by events . . . [and] distractions.”55 The practice enables one Oswald Chambers was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, on to rest deeply in God in silence and to let go of the 24 July 1874. When Oswald was 15, his family moved to thoughts, emotions, memories, images or sensations that will inevitably come into awareness during prayer. The 56. Sandman, “Centering Prayer,” 14. fundamental dynamic of centering prayer is not to stop 57. Ibid. 58. Keating, “Transformational Christianity,” 258. 59. Ibid., 260. 49. Thomas Keating, “Transformational Christianity,” Sewanee Theo- 60. Joshua Michael Kruse, “Differential Effects of Centering Prayer and logical ReviewContributor 53, no. 3 (2010): 258. Progressive Muscle Relaxation as an Intervention for Anxiety Reduction” 50. Ibid. (PhD diss., Rosemead School of Psychology, Biola University, 2012). 51. Joseph G. Sandman, “Centering Prayer: A Treasure for the Soul,” 61. Jane K. Ferguson, Eleanor W. Willemsen, and Maylynn V. Casta- America 183, no. 6 (September 2000): 12–14, http://xw6fk7fu6k.search ñeto, “Centering Prayer as a Healing Response to Everyday Stress: A .serialssolutions.com (accessed 1 April 2013). Psychological and Spiritual Process,” Pastoral Psychology 59, no. 3 (June 52. http://www.contemplativeoutreach.org/history-centering-prayer 2010): 305–329. (accessed 1 March 2013). 62. Mary E. Johnson, Ann M. Dose, Teri Britt Pipe, Wesley O. Petersen, 53. http://carm.org/centering-prayer (accessed 1 April 2013). Mashele Huschka, et al., “Centering Prayer for Women Receiving Chemo- 54. Sandman, “Centering Prayer,” 12. therapy for Recurrent Ovarian Cancer: A Pilot Study,” Oncology Nursing 55. Keating, “Transformational Christianity,” 258. Forum 36, no. 4 (Jul 2009): 421–428. 216 Changing Paradigms of Theological Education

London, where shortly thereafter Clarence Chambers took A great voice was silenced. If Biddy had not transcribed Oswald to hear Charles Spurgeon. On the way home from Oswald’s messages into shorthand, we would never have the service, Oswald gave his life to Christ, and he soon learned so much about the man and his ministry. Within found himself involved with other young people in open- several months of his death, Biddy began to make Os- air meetings and in services at the Summer Road Mission. wald’s messages available. This became the ministry that Oswald was convinced he should be an artist. He re- occupied her, in one way or another, until her death on ceived his art master’s certificate in 1895 and went on for 15 January 1966. Kathleen was also involved in this work. additional study at The University of Edinburgh from Thanks to these two women, along with other devoted 1895 to 1897. Falling under the influence of Professor friends, we have the voluminous writings of Oswald Baldwin Brown, Oswald was encouraged to discover Chambers, none more influential than the daily readings connections between art and both classical and biblical entitled My Utmost for His Highest (1927), thought by literature. Notable pastors in the city also left their mark some to be the most-read Christian book except for the on Oswald, most especially George Matheson, Walter Bible. The reference list below contains a sampling of Smith, and Alexander Whyte. other publications, including Discovery House Publish- From all this God issued a call to Oswald to the or- ers’ volume containing all of Chambers’s works—the re- dained ministry. Oswald had nowhere to go for training. sult of Biddy’s loving and extensive shorthand transcrip- One day in the mail information appeared about Dunoon tions as she sat in churches, lectureOnly halls, and military College, a theological training school near Glasgow. But tents listening to Oswald preach and teach. he only finalized his decision after hearing Hudson Tay- We will never know how many individuals, Sunday lor, founder of the China Inland Mission, speak about school classes, and small groups have used these materi- the need for people to completely trust in God. Oswald als in Christian education ministries. We will never know enrolled in Dunoon in 1897. how many preachers and teachers have quoted Oswald Events in his life after this moved swiftly, through Chambers all around the world. But it is certain that an extended ministry with the League of Prayer (1901– many will continue to do so for generations to come. 1911), which included preaching all over Great Britain and in the United States (with an opportunity to also References and Resources teach at God’s Bible School in Cincinnati) and Japan Chambers,Copy Gertrude. 1933. Oswald Chambers: His Life and (where he met the founding families of the Oriental Mis- Work. London: Simpkin Marshall, Ltd. sionary Society, the Cowmans and Kilbournes). Chambers, Oswald. 1927. My Utmost for His Highest. Printed On a ministry trip to the United States in 1908, he by various publishers in a variety of editions, especially met 24-year-old Gertrude Hobbs, whose aunt had Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House Publishers. asked Oswald to look after her on the journey. She was ———. 1970. Still Higher for His Highest. Grand Rapids, MI: on board to take a job in New York City—a job that Zondervan. included shorthand transcription. As Oswald and Ger- The Complete Works of Oswald Chambers. 2000. Grand Rapids, trude (whom he affectionately called “Biddy”) traveled MI: Discovery House Publishers. to the United States, they also fell in love, culminating McCasland, David. 1993. Abandoned to God: The Life Story of the in marriage on 25 May 1910. Their daughter, Kathleen, Author of “My Utmost for His Highest.” London: The Oswald was born on 24 May 1913. Chambers Publication Association. Published in the United By 1911, Oswald and Biddy were both ready to settle States: Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House Publishers. down and engage in a less travel-oriented ministry. They ———. 2008. The Quotable Oswald Chambers. London: The were led to establish the Bible Training College in Lon- Oswald Chambers Publication Association. Published in the don. Oswald served as principal (and primary faculty United States: Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House Publishers. member), and Biddy was the first lady and provider of —Steve Harper day-to-day hospitality for the students. For four years, the Chambers were blessed to have the opportunity to educate menContributor and women for ministry in the church. Changing Paradigms of With the outbreak of World War I, Oswald responded Theological Education to another call from God: to serve as a YMCA chaplain to British troops in Egypt. Oswald taught nearly every day Recently, changing paradigms of theological education (1915–1917), with Biddy transcribing his messages into have emerged. The situation confronting theological shorthand. This ministry ended unexpectedly with Os- education today is characterized by rapid changes in wald’s death on 15 November 1917, from complications three ways. First, the contemporary situation has cre- from an appendectomy performed several days earlier. ated an environment resulting in the need for changing Changing Paradigms of Theological Education 217 the definition of theology. Theology has evolved since Farley (1984) called a certain void or lacuna in the the Reformation from habitus, sapiential knowing, to a theological curriculum (20). cluster of sciences (Farley 1984, 116–122; 1985). Second, the contemporary situation has been dominated by cul- In the face of religious and cultural pluralism as well tural and religious pluralism: the division of society into as contextual changes in theological education, serious different groups with distinct, even incommensurable, questions have arisen about the nature of theological cultural and religious traditions (Kim 2001, 260–286). education. Many scholars have criticized the clerical Third, the contemporary situation has led to contextual paradigm, the theory-to-practice paradigm, and the changes in theological schools, with increasing numbers fragmented structure of theological education and cur- of women, ethnic minority, and international students, riculum adopted by theological education. These prob- as well as an older student population, partially because lems have resulted in a critical dichotomy between theo- of rising numbers of those pursuing second careers logical education and congregations, between theory (Hough 1990, 8–9). and practice, between the content and process of educa- Contextual changes in theological schools have raised tion, and between the community of faith and society serious questions about the adequacy and efficiency of (Kim 2007, 432–433). traditional theological education and have called for Christianity has played an important role in people’s facing contemporary issues. Recent discussions about lives and offered both an interpretiveOnly mode of the ulti- theological education have varied according to the forms mate context of existence and a sense of commitment and the foci of scholars and their theological perspectives. and obligation to moral norms. With rapid changes in However diverse their proposals have been, most schol- society, however, Christianity has been confined to the ars have summarized recent phenomena of theological private sphere, centering primarily on personal, subjec- education in three ways: (1) the clerical paradigm, (2) tive needs (Luhmann 1984; Osmer 1990). Moreover, the theory-to-practice paradigm, and (3) the structure of Christianity is everywhere a minority in contemporary theological education (Kim 2007, 422). society, including in Korea. This phenomenon has also affected the role of theological education, focusing on its 1. The clerical paradigm: Theological education be- private function of answering purely religious questions, came identified with clergy education and was notCopy on those regarding social life as a whole. This phe- therefore confined to schools with this purpose nomenon has prompted a call for a different paradigm (Farley 1987, 35–66). According to Joseph Hough for theological education, generating a new ethos of con- Jr. and John Cobb Jr. (1985), the aim of theological cern for theological wholeness, bridging the gap between education was to teach “effective church leaders theory and practice and between the community of faith who are able to guide congregations and church or- and society. ganizations in developing an authentic theological identity and thereby becoming contexts for nurtur- References and Resources ing and guiding mission in the world” (19). Cobb Jr., John B. and Joseph C. Hough Jr. Christian Identity and 2. Theory-to-practice paradigm: The movement of Theological Education. Chico, California: Scholars Press, 1985. theological education from theory to application in Dykstra, Craig. “Reconceiving Practice.” Shifting Boundaries: reality broadened the gap between theory and min- Contextual Approaches to the Structure of Theological Educa- isterial practice and fostered a a narrow conception tion, edited by Barbara G. Wheeler and Edward Farley, 35–66. of theology as a vocational matter. Craig Dykstra Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1991. (1991) proposed a reorientation of the ways of Farley, Edward. “Theological Education: Some Strategies for thinking theologically about practice and called for Change.” Trinity Seminary Review 6, (June 4–6, 1984): a more dynamic view of practice and cooperative 116–112. human activities that have been socially established Hough Jr., Joseph C. “Theological Education, Pluralism and over time (35–36). the Common Good.” Theological Education XXVII, no. 1 3. TheContributor structure of theological education: Theological (1990): 8–20. disciplines in education developed into secluded Kim, Hyun-Sook. “Changing Paradigms in Theological Educa- cognitive territories that only related to ordained tion: Dreams and Visions of Christian Higher Education.” ministers. Furthermore, the false dichotomy be- Christian Responses to Asian Challenges: A Globalization tween theory and practice was reinforced and View on Christian Higher Education in East Asia, edited by supported by a narrow conception of theology as LeungYuen Sang and Peter Tze Ming Ng Philip, 421–439. a vocational concern. This fragmented structure Hong Kong: Centre for the Study of Religion and Chinese of theological education resulted in what Edward Society, 2007. 218 Chaplaincies

———. “Christian Education for the Postconventional Christian may be regarded as the increasingly complex, and per- Identity in the Modern Context.” International Journal of haps problematic, matter of religion; purveying ritual to Practical Theology, vol. 5, no.2. (Fall, 2001): 260–286. the university; providing services and support for those Luhmann, Niklaus. Religious Dogmatics and the Evolution of who are religious; and teaching on religion in universities Society, trans. Peter Beyer. New York: The Edwin Mellen without a theology or religious studies faculty. Press, 1984. Models of chaplaincy do vary. A traditional Chris- Osmer, Richard. R. Teachable Spirit: Recovering the Teaching tian one is that of “ministry to the institution,” often Office in the Church. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/ expressed now in terms of the chaplain working with John Knox Press, 1990. people of all faiths and none and engaging in the life of —Hyun-Sook Kim the university as fully as possible, including in education, working on the agendas that arise as gospel and univer- sity are brought together. Another is “student worker”; Chaplaincies the chaplain works with students of her or his own faith, educating and supporting them in faith and ensuring In countries where universities have historically been adequate provision is made for them in the university. shaped in some way by Christianity, there tend to be Traditionally, chaplaincy has been a Christian min- university chaplaincies. When the more ancient of such istry, often undertaken by the ordained.Only In the second universities were formed, in a Christendom type of cul- half of the 20th century, it became more multifaith, with ture, it was axiomatic that the church should be part of members of chaplaincy teams being appointed from a education. Universities were, as the name suggests, about variety of religious and, occasionally, nonreligious tradi- truth, perceived to have a unity in God. The chaplain, tions. Chaplaincy thus becomes a focus for interreligious with his prayers, learning, and sacraments, would be a learning. It becomes a place for facing difficult questions, natural part of such a community, helping it engage with such as which groups should formally be recognized by God. Chaplains helped the faithful learn more about the the university and which not; for example, should so- faith and contributed as Christians to the more general called new religious movements be recognized? It can educational work of the university. also be criticized for bringing together under a basically As later universities developed, some with Christian ChristianCopy nomenclature groups that may have different influence, some not, chaplaincies developed in different understandings of chaplaincy, if that word is one they ways. They typically persist even in more pluralist and would naturally use at all. Thus chaplaincy finds itself secular cultures, where any Christian origins of the uni- “on the edge” and facing the sorts of questions that arise versity are likely to be not as central to the consciousness in that place. They are important questions in a world of the university as they once were. learning to live with diversity. Living with such questions, Typically, chaplaincy is now a partnership between chaplains gain learning important for both church and church and university, though the partners may have university, a reminder that chaplains have a ministry to differing agendas. For example, from the church’s per- the church as well as to the university. spective, chaplaincy may be a gift to the university, the educational work of which it recognizes as a public good References and Resources and which it wishes to support as such. It may also be a McGrail, Peter, and John Sullivan, eds. 2007. Dancing on the recognition that ministry focused on geographical, resi- Edge. Chaplaincy, Church and Higher Education. Chelms- dential areas fails to deal with those parts of life lived away ford, England: Matthew James Publishing. from home. Chaplaincy is the church putting itself in the Shockley, Donald G. 1989. Campus Ministry: The Church Be- workplace; in the case of the university, in places where yond Itself. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. cultures and individuals are formed as part of the work of —Stephen Heap higher education. Through chaplaincy the church seeks to influence that formation with and for the Gospel. In some cases, thereContributor may be an overt proselytizing element; how far Character it is appropriate for universities to facilitate such work is contested and varies according to context. Character education has always been of significant con- What the university wants from chaplaincy differs cern in the church. Generally, character refers to the across continents and depending on the nature of the moral and ethical life of a Christian, which includes judg- university. A ministry of care is likely to be one feature. ments, attitudes, and actions. In the first three centuries Others include community building; creating links with AD, character formation was taken seriously in a society the world outside the university; giving advice on what hostile to the Christian faith. It was viewed as part of one’s Character Development 219 relationship with God and not an independent discipline been consistent in character development curriculum or philosophical subject. While the home and family throughout the centuries. Other influences include the were seen as essential in the training of children, one of church, Christian schools and universities, as well as the most significant developments came about through one’s mentors and broader social community. the establishment of the catechumenate. Culminating in —Thomas Kimber baptism and church membership, catechumenal schools were designed to train the adult convert in the Christian faith and way of living. Character Development More recently, character is commonly referred to as moral development and has largely been viewed through Definition the lens of psychological development and social learn- Character education is the long-term process of helping ing. Sociologists see character development as primarily young people develop the knowledge, skills, and abilities influenced by one’s social relationships and therefore to make informed, wise, and responsible choices. From emphasize the importance of influential mentors and a Christian perspective, character education encourages role models such as parents, teachers, community lead- students to be transformed into the image of Christ ers, and other social contacts. In psychology, Lawrence through an emphasis on helping students grow spiritually Kohlberg’s research and writing has dominated the study and the consistent modeling ofOnly good character by adults of moral development. His claim that moral character is in their lives (Selig and Arroyo 1989). formed in the cognitive structure of the person has been controversial among Christian educators. While many History of Character Education religious educators have utilized Kohlberg’s theories and During the early days of the American colonies, there was integrated them into character education curriculum, concern on the part of the adults to instill in the hearts and many others have criticized his theories as being inad- minds of the young a moral code. This was consistent with equate and incompatible with biblical teaching. passions that drove such people as the Puritans to immi- Most previous emphases in character development and grate to America and establish a new society centered on education have been most closely associated with virtue the worship of the Almighty. Schools during the colonial ethics and have often emphasized behavioral outcomes. era,Copy although not always called Christian schools, were More recent educational approaches have attempted to essentially an outgrowth of the local churches and were strike a balance between the internal and external activi- unabashedly Christian in their practices and worldview. ties of character development. It is important to develop Between 1776 and 1825, America began to move away and maintain a sensitive conscience as the seat of one’s from the religiously based community schools toward a moral standards as well as a lifestyle of obedience to God publicly supported form of education that became in- as evidenced in moral actions and disciplined personal creasingly secular (Kaestle 1983). In large part, this was habits. Changes in behavior are not regarded as a direct due to the growing number of immigrants from abroad objective but as an indirect outcome of the person who is who had more diverse religious backgrounds. The effects responding to God’s love. of increasing secularization in society, culminating in the Spiritual formation curriculum emphasizes the develop- philosophy of secular humanism and laws that eventually ment of a Christlike character through the regular practice made mention of religion virtually illegal in the 1960s, are of spiritual disciplines. The only way to demonstrate pub- thought by many to be causes of an erosion of character licly the outward actions of Christ is by privately practicing in the American culture (Arroyo and Jordan 2011). the disciplines He practiced, such as prayer, fasting, and Despite schools becoming increasingly secular, a pleth- solitude. Such discipline is intended to result in a greater ora of books and articles were published in the 1990s responsiveness to God through the work of the Holy Spirit about the need to instill character in our children from a and deeper relationships in Christian community. traditional Judeo-Christian perspective. William Bennett Current thought in character development is returning (1993), former U.S. secretary of education, wrote the best to the classicalContributor thinkers such as Aristotle and theologians seller The Book of Virtues: Treasures of Great Moral Sto- like Augustine to root character development in the ries. Lickona (1993), Kilpatrick (1992), and Ryan (1993) concept of the flourishing life, which sees God as the su- also wrote books and articles for educators on the reasons preme good. This model of character development views for and methods of character education in all schools. the development of a Christlike character as essential to Organizations such as the Character Education Part- the flourishing life. nership and Character Counts offer programs and train- Most agree that parents have the greatest influence ing particularly for public schools in the area of character on character development in their children. This has education. In addition, state and federal legislation for 220 Character Education public school improvements highly encourages character Kilpatrick, W. 1992. Why Johnny Can’t Tell Right from Wrong: education initiatives and programs. And What We Can Do About It. New York: Simon and Schuster. Teaching Character Kliebard, Herbert M. 1986. The Struggle for the American Cur- Christian educators have been struggling for many years riculum, 1893–1958. Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul. to find an effective educational model that has the depth Lickona, T. 1993. “The Return of Character Education.” Educa- and breadth to serve as a springboard in helping students tional Leadership 51 (3): 6–11. develop the Christian character we desire. One model Ryan, K. 1993. “Mining Values in the Curriculum.” Educational that seems to hold a lot of promise in creating the frame- Leadership 51 (3): 16–18. work for the development of a model to teach character is Selig, W. G., and A. A. Arroyo. 1989. Loving Our Differences: an approach posited by Selig, Arroyo, and Tonkin (2009), Building Successful Family Relationships. Virginia Beach, which proposes that character education can be broken VA: CBN Publishing. into four primary groups. These groups are the founda- Selig, W. G., A. A. Arroyo, and S. E. Tonkin. 2009. Handbook of tion from which a character education framework can be Individualized Strategies for Building Character. Los Angeles: developed and specific strategies can be created for both Western Psychological Services. groups and individuals. These are the four groups, with Smith, W., ed. 1973. Theories of Education in Early America examples of some of the supporting character qualities: 1655—1819. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs–MerrillOnly Co. —W. George Selig and Alan A. Arroyo • Workmanship: Becoming productive individuals who accept responsibility and are faithful to what we are called to do. Supporting qualities include dependabil- Character Education ity, organization, perseverance, and initiative. • Self-control: Giving up our rights in deference to For many centuries character education was at the heart the rights of others and not thinking more highly of of K–12 schooling. One should not be surprised that ourselves than we ought. We strive to mature in our moral training and instruction played such a central role, faith and actions by controlling our natural desires. because (1) for centuries Western educational traditions Supporting qualities include restraint, flexibility, viewedCopy the moral component of schooling to be educa- patience, and discipline. tion’s primary focus, and (2) those European settlers who • Relationship: Getting along with others and working first arrived in North America cultivated and maintained cooperatively, demonstrating loyalty and trustwor- that as their primary focus throughout schooling (Dupuis thiness in all our actions, and encouraging others 1966; Marrou 1956). Regarding the first point, beginning to fulfill their destiny. Supporting qualities include with Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, the early Chris- sensitivity, forthrightness, loyalty, and honesty. tians, Augustine, Martin Luther, Calvin, and Erasmus, • Empathy: Putting ourselves in the place of others to virtually all key Western educational leaders believed understand their plight and reach out to them in a that the character component of schooling was the most loving, faithful, and sensitive manner. Supporting indispensable (Jeynes 2007). As John Elias (1995, 41) qualities include forgiveness, sincerity, attentiveness, notes, “Since antiquity the development of the moral or and humility. virtuous person has been the primary aim of education.” The Christians in the first few centuries following The developers of a character education curriculum Christ’s birth also emphasized righteousness. One focal should strive to make it a seamless part of the total cur- point of the early Christian emphasis on education was riculum. This allows an integration of Christian character equality (Cubberley 1920; Jeynes 2007; Marrou 1956). Of into every aspect of students’ lives, so that as the years all the cultures and philosophies in the world, the early progress they begin to reflect the character of Christ in all Christians were the first to declare that all humans were that they say, do, and think. equal. In every other locale on Earth, it was naturally as- Contributorsumed that the leaders of the country were superior to References and Resources the remainder of the populace. In Galatians 3:28 the Bible Arroyo, A., and H. Jordan, eds. 2011. The Secret Kingdom for states: “There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither Educators. Boston: Pearson. slave nor free, there is neither male nor female.” As a re- Bennett, W. J. 1993. Book of Virtues: A Treasury of Great Moral sult of this belief, 80 percent of the early Christians were Stories. New York: Simon and Schuster. either slaves or women (Dupuis 1966). As the centuries Kaestle, Carl F. 1983. Pillars of the Republic: Common Schools passed, Christians continued in their insistence that the and American Society 1780–1860. New York: Hill and Wang. Bible be the center of the curriculum. Character Education 221

The centrality of character instruction was evident the United States was equally impressive. Although the in the practices of the early European settlers, particu- United States had only 5–6 percent of the world’s popula- larly the more religious ones. The Puritans were strong tion, it produced 55 percent of the world’s goods. believers in what many have called the “holy triad” of With all these data in mind, one might not expect that the home, church, and school, with each institution actions were about to be taken that would dramatically supporting the other two and communicating with the change the spiritual and moral atmosphere of the coun- other two in order to secure desirable moral and aca- try. And yet, if one in retrospect examines the scenario demic outcomes (Bailyn 1960; Jeynes 2007, 2010). This at that time, the situation in the 1950s and early 1960s emphasis was evident also in higher education. From invited complacency and mobilized antireligious forces the perspective of educators the professor was “in the that resented the fact that the United States was experi- first place be a man of virtue. For . . . it be the main end encing a period of spiritual renewal. of education to make virtuous men” (Clarke as cited in The U.S. Supreme Court, in three decisions in 1962– Jeynes 2010, 93). 1963, removed prayer and Bible readings from the pub- A variety of leaders at the time of the Revolutionary lic schools. The decision has been a very controversial War also advocated the primacy of moral instruction. one over the years, largely for two reasons. First, many Benjamin Rush, the most prominent physician at the believe it violates the freedom of religious expression. time, who signed the Declaration of Independence, Second, in the first few decadesOnly following the deci- believed that in order for character instruction to be sion, juvenile crime soared, and many social scientists successful, the Bible had to be at the center of the cur- believed the removal of character education that was riculum. Rush (1951, 5) declared, “Every precept of the associated with these activities was partially to blame. Gospel inculcates those degrees of humility, self-denial, In contemporary times, there have been various isolated and brotherly kindness.” Benjamin Rush believed that efforts to revive character education in the schools, teachers needed to not only instruct students in love apart from a religious context. It remains to be seen and kindness, but also exhibit this behavior. Blinderman whether many schools will again recognize the salience (1976, 11) notes that Benjamin Franklin, “like Luther, of character instruction. . . . believed that it is easier to educate youth than to cure adults.” Charity schools, private religious schools ReferencesCopy and Resources that educated the vast majority of students for little or Bailyn, Bernard. 1960. Education in the Forming of the Ameri- no tuition, were the main means of schooling children can Society, Durham, NC: University of North Carolina at the time. Over time the charity schools, including the Press New York Free School Society, became well known for Blinderman, A. 1976. Three Early Champions of Education: the efficacy of their moral education programs. DeWitt Benjamin Franklin, Benjamin Rush, and Noah Webster. Clinton, the president of this group, stated: “Of the many Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. thousands who have been instructed in our free schools Cubberley, E. 1920. The History of Education. Boston: Hough- in the City of New York, there is not a single instance ton Mifflin. known of anyone being convicted of a crime” (quoted in Dupuis, A. M. 1966. Philosophy of Education in Historical Per- Fitzpatrick 1969, 54). spective. Chicago: Rand McNally. For decades leaders of the American public school Elias, J. L. 1995. Philosophy of Education: Classical and Contem- movement, such as Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, and porary. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing. Emma Willard, also declared the character education Fitzpatrick, E. A. 1969. The Educational Views and Influence of should be at the center of the curriculum. This impor- DeWitt Clinton. New York: Arno Press. tance of character education was assumed by Americans Jeynes, W. 2007. American Educational History: School, Society until the early 1960s. In the 1950s and early 1960s, the & the Common Good. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publica- United States was in the midst of spiritual revival and at tions. its economic zenith. Statistics on morality and spiritual- ———. 2010. A Call for Character Education and Prayer in the ity wereContributor encouraging. By 1960, 69 percent of Americans Schools. Westport, CT: Praeger. were members of a church, which was one of the highest Marrou, H. I. 1956. A History of Education in Antiquity. New percentages in the nation’s history. Many social scientists York: Sheed & Ward. referred to the 1950s as the “Eisenhower revival.” It was Rush, B. 1951. Letter to Richard Price, 25 May 1786. In Letters a period in which Billy Graham was drawing millions of of Benjamin Rush, edited by L. H. Butterfield, I:388–389. people to his crusades, and toy stores made prayer dolls Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. that could pray out loud. The economic situation in —William Jeynes 222 Charlemagne

Charlemagne and writing skills. He also observed that a better edu- cated clergy could better understand and communicate Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor scripture. Toward that end, Charlemagne brought to his Charlemagne (2 April 742–28 January 814), also known palace school the Anglo-Saxon scholar and Benedictine as Karl or Charles the Great, was a Frankish king best monk Alcuin of York (c. 735–804), to teach him and his known for being the first emperor of the Holy Roman sons and to design a curriculum for the palace school—a Empire (25 December 800–his death). Charlemagne’s course of study that would also better educate the clergy greatest contributions to Christian education were those and the monks. steps he took that led to and characterized the Carolin- What Alcuin and the other palace scholars devised gian Renaissance. was the origin of the medieval approach to the seven lib- Charlemagne’s father, Pepin III (the Short), was mayor eral arts. These had been presaged in Aristotle’s Politics, of the Merovingian palace; he exercised power over much VIII, 3, in which the philosopher noted “the liberal sci- of the Frankish kingdom and is generally recognized as ences” for the moral and intellectual education of citi- the first of the Carolingian kings. Upon Pepin’s death in zens in a democracy. These would later be outlined by 768, Charlemagne reigned jointly with his brother, Carlo- the fifth-century Roman writer Martianus Capella (in man, but rivalry between the two proved to be divisive. his De Nuptiis) and would include the trivium (gram- When Carloman died in 771, Charlemagne took over mar, logic, and rhetoric, which taughtOnly people to write, to complete control of the Frankish realms. think, and to persuade) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, Upon gaining power, Charlemagne sought to unite geometry, music, and astronomy). This would be the all Germanic people and to convert all of his realm to foundational curriculum for medieval universities and Christianity. In 799, Pope Leo III, having been physically become a vital part of the revival of learning known as attacked, fled Rome. Late the next year, Charlemagne the Carolingian Renaissance. led in restoring Leo III to the papal office. On Christmas The Carolingian Renaissance, initiated by Char- Day in 800, Charlemagne attended mass at the basilica lemagne, had innumerable and profound impacts on of St. Peter. There, Leo III crowned Charlemagne and learning, education, and society. More schools were es- proclaimed him “emperor of the Romans.” After his tablished. Christian knowledge proliferated. Scholarship coronation, Charlemagne never returned to Rome, hav- in theCopy church improved. Religious practices became more ing no one seat of government, but holding court mostly consistent. The culture grew more homogeneous. in Aachen (also known as Aix-la-Chapelle and located on the western edge of today’s Germany). References and Resources Collins, Roger. 1999. Early Medieval Europe: 300–1000. 2nd ed. The Carolingian Renaissance New York: St. Martin’s Press. From Aachen, Charlemagne increased commerce within Elias, John L. 2002. A History of Christian Education: Prot- his dominion and with Muslims, Venice, and Byzantium. estant, Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: The young Charlemagne had been illiterate, but he would Krieger Publishing. eventually study Latin and Greek as well as other sub- Gamble, Richard M., ed. 2010. The Great Tradition: Classic jects such as logic and rhetoric. In 776, he added to the Readings on What It Means to Be an Educated Human Being. already established palace school the eminent scholars Wilmington, DE: ISI Books. and grammarians Peter of Pisa and Paulinus of Aquilea. Noble, Thomas F. X., trans. 2009. Charlemagne and Louis the Through his association with these men and his exposure Pious: The Lives by Einhard, Notker, Ermoldus, Thegan, and to the learning of Muslim scholars, he became open to the Astronomer. University Park: The Pennsylvania State new ideas and concerned about the state of education in University Press. the church and among all his subjects. In Charlemagne’s —Ronnie Prevost kingdom, many of the clergy and monastics were barely literate—even those dedicated to copying biblical manu- scripts. Furthermore,Contributor there was little or no consistency Chautauqua Movement regarding Latin, the scholar language, nor writing, nor punctuation. With the implementation of the standard- The Chautauqua Institution is a nonprofit educational ized writing style called Carolingian minuscule, the Latin community “dedicated to the exploration of the best alphabet and Latin writing would be more easily read and in human values and the enrichment of life through a comprehended throughout the Holy Roman Empire. program that explores the important religious, social and In his “Capitulary of 787,” Charlemagne, while not- political issues of our times” (Chautauqua Institution ing and complimenting the piety among the clergy and 2013). Located on a 750-acre site on Chautauqua Lake in monks, expressed concern over their poor grammar New York State, the institution offers a nine-week sum- Children and Worship, Sonya Stewart’s Views of 223 mer program focusing on the arts, education, religion, “aimed at intellectual and moral self-improvement and and recreation. civic involvement” (Chautauqua 2013). By 1915, at the The institution was founded in 1874 as the Chautauqua movement’s height, more than 12,000 communities in Lake Sunday School Assembly (CLSSA) by Methodist pas- the United States had hosted their own, independent tor John H. Vincent, along with Lewis Miller, a wealthy “chautauquas.” With increasing mobility due to the Methodist layman. Both Vincent and Miller had unique automobile and the growing popularity of movies and backgrounds that contributed to the immediate and ongo- radio as sources of entertainment, the Chautauqua ing success of Chautauqua. Lewis proposed the lakeside movement died out by the late 1930s. The increase in setting as an ideal venue for education combined with rec- educational access and professional opportunities, es- reation, which contributed significantly to the endeavor’s pecially for women, also contributed to the movement’s early and enduring popularity. Vincent wanted to provide eventual demise. an equal educational opportunity of lifelong learning The impact of the Chautauqua Institution goes far for adults of all ages and social status, insisting that the beyond its current summer offerings in New York or “‘Chautauqua idea’ must awaken . . . a fresh enthusiasm the earlier, widespread influence of its nontraditional in true living, and bring rich and poor, learned and un- educational programs and their diverse offshoots. John learned, into neighborship [sic] and comradeship, helpful Vincent anticipated and implemented many principles and honorable to both” (Vincent 1886, 2). He believed for the education of adults thatOnly became foundational for that those who did not have the opportunity for formal the modern adult educational movement decades later. education should still have the opportunity to more fully Noted adult educator Harold Stubblefield has described develop their intellectual capabilities. Furthermore, Vin- the abiding contribution of Chautauqua and Vincent: cent insisted that such learning was a Christian obligation for everyone, because “all knowledge, religious or secular, A substantial case can be made for arguing that John H. is sacred to him who reverently surrenders himself to God, Vincent’s The Chautauqua Movement (1886) presents that he may become like God” (Vincent 1886, 13). the first modern theory of adult education in the United States. The legacy of Chautauqua to the adult education The institution originally intended to provide courses movement encompasses both its educational innovations for Sunday school teachers corresponding to the courses and its educational thought. Its contribution to educa- provided for public school teachers in “normal schools.” Copytional thought—the idea that learning should extend However, course offerings were soon expanded to include throughout a person’s lifetime—merits greater recogni- other general education subjects as well as music, art, and tion than it has yet received. (Stubblefield 1981, 199) physical education. The institution initially welcomed participants from all Protestant denominations and sub- References and Resources sequently extended its programming to all religions. Chautauqua. 2013. History of the Chautauqua Movement. Ac- Wanting to provide college-level learning for people cessed May 9, 2013. http://www.chautauqua.com/history who had neither the money nor the time to pursue it, _movement.html. Vincent formed the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Chautauqua Institution. 2013. About Us/Our History. Accessed Circle (CLSC) in 1878. As Vincent explained, “it puts the May 9, 2013. http://www.ciweb.org/our-history/. preparatory and college curricula into good readable Eng- Scott, John. 1999. “The Chautauqua Movement: Revolution in lish, and helps people out of college to know what is going Popular Higher Education.” Journal of Higher Education 70 on there” (Vincent 1886, 74). Increasing access to higher (4): 389–404. learning, the CLSC was one of the first systematic attempts Stubblefield, Harold. 1981. “The Idea of Lifelong Learning in at distance learning, consisting of a four-year correspon- the Chautauqua Movement.” Adult Education Quarterly 31: dence curriculum. The CLSC was responsible for the 199–208. worldwide expansion of Chautauqua, so that by 1886, Vin- Vincent, John H. 1886. The Chautauqua Movement. Boston: cent could claim “more than one hundred thousand names Chautauqua Press. on its record books, and more than half of them pursuing —John Lillis . . . oneContributor or more of its prescribed courses” (Vincent 1886, 74). All Chautauqua programs offered through the original New York site were reorganized as a single entity under the Children and Worship, name Chautauqua Institution in 1902. Sonya Stewart’s Views of Following the success of the CLSC, similar endeav- ors called “chautauquas” were established throughout In the early 1980s a professor of Christian education at the United States. This gave rise to the “Chautauqua Western Theological Seminary in Holland, Michigan, Dr. movement,” spreading the Chautauqua ideal of pro- Sonya Stewart, picked up a copy of Sofia Cavalletti’s semi- viding women and men with learning opportunities nal work, The Religious Potential of the Child: Experiencing 224 Children at Church, Protecting

Scripture and Liturgy with Young Children. Along with Stewart earned degrees from Muskingum College, Stewart’s own thinking and previous studies on how chil- Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, and the University of dren learn, Cavalletti’s research influenced Stewart’s under- Notre Dame. She served on the Western Theological standing of how children experience faith, which ultimately Seminary (WTS) faculty from 1970 until ill health led to led her to design a rich worship experience for children in her early retirement in 2002. She died in 2006. the church, which she called Young Children and Worship. Unlike the classroom model of pedagogy, Stewart In 1985 Stewart took two of her Western Theological fashioned her distinctive approach around the rhythm Seminary students to attend a workshop at Christ Church of Christian worship. In the years following her develop- Cathedral (Houston) led by and based on the work of Epis- ment of Young Children and Worship, she could regu- copal priest and canon educator Jerome Berryman and larly be seen carrying a familiar gold “parable” box into his pedagogical model, which he later termed Godly Play. her classroom at WTS, where she would begin a story by Berryman, also deeply influenced by the work of Sofia Ca- looking carefully at the gold box and saying softly that valletti as well as Maria Montessori, refers to his work in parables always come in a gold box because they are very Godly Play as the fourth generation of the religious Mon- precious . . . like gold. tessori pedagogical tradition, the second being the work of Young Children and Worship differs from other E. M. Standing (1887–1967) and the third that of Sofia Ca- similar methods (Godly Play, Catechesis of the Good valletti (1917–2011).63 Out of that Houston workshop grew Shepherd, etc.) in that is puts moreOnly emphasis on the a writing partnership between Stewart and Berryman, who form and action of worship and the fourfold order of presented their coauthored book, Young Children and Christian worship: gathering—preparation for worship/ Worship, for publication (1988). Twelve years later Stewart the approach to God; listening—proclamation of the published Following Jesus (2000). Word of God; responding—thanksgiving and response to More than simply learning about God, Stewart’s inten- the Word proclaimed; and sending—going out in God’s tion with Young Children and Worship was a mission name.65 The key distinctive, however, is that while Berry- to create a sacred space where children can encounter man’s Godly Play method puts emphasis on the function God and experience worship of God—a place to be still of religious language—parables, sacred story, and liturgi- with God—where they come to nurture their spiritual cal action—in the moral and spiritual development of lives. Stewart provided three reasons for using a wor- children,Copy Stewart’s Young Children and Worship empha- ship context for telling and working with biblical stories sizes Christian worship and the function of symbols and rather than a school environment: First, through worship religious imagination in Christian formation.66 The sing- participation God is experienced as we enter into scrip- ing as a part of worship, the presentation of the Christ ture and allow the Holy Spirit to convince us of the truth candle, and opening the biblical text following each story of His word. Second, worship transforms ordinary time are essential components of Stewart’s Young Children and space into sacred time and space. The experience of and Worship model. God is one of mystery, awe, and wonder. The time and Some have referred to the work of Sonja Stewart as a space of worship engage a special form of remembering fifth generation model of the religious Montessori peda- that involves imagination and forms meaning within the gogical tradition, following the work of Sofia Cavalletti, ancient-future Christian community throughout all time. E. M. Standing, and Jerome Berryman. Her two books are Third, young children need God and a religious commu- useful additions for any church or school incorporating nity to provide love, security, appropriate freedom, conti- the Godly Play or Catechesis of the Good Shepherd ma- nuity, order, and meaning.64 The rituals of worship in the terials. Stewart’s books provide detailed training, lessons Young Children and Worship space meet these needs for (including scripture and layout), and complete patterns, meaning and order amid the chaos of life. so that churches may easily and inexpensively create their Although specifically designed to nurture three- to own figures and other materials.67 seven-year-olds, Stewart’s method has been effectively —Trevecca Okholm used with people of all ages, including the elderly and the infirm in nursingContributor homes and hospitals. Young Children and Worship is now used in churches across America, as Children at Church, Protecting well as in South Africa, England, South Korea, Mexico, and Japan. Society has changed a great deal over the last few decades. People can no longer leave the doors of their homes 63. Jerome Berryman, Teaching Godly Play: How to Mentor the Spiritual Development of Children (Denver, CO: Morehouse, 2009), 24. 65. Ibid., 17. 64. Jerome Berryman and Sonja Stewart, Young Children and Worship 66. Ibid., 7. (Louisville, KY: Westminster, 1988), 13–14. 67. http://www.childrenandworship.org. Children at Church, Protecting 225 unlocked and allow their children to play freely outside work history, listing both secular and church-related all day with no supervision. Churches must be aware of service. References should also be provided. these changes and protect their children, leaders, and • Specific check-in and check-out procedures should ministries as a whole. At the same time, there has been be required for all children attending any program an alarming increase in cases involving the abuse of chil- offered at the church. These procedures must be dren. These issues present a direct challenge to the integ- followed for every child in attendance, including the rity of the church. If educators fail to vigorously confront children of any staff members or employees. these issues, there will be no winners, only losers. At stake • Handbooks should be in place containing detailed is one of the most valuable assets any society or culture guidelines and procedures for parents, staff, and vol- has to offer. At issue is the “child” and his or her survival unteers, including comprehensive emergency plans in the institutional church. Addressing this issue requires for fire, tornado, earthquake, and lockdown, as well an aggressive course of action on the part of every minis- as discipline, child restroom guidelines, and a strat- ter and congregation. egy for handling reports of child abuse. There are numerous educational programs available • The church must meet the state fire codes, and the for children in the church setting. They require a large building must be inspected by the fire marshall on number of caregivers and teachers, most of whom have a regular basis. Place emergency exit instructions in had no formal training in teaching, child care, or safety each classroom and scheduleOnly maintenance tests for and security. Because the church is “one of the leading smoke and carbon monoxide alarms. providers of programs for small children in the United • Playground equipment should be maintained on a States, churches need to give special attention to pro- regular schedule. These areas should be fenced in viding safe environments for infants and preschoolers” and provide protective material for the fall zones (Nye, 2009, 25). It is vital for churches to create specific around equipment. Handbook for Public Playground policies and procedures designed to best protect the chil- Safety is available at the Consumer Product Safety dren placed in their care. Commission website (http://www.cpsc.gov). The book of Titus reminds the church, “Your message • A first aid kit should be available in each classroom. is to be sound beyond reproach, so that the opponent will Workers should be trained in first aid and CPR. be ashamed, having nothing bad to say about us” (Titus Copy• Equipment and furniture should be kept in good con- 2:8, HCSB). It is the responsibility of the church to con- dition and have a schedule for regular maintenance. duct every program in such a way that when the world • Infant classrooms should have fire safe cribs that looks upon it, they will see that everything possible has meet Consumer Product Safety Commission guide- been done to protect the children. Church leaders must lines. All cribs should be positioned away from take every precaution “through a systematic program of blinds and cords. See the Consumer Product Safety inspection, and training both paid and volunteer staff Commission website (http://www.cpsc.gov) for up- members to recognize unsafe conditions and correct dated guidelines. them, and to follow safe procedures in the care of chil- • Each classroom should have age-appropriate toys dren (Pollock, n.d.). Maintenance for safety and security and furniture. The toys should be checked regularly is an ongoing process that must be reevaluated on a for choking hazards and to ensure that they are not regular basis. It is necessary for church leaders to stay as broken. Each classroom should also have antibac- current as possible with local, state, and national guide- terial disinfectant on hand, and all toys must be lines. Also, proper insurance is a necessity for all church cleaned after each use. programs no matter the size of the congregation. • There should be at least two adult teachers in a class- It is important for the church leadership to consult room at all times. If possible, have two women and an attorney to review all safety and security policies and one man in each class. For legal reasons, if a husband insurance requirements. This plan should be updated on and wife are teaching together, there should be a a regular basis. Following are some areas of concern that third adult teacher in the classroom. Follow the state should Contributorbe reviewed by the church leadership (adapted child/teacher ratio guidelines. from Hudson, n.d.). (This is not an exhaustive list.) • Changing tables must have safety straps and be stocked with wax paper, nonlatex gloves, and anti- • Criminal background checks should be conducted for bacterial disinfectant. all leaders, staff, and volunteers who come into con- • Ultrahazardous activities should be avoided. tact with children and/or the children’s ministry areas • Overnight activities should be avoided unless abso- of the church. Those who work with children should lutely necessary. All precautions should be taken and be asked to complete an application that provides a adequate supervision be maintained. 226 Children of Unchurched Parents

• All areas where children and youth are involved ficult, because some definitions will group these parents should be monitored constantly. This includes and children with those who have no prior knowledge of restrooms. the church or religion, while other definitions or surveys • All electrical outlets should be covered with safety will include those who have knowledge about church or plugs. There should be no cords hanging down from religion, but do not regularly attend church. any appliances (such as TVs or CD players)—children Consequently, the term unchurched can be misleading, could pull the appliance off the surface by the cord. because it gives the idea that this group of parents and • Adequate lighting both inside and outside facilities, their children are not interested in attending church or as well as playgrounds, should be maintained. developing a relationship with God. The first impression • There should be a zero tolerance policy for anyone might be that the people thus labeled have little or no who has abused a child in any way. knowledge of the church. However, the idea that all of the • There should be a policy regarding restrictions on unchurched and their children are unknowledgeable about teenagers’ involvement with children. the church and their spirituality is incorrect. In many cases, the unchurched are not parents who are unbelievers. Many churches and Christian schools have difficulty It is more accurate to understand that many of the parents putting these types of plans in place. Church members labeled unchurched and their children are individuals and parents are comfortable in familiar surroundings who attend church occasionally, notOnly on what the church and trust the people they have worshipped with for many considers to be a regular basis. Many of the unchurched years. They also want to be able to welcome newcomers were once active participants in church, but they have and visitors with open arms. It is the responsibility of become dissatisfied with organized religion and are now church leadership to see the big picture and protect all not actively participating. The unchurched are considered of their children by providing a safe and secure place to to be marginalized in Christianity and dormant in their learn about the love of God and His Word. faith. However, this does not mean that they are not seek- ing to have or do not already have a relationship with God. References and Resources Some of the unchurched have distanced themselves from James F. Cobble, Jr. and Richard R. Hammar. (2007). Risk the church for various reasons, such as hurts and wounds, Management Handbook for Churches and Schools. Carol perceivedCopy hypocrisy, and disbelief. The church has not ap- Stream: Your Church Resources. peared to be a welcoming place for the children of the un- Commission, C. P. (2010, November). Handbook for Public churched. They are not confident that their lifestyle would Playground Safety. Retrieved from Consumer Product Safety be accepted in the organized church. However, many of Commission: http://www.cpsc.gov/PageFiles/116134/325.pdf the children of the unchurched would attend church if Hudson, Dale. N.d. Best Practices for Protecting Kids at Church, they were invited. Research by Thom Rainer reveals that http://www.relevantchildrensministry.com/2013/02/best in many instances a crisis situation will bring unchurched -practices-for-protecting-kids-at.html parents and their children to church. During a crisis could Nye, Rebecca. 2009. Children’s Spirituality (What It Is and Why be one of the best times to approach the unchurched and It Matters). London: Church House Publishing. the children of the unchurched, but in approaching them Pollock, David. N.d. Churches at Risk: Insurance isn’t the Only the church must be intentional and sincere. Way to Protect Yourself. Resource Ministries, http://www .resourceministries.net/articles_details.php?articlesID=10 References and Resources —J. Gregory Lawson and Valerie Davidson Kinnaman, David, Gabe Lyons, and George Barna. 2009. What a New Generation Thinks About Christianity . . . and Why It Matters. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Children of Unchurched Parents Rainer, Thom. 2008. Surprising Insights from the Unchurched and Proven Ways to Reach Them, Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Some children’s parents are “unchurched.” They are con- sidered to Contributorbe unchurched because they do not have an ongoing relationship with an organized religion or do not Children, Spiritual Dimension of attend church regularly. However, the children have a de- sire to know as much as possible about God and how God The field of children’s spirituality is a relatively new area is available to them. When talking with these unchurched of exploration. Broadly speaking, it is concerned with children, they are open to learning about God and church. children’s ability to relate to and connect with Self, Other, They are curious and have questions about God, Jesus, nature, and a transcendent dimension, which Christian- and the Bible. Defining “unchurched” can be very dif- ity explicitly names as God. Because of its close connec- Children, Spiritual Dimension of 227 tion with religion, nurturing the spiritual dimension of Recognizing that not all children belong to or are active children has been of interest and concern for Christian members of faith communities, more recent research into educators in both formal educational institutions and children’s spirituality has tended to focus not so much faith-forming contexts. Christian educators also require on the expressions of religious language and concepts as some understanding and appreciation of the spiritual on the perceptions, awareness, and responses of children lives of children to ensure that the programs they design to ordinary and everyday activities in discerning clues to and implement nurture this particular dimension. the spiritual dimension of their lives. The work of Mc- Creery (1996) and the Children and Worldviews Project Recent Historical Contexts (Erricker et al. 1997) are typical of this latter approach.69 A number of factors have led to a growing interest in children’s spirituality. In England and Wales, concern Relational Consciousness for nurturing spirituality in education emanated from A major investigation in this area, which also took into the British Education Act of 1944 and has been rein- account the perceptions, awareness, and responses of forced more recently in various educational documents, children to ordinary and everyday activities, was David such as the National Curriculum Council’s Spiritual and Hay and Rebecca Nye’s project in the late 1990s, which Moral Development (1993), which stressed the need for resulted in their seminal work The Spirit of the Child schools to include spiritual education as an integral part (Hay with Nye 2006). Their investigationOnly noted that the of the curriculum. children who participated in their research exhibited high In the United States a focus on the spiritual dimension levels of consciousness and perceptiveness in their inter- in childhood has occurred through the notion of holistic view conversations. These were embedded in the con- development, wherein education is not just envisioned in text of how the children related to themselves, to other terms of a transmission of knowledge but is also inclu- people, to the world, and to the transcendent (God). They sive of other noncognitive dimensions of learning. Such coined the term “relational consciousness” to describe holistic learning is also understood to extend beyond the this quality of the children’s spirituality. classroom environment in an attempt to empower the Two particular features of these children’s relational spirituality of children (see Hart 2003). consciousness were of significance. First, it was possible In countries such as Australia and New Zealand, an toCopy identify for each child a personal “signature” that per- interest in spirituality has arisen more generally in terms tained to the way that child expressed her or his spiritual- of the well-being and resilience of children and young ity. This was referred to as the “signature phenomenon.” people. Factors such as youth suicide and drug and alco- Second, in their conversations, the children were able to hol abuse, combined with an escalation in delinquency, use both traditional religious language and implicit spiri- have negatively affected well-being. It has been demon- tual discourse to express their spirituality. The latter re- strated that a sense of connectedness with family and fers to dialogue which, although lacking clear traditional the wider community can act as a protective factor and religious or metaphysical terminology, nonetheless con- as a means by which to build resilience in young people tained sensitive, profound, and philosophical reflections (Eckersley 2005). concerning ultimate meaning and value.

Religious Language, Awareness, and Responses Ultimate Unity to Everyday Phenomena De Souza (2006) took the notion of relational conscious- Since the connection between religion and spirituality ness further, proposing the notion of Ultimate Unity. has traditionally been considered close,68 much of the Influenced by neurophysiological research, de Souza early research into children’s spirituality tended to as- proposed that at the deepest levels of connectedness, an sume that expressions of spirituality were dependent individual experiences more than just a conscious rela- upon the use of religious language and concepts: “God tionship with Other. She proposed that at the deepest talk.” This was largely the case with the valuable contri- levels of connectedness, an individual might experience butionsContributor of Elkind and Elkind (1962), Heller (1986), and becoming unified with the Other. That is, Self and Other Coles (1990) to this field. become one and the same. Mystics in both Christian and Eastern traditions have experienced this and have long

68. Although there is a close connection between religion and spiritual- ity, it should be noted that they are not synonymous. Spirituality refers 69. The work of Robinson (1977), although earlier than that of Mc- to the primal experiences of the individual or community, while religion Creery (1996) and Erricker et al. (1997), is also an example of this latter refers to the codified ways in which individuals and communities may give approach. While it involved adults reflecting retrospectively on their child- expression to their spirituality. For a detailed discussion see James (1977), hood experiences, it was not reliant on the use of religious language to O’Murchu (1997), Tacey (2000), and Ranson (2002). express the spiritual. 228 Children’s Bibles understood the unity said to exist between Self and the Coles, R. 1990. The Spiritual Life of Children. London: Harper- Divine (Davis 2006). De Souza prosed that spirituality Collins. involves a movement toward Ultimate Unity, which at Davis, O. 2006. God Within: The Mystical Tradition of Northern the deepest level entails Self becoming one with Other. Europe. London: Darton, Longman & Todd. However, one does not need to be a mystic to experience de Souza, M. 2006. “Rediscovering the Spiritual Dimension in Ultimate Unity. Ordinary people can and do experience Education: Promoting a Sense of Self and Place, Meaning such unity (see James 1977), and such experiences can be and Purpose in Learning.” In International Handbook of placed along a continuum on which at one extreme, an the Religious, Moral and Spiritual Dimensions in Education, individual experiences complete separation from Other, edited by M. de Souza, K. Engebretson, G. Durka, R. Jackson, and at the other, an individual’s sense of connectedness to and A. McGrady, 1127–1139. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Other is so great that she or he experiences becoming uni- Springer. fied with Other. Importantly, the research of Hyde (2008) Eckersley, R. 2005. Well and Good: Morality, Meaning and suggests that young children are also capable of experienc- Happiness. 2nd ed. Melbourne, VIC: Text Publishing. ing Ultimate Unity, albeit for short periods of time. Elkind, D., and S. Elkind. 1962. “Varieties of Religious Experi- ence in Young Adolescents.” Journal for the Scientific Study Characteristics of Children’s Spirituality of Religion 2: 102–112. In order to nurture spirituality in children, Christian Erricker, C., J. Erricker, D. Sullivan, OnlyC. Ota, and M. Fletcher. educators need to know how to recognize spirituality 1997. The Education of the Whole Child. London: Cassell. when children express it. A number of authors have Hart, T. 2003. The Secret Spiritual World of Children. Makawao, detailed possible characteristics of children’s spirituality, HI: Inner Ocean. including Hart (2003), who proposed the characteristics Hay, D., with R. Nye. 2006. The Spirit of the Child. rev. ed. Lon- of wisdom, wonder/awe, the relationship between one’s don: Jessica Kingsley. Self and Other, seeing the invisible, and wondering. Heller, D. 1986. The Children’s God. Chicago: University of Hyde (2008) proposed four characteristics of chil- Chicago Press. dren’s spirituality. The felt sense refers to children’s con- Hyde, B. 2008. Children and Spirituality: Searching for Meaning scious perception of bodily awareness and being able to and Connectedness. London: Jessica Kingsley. draw upon the wisdom of the body as a natural way of James,Copy W. 1977. The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study knowing. Integrating awareness refers to children’s ability in Human Nature. London: Fountain Books. to integrate a new emerging wave of consciousness with McCreery, E. 1996. Talking to young children about things an initial level of awareness, typically centered on the spiritual in Best R. (ed.) (1996) Education for Spiritual, felt sense. Weaving the threads of meaning refers to chil- Moral, Social and Cultural Development, 196–205. London: dren’s ability to draw upon their sense of wonder to make Continuum. meaning of events and to piece together a worldview National Curriculum Council. 1993. Spiritual and Moral Devel- based on their attempts at meaning-making. Spiritual opment: A Discussion Paper. York, UK: NCC. questing refers to children’s ability to seek and explore O’Murchu, D. 1997. Reclaiming Spirituality: A New Spiritual new and possibly more authentic ways of connecting Framework for Today’s World. Dublin: Gateway. with Self, others, the earth, and God. Ranson, D. 2002. Across the Great Divide: Bridging Spirituality and Religion. Strathfield, NSW: St. Paul’s. Growing Interest in Children’s Spirituality Robinson, E. 1977. The Original Vision: A Study of the Religious Although it is a relatively new field of investigation, inter- Experience of Childhood. Manchester College, Oxford: The est in children’s spirituality continues to grow. This is at- Religious Experience Research Unit. tested to by the International Journal of Children’s Spiri- Tacey, D. 2000. ReEnchantment: The New Australian Spiritu- tuality (published quarterly by Taylor & Francis), which alty. Sydney, NSW: HarperCollins. provides an international forum for those involved in re- Wills, R. 2012. “Beyond Relation: A Critical Exploration of search and development of children’s and young people’s ‘Relational Consciousness’ for Spiritual Education.” Interna- spirituality,Contributor and also by the International Conferences tional Journal of Children’s Spirituality 17 (1): 51–60. of Children’s Spirituality, the annual conferences of the —Brendan Hyde Association for Children’s Spirituality (which also has a growing membership). Children’s Bibles References and Resources Adams, K., B. Hyde, and R. Woolley. 2008. The Spiritual Di- Children’s Bibles fall into two main categories: a collec- mension of Childhood. London: Jessica Kingsley. tion of biblical stories and actual biblical text presented Children’s Church 229 in an easier to understand translation or paraphrase. The included along with the text; which Bible translation is New Century Version (NCV), Good News Translation, used; the addition of moral object lessons, and senti- and New International Version (NIV) are the most popu- mentalization, simplification, cultural assumptions, and lar among the latter. adaptations of textual intent. With the plethora of chil- A Bible for children is defined by ease and read- dren’s Bibles and Bible storybooks now on the market, ability of translation, pictures and other child-friendly one should choose with intelligent care, as publishers artwork, study aids, and lists that assist and encourage may be more influenced by commercial concerns than by the child in use and understanding. A children’s Bible faithfulness to the message. storybook is a collection of biblical stories paraphrased —Trevecca Okholm for child comprehension, often with great liberty taken in the paraphrasing. The Children’s Bible (Philadelphia, 1763; first pub- Children’s Church lished in London in 1759) was the earliest Bible for children printed in America; it consisted of a collection In the early part of the 20th century, a new model for of stories. Other well-known story Bibles are Christian children’s ministry came into being: a worship experi- Gottlob Barth’s Bible Stories, which became popular ence designed specifically to meet the needs of children. in India during the 1840s, and Logan Marshall’s The It was typically called “junior Onlychurch” in the early years Wonder Book of Bible Stories (published in the United and was developed to help children both understand and States by Qontro Classic Books in [1904]/2010). This practice worship. This new model of ministry was based version was beautifully illustrated with color plates and on an understanding of children’s developmental stages. woodcuts. Although the original has not been in print A cogent defense of this model has recently been articu- since 1925, it is still available in reproductions today. The lated by Ra McLaughlin (2011): “Many pastors’ sermons Bible Story, by Arthur Maxwell, was published by Pacific are further beyond the comprehension of children than Press Publishing (now in the 23rd ed./1980) from 1953 Elizabethan English is beyond adults. The arguments are to 1957, with narratives of 411 biblical stories told in a often complex and the vocabulary is often very difficult 10-volume hardcover series. These books were marketed for smaller children. . . .Worship isn’t worship if it isn’t in the United States for many years by placing the first understood.”Copy70 Paul made this point in 1 Corinthians 14 volume in doctors’ offices with postage prepaid postcards when he affirmed that teaching in a corporate meeting included for readers to order the set. Original stories were must be done for edification and that teaching in the based on the King James Version (KJV) and Revised church must be done in a tongue that is readily under- Standard Version (RSV) of the Bible, later editions used stood. Maximizing understanding is why the reform- the NIV. Originally in English, The Bible Story was later ers chose to conduct services in the vernacular rather translated into French and Spanish. than Latin, why the Bible was translated into English In 2007 Zondervan published The Jesus Storybook by Wycliffe and Tyndale, and why many churches use Bible, by Sally Lloyd-Jones. What makes this volume modern translations instead of the King James Version. unique among the plethora of story Bibles available is This same logic rightly applies to children’s ministries. If that in Lloyd-Jones’s book the individual Bible stories children can’t understand a service, it is not likely to help are woven together into the overarching story of God’s them very much. plan of redemption and salvation, offering a valuable Children’s church generally includes a much wider age meta-narrative quality for 21st-century readers in a post- span than Sunday school. The most common age divi- modern culture. sions offered are a preschool church and an elementary The most comprehensive analysis of Bibles for chil- church. Kindergartners may be placed in either group. dren to date is The Bible for Children: From the Age of These wide age ranges can be quite challenging for cur- Gutenberg to the Present, by Dr. Ruth B. Bottigheimer riculum writers and teachers. The developmental gap (1996). Dr. Bottigheimer traced the evolution of the between a child who just turned three and a five-year-old genre fromContributor the time it first emerged in Germany, with the is quite large, as is the gap between first graders and fifth invention of the printing press, to the late 20th century, graders. graphically demonstrating that Bible stories for children Models for the format of children’s church are typically teach far more than the Bible or biblical content. either entirely a large group experience or a large group When choosing a children’s Bible, one should consider teaching time followed by small group interactions and not only the artwork appeal and developmental level of the child, but also the integrity of the presentation vis- 70. Ra McLaughlin, Third Millennium Ministries, “Children’s Church,” à-vis the original biblical narrative; what sort of aids are http://thirdmill.org/answers/answer.asp/file/40071 (copyright 2011). 230 Children’s Devotional Literature reinforcement activities. A third fairly common model of their church. Marva Dawn (1997) indicates that there is to have children sit with their parents or other adults is research showing that children who are “trained in the during part of the adult worship before being dismissed practice of worship” are more “likely to participate as to children’s church. adults.”72 Catherine Stonehouse (1998) suggests several A number of trends have emerged in recent years. alternatives for accomplishing these objectives: “Some (1) Many churches no longer offer Sunday school or mid- churches include children in intergenerational worship week programs. Children’s church is their sole offering each Sunday. Still others have children . . . worship with for kids. Without Sunday school or midweek programs, adults for the first part of the service before going to chil- these churches generally view education rather than wor- dren’s worship. Whatever a church decides on children’s ship as the principal objective of children’s church. (2) A worship, children need to be included in some congrega- number of mega-churches (and smaller churches) write tional worship experiences throughout the year.”73 their own curricula. Prominent examples of curriculum that have been published for wider use are 252 Basics, References and Resources from Northpointe Community Church in Atlanta, and Dawn, Marva. 1997. Is It a Lost Cause? Having the Heart of God Promiseland, from Willow Creek Community Church in for the Church’s Children. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Chicago. (3) The format has become quite varied, moving Jutila, Craig. 2006. Children’s Ministry for the Twenty-first Cen- from Bible storytelling with some variety provided by ob- tury. Loveland, CO: Group. Only ject lessons, puppetry, etc. (which was fairly standard for McLaughlin, Ra. 2011. “Children’s Church.” Third Millen- many decades), to what has been described as “edutain- nium Ministries. http://thirdmill.org/answers/answer.asp/ ment.” Comedy, drama, game show type activities, self- file/40071. expressive art, and experiential activities are components Miller, Sue, and David Staal. 2004. Making Your Children’s of the most widely used curricula. (4) Increased emphasis Ministry the Best Hour of Every Kid’s Week. Grand Rapids, has been placed on family ministry, with some curricula MI: Zondervan. requiring that parents attend programming with their Ng, David, and Virginia Thomas. 1981. Children in the Wor- children. A reinforcement activity is often provided for shiping Community. Atlanta: GA: John Knox Press. parents to complete at home with their children. (5) With Stonehouse, Catherine. 1998. Joining Children on the Spiritual a decreasing pool of volunteers to staff children’s min- JourneyCopy. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. istries, many churches are hiring vocational children’s Wideman, Jim. 2003. Leading Children’s Ministry. Loveland, pastors or ministry directors. This trend follows the pat- CO: Group. tern of hiring youth pastors and ministry directors that —Keith Springer became common in the last three decades of the 20th century. (6) The children’s worship spaces, especially at mega-churches, are often designed with elaborate props Children’s Devotional Literature and sets. A significant number of churches have used professional designers, some of whom have worked for The invention of the printing press made possible the Disney World and other theme parks. creation of many new genres of books, including those Although they are a minority, a growing group of for children. The spread of Bibles in the vernacular and churches have decided to abandon children’s church the growing interest in the education of laypeople, linked and insist that children gain more by worshipping with to this technological innovation, led to the creation of a their parents in the adult service. In this regard, David range of literature aimed at inculcating Christian faith in Ng and Virginia Thomas (1981) suggest that the child children. The first recognizable such work was Martin will associate the adult worship service with “feelings Luther’s Passional of 1529, which combined excerpts of of warmth, acceptance, comfort, and love. . . . Without biblical texts with woodcuts aimed at communicating the knowing much of what is going on . . . . the child can basics of the faith. Since that time, children’s devotional still feel it is a good place to be and an action worthy of literature has expanded to include special Bibles, didactic trust.”71 MoreContributor important is that if children attend the poetry, songs, paraphrases of Bible stories, creative fic- adult service, they will have opportunities to observe and/ tion, and lives of saints (often with Foxe’s Book of Martyrs or participate in the sacraments, develop a sense of com- as a source or a model). The variety of literary genres, munity with all age groups in the congregation, and gain uses of graphic arts (and now audio and video, such as an understanding of the worship practices and traditions 72. Marva Dawn, Is It a Lost Cause? Having the Heart of God for the Church’s Children (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1997), 70, 71. 71. David Ng and Virginia Thomas, Children in the Worshiping Com- 73. Catherine Stonehouse, Joining Children on the Spiritual Journey munity (Atlanta, GA: John Knox Press, 1981), 37, 38. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1998), 40. Children’s Devotional Literature 231 in VeggieTales), and theological ideas makes defining by Nathaniel Hawthorne, as well as hundreds of less the category difficult, however. For example, “devotional famous works, joined the list of adventure novels by literature” in English has a wider meaning than the cor- Walter Scott and others popular among young readers, responding German Erbauungsliteratur, which often has fashioning for them imaginative worlds in which Chris- a more strongly emotional, pietistic coloring. Still, it is tian morality, at least as understood by the Victorians, possible to describe some works aimed at inculcating combined with a romantic view of the conflict between Christian faith in children. good and evil. Religious journalism, far more popular in the 19th century than now, often contained short Bibles and Bible Storybooks stories for children emphasizing family and faith. Given Heavily illustrated Bibles and synopses of biblical stories, the pervasive influence of Christianity prior to the 20th usually with a moralizing or spiritualizing interpretation, century, it is not always easy to distinguish between appeared in the first generation of the Reformation and religious and secular fiction aimed at children, and in became widespread in the 17th and 18th centuries (and some ways the distinction is meaningless or at least remain so today, especially with the advent of the Inter- anachronistic. Fictional works provide a way for readers net). Nicolas Fontane’s French history of the Bible (1670) to imagine the implications of Christian theology and influenced subsequent works in England and America as morality in their own lives. late as the mid-19th century. Bibles and books retelling More recent writers, such asOnly C. S. Lewis, Madeleine biblical stories aimed at children and low-literacy adults L’Engle, and J. R. R. Tolkien, have gained fame with (as well as whole families, by the mid-18th century) books that frame Christian teaching in the context of proliferated across Europe and the New World. Many fantasy. Such work has crossed over into the mainstream of these works practiced what Bottigheimer (1996) has culture, where its religious undertones may be obscured called “tipping the narrative balance” in order to reject in some respects. More explicitly didactic works by “God the smiter of the unrighteous and [draw] instead authors such as Max Lucado have been translated into on biblical imagery of God the protector, friend of the many languages and retain their popularity. pious.” In fashioning a Bible suitable for children, pub- Picture books, with or without words, have long played lishers and authors in some respects have sought to recast a role in the faith development of children. The pictures the Bible in the theological image of their own times. andCopy words often have a complex relationship, commu- Often biblical characters become moral exemplars, even nicating messages at multiple levels. The subtlety of the when their original portrayal in scripture is more com- visual art, combined with the words, can stimulate deeper plex or even troubling. Moralism poses a major problem reflections in children as well as in adults reading the in such works, in part because biblical teaching can easily books to them. be stripped of its complexity and richness in an effort to make difficult texts more accessible. Prayers, Hymns, and Poems The same is also true for liturgical works. Children have Catechisms had access to key prayers and songs from the beginning With his two catechisms, Luther initiated a process, that of the church. The simplicity of the “Our Father” and still continues, by which children memorize and recite major creeds, especially as they were often repeated, key theological ideas, often drawn from the great creeds would allow for their use by children. However, it is im- and confessions. As part of the confirmation process, portant also to acknowledge the long history of hymns, the catechism aims to simplify and clarify key biblical prayers, and religious poems written explicitly for chil- and theological ideas in order to prepare users for full dren, from Isaac Watts’s Divine Songs for Children (1715) participation in the church’s life. Accordingly, theories of to the present. Traditional hymnals often contain songs catechetical instruction, such as Isaac Watts’s Discourse aimed at children, and special religious songbooks for on the Way of Instruction by Catechisms (1730), insisted children, as well as increasingly digital media aimed at on the value of the documents for summarizing religion them, have proliferated. Simple tunes, accessible, often for children.Contributor moralizing lyrics, and frequent use of gestures and bodily movements make such songs easily memorable and fun Fiction ways of reinforcing values and beliefs in children. Early fiction for children often took the form of ad- aptation of adult materials such as Aesop’s Fables or Conclusion John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress. In the 19th century, The future of children’s devotional literature seems The Life of Our Lord by Charles Dickens (1846–1849), bright as old genres find new life in digital media as well Louisa May Alcott’s Little Women, and several novels as older print forms. The need to inculcate knowledge of, 232 Children’s Ministers and attachment to, Christianity in children remains com- represented in several denominations. The Religious pelling. The steady expansion of the Christian market(s) Education Association established the Association of Di- for books and digital media in many formats that foster rectors and Ministers of Religious Education, and in 1915 faith in a range of acceptable ways indicates continued Southwestern Baptist Seminary in Fort Worth, Texas, desire on the part of parents, educators, ministers, and founded the School of Religious Education. Early on churches to open to their children avenues of age-appro- the profession was dominated by men, but by 1926 both priate spiritual growth. Also increasingly important will sexes were equally represented. Also by 1926, churches be the role of Christian educators in creating and select- had hired 800 directors of religious education. ing theologically and developmentally appropriate treat- The profession experienced a decline between 1930 ments of the Bible and Christian theology that nurture and 1945. The Great Depression caused churches to cut faith in children. back on programming and staff positions. Schisms over theological positions and biblical interpretation began to References and Resources divide churches and denominations, and misunderstand- Bottigheimer, R. B. 1996. The Bible for Children: From the Age ing about the vocation itself persisted. of Gutenberg to the Present. New Haven, CT: Yale University Toward the end of World War II, with the uptick in the Press. U.S. economy, the role of the religious or Christian edu- Gold, P. S. 2004. Making the Bible Modern: Children’s Bibles cation professional was once againOnly in demand. With this and Jewish Education in Twentieth-Century America. Ithaca, new interest, denominations began to establish certifica- NY: Cornell University Press. tion standards for those entering the profession. Generally Khamis, K. 1994. The Best Christian Children’s Books, 1942– these church staff members were known by one of two 1992: A Bibliography of Books for Pre-School Through High titles, usually related to their level of education. First was School. Oswego, NY: Ephemeron. the director of Christian education or DCE, who generally Slive, D. J. 2012. Four Centuries of Religious Books for Children: had some postsecondary education but little theological or Exhibition of the Elizabeth Perkins Prothro Galleries. Dallas, professional training. Second was the minister of Christian TX: Bridwell Library, Perkins School of Theology. education. These educators were theologically trained, Vander Stichele, C., and H. S. Pyper, eds. 2012. Text, Image, some holding ordination in their denomination. Most and Otherness in Children’s Bibles: What Is in the Picture? were Copyemployed full time by their churches. Atlanta, GA: SBL. In the latter half of the 20th century, enrollment in —Samjung Kang-Hamilton training programs increased, and seminaries created various kinds of degree programs, such as the master of Christian education, the master of religious education. Children’s Ministers the master of arts in Christian education, and the master of divinity with a specialization in Christian education. With the founding of the Religious Education Association Professional organizations and conferences were created in the early 20th century came a movement to establish and well attended. During the 1960s and 1970s, large church religious education as a profession distinct from churches began to see the benefit of hiring age level spe- but related to theology and education. Both seminaries cialists to oversee the various age groups served by the and theological schools began to offer degree programs church. The concept of the children’s pastor or minister in religious education and open up professional schools to children was born. devoted to the discipline. This position, depending on the church, is generally In 1906, the Chair of Sunday School Pedagogy was highly administrative. The children’s pastor is respon- established at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary sible for the planning and execution of all the church’s in Louisville, Kentucky. There are records from 1907 ministries involving children, not just the Sunday school. of the first paid Sunday school superintendents in local According to the authors of Children Matter: churches. These people often lacked theological training Children’s Ministry is one of the most complex and time and sometimes even college training. This underscored Contributor consuming ministries in the congregation. The children’s the Religious Education Association’s concern for more minister works with children but is also the leader of a professionalism. These paid Sunday school superinten- large group of adult volunteers. Complicating the role is dents were sometimes seen more as promoters and orga- the need to communicate often and clearly with parents, nizers than as educators. Many churches hired them to some of whom y be demanding. Add to these responsibili- grow the Sunday school. ties the need to be an advocate for the Children’s Minis- The profession grew between 1910 and 1930. Directors try, a director of ministry, development and education, a of religious education, as they came to be called, were cheerleader for volunteers, a supervisor of custodial care Children’s Ministry 233

in the children’s area, a security watchdog, a facility de- Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- signer, an equipment procurer, an evaluator of resources, tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. and a representative of the church to the community.74 Stubblefield, Jerry M. 1993. The Effective Minister of Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. Also, some churches include in their job descriptions the —Ivy Beckwith pastoral care of children and their families. The education of the children’s pastor varies from situation to situation. Some churches require seminary Children’s Ministry training; others hire people with college degrees in education; and others hire their best children’s ministry Education, formal or informal, is one of the most im- volunteer, regardless of background or education. In the portant processes through which societies systematically new millennium, many seminaries, colleges, and Bible engage with and socialize children in the larger commu- colleges have begun to offer courses and both under- nity. Through the process of socialization, children learn graduate and graduate degree programs in children’s how to perform according to the norms and structures of ministry. Several mainline denominations continue to the society to which they belong. As creative and curious offer some kind of certification program for profes- creatures, children must be educated to become autono- sional church children’s ministry staff. mous beings; that is, beings who have developed cogni- The International Network for Children’s Ministry has Only tive and emotional faculties that will allow them to live been at the forefront of promoting church children’s min- their lives with intelligence, responsibility, and authen- istry. Founded in 1980, the organization is best known for ticity. Thus, when education focuses exclusively on the its yearly Children’s Pastors Conferences, at which close process of socialization, it dismisses the aim of educating to 5,000 children’s pastors engage in networking, inspira- children toward autonomy, responsibility, and agency. tion, and continuing education. Other organizations that From the perspective of Christian communities, chil- serve children’s pastors are Group Publishing and Orange dren’s ministry encompasses all the elements intended to ministries, which both offer a yearly conference for chil- engage children in the life of the community nurturing dren’s ministry workers. Many areas of the country have their spiritual life. Defining the vision a congregation holds children’s ministry networks, in which local children’s pas- regardingCopy children is very important in the process of tors meet monthly or quarterly for support and continuing shaping a comprehensive and effective ministry in which education. Some of these are sponsored by independent genuine love and care for children become visible through Sunday school curriculum publishers. words and deeds. The perception the congregation has Websites such as CMConnect and Kidology aim solely of children is fundamental to determining what kind of to serve the children’s ministry professional. Each offers ministry the church envisions: whether its emphasis is on message boards on which children’s pastors can com- a ministry with children or to children. As a vital dimen- municate with and ask questions of other people in the sion of the communal life, children’s ministry should not profession. Many high-profile children’s pastors write be limited to a set of activities or a program, nor should it blogs offering inspiration and support for other chil- be restricted to Sunday school hours. Attractiveness and dren’s pastors. entertainment-oriented styles of teaching should not be Many of the first children’s pastors were men, but now the elements that dictate what children’s ministry encom- the profession is dominated by women. passes. Accordingly, rather than delivering information Most likely, as long as churches can afford it, the role of and assuming children to be empty vessels ready to be the professional children’s pastor is here to stay. The days filled, contemporary emphasis in children’s ministry ought of Sunday school as the only children’s ministry program to recognize children as genuine members of the religious a church offers and of the volunteer Sunday school super- body, not mere recipients of ministry but active partici- 75 intendent or coordinator are long gone. pants in the life and mission of the congregation. Under- standing that children are a blessing from God is only the References and Resources first step in understanding that they deserve our attention, May, Scottie,Contributor Catherine Stonehouse, Linda Cannell, and affection, and guidance so that they can learn how to live Beth Posterski. 2005. Children Matter. Grand Rapids, MI: their lives as faithful disciples of Jesus Christ. Eerdmans. One of the tasks of the ministry with children is to offer them language and tools through which they can 74. Scottie May, Catherine Stonehouse, Linda Cannell, and Beth Poster- express their religious experience as they seek meaning ski, Children Matter (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005), 165. 75. Scottie May, Catherine Stonehouse, Linda Cannell, and Beth Poster- for their lives. From a socio-constructivist standpoint, ski, Children Matter (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005), 333. language is a primary form of interaction through which 234 Children’s Sermon a cultural group shares with its members the rich body ministers to exercise their ministry more effectively and of knowledge that exists in their sociocultural context. also fulfills its commitment to nurture one another and According to a postmodern understanding of children, grow spiritually as a dynamic body of Christ. they are active subjects, and like adults, engage in a Considering the previous assertions, the church shares process of interpretation, creation, and construction of a responsibility with parents and extended family to pro- meaning for their existence using the lenses of the cul- vide an environment in which children feel safe, engaged ture they are living in. For socio-constructivist theorists, and encouraged to witness to the Christian faith as full children’s meaning-making is socially constructed and participants in the worshipping community, as witnesses emerges out of their social interactions with others and of God’s love for the world. Children will be able to learn the environment in which they are inserted. Therefore, how to love God and one another, and to care for the the social interactions children have with teachers and environment, when they see the love and consideration other members of the church are necessary conditions to the community expresses toward them. Welcoming chil- construct knowledge based on dialogue, cooperation, and dren’s participation in worship, study, mission, fellow- different perspectives that promote and advance faith ship, service, and other aspects of the life of the church formation through conversations and cooperative experi- sends a clear message that their presence and contribu- ences. Through these exchanges, children learn about the tion are important and that they are fully embraced as symbols, history, values, and ethical and theological prin- active members of the community.Only Furthermore, when ciples cherished by the community. In this framework, adults act in this fashion, they are corresponding to the the teacher as a provocative partner and co-constructor way Jesus treated children: as paradigm of the realm of of knowledge has the responsibility to create learning God and as metaphors of entering into relationship with opportunities according to the emerging needs of the God. By welcoming children and giving them a place of children. Educators do so by observing and discerning if honor, Jesus challenged the cultural values and social and when children are able to advance in their learning conventions of His time, establishing a new paradigm of process. More specifically, in the context of children’s inclusion and commitment, which we should follow. ministry, the responsibility to spiritually nurture children by showing God’s love for them should be the goal of any References and Resources ministry concerned with how to genuinely welcome chil- Beckwith,Copy Ivy. 2004. Postmodern Children’s Ministry: Ministry to dren, care about their well-being, and advocate for those Children in the 21st Century. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. in situations of risk and social vulnerability. Cavalletti, Sofia. 1983. The Religious Potential of the Child. New In order for the educational process to be effective, it York: Paulist Press. is imperative that those involved with children’s minis- May, Scottie, et al. 2005. Children Matter: Celebrating Their try become familiar with the characteristics and needs Place in the Church, Family, and Community. Grand Rapids, of different age groups, with the purpose of providing MI: Eerdmans. children with an environment that is safe and inspiring Mercer, Joyce Ann. 2005. Welcoming Children: A Practical The- and that allows them to reach their full potential. Draw- ology of Childhood. St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press. ing insights from educational theorists and psychologists, Miller-McLemore, Bonnie J. 2003. Let the Children Come: Re- Christian educators can offer children a holistic approach imagining Childhood from a Christian Perspective. Families that takes into account their physical, emotional, devel- and Faith Series. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. opmental, and spiritual needs without dismissing how Vygotsky, L. S. 1978. Mind in Society: The Development of learning experiences are intrinsically connected to social Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard and cultural contexts. By fostering this kind of formation, University Press. educators open spaces for the transformative action of —Débora Junker the Spirit to transform each child in the likeness of Jesus Christ. In addition, this cross-fertilization among the the- oretical approaches can help children’s ministry leaders Children’s Sermon select the elementsContributor that best assist them in understanding the group while offering children meaningful opportuni- At least since the mid-20th century, churches have des- ties for engagement and spiritual formation. ignated a time during corporate worship when children Taking into consideration the knowledge and skills are invited to the front of the worship area to sit with necessary to those who work with children, the church one of the pastors to listen to a mini-sermon directed should be compelled to assist ministers and laypersons specifically at their level of understanding. This time has alike in their own formation before they begin their also been referred to as “Chat with Children,” “Children’s ministry with children. By doing this, the church enables Message,” and “A Time with Children.” Children’s Spirituality 235

Preaching to children is not new; as early as the 1800s them that church is a place to be embarrassed, to show publishers found a market for collections of children’s off, or not to be taken seriously; or failing to connect the sermons. Bringing the sermon down to the understand- children’s message to the thematic integrity of the order ing of children has taken place in one form or another as of worship, inviting liturgical fragmentation.78 long as children have been part of the church.76 David Ng, author of Children in the Worshiping Com- This practice, however, has taken on more significance munity (1981), advised: “Children’s sermons, if they are since the mid-20th century, when it became common done at all, must enable children and the entire congre- practice to offer Sunday school for children and youth gation to worship God and to respond to God’s Word in during adult worship. Calling children forward for a spe- gratitude and commitment.”79 cial time with the pastor was developed as an attempt to —Trevecca Okholm allow children to be more connected to the worshipping community before being dismissed from corporate wor- ship to attend Sunday school. Children’s Spirituality This time in worship can be a meaningful way to draw the congregation’s attention to the importance of Although children are born with an inherent capacity for children in their midst while speaking the truth of the spiritual awareness, too often adult caregivers provide little Christian faith to children on their level of understanding space or opportunity for this innateOnly desire to develop. In- and helping them to realize that they are valued members stead, well-meaning adults surround children with noise, of the church family.77 action, and entertainment that unintentionally discourage However, the danger in giving children’s messages or and hinder spiritual growth. Children’s spirituality devel- sermons during congregational worship is the temptation ops in quiet reflective space created with opportunities to use the children as entertainment for the adults by to wonder and reflect. It also develops with the modeled setting them up to make comments or give answers that behavior from significant adults in their lives. draw laughter from the adults. Sociologist Elise Boulding recognized the need chil- The children’s message demands thoughtful and prayer- dren have for solitude: “It is possible to drown children ful preparation in order to bring God’s Word to the chil- and adults in a constant flow of stimuli, forcing them to dren as well as to the congregation that will be overhearing spendCopy so much energy responding to the outside world the message. When object lessons are used, the speaker that the inward life and the creative imagination which should be careful to stay within a theological perspective flows from it become stunted or atrophied.” She called for the purpose of bringing the children into the presence for “enabled times of solitude,” even shared solitude of God while avoiding the temptation to moralize. within the home, so that children may have “a sense of Some creative thought from the minister or worship who and what they are, whence they came, [and] their committee can make room for more meaningful worship place in God’s world.”80 Homes where “silence is lived” for all. For example, a blessing could be added before become inviting and restorative, “allowing the spirit-illu- the children are dismissed. This could take the form of a mined intellect” to be developed and utilized creatively.81 congregational response of blessing the children before Spirituality is the process of growing the intrinsic they leave corporate worship and the children repeating capacity for self-transcendence, in which the self is a blessing over the congregation. Another meaningful embedded in something greater than the self, including model is for the children to remain where they are seated the sacred.82 and the children’s message to be directed at the children Children’s Christian spirituality has been defined and their parents together. as the child’s development of a conscious relationship Because there is great value in and a mandate for all with God, in Jesus Christ, through the indwelling of generations to participate in corporate worship, the the Spirit and within the context of a community of minister and worship committee should be intentional in their plans for incorporation and avoid pitfalls such as 78. Ibid. allowing the congregation to become spectators who are 79. David Ng, “Children’s Sermons,” in Concise Dictionary of Preaching, Contributor ed. Will Willimon and Richard Lischer (Louisville, KY: Westminster John being entertained by the children rather than participants Knox Press, 1995), 68. together in worship; sending children the message that 80. Elise Boulding, “Children and Solitude,” International Journal of they are expected to entertain the adults, thereby teaching Religious Education 43, no. 1 (1967): 7–9 and 36–67. 81. Scottie May et al., “Children’s Place in the New Forms of Church: An Exploratory Survey of these Forms’ Ministry with Children and Families,” in Understanding Children’s Spirituality: Theology, Research, and Practice, 76. Wilber Van Dyk, “Will All the Children Please Come Forward?” ed. Kevin Lawson (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2012), 238. Reformed Worship.org (June 1995). 82. Roehlkepartian et al., The Handbook of Spiritual Development in 77. Ibid. Childhood and Adolescence (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 5–6. 236 Chile and Christian Education faith that nurtures that relationship.83 Simply because More recent research and study on children’s spiritual children have an intrinsic capacity to know and worship development, primarily from a Christian perspective, has something or someone greater than the self does not been made available as a result of collaboration among mean that all spirituality and faith formation is Chris- the members of the Society for Children’s Spirituality, tian; therefore the Christian church and the Christian the International Association for Children’s Spirituality, family are charged, through scripture, with providing and The International Journal of Children’s Spirituality. an intentional structure for biblical spiritual formation Important dialog is taking place as a result of these as- in their children from an early age. A structure for quiet sociations, and much of it has been published and made reflection and wondering should be framed within the available to the public, including books such as Children’s biblical narrative, whereby children are led to find their Spirituality: Christian Perspectives, Research and Applica- story in God’s Story and their spiritual longing is ful- tions (Ratcliff 2004); Nurturing Children’s Spirituality: filled in the Christian narrative. Christian Perspectives and Best Practices (Allen 2008); It is also important to note that spirituality does not Children’s Spirituality (What It Is and Why It Matters) necessarily go hand in hand with faith development. In (Nye 2009); and Understanding Children’s Spirituality: mid-20th-century research on faith formation by James Theology, Research, and Practice (Lawson 2012). Fowler, he provided a systematic theory for faith develop- ment in humans; however, for Fowler the development of References and Resources Only faith has little to do with learning a particular content or Allen, Holly Catterton. 2008. Nurturing Children’s Spirituality: set of cognitive beliefs. And as James Loder of Princeton Christian Perspectives and Best Practices, Eugene, OR: Wipf pointed out, Fowler’s work is not about “stages of faith & Stock Publishing. in any biblical or theological sense.”84 Fowler sees faith as Lawson, Kevin. 2012. Understanding Children’s Spirituality: subjective, not objective, and describes faith as a dynamic, Theology, Research, and Practice, Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock evolving pattern of the ways in which our souls find and Publishing. make meanings in our lives.85 In other words, according Nye, Rebecca. 2009. Children’s Spirituality (What It Is and Why to Fowler, faith is a “universal quality of human meaning It Matters), London: Church House Publishing. making”86 that all human beings—regardless of their re- Ratcliff, Donald. 2004. Children’s Spirituality: Christian Per- ligions and including the self-proclaimed nonreligious— spectives,Copy Research and Applications , Eugene, OR: Wipf & are engaged in across throughout their lives.87 Stock Publishing. Much has been written on the subject of children’s —Trevecca Okholm spirituality, how it develops, and how it grows. Two pio- neers in this field of research and study are Dr. Robert Coles, who published much of his findings in The Spiri- Chile and Christian Education tual Life of Children (1999), and Sophia Cavalletti, who published, among other works, The Religious Potential Christianity arrived in Chile with the sword of the Span- of the Child (2nd ed. 1992). Two other leading studies in ish Conquest in the 16th century. Catholicism remained this area are Barbara Kimes Myers’s Young Children and almost the only denomination in Chile until it gained in- Spirituality (1997) and David Hay and Rebecca Nye’s dependence in 1810. Formal education was limited to the Spirit of the Child (2006). Both of these studies concen- male elite. At the popular level, the use of the catechism trated on secular educational settings in the attempt to in local parishes provided religious formation. In 1756, carve out a place in education for children’s spirituality to San Felipe University opened its doors to offer educa- be fostered without reference to religious faith. tion in theology and law to the elite. The new republic opened the gate to Protestant groups. Methodists and Presbyterians arrived early in the 19th century. At that time the government began implementing a systematic 83. Adapted from P. Sheldrake, “What Is Spirituality?” in Christian Spirituality, ed. K. J. Collins (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2000), 21–42, and programmatic educative agenda, opening schools and S. K. Morgenthaler, ed., Exploring Children’s Spiritual Formation: everywhere in the country under the concept of the state FoundationalContributor Issues (River Forest, IL: Pillars Press, 1999), 6. 84. James Loder, The Logic of the Spirit (San Francisco: Jossy-Bass, as educator. The University of Chile was born in 1842, 1998), 255. and with that the Catholic Church lost its exclusive role 85. James Fowler, Faithful Change: The Personal and Public Challenges in higher education. of Postmodern Life (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1996), 21. 86. James Fowler, “The Vocation of Faith Development Theory,” in The constitution of 1925 marked the separation of Stages of Faith and Religious Development, ed. James Fowler, Karl Ernst state and church. Today there is wide and guaranteed Nipkow, and Friedrich Schweitzer (New York: Crossroads, 1991), 22. 87. Gary Parrett and S. Steve Kang, Teaching the Faith, Forming the religious freedom. Almost 70 percent of the population Faithful (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009), 226. professes Catholicism. About 18 percent is Pentecostal. Chongshin University 237

Between 2 and 5 percent professes some historical Prot- only after the opening of treaty ports in China in 1842 estant denomination. that the missionaries could re-enter and preach in China. Christians have the freedom to educate people at all Christian education began in China as a tool for evange- levels of religious formation. The Catholic Church has lization, because the missionaries could not preach to the offered religious education almost from the beginning of Chinese people directly. According to the statistics from the colonial period. Among Protestants, Sunday schools the Review of the Time (1868), there were about 70 mis- have been the main method of Christian training at sion schools in a dozen cities on the Chinese Mainland popular levels. Protestant seminaries appeared in the and Hong Kong. 20th century. By 1900, there were thousands of missionaries in China from a great variety of missionary societies, from References and Resources different denominations (e.g., Presbyterian, Anglican- Aedo Richmond, Ruth. 2000. La educación privada en Chile: Episcopalian, Methodist, Wesleyan, Lutheran, Baptist, Un estudio histórico-analítico desde el período colonial hasta and the Christian and Missionary Alliance) and different 1990. Santiago, Chile: RIL. countries (e.g., Great Britain, Ireland and Scotland, Swit- Castro-Paredes, Moyra Marcela. 2012. “Política, educación y zerland, Portugal, Dutch, Norway, Netherland, Germany, territorio en Chile (1950–2010): De las acciones colectivas and the United States). But except for the training of a las acciones del mercado.” Educación y educadores 15: missionary helpers, the missionaryOnly societies did not have 97–114. a well-established educational policy. It was only after a Deiros, Pablo Alberto. 1992. Historia del cristianismo en long debate during the two general conferences of the America Latina. Buenos Aires: Fraternidad Teologica Lati- Protestant Missionaries of China (1877 and 1890, respec- noamericana. tively) that there was a consensus in support of Christian Hoover, Willis Collins, and Mario G. Hoover. 2000. History of education; hence the motto “Education for the sake of the Pentecostal Revival in Chile. Santiago, Chile: Imprenta evangelization.” Eben-Ezer. There were three main components in the curricula León León, Marco Antonio. 2010. “De la compulsión a la of mission schools: Bible/religious education, Chinese educación para el trabajo: Ocio, utilidad y productividad en studies, and Western studies. Bible/religious education el tránsito del Chile colonial al republicano (1750–1850).” hadCopy originally been the core and compulsory subject for Historia crítica 41 (2010): 160–183. Christian education. However, as time went on, the sub- Salinas Campos, Maximiliano A. 1987. Historia del pueblo de ject gradually lost its centrality; it was marginalized and Dios en Chile: La evolución del cristianismo desde la perspec- became an optional subject, especially after the registra- tiva de los pobres. Santiago, Chile: Rehue. tion of mission schools with the National government in —Nelson Morales the 1920s. The Chinese government’s regulation of 1925 stated clearly that curriculum of mission schools “should not include religious courses among the required sub- China and Christian Education jects.” After that religious courses were among the elec- tive courses in schools. Christianity came to China in four distinct periods. The When the Korean War broke out in 1950, the Commu- Nestorian missionary of Alopen came to China in the nist government imposed a major educational reform in early Tang dynasty, in AD 635, and the religion was China to dismantle all Christian education in the coun- banned in AD 845. The Mongolians brought Christian- try. The history of Christian education in China came to ity back again in the 13th century, yet it was gone after an abrupt end. the fall of Mongolian rule in AD 1368. The third period —Peter Tze Ming Ng was the arrival of Roman Catholic missionaries—Jesu- its, Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians—in the 15th and 16th centuries. The most famous of these mis- Chongshin University sionariesContributor were Matteo Ricci and Francis Xavier. Catholic missionaries were expelled in the early 18th century. Chongshin University is a major Korean Christian uni- Protestant Christianity came to China in the early 19th versity and seminary, with two locations in greater , century, with the arrival of Robert Morrison of the Lon- South Korea. Chongshin has historical roots in the Pres- don Missionary Society. Since the Qing government had byterian Church in Korea (Hapdong). The sponsoring de- already adopted a closed door policy, no foreign mis- nomination has more than 3 million members and 11,000 sionaries were allowed to enter China, and Morrison had local congregations. Founded in 1901 by the Korean Pres- to work in Macau and Canton as an interpreter. It was byterian General Assembly in Pyongyang, North Korea, 238 Christ and Culture

Chongshin was originally known as Pyongyang Chosun Summary of Christian Philosophy and Mission Jesus Presbyterian Seminary but was commonly called of Education Pyongyang Seminary. Samuel A. Moffatt, a Presbyterian Philosophy missionary from the United States, was the first president. Chongshin University and Seminary has defined its guid- The original course of study included two years of prepara- ing philosophy as developing and sharing Bible-centered tory courses followed by a three-year seminary. knowledge from the Reformed worldview, raising ser- During the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910–1945), vants of the Lord for His kingdom and the church under all students were required to bow to a Shinto shrine. the supervision of the Presbyterian Church in Korea To avoid this requirement, the seminary was closed in (Hapdong). The university’s mission statement identifies 1938. In 1948, the seminary was relocated to Seoul and the mission of the school as developing students to be reopened as Presbyterian Theological Seminary. The mature Christians, competent scholars, godly individu- seminary was renamed Chongshin University and Semi- als, zealous evangelists, and dedicated church leaders. nary in 1969. Chongshin has identified six objectives that undergird A four-year college was established in 1969, and the this mission: love of the Bible as the inerrant Word of seminary became an accredited graduate school in 1978. God, bearing the fruits of the Spirit under the sovereign The seminary and college became Chongshin University Lordship of Jesus Christ; pursuing academic excellence in 1995. The university has two campuses, located in in teaching; passionate witness Onlyof Jesus Christ across Seoul and Yangji. The main campus in Seoul is located in the world, transforming worldviews and culture with a Sadang-dong in two primary buildings, Shin-Kwan and Reformed perspective, and the exercise of pastoral lead- Chonghap-Kwan, with a combined floor space of over ership in the church. 22,800 square meters of educational space. Male and fe- male dormitories and a student center building comprise Mission the remaining building at the Sadang-dong campus. The purpose statement identifies the mission and objec- The Yangji campus is located approximately 60 km tives of the university. Intentionally evangelical in per- from Seoul and is used primarily for theological educa- spective, Chongshin is a major influence on the church tion. These facilities include dormitories for men and in Korea. Through training and equipping ministers and women, academic classrooms, and a library. universityCopy students, Chongshin impacts Korean society in a positive manner. Most Notable Academic Programs As a leading Christian liberal arts university in Korea, Chongshin’s history exhibits a continual expansion of its Chongshin brings a solid evangelical perspective to edu- degree programs, offering undergraduate to terminal de- cation as it trains and equips ministry leaders for Korea grees in several fields. The university became a four-year and the world. An active international program that seeks liberal arts university in 1967. It confers baccalaureate to train individuals from across the globe enhances the and postgraduate degrees (BA 1970; MA and ThM 1978; stature of the university. MDiv 1980; PhD 1987; and ThD 2000). At the under- graduate level Chongshin currently offers degrees in References and Resources eight areas: theology, Christian education, English edu- Chongshin University. 2013. “Chongshin University.” Ac- cation, social work, children’s studies, church music, his- cessed 1 April 2013. www.chongshin.ac.kr. tory education, and early childhood education. Graduate Presbyterian Churches of Korea. 2013. “World Council of degrees are awarded in the seminary and other graduate Churches.” Accessed 1 April 2013. www.oikomene.org. schools in theology: master of arts, master of music, and —Stephen K. McCord doctor of theology. In addition, there are separate schools for education, mission, biblical counseling, and social work. New additions to Chongshin’s offerings are ThM Christ and Culture and MA degrees in intercultural studies. South Korea’s Ministry ofContributor Education and Human Resources Develop- Since the publication of H. Richard Niebuhr’s Christ ment provides accreditation for Chongshin University and Culture in 1951, it has provided the classic five- and Seminary. point typology for the ways in which Christianity has In 1998, Chongshin Seminary received the highest rat- responded to a fundamental tension between the radical ing from the Council of University Education. In 2011, call of Christ and the inescapable reality that followers of the enrollment of full-time students in the undergraduate Christ live in cultures replete with a plurality of values, and graduate programs was listed as approximately 1,100 though in recent decades it has come under scrutiny. For and 1,800, respectively. each approach Niebuhr offers historical examples, bibli- Christ and Culture 239 cal sources, and—with the exception of his favored fifth Niebuhr, however, does not consider any of these types type—theological critique. to be “the Christian answer.” Instead, he opts for a “so- The first approach sets Christ against culture. Chris- cial existentialism” that accepts the fragmentary nature tians of this sort are radicals who call for uncompromis- of human knowledge and nonetheless proceeds to make ing loyalty to the Lordship and authority of Christ and for historically informed and culturally relative decisions in rejection of the rival claims of culture. Niebuhr points to the faith that “the world of culture . . . exists within the early Christians, Mennonites, and Tertullian as historical world of grace” (Niehbuhr 1951, 256). examples of this posture, and cites 1 John and Revela- Since the late 1980s, scholarly interest in critical en- tion as supporting biblical sources. In stark contrast, the gagement with Niebuhr’s typology, especially in the second approach advances a Christ of culture, an accom- light of postmodern culture, has steadily been gaining modating Christ whose truth and beauty are recognized momentum. This engagement can be traced back to though the values of culture. These liberals have historical John H. Yoder, an Anabaptist contemporary of Niebuhr, antecedents in the Gnostics and their writings, as well as who penned a critical review of Christ and Culture in in Abelard, Kant, and Schleiermacher, each of whom, 1958, though it remained unpublished until 1996, when Niebuhr suggests, sought to bring together Christian it appeared alongside related analysis and proposals ideals with those celebrated by the culture of their time from Glen Stassen and Diane Yeager. Others, including in a harmonious manner. These first two approaches Charles Scriven, Stanley Hauerwas,Only and Craig Carter, represent the polar opposite extremes of Niebuhr’s typol- have offered additional Anabaptist critiques. Scriven ogy, which can be synthesized in varying permutations, (1988) supports Niebuhr’s image of “transformation” as resulting in the three remaining approaches that more the proper relation of Christ and culture but questions closely describe the majority of Christians who live out how this transformation ought to be sought. He favors their faith in what he calls “the church of the center.” a “radical solidarity with Christ” approach wherein the As a synthesis, the third approach places Christ above church is the witness, and thus should function as an culture. Christ and culture are neither synonymous with alternative society and transformative example. Carter nor in opposition to each other. In this view, Christians (2007) maintains that Niebuhr’s five-point typology, are called to a dual, though unequal, allegiance, typi- depicted in Christ and Culture, served as an apt apology fied in Jesus’s instruction to “Render to Caesar what is forCopy Christendom as manifested in the cultural dominance Caesar’s and to God what is God’s.” These synthesists, of liberal Protestantism in the United States in the first exemplified by Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, half of the 20th century, to which neo-evangelicals and and Thomas Aquinas, construe culture as simultane- Catholics alike aspired. However, in an increasingly ously human and divine in origin and thus accept that more post-Christian West, Carter offers an alternative certain cultural claims and values are not only compat- post-Christendom typology in which he contrasts Chris- ible with Christianity, but vital to its discernment. Dual- tendom types—regarded as more docetic and coercive ists offer another alternative synthesis, which sees Christ in nature—with non-Christendom ones—presented as and culture in paradox. Like the radicals, proponents more Nicene in theology and noncoercive. of this approach observe a dichotomy that is operative, Critical engagement has also come from outside Ana- not only between church and society, but also within baptist quarters. Anglican Graham Ward challenges the human hearts and between a righteous God and sinful presupposition that “there is Christ and there is culture,” humanity. Niebuhr finds precedent for this as a Chris- suggesting that theology must be done in the light of the tian response in Marcion, Luther, and Kierkegaard, as fact that Jesus Christ was a God-Man whose humanity in well as in Paul’s epistles. the first-century Jewish-Palestinian culture cannot and Christ transforming culture is Niebhur’s favored should not be abstracted from his divinity. D. A. Carson approach. This conversionist type offers an optimistic (2012) utilizes a lens of biblical theology to suggest that synthesis of synthesist and dualist types, emphasizing each of Niebuhr’s options—save the scripturally indefen- God’s present reality in the here and now and thus sible accommodationist one—corresponds to each of the calling Contributorforth Christians to live into that fullness in the great turning points in biblical theology: Creation, Fall, world. The Gospel of John provides a biblical source for Israel, Jesus, Church, and Eschaton. Thus, instead of au- this type, with its conversion motif and its own partial thorizing Christians to choose a contextually appropriate translation of the Gospel into the terms of Hellenistic approach, Carson asserts that the Bible provides a com- culture. Though Calvin is mentioned briefly, Niebuhr’s prehensive and cohesive understanding within which great exemplar is Augustine, whose life, theology, and Niebuhr’s options are mere emphases. historical context testify to the transformation of per- Despite such criticism, Niebuhr’s model has had an sons and society writ large toward devotion to Christ. enduring impact, notably on both religious educators 240 Christian and Missionary Alliance and Christian Education and religious schools. Thomas Groome affirms Niebuhr’s Christian and Missionary Alliance penchant for the transforming model in pursuit of his di- and Christian Education alectical model, shared Christian praxis. Robert Pazmiño uses the classic typology to highlight the danger of evan- The Christian and Missionary Alliance (C&MA) is an gelical emphasis on piety leading to isolationism, naiveté evangelical denomination of more than 2,000 churches regarding the influence of culture, and neglect of Chris- that focus on church planting and missionary work tian culture-shaping responsibility. Religious educators both in North America and abroad. Its constituents aware of the pervasive influence of culture and media have a vested interest in evangelism and discipleship as will be inclined to ask a further question regarding the they educate Christians. It boasts having “approximately utility of cultural products and media in religious educa- 20,000 fellowships in 81 countries around the world with tion. Educational use of culturally developed media— nearly 5 million Christians calling themselves ‘Alliance’” book, film, song—is widely taken for granted. The use (C&MA n.d.). of cultural products such as popular movies, music, and television shows in religious formation, however, is more Historical Introduction and Christian Tradition controversial. Theologian Robert Johnson regards film— The Christian & Missionary Alliance received official a particular cultural product—as a resource for Christian church and denominational recognition in 1974. It had spirituality, and adapts Niebuhr’s model to develop his been active long before that; inOnly 1887 its founder, A. matrix of Christian responses, including avoidance, cau- B. Simpson, a Presbyterian minister, drew Christians tion, dialogue, appropriation, and divine encounter. together from a number of evangelical denominations Even without direct reference to Niebuhr, religious in- through an interdenominational missionary publica- stitutions of higher education bear marks of his influence tion that he had developed on the “deeper spiritual life in the strategies they have adopted for situating reason— for the support of an aggressive missionary ministry” a culturally constructed human capacity—in relation to (“Christian and Missionary Alliance” 2003, 410). That revelation as an authoritative source for the formational publication was The Word, the Work, and the World, and task. Particularly, many notable Christian liberal arts it was the model for the current periodical of the C&MA, institutions have utilized Niebuhr’s model in articulating Alliance Life (“Christian and Missionary Alliance” 1992, and practicing their commitments to the integration of 66). CopySimpson’s large readership resulted in a summer faith and learning, although leaving the precise nature of conference in Old Orchard, Maine in 1880 (“Christian this integration often unspecified or implied. and Missionary Alliance,” 410), inaugurating a series of missionary conventions. From these conventions sprang For Further Reading two separate organizations, The Christian Alliance (local Carson, D. A. 2012. Christ and Culture Revisited. Grand Rapids, branches) and The Missionary Alliance (mission-sending MI: Eerdmans. agency). Each intended to train and develop Christian Carter, Craig A. 2007. Rethinking Christ and Culture: A Post- workers for its expanding ministries both at home and Christendom Perspective. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press. abroad. In 1897, these organizations were combined to Groome, Thomas. 1999. Christian Religious Education. San form the Christian and Missionary Alliance (410). Francisco: Jossey-Bass. The Christian & Missionary Alliance makes its theo- Niebuhr, Helmut Richard. 1951. Christ and Culture. San Fran- logical home in the Wesleyan tradition, which began in cisco: Harper & Row. the mid-18th century as a result of the influence of the Pazmino, Robert. 2008. So What Makes Our Teaching Chris- Anglican clergyman John Wesley. The Second Great tian? Teaching in the Name, Spirit, and Power of Jesus. Eu- Awakening, toward the beginning of the 19th century, gene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishing. which came about partly from the influence of Wesley’s Scriven, Charles. 1988. The Transformation of Culture: Chris- theological perspective, also played an important role in tian Social Ethics After H. Richard Niebuhr. Scottsdale, AZ: the development of the Holiness movement, of which Herald Press. the C&MA is a part (Schmidt 1988, 813–829). This Stassen, GlenContributor Harold, Diane M. Yeager, John Howard Yoder, movement sought to emphasize a number of things that and Helmut Richard Niebuhr. 1996. Authentic Transforma- mainline churches at that point in history had not, such tion: A New Vision of Christ and Culture. Nashville, TN: as the gifts of the Holy Spirit, new forms of worship, Abingdon Press. sanctification, and a second work of grace that leads to Ward, Graham. 2005. Christ and Culture. Oxford: Wiley- perfection (Shattuck 2001b, 314). This broad theological Blackwell. and historical background laid the foundation for the —S. Steve Kang and Christopher James C&MA academically and educationally. Christian and Missionary Alliance and Christian Education 241

Academic Programs is a member of the Council for Christian Colleges and A. B. Simpson was an active figure in the development Universities (CCCU), which states as its mission: “To of Christian education. In 1882, he established the sec- advance the cause of Christ-centered higher education ond Bible college in North America (in New York City), and to help our institutions transform lives by faithfully The Missionary Training Institute (Shattuck 2001a, 69). relating scholarship and service to biblical truth” (Coun- Today this institution, founded to educate men and cil for Christian Colleges & Universities n.d.). Ambrose women for service, is known as Nyack College. The in- University College & Seminary is waiting accreditation stitution grew, and eventually graduate programs were with the CCCU. added through the Alliance Theological Seminary and The philosophical and educational mission that stands Graduate Schools. behind these colleges, universities, and graduate school Together these institutions offer more than 50 majors institutions carries an urgency to proclaim the Gospel and enroll more than 3,000 students (Nyack n.d.-a). Ny- of Jesus Christ to the farthest reaches of a spiritually ack’s mission statement declares that it is “a Christian lost world. A. B. Simpson drove home this emphasis as and Missionary Alliance educational institution, through a result of his theological framework, forged within the its undergraduate, graduate and seminary programs, Wesleyan/Holiness perspectives of the late 19th century. [that] pursues its historic mission of preparing men and He developed what was called “The Four-Fold Gos- women to ‘take the whole Gospel to the whole world’” pel” (Simpson 1925). This perspectiveOnly “emphasized the (Nyack n.d.-b). Nyack’s core values are “to exalt Jesus all-sufficiency of Christ for all of life: Christ as Savior, Christ and fulfill its mission by being: academically excel- Sanctifier, Healer, and Coming King” (“Christian and lent, globally engaged, intentionally diverse, personally Missionary Alliance” 1992, 67). “Strongly evangelical, transforming, and socially relevant” (Nyack n.d.-b). the Alliance believes in the inspiration and inerrancy In addition to this institution, the C&MA now has of the Bible, the atoning work of Christ, the reality of four other colleges in North America, which all have supernatural religious experience, sanctification, and the similar mission statements and values: Toccoa Falls Col- pre-millennial return of Jesus Christ” (“Christian & Mis- lege, Crown College, Simpson University, and Ambrose sionary Alliance” 2001, 156). University College & Seminary (Canada). Toccoa Falls From these foundations one can see the historical College, founded in 1907 and located in northeast Geor- backgroundCopy in action, for Simpson had a deep desire for gia, offers 29 majors and 38 minors (Toccoa Falls College Christians in any location to reengage with the impor- n.d.). Crown College, located west of Minneapolis, Min- tance of personal holiness as a means of advancing the nesota, was founded in 1916 as St. Paul Bible Institute Gospel of Jesus Christ. Genuine spiritual conversion is and now offers more than 30 majors (Crown College needed for personal spiritual growth and holiness (sanc- n.d.). Simpson University, founded in 1921 as the Simp- tification) to take effect and for believers to live lives of son Bible Institute in Seattle, Washington, was moved faithful obedience to God and in service to Him. This is to San Francisco in 1955 and renamed Simpson College. also true for the regional and local churches that make In 1989 it relocated to Redding, California, and was re- up the C&MA. The C&MA policy manual explicitly de- named Simpson University (Simpson University n.d.-a). scribes this as: It now offers 23 bachelor’s degree programs and several a process by which the Holy Spirit works through the master’s programs (Simpson University n.d.-b). Finally, inspired Scriptures, related materials, and Spirit-em- Ambrose University College & Seminary was originally powered believers to lead individuals to Christ, build founded as two separate schools (Canadian Bible Insti- them up in Christ, and equip them for effective lifelong tute in 1941 and Calgary Bible Institute in 1921) from ministry for Christ . . . . [This] disciple-making ministry two separate denominations (C&MA in Canada and The is purposely and intentionally designed to make healthy in Canada). These institutions disciples at every age level by teaching children, youth, went through various changes throughout the years, but and adults to obey everything God has commanded . . . . in 2007 they became a single entity, located in southwest [These disciples are to] reproduce themselves and whose Calgary (Ambrose University College & Seminary n.d.- lives reflect balance in winning the lost, building believ- Contributor ers, equipping workers, multiplying leaders, and sending a). Together they offer 19 undergraduate degrees and called-ones . . . . [Curriculum for this task] includes the 9 graduate programs (Ambrose University College & resources and experiences used in nurturing individu- Seminary n.d.-b). als to maturity in Christ. Curriculum must be biblically based, purposefully selected, and systematically taught Christian Philosophy and Educational Mission to address the spiritual growth issues of individuals at Each educational institution, in addition to its ministry every age level. (“Philosophy and Guidelines for Disciple- preparation degrees, now has a liberal arts emphasis and Making Ministries” 2011, A20–1, 2) 242 Christian Camps

Since its inception, the Christian and Missionary Al- ———. 2001b. “Holiness Movement.” In Encyclopedia of Ameri- liance has faithfully worked to follow the Great Com- can Religious History, edited by E. L. Queen, S. R. Prothero, mission mandate to make disciples of all nations: “All and G. H. Shattuck, 314–317. Boston: Proseworks. authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Simpson, A. B. 1925. The Four-Fold Gospel. Harrisburg, PA: Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing Christian Publications. them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Simpson University. n.d.-a. “About Simpson.” Accessed 10 Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have June 2013. http://simpsonu.edu/Pages/About/Simpson/ commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the History.htm. very end of the age” (Matt. 28:18–20, NIV). Simpson University. n.d.-b. “Academics.” Accessed 10 June 2013. http://simpsonu.edu/Pages/Academics/index.htm. References and Resources Toccoa Falls College. n.d. “About Toccoa Falls College.” Ac- Ambrose University College & Seminary. n.d.-a. “About Us.” cessed 10 June 2013. http://www.tfc.edu/about-tfc. Accessed 10 June 2013. https://ambrose.edu/content/our —Donald R. Shepson III -history. Ambrose University College & Seminary. n.d.-b. “Programs.” Accessed 10 June 2013. https://ambrose.edu/enrolment/ Christian Camps programs. “Christian and Missionary Alliance.” 1992. In An Encyclopedia Only Christian camps move participants from the comfortable of Religions in the United States, edited by W. B. Williamson, security of everyday life to a new environment, typi- 64–67. New York: Crossway Publishing. cally outdoors, in order to deepen their understanding “Christian & Missionary Alliance.” 2001. In Handbook of De- of God and further their spirituality. Although to “go nominations in the United States, 11th ed., edited by F. S. apart” from the world in order to grow closer to God is Mead and S. S. Hill, 156–157. Nashville, TN: Abington Press. an ancient and honored practice, current models of or- “Christian and Missionary Alliance.” 2003. In Encyclopedia ganized Christian camping originated in North America of American Religions, 7th ed., edited by J. G. Melton, 410. in the late 19th century. These early Christian camping Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. efforts grew out of the evangelistic camp meetings that The Christian & Missionary Alliance (C&MA). n.d. “About originatedCopy during the late 18th and early 19th centuries Us.” Accessed 5 June 2013. http://cmalliance.org/about/. on the American frontier. Like these revival meetings, Council for Christian Colleges & Universities. n.d. “About early Christian camping involved basic facilities such CCCU.” Accessed 7 June 2013. http://www.cccu.org/about. as wagons and makeshift tents, which enabled those of Crown College. n.d. “About Crown.” Accessed 10 June 2013. even the most limited economic means to participate. http://www.crown.edu/about/quick-facts/. Having evolved and spread throughout the world, evan- “Holiness Family.” 2003. In Encyclopedia of American Reli- gelical Christian camping is now more sophisticated and gions, 7th ed., edited by J. G. Melton, 79–82. Farmington organized internationally as an alliance of national and Hills, MI: Gale. regional associations under the auspices of Christian Holy Bible. 1995. New International Version. Nashville, TN: Camping International. Broadman & Holman. Camping provides a unique opportunity to develop Nyack. n.d.-a. “Nyack Facts.” Accessed 6 June 2013. http:// relational, transformational, and vocational dimensions nyack.edu/content/NyackFacts. of a more holistic spirituality. Jesus, the Living Word, Nyack. n.d.-b. “Who We Are.” Accessed 6 June 2013. http:// walked with His closest disciples for an extended period nyack.edu/content/WhoWeAre. of time and allowed them to learn experientially what it “Philosophy and Guidelines for Disciple-Making Ministries.” means to know God, to love one another, and to minister 2011. In Policy and Procedure Manual for Districts and the Gospel. Camping provides similar opportunity, albeit Churches (A20–1, 2). Unpublished manuscript, South At- over a shorter time, for today’s disciples to “walk” with lantic District. the Word in a more intense, comprehensive, and “round- Schmidt, J. M. 1988. “Holiness and Perfection.” In Encyclopedia the-clock” manner. Formative programs and experiences of the AmericanContributor Religious Experience, edited by C. H. Lippy can last for longer periods of time (usually a weekend or and P. W. Williams, II:813–829. New York: Charles Scrib- a week) than the typical once weekly, hourly meetings of ner’s Sons. most church educational programs. Extended, focused Shattuck, G. H. 2001a. “Bible Schools.” In Encyclopedia of periods such as these allow for learning experiences more American Religious History, edited by E. L. Queen, S. R. Pro- conducive to transformation. These experiences also thero, and G. H. Shattuck, 69–70. Boston: Proseworks. occur as a break from the normal flow of events, provid- Christian Education 243 ing a retreat from the stresses and distractions of every- atheists.”89 In fact, Soren Kierkegaard thought Christian day life. The context naturally provides learning experi- education was the main obstacle to Christian belief.90 ences that emulate the informal, but effective, teaching of What indictments! Consider, however, the unfortunate Jesus as He walked with His disciples. experience of Sergei Bulgakov. He was born into a fam- With the exception of solo camping, most organized ily of Russian Orthodox priests and attended a seminary camping allows Christians to practice the relational dy- to train for the same profession, where he experienced a namics of community living and experience the inter- loss of faith. He later returned to the church: “How did I dependence of living as the family of God. Although come to lose my faith? . . . It occurred when the poetry of practiced most frequently in age-segregated groups, with my childhood was squeezed out of my life by the prose of particular focus on youth, camps involving whole families seminary education. I realized that I could not be satisfied can introduce an intergenerational aspect through which with the apologetics of the textbooks. Instead of helping participants can experience the church as “extended fam- me, they further undermined my faith.”91 This is a trag- ily.” Activities designed to build a climate of trust, as well edy and obviously the opposite of what any educational as interdependence and commitment, can enhance the efforts in faith would desire. How can the church effec- individual and corporate spirituality of the Body of Christ. tively accomplish its goals? Formation occurring in the outdoor context provides a greater opportunity to “be at one” with God’s creation, The Goal of Christian EducationOnly thereby giving a deeper understanding of God as creator Thomas Groome (1999) defines Christian education as as well as a greater appreciation for His creation. This a political activity with pilgrims in time that deliberately context also provides occasion for reflection and discus- and intentionally attends with them to the activity of sion concerning the “earth-keeping” responsibilities that God in our present day, to the Story of the Christian faith Christians have as stewards. Beholding the beauty of community, and to the Vision of God’s Kingdom, the God’s creation in a camping context evokes a response seeds of which are already among us. What it means to be of awe, wonder, worship, and praise not experienced in Christian is that we are a people who affirm to find true most Western Christians’ daily, urban environments. destiny only by locating our lives within the story of God. And this “story of God” has both practical and tran- References and Resources scendentCopy dimensions. Hauerwas says: “The Church is but Graendorf, Werner, and Lloyd Mattson. 1984. An Introduction God’s gesture on behalf of the world to create a space and to Christian Camping. Chicago: Moody Press. time in which we might have a foretaste of the Kingdom. Mattson, Lloyd. 1998. Christian Camping Today. Wheaton, IL: It is through gestures that we learn the nature of the story H. Shaw Publishers. that is the very content and constitution of that Kingdom. Venable, Stephen, and Donald Joy. 1998. How to Use Christian The way we learn a story, after all, is not just by hearing Camping Experiences in Religious Education. Birmingham, it. It must be acted out.”92 Christian education, then, is AL: Religious Education Press. the training in those gestures through which we learn the —John Lillis story of God and God’s will for our lives. What does Christian education seek to accomplish? Simply put, transformation. Individual believers and Christian Education communities of faith are to be changed in thinking, doing, and feeling. First, those who grow in faith will Christian education is the church’s attempt to inculcate increasingly love and obey God rather than replacing faith in its adherents. Historian Jaroslav Pelikan suggests their worship and devotion with other things. Second, that “[t]he church is always more than a school, but the maturing disciples will love their neighbors as themselves. church cannot be less than a school.”88 So the church or- Compassion, forgiveness, and submission will be the rule chestrates its efforts to teach knowledge, habits, attitudes, rather than selfishness, bitterness, and pride. Third, they and beliefs; doing so though three intermingling means: will seek to honor God in all they do, including their jobs an informalContributor or socialization process, a formal or school- and the way they spend their time. Last, they will feel the ing endeavor, and informal or self-directed learning. But John Westerhoff warns: “Teaching religion is 89. John Westerhoff, Will Our Children Have Faith? rev. ed. (Harris- not very important”; at best, it only produces “educated burg, PA: Morehouse Publishing, 2000), 18. 90. Howard V. See and Edna H. Hong, The Essential Kierkegaard (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000). 91. Sergei Bulgakov, Father Sergius Bulgakov, 1871–1944: A Collection of 88. Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the De- Articles (London: Fellowship of St. Alban and St. Sergius, 1969). velopment of Doctrine, 5 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago press, 92. Stanley Hauerwas, “The Gesture of a Truthful Story,” Theology 1971–1989), 1. Today 42 (1985): 181–189. 244 Christian Education need and possess the ability to share their faith with those Second is a lack of theological reflection and honest around them in an honorable way. searching for God’s ways in the world. When church education does not introduce laypeople to methods Challenges to Educating Christians in the 21st Century of theological reflection on biblical and theological Despite the Reformation, which called for the text of texts, they are confined to their own opinions and scripture to be made available in the common language of interpretations. Theological naïveté is the result of laypeople, the Christian laity remains theologically uned- a lack of critical thinking rooted in and modeled ucated. Farley wonders why the vast majority of Christian by the educational practices of the church. Without believers remain largely unexposed to Christian learning: reflection, Christian education is mere activism. to historical-critical studies of the Bible; the content and Third is a tenet that the Christian life is a solitary jour- structure of the great doctrines; 2,000 years of classic ney, filled with personal decisions to be individually works on the Christian life; and basic disciplines of theol- negotiated, with a corresponding diminution of ogy, biblical languages, and Christian ethics.93 How is it the community of faith. In the context of religious possible one can attend or even teach Sunday school for community, education is our attempt to help one decades and at the end of that time lack the interpretative another understand this mystery (of God) in its skills of someone who has taken three or four weeks of an breadth and depth and its implications for ourselves introductory course in Bible at a university or seminary? and the world. Without community,Only Christian edu- Murphy calls Christian education “a discipline strug- cation is mere speculation. gling for legitimacy and respectability, a discipline whose Fourth is a flawed presumption that those who hear intellectual complacency and lack of critical awareness biblical truth will ipso facto make the leap of applica- have not only led to its marginalization in the academy tion and revise their thoughts, attitudes, and actions but also left it bankrupt of the necessary resources to toward virtuous ends. Creativity and innovation carry out the urgent task of forming and transforming the will mark effective teaching in the Christian realm, lives of Christians.”94 which engages the student in learning and stretches Theologians accuse Christian educators of not being faith by interacting with lived reality. Where pas- theologically informed; educators criticize theologians sivity embodies Christian education, words are the for neglecting the task of being educators. Theologians Copyprimary motif. Without action, Christian education wrongly assume that because one may know theology, is mere verbalism. one assuredly can teach it. Some churches are hindered by ministers who have little facility in or appreciation The Practice of Christian Education for the educational enterprise. Yet theology is as useless The content of Christian education is the story of God that without good education as Christian education is danger- the church is called to live by, and the task of Christian ous without informed theology (Groome 1999). education is to create conditions in which this story can Four obstacles may thwart efforts to fulfilling this mis- do its transformative work. Cannon describes this call to sion of Christian education:95 action in this way: “Engagement in spiritual practices leads to Christ-centered action through works of justice such First is disconnectedness between biblical truth and as service, discipleship and reconciliation. At the same the lives of believers. Education in faith must be at time, justice-oriented action also leads back to reflection the same time an investigative process that guides through spiritual practices such as silence, prayer and people in the exploration of our experience with study. The correlation between reflection and increased God; a critical process that liberates us from the social action is not linear . . . .The spiritual practices are re- patterns of thinking, feeling, valuing, and behaving cursive disciplines that simultaneously draw people closer that make it difficult for us to participate in this to the heart of God through reflection and action.”96 experience; and a caring process through which we Four practices are vital to effective Christian education graciously invite one another to enter freely and ever and nurturing faith: moreContributor deeply into this experience. Without meaning, Christian education is mere history. First, worship incubates faith. In corporate worship the lives of Christians are formed and transformed; 93. Edward Farley, “Can Church Education be Theological Education?” Christian identity is conferred and nurtured. Through Theology Today 42 (1985): 158–171. 94. Debra Murphy, Teaching That Transforms: Worship as the Heart of worship, Christians grasp their place in the cosmos. Christian Education (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2004), 22. 95. This material is adapted from Mark A. Lamport and Darrell Yoder, “Faithful Gestures: Rebooting the Educational Mission of the Church,” 96. Mae Elise Cannon, Just Spirituality: How Faith Practices Fuel Social Christian Education Journal (Spring 2006): 58–78. Action (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2013), 15. Christian Education Journals 245

Second, community makes faith operational. Involve- • British Journal of Religious Education (BJRE). 1934–. ment in a faith community describes believers’ posi- Previously Religion in Education and Learning for tion as co-learners in a mutual quest. Community Living, BJRE provides a UK-based ecumenical forum endemically binds us to others. Through commu- for school-based religious education, along with the nity, Christians grasp their position in the cosmos. complementary fields of values education, spiritual Third, reflection makes faith meaningful. It is this ex- education, and intercultural education.98 ercise that gives Christians perspective on the mean- • Christian Education Journal (CEJ). 1980–. Published ing of scripture and the world’s issues. Through by Talbot School of Theology in cooperation with theological reflection, Christians grasp God’s per- the National Association of Professors of Christian spective on the cosmos. Education (NAPCE), CEJ’s focus is “to strengthen Fourth, engagement makes faith come alive. Interac- the conception and practice of Christian education tion outside the church has the potential to test, in church and parachurch settings.”99 strengthen, correct, and even substantiate faith. • Christian Educators’ Journal (CEducatorsJ). 1961–. Through this interface with other cultures, philoso- Published by the Christian Educators Association phies, and faith traditions, Christians find opportu- (USA) with supporting institutions, to encourage nities to explain their faith and often identify weak- dialogue among “all educators committed to the idea nesses in thinking, such as the perennial human of Christian day school at the elementary, secondary 100 Only tendencies toward triumphalism and self-deception. and college levels.” Through outside interaction, Christians grasp pas- • Christian Higher Education: An International Jour- sion for mission in the cosmos. nal of Research, Theory, and Practice (CHE). 2002–. Sponsored by the International Association for the References and Resources Promotion of Christian Higher Education and oth- Carroll, Jackson, and Wade Clark Roof. 2002. Bridging Divided ers, CHE provides an interdisciplinary and interna- Worlds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. tional forum to focus on the study and practice of Dykstra, Craig. 1999. Growing in the Life of Faith: Education Christian higher education.101 and Christian Practices. Louisville, KY: Geneva Press. • Christian Teachers Journal (CTJ). 1992–. The ac- Foster, Charles. 1994. Educating Congregations. Nashville, TN: Copyademic journal of Christian Education National Abingdon Press. (which has arisen from the Christian-parent-con- Groome, Thomas. 1999. Christian Religious Education: Sharing trolled schools movement), in Australia, providing Our Story and Vision. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. “a forum for the exchange of ideas and practices to Nelson, C. Ellis. 1967. Where Faith Begins. Louisville, KY: advance the cause of Christ centred education.”102 Westminster John Knox Press. • Common Ground Journal (CGJ). 2002–. The online Wolfe, Alan. 2005. The Transformation of American Religion: journal of the CanDoSpirit Network (USA), from How We Actually Live Our Faith. Chicago: University of educational foundations, providing “a resource for Chicago Press. Christian congregations seeking to understand and —Mark A. Lamport faithfully live out their calling as the people of God in the world.”103 • ICCTE Journal (ICCTE). 2006–. An academic on- Christian Education Journals line forum of the U.S.-based International Christian Community for Teacher Education, exploring “the A hallmark of any developing discipline is robust written relationship between Christian belief, teacher educa- discussion and interaction among academics and prac- tion and related fields.”104 titioners, and this has been so in the field of Christian education. Academic journals have been published as Faith and Education: An Annotated List of Current Journals,” Journal of the discipline has developed, to share research, contem- Education and Christian Belief 17, no. 1 (2013). 98. http://www.retoday.org.uk/benefit/bjre (accessed 27 December porary thinking, and the challenges and opportunities of 2012). Contributor 99. http://journals.biola.edu/cej/about (accessed 20 December 2012). informed educational practice. 100. http://www.cejonline.com/about/ (accessed 11 March 2013). This list encompasses current (as of March 2013) 101. http://www.tandfonline.com/action/aboutThisJournal?show=aims English-language journals that address Christian educa- Scope&journalCode=uche20 (accessed 27 December 2012). tion issues in a reasonable proportion of their content.97 102. http://www.cen.edu.au/journal.aspx#3 (accessed 27 December 2012). 103. http://www.commongroundjournal.org/resources.html#mission (accessed 27 December 2012). 97. A more comprehensive annotated list of the current journals is 104. http://icctejournal.org/home/authors-guidelines (accessed 27 De- available in Allan G. Harkness, “Exploring the Interface between Christian cember 2012). 246 Christian Education Journals

• Journal of Beliefs and Values: Studies in Religion munities, academic disciplines and institutions, and and Education (JBV). 1965–. The journal of the As- public life and the global community.”109 sociation of University Lecturers in Religion and • Religious Education Journal of Australia (REJA). Education (UK), which “supports the community of 1985–. REJA is the academic forum for the Aus- academics in the United Kingdom researching and tralian Association for Religious Education, a pro- teaching at the interface of religion and education.”105 fessional body for those who teach RE and/or are • Journal of Christian Education (JCE). 1958­–. Pub- chaplains in Australian schools. lished by the Australian Christian Forum on Edu- • TEACH Journal of Christian Education (TEACH). cation (formerly the Australian Teachers Christian 2007–. From the School of Education, Avondale Fellowship), JCE’s purpose is “to consider the im- College of Higher Education (Seventh Day Ad- plications of the Christian faith for the entire field ventist), Australia, TEACH provides an academic of education,”106 although historically it has focused forum for Christians in formal education across the more on school-based educational issues. age spectrum. • Journal of Education and Christian Belief (JECB). 1968–. Initially Spectrum, and published by the A number of journals have ceased publication, includ- Association of Christian Teachers (UK), JECB is ing the following: cosponsored by the Kuyers Institute of Christian Only Teaching and Learning (Calvin College, U.S.). • AICEP Journal (AICEP). Early 1990s. Sponsored by It provides an international forum for “current the Association of Instructors of Christian Educa- educational thinking from a Christian perspective” tion in the Philippines, when AICEP actively con- (JECB byline). tributed to Asian Christian educational concerns. • Journal of Religious Education (JRE). 1952–. Spon- • Dialogue: A Catholic Journal of Education. 1966– sored by the Faculty of Religious Education, Aus- 1976. A progressive journal challenging cherished tralian Catholic University, JRE presents primarily educational perspectives, sponsored by a group of Roman Catholic perspectives on “the academic Roman Catholic academics in Victoria, Australia. exploration of the task of religious education in • International Journal of Education and Religion modern society.” 107 (IJE&R).Copy 2000–2003. Published in association with • Journal of Research on Christian Education (JRCE). the ecumenical and international Education and 1992–. Sponsored by the School of Education of the Ethos Network, after a short tenure this journal was Seventh Day Adventist Andrews University (U.S.), refocused as the Journal of Empirical Theology. JRCE “provides a vehicle for the scholarly interchange • International Journal of Religious Education (IJRE). of research findings relative to every level of Christian 1929–1961. A journal of the ecumenical National education”108—especially Protestant schools. Council of the Churches of Christ (U.S.) and Inter- • Panorama: The Intercultural Annual of Interdis- national Council of Religious Education. ciplinary Ethical and Religious Studies for Respon- • Research on Christian Higher Education (RCHE). sible Research. 1989–. Initiated by the International 1990s. A publication of the Council for Christian Seminar on Religious Education and Values and Colleges & Universities, United States. published in Germany, Panorama encourages inter- • Teaching with Compassion, Competence, Commit- national dialogue on the interface between religious ment. 2007–2010. A journal published by the School education and societal issues. of Education, Mount Vernon Nazarene University, • Religion and Education (R&E). 1973–. Originally United States. sponsored by the now-dissolved National Coun- cil on Religion and Public Education (U.S.), R&E Scope of the Journals explores the relationship between education and The journals reflect the diverse and somewhat amor- beliefs and values across a broad religious spectrum. phous scope of the endeavors that explore academically • ReligiousContributor Education (RE). 1906–. Under the auspices the interface between the Christian faith and theology of the Religious Education Association (U.S.), RE and educational issues—for which there is no one suffi- “offers an interfaith forum for exploring religious ciently inclusive term. The boundaries are fluid between identity, formation, and education in faith com- the contexts for education, Christian, and broader reli- gious and cultural perspectives, and “academic vis-à-vis 105. http://www.aulre.org.uk/ (accessed 2 January 2013). practical” concerns. 106. http://www.jce.org.au/about.php (accessed 15 December 2012). 107. http://www.acu.edu.au/about_acu/faculties,_institutes_and_cen tres/education/faculty_ publications/journal_of_religious_education (ac- cessed 27 December 2012). 109. www.tandfonline.com/action/aboutThisJournal?show=aimsScope 108. http://www.andrews.edu/jrce/index.html. Accessed 27 Dec. 2012. &journalCode=urea20 (accessed 27 December 2012). Christian Education Movement 247

The dominant content focus of the journals varies and Robert Jackson (BJRE); Perry Downs and Kevin considerably: Lawson (CEJ); Anna Hogg and Brian Hill (JCE); John Shortt, David Smith, and Trevor Cooling (JECB); and • Christian perspectives on the processes in formal Randolph Crump Miller, John Westerhoff III, and Jack educational institutions (schools, colleges, and uni- Seymour (RE). versities), especially in the public/state sector: JCE, JECB, TCCC, TEACH. Challenges and Opportunities • The processes of the specific Christian/religious ed- The journals play an undisputedly strategic role. How- ucation courses offered in schools—both public and ever, their viability is often tenuous, on several counts: church administered—and the chaplaincy services in schools: BJRE, REJA; also a complementary focus Quality and flow of articles: Sustainability is dependent for JCE and JECB. on a regular flow of publishable items. Generating • Education in Christian- and church-administered relevant thinking and writing (especially in public school/tertiary settings: CEducatorsJ, CHE, CTJ, education settings) is often deemed by educational ICCTE, JRCE, JRE, RCHE, TEACH. professionals to be “extracurricular” and so of lesser • Educational issues in confessional settings, repre- priority. Submissions—both unsolicited and com- sented mainly by Christian churches and organiza- missioned—are often not Onlysufficiently significant and tions, and more broadly: AICEP, CEJ, CGJ, IJRE, RE. journal-appropriate to justify publication. Journal • The interface among education, religion, and world issues may comprise papers from a conference or issues: JBV, Panorama, R&E. forum, but the quality may vary. Publishing schedules: Many of the CE/RE journals The content of these journals also overlaps with a struggle to maintain their publication schedules, due complementary range of journals addressing issues in usually to both a lack of suitable material and the theological education, children, youth, adult, and geron- sheer busyness of the part-time editors in their in- tological spirituality and ministry, as well as spirituality/ stitutions and as scholars in their field. The editorial spiritual formation. process is protracted when most manuscripts need The journals arise out of a broad spectrum of theologi- Copyto be revised following peer review. cal/religious traditions: Financial viability: Few of the CE/RE journals, as lim- ited circulation publications, are financially profit- • Protestant, especially evangelical and Reformed: able. Some are underwritten by their sponsoring AICEP, CEJ, CEducatorsJ, CGJ, CHE, CTJ, ICCTE, institutions/organizations and struggle to survive JCE, JECB, JRCE, RCHE, TCCC, TEACH. when that support is withdrawn. The production of • Ecumenical, primarily Protestant but may also in- other journals is contracted out to a commercial en- clude Roman Catholic: BJRE, IJRE, REJA. (RE draws tity (e.g., Taylor and Francis), which often results in on the Jewish tradition also.) subscription rates that deter individuals and institu- • Roman Catholic: Dialogue, JRE. tions, especially in majority world countries. • Nonsectarian and interreligious: JBV, Panorama, Internet: The global reach and accessibility of the In- R&E. ternet and international mergers will doubtless have a significant impact on the future of CE/RE journals, The journals usually draw a wider readership than although—as in other disciplines—amplifying the that represented by their sponsors/publishers. Most of challenge of scholarly quality. these journals, as academic publications, are also open —Allan Harkness to submissions that may not represent their theological/ religious tradition. With the exception of the short-lived AICEP, the jour- Christian Education Movement nals areContributor all from Western settings, reflecting the historical locus of the CE/RE academic discipline. The Christian education movement in North American Protestant churches was launched with a critique of the Editors theological assumptions made by the religious educa- The journals’ editors are usually acknowledged, com- tion movement, which had in turn sought to reform the petent scholars. The lists of former and current journal theological and pedagogical assumptions of the Sunday editors highlight key contributors in the CE/RE disci- school movement. The critique appeared in H. Shelton plines internationally, including scholars like John Hull Smith’s Faith and Nurture (1941), published as North 248 Christian Education Movement

American Protestant congregations coming out of the by many Protestant denominations to guide their ap- Great Depression were recognizing the seriousness of proaches to youth ministry. That objective was later ap- the political crises in Europe and Asia. The catalyst for propriated in the second document as the objective for all Smith’s critique was Harrison Elliott’s recently published Christian education. It created a theologically systematic Can Religious Education Be Christian (1940), a work framework for curriculum development and the training highlighting key religious education movement themes. of teachers and leaders: Through his doctoral studies in religious education at Yale, Smith had become familiar with those themes. The objective for Christian education is that all persons Further reading in the works of Reinhold Niebuhr, Karl be aware of God through his self-disclosure, especially Barth, and other neo-orthodox theologians, however, di- his redeeming love as revealed in Jesus Christ, and that rected his critique not to the pedagogical assumptions of they respond in faith and love—to the end that they may know who they are and what their human situa- the movement, but instead to its emphasis on the imma- tion means, grow as sons of God rooted in the Christian nence rather than the transcendence of God, the histori- community, live in the Spirit of God in every relation- cal Jesus rather than the Christ of faith, and the Kingdom ship, fulfill their common discipleship in the world and of God reenvisioned in democratic terms. abide in the Christian hope.110 After the publication of Faith and Nurture, Smith turned his attention to the study of historical and ethi- In The Church’s Education Ministry:Only A Curriculum cal issues. Several other academic Christian religious Plan (1965), produced by The Cooperative Curriculum educators, however, drew on his critique to articulate a Project of the National Council of Churches, academic new vision for the purposes and functions of Christian and professional Christian educators collaborated in religious education. That group included, among oth- developing an elaborate and comprehensive design for ers, Paul Vieth (1945), Randolph Crump Miller (1950), curriculum resources based on each phrase of this ob- James Smart (1954), G. Stanley Glen (1961), Campbell jective statement. The intent of the project was for each Wyckoff (1961), Sara Little (1961), and Lewis Sherrill participating denomination to produce its own resources, (1963). Miller highlighted the unifying principle of this thereby emphasizing at once their common objectives new movement when he identified theology as The Clue and their distinctive traditions, beliefs, and practices. to Christian Education (1950). A reinvigorated com- TheCopy articulation of a shared objective with program- mitment to the theological foundations of a Christian matic implications was timely. The shared cultural ethos religious education was at the same time also reshap- cultivated by the partnership of Sunday and public ing Roman Catholic discussions of Christian religious schools had collapsed as schools struggled to respond education, at first in Austria during the 1930s, in what to the increasing religious diversity they encountered became known as the kerygmatic movement, which then among their students and teachers and with judgments spread throughout Europe and into the United States and by the U.S. Supreme Court ruling out school-sponsored among North American evangelical Protestants, who in devotional practices. North American mainline Protes- a similar fashion were increasingly emphasizing biblical tant denominations were now faced with providing the scholarship and doctrinal sources in their understanding reinforcing structures for Christian education in their of religious education processes. congregations. This new curricular framework for the content of congregational teaching and learning conse- Mission quently functioned for denominational leaders as a new The distinguishing feature of the Christian education unifying principle to replace that which had been lost. movement was the attention it gave to the doctrinal impetus and framework of educational practice. Its advo- Method cates viewed Christian religious education as a theologi- Academic and professional Christian educators who cal discipline. Theology was its source; critical theological identified with the goals of the Christian education move- reflection on the life of faith was its end. Theological ment generally did not challenge or call into question ei- training wasContributor crucial for its teachers and leaders. Much ther the agency of the Sunday school or the pedagogical attention consequently was given by both academic practices associated with the discovery methodologies of and professional Christian educators to the objectives the religious education movement. Yet the movement and design of the educational mission of congregations. had two distinguishing pedagogical features. The first That work culminated in two documents produced ecumenically under the auspices of the National Coun- 110. “The Objective of Christian Education for Senior High Young People,” National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., quoted cil of Churches of Christ in the United States. The first in Robert L. Browning, Communicating the Faith with Junior Highs (Nash- established an explicitly theological objective, adopted ville, TN: Graded Press, 1968), 25. Christian Education Research 249 emphasized the teaching role of pastors as congrega- pendent publishers lost much of their theological rigor, tional theologians-in-residence. In the second, its leaders but not their theological focus. A second continuing increasingly refined and honed the discovery method- impact may be seen in the expanding ecumenical dia- ologies they had inherited in laboratory settings for the logue in conferences, publications, and academic degree training of volunteer teachers, which in turn became programs on Christian religious education as a form of models for their own practice in the Sunday school or practical theology. what they now increasingly called the church school. In —Charles Foster the newly organized United Church of Christ, the Meth- odist Church, the Episcopal Church, and several other denominations, Christian education leaders increasingly Christian Education Research drew on the training experience of the National Training Labs in Bethel, Maine, to deepen their understanding of For the first two and a half centuries following the the links between theological knowledge about God and founding of Harvard, Christian colleges dominated the the lived experience of teacher and student faith. At the landscape of academic research in what is now called the same time, they were drawing on the developmental the- United States of America. This occurred largely because ories of Erik Erikson, Robert J. Havighurst, David Elkind, 121 of the first 122 colleges established in the nation were and later James Fowler, to align expectations for learning Christian universities. During Onlythese 250 years academic with age group capacities. These two emphases focused research was, in some sense, almost by definition Chris- much attention on the communication of the gospel in tian education research. the learning environment, in books ranging from Ran- In the late 1800s, the forces of secularization began to dolph Crump Miller’s Language of God, to Reuel Howe’s affect many of America’s most prominent Christian uni- The Miracle of Dialogue, to David Hunter’s Christian versities. This trend had the gradual effect of diluting the Education as Engagement, to Robert Browning’s Com- quality of Christian education research. Concurrent with municating the Faith with Junior Highs. these trends was the fact that due largely to vast increases in taxation by the government to support public schools, Impact the percentage of elementary and secondary school The momentum of the Christian education movement, studentsCopy attending Christian schools decreased, from a however, was soon subverted. With the dissolution of majority of the nation’s students to a distinct minority. the partnership of the school of the church with the As a result, the portion of the nation’s students that con- public school, denominational agencies and congrega- stituted the population of Christian education students tions no longer had a supporting cultural ethos for slowly went from nearly all to a small minority of them. their Christian education efforts. Denominational re- Christian education research was energized in the structuring—prompted by church mergers, the desire early 1960s when, in a series of three decisions, the U.S. for managerial and fiscal efficiency, and the backlash of Supreme Court removed prayer and Bible readings from many church people against the role of clergy and de- the public schools. In the aftermath of these decisions, nominational agencies in the civil rights movement and juvenile crime soared, SAT scores plummeted for an their support of protests against the Vietnam War—cul- unprecedented 17 consecutive years, and many parents minated in the general dismantling of denominational and educators wondered whether the Court’s decisions agencies supporting and reinforcing local church edu- had had some unintended consequences (Jeynes 2010). cation. Despite strong Christian education faculties in As a result of the 1962–1963 Court decisions, Protes- many colleges and seminaries, support for theologically tants established private schools in record-breaking trained professional leadership in Christian education numbers, joining numerous Catholics, who already had in many mainline Protestant denominations declined. established a strong system of schools. James Coleman Some seminaries did not replace their Christian educa- (1988) arose as the leading academic to quantitatively tion faculty, and many colleges disbanded their aca- compare Christian schools and public schools and came demic programsContributor in the field. to the conclusion that Christian school students had Still, the Christian education movement has had an an advantage over their counterparts in public schools. impact—perhaps most notably in the area of curriculum Furthermore, he concluded that much of this advantage development. For a time denominational curriculum was due to a Christian school culture that existed at the resources engaged all age groups in explicitly robust faith-based schools. theological learning. With the collapse of volunteer A growing number of quantitative studies consistently teacher and leader training programs, resources pro- indicate that students at private religious schools out- duced by those same denominational and some inde- perform their counterparts in public schools, even when 250 Christian Education, Challenges to controlling for socioeconomic status, race, and other learn, no such formal evaluation is part of most informal relevant variables. A recent meta-analysis in the Peabody growth in faith. Whereas cognitive wherewithal is the Journal of Education indicates that this advantage for primary operating vehicle for formal school education, students at faith-based schools also extends to their coun- Christian education is primarily about nurturing faith terparts in public charter schools (Jeynes 2012). Quan- and spiritual virtues. titative research suggests a number of reasons for this An understanding of the most salient principles of advantage, most of which are consistent with Coleman’s human learning can only increase the chances of student original thesis (Bryk, Lee, and Holland 1993). These find- motivation and encourage students in their abilities: ings have helped generate a great deal of debate about (1) students cannot recall and apply knowledge unless the potential merits of school choice, which have been they practice retrieval and use; (2) better learning results argued in books and even in a White House symposium when teachers vary the conditions of learning; (3) when on urban education (Chubb and Moe 1990). learners integrate knowledge from both verbal and vi- sual representations, they can recall it and apply it with References and Resources greater ease; (4) prior knowledge or belief determines Bryk, A., V. Lee, and P. Holland. 1993. Catholic Schools and the what students will learn; (5) what instructors and learn- Common Good. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ers believe about knowledge acquisition (epistemology) Chubb, J. E., and T. M. Moe. 1990. Politics, Markets, and Amer- influences what will be learned; (6)Only experience is a poor ica’s Schools. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute. teacher, because corrective feedback is rare; (7) lectures Coleman, J. 1988. “Social Capital in the Creation of Human fail to promote understanding, because understanding Capital.” American Journal of Sociology 94: S95–S120. is an interpretive process in which students must be Jeynes, W. 2010. A Call for Character Education and Prayer in mentally involved; (8) remembering is a creative process the Schools. Westport, CT: Praeger. that influences what learners will and will not be able ———. 2012. “A Meta-analysis on the Effects and Contributions to recall and apply; (9) trying to cover large amounts of of Public, Public Charter, and Religious Schools on Student material and information reduces understanding and re- Outcomes.” Peabody Journal of Education 87 (3): 265–305. call; and (10) what learners do will determine what they —William Jeynes will learn, how well they can recall it, and the conditions underCopy which they can use it. What these principles should convey to Christian educators is that passivity must be Christian Education, Challenges to replaced by student engagement in thought and deed.

Any obstacle that diminishes or thwarts the truth of God Challenges Inside and Outside the Church from being integrated into the minds, hearts, and lives of Although deduced more than half a century ago, James Christians and the church is a challenge to the objectives Smart’s analysis of the rigor of educating in faith seems of Christian education. Some of these challenges are pro- just as applicable today.111 He warned that challenges voked from outside the church (e.g., secularism, plural- to Christian education arise, first, from the rigidity of ism); others (confoundingly!) are fueled from inside the tradition (in which tired and ineffective means continue church (e.g., misguided content and methods). Still other to sway theory and practice); second, from the preva- challenges are promulgated by individual Christians (e.g., lence of moralism (when Bible stories merely attempt defiant attitudes, unrelenting sin, nominal “Christian- weak moralistic drivel instead of firm conviction for ity”). What then are the unique and most critical chal- life change); third, from the imbalance of the burden (in lenges to educating Christians? which highly competitive forces in the lives of students compete with a focus on Christian education); fourth, Challenges by Individual Students from the inadequacy of time (due to a disproportion- The basic axiom of learning in any educational setting is ate number of occasions to address faith development); based on the students’ motivation and capability. A stu- fifth, from the subordination of priorities (implied by the dent may Contributorbe willing but not able. A student may be able degree to which churches emphasize meaningful learn- but not willing. And of course a student may be neither ing for students); sixth, from the quality of programs willing nor able. If students are both willing and able, (exhibited by the inferior training of the teachers and learning will be muted. haphazard investment in educational resources); sev- Questions about motivation and capability for being educated in Christianity are not often considered with 111. James Smart, The Teaching Ministry of the Church: An Examination perspicuity. Whereas rewards through high grades or of the Basic Principles of Christian Education (Philadelphia: Westminster awards may drive a student in formal school settings to Press, 1954). Christian Education, Fundamental Questions of 251 enth, from the timidity of curriculum (in which defini- Teaching experiences of the Bible with students, then, tive postures are explicitly taken on relevant ethical is- observes a sensible approach that elicits learning. First, sues as a concession to postmodern ambiguity); eighth, teachers should creatively “hook” students: capture the from the fragmentation of revelation (demonstrated by personal interest and motivate continued participation the lack of meta-narrative Christians have on the over- in what is intended. The teacher knows the importance arching story and mission of God); and ninth, from the of what is to be taught; the students don’t—yet. The confusion of purpose (demonstrated by the lack of cohe- hook gets their attention, sets goals, and is a natural sion in program design and lack of measurable results link to Bible study. Second, teachers should introduce from Christian education initiatives). the “book.” This is the biblical perspective on the topic The challenge of educating in faith also creeps in from at hand. The book clarifies the meaning of the passage, outside the church. Perhaps the most incipient danger helps students understand it. The goals here are infor- is the secularizing effects alluring postmodern men and mation and meaning. Third, teachers provide a “look” women away from absolute truth. When Christians at how the relevant life situation of the student can be are not instructed how to properly interpret and apply integrated with the book. This look provides the meaning scripture, the prevailing result is experiential feelings and for living now; it guides individuals to provide implica- cultural drift as the operative hermeneutic. When the tions. Fourth, teachers anticipate a “took”; that is, what church cowers to a democratic method of personal choice can be taken from this study forOnly their lives. This personal about lifestyle that is not inclusive of the faith commu- application helps students pinpoint how they could and nity’s power of discipline, the unfortunate consequence would respond. The challenges of Christian education is an individualistic faith based on a mixture of religion, are many. As teachers pray for the guidance of the Holy fate, homespun clichés, and the reduction of God to a Spirit, engage in proven educational teaching and learn- negotiated benevolent friend (and servant). The church ing practices, and know the needs of their students, effec- and its revealed and authoritative teachings must remain tive Christians are more likely to be the result. countercultural to be vigilant and compassionately and courageously speak the values of a God who is sovereign. References and Resources Groome, Thomas H. 2011. Will There Be Faith? A New Vision Meeting the Challenges of Christian Education Copyfor Educating and Growing Disciples . San Francisco: Harper- Consider these words from Colossians 1:9–12: One Publishers. Roberts, Carlos C. 2009. Christian Education Teaching Meth- For this cause we also, since the day we heard it, do not ods—From Modern to Postmodern: Teaching the Faith to cease to pray for you, and to desire that ye might be filled Post-Moderns. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. with the knowledge of his will in all wisdom and spiritual Wilson, Douglas. 1996. Repairing the Ruins: The Classical and understanding; That ye might walk worthy of the Lord Christian Challenge to Modern Education. Moscow, ID: unto all pleasing, being fruitful in every good work, and Canon Press. increasing in the knowledge of God; Strengthened with all might, according to his glorious power, unto all patience —Mark A. Lamport and longsuffering with joyfulness; Giving thanks unto the Father, which hath made us meet to be partakers of the inheritance of the saints in light. Christian Education, Fundamental Questions of Observe the purposes of reading scripture herein. The starting point is to be filled with the knowledge of The enterprise of Christian education, as it exists in God’s wisdom (v. 9). The purpose of this is not to ac- churches and parachurch organizations, has tradition- quire knowledge merely in a passive, fact-accumulating ally been long on methods and innovations and rather way, but to incorporate these biblical truths in our lives. more limited on thinking with intention about its The point is that Christians should live rightly; that is, purposes, principles, and philosophies of educating in walk worthyContributor of the Lord (v. 10). As the truth confronts Christian-specific ways. The educational mission of the Christians, this requires a response to the challenges from church is to be accomplished with redoubtable effect scripture (v. 10); that is, obedient action to conform. in all geographical locations, in all sociopolitical envi- The result of this obedience is to “produce fruit” (v. 11), ronments, through all the Christian centuries, and in which enables Christians to reduce nonconformity to all developmental life stages. While Jesus emphatically the nature of God within and to know God better: not to commanded the church to teach all the things He did know more about God, but to know God and be changed (Matt. 28:19–20), He was not particularly specific about or educated in God’s intentions and story (v. 12). how this was to be accomplished. 252 Christian Education, Greek Precursors to and Influences on

The Teaching Conceptions of Jesus ing Christian education theory so that it will be both Jesus is known even by those of non-Christian religions worthy and communicable is to be found in recognizing as a “master teacher,” no doubt because His influence has and using the gospel of God’s redeeming activity in Jesus continued uninterrupted through 20 centuries and be- Christ as its guiding principle.”114 Evidently a Christocen- cause one-third of the world’s population claims Christi- tric approach will steer both the content and methods. anity. In His day, He was called rabbi by both those who Over several decades, Wyckoff refined fundamental were supportive and those who were combative. So what categories or questions that should be addressed in order may be gleaned from the teaching ministry of Jesus about to design a comprehensive plan for Christian education:115 the content and methods that inform Christian education in our 21st-century, postmodern context? 1. What purposes is it intended to achieve? Certainly there are clues from Jesus’s own content and 2. Who is necessarily involved in the educational methods. He spoke much of the kingdom of God and dis- transaction? tinctive ethics introduced in the Sermon on the Mount. 3. With what knowledge and experiences is it con- And Jesus used a variety of teaching methods, most often cerned? stories and parables. Madeline L’Engle quips that Jesus 4. By what essential processes is it to seek to achieve was God who told stories. More often than not, these sto- its ends? ries came in the form of parables. Parables are common 5. What are its duration, it sequences,Only and its rhythms images used in uncommon ways to tease learners into likely to be? new ways of seeing and being in the world. They work 6. What is its characteristic timbre, its sound and feel? on a strategic pattern of orientation, disorientation, and 7. In what setting or settings may it best take place? reorientation. He also taught by aphorism—a subversive 8. What institutional forms are necessary? saying wearing the disguise of a proverb; it attempts to challenge, even undermine, the hearer’s perspective (e.g., While a variety of reasonable answers may be argued Luke 14:11; Mark 8:35, 10:25). for each of these questions, which may vary from culture Remarkably, the Bible Jesus knew—the Old Testa- to culture and generation to generation, responses that ment—had stories in it, but Jesus did not tell them. His embrace an educational outlook exposing students to stories were distinctly different and often left hearers (and relevantCopy biblical knowledge in tandem with application later, readers) uncertain about their meaning.112 In addi- to life and engagement with God’s mission to the world tion, Jesus had no materials, no meeting space, and no may be viable strategies in the overarching task of grow- schedule. His curriculum, therefore, seemed rather hap- ing faith in Christians. hazard and spontaneous, without discernible scope and sequence. However, Jesus’s teaching was relational and References and Resources reality-oriented, authoritative and effective, loving and Browning, Don. 1995. Fundamental Practical Theology. Phila- affirming, creative and engaging. So how can Christian delphia: Fortress Press. educators make the leap from the teaching conceptions of Osmer, Richard R. 2008. Practical Theology: An Introduction. Jesus to contemporary attempts at teaching and learning? Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Veling, Terry A. 2005. Practical Theology: On Earth as It Is in Eight Foundational Categories Heaven. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. How does one start to conceptualize the foundational —Mark A. Lamport ideas of educating Christians? To what extent do churches and parachurch organizations have a plan that details both the content and the process? Christian Education, D. Campbell Wyckoff appropriately asserts: “The ulti- Greek Precursors to and Influences on mate test of any program of Christian education is this: Is it a true and appropriate way for the church of Jesus Paidia, Greek for education, was a concern of Greek cul- Christ to carryContributor on its educational work?”113 Further, he ture throughout its long history. Education was directly adds, as a crucible for a properly located launching point: “It appears, then, that the most promising clue to orient- 114. D. Campbell Wyckoff, The Gospel and Christian Education: A Theory of Christian Education for Our Times (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1959), 98. 112. I am indebted to Charles F. Melchert for stirring my thoughts here; 115. Ibid., 23. The original “six questions” articulated underwent see his Wise Teaching: Biblical Wisdom and Educational Ministry (London: modification over the course of his career and morphed near the end Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 1998). of Wyckoff’s writings into eight. Thomas Groome, who acknowledges a 113. D. Campbell Wyckoff, “Theology and Education in the Twenti- “resonance” between his own position and Wyckoff’s, used Wyckoff’s six eth Century,” Christian Education Journal (Spring 1995): 12–26. Noted foundational questions as an organizational framework for his own book; Christian educator Kendig Brubaker Cully called D. Campbell Wyckoff the see Groome, Christian Religious Education: Sharing Our Story and Vision “architect of education.” (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1980), 151, n36. Christian Education, Greek Precursors to and Influences on 253 tied to the social structures of each period of Greek history. between 470 and 370 BC, paralleling a time of economic Stated simply, a good man was a good citizen requiring a and commercial expansion. Sophists taught the art of good education to acculturate to the Greek way of life. rhetoric and dialectics simply as skills for personal, politi- Greek education has a long history of development and cal, and economic gain; for example, oratory skills could has had a profound impact on its neighboring cultures, win an argument or influence a judge in a legal case. including education. Its nine centuries of development Finally, the Hellenistic period (fourth–first centu- can be summarized in three periods. Early Greek educa- ries BC) was advanced by the conquests of Alexander tion (eighth–sixth centuries BC) coincides with the rise the Great, not only expanding Greece’s geographical of the city-states and is characterized by the writings of reach, but also expanding and integrating Greek culture Homer. His Iliad and Odyssey became the foundational and learning throughout the eastern Mediterranean, a textbooks of Greek education, introducing children to process known as Hellenism. When Rome encountered the heroic images of Achilles and Odysseus as models the superior Greek culture, the latter heavily influ- of civic virtue and heroism. For this reason Plato would enced the direction of Rome’s cultural development, later call Homer “the educator of Greek” (Marrou 1956, resulting in the rise of the Greco-Roman educational 9). During his period, education was principally the work tradition. During the Hellenistic era, education became of the family, and possibly a pedagogos, a slave or servant more structured and formalized. It advanced from a dedicated to tutoring the children of a nobleman’s fam- two-tiered system (elementaryOnly and higher education) ily. The pedagogos became a permanent feature of Greek to a three-tiered system of elementary, secondary, and education, and later of Roman education as well, particu- higher education; for example, it developed into three larly for preschool-aged children. levels of grammar instruction: Gramatist (elementary), Classical education (sixth–fourth centuries BC) was Grammaticus (secondary), and Rhetor (higher educa- marked by the rise of a dual educational tradition: Ath- tion). Greek education essentially ended at the end of ens focused on the liberal arts and sciences, while Sparta the first century, when a distinctively Roman, Latin- focused on military academies. While Sparta’s approach based education supplanted it. Table C.1 illustrates the to education resembled a boot camp, the Athenian tradi- principal structure of Greek education. tion had a broader impact on culture and a lasting influ- How did Greek education influence Christianity and ence on the Western world. In Athens, education became ChristianCopy education? The culture of Greece is reflected in more formalized than during the Homeric period, with virtually every page of the New Testament, including the the introduction of schools. They were voluntary and language in which it is written. Romans 1:14 reflects the only for those who could afford the tuition, but they were typical educational divisions of the day. The terminology among the first attempts to establish formal instruction used by its authors is borrowed from Greek education; for outside the familial context within Western society. Three example, paidia (Heb. 12:5; Eph. 6:4) and gymnasia (1 Tim. principal elementary schools developed, each centered on 4:8; Pet. 2:14). Similarly, Paul employs a familiar educa- a teacher and subject. The Grammatist taught reading, tional term, pedagogue, metaphorically to describe the Law writing, and letters. The Kitharistes taught music, poetry, (Gal. 3:24; 1 Cor. 4:15). 1 Corinthians 1:20 and 2:8 reflect and literature. The Paedeotribe taught physical education, the higher education traditions, including the Greek em- gymnastics, and athletics. In addition to these three forms phasis on “the wise.” Paul directly encountered the Athe- of elementary school, the classical Greek culture developed nian intelligencia, the Epicurean and Stoic philosophers, two tiers of instruction, corresponding to elementary and in Acts 17:16–34, which assessed him as a “babbler,” an higher education. In Greek education, the highest form unlearned man. Christianity not only encountered Greek of learning was philosophy, as exemplified by Socrates’s culture, but it indeed influenced early Christian thought critique of the Sophists, and later the writings of Plato and and practice, including the influence of Stoic thought on Aristotle. At the same time, the Sophists became popular Paul, and later of Platonic thought on St. Augustine.

TABLE C.1 ContributorThe Structure of Greek Education Early Greek Education Classical Education Hellenistic Education Education in the home via parents Home instruction via parents and pedagogos Home instruction via parents and pedagogos and pedagogos Elementary education: three schools: grammar, Elementary education: grammar, music, and music, and physical education physical education Higher education (e.g., Sophists, philosophers) Secondary education (outgrowth of Plato’s Academy) Higher education (e.g., philosophy, rhetoric, and medicine) 254 Christian Education, Jewish Precursors to and Influences on

References and Resources pedagogical purposes. Each of Jesus’s methods of teach- Barrow, Robin. 1976. Greek and Roman Education. London: ing (e.g., puns, proverbs, parables, hyperbole, poetry, Bristol Classical Press. simile, riddles, etc.) has precedents in the Old Testa- Clarke, M. L. 1971. Higher Education in the Ancient World. ment. Likewise, Jesus’s final earthly meal (observed as a London: Routledge and Kegan Publishing. Passover meal and the pattern for the ensuing Christian Estep, James. 2005. “Philosophers, Scribes, Rhetors . . . and observance of the Lord’s Supper or Communion) can be Paul? The Educational Background of the New Testament.” said to have been instituted with an educational purpose. Christian Education Journal, Series 3, 2 (1): 30–47. Rising out of Deuteronomy 6, Jewish education em- Hibler, Richard W. 1988. Life and Learning in Ancient Athens. phasized children and was practical in nature as well as New York: University Press of America. didactic and developmental. Josephus, in Against Apion Jaeger, Werner. 1945. Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture. 3 2:18, and according to Sayings of the Fathers (v. 24), vols. New York: Oxford University Press. Judah, son of Tema, both described Jewish education Marrou, H. I. 1956. A History of Education in Antiquity. New as starting with children at an early age and progressing York: Sheed & Ward. through developmental stages as the child matured. —James Riley Estep Jr. Jewish education of children probably included rote and reading aloud. Being carried upon one’s breath, each spoken word, to the ancient Jews,Only had its own life. This Christian Education, rendered reading aloud (or at least moving one’s lips) Jewish Precursors to and Influences on important in Jewish life and especially when reading scripture. (This may explain Phillip’s hearing the Ethio- Judaism was the religious context out of which Jesus, pian eunuch reading for Isaiah, as recorded in Acts 8:30.) His inner circle (the Twelve), and most of the earliest Christians came. The impact on Christian education of Places the many dimensions of Jewish education before and The Jewish Temple was a place of both worship and edu- during the first century cannot be overstated. It echoes cation. The Temple was a focal point for observing the throughout the New Testament and other early Christian Jewish feasts and festivals. Even the sacrifices had their education and writings. teachingCopy role in reminding how creation joined in bear- ing the brunt of human sin(s). Purpose The synagogue was already growing in importance as The Septuagint (LXX), a third- or second-century BC a place of worship and teaching—especially in the - Greek translation of the Jewish Bible, was the scripture pora—even before the destruction of the Temple in AD 70. of the earliest Christians. Within the LXX, the Torah was During his missionary journeys the apostle Paul’s practice authoritative for Judaism and the core of Jewish educa- was to first go to the synagogue. There he would have ex- tion. The Sayings of the Fathers (II, 21) cites Rabbi Tarfon pected to find those who not only accepted the authority as referring to the great prize one finds in studying Torah. of scripture as he did, but also expected to study and learn. Such study not only inculcated Judaism’s radical mono- The family was vital in Jewish education. Deuteronomy theism, but also educated Jews to become a holy people (e.g., 6:4ff, 13:6–11) vested fathers with responsibility for and to equip them for propagating their faith. Likewise, leading and instructing children in faithfulness to God. Paul, in 2 Timothy 3:16–17, accentuates the importance Further, Exodus 20:12 and Proverbs 10:1, 17:6, and 23:24 of studying scripture for many similar purposes. are but a few Old Testament passages that reminded par- Judaism was also the source for New Testament ethi- ents of the importance of children and training their chil- cal teaching. Jesus’s caution against judging (cf. Matt. 7:1) dren in wisdom and righteousness. In Colossians 3:20–21 resonates with Rabbi Ishmael, who, according to Sayings of and Ephesians 5:21 and 6:1–4, Paul’s double implication the Fathers (IV 10), said, “None may judge alone save One.” is that children are to learn from their parents; however, parents are not to take advantage of their higher position Pedagogy Contributorin ways that embitter their children. ”transliterated yada) or “to know) ָ י דַ ע The Hebrew word implied an intimate knowledge. Hence, Jewish pedagogy People was experiential and included Judaism’s liturgy, rituals, Throughout the history of Judaism, various people and feasts, and festivals as means by which participants ex- offices played their respective pedagogical roles in and perienced that which was being taught or remembered. outside of the Tabernacle, the Temple, and the syna- The poetry, prophetic acts, object lessons, parables, gogues. Among these were priests, Levites, sages, proph- and so forth mentioned throughout the Old Testament ets, scribes, and rabbis. Especially in the synagogues of books of history, wisdom, and prophets also had their later Judaism, the scribes and rabbi were particularly Christian Education, Roman Precursors to and Influences on 255 important as teachers in the synagogue schools. Paul, in Christian education (18, 31). For Christian education 1 Corinthians 12:28 and Ephesians 4:11, assumed teach- to be truly Christian, it must center its concerns on the ers were an important role and teaching was a vital gift shaping of human desires through worship practices within the early church. (19, 32, 34). Human beings must not be reduced to walking brains, but rather must be seen as embodied References and Resources souls who love, hope, desire, and think. In this regard, a Cory, Catherine, and Michael J. Hollerich, eds. 2009. The Chris- postmodern Christian education would presuppose the tian Theological Tradition. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: need for both knowledge of scripture and the nurtur- Prentice Hall. ing of Christian practices in community for the ongoing Elias, John L. 2002. A History of Christian Education: Prot- development of our beliefs. The consistent application estant, Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: of Christian practices actually takes major priority in the Krieger Publishing. development of our faith. When the practices become Hertz, Joseph H. 1945. Sayings of the Fathers or Pirke Aboth. habits, they become automatic and central to our identity New York: Behrman House Publishers. formation and Christian character (81–82). Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- A postmodern Christian education would look toward tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. the recurring integrative relationship between philoso- Shelley, Bruce L. 2008. Church History in Plain Language. 3rd phy of education and pedagogicalOnly practices. In terms of ed. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. philosophy, it seeks understanding beyond modernist re- Stein, Robert H. 1994. The Method and Message of Jesus’ Teach- ductionist borders of knowledge and information, while ings. rev. ed. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. considering emotions, desires, and imaginative aspects of —Ronnie Prevost learning. Further, pedagogical practices with postmod- ern sensibilities may embrace a variety of methods apart from long lectures with complex or fancy PowerPoint Christian Education, Postmodern presentations. Pedagogy will be more attuned to the in- fluence of the imagination and story on human learning, Postmodernism presents challenges to what is meant by and Christian education in particular will draw upon the both “education” and “knowledge.” It seeks to uncover HolyCopy Spirit’s work in Christian learning and formation. systems of power or coercion in the process of making Postmodern Christian education will also emphasize knowledge claims. Assent to what is considered “common learning by practicing with others in community more knowledge” is not merely presumed without first being than learning simply by explaining to others. Teachers questioned. Likewise, the relationship between knowledge will take humble learning postures with their students to claims and their relationship to uses of authority or power model the importance of relationality, community, and positions in society and interpersonal relationships is also participation in a climate of postmodernity. a point of concern. Some have unfairly portrayed post- modern sensibilities as a mere repudiation of truth and References and Resources forthright rejection of Christian perspectives in education. Oliver, Anita. 2001. “Postmodern Thought and Christian Educa- Others, however, see the postmodern as a challenge to tion.” Journal of Research on Christian Education 10 (1): 5–22. Enlightenment-based modernist ideals, thus opening up Smith, James K. A. 2009. Desiring the Kingdom: Worship, opportunities for a more robust perspective on Christian Worldview, and Cultural Formation. Grand Rapids, MI: education that looks beyond the reductionism of empiri- Baker Academic. cism and rationalism. A modernist-based Christian edu- Smith, James K. A., and David I. Smith, eds. 2011. Teaching and cation (and the tendency of modern education in general) Christian Practices: Reshaping Faith and Learning. Grand tends to err toward information-based models of instruc- Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. tion, emphasizing cognitive-centered input and logical, —Ronald T. Michener rational analysis. Postmodern perspectives accent humans as affective,Contributor emotional, imaginative learners in combina- tion with cognitive aspects of humanity. Christian Education, One primary example of a call for this approach is Roman Precursors to and Influences on found in James K. A. Smith’s Desiring the Kingdom. Smith argues for a reframing of Christian education that Roman education developed over the course of 13 is more formative rather than informative in its approach centuries, but in four phases. Native Roman education (2009, 18). If we think of humans simply as thinking (eighth–fourth centuries BC) was independent from things rather than emotional, passionate, creative beings, Greek models, with little or no Greek influence and that will inevitably influence how we regard and apply purely Latin grammar. Transitional Roman education 256 Christian Education, 21st-Century Approaches to

(third–second centuries BC) involved the beginnings of (Gal. 3:24; 1 Cor. 4:15). The New Testament seems to Greek influence and bilingual Greek and Latin grammar. also engage Roman higher education. Paul challenges During the phase of Greco-Roman education (second– the elitism of Roman higher education in 1 Corinthians first centuries BC), Rome mimicked Greek education in 1:20 (“the debater”) and 2:4, regarding “persuasiveness virtually every way (context, content, and process), using of speech.” Paul seemed to distance himself from these almost exclusively Greek grammar in Roman schools. In in 2 Corinthians 11:6. However, Apollos seems to have the fourth phase, Roman education (first century BC– had the rhetorical skills for which Alexandria in Egypt fifth century AD) became independent from its reliance was famous (Acts 18:24–25). Perhaps the most profound on Greek education, returning to only Latin grammar. influence on the development of Christian education was The objective of Roman education throughout all these that Rome taught Christianity how to go to school. The developments was the Vir bonus (Lat. good man), which Christian schooling tradition was born out of a Roman was continually redefined throughout Roman history. educational heritage, including the rise of the Alexan- Christianity was born in a period of educational transi- drian tradition of Clement and Origen. Likewise, the tion, between the Greco-Roman educational tradition of question of integrating Christian belief with Greek and the second and first centuries BC and the distinctively Roman knowledge led to the schooling controversy of Roman educational tradition arising in the first century the third century AD, led by Tertullian, who advocated AD, wherein Rome was growing ever more independent Christian abstinence from publicOnly education. However, of Greek culture and influence. For example, Rome’s his was the minority opinion, with the majority of church foremost educator, Quintilian (AD 35–95?), wrote In- authorities favoring the integrative approach advocated stitutio Oranto (The Instruction of Orators) in AD 93 to by the Alexandrian tradition. Centuries later Augustine’s describe educational practices that were Roman, with Contra Academicos (Against the Academics) would pro- little attention given to its Greek predecessor. Whereas vide a critique of the overtly skeptical and solely academic education in Rome was essentially Greek in both content Platonic school of Athens, a pursuit that never attains a and language during the former period, it transitioned meaningful life. Perhaps the most evident interaction of to Latin in the first century AD. Homer was replaced by Roman education goes relatively unnoticed. Why is the Virgil, rhetoric replaced philosophy, and Latin grammar New Testament written in Greek and many significant replaced Greek. However, Roman education preserved earlyCopy church authorities in Latin? This reflects not only the three-tiered educational system of the Greeks: el- the rising authority of the Latin church in Rome, but ementary (ludus) school for ages 7–12, secondary schools even more the shift from the educational tradition and (schola) for ages 12–16, and higher education for ages practice of Greco-Roman culture (Greek) to a distinctive 16–20, focusing typically on rhetoric. As in Greece, three Roman educational agenda (Latin). levels of grammatical instruction and instructor devel- oped in Roman education: litterator (Lat., teacher of let- References and Resources ters) or ludi magister (Lat., school master), like the Greek Barrow, Robin. 1976. Greek and Roman Education. London: grammatistes; grammaticus, like the Greek kitharistes; Bristol Classical Press. and finally the most advanced, rhetor, which preserved Bonner, Stanley E. 1977. Education in Ancient Rome. Los Ange- the Greek Sophists’ and Isocrates’s emphasis on oration. les: University of California Press. Another Greek element preserved in Roman education Clarke, M. L. 1971. Higher Education in the Ancient World. was the pedagogue, a slave or servant tasked with tending London: Routledge and Kegan Publishing. to the needs of a nobleman’s children, including prepar- Estep, James. 2005. “Philosophers, Scribes, Rhetors . . . and ing them for school each day, escorting them to school, Paul? The Educational Background of the New Testament.” and tutoring. However, throughout the development of Christian Education Journal, Series 3, 2 (1): 30–47. education in Roman society, the family was affirmed as the Gwynn, Aubrey. 1964. Roman Education from Cicero to Quin- principal educator and responsible for the instruction of tilian. New York: Russell and Russell. the children. Roman higher education was indeed broader Marrou, H. I. 1956. A History of Education in Antiquity. New than its GreekContributor counterpart, valuing rhetoric over philoso- York: Sheed & Ward. phy for the formal education of a future statesman. —James Riley Estep Jr. How did Roman education intersect and influence Christian education? The New Testament makes several references to it. While teaching in Ephesus, Paul did so Christian Education, in the schola of Tyrannus (Acts 19:9), using a building 21st-Century Approaches to typically used for Roman secondary education. As in Greek education, Paul employed a familiar educational Approaches to Christian education fall into two broad term, pedagogue, metaphorically to describe the Law categories: education in faith and education in religion. Christian Formation, A Biblical View of 257

The distinction hinges on the intention—whether to not defensively. The role of the teacher is to engage, to enhance students’ growth in faith or to increase their explain, and to invite. knowledge and understanding. The starting point of the dialogue that characterizes Each term covers a multiplicity of models. Education education for faith is the individual: to bring the gospel in faith, also called “catechesis,” includes the trans- message to young people seeking their way in the post- mission model, the experiential model, and Thomas modern secular world. Groome’s “shared praxis” approach (Christian Religious The approach to religious belief begins with acceptance Education, 1980). These models are vastly different in the of students at their present existential position, in terms fundamental assumptions made about the student, the of both their beliefs and questioning and their attitude to- subject matter, and the pedagogy. Similarly, education in ward religion: for example, respect for students’ freedom, religion may, for example, seek to explore one’s own tra- including their freedom of response to the Christian mes- dition analytically and critically, or, adopting a phenom- sage; respect for students’ right to privacy with regard to enological model (Knight, 2006) or a typological model the expression of their personal beliefs; and the portrayal (Moore and Habel, 1982), compare religious traditions, of personal belief and commitment as an invitation to that is, an interfaith approach. engage more deeply with the Christian message and to In a faith-based educational context, the intention will develop a personal relationship with Jesus Christ. be essentially pastoral: to contribute to spiritual growth The approach to teaching isOnly to focus on the learner’s and to a commitment to a Christian way of life. However, active participation in acquiring knowledge and skills, equating a pastoral intention with education in faith can which includes openness to ideas and their expression be misleading if this is understood to refer to deepening in a dialogical setting; respect for the Christian message; the faith of those who already have faith. One cannot as- commitment to learning and to extending knowledge sume that all students are, in fact, believers: some may and understanding; and the development of cognitive be firmly within the Christian tradition, eager to learn skills, including critical thinking. in more depth what that tradition means for life in the Education for faith is directed toward the flourishing of 21st century; others may be in a stage of questioning the the human person (John 10:10b). Young people are not faith tradition in which they have been raised; and some only confronted with personal challenges as they move will have rejected Christianity. Although the context in towardCopy adulthood, but are also aware of the challenges which the education takes place is significant, whether in facing contemporary society. To balance these personal a school setting or as part of a voluntary group, the ap- and societal demands, Christian education can reinforce proach to Christian education needs to take cognizance in the young a faith in life itself, in themselves, and in of the needs of all recipients. the future. The religious heritage of Christianity is, in es- The approach perhaps best suited for Christian educa- sence, the hope contained in the gospel message and the tion in the 21st century is education for faith. The inten- faith lived in the Christian community. Ideally, education tion is to develop knowledge and understanding of the for faith seeks to present this heritage to the next genera- Christian faith tradition, to remove obstacles to belief, tion and to lead young people to an awareness of the tran- and to guide students in their journey toward an adult scendent and immanent One who is the source of all life. faith commitment. Students’ knowledge and understand- ing of their Christian faith tradition is enhanced. They References and Resources learn to respect the wisdom of the tradition, inherent in Groome, Thomas. 1980. Christian Religious Education. San the lived reality of adherents over the centuries and in the Francisco: Harper & Row. present, and are invited to commit to that tradition as a Knight, George. 2006. Philosophy & Education: An Introduc- source of hope and guidance for life in today’s complex tion in Christian Perspective. 4th ed. Berrien Springs, MI: world. The Bible is interpreted in accordance with the Andrews University Press. insights provided by contemporary biblical scholarship. Moore, B., and N. Habel. 1982. When Religion Goes to Sschool, Education in religion is also a component of education Adelaide: SACAE. 184–218. for faithContributor. With globalism increasingly a feature of the in- —Margaret M. T. Kelleher ternational scene and multiculturalism a reality in more and more countries, knowledge of other religious tradi- tions is essential, especially for adolescents. Christian Formation, A Biblical View of A key feature of education for faith is how it is con- ducted. The educational climate encourages dialogue The New Testament Epistles present a goal of Christian and personal engagement and is respectful of both the discipleship as that of maturity (Eph. 4:13–15; Col. 1:28; religious tradition and the individual. The Christian tra- Heb. 5:14), and formation for Christians toward that goal dition is presented faithfully, sensitively, and rationally, is both a gift and work. It is a gift in the sense that a new 258 Christian Formation: An Overview identity is given at baptism (John 3:3–8; Col. 2:9–13), possible that the formative elements of the faith that are which makes the fruit and gifts of the Spirit available learned hold within themselves transformative and criti- (Gal. 5:22–23; 1 Cor. 12:1–11), and work because the new cal possibilities. status offered through baptism has to be actively lived up Perhaps most suggestively, there are deeper questions to (Rom. 6:1–14, 12:1–21). about how the growth and formation of the Christian Christian education as the work of formation has tra- self proceeds, which have been researched by Alison Le ditionally offered catechesis for initiates, both children Cornu (2006), based on the ideas of Peter Jarvis about and adults. However, formation cannot be limited to a learning as internalization. Through interview data she catechetical class, as there is a sense in which all disciple- identifies a taxonomy of formation, delineating four dif- ship activities of the Christian, such as prayer, liturgical ferent types of believers, who have either a strong or weak worship, hearing and acting on the Word, receiving the sense of self and give different weight to either their faith sacraments, confession and absolution, seeking justice framework or experience. Each is formed differently and and the common good, and so forth can contribute to has a range of learning needs. formation. The Christian Formation reader edited by Astley et al. (1996) deals theologically with some of these References and Resources aspects in essays from a wide range of authors. Astley, Jeff. 1994. The Philosophy of Christian Religious Educa- There is an important question throughout the history tion. Birmingham, AL: Religious EducationOnly Press. of the church about how intentional formation should ———. 2002. Ordinary Theology: Looking, Listening and Learn- be beyond the gift of baptism and some basic instruc- ing in Theology. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. tion. It has generally been agreed that there is a proper Astley, Jeff, Leslie J. Francis, and Colin Crowder, eds. 1996. initial formation required of those called out for the Theological Perspectives on Christian Formation. Grand Rap- threefold order of ministry (however that is understood) ids, MI: Eerdmans. of deacons, priests, and bishops. These vocations require Bunting, Ian. 2009. “Formation and Validity.” Journal of Adult a further renewing of identity if they are to be taken up Theological Education 6 (1): 8–30. faithfully, and there is good recent literature reflecting on Fowler, James. 1981. Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human formation for ministry roles (Leach 2010; Bunting 2009; Development and the Quest for Meaning. New York: Harper Overend 2007; Leach and Paterson 2004). The issue of & Row.Copy how the laity are formed intentionally as opposed to im- Le Cornu, Alison. 2006. “Theological Reflection and Christian plicitly by attendance at regular worship and fellowship Formation.” Journal of Adult Theological Education 3 (1): persists for all denominations. James Fowler’s Stages of 11–36. Faith (1981) sharpened the question. He suggests, not Leach, Jane. 2010. “The End of Theological Education: An without dispute, that adult faith can move through dif- Analysis of the Contribution of Portfolio Learning to For- ferent developmental phases throughout life, all of which mation in Ministry within a University Context.” Journal of need careful negotiation and accompaniment. On the Adult Theological Education 7 (2): 117–204. other hand, Astley’s Ordinary Theology (2002) shows Leach, Jane, and Michael S. Paterson. 2004. “Surfing the Waves: that implicit theological formation continues even if in- Formation for Ministry in the Christian Tradition Revis- tentional Christian education of adults is absent. Lifelong ited.” Journal of Adult Theological Education 1 (1): 9–27. learning or intentional formation for the people of God Overend, Paul. 2007. “Education or Formation? The Issue remains an aspiration rather than a reality. of Personhood in Learning for Ministry.” Journal of Adult Christian education as formation raises further critical Theological Education 4 (2): 133–148. issues. While formation includes the cognitive and psy- —Nigel Rooms chomotor domains of learning in Bloom’s typology, it fo- cuses on the affective domain, which is notoriously more difficult to define or measure. This presents educators Christian Formation: An Overview with a dilemma in the design and delivery of educational programs Contributorof ongoing formation, such as the training of “Formation” refers to giving shape (pouring concrete spiritual directors. into forms), a kind of performance (being in top form), Does forming people in the Christian faith preclude organization (presented in outline form), a function their being able to reflect critically on it? That is, is there a (the verb’s form), and decorum (proper form). When sharp distinction between formative education (of which the term is used in the context of Christian education, it enculturation is a part) and critical education? Astley often refers to shaping the whole person—body, mind, discusses this fully (1994, 78–107) concluding that, con- and spirit—and is contrasted to education and guidance, tra Groome (Christian Religious Education, 1999), it is which are considered less holistic. Christian Formation, Approaches to 259

When “formation,” “education,” and “guidance” are all or trapped in dependency on the leader? Does the leader construed in their narrow sense, they share an emphasis take advantage of the seeker’s vulnerability? Creating de- on other-direction. The narrow sense of “education” pendency and preying on vulnerability disqualify anyone shrinks to skills, drills, memory, and will. The narrow from being a spiritual director, teacher, or guide, because sense of “formation” reduces it to shaping a lump of clay, spiritual maturation is about God’s creative presence in as if people were formless until formed by another. Guid- the seeker’s journey, not meeting the needs of the leader. ance is restricted to telling, rather than showing, people —Jerome W. Berryman what to do. When “formation,” “education,” and “guidance” are all thought about more broadly, they emphasize drawing Christian Formation, Approaches to things out rather than pounding things in. “Education” is derived from the Latin word educo (I lead out) in contrast Formation is the term used to describe the shaping of to duco (I lead). This view of formation draws out what Christian character or spirituality. It is typically a wider is known by personal experience, intuition, and God’s concept than “education” or “training” and is often used action. A larger view of guidance shows the way, like a of ministers or clergy. Thus “ministerial formation” will mountain guide. often refer to the whole process of preparing men and Spiritual directors, educators, and guides, viewed in the women for Christian ministryOnly and involve the shaping broadest sense, all share the ethos of the mountain guide, of attitudes, lifestyle, and devotional practices as well as someone who leads a party up the mountain, not in theory the intellectual training that goes with this. In order to or by advising from below. The guide ropes up with the achieve a “total environment,” ministerial formation will climbing party and does the route finding; if someone falls often take place residentially (rather than online or part- the rope attached to the lead climber keeps the person time) and ensure daily worship. from falling all the way down to injury or death. In addition to the formation of clergy, the formation Guides, as well as spiritual directors or educators, are of converts through catechetical instruction may also be more than spiritual companions, but the guide’s author- considered. Here the main focus is on the apprehension ity cannot be reduced to one’s place in an organization of doctrine and doctrinal formulae and, in its simplest or by certificates hanging on an office wall. Like Joseph form,Copy will include set questions and set answers that must Campbell’s “hero with a thousand faces,” the guide is be memorized, as in Luther’s Small Catechism. someone who has made the spiritual journey, encoun- More broadly, formation may be included within the tered and survived tests and dangers, and returned to program of Christian education delivered by schools guide others. The same is true of spiritual directors and or churches. In the case of schools, Christian educa- educators. For example, Maria Montessori thought of tion may involve an emphasis on the pastoral care of education as a function of children’s spirituality, rather pupils, collective worship, and almost certainly, the than the other way around, so the spirituality of teachers curriculum. In Roman Catholic schools in Europe, for was important to her. instance, the curriculum will ensure that church history Priests are concerned with the maintenance of the may be taught in such a way as to provide a perspective church organization, constructive thinking for the com- on the Reformation sympathetic to Catholicism. It will munity, and healthy religious practice. It is good to have a also include moral teaching on, for instance, the Roman guide, clergy or lay, who has made the journey and yet has Catholic position on birth control and on its historical access to the wisdom of two millennia of spiritual practices opposition to abortion. In the case of churches, Chris- in the church and the support of a healthy community. tian education may be provided formally to adults on Spiritual formation is solitary in the sense that it cannot Sunday mornings, as is customary in classroom settings be delegated, but it is a community practice in the sense of in many North American congregations, or through the individual’s need for support, a safety net, and a regular proclamations from the pulpit. Where preaching is the practice to maintain growth and creativity. The distinction chosen method, formation may be intentional, as, for betweenContributor religion and spirituality is a false one, because any instance, in systematic exposition of the biblical texts spiritual practice is one’s religion, whether it is in a church addressing Christian marriage, or diffuse, as in exhor- or not. The question is whether one has a community, a tations to pray or evangelize. Some churches will use common language, and a way to evaluate one’s spiritual the Alpha Course or other structured programs for the journey. This is largely a matter of education, overlapping benefit of new converts or young people, while others with spiritual direction and guidance. may take the terminology of “discipleship training” for There are always two questions to ask about formation, small group interaction with a mentor, but all these ap- in addition to what the word means. Is the seeker set free proaches are essentially formative. 260 Christian Higher Education and Globalization

Distinctions have been made between person-cen- cultures, both local and global (Martin and King 1990). tered (or child-centered) nurture approaches, modeled The advent of globalization is debated and pinpointed on maturation and formation, and molding approaches, throughout various points in history. Robert (2002) ar- which shape the learner in the ways described above. gues that the “First Globalization” was the Christian mis- These distinctions may be overlaid with an understand- sionary movement, as central to its inception was the idea ing of the typical trajectory of intellectual development, of universal evangelism. Most commonly, scholars date described by James Fowler (1981) (from concrete and the beginning of globalization to the 19th century with contractual to abstract and principled modes of under- the rise of interdependence of international economics standing), so that nurturing and formation take place (Joshi 2009). The economist Theodore Levitt is recog- along lines in keeping with normal intellectual devel- nized for coining the term globalization and first defined opment. Emotional development is less easy to chart and applied it in 1985 to economics. Thereafter, global- and, in any case, has been historically conflated with ization language quickly entered the discourse of many intellectual development, especially in the context of disciplines, including education. In the initial editorial of worship and community. If we conceive of formation as Globalisation, Societies and Education, the editors state, induction into a worldview, however, then we can also “Formal education is the most commonly found institu- accept that those who are spiritually mature will have tion and most commonly shared experience of all in the “to a significant degree developed the capacities and contemporary world” (Dale and RobertsonOnly 2003, 7). dispositions to think, feel and act in accordance with Globalization in education has resulted in a number their world view no matter what the circumstances” of consequences for educational institutions. Satellite, (Lindbeck 1996).116 Consequently, formation, despite its distance, and even virtual campuses have allowed institu- treatment of the human being as a whole, never aims to tions to expand into regional, national, and international destroy personal autonomy. markets (Loomis and Rodriguez 2009). With the increase in mobility and distance education, estimates project References and Resources that students in higher education will increase from 97 Astley, Jeff. 1994. The Philosophy of Christian Religious Educa- million in 2000 to 263 million worldwide in 2025. With tion. Ch. 5. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. this increased enrollment is a concomitant increase in Astley, Jeff, and Leslie J. Francis, eds. 1994. Critical Perspectives diversity.Copy Inherent in the expansion of higher education on Christian Education: A Reader on the Aims, Principles opportunities across the globe is the concern for serving and Philosophy of Christian Education. Sections 4, 6, and 8. diverse student bodies, as well as providing quality edu- Leominster, UK: Gracewing Fowler Wright. cation with assurance and accreditation (Adrian 2007). Astley, Jeff, Leslie J. Francis, and Colin Crowder, eds. 1996. Ensuring compatible quality education across borders so Theological Perspectives on Christian Formation: A Reader on that degrees will be internationally accepted “will lead to Theology and Christian Education. Sections 7 and 8. Leomin- an expanded role for distance education” (Altbach and ster, UK: Gracewing Fowler Wright. Knight 2007, 303). This in turn will generate increased Fowler, James W. 1981. Stages of Faith: The Psychology of opportunities and influence for higher education institu- Human Development and the Quest for Meaning. London: tions. Further, having the knowledge, skills, and ability Harper & Row. to function effectively in a global society is critical to Lindbeck, George. 1996. “Spiritual Formation and Theological individual and societal advancement. The role of higher Education.” In Theological Perspectives on Christian Forma- education institutions in developing these aspects among tion: A Reader on Theology and Christian Education, edited students has become apparent. Many universities are by Jeff Astley, Leslie J. Francis, and Colin Crowder, 287. creating initiatives to promote global competence. For Leominster, UK: Gracewing Fowler Wright. example, Georgia Tech University makes use of inter- —William K. Kay national educational partnerships and offers students the opportunity to have a “third” culture experience by studying at partner institutions in places such as Hong ChristianContributor Higher Education Kong and South Africa. and Globalization The Council of Christian Colleges and Universities has recognized the importance of globalization for Christian Globalization is the process of integration, arising from higher education institutions with the creation of the Ad- the exchange of products, ideas, and other facets, among vancing Intercultural Competencies initiative. The aim of this initiative is to assist Christian colleges, universities, 116. George Lindbeck, “Spiritual Formation and Theological Educa- and seminaries in implementing strategic plans, policies, tion,” in Theological Perspectives on Christian Formation: A Reader on The- ology and Christian Education, ed. Jeff Astley, Leslie J. Francis, and Colin and procedures that prepare their students, faculty, and Crowder (Leominster, UK: Gracewing Fowler Wright, 1996), 287. staff to function effectively in an increasingly diverse and Christian Higher Education in Postmodernity 261 interconnected world and that reflect the kingdom of London Missionary Society. With the opening of treaty God. Slimbach’s (2001) discussion of globalization within ports in China after the Opium War (1842), the mission- an eschatological framework, for example, asks higher aries began to set up schools, first in treaty ports, then in education institutions to reflect upon globalization in major cities. By 1918, there were more than 6,380 Chris- terms of kingdom ideals, and in which he provides a 25- tian schools in China, of which 28 were colleges and 156 item checklist of true global Christian institutions. were teachers’ training schools. In the 1920s and 1930s, these tertiary schools were consolidated into 13 Protes- References and Resources tant and 3 Roman Catholic colleges and universities, with Adrian, William. 2007. “Globalization and the Christian Idea of more than 1,000 faculty members and 6,000 students.117 a University (Or, the Lexus, the Olive Tree, and Higher Edu- There were three main components in the curricula cation).” Christian Higher Education 6 (4): 299–320. http:// of Christian colleges: theology, arts and social sciences, ejournals.ebsco.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/direct.asp?Art and natural sciences. Theology / religious education had icleID=4A7E8DD9B5812E6C2878. previously been the most important subject for Christian Altbach, Philip G., and Jane Knight. 2007. “The Internalization colleges. However, the subject gradually lost its centrality of Higher Education: Motivations and Realities.” Journal of and became marginalized and reduced in significance, Studies in International Education 11 (3–4): 290–305. doi: especially after the registration of these institutions with 10.1177/1028315307303542. the Nationalist government in Onlythe 1920s. Böhm, A., D. Davis, D. Meares, and David Pearce. 2002. Global When the Korean War broke out in 1950, the Com- Student Mobility 2025: Forecasts of the Global Demand for munist government imposed a major educational re- International Higher Education. Sydney, Australia. IDP Edu- form in China to dismantle all Christian higher educa- cation Australia Limited. tion institutions in the country and incorporated them Dale, Roger, and Susan L. Robertson. 2003. “Editorial Introduc- with other public universities. As a result, the history of tion.” Globalisation, Societies and Education 1 (1): 3–11. Christian higher education in China came to an abrupt Joshi, Rakesh Mohan. 2009. International Business. New Delhi end. Revival of Christian higher education began in a and New York: Oxford University Press. new form after the 1980s. Loomis, Steven, and Jacob Rodriguez. 2009. “Institutional —Peter Tze Ming Ng Change and Higher Education.” Higher Education 58 (4): Copy 475–489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40269197. Martin, Albrow, and Elizabeth King, eds. 1990. Globalization, Christian Higher Education Knowledge and Society. London: Sage. in Postmodernity Robert, Dana L. 2002. “The First Globalization: The Interna- tionalization of the Protestant Missionary Movement Be- The cultural and intellectual changes brought about by tween the World Wars.” International Bulletin of Missionary postmodernity are generating new educational contexts Research 26 (2): 50–67. for Christian higher education. Ruby, Alan. 2005. “Reshaping the University in an Era of Glo- balization.” Phi Delta Kappan 87 (3): 233–236. http://www Theoretical Contexts .jstor.org/stable/20441975. Beginning with ontology, postmodernity posits an image Slimbach, Richard. 2001. “Globalization, the Kingdom of God, of reality that is fragmented, paradoxical, contingent, and Christian Higher Education.” Council for Christian Colleges & Universities, 25 April. http://cccu.org/news/ar 117. The Protestant colleges were: ticles/2001/globalization_the_kingdom_of_god_and_chris a. Yenching University in Beijing tian_higher_education. b. Shangtung Christian University (Cheeloo) in Jinan Stromquist, Nelly P. 2002. Education in a Globalized World: The c. University of Nanking (Jinling) in Nanking d. Ginling Women’s College in Nanking Connectivity of Economic Power, Technology, and Knowledge. e. University of Shanghai (Kujiang) in Shanghai Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. f. St. John’s University in Shanghai —Amanda J. Rockinson-Szapkiw g. Hangchow University in Hangzhou Contributor h. Soochow University (Dungwu) in Suzhou & Emerson K. Keung i. Central China University (Huazhong) in Wuhan j. West China Union University (Huaxi) in Chengdu k. Fukien Christian University in Fuzhou l. South China Women’s University in Fuzhou Christian Higher Education in China m. Lingnan University in Canton.

Christian higher education in China came into existence The three Catholic University universities were: a. Fu Jen Catholic University in Beijing in the first two decades of the 20th century. Protestant b. Tientsin University of Industry and Commerce in Tientsin Christianity arrived in 1807 with Robert Morrison of the c. Aurora University in Shanghai. 262 Christian Higher Education in Postmodernity without a center, and in a continual process of becoming. survival makes practical skills and competencies This postulation of change as the constant feature of real- gravitate toward the top and theoretical abstraction ity directly impacts the concept of knowledge in higher toward the bottom. Furthermore, postmodern curri- education. Logical, predictable, and manageable sche- cula are uncommitted to unity and are thus unstruc- mata are unwanted, and knowledge is no longer seen as tured, fragmented, and modular and increasingly unified, harmonious, and stable, but rather as transient, privilege practical, bite-sized, lifelong learning. subject to quick aging, and contextual. This environment • In postmodern higher education, teaching and learn- challenges traditional educational philosophies that have ing defy classification and categorization and are been closer to idealistic and realistic ontologies, including characterized by plurality, innovation, imagination, those in the Christian tradition. and creativity. This is in contrast with structured en- Postmodernity also ushers in a major tension in episte- gineering approaches, which pretend to understand, mology, debating the place of reason as the instrument of predict, and prescribe andragogy. obtaining positive knowledge. As universal decidability, • In postmodern higher education, the commitment legitimation, consistency, and syntactic completeness are to change, modularity, lifelong learning, and stu- replaced by paradox, paralogism, and the situatedness dent-centeredness calls for new thinking regarding of the individual, educational philosophies traditionally credentialization and the issuing of degrees, for it rooted in the Enlightenment, modern rationalistic ide- becomes difficult to attest arrivalOnly points, comple- als, and a commitment to meta-narratives are becoming tion benchmarks, and standards of achievement. increasingly marginalized. The shortening life span of useful knowledge, the Higher education is also being redefined in terms of internationalization of education that reduces the purpose. The teleological commitment to culture that comprehensibility of degrees, and the inflation of was born in Greek Paideia, universalized by European credentials that has followed the massification of medieval universities, reinforced in the Enlightenment, education further contribute to the demise of de- and generally welcomed by the Christian tradition sits grees and the rise of learning portfolios. uncomfortably in postmodernity. The vision of liberating • In postmodern higher education, accreditation must the mind to contemplate the breadth of human existence, work to the new values of subjectivity, playfulness, truth, and virtue in order to impact society is today being andCopy performativity, which are manifestly in conflict demystified, and the cultural mandate of education is with those of traditional, standard-based quality as- being replaced by a commitment to performativity. Uni- surance, which is typically grounded in constancy, versities today are increasingly called to generate skills consistency, and coherence. rather than ideals, income rather than culture, employ- ability rather than virtue, and knowledge economies The Challenges rather than political communities. Together with its many accolades, the postmodern edu- cational revolution is not without its darker sides, and Practical Contexts new forms of higher education are criticized for losing The theoretical commitments of postmodernity intro- robustness and becoming emaciated, for weakening com- duce practical transformations that can be seen, for munity, for silencing the voice of the university in the example, in a new relationship to authority, in changing public sphere, and for commercializing and potentially curricula, in practices of teaching and learning, and in at- dumbing-down education. Postmodern higher education titudes toward accreditation and credentialization: is also seen as contributing to unprecedented levels of anxiety as students are overcome by the pressures to stay • In postmodern higher education, authority is en- ahead, the short life span of knowledge, the compulsory listed within unwanted power dynamics and is no nature of freedom, the constancy of motion, the isolation longer seen to reside in the teacher, in the herme- of the present, the information overload, the indetermi- neutics of authoritative texts, or in science and nacy of happiness, and the hurriedness of culture. reason.Contributor Autonomy takes the place of authority, These new contexts present Christian higher educa- and education becomes student centered. Students tion with fresh challenges. On the one hand, there is an consider themselves consumers, teachers are viewed opportunity to focus on and renew a commitment to that as life coaches, and knowledge is subjectively con- which is inherently and uncompromisingly “Christian” structed with peers. about higher education. On the other hand, there is a • In postmodern higher education, the hierarchy of chance to courageously discard theoretical commitments learning curricula is inverted compared to tradi- and practical habits that are artifacts carried over from tional higher education, as an ethic of change and the Babylonian captivity of modernity. Christian Higher Education in the Secular University 263

Reference manities, thereby establishing a connection and partner- Oxenham, M. 2013. Higher Education in Liquid Modernity. ship with other scholars. London: Routledge. —Marvin Oxenham Challenges to Christian Higher Education in the Secular University in the 21st Century America itself is undergoing many changes that are hav- Christian Higher Education ing important impacts on the university and how Chris- in the Secular University tian higher education influences might be processed. Among these are the following: Secular universities are those that do not embrace a re- ligious identity; have no, or nominal, church affiliation; 1. Cultural pluralism is an ongoing concern due to an and have a nonsectarianism policy of being open to all. increase in immigrants and their second generation Three criteria are usually used to determine a secular born in America, who would rather maintain their university. Two are found in the university’s mission own cultural heritages, identities, and religions statement and one in its curriculum: (1) no religious (Phan 2004). Relativism, which is unsatisfactory to goals are included, (2) no statement of faith or church the Christian, can emerge when cultural pluralism affiliation exists, and (3) core curriculum does not re- is taken far enough. To counterOnly this, Christians in quire Bible or Christian courses (Arthur 2006; Mixon, the university need to demonstrate that the global Lyon, and Beaty 2004). church itself is composed of a healthy, spiritual, multicultural diversity of people who could provide Christian Higher Education in the Secular University a cultural and cross-cultural dialogue (Mouw 1997). in the Past 2. Richard Mouw (1997) suggests that academic in- Most of the early American institutions of higher learn- civility or meanspiritedness exists among some ing fostered a distinguished Christian identity and church secular university decision makers in matters that affiliation and “first functioned at the preparatory level of would promote Christian higher education, such the academy and many later developed into universities, as hiring Christian faculty, student admission cri- they were typically founded with title of ‘college’” (Burt- Copyteria, curricular philosophies, reading lists, research chaell 1998, 852). According to George Marsden (1994), agendas, and labeling systems. There are three ways American universities took their shape in the late 19th for Christian academics to promote civility at the century, and Christian higher education was present in university: (1) conversionist tactics in the classroom the colleges and universities during that time, as evi- should not be used, but rather invite students to denced by some form of theological teaching. However, consider possibilities that they may have previously Robert Michaelsen (1964) affirms that with the found- ruled out because of antireligious or secular biases; ing of theological seminaries, the study of theology was (2) lead students and faculty of different disciplines mostly relegated to them. to a consideration that there is a prearranged and In the first half of the 20th century, Christian higher underlying unity and connectedness to reality that education reentered some tax-supported universities affects different disciplines; and (3) teach and inter- because of a recovery of interest in religion. This was act with colleagues with humility, communicating done under the auspices of religious studies depart- an incomplete knowledge of all things but also ex- ments, which placed an emphasis on representational- uding a confidence that Christ is Lord of all. ity, emphasizing equal representation and time, so that 3. The teaching of ethics (morality, values, virtues, a Christian had to teach Christian studies, a Jew taught duties, etc.) with God as a foundational basis is Judaic studies, a Hindu taught Hinduism, and so forth a challenge to Christian higher educators in the (Marty 1989). secular university. However, there are several Around the 1970s, a new approach surfaced, called ways “Christian ethics” can be included in the cur- neopositivismContributor (Marty 1989), which required (Christian) riculum. Probably the most common has been to professors to be objective, distanced, and uninvolved. speak of the “divine command” theories of ethics, This, however, gradually changed with the development wherein God’s word supplies the authority and of the phenomenological method, in which teachers content. A second way is to explore religious rela- aware of their presuppositions “bracketed” them in order tionships to ethics in the formation of moral char- to understand the objects of their study. In addition, acter of a personal and community nature. A third scholars enlarged the concept of religion as part of the way takes into consideration that a person can try anthropological condition and gained a place in the hu- to be good without religion, but justification and 264 Christian Higher Education, Technology in

motivation to please God is a present or hidden students to learn more efficiently. (2) Technology allows factor for ethical behavior (Gill 1997). students to have greater access to and interaction with new information. (3) Technology encourages students to References and Resources be more effective in their vocation. An additional premise Arthur, James. 2006. Faith and Secularization in Religious Col- is added for Christian higher education: (4) Technology leges and Universities. New York: Routledge. should make students more productive in their ministry Benne, Robert. 2001. Quality with Soul: How Six Premier Col- and ultimately in their incarnational calling. leges and Universities Keep Faith with Their Religious Tradi- Within this context, Christian higher education tech- tions. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. nology choices require strategic thinking focused on ex- Burtchaell, James. 1998. The Dying of the Light: The Disen- panding God’s influence in the lives of students, faculty, gagement of Colleges and Universities from Their Christian staff, and their greater community. Initially, educators Churches. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. must consider whether the technology choice itself has an Gill, David, ed. 1997. “Ethics With and Without God.” In educational purpose. While this seems obvious, educa- Should God Get Tenure? Essays on Religion and Higher Edu- tors sometimes opt for a tool simply because of its trendi- cation, 89–111. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ness, believing something “new” will engage learning. Hauerwas, Stanley. 2007. The State of the University: Academic This is a false assumption. Many excellent tools exist, and Knowledges and the Knowledge of God. Malden, MA: Black- these tools will prove to be most effectiveOnly when carefully well Publishing. aligned with learning. Marsden, George. 1994. The Soul of the American University: Current trends in educational technologies focus on From Protestant Establishment to Established Nonbelief. New York: Oxford University Press. • connecting students and presenting content in Marty, Martin. 1989. “The Changing Role of Religion in Higher social contexts (These are referred to as Web Education.” In Religion and Higher Education: 1989 Paine 2.0 technologies, such as Facebook and Twitter.) Lectures in Religion, edited by Joel Brereton and Patricia (Blankenship 2011); Love, 231–251. Columbia: University of Missouri-Columbia. • technologies for motivating and engaging students Michaelson, Robert. 1964. The Study of Religion in American (like classroom performance systems/CPS clickers); Universities: Ten Case Studies with Special Reference to State • digitalCopy tools associated with research, information Universities. Society for Religion in Higher Education. New discovery, and analysis (e.g., e-books, cloud com- York; Harper & Row. puting, Internet-based technologies and resources, Mixon, Stephanie, Larry Lyon, and Michael Beaty. 2004. “Secu- podcasts, data analysis tools); and larization and National Universities: The Effect of Religious • mobile technologies (from smartphones to tablets, Identity on Academic Reputation.” Journal of Higher Educa- hardware to apps). tion 75 (4): 400–419. Mouw, Richard. 1997. “Evangelical Civility and the Academic Already familiar to both younger and older genera- Calling.” In Should God Get Tenure? Essays on Religion and tions, these tools prove to be excellent choices for e-learn- Higher Education, edited by David Gill, 47–63. Grand Rap- ing environments. These technologies can assist students ids, MI: Eerdmans. in learning about God’s creation and His individual Phan, Peter. 2004. “Culture, Religion, and Power: Proclaiming purpose for His children. They enjoy no moral standing, Christ in the United States Today.” Theological Studies 65 but merely act as tools in the faculty member’s cadre of (4): 714–727. educational approaches. —Steve Overton Christian colleges and universities ask similar ques- tions about current, specific trends, notably the smart- phone or tablet. The potential for connecting in ubiq- Christian Higher Education, uitous ways took several large steps forward when Technology in these devices became so widely accessible. Partially as a Contributorresult, Christian colleges and universities must develop In Exodus 4:2, God said to Moses, “What is that in your student information literacy skills to be successful con- hand?” God used Moses’s staff to make his message sumers and discerners of truth in a world of digitally clear. Technology in Christian higher education similarly accessible information. Clickers, presentation tools, and provides a tool in the hand of educators to make God’s Internet research devices essentially become meaning- message clear. Three premises guide the general meth- less without the deliberate thinking of an instructional odological foundations for the use of technology in designer passionate about his or her subject area of higher education. (1) Technology is a tool used to enable interest. The savvy Christian educator must think pur- Christian Higher Education, The Future of 265 posefully about the use of technology in the context of a well for over a century. However, certain realities make learning environment. it essential to review these three foundations and make Augmented reality and the “Internet of Things” (con- adjustments to fit the market and financial realities. necting data with the “real world” and smart objects, a How will these decisions and directions impact the core further step in bringing the Internet to a more conve- mission of these institutions? What culture changes will nient access level), gesture-based computing (popular- occur as they address the adult student’s needs, changes ized by gaming consoles), and the further development of in delivery of content due to technology, and perhaps game-based learning with higher education engagements most important, the significant decline in understanding (Johnson, Adams, and Cummins, 2012) continue to be and priorities of the liberal arts as the foundational core important considerations as near-future trends (at the of these institutions’ historic missions? It appears that the time of this writing). future of Christian higher education will look dramati- The current college classroom hardly pulls all of these cally different from the recent past. technologies into daily instructional practice, but the Christian faculty member may employ one or more with A Brief History Before Looking at the Future a specific goal in mind: the engagement of the student The earliest history of Christian higher education in the in a thoughtful manner, presenting a set of content so United States is identical to that of higher education learning may occur. The goal is always learning first, lest in general. Harvard and YaleOnly began as places to train technology become an end unto itself. Our last caveat is ministers. It was not until the mid-19th century that that the Bible warns of idolatry; technology deserves no the growing liberalization and secularization of those exception from this directive. colleges, and the westward expansion of the nation, encouraged the creation of smaller colleges in the Mid- References and Resources west, usually under the auspices of religious denomina- Blankenship, M. 2011. “How Social Media Can and Should tions or revival-fueled movements. Impact Higher Education.” Education Digest 76 (7): 39–42. Though largely intended to promote the education of Johnson, L., S. Adams, and M. Cummins. 2012. The NMC Hori- church workers, these colleges often subscribed to the zon Report: 2012 Higher Education Edition. Austin, TX: The idea that a broad (liberal) education was desirable. Fran- New Media Consortium. cisCopy Asbury, for example, believed that the early Methodist —Randall Dunn and Benjamin K. Forrest circuit riders needed to carry a Bible in one hand and a newspaper in the other, emphasizing that effective min- istry required an awareness of culture and current issues Christian Higher Education, as well as theological acumen. As a result, these institu- The Future of tions evolved into more than just seminaries or teacher academies, becoming full-fledged liberal arts colleges We are in a critical season of change and challenge for with intentional Christian roots. Education for Christian Christian higher education. Every institution has been citizenship emerged as an important rationale for the impacted to some degree by the financial crises that began presence, importance, and costs of these institutions. in the first decade of the 21st century. Shortfalls in endow- Early in the 20th century, with the growth of the ment earnings and corpus value losses; sharp increases European research university model among the larger in infrastructure and health-care costs; unpredictable and more prestigious institutions (especially on the enrollments, particularly in retaining students through East Coast), and with the emergence of the modernist to graduation; and uncertainty about the implications of versus fundamentalist theological controversies, many government regulations in areas such as “right to hire” institutions took theoretical and conceptual sides. Some have conspired to make this perhaps the most volatile time remained orthodox, while others drifted from their for Christ-centered education at every level. While new religious roots and priorities. By the mid-1900s, still in student enrollments, on average, seem to be rising faster reaction to this secularization, a new class of religious than anticipated,Contributor particularly in the online and adult learn- institutions, Bible colleges, had emerged to focus on ing arenas, these increases are not in themselves sufficient preparation of leaders for a worldwide missions move- to guarantee these institutions future stability. ment. They also were formed to stem the tide of secular- There are other, subtler changes occurring that could ization in higher education. also impact the future of Christian higher education. The Since that time, the earlier Christian liberal arts col- majority of these institutions are residential, traditional leges and the later Bible colleges have overlapped in college age, and liberal arts focused. These parameters purpose and function. In the current era, while inde- have served the vision and mission of these institutions pendent Bible college associations still exist, within the 266 Christian Higher Education, The Future of

Council for Christian Colleges and Universities there are tions is rapidly being called into question, from both an intermingled institutions from both long-standing liberal economic as well as a technological vantage point. Some arts and Bible college traditions. A good example of such educational futurists believe that it may not be long until intermingling is Biola University, which has retained its most brick-and-mortar institutions disappear. Many emphasis on biblical instruction while expanding signifi- non-brick-and-mortar institutions exist, with thousands cantly in both the liberal arts and vocational preparation of students, mostly online, making some larger than beyond the church. either the State University of New York system or the California university system. Market Forces Shaping Higher Education A number of market forces are at work producing greater Adult Education competition for students and resources, making it in- There are increasing numbers of adults (over 25 years creasingly difficult for these historic Christian institu- of age) engaged in postsecondary education. This fact tions to keep pace. The increasing democratization of is tied to, and even arises from, each of the preceding education (more people expect access) and continued forces. It also is attributed to improved health care and secularization of the culture (religious contrasts are in- the resulting extension of the working career well past creasingly stark) have created a number of trends that are traditional retirement age. Depending on how the terms threatening the missions and visions of all institutions of are defined, approximately half ofOnly all college attendees higher education, particularly those that identify them- are nontraditional students (e.g., they work, are married, selves as Christian. have children, study part-time, etc.). The current eco- nomic conditions are driving more of these adult learners Vocational and Professional Education back into the educational system to either update skills or Economic conditions, increased lifestyle expectations, and acquire new and more marketable ones. The increase in gender equity exert pressures on students to acquire recent college enrollments is driven by these large num- specific vocational skills that will translate directly into bers of adult learners returning to school to become more higher paying jobs. While many books describe the se- competitive in the current job market. quences of differing student generations (e.g., “boomers,” “Xers,” “millennials’) the broader trend is predominantly CulturalCopy Forces Shaping Higher Education vocational. Coupled with a growing consumer-focused In addition to these market forces, there are also cultural mind-set, students ask, “What will this investment do for forces at work shaping the missions and visions of insti- me?” “What job or profession can I enter with this major?” tutions of higher education, especially Christian ones. “What career path will this education open?” Some are These include globalization and secularization. suggesting that formal degrees will be replaced by badged competencies—certifications of skill sets—that are not Globalization necessarily tied to a formalized course and/or degree struc- Institutions are recognizing how much more connected tures as we have known them for the past 200 years. and interdependent they are than they once were. This is partly due to the presence of international students in Graduate Education the United States who are increasingly turning to smaller Just as the standard of the high school diploma gave liberal arts colleges for highly valued American diplo- way to the college degree, now it seems to take a gradu- mas as well as the desired English fluency. Even more ate degree to be perceived as fully qualified in many important, however, is the pressure to provide Western fields—the MBA is a prime example. Many states require students with international opportunities. A working ca- master’s degrees for permanent certification of their reer today inevitably will involve cross-cultural and likely public schoolteachers. This degree inflation is signifi- international travel and connections. Whether in busi- cantly changing the landscape of all higher education and ness, science, politics, or fine arts, international perspec- impacting the predominant undergraduate focus of the tives and competencies are expected. In a global culture majority ofContributor most Christian colleges. influenced by Facebook, Twitter, SKYPE, and relatively inexpensive air travel, the world is much smaller. Provid- Online Education ing study abroad has become a fiercely competitive but The same expanding market that has created the trend essential element in any comprehensive education, from to vocational and professional education has also, in the liberal arts to professional curricula and from secular conjunction with the technology revolution, opened to Christian worldview orientation. doors to deliver education off-site and asynchronously. Globalization also means paying attention to the grow- The historic model of bricks-and-mortar-based institu- ing ethnic diversity within the United States. Student Christian Higher Education, The Future of 267 bodies are increasingly diverse not only in age, but also compromise the distinctives that have made Christian in ethnicity. This reality requires adjustments to not only education a meaningful alternative to other forms of curricular programs but also co-curricular ones. The education. It is likely that many institutions will undergo dramatic increase in Hispanic students, for example, significant changes in the way they deliver their mission, is reshaping curricular emphases and offerings at most minimizing the costs of traditional, residential, and lib- higher education institutions. eral arts education. Some institutions will find ways to collaborate, cooperate, and perhaps even merge to create Secularization more programmatically relevant and economically vi- A second cultural force at work in American higher edu- able alternatives. And some likely will need to go out of cation, especially for Christian institutions, is the increas- business, recognizing that they served God’s purposes for ingly secular tone of society and formal governmental previous generations. What must not happen is to just entities with their funding and social agenda priorities. let events occur without an intentional commitment to Western culture appears to be in a post-Christian age. realistic assessments and viable alternatives. Open hostility to faith on state and even secular private The next generation of effective Christian educational campuses benefits many Christian institutions. Their enterprises must be engaged in ongoing conversations enrollments have boomed in recent years, because con- about the dynamic interplay of all these forces and the cerned parents seek safer havens for their children, espe- implications for their missionalOnly as well as fiscal health cially their daughters. But on the downside, administra- and program viability. Creative, Spirit-directed, and tors on those same campuses believe it is inevitable that God-resourced innovation will be the most important access to state and federal financial aid by their students factor in the new mission of future Christian institutions. will be so closely tied to government policies of nondis- Author’s note: A debt of gratitude is owed to Dr. V. crimination regarding religion that they will be put in the James Mannoia, whose discussions, writing, counsel, and impossible position of choosing between hiring Christian creative spirit played a key role in the development of this faculty and remaining in business. article. He is the author of Christian Liberal Arts: An Edu- Secularization also is apparent in terms of the core ori- cation That Goes Beyond (Rowman & Littlefield, 2000). entation of students to absolutes in values and behavioral standards. The vast majority of today’s Christian-raised InnovationCopy Books for Higher Education young people have serious questions about ideals that Bennis, W., and P. Biederman. 1997. Organizing Genius. New promote a singular focus, standard, or Truth. The exclu- York: Addison-Wesley. sive claims of the Christian faith are difficult for them to Brown, T., and B. Katz. 2009. Change by Design. New York: embrace in this culture of tolerance and skepticism about HarperCollins. universal beliefs and practices. The very essence of Christ- Davila, T., M. Epstein, and R. Shelton. 2006. Making Innovation centered education is predicated upon the ideas and con- Work. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wharton School Publishing. victions of singular Truth and its implications for universal Day, G., and P. Schoemaker. 2006. Peripheral Vision. Boston: standards of behavior. Relativism is becoming the domi- Harvard Business School Press. nant value orientation of Western thought and practice in Gryskiewicz, S. 1999. Positive Turbulence. San Francisco: the vast majority of education, be it Christian or secular. Jossey-Bass. Quite probably this secularizing trend of relativism, Hamel, G. 2002. Leading the Revolution. New York: Plume. with its tolerance of any and all ideas, will be the most Kelley, T. 2001. The Art of Innovation. New York: Currency challenging for intentional Christ-centered institutions Doubleday. to navigate in the near future. Historically, the belief in Martin, R. 2009. The Design of Business. Boston: Harvard Busi- unchanging absolutes based on an intentional Christian ness Press. worldview has been the market distinctive of Christian Schrage, M. 2000. Serious Play. Boston: Harvard Business education at all levels. School Press. Skarzynski, P., and R. Gibson. 2008. Innovation to the Core. The NeedContributor for a Strategically Planned Future Boston: Harvard Business Press. Christian higher education is buffeted by market and Sutton, R. 2002. Weird Ideas That Work. New York: Free Press. cultural forces, necessitating adjustments of programs Wacker, W., and R. Mathews. 2002. The Deviant’s Advantage. and facilities, faculty and administration, strategic plans, New York: Three Rivers Press. and perhaps even its mission and vision if it is to have a viable role in the future. That future for many Christian Innovation Articles for Higher Education institutions will require proactive responses to the forces Davenport, T. 2003. “Who’s Bringing You Hot Ideas, and How identified above, but in ways that do not abandon or Are You Responding?” Harvard Business Review 81 (2): 58–64. 268 Christian History/Church History

Fraser, H. 2006. “Turning Design Thinking into Design Doing.” Other biblical books contain or appeal to church history, Rotman Magazine (Spring/Summer): 24–28. however, such as 1 Corinthians 14:36, in which Paul asks, Hamel, G. 1999. “Bringing Silicon Valley Inside.” Harvard “Was it from you that the word of God came? Or are Business Review 77 (5): 71–84. you the only ones it has reached?” This appeal to church Hargadon, A., and R. Sutton. 2000. “Building an Innovation history, like so many others, was intended to promote Factory.” Harvard Business Review 78 (3): 157–166. humility in Paul’s audience through an acknowledgment Kotter, J. 1995. “Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts of God’s wider and longer-term dealings with people. Fail.” Harvard Business Review 73 (2): 59–67. Broadly speaking, the early Christian church (most Liedtka, J., and R. Friedel. 2008. “Possibility Thinking.” Rotman notably Eusebius of Caesarea) wrote its own history as a Magazine (Winter): 15–19. way of promoting its claims to be an ancient religion (not Lojacono, G., and G. Zaccai. 2005. ‘The Evolution of the a recent innovation), the true religion (as opposed to the Design-inspired Enterprise.” Rotman Magazine (Winter): teachings of heretics), and (through martyrologies) a reli- 10–15. gion worth suffering for. Later, it also adopted the arche- Oster, G. (2008). “Divining the Need: Compensatory Behavior typal pattern of human transgression followed by divine of Customers.” Regent Global Business Review 2 (2): 14–18. punishment and deliverance, as seen in biblical historical Rodriguez, D., and R. Jacoby. 2007. “Innovation, Growth, and narratives, as a grid through which to read its own post- Getting to Where You Want to Go.” Design Management biblical history. This led to someOnly tendentious claims to Review 18 (1): 10–15. prophetic insight into God’s providence, especially when Schrage, M. 1989. “Innovation and Applied Failure.” Harvard written by the “victors” (as history proverbially is). Business Review 67 (6): 42–47. However, as John Burrow (2009) notes, this pervasive Suri, J. 2006. “Informing Our Intuition: Design Research for trope also “makes human beings the prime movers of Radical Innovation.” Rotman Magazine (Winter): 52–57. history only through their transgressions,” a perhaps Thomke, S. 2001. “Enlightened Experimentation: The New unintentionally Gospel-shaped historiographical side ef- Imperative for Innovation.” Harvard Business Review 79 (2): fect. Other church historians, such as Bede (born 673), 67–75. gave their writing a deliberate didactic moral purpose, —David Gyertson to promote godliness by recounting significant examples of bothCopy good and bad conduct. Hagiography, writing the lives of the saints, was ever popular for the same reasons. Christian History/Church History During the Reformation, Protestant and Roman Catho- lic historians ransacked church history in order to solidify What Is Church History? their rival claims to continuity (doctrinal or institutional) As Bradley and Muller (1995) have argued, “Anything with the past and inspire the saints to endure persecu- that the church does in the world is arguably a part of tion (e.g., the martyrology of John Foxe and the standard church history.” This must be taken to include both the Roman insinuation, “Where was your church before Lu- practices of the church as well as its thought, not merely ther?”). At the onset of the 18th century “Enlightenment,” the recitation of events and personalities that make up with its twin concerns for scientific analysis of original the story of God’s people on this earth. In a sense, that documents and freedom to interpret those sources apart history consists of all that has happened to and through from confessional biases, “professional” church history those people, from the Garden of Eden until the present became more of a secular discipline, seeking to discern day. The intellectual discipline of writing church history, more natural explanations of events even when written by however, is a particular subset of literature and academic Christians who retained a belief in the supernatural. As study, which has developed in particular directions over David Bebbington (1979) relates, “The canons of ordinary the last few thousand years. historical scholarship have not permitted References and Resources to God for nearly 200 years.” The Educative Purposes of Church History The PentateuchContributor and prophetic historical books of the Old References and Resources Testament scriptures (Genesis to Esther) consist largely Bebbington, D. 1979. Patterns in History: A Christian Perspec- of church history, retold from a particular angle and tive on Historical Thought. Leicester, England: IVP. with specific authorial agendas. In the New Testament, Bradley, J. E., and R. A. Muller. 1995. Church History: An Intro- the Gospels, but especially also Acts, may be classified as duction to Research, Reference Works, and Methods. Grand works of church history, with evangelistic (John 20:30– Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. 31) or edificational (Luke 1:1–4; Acts 1:1) purposes. Burrow, John. 2009. A History of Histories. London: Penguin. Christian Humanism 269

Van Liere, K., S. Ditchfield, and H. Louthan, eds. 2012. Sacred Christian Humanism of Northern Europe History: Uses of the Christian Past in the Renaissance World. Christian humanism was embraced by the Protestant re- Oxford: Oxford University Press. formers such as Martin Luther (1483–1546), Philip Mel- —Lee Gatiss anchthon (1497–1560), Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531), and John Calvin (1509–1564). However, the most influential humanist was Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466–1536), the Christian Humanism Prince of Humanists, who remained a Roman Catholic.

In the broadest sense, humanism has been applied to Desiderius Erasmus: The Prince of Humanists various movements throughout history, though with dif- Born out of wedlock in Rotterdam, Holland, Erasmus ferent stresses or emphases: Greek humanism, classical studied with the Brethren of the Common Life. The pri- humanism, Renaissance humanism, Christian human- mary aim of his educational endeavors was to nurture ism, and secular or scientific humanism. In each version good, intelligent Christians who were more concerned of humanism there was or is an emphasis of some sort with deeds and high moral values than creeds and dog- on the value of the individual or human existence. Ac- matic extravagances (Reed and Prevost 1993, 182; Burns cording to D. Bruce Lockerbie, much of contemporary 1969, 434). Erasmus’s view of Christianity is reflected Christian education has its roots in the early principles in his Handbook of the MilitantOnly Christian, in which he of Christian humanism (2001, 136). Humanistic educa- expressed the notion that knowledge and prayer should tional theory of this time emphasized the study of Greek be complementary resources for the daily battle Chris- and Latin literature and challenged the learner to redis- tians fight against the forces of evil. He also set forth cover himself as a distinctly free human being (Anthony guidelines or rules for living the practical Christian life 2001, 146). (Elias 2002, 79). The bookends of humanism are the brand of Greek More of an educational theorist than practitioner philosophy of the fifth and sixth centuries, reflected in (Reed and Provost 1993, 182), Erasmus was passionate the dictum of Protagoras, “Man is the measure of all about good education and wrote extensively on educa- things,” and the secular or scientific humanism of the tional ideals. He strongly advocated universal educa- 20th and 21st centuries. Recent contributors (histori- tion,Copy especially when it included the study of scriptures cally speaking) include Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) (80). In regard to teaching style, he advocated gentle, and John Dewey (1859–1952), both of whom contrib- kind teaching, in which students enjoyed learning uted extensively to education and educational theory (Ulich 1975, 99), and took a strong posture against cor- (Lockerbie 2001). poral punishment (Elias 2002, 81). Teachers, he argued, should be well educated and trained (Gutek 1997, 82; The Renaissance and Humanism Reed and Prevost 1993, 182) and understand the nature The Renaissance brought a radical “demand for a broader of the learner and laws germane to the educative process expanse of knowledge, a new style of living, and a greater (Ulich 1975, 99). As a Christian humanist, Erasmus recognition of the status of the individual” (Burns 1969, gave equal weight to the study of Christian writings of 395), and it was a broad cultural movement that involved the church fathers and the classics (Greek and Latin changes in politics, philosophy, theology, and the fine languages and their literature). The vernacular and sci- arts. However, the essence of Renaissance humanism is ences, on the other hand, received no attention (Ulich found in educational reform (Elias 2002, 67). Two phases 1975, 100; Gutek 1997, 82–83). emerged historically within the realm of Renaissance Erasmus also understood the importance of method learning and education. The initial phase took place in in teaching and recommended play, visual aids, games, Italy from the early 14th century to the close of the 15th prizes, competitions, and rewards in the teaching of chil- century. The second phase took place in northern Europe, dren (Elias 2002, 81; Ulich 1975, 101). Finally, in regard primarily in Holland, England, and Germany, and mani- to the learner, he believed that humans possess imagina- fested aContributor significantly profounder emphasis on religious tion and other innate urges, including self-preservation, matters. It was this variety of humanism, John Elias rightly ambition, imitation, desire for attachment, and power of proposes, that influenced or formed the educational ideals reason (Ulich 2002, 101; Elias 2002, 81). of those who established institutions of higher education in North America. Humanism of this period has influenced The Reformers and Christian Humanism both Protestant and Catholic efforts in contemporary The humanist movement within the Reformation dif- Christian education (Elias 2002, 66–67). fered from the humanism of Italy in that it had “less 270 Christian Humanism of the humanist confidence in the ability of men and The students were thoroughly grounded in the Greek women to shape themselves, emphasizing. . . the ne- and Latin classics, in speaking and writing good Latin, cessity of divine initiative and grace for all worthwhile and religious instruction (Elias 2002, 93; Towns 1975, human activity (Elias 2002, 86). Collectively, the reform- 170–171). ers sought educational reform in the churches, public schools, universities, and the home. Ulrich Zwingli Ulrich Zwingli, a reformer and priest from Zurich, Swit- Martin Luther zerland, was a strong supporter of humanism. Unlike Luther differed from Erasmus in that while he appreci- Erasmus, who was concerned with the education of the ated the antiquities, he felt that they were of no con- elite, Zwingli shared the desire of his fellow reformers to sequence to religious devotion, whereas Erasmus held bring education to the masses. He emphasized the study to the notion that “the goals of culture is the union of of scriptures and favored an education of the young that antiquity and Christianity” (Ulich 1975, 95). For Luther, would result in greatness in Christian living. He intro- only Christian revelation is sacred. Compared to other duced elementary schools to Switzerland and published a humanists, including Erasmus, who made piousness and short essay, Of the Education of Youth. In this treatise he culture the chief goals of education, Luther was more presented the proper goal of education as rendering the concerned with educating individuals to serve others in pupil as much like Christ as possibleOnly (Pipkin 1975, 131; churches and civic orders (Elias 2002, 86). Three theolog- Elias 2002, 92). ical principles drove his zeal for educational reform: (1) the authority of the Bible (sola scriptura), (2) justification References and Resources by faith (sola fide), and (3) the priesthood of all believ- Anthony, Michael J. 2001. “Humanism, Christian.” In Evan- ers. These principles fostered a new vision for Christian gelical Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by Michael education, whereby the aim was to train all believers to be J. Anthony, 345–349. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. priests before God. This meant making education univer- Burns, Edward McNall. 1969. Western Civilizations: Their sal, since one could know God personally, in part through History and Their Culture. 7th ed. Vol. I. New York: W. W. the reading of scriptures (Pazmiño 1997, 144). Norton. Elias, CopyJohn. 2002. A History of Christian Education: Protestant, Philip Melanchthon Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: Krieger Working closely with Luther in educational reform was Publishing. the Christian humanist Philip Melanchthon. A profes- Gutek, Gerald L. 1997. Historical and Philosophical Founda- sor of Greek at Wittenberg, along with the scriptures, tions of Education: A Biographical Introduction. 2nd ed. Melanchthon held the traditional liberal arts in high Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. regard. It is this program, argues Carl Meyer, that made Lockerbie, D. Bruce. 2001. “Christian Humanism.” In Evan- Melanchthon a Christian humanist; this in turn helps us gelical Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by Michael understand him as an educator (1975, 145–146). Along J. Anthony, 136–137. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. with Luther, Melanchthon played a significant role in the Meyer, Carl S. 1975. “Philip Melanchthon.” In A History of Re- reform of the Saxony school system. Together they drew ligious Educators, edited by Elmer L. Towns, 144–160. Grand up a proposal for school reform, including the specifica- Rapids, MI: Baker Books. tion of subjects to be taught, hours of instruction, divi- Pazmiño, Robert W. 1997. Foundational Issues in Christian sion of classes, and governance of schools (Meyer 1975, Education. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. 153; Elias 2002, 91; Gutek 1997, 91). Pipkin, H. Wayne. 1975. “Huldreich Zwingli.” In A History of Religious Educators, edited by Elmer L. Towns, 124–136. John Calvin Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Like Luther and Melanchthon, John Calvin’s educational Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- ideals were embedded in the humanist tradition. His tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. foundationalContributor ideal was pietas literata, “a piety enlight- Towns, Elmer L. 1975. “John Calvin.” In A History of Religious ened by classical learning” (Elias 2002, 93). Calvin’s most Educators, edited by Elmer L. Towns, 92–102. Grand Rapids, notable contribution to education was the Geneva Acad- MI: Baker Books. emy, which had a seven-year classical curriculum. The Ulich, Robert. 1975. “Erasmus.” In A History of Religious Edu- school was divided into a Schola privata (for children up cators, edited by Elmer L. Towns, 167–175. Grand Rapids, to the age of 16) and a Schola publica, the university. The MI: Baker Books. training in the college was clearly humanistic in nature. —Harley T. Atkinson Christian Reformed Church Christian Education 271

Christian Liberal Arts Christian University, Daystar University (Kenya), Tokyo Colleges and Universities Christian University, and Handong Global University (South Korea). Christian higher education is a rapidly Christian liberal arts colleges typically are privately growing movement internationally. Some Roman Catho- funded, small, residential, and primarily undergraduate lic institutions, such as Ave Marie University (FL) or institutions of higher education. Most of these institu- Franciscan University of Steubenville (OH), are compa- tions are found in the United States. They embrace the rable in their educational philosophy with the evangelical traditional aims of liberal arts education by focusing on Protestant colleges and are intentional in forming stu- shaping whole students fit for all of life through a com- dents within the Roman Catholic intellectual tradition. prehensive education in the humanities, social sciences, Other Protestant institutions, such as Pepperdine Uni- sciences, and arts; this educational approach is often versity (CA), Azusa Pacific University (CA), and Samford contrasted with more narrowly professional or vocational University (AL), share many of these traits, but transcend training. Appropriating the liberal arts tradition in the the liberal arts model as larger entities organized on a interests of an explicitly Christian mission that equips university pattern featuring graduate schools in profes- students intellectually, morally, and spiritually for faith- sional fields such as law, business, education, nursing, ful service to God, these institutions approach the entire and pharmacy. curriculum from the standpoint of the truth of historic Only Christian convictions. They also pursue an educational References and Resources strategy that brings those beliefs to bear upon every realm Davis, Jeffry C., and Philip G. Ryken, eds. 2012. Liberal Arts for of knowledge, emphasizing the importance of grounding the Christian Life. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. in biblical and theological study to provide a basis from Holmes, Arthur F. 1985. The Idea of a Christian College. Grand which to approach the full range of academic disciplines. Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Often this quest is referred to as the cultivation of a Ringenberg, William C. 2006. The Christian College: A History “Christian worldview” or the “integration of faith and of Protestant Higher Education in America. 2nd ed. Grand learning.” At the same time, these institutions function as Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. intentional Christian communities that foster their stu- —Jeffrey P. Greenman dents’ growth in discipleship through compulsory codes Copy of conduct, as well as co-curricular components such as chapel attendance (sometimes required), Bible studies, Christian Reformed Church and service projects. Many of these colleges require ap- Christian Education plicants to profess a personal allegiance to Christ in order to maximize a genuine Christian educational experience, The Christian Reformed Church in North America while others admit non-Christians into a more diverse (CRCNA) is a denominational branch of the Reformed academic community that gives Christian viewpoints a theological tradition. It is a binational denomination privileged position. Similarly, many institutions restrict represented by approximately 1,000 congregations in their faculty to those with Christian belief, as defined by the United States and Canada. The Christian Reformed their school’s faith tradition, while other institutions hire Church (CRC) was founded in 1857 by Dutch immi- faculty from a broader range of religious traditions or grants who wanted to practice their commitment to those without any faith commitment. Reformed theology and Christian education in a distinct Most Christian liberal arts institutions are associated way that set them apart from the general culture. The with the evangelical Protestant movement in North CRC places strong emphasis on the importance of K–12 America, where more than 100 such institutions partici- Christian education. Congregations collect offerings to pate in the Council for Christian Colleges and Universi- provide supplemental financial support for CRC families ties (CCCU). Well-known representatives include non- to send their children to Christian school. denominational entities such as Gordon College (MA), Taylor ContributorUniversity (IN), Westmont College (CA), and Historical Overview Wheaton College (IL). Others are associated with spe- The events that culminated in the formation of the CRC cific denominational traditions, such as Calvin College began in 1848 when a group of Dutch immigrants led by (MI), which is Christian Reformed; Union University Albertus van Raalte settled at Holland, Michigan. These (TN), which is Southern Baptist; and Roberts Wesleyan settlers were fleeing both hard economic times and liber- College (NY), which is Free Methodist. Similar colleges alizing forces in religion in the Netherlands. The Holland increasingly are found around the world, such as Uganda settlers eventually forged a union between their congre- 272 Christian Scholarship in Politics gations and the Dutch Reformed churches in New Jersey. are faithfully supported by Christian Reformed families A small group of 130 families split from this merger in through the attendance of their children and the col- 1857. They cited as their reasons weak adherence to the lection of offerings to supplement the cost of a private traditional Reformed confessions, a lack of strong doc- education for families in their congregations. trine in preaching, the practice of “open communion,” The Christian Reformed commitment to Christian a lack of piety, adaptation to American culture, singing education includes higher education as well. The CRC of hymns in worship rather than the psalms, and a lack established Calvin College and Theological Seminary of sympathy for secessionist churches in the Netherlands in 1876 at Grand Rapids, Michigan. Calvin continues that were opposing declining orthodoxy in the Reformed to function as an entity of the CRCNA, reporting an churches there. The CRC members continued to observe enrollment of 4,008 for 2012. In 1953, members of the worship in their native language and to emphasize the CRC founded Midwest Junior College, which was moved importance of traditional orthodoxy. in 1954 to Sioux Center, Iowa. The institution was re- Newly arrived Dutch immigrants added to the ranks named Dordt College in 1956 and was expanded to offer of the CRC in the late 19th century and also introduced four-year degrees in 1962. Dordt College reported an the thought of Dutch statesman and theologian Abraham enrollment of 1,400 students for the 2012–2013 academic Kuyper (1837–1920) to their American predecessors. year. Some CRC faculty and administrators also serve Kuyper had infused Dutch secessionism with a strong at Redeemer University College inOnly Ontario and Trinity theology of cultural engagement to accompany its de- Christian College in Palo Heights, Illinois. The Institute fense of Reformed orthodoxy. Kuyper famously declared for Christian Studies in Toronto was established in 1967 that “not one square inch” of the creation is beyond the as an independent graduate school in the field of philoso- bounds of Christ’s lordship over creation. Kuyperians phy that operates from the Kuyperian perspective. acknowledged the concept of “sphere sovereignty,” the idea that God has designated specific authorities to gov- References and Resources ern particular areas of the creation and has ordained that Christian Reformed Church Centennial Committee. 1957. One those authorities exercise their influence in a manner Hundred Years in the New World: The Story of the Christian consistent with their divinely delegated responsibilities. Reformed Church from 1857 to 1957. Grand Rapids, MI: Having imbibed this philosophy of cultural engage- ChristianCopy Reformed Publications. ment, members of the CRC began to make the difficult Hofman, Tyman E. 2004. The Canadian Story of the CRC: Its transition from their native Dutch language and customs First Century. Belleville, ON: Guardian Books. to a closer engagement with American culture in the early Schaap, James C. 1998. Our Family Album: The Unfinished 20th century. The denomination began the publication of Story of the Christian Reformed Church. Grand Rapids, MI: the Banner, the official CRC news publication, in 1915. CRC Publications. The CRC grew increasingly Americanized after World Swierenga, Robert P., and Elton J. Bruins. 2000. Family Quar- War II and also cooperated more closely with the grow- rels in the Dutch Reformed Church of the Nineteenth Century. ing Canadian Christian Reformed Churches, necessitat- Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ing the recognition of binational cooperation in the name —Scott Culpepper of the denomination.

Educational Contributions Christian Scholarship in Politics The CRC prioritizes the importance of cultural engage- ment in all aspects of its educational ministry. The Christians did not attempt to formulate a theory of CRCNA continues to model its educational ministries relationship between the church and the state until according to the theological and cultural tradition of Christianity became legalized in the fourth century. Prior Abraham Kuyper. Christian Reformed educators believe to Christianity being made a state religion, when the that God fashioned creation with a particular structure church had no legal right to exist, believers heeded the and with Contributorthe intent that humans would develop that biblical admonition “to be in subjection to the governing creational structure. This cultural mandate continues to authorities” (Rom 13:1), except when such submission be the calling of the Christian church as believers seek conflicted with the explicit command of God with regard to create and influence culture in a manner that brings to the proclamation of the Gospel message (cf. Acts 5:29). glory to God. A strong network of Christian elementary The reason for subjection is that “there is no authority and secondary schools throughout the United States and except from God.” Authorities do not derive their power Canada provides for the training of young people from from the consent of the governed; rather, civil authority a Christian Reformed perspective. These institutions is derived from God (cf. Dan 2:21; John 19:10–11). All Christian Scholarship in Politics 273 human beings are made in God’s image and have God’s lish and American civil rights and liberties (e.g., freedom “Law written in their hearts, their conscience bearing wit- of speech, press, and religion; the independence of juries; ness” (Rom 2:15; cf. 13:5). Therefore, even non-Christian the privilege against compelled self-incrimination; the lawmakers can outlaw evil without cognizance that their right of habeas corpus; and the right not to be imprisoned criterion “for good” is derived from God, and the church without just cause). can obey knowing that civil authorities accomplish the Political justice is thus based on a biblical understand- work of both punishing the evil and rewarding the good ing of human nature and human choice. For example, (Rom 13:1–7). criminals are detained by the state to be held accountable Pope Gelasius I initially stated the doctrine of “two for their actions, as opposed to excusing such behavior swords,” especially in his well-known letter to Emperor as the result of environmental conditioning. The biblical Anastasius in 494. Gelasius asserted that the world is understanding of human nature provides a formative basis ruled by two entities, established by God and having by which one can discern flawed political philosophies. For distinct purposes: “the sacred authority of the priesthood example, many utopian political theories are formulated and the royal power.” He wrote those words in the con- on flawed assumptions. Plato’s Republic (360 BC) was an text of Roman bishops assuming responsibility for judi- ideal government wherein enlightened philosopher-kings cial matters, military defense, and other secular matters would govern. However, the Bible teaches that all human- (to some extent as a consequence of ineffective leadership ity is sinful (Rom. 3:23); thusOnly Plato’s proposed leaders in the Western Roman Empire and authority believed would be affected totally by the effects of the Fall and to be inherent in the bishop of Rome as the successor would be unable to manifest the benevolent and enlight- of Peter). The “two swords” doctrine was commonly ac- ened disposition so necessary for the republic to succeed. cepted throughout the Middle Ages; however, questions Similarly, the Marxist view of government was based on still persisted with regard to the exact nature of that su- the belief that human nature was conditioned by society premacy. Indeed, the church struggled for freedom from in general and by capitalism in particular. Marx proposed intrusion by governing authorities throughout the early that if government changed the economy, then human Middle Ages. The crowning of Charlemagne as emperor nature would subsequently change. (AD 800) by Pope Leo III was most significant for re- The doctrine of justification by faith promoted indi- solving tension with Constantinople. Pope Innocent III vidualCopy independence, and thus constitutionalism, egali- (1198–1216) created much controversy when he declared tarianism, and religious liberty were social consequences that “royal power” was subordinate to “the sacred author- of the Protestant Reformation. From the 16th century ity of the priesthood.” until modern times, the primary impetus for the renewal With regard to both the political and the spiritual, of law in the West was the notion of the power of the the Protestant reformers challenged the authority of the individual, who—by the grace of God—could impact church in general and the papacy in particular. Martin the world and create new social relations through the Luther argued for liberty as the very essence of the Chris- exercise of the will. The notion of the individual was tian faith. In his essay “On the Freedom of a Christian” foundational to the development of modern laws. Two (1520), he argued that the conscience belongs to God noteworthy individuals in the history of law are Samuel alone and thereby defended Christian charity and free- Rutherford (1600–1661) and Sir William Blackstone dom against the subjective control of either church or (1723–1780). Rutherford’s Lex Rex, or The Law and the state. The doctrine of faith as a gift of God weakened the Prince (1644), had a profound effect on the British and effects of the Roman Inquisition and the Holy Office and American governments. the “Index Librorum Prohibitorum” (an index of forbid- Rutherford’s treatise challenged the foundation of den books published by Pope Paul IV in 1559), and thus politics in his day by proclaiming that law must be based articulated a theological foundation for religious liberty. on the Bible, as opposed to the word of any human being. Luther also proclaimed that all work should be done His work contradicted the notion of the divine right of to the glory of God (cf. 1 Cor. 10:31). He taught that all kings, which was the teaching that the king (or the state) honest Contributorwork is pleasing to God, and thus all labor was a ruled as God’s appointed regent, and therefore the word sacred calling whether one was ministering the gospel, of the king was regarded as law. Rutherford argued, from plowing the field, or scrubbing floors. The doctrines of biblical passages such as Romans 13, that the king (in ad- the Reformation contributed to the idea of freedom for dition to anyone else) was subject to the law of God. Ac- the market and society, as apposite economic and po- cording to Rutherford, the civil authority is a “fiduciary litical expressions. Capitalism developed as the economic figure,” who possesses authority in trust for the people. expression of the doctrine of justification. The 17th-cen- Violation of that trust would provide a political basis for tury Calvinists articulated the foundation for both Eng- civil disobedience. 274 Christian Scholarship, Transformative Nature of

Blackstone was an English jurist who is famous for his live in a more Christlike way and to know and under- Commentaries on the Law of England (1765), which em- stand God. It isn’t uncommon for non-Christians to ac- bodied the tenets of Judeo-Christian theism and became cept Christ because of a Christian scholar’s research and the definitive treatise for common law in America and writings expounding the Bible. Christian scholarship England. Blackstone revolutionized his government by focuses primarily on theology, but often overflows to teaching that all human law is based on two foundations: inventions, history, science, education, and many other the law of nature and the law of revelation (the Bible). disciplines. Christians who research ideas to improve or Jesus declared, “My kingdom is not of this world” define life have made many discoveries and inventions (John 18:38). The Lord’s statement indicates that one’s throughout history. citizenship in this world is not the ultimate aspira- Because of its divine nature, founded on the study of tion; rather, it is one’s heavenly citizenship (a personal, God and His Word, Christian scholarship attacks the individual salvation). Christianity is not a divine rule very core of our natural selfish thinking and approach to that governs all aspects of life, as in Judaism and Islam, life because of its deep transformative nature. Many Bible wherein the political and religious realms coalesce exactly passages refer to the transformative nature of pursuing and do so in subjection to the religion’s stipulations. life in Christ. Romans 12:1–2 describes the process of re- Christians are to “render” obedience to Caesar in his newing our minds and becoming a living sacrifice that is realm (Matt. 20:20–22; Rom. 13:1–7; 1 Pet. 2:13–17); holy unto God. Christian scholarshipOnly develops scriptural however, the “things that are God’s” are not possessed principles and themes to help all people comprehend by Caesar and can only be given to God. Christ acknowl- biblical themes of God’s character of and how mankind edged the right of civil authorities to assess and collect should submit to and serve Him. taxes, and scripture binds the believer to pay those taxes. Romans 12:1–2 also reveals that Christians are to be However, the Lord did not indicate that civil authorities a living sacrifice and have their minds renewed. If the have ultimate authority with regard to the political and Christian scholar desires to contribute to the canon of social realms. All things belong to God (Rom. 11:36; 2 Christian scholarship, he needs to have clarity of purpose Cor. 5:18; Rev. 4:11), which would include the realm in and comprehension of exactly what he is trying to cre- which any earthly leader exercises authority. ate in written form. Biblical scholars of the early church and beyondCopy were responding to current events or attacks References and Resources on the church. They independently wrote a defense or Baker, Hunter. 2012. Political Thought: A Student’s Guide. explanation of God to empower Christians to defend the Wheaton, IL: Crossway. Gospel and for individuals to know exactly who this God Germino, Dante. 1972. Machiavelli to Marx. Chicago: Univer- is that they serve. Readers are transformed into the like- sity of Chicago Press. ness of Christ by contemplating the deep aspects of God, Johnson, Phillip E. 1995. Reason in the Balance: The Case sin, and our eternal destiny through the writings of others against Naturalism in Science, Law, and Education. Downers and their different perspectives and new insights. Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Harris Harbison describes the general functions of McCoy, Charles N. R. 1963. The Structure of Political Thought. Christian scholarship as (1) to stand off from one’s beliefs New York: McGraw-Hill. and practices, to analyze them and order them, to attempt O’Donovan, Oliver, and Joan Lockwood O’Donovan, eds. 1999. to understand them better in light of their origins and From Irenaeus to Grotius: A Sourcebook in Christian Political growth and conflict with other beliefs and practices; (2) to Thought. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. bring faith into a more fruitful relationship with culture at Voegelin, Eric. 1975. From Enlightenment to Revolution. Edited some moment of crisis in the history of secular civilization; by John H. Hallowell. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. and (3) to reexamine faith in light of some new discovery —Ron J. Bigalke of the human mind about the nature of the physical uni- verse or of man himself (Harbison 1956, 4–5). Without Christian scholarship, the church becomes ContributorChristian Scholarship, weak and unable to respond to current trends. Julie Gor- Transformative Nature of man (2001) discusses how people have an internal desire to pursue a spiritual journey in order to clearly under- Christian scholarship has existed as a driving force stand God. Learners are challenged or impacted by the throughout history to maintain a depth of theological teaching and driven closer to God on their spiritual jour- understanding to aid the believer on his or her journey ney. If learners are not being transformed into the image of faith. Many of these writings have produced transfor- of God, what has the teacher accomplished? Christian mative changes in people’s lives by challenging them to scholarship has failed if the church remains weak and Christian Scholarship, Transformative Nature of 275

Christians have no characteristics or actions that distin- (3) the age of the Reformation (1956, 5–6). Jerome and guish them from non-Christians. Augustine were among the first Christian scholars. Je- Gorman also discusses how the truth of God’s Word is rome translated the first Latin Bible, called the Vulgate, transformational, and one can discover and display this and penned many other documents. Augustine wrote truth in everyday living. 1 Corinthians 2:12 correlates Confessions, The City of God, and On Christian Doctrine, how the Spirit of God impacts our discovery of truth and along with many other scholarly works. Each of these how believers may understand it freely. Understanding men contributed works that point people to God and and living God’s Word goes beyond mere understanding help us understand the Bible. to a “holistic integration of truth” that guides people to During the High Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas experience God. Christian scholarship must challenge wrote Summa Theologica and many other documents the reader to personally live out God’s truth as a display about the Bible, which have had a significant impact on before the world that Christians may reflect His nature. Christians from his time through the present day as a Non-Christians can experience conviction and salvation comprehensive explanation of Christian theology. Mar- through this truth presentation of the Bible and Christian tin Luther and John Calvin were two Reformation era scholarship. Christian scholarship is not about producing scholars who helped people understand God’s Word; head knowledge, but about impacting lives and challeng- their writings are still applicable and in use today. Lu- ing them to daily live for Christ and accept His Truth. ther translated the Bible intoOnly German and defended Christian scholarship sometimes concentrates on sola scripture—by scripture alone—instead of the many methods of teaching the Bible rather than how the Bible additional church practices. Calvin wrote The Institutes transforms. Jackie Smallbones (2007) discusses how we of Christian Religion, along with theological treaties and need to emphasize theology and the nature of transfor- confessional documents. mation with our Bible teaching. People are not changed Christian scholarship has come under attack as being by content, but by understanding the essence and pur- unnecessary to salvation and growth in Christ. Some have pose of scripture. Transformation is a deep change in denied the validity of deep theological or biblical thinking one’s life to start a lifelong journey to Christlikeness, not in order to focus on emotive or experiential concepts. It a simple emotional response. is difficult for one to wrestle with the transforming power Transformation has also been labeled spiritual for- ofCopy scripture and allow the Holy Spirit to move in his or mation. James Wilhoit (2008) describes how Christian her life without knowledge, wisdom, and understanding churches sometimes segment real life from the Christian of who God is; therefore, a balanced approach is needed. life, when truly the Christian life is all encompassing. A superficial experience or an emotional response to a Christian scholarship can provide teaching tools and sermon may not be sustained during trials and doubts. methods to help churches focus on instructing people Jesus described this with the parable of the sower com- to conform to Christ. This transformation process is paring seeds sown on the rocks with good soil (Matt. lengthy and requires steadfast persistence and reliance on 13:1–23 ESV). Having a proper balance of emotion and the power of the Holy Spirit through daily scripture study knowledge is part of the transformation process. balanced with studying Bible-based scholarship. The au- Early American Christian scholarship was sometimes dience is not limited to pastors or church staff but open viewed as an anti-intellectual response to the European to all, so as to create the best Christian leaders across all ethnic and denominational culture (Claerbaut 2004). segments of the workforce from a Christian perspective. American revival preacher Billy Sunday stated, “When Lasting change can be a result of Christian scholarship, the word of God says one thing and scholarship says but only through the transforming power of the Holy another, scholarship can go to hell.” Theological train- Spirit. The reader should be challenged to know God ing was rejected in favor of the spiritual experience; it better and increase our knowledge of Him, yet remember focused on evangelism and salvation with no education that understanding content and facts will not promote or theology, causing a rejection of formal theological long-term, sustainable biblical transformation. A person training. Pastoral education through rigorous research needs toContributor be confronted with the holiness of God and be and long academic programs was downplayed and re- motivated to become Christlike. Bible teaching that does placed with basic Bible training. A void opened between not cause us to know God more intimately and reflect the academic scholarship and the practices of the church. person and nature of Christ is not transformational. Academic inquiry and research should be considered as Harbinson lists three historical turning points at a tool to help the Christian understand aspects of life and which the Christian scholar has had influence: (1) the the world not specifically covered in the Bible. century during which Greco-Roman civilization expe- Christian scholarship can help people comprehend rienced its death throes; (2) the High Middle Ages; and how to think about any topic from a biblical perspective 276 Christian School Organizations and ascertain the transformative power of God’s Word. Wilhoit, James, and John Dettoni, eds. 1995. Nurture That Is Many inventions and discoveries by Christian scholars Christian. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. provide options to display God working. Truth can be —Steve Yates captured through Christian scholarship and used for life transformation by pointing people to a Creator God who loves unconditionally. Christian School Organizations

References and Resources The American Association of Christian Schools (602 Blamires, Harry. 1978. The Christian Mind: How Should a Belvoir Avenue, East Ridge, TN 37412) represents a Christian Think? Ann Arbor, MI: Servant Books. constituency of schools mostly sponsored by indepen- Claerbaut, David. 2004. Faith and Learning on the Edge: A Bold dent—separatist and fundamentalist—Baptist churches. New Look at Religion in Higher Education. Grand Rapids, Founded in 1972 by the Reverend Al Janney, then pas- MI: Zondervan. tor of New Testament Baptist Church, Miami, Florida, Edge, Findley. 1971. The Greening of the Church. Waco, TX: AACS strongly urges resistance against government in- Word Books. trusion into education and promotes the rights of parents Gorman, Julie. 2001. “‘There’s Got to Be More!’ Transforma- to provide for their children’s schooling. tional Learning.” Christian Education Journal, no. 5NS, 23–51. The Association of Christian OnlySchools International Hagberg, Janet, and Robert Guelich. 2005. The Critical Jour- (PO Box 65130, Colorado Springs, CO 80962–5130) was ney: Stages in the Life of Faith. 2nd ed. Salem, WI: Sheffield founded in 1978, following an unwise decision by the Publishing. National Association of Evangelicals to end its support of Harbison, Harris. 1956. The Christian Scholar in the Age of the the National Association of Christian Schools. A few years Reformation. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. later—by which time 1,000 new schools per year were Henry, Douglas, and Bob Agee, eds. 2003. Faithful Learning being founded—an amalgamation of Christian schools and the Christian Scholarly Vocation. Grand Rapids, MI: in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and California formed the core of Eerdmans. what is now the largest worldwide federation of transde- Holmes, Arthur. 1975. The Idea of a Christian College. Grand nominational evangelical Protestant schools, including a Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. strongCopy contingent of indigenous schools overseas. Huffman, Douglas, and Eric Johnson, eds. 2002. God Under The Association of Classical and Christian Schools Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents God. Grand Rapids, MI: (PO Box 9741, Moscow, ID 83843) was founded in 1997 Zondervan. following a surge of interest in a return to classical in- Hull, Bill. 2010. The Disciple-Making Church: Leading a Body of struction undergirded by biblical theology and provoked Believers on the Journey of Faith. Updated ed. Grand Rapids, by the publication, in 1991, of Recovering the Lost Tools MI: Baker Books. of Learning by Douglas J. Wilson. ACCS serves Protes- Kim, Jonathan. 2007. “Cognition and Faith Formation: A tant schools explicitly committed to a pedagogy based Reflection on the Interrelationship of Schema, Thema, and on ancient Greek and Roman curriculum, offering a Faith.” Christian Education Journal 4 (2): 308–321. progression from grammar to logic and rhetoric through Kostenberger, Andreas. 2011. Excellence: The Character of God the grades. Whole texts rather than anthologized snippets and the Pursuit of Scholarly Virtue. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. form the literature; memorization and recitation are sig- Marsden, George. 1997. The Outrageous Idea of Christian nificant elements of teaching and learning; history—not Scholarship. New York: Oxford University Press. social studies—is taught chronologically. Many ACCS Ogden, Greg. 2003. Transforming Discipleship: Making Dis- member schools developed from homeschooling by indi- ciples a Few at a Time. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books. vidual parents or cooperatives. Pazmino, Robert. 1997. Foundational Issues in Christian Educa- Christian Schools International (3350 East Paris Av- tion. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. enue SE, Grand Rapids, MI 49512) was formerly the Smallbones, Jackie. 2007. “Teaching Bible for Transformation.” National Union of Christian Schools, founded in 1920 ChristianContributor Education Journal 4 (2): 293–307. to represent schools operated by parents and churches Sparks, Kenton. 2008. God’s Word in Human Words: An Evan- committed to Reformed theology. Renamed in the mid- gelical Appropriation of Critical Biblical Scholarship. Grand 1970s, CSI serves schools modeled after the historic Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Canons of Dordt (1619) in The Netherlands and influ- Wilhoit, James. 2008. Spiritual Formation as If the Church Mat- enced by the teachings of Abraham Kuyper and Herman tered: Growing in Christ Through Community. Grand Rapids, Dooyeweerd. Whether parent-governed or sponsored MI: Baker Academic. by a congregation belonging to the Christian Reformed Christian Schools 277

Church or Presbyterian Church in America, these “Cov- Frost, Gene. 2007. Learning from the Best: Growing Greatness enant” schools offer elementary and secondary education in the Christian School. Grand Rapids, MI, and Colorado primarily—if not now exclusively—to children whose Springs, CO: CSI and ACSI. parents profess the Reformed faith. Hauerwas, Stanley, and John H. Westerhoff, eds. 1992. School- The Council on Educational Standards and Account- ing Christians: “Holy Experiments” in American Education. ability (3200 Goshen Road, Newtown Square, PA 19073), Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. founded in 2010 by Timothy P. Wiens, John Seel, and Littlejohn, Robert, and Charles T. Evans. 2008. Wisdom and Charles T. Evans, offers encouragement and professional Eloquence: A Christian Paradigm for Classical Learning. support to Christian school leaders. CESA’s membership Westchester, IL: Crossway Books. expresses a commitment to academic integrity and rigor Lockerbie, D. Bruce. 2005. A Christian Paideia: The Habitual at a higher level than some existing Christian school or- Vision of Greatness. Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design. ganizations require. Unlike most dues-supported entities, Schultz, Glen. 1998. Kingdom Education: God’s Plan for Educat- CESA invites new member schools to join by submitting ing Future Generations. Nashville, TN: LifeWay Press. to a quality-control audit. Veith, Gene Edward, and Andrew Kern. 1997. Classical Educa- The National Association of Episcopal Schools (815 tion: Towards the Revival of American Schooling. Washing- Second Avenue, Suite 819, New York, NY 10017) dates ton, DC: Capital Research Center. from the 1930s, although it was not chartered until 1965. Vryhof, Steven C. 2004. Between MemoryOnly and Vision: The Case A voluntary federation of some 1,200 schools and early for Faith-Based Schooling. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. childhood programs identified in the Episcopal tradi- Wiens, Timothy P., and Kathryn L. Wiens, eds. 2012. Building tion, NAES provides professional and spiritual support a Better School: Essays on Exemplary Christian School Leader- to school leaders. ship. Stony Brook, NY: Paideia Press. The National Catholic Educational Association (1005 Wilson, Douglas J. Recovering the Lost Tools of Learning: An North Glebe Road, Suite 525, Arlington, VA 22201) Approach to Distinctively Christian Education. Westchester, traces its history from a meeting of Roman Catholic edu- IL: Crossway Books. cators in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1904, at which the Catho- —D. Bruce Lockerbie lic Educational Association was organized. NCEA claims to be the largest organization of professional educators in Copy the world, although the recent closing of numerous urban Christian Schools Catholic schools may well have reduced its numbers. The Seventh Day Adventist Department of Educa- The history of faith-based primary and secondary educa- tion (Department of Education, Seventh Day Adventist tion in the United States dates back to 1606, when the first Church, 12501 Old Columbia Pike, Silver Spring, MD Catholic school was established in St. Augustine, Florida.118 20904) claims some 7,800 schools and colleges around Since the founding of this first Christian school, faith- the world. Formed in the 1870s, Seventh Day Adventist based schooling has played a significant role in the educa- schools offer an integrated education that addresses stu- tional landscape of the nation for over 400 years. dents’ need for physical well-being, intellectual challenge, Christian schools were founded to provide an educa- and preparation for eternity. tional option for parents who wished to maintain Chris- The Society for Classical Learning (122 Fleetwood tian distinctiveness and academic excellence. As early Drive, Lynchburg, VA 24501) began in 1995 as a geo- as the mid-1800s, Dutch immigrants founded Christian graphic consortium of eastern U.S. classical and Chris- schools that would provide students with knowledge of tian schools, founded by Robert Littlejohn in Lynchburg, Christ and Christian theology, while at the same time Virginia. By 2002, the Society for Classical Learning had providing an understanding of the world around them.119 been formed as an ecumenical association primarily for For many years, the Bible served as the primary text the purpose of professional development of educators used in Christian schools throughout the United States. committed to classical and Christian instruction. As early Christian schools developed new texts and cur- ricular supplements, they included books such as The Contributor 120 References and Resources Protestant Tutor and The New England Primer. Each Beversluis, N. H. 2001. Let Children Come: A Durable Vision for Christian Schooling. Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Schools 118. The White House Domestic Policy Council, Preserving a Critical Na- tional Asset: America’s Disadvantaged Students and the Crisis in Faith-Based International. Urban Schools (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2008). Drexler, James L., ed. 2007. Schools as Communities: Educational 119. R. S. Scott, “A Very Brief History of Schooling for Christians,” Evangelium 7, no. 2 (2009): 10–11. Leadership, Relationships, and the Eternal Value of Christian 120. T. C. Hunt and J. C. Carper, eds., The Praeger Handbook of Faith- Schooling. Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design. Based Schools in the United States (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2012). 278 Christian Schools was meant to provide a core of Christian knowledge to schools saw a decline in enrollment by 621,583 students students as they went forward in work and ministry. The between 2000 and 2012.127 The school choice movement, Protestant Tutor was also known to speak directly in op- which includes public, public charter, public magnet, position to Catholic theology and provided students with and independent schools, has had a significant impact on education from a distinctly Protestant perspective. In Christian school enrollment over the past decade. response, Catholic schools were founded to provide a co- Christian schools have played a significant role in the herent Catholic education for many students who sought educational choice of students throughout the United refuge from the discrimination they experienced in both States over the life span of the nation. From Protestant Protestant Christian and public school systems. to Catholic schools, they have served the educational and Christian school curricula have significantly changed spiritual needs of many Americans, from the colonists, in both Protestant and Catholic schools and today often to early immigrants, to modern-day urban and suburban reflect the comprehensive scope of the modern-day pub- students seeking an educational alternative to the Ameri- lic school system. The Bible may no longer be the primary can public school system. text, though it is considered by many Christian schools to be the foundational text for all of learning and life. Christian Worldview Education in Public Universities In the mid-1800s, Christian and public schools began Introduction to face the impact of the Common School movement, The public university poses both Onlya threat and an oppor- which was spreading throughout the United States. Many tunity for Christians. Faced with indifference, criticism, within the Common School movement saw faith-based and even denunciation, young Christians are susceptible schools as antithetical and potentially harmful to the to marginalization if not erosion of their faith com- educational movement meant to ensure a civic-minded mitments. On the other hand, a secular milieu could graduate.121 Horace Mann, the founder of the Common strengthen, deepen, and broaden their faith understand- School movement, felt that the ideals taught within the ings in a context wherein numerous belief systems coex- Common School would bring a better understanding ist. Might the latter prevail over the former by means of a of universal truths and universal morality and engage- Christian worldview education? ment.122 Proponents of faith-based schooling disagreed and continued to support the need for faith-based schools WorldviewCopy Education in the United States. Faith-based schools have since both Christians are not the only people who have faith, though thrived and struggled as a result. our use of language often belies this fact. Everyone has a Over the course of the past 200 years, both con- faith of some kind, a belief in something that orients her, servative Christian and Catholic schools have experi- something she deems to be true, important, or of value enced increasing and decreasing enrollment. During the in an ultimate kind of way. What that is gives shape to 2005–2006 school year, faith-based schools comprised 17 one’s worldview: one’s perception of the world and how percent of all K–12 schools in the United States, educat- to live meaningfully and purposefully in that world. Just ing more than 4.1 million students per year.123 Of these as everyone has a faith of some kind, so everyone has a students, more than 2.3 million were enrolled in Catholic worldview—the two are intertwined. schools.124 Evangelical schools have seen an increase in Awareness of one’s worldview provides knowledge enrollment from 270,000 students in 1983 to more than of the self (knowing self). Understanding oneself, what 750,000 students in 2005. The number of students in one believes and why, is the hallmark of an educated conservative Christian schools is estimated to be approxi- person, and this is no less true for Christians. But aware- mately 1.7 million.125 ness of one’s own worldview cannot be gained without Between the 1999–2000 and 2005–2006 school years, knowledge of others (knowing others), or as Max Muller nearly 1,200 faith-based schools within urban centers famously put it, “he who knows but one knows none.” closed, displacing almost 450,000 students.126 Catholic Worldview education therefore has to do with knowing 121. Ibid. self and others. Can a public university assist students, 122. C. L. ContributorGlenn, The Myth of the Common School (Oakland, CA: ICS even Christian students, in knowing self and others, in Press, 2002). exploring rather than ignoring their worldview? 123. White House Domestic Policy Council, Preserving a Critical Na- tional Asset. A worldview is shaped and influenced by context. 124. C. T. Evans, “Understanding Our Weaknesses: The Need for Personal characteristics, abilities, family dynamics, and Change in American Christian Schools,” in Building a Better School, ed. T. P. Wiens and K. L. Wiens (Stony Brook, NY: Paideia Press, 2012). socioeconomic status impact one’s view of the world. 125. Ibid. 126. White House Domestic Policy Council, Preserving a Critical Na- tional Asset. 127. Evans, “Understanding Our Weaknesses.” Christian Worldview Education in a Public University 279

Neighborhoods, schools, community organizations, academy a Godless wasteland. It is not bereft of Christian places of worship, ethnicity, and cultural traditions shape thinkers. Religious subject matter, though controversial, who we are. No man or woman is an island; we are still draws attention, and increasingly so. Further, spiritu- shaped by our environment. Elucidating the influence of ality, perhaps more so than religion, is alive and well on context in shaping one’s view of the world assists us in the university campuses of today. better understanding ourselves and others. In this new environment, the public academy could Our worldviews are shaped, however, by more than serve as a healthy challenge for Christians to deepen, context. They also derive from reflecting on life’s big broaden, and sharpen their own perspectives as they rub questions: the meaning of life, the nature and purpose of shoulders with others. In the context of a supporting com- the human, our responsibilities and obligations, discern- munity of Christian academics and campus chaplains, a ing right from wrong, the existence of a higher power, Christian worldview education can be achieved in a public being or force beyond the human. Defying simple an- university, where integrating “faith and learning” may well swers, these questions impinge on us with great potency, go beyond that encountered in a local church community. especially at critical junctures in our lives, and we search —Timothy Wiens stories, grand narratives, teachings, or support commu- nities for answers, in the hope of securing some ontologi- cal and epistemological grounding. Christian WorldviewOnly Education Our worldview becomes more defined when universal in a Public University beliefs and values such as justice, equality, the sacredness of life, and concern for the environment become par- Worldview education is interdisciplinary, incorporating ticularized. These are predicated on the traditions out of the humanities and the sciences. Christians can gain in- which we come and the contexts in which we live. Chris- sight from numerous disciplines and experts on a variety tians who heed the biblical call to justice and who strive of subject matter important in gaining knowledge of self for equality will inevitably wrestle with what these mean and others. Knowledge is far from the purview of Chris- in any particular context, giving them clearer insight into tians alone. their own worldview. Knowing that worldviews are shaped and influenced A worldview education will assist Christian students byCopy context, Christians can gain much by understanding in better understanding the influence of context, narra- how their particular contexts have shaped or influenced tives, beliefs, and teachings that give them ontological them. We are all situated, in particular environments, and epistemological grounding and certainty. It will elu- traditions, cultures, and histories. Insights from the social cidate other worldviews and their impacts and influences sciences on how these shape one’s Christian perspectives in the public sphere. Can such a worldview education be can be quite revealing. It may well be humbling to dis- achieved in a public academy? cover that one’s notion of truth cannot be separated from the context in which that truth is assumed, yet it need Christians and the Public University not undermine the possibility of discovering truth nor Higher education has undergone monumental changes, conclude that all truth is relative to context. and not the least of these has been the secularization of Christians have distinct views on that which gives the academy. The original (1692) seal of Harvard College, meaning and purpose to life. But concepts and language for example, read: Veritas, Christo, Ecclesiae. Today it well understood inside faith communities may need simply reads Veritas. The veritas of Christian theology, at more nuancing in order to be understood outside those Harvard and so many other public universities, has been communities. Today, Christians are challenged to use replaced by a veritas focused on the natural sciences, or concepts that are more intelligible to others in the public the social sciences. Veritas in service of God has been sphere. Searching for common language can be assisted replaced by veritas in service of consumer capitalism, by dialogue in a secular context. postmodernism relativism, exclusive humanism, or other Understanding the nature, purpose, and dignity of the ancillaryContributor worldview perspectives, pushing and pulling human in light of recent developments in science and students today in various directions. medical technology necessitates insights from sources in Not surprisingly, religion is often banished to the mar- addition to scriptural texts. Christians will gain from dia- gins of the academy and reduced in the minds of all too logue with others in illuminating their responsibilities and many as little more than empty, antiquated rituals. Reli- obligations, if only to sharpen points of departure from gious literacy has plummeted. Many renounce their faith worldview perspectives such as humanism, individualism, or simply park it at the gates of the academy. Yet religion or corporate capitalism. Lessons from various disciplines has not disappeared, as some predicted, nor is the public and even secular worldviews may render insight into no- 280 Christian Year tions or right, wrong, or future actions as Christians them- sons) by which Christian churches order their worship selves wrestle with being biblically faithful in light of new and celebrations. For low or nonliturgical churches, this challenging situations and opportunities. can be as simple as celebrating Christmas and Easter on Today the question of a higher power, force, or being an annual cycle, while for high liturgical churches this is contested and debated. Christians affirm the existence means following a daily liturgical calendar that includes of God, but insight into knowledge of God, the nature liturgical seasons, feast days, and celebration days for the and being of God, and the power and presence of God in lives and work of saints. the world requires depth and nuance in light of questions Following the liturgical seasons, especially Advent and or criticisms from others. So too does our notion of life Lent, is becoming more popular in some lower church beyond this life. Many earlier and simple responses seem traditions that have historically neglected them. The inadequate in light of new insights gained from science. rhythm of the calendar helps to root us in ancient Chris- These no doubt raise huge ontological questions, yet they tian tradition and connects us to the larger body of Christ are to be engaged, not repudiated. throughout generations, history, and cultures. Christian worldview education seeks to discern how we At a time in our culture when many young people are know what we know, as well as the basis of our knowledge. walking away from organized church, many are being It should not retreat from epistemological challenges that drawn back in by a longing to belong to a faith that is surface in a secular setting, knowing full well that reason rooted and grounded in the historicalOnly church practices. and science at certain points reach their limits. Perhaps By following the cycle of the Christian year calendar more than others, a Christian worldview recognizes and with meaningful and traditional rituals, many young admits a leap of faith when and where it occurs. adults are discovering a connectional polity and alterna- Christian faith is grounded in scriptures and strength- tive reality that give structure and meaning to their faith ened through ritual. Christian living, however, reaches and their lives. beyond one’s ecclesiastical community. Christian world- A simple Christian year calendar (see figure C.1) be- view education can assist young minds in remaining gins with the season of Advent (four weeks of preparation grounded in their faith tradition as they expand those before Christmas Day) and includes Christmas (the birth minds in a secular context. narrative of the Messiah); Epiphany (the manifestation Insight and understanding of self, others, and the world of ChristCopy to the Gentiles); Season of Lent (40 days prior in which we live can be gained from a variety of perspec- to Easter); Holy week (Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday, tives and from a healthy dialogue with them. Christians Good Friday, Holy Saturday Vigil, and Easter Sun- must not be naïve about that insight and understanding, day); Easter season; Ascension (when Christ returned to or ignorant of it. A Christian worldview education discerns heaven); Pentecost (the indwelling of the Holy Spirit); larger perspectives operative in the public university. Em- bracing or challenging them becomes no small undertak- ing. The academic public sphere provides ample opportu- nity to discern and sharpen one’s worldview.

References and Resources Anderson, P. M., ed. 1998. Professors Who Believe: The Spiritual Journeys of Christian Faculty. Downers Grove, IL: InterVar- sity Press. Plantinga, A. 2011. Where the Conflict Really Lies: Science, Religion and Naturalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Taylor, C. 2007. A Secular Age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- versity Press. Valk, J. 2013. “Christianity through a Worldview Lens.” Journal of Adult ContributorTheological Education 9: 2. —John Valk

Christian Year

Also called the liturgical year or church year, the Chris- tian year consists of the cycle of holy days (liturgical sea- FIGURE C.1 Chrysostom, John 281 and the Season of Pentecost (also called Ordinary Time— of Hellenistic religion and persevered in Christian faith. the time between Pentecost and the return of Advent). After studying under Libanius, he studied theology under Using a curriculum based on the Christian year or Diodore of Tarsus. After three years of catechesis, John liturgical calendar is a meaningful way to help students was baptized, in 369. He soon became a lector in the of all ages develop a biblical worldview. This intentional church. Though he supported monasticism and practiced practice can also help to avoid moralizing the biblical text asceticism, John refrained from taking monastic vows, at and ensure a structure for lessons that moves through the the insistence of Anthusa. In 375, John became a hermit, entire biblical text (usually in a three-year cycle). and notably stood upright for two full years, memorizing All humans mark time by their calendars. Our calen- scripture. However, he was forced to return to Antioch dars represent our values and form our identities. When when his health became jeopardized by the exertions of we carefully mark time by the passage of the liturgical his devotional practice. calendar, we more closely conform to, and are formed by, Chrysostom was ordained as a deacon in 381 and the values of God’s Kingdom. as a presbyter in 386, and entered into the practice of A book of common prayer offers a useful tool for fol- preaching, which earned him wide acclaim. Though he lowing the calendar on a daily basis. This daily practice is primarily known as an eloquent orator, he was also forms us as we mark time with our priorities. There a skilled exegete and readily attentive to the needs of are traditional books of common prayer as well as those to whom he preached. NotOnly only did he interpret newer models that appeal more to emergent, missional, and communicate scripture in a clear and simple man- neo-orthodox, or new monastic Christian communities. ner for the masses, he criticized the social, economic, One example of a nontraditional prayer book, Common and moral conditions of his day, including lax attitudes Prayer: A Liturgy for Ordinary Radicals (Zondervan, toward charitable giving and sexual purity. His preach- 2010), was created by a team from a new monastic com- ing was known for being straightforward and prophetic. munity, headed by Shane Claiborne, Jonathan Wilson- His homiletical skill and influence earned him the name Hartgrove, and Enuma Okoro, to help individuals and “Chrysostom,” meaning “golden-mouthed.” today’s diverse churches pray together across traditions In 397 Eutropius, an eastern Roman consul, secretly and denominations, creating a tapestry of prayers that nominated Chrysostom to succeed Nectarius as arch- celebrate the best of ancient traditions. Such prayer books bishopCopy of Constantinople. Though popular with the are designed to be user-friendly for those unfamiliar with common people, his tenure as archbishop was not with- liturgy and offer the basis for entering the Christian year. out controversy. He frequently criticized the imperial —Trevecca Okholm court and disciplined clergy who had become morally lax under the leadership of Nectarius. The patriarch of Alex- andria, Theophilus, strongly opposed the appointment of Chrysostom, John Chrysostom to Constantinople and accused him of being too influenced by Roman theologians, such as Origen. John Chrysostom (c. AD 347–407) was born and raised Chrysostom welcomed four Egyptian monks, known as in Antioch, Syria, and served as the archbishop of Con- “the tall brothers,” who were disciplined by Theophilus stantinople. He was given the name “Chrysostom,” for espousing the teachings of Origen. meaning “golden-mouthed,” due to his eloquence and In 403, Theophilus conspired with Aelia Eudoxia, the bold preaching against corrupt church and government wife of Emperor Arcadius, and other enemies of Chryso- leadership. His sermons are well known for being simple, stom to depose him from Constantinople. This synod, clear, and practical. Moreover, he was concerned with the known as the Synod of the Oak, led to his exile, which, raising and teaching of children in the church. however, was short-lived, as the populace strongly dis- agreed with the synod’s decision to depose him, and an Early Life and Education earthquake, believed to be of divine origin, prompted Born around AD 347 to Greco-Syrian parents in Antioch, Eudoxia to request Arcadius to reinstate Chrysostom. Syria, ChrysostomContributor was raised primarily by his mother, as Emperor Arcadius reinstated him almost immediately. his father, an elite military official, died shortly after he However, his reinstatement was brief, as he compared was born. His mother, Anthusa, used her connections Eudoxia to Jezebel and even Herodias when a statue was in Antioch to ensure John received a quality education. erected in her honor. Chrysostom was once again forced He studied under Libanius (c. AD 314–394), a noted into exile, this time to Armenia. It was on this journey in rhetorician, scholar of Greek culture, and adherent of 407 that he died, in Cormana. His last words were said to Hellenistic religion. Chrysostom remained unconvinced have been “Glory be to God for all things.” 282 Chrysostom, John, The Early Preaching Influence of

Contribution to Christian Education through whole books of scripture, beginning each ser- Though his homilies and noted rhetorical skill remain mon where he had left off at the end of the previous ser- his crowning legacy, John Chrysostom contributed sig- mon. In addition to this primary expository approach to nificantly to the practice of Christian education. His scripture, he also delivered series of catechetical sermons sermons were bold, logical, expository, and clear. He was and festal sermons for the highest times of the Christian attentive to the needs of his hearers and paid attention year. Chrysostom’s preaching was always marked by a to the effect his words had on them. John was interested degree of boldness and courage, as he was not opposed to in the way parents influence and teach their children addressing difficult times and controversial issues in the the faith. This is most evident in his On Vainglory and course of his biblical expositions. His prophetic ministry the Right Way for Parents to Bring up Their Children. placed him at odds with prominent and wealthy citizens In this work, Chrysostom maintains a high view of the as well as members of the imperial family, which on a spiritual potential of children, imploring parents to care number of occasions led to his removal and even peri- for their spiritual health just as a painter takes great care ods spent in exile. His faithfulness to the ministry of the for precise paintings. He argues in this work, as well as Word has been an exemplary model for preachers and others, that children should be taught the Bible first and teachers across the centuries. foremost, and that children are more receptive to teach- Perhaps the most memorable characteristic of Chryso- ing through narrative. He argued that a lack of biblical stom’s preaching is his expositionOnly of the scriptures as the knowledge was breeding ground for heresy, and that the Word of God and as the primary guide to life. This prac- frequent reader and student of scripture would be exempt tice reflects his rhetorical education with Libanius, the from heretical teaching and bear fruit. John suggested great fourth-century rhetorician. The primary function to parents that they rephrase certain biblical passages in of the church was educational and focused on learning order to accommodate the child’s level of understanding. that was spiritual and moral in nature, with the Bible Pedagogically, Chrysostom was ahead of his times due to serving as its curriculum. Chrysostom’s homilies exem- his understanding of inherent developmental patterns in plify the kind of reading and study taught in the ancient human beings. rhetorical schools, deriving moral principles and ethical models from careful textual study, which included ques- References and Resources tionsCopy related to subject matter and lexical analysis. The Attwater, Donald. 2008. St. John Chrysostom: The Voice of Gold. content and wording of scripture mirrored divine truths, n.p.: Kessinger Publishing. providing moral and doctrinal teaching for the faith and Kelly, J. N. D. 1998. Golden Mouth: The Story of John Chryso- life of Christian people. stom—Ascetic, Preacher, Bishop. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Uni- For Chrysostom, the purpose of preaching was to pro- versity Press. duce holy lives, the character and pattern of which are Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. 1990. Barbarians and Bishops: Army, found in the Word of God. Pastoral and moral exhorta- Church and State in the Reign of Arcadius and Chrysostom. tions pervade his homilies, drawing from biblical models Oxford: Clarendon. who exemplified particular virtues and lived in a manner Mayer, Wendy, and Pauline Allen. 2000. John Chrysostom. worthy of imitation. The assumption of the preacher was London: Routledge. that the intention of scripture was the moral improve- Roth, Catharine P., and David Anderson. 1986. On Marriage and ment of his listeners, and that practical outcome was Family Life. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press. evinced with respect to one’s dispositions, overall way —Benjamin Espinoza of life, and moral wisdom. In his preaching, Chrysostom opened up the whole narrative of scripture, treating it as both historical and contemporary. Empathizing deeply Chrysostom, John, with the rhetorical intention of the text, he created by The Early Preaching Influence of means of biblical figures and types a whole new world, into which he sought to draw his hearers with the elo- Arguably theContributor greatest preacher of the patristic age, John quence of his speech. Chrysostom (Golden Mouth, c. 347–407) was a spell- Deeply ascetic in his way of life, Chrysostom looked to binding pulpit orator who is also remembered for a deep the monasteries as embodying the new world to which all commitment to holiness and Christian virtue as a priest Christians were called. Along with other Christian lead- and bishop in Antioch and Constantinople. Chryso- ers of his time, he was concerned to bring monasticism stom’s long preaching ministry is amazing for both its under episcopal authority, to bring its ascetic and moral productivity and consistency. He preached almost daily, discipline into relation with the church’s theology. Theol- preferring to follow the lectio continua, working his way ogy sought to shape the monastic life just as the monastic Church Architecture 283 life helped leaders such as Chrysostom establish a full liv- In Rome there were numerous house-churches, such ing out of the Christian life that translated its theological as S. Clemente, Sta Sabina, Sta Prassede, Sta Pudenziana, convictions into practice. Christians were members of and Sta. Prisca. However, when Christianity became a le- an alien citizenship, by nature sojourners, and their life gally recognized religion in 313 with Constantine’s Edict was informed by ascetical and moral habits most clearly of Milan, house-churches became less common, and manifested in the culture of monasticism. Christians began to design special buildings for worship. By the fourth century, the Roman basilica or magistrate’s References and Resources court had become the template for Christian churches. Hartney, Aideen M. 2004. John Chrysostom and the Transfor- The basilica is the ur-church. The enclosure for the mag- mation of the City. London: Duckworth, 2004. istrate’s seat and the apse containing the emperor’s statue Kelly, J. N. D. 1995. Golden Mouth: The Story of John Chrysostom; became the presbytery, with the altar placed on the chord Ascetic, Preacher, Bishop. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. of the apse, which also contained the bishop’s throne or Mayer, Wendy, and Pauline Allen. 1999. John Chrysostom. cathedra. (All churches were originally episcopal.) At- London: Routledge. tendant clergy were seated around the apse. In the late —Michael Pasquarello III fourth century other additions followed, such as a schola cantorum extending deep into the nave, an ambo for the ceremonial reading of theOnly Gospel, sacristies for the Church Architecture vestments and the plates, a choir, and a baptistery. The transept was introduced between the nave and the choir. In the years immediately following the Crucifixion and Another source of church architecture was the mar- the Ascension, Christians met in private homes for wor- tyrium. Shrines for martyrs were built first in cemeteries, ship and fellowship. The term church originally meant most of them in the fourth century. When Christian mar- the congregation or the people of God and only later tyrs were buried outside of Rome, a martyrium or cella came to be applied to the building where the congrega- memoriae was built to mark the spot, attached to a large tion met. Churches were distinct from pagan temples, hall where agape or a love feast would be held on the an- which housed gods without reference to their devotees. niversary of the martyrdom. Early martyria were located They were also different from the Jewish temple or inCopy Old St. Peter’s, St. Paul’s on the Ostian Way, S. Agnese, synagogue, which had no outer court and inner court or and S. Constanza. Martyria and memorial chapels pre- the holy of holies into which only the high priest could served the heritage of faith. As the cult of the saints be- enter. The formal model was the upper room, in which came strong from the fifth century onward, churches the disciples gathered to celebrate the Last Supper. Thus became reliquaries. As large numbers of pilgrims came to all later churches were in one sense upper rooms where, venerate the relics, the aisles of the church were wrapped as in Acts 13–14, believers constantly devoted themselves around the apse as an ambulatory, often with radiating to prayer. Paul refers to the faithful meeting in house- chapels. Galleries were added at the triforium level. churches, the hyphen indicating that wherever the believ- The altar was the focal point of worship, but there ers met was eo ipso a church. In Rome, house-churches was no church without a baptistery. Early baptisteries were known as title churches (tituli), which had the name were separate from the basilicas, because baptism was of the owner inscribed on a slab. considered a private and mystical act. Normally they had The earliest example of a formal Christian church as a sunken pools in the center and resembled a bath. building was built in the third century at Dura-Europos, Pilgrimages influenced the architecture of churches. now called Qalat-es Salihiye, a town on the Euphrates be- In churches visited by pilgrims, relics were removed tween Aleppo and Baghdad. Its remains were excavated from below the altar to a chapel, the choir was raised in 1921. It is a typical Middle Eastern house. The church above the nave, and the side aisles were wrapped around included a small courtyard surrounded by a room for the east end to allow pilgrims free movement. The the instruction of the faithful, large enough for between echelon-apse system, as in St. Philbert de Grandlieu, is 50 and Contributor60 people; a baptistery with a canopy over the a rectangular ambulatory around the crypt with cha- baptismal tank; a room set apart for an altar and a bish- pels radiating off the eastern side. This architecturally op’s throne; sacristies; and storerooms. There were wall opulent system was adopted by Cluny and its many paintings showing David and Goliath, Christ healing the daughter churches in the 12th century. The Cistercian paralytic, and Christ walking on water. Some of the wall architecture offered a sharp contrast, the best example paintings are now in the Yale University Art Gallery. All being the Abbey of Fontenay. It had a barrel-vaulted the essential elements of the Christian church had already nave, without a clerestory, and transverse barrel-vaulted taken shape by the third century. side aisles with windows. In northern Europe, the 284 Church Architecture

Romanesque churches also had round arches for win- a second transept crosses the choir. French churches do dows and doors and barrel vaulting for roofs. not have the second transept or the choir screens, thus The orientation of the church was not at first an im- giving a clear, unimpeded view from the nave to the altar. portant consideration, but by the fifth century it had The French chevet or chancel is usually round, in con- become customary to build a church with the main or trast to the English rectangular design. French churches high altar at the east end. In Byzantium, it was mandatory are taller, and the English ones longer. In Germany, the for churches to face east. Many churches were entered familiar design is the hall-church. through an atrium, some with a fountain or cantharus. All abbey churches have great towers and portals with Unbaptized neophytes were requited to remain in the fine sculptures. In Italy, these are decorated with marble, porch or narthex until the end of the homily and then mosaics, and bronze. Many have aedicules to contain were readmitted for the final blessing. Larger churches the statues of saints. Inside the nave, arcades support had a double narthex, which in Romanesque churches the triforium with an open gallery or a series of arcaded formed part of the westwork. galleries, above which is the clerestory. Gothic cathedrals The Norman Conquest brought the Romanesque to in France have simple vaulting, but in England they are England, and its influence is seen in the great cathedrals elaborate. Windows are of stained glass, with huge rose of Albans, Canterbury, Rochester, Gloucester, Bury, Nor- windows at the end of the transepts. Most English Gothic wich, Ely, and Durham. Gothic churches are character- cathedrals have chapter-houses andOnly cloisters dating back ized by the massive use of stained glass, great spaces with to their monastic past. windows, pointed arches, and ribbed vaulting. Ribbed By the time of the Renaissance, great Italian architects vaulting permitted the structural load to be transferred were creating magnificent churches on a scale never at- outward through buttresses. The classic examples of the tempted before. The Renaissance generated a renewed Gothic are the 110-foot Notre Dame de Paris, begun in interest in the classical architectural notions of propor- 1163; St. Denis, where the kings of France were crowned; tion and harmony. Brunelleschi, Alberti, Bramante, Mi- and the Cathedral of Sens. Gothic became for many cen- chelangelo, and Vignola introduced radical changes in turies an architectural style that transcended time and the scale and style of religious architecture. Brunelleschi space, and its influence is felt even today. Suger’s build- created the Santo Spirito in Florence, in which the aisles ing of the Abbey of St. Denis in Paris was a triumph of are treatedCopy as an ambulatory, and Alberti designed S. the medieval Gothic imagination, with its soaring towers, Sebastiano in Mantua, modeled on the ancient martyria. ribbed vaults, and brilliant lighting. Michelangelo’s name is forever linked with that of St. As churches came to fulfill different functions apart Peter’s Basilica. St. Peter’s was initiated by Pope Julius from worship and the celebration of the Eucharist, dif- II, and it had six architects in succession: Bramante, Ra- ferent types of buildings evolved (see box C.1). From phael, Peruzzi, Antonio de Sangallo, Michelangelo, and the martyrium, came the centrally planned church and Maderno. The building almost bankrupted the papacy. the cross-in-square church. The cross-in-square was the After the Protestant Reformation, northern Europe preferred style in Byzantium, where it became universal, parted company with southern Europe. The new Protes- although the Hagia Sophia itself is not a cross-in-square. tant churches were focused more on preaching than on In northern Europe, the most common specialized sacraments; consequently the building rubrics had to be church was the abbey or the priory, used by religious changed. Most were built on the centralized plan. Chris- communities. Some abbeys became pilgrimage churches topher Wren’s building of St. Paul and his development of through the introduction of ambulatories, from which the auditory church began a new chapter in Christian ar- radiating chapels were built. Many abbeys eventually be- chitectural history. The Great Fire gave Wren the opportu- came cathedrals. Chantry chapels are a feature of many nity to build 51 churches, all of which show great ingenuity English cathedrals and monastic churches. In France and and originality. St. Paul had a great central dome sup- Italy, family chapels, like the famed Medici chapels, were ported by eight piers, whose arches open to an ambulatory built off the aisles between the buttresses of the naves. In with eight smaller domed spaces. It has a long nave with a English cathedrals,Contributor separate areas are linked together in domed crossing, and subsidiary domes crossing the aisles. the sequence of nave flanked by aisles leading to the first The baroque reached its zenith in Catholic south Germany transept, crowned by a crossing tower where the nave and and Austria in the work of Johan Michael Fischer, the the transepts meet. The nave is separated from the chan- Asam brothers, Neumann, and Fischer von Erlach. cel by a choir screen or rood, which has choir stalls on The Counter-Reformation witnessed the building of either side. The choir aisles are closed off by a gate. The some of the most spectacular churches in Europe. The original site of the shrine is behind the sanctuary, usually baroque displayed the eternal church through rich orna- a tomb or a slab. The lady chapel is behind the ambula- ments and opulent altarpieces. The purpose was to prefig- tory or retrochoir. In some English or Gothic cathedrals, ure the glory of heaven. Among the most remarkable of Church Architecture 285 baroque churches are the Gothic Church of St. Martin in on the Water (1988) and Church of the Light (1989) by Salzburg and the monastic church of Vierzehnheiligen in the Japanese architect Tadao Ando; Crystal Cathedral in Germany. Eventually, Jesuit missionaries would carry this Garden City, California, by Philip Johnson; and the Ca- style to the New World and then to the ends of the earth. thedral of Brasilia by Oscar Niemeyer. In the New World, the Puritans who settled in New Church architecture continues to change. Mega- England created the opposite architectural style with churches with congregations over 25,000 have pushed their austere and simple meeting house, devoid of any the envelope in church architecture. For example, in baroque-style ornaments. The standard Puritan church Willow Creek Church in Illinois, the auditory church has was a post-and-beam structure to which a spire and been transformed into a mass communication theater. porch were added later. The auditory hall was the place of Churches like Willow Creek represent not only a depar- worship. The pulpit was halfway up the first and second ture from traditional church architecture, but also a radical floors, and a gallery was introduced on three walls. By change in the nature of worship. Rather than insulating the mid-19th century, evangelical Protestants had aban- worshippers from the world, they make worship enter- doned the austere New England style. They put cushions taining, using lights, TV screens, and auditorium seating. on their pews, carpets on their floors, and stadium seat- Meanwhile, Roman Catholic and Episcopal parishes are ing in the sanctuaries. They drew large crowds in the style building more traditional churches. Here art is central, as of tent revivals and built churches to look and feel more in sculptures adorning the wallsOnly and stained glass filtering like theaters. The arrangement meant that the parishio- the sunlight. The Catholic cathedral in Houston is built ners often looked down on the minister, a shift from the in the traditional Italian Renaissance design. It has walls implicit power structure of the more traditional congre- more than a foot thick to mute outside noises and accentu- gations. At the same time, the new buildings had stages to ate interior acoustics. Our Lady of the Angels Cathedral in feature musical performances, which were central to their Los Angeles, designed by the Spanish architect Jose Rafael services. To house more secular community events, cook- Moneo and completed in 2002, eschews right angles. Wor- ing facilities were added. By the turn of the 20th century, shippers enter on the side of the building through massive as Jeanne Kilde noted in When Churches Become Theater, cast-bronze doors. Oakland’s Cathedral of Christ the Light some churches even had bowling alleys. has an almond-shaped floor plan, along with futuristic wall The late 18th century witnessed a revival of both classic panelsCopy of aluminum and laminated glass. and Gothic church architecture. The chief architects of On the other end of the scale, the new urban church is the Gothic Revival were William Burgess, George Fred- more likely to be a storefront in a strip mall. These are sa- erick Bodley, Sir George Gilbert Scott, George Edmund cred spaces where local residents (and the homeless) can Street, William Butterfield, and the members of the pray and share meals. The Emerging Church movement Cambridge Camden Society. The classical and neoclas- has gone back to prayer meetings in house-churches with sical revival was more dominant in Scotland and France. just a dozen or so worshipers, as in the early church. Examples of classical churches in France are the Ste. Gen- Church architecture has come full circle. evieve in Paris (renamed the Pantheon during the French Revolution), and the Church of La Madeleine, built References and Resources by Napoleon in classical Corinthian style. In Germany Heathcote, Edwin, and Iona Spens. 1997. The Church Builders. and Austria, Gothic design was more favored, as in the Bracebridge, Ontario: Academy Press Group. Church of St. Nicholas at Hamburg (1840), Votifkirche, Holly, Henry. 1980. Church Architecture. Aylesbeare, Devon, Vienna (1858), and Cologne Cathedral (1842–1880). England: M.H. Mallory The 20th century produced a number of great cathe- Martin, W. W. 1977/2012. Manual of Ecclesiastical Architec- drals, such as the Basilica of Sacre-Coeur in Paris, built in ture: Comprising a Study of Its Various Styles, the Chronologi- the Romano-Byzantine style; Le Corbusier’s Pilgrimage cal Arrangements of Its Elements, and Its Relation to Chris- Church at Ronchamp; the Anglican cathedral of Liver- tian Worship. Wilmington, DE: Forgotten Books pool; and St. Patrick’s and St. John the Divine in New Norman, Edward. 1990. House of God: Church Architecture, York. Spence’sContributor rebuilding of the Coventry Cathedral after Style and History. London: Thames & Hudson. World War II is notable for its brilliant use of stained Ward, Clarence. 1954. Medieval Church Vaulting. Princeton, glass and the addition of side chapels to the traditional NJ: Princeton University Press. basilican form. New styles have emerged through the use Wilson, Christopher. 1990. The Gothic Cathedral: The Archi- of new materials and techniques. Frank Lloyd Wright, Le tecture of the Great Church, 1130–1530. London: Thames & Corbusier, Auguste Perret, and others have experimented Hudson. with concrete churches. Some of the boldest church de- Withers, Frederick C. 1984. Church Architecture, London: signs were created after World War II, such as St. John’s Thames & Hudson. Abbey, Collegeville, designed by Marcel Breuer; Church —George Thomas Kurian 286 Church Architecture

BOX C.1: TYPES OF CHURCHES

abbey: Originally a monastic community and later the building in which the monks lived, including the chapel or church, a cloister, burial ground, cells and dormitories, guest house for travelers, chapter-house, scriptorium, and library. auditory church: Post-Reformation church designed for the preaching of the Word as well as the celebration of the liturgy. The typi- cal auditory church as it evolved in the 16th century in Switzerland, northern Netherlands, and France was simple and devoid of ornaments. Churches were centrally planned so that the preacher’s voice carried to all parts of the building. Galleries enabled twice as many people to hear the message, but there was no segregation of the sexes. basilica: (1) Originally a term meaning “house of the king,” it was the courthouse or commercial exchange in the Roman Empire. In shape it was long and oblong, with doors on the short side and an apsidal projection on the other side where the judge sat. There were aisles on either side, separated by a row of columns. (2) Also a term of honor applied to certain churches, especially the four patriarchal basilicas in Rome: St. John Lateran, St. Peter’s, San Paolo fuori la Mura, and Sta. Maria Maggiore. cathedral: Church with a bishop’s throne, the cathedra. Cathedrals are the principal churches in a diocese. A parish church used as a cathedral is known as the pro-cathedral. A cathedral is administered by a dean or provost who, together with the canons, constitutes the chapter. centrally planned church: Square, round, or octagonal church, often in the form of a Greek cross radiating from a center. The earliest type was the tomb with the arcosolium holding the body of the saint or martyr as the altar. The church of the holy sepulcher in Jerusalem was built as a rotunda with an attached nave. The round or octagonal building was also the preferred style in Byzantium, with extensive use of the cross-in-square design. The central plan was revived during the Italian Renaissance by Brunelleschi, Alberti, and Bramante. St. Peter’s in Rome began originally as a centrally planned church, but it was later transferredOnly to a long-nave design. The plan was later adopted by the auditory church after the Reformation. chapel: (1) Area within a church with a separate altar dedicated to a particular saint. One dedicated to the Virgin Mary is known as a lady chapel. (2) Building in a school, college, or hospital used as a place of meditation or worship. (3) In the United Kingdom, place of worship for nonconformists. collegiate church: Cathedral-like church served by canons without a resident bishop. cross-in-square: Church in which a centrally planned cross is enclosed within a rectangle. The central crossing may be either a simple cross-vault or a dome where the arms of the cross are vaulted. The corner spaces are sometimes used as galleries or closed off as sacristies or side chapels. double church: Church with two tiers one above the other, as in Assisi. A variant is the palace chapel with two levels, one for royalty and the other for the servants. A double-ended church is one with an apsidal projection at both the east and west ends. hall church: Church in which the nave and the aisles are of equal height; itCopy is lit from side windows. It was popular in Germany. minster: Variant term for some cathedrals in England, such as Westminster. oratory: Small chapel, not normally part of a church, set apart in a house or public building for private prayer. It is usually used by a special community of people rather than the general population.

Architectural Features of Churches

aisle: Part of a church parallel to the nave and separated from it by piers, pillars, or columns. altar: Place of sacrifice at the end of the church. In early churches, the altar was placed at the eastern chord of the apse, with the bishop’s throne beyond it, with seats for the clergy on either side. ambulatory: Semicircular aisle, enclosing an apse, used in processions. It surrounded the area of the high altar. apse: East end of a church, semicircular or polygonal, covered by a semidome or sectional vault. atrium: Large courtyard, surrounded by a cloister or wall, leading to a major church or shrine. baldachin: Canopy made of wood, metal, stone, or textile, over an altar, with four columns or piers, supporting a domelike top. The most famous baldachin is that made by Bernini in St. Peter’s, Rome. baptistery: Building, generally separate from the church, containing the font. In early churches, the baptistery was of cruciform shape, or hexagonal (in allusion to the Crucifixion on the 6th day of the week) or octagonal (in allusion to the Resurrection on Sunday, the “8th” day). bema: Dais for the clergy in the apse of an early church, corresponding to the sanctuary or chancel. belfry: Upper level in a tower in which the bells are hung. campanile: Italian bell tower separate from a church. it may be circular, square, or polygonal. chancel: Part of the east end of a church containing the altar and places for the clergy and the choir. chantry: ContributorChapel in or adjacent to a church for the celebration of mass for the souls of departed patrons. It was usually founded by the endowment of a benefactor. chapter house: Building attached to a cathedral by cloisters in which church officials meet or transact business. choir: Part of the chancel in which the choir assembles. In medieval churches, a choir screen or pulpitum separated the nave from the chancel. clerestory: Upper part of the main walls of a church above the roofs containing windows. The clerestory passage enables the win- dows to be repaired without erecting a scaffolding. Church as Learning Organization 287

cloister: Enclosed rectangular space surrounded by pavements and a colonnaded arcade, surrounded by a wall. crossing: Place where the nave, chancel, and transepts meet. crypt: Area below the church where the relics are preserved. iconostasis: Screen in Byzantine churches separating the sanctuary from the nave with three doors. The screen, which may be of wood or stone, is generally covered with icons. lych gate: Covered wooden gateway at the entrance to a churchyard. narthex: Vestibule running across the nave, separated from it by columns or a wall. In early Christian churches, neophytes and peni- tents were assembled in the narthex during the celebration of the Eucharist, to which they were not admitted. nave: The principal area where the laity sit during service. porch: Covered entry to a church, similar to a portico. predella: The step at the back of the altar on which the candlesticks are placed, or the strip of paintings at the base of the altarpiece. pulpit: Elevated structure in the nave from which sermons are preached. sacristy: Room in a church where the vestments and vessels are stored. sanctuary: The main area around the altar, generally limited to the clergy. spire: Steeple-like structure that forms a pointed tower. transept: Part of a church that crosses at right angles between the nave and the chancel. The introduction of the transept distinguished the basilican churches from Latin cross plan churches. triforium: Passage in the interior elevation of a nave above the colonnade facing the nave below the clerestory. undercroft: Crypt, or a vaulted room below a church. vestry: Room where the clergy robe before and after worship. Only westwork: In Carolingian churches, a tall building flanked by towers containing staircases, leading from the west end of a church into a room connected to the nave.

Church as Learning Organization a company to learn from each other; and the knowledge management and technology subsystems, which provide Since the 1990s, the learning organization has become an support for productive and effective learning. important model for organizational change to cope with increasing economic change and social instability in a SocialCopy Learning Perspective knowledge economy. There is as yet no integrated theo- Wenger (2000) describes social learning systems as com- retical framework for this model. Some scholars focus munities of competence, in which the tension between on organizational learning, discussing the creation and personal experience and community competence leads transfer of knowledge from a variety of pedagogical and to learning, for instance as individuals develop them- social perspectives. Practitioners and consultants tend to selves as more competent community members, or as focus on the learning organization because of an interest individuals encounter different communities with com- in action-oriented interventions (Easterby-Smith and petencies that challenge their achieved expertise in their Araujo 1999; see also Garavan 1997). home community. Wenger believes that in a knowledge economy, organizations need to participate in and man- Personal and Organizational Dimensions age such social learning systems, but they do not define Senge (2006) focuses on the personal dimension of learn- or fully coincide with a social learning system. This per- ing, with his emphasis on the disciplines of personal spective provides a bridge to apply learning organization mastery (accomplishing one’s personal vision), mental principles to the church. models (biased mental pictures of one’s world), shared vision, and team learning. The fifth discipline, systems The Church as Learning Organization thinking, which underpins his entire approach, under- Everist (2002) conceives of the church as a learning stands business cycles in terms of system-wide, reinforc- community, since the church’s educational systems ing, or limiting feedback systems, much of which remains are more than delivery systems of Bible and doctrine. invisible to individual workers. How the church teaches is as important as what is Contributor taught, so churches are to maintain a healthy learning Marquardt (2011), focusing on the organizational dimension, argues that the “systems learning organi- environment that fosters a holistic sense of Christian zational model” must consist of five subsystems if the identity as members engage with each other and their organization is to be successful: learning dynamics at the pluralistic world. Although she does not explicitly refer core of the company; the organizational subsystem, which to the learning organization, Everist clearly situates her deals with vision, culture, and structure; the people sub- views within the social and community perspective on system, which empowers stakeholders within and outside learning (see also Osmer 2005). Jarvis (2004) provides 288 Church Education Movement evidence that even the early church was very similar mission”128 in North American churches during the to a learning organization and suggests a pedagogical 1960s. This was a challenging time for Christian and framework for churches today. Jewish communities of faith. After two decades of rapid More recently, two dissertations have examined the ef- growth, membership had begun to decline. Sociologists fect of learning organization strategies on church growth and journalists were criticizing accommodations the (Bryan 2009) and spiritual maturity (Coleman 2011). faith communities had made on issues of race, class, and A direct relationship could not be statistically demon- economic justice. United States Supreme Court decisions strated, but additional analyses suggested a limited ap- and public school consolidations had undermined the plicability of learning organization strategies. privileged relationship Protestant Sunday schools had Thus, the learning organization provides a conceptual once enjoyed with their neighborhood public schools. model for understanding the church’s mission in today’s The civil rights movement and later protests over the war global village with its knowledge economies, rather than a in Vietnam helped fracture the voluntary consensus in strong experimental framework for quantitative analysis. congregational loyalty to denominational standards for Additional theological reflection, similar to the work of teaching and learning and denominationally produced Everist and Osmer, will enhance the usefulness of learn- curriculum resources. ing organization principles for Practical Theology gener- At the same time new insights—particularly from the ally, and for Christian education specifically. social sciences regarding the processesOnly of human devel- opment and the formative power of culture in human References and Resources experience and from theological inquiries into the na- Bryan, C. S. 2009. “The Application of Learning Organization ture and function of congregations as communities of Principles to Church Growth.” PhD diss., Walden University. faith—provided new frameworks for thinking about the Coleman, D. H. 2011. “The Impact of Learning Organization purposes and shape of a Christian religious education. C. Strategies on Spiritual Maturity as Exemplified in Participa- Ellis Nelson’s Where Faith Begins (1967), in particular, tion in Home-Based Small Groups.” EdD diss., Indiana Wes- drew on these insights to reenvision possibilities for a leyan University. Christian religious education grounded in the tradi- Easterby-Smith, M., and L. Araujo. 1999. “Organizational tions, practices, and resources of congregations. Nelson Learning: Current Debates and Opportunities.” In Organiza- notedCopy the obvious—but taken-for-granted—fact that we tional Learning and the Learning Organization, edited by M. become members of the culture of a community—in- Easterby-Smith, e.a. 1–22. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. cluding the culture of a congregation and its religious Everist, N. C. 2002. The Church as Learning Community: A tradition—by participating in it. We learn its language by Comprehensive Guide to Christian Education. Nashville, TN: hearing and speaking it. We learn how to relate to oth- Abingdon Press. ers by interacting with them. We develop a sense of self Garavan, T. 1997. “The Learning Organization: A Review and in relation to the others with whom we live and interact. Evaluation.” The Learning Organization 4 (1): 18–29. Building in part on Nelson’s insights, John Wester- Jarvis, P. 2004. “The Church and the Learning Society.” British hoff and Maria Harris reinvigorated discussions of Journal of Theological Education 14 (2): 136–152. Protestant and Catholic Christian religious education Marquardt, M. J. 2011. Building the Learning Organization: by highlighting how the participation of children, Achieving Strategic Advantage through a Commitment to youth, and adults in the practices of congregational life Learning. Boston: Nicholas Brealey. generates and sustains the faith of persons and commu- Osmer, R. R. 2005. The Teaching Ministry of Congregations. nities. Grant Shockley, David Ng, and others explored Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ways Christian educational traditions and practices Senge, P. M. 2006. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of of African and Asian American congregations further the Learning Organization. New York: Doubleday. expand our understanding of the influence of culture in Wenger, E. 2000. “Communities of Practice and Social Learn- transmitting faith across the generations. ing Systems.” Organization 7 (2): 225–246. Contributor—Jack Barentsen Mission As cultural and institutional reinforcements for the Chris- tian education of North American Protestants declined, Church Education Movement John Westerhoff posed the question that energized the movement: Will Our Children Have Faith? (1976). A The church education movement originated in the re- sponses of Christian religious educators to what church 128. Martin E. Marty, The Public Church: Mainline, Evangelical, Catho- historian Martin Marty called the “crisis of morale and lic (New York: Crossroad, 1981), ix. Church Education Movement 289 positive answer to that question for movement leaders Impact required a shift of consciousness in congregations and Although the church education movement has had its among their leaders. Theologically, this shift involved creative moments, as a movement it has yet to fully paying attention to the ecclesial and missional shape of realize the possibilities that fed its original impulses. In congregations and their traditions in the formation of the 1970s and 1980s, when conferences featuring John belief and religious practice. Pedagogically, it emphasized Westerhoff or Maria Harris attracted large crowds and the agency of the congregation rather than the school in many in the field considered Colloquy, a journal edited Christian religious education and instruction as prepara- by Westerhoff, to be essential reading, it often seemed tion for participation in congregational life, worship, and like an emerging new movement in Christian religious mission. The church education movement consequently education. Its themes were taken up by a number of shifted the focus of a congregation’s educational effort other scholars, including, among others, Letty Russell from conversion, as in the Sunday school movement, and (1979, 1981), Walter Brueggemann (1976 1982), Parker nurture as in the religious and Christian education move- Palmer (1983, 1989), Anne Wimberly (1994), Charles ments, to the enculturation of children, youth, and adults Foster (1994, 2012), Dorothy Bass (1997), Craig Dykstra in the renewal of congregational faith traditions. ( 1999), Denham Grierson (1984), and Jerome Berryman (1991). Those themes continue to inform the work of Method more recent scholars, including,Only among others, Evelyn Several features distinguish the church education move- Parker (2003), Joyce Mercer (2005), Kathryn Turpin ment. The first has already been mentioned: the congre- (2006), Fred Edie (2007), and Dori Grinenko Baker gation, as a community of learning, is embraced as both (2010). Pastors and local church educators have here context for and agency of Christian religious education. and there drawn on some emphasis of the movement to Second, the whole life of the congregation is the curricu- redirect the educational ministries of their congregations. lum of a congregation’s teaching and learning. The events Curriculum publishers have produced resources devoted of congregational life—particularly those concerned with to the preparation of all age groups to participate in the community, liturgy, and mission—consequently become missional and worship life of congregations. the primary settings for its educational activity. The edu- The movement, however, has not had a unifying cational shape of those events includes equipping persons projectCopy or strategy to gather up and join the efforts of its at any age with the knowledge and skills needed to par- contributors into a shared initiative, as the institution of ticipate in them, engaging them in the practices of those the Sunday school did for the Sunday school movement, events, and critically reflecting on ways their participa- a shared public vision did for the religious education tion in those practices deepens and expands their faith. movement, and the development of theologically and These emphases in congregational Christian education pedagogically robust principles in curriculum did for involved several pedagogical innovations. The theologi- the Christian education movement. The movement cal role of the pastor is now located in any setting where consequently has inspired and energized the revision- children, youth, and adults might learn to participate ing of Christian religious education in academic and more knowledgably in the liturgical and missional events popular publications; in congregations; in freelance of the congregation. The congregation as a community programs such as LifelongFaith Associates, led by John of learning draws attention to the necessary interdepen- Roberto; and among several religious publishers of dence of children, youth, and adults in intergenerational liturgical and mission curriculum resources, but the approaches to teaching and learning. Curriculum re- overall impact of these efforts has to this point been source publishers responded to the renewed interest in more episodic than connected. liturgy and mission by producing “worship readiness” resources designed to prepare children for increasingly References and Resources knowledgeable participation in their congregation’s wor- Brueggemann, Walter. 1982. The Creative Word: Canon as a ship and lectionary-based resources to engage all age Model for Biblical Education. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. groups Contributorin the study of texts they would again encounter Harris, Maria. 1991. Teaching and Religious Imagination. San in worship. Some congregations envisioned through Francisco: Harper & Row. Christian education the creation of a new kind of con- Nelson, C. Ellis. 1971. Where Faith Begins. Louisville, KY: gregation encompassing the racial, ethnic, social class, Westminster John Knox Press. and language diversity of the communities in which they Ng, David. 1984. Youth in the Community of Disciples. Elgin, were located. Central to each of these efforts has been a IL: Judson Press. new consciousness of the ways in which one learns to be Palmer, Parker. 1993. To Know as We are Known: Education as Christian by participating in practices of being Christian. a Spiritual Journey. San Francisco: HarperOne. 290 Church-Based Christian Education

Russell, Letty. 1981. Growth in Partnership. Louisville, KY: ———. 1996. “Church-Based Christian Education: Creating a Westminster John Knox Press. New Paradigm, Part II, Adulthood.” Ames, IA: BILD Inter- Shockley, Grant, and Charles Foster. 1989. Working with Black national. Accessed 30 April 2013. http://bild.org/philosophy/ Youth. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. ParadigmPapers.html. Westerhoff, John. 1976. Will Our Children Have Faith? New Richards, Lawrence O. 1988. Christian Education: Seeking to York: Seabury Press. Become Like Jesus Christ. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. —Charles Foster —Steve Kemp

Church-Based Christian Education Church-Based Theological Education

Church-based Christian education (CBCE) programs are Church-based theological education (CBTE) is training designed for local churches to use to accomplish the core for ministry leadership that is rooted in local churches. responsibility of development and equipping their peo- Those being trained emerge from within a church or be- ple. They are more formal than other forms of Christian come part of a church. Those doing the training are the education, which are more fragmented and generic. For leaders of a church. Participation in the real life of a local instance, CBCE provides an integrated, ordered learning church is the essential core. Only path from “convert to mature disciple” and from “cradle It may be best to understand CBTE by contrasting it to grave,” rather than just an unintegrated set of materials with other types of training programs that take place in and classes. Further, CBCE is designed with customiza- churches. For instance, church-based Christian educa- tion by local churches in mind, rather than just one-size- tion tends to focus on discipleship training for everyone fits-all, off-the-shelf products. in a church, whereas CBTE is generally understood to “Christian education” is often considered to be the refer to the higher levels of training for church leaders. church’s training of children, but training of adults is also Most distance education and extension programs of an essential part of CBCE. As family units are recognized traditional academic institutions may use the facilities of and utilized as primary social entities in the church, a church or allow students to remain in their churches CBCE is really development of families, not just individu- ratherCopy than relocate to a campus, but these are usually still als. Research on the stages of human development and “school-based” and only “church-housed,” because the dimensions of family development can be used within training is not truly rooted in the churches, and church each part of CBCE, but also to guide the overall shape of leaders are not truly central to the training. Those being the curriculum so that each part fits with the others. trained must still be admitted by the academic institution Homeschooling that is tightly coupled with the Chris- to take part in the training, trainers must be approved tian education program of a church is frequently called according to academic criteria, and the curriculum is “church-based Christian education,” largely because firmly controlled by the academic institution. Those it involves various families coming together to share being trained in CBTE programs are selected by the responsibilities, use facilities, and rely on the staff of church leaders and trained by them according to training churches. processes that they develop and control. Church leaders are essentially involved in CBCE Many traditional academic institutions grew out of because it is recognized to be at the core of what the CBTE programs, such as groups of pastors gathering church is responsible to do. Involvement of church regionally for informal continuing education. Some leaders may take the form of curricular design and students enrolled in traditional academic institutions customization, personal participation in training, as- have educational experiences with CBTE features. For sessment of competencies, and recognition of develop- instance, some students are on staff with local churches mental accomplishments. or have extensive ministry experiences within local churches while enrolled. Others maintain mentoring ReferencesContributor and Resources and accountability relationships with leaders of local Parrett, Gary A., and S. Steve Kang. 2009. Teaching the Faith, churches while they pursue traditional school-based Forming the Faithful: A Biblical Vision for Education in the forms of theological education. Church. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. “Nonformal” is often used to describe CBTE, because Reed, Jeff. 1995. “Church-Based Christian Education: Creating it is based in a real church situation and relies extensively a New Paradigm, Part I, Childhood and Adolescents.” Ames, on real relationships outside the formal structures of IA: BILD International. Accessed 30 April 2013. http://bild traditional academic institutions. The curriculum is com- .org/philosophy/ParadigmPapers.html. posed largely of mentoring and in-service apprentice- Church-Related Colleges, Types of 291 ships with intentionally designed goals and assessments secularization, even the two or three in his study that he regarding character development, ministry skills, and approved of. In the early 1990s Burchaell had published biblical and theological understanding. accounts of the secularization of several universities in Increasingly, CBTE is being used as an alternative to tra- the pages of First Things (April 1991), and his book was ditional campus-based and school-based distance educa- accompanied by a number of other books depicting such tion forms of education, particularly for those experiencing secularization. (See the entry “Secularization of Christian midcareer changes and early retirement from nonministry Colleges” in volume 3 for an enumeration of these books vocations. It often is tied to ordination and other ministry as well as a definition of secularization.) credentialing processes, as high levels of leadership de- Burchaell seemed to argue that unless a college were velopment are achieved. It is also being used extensively completely owned, governed, populated, and permeated to support the in-service training of church planters and by its sponsoring Christian tradition, it was destined for leaders emerging from church planting movements. Entire complete secularization. Yet the Adrian and Hughes book networks of churches in India are using CBTE to train all contained accounts of Christian colleges and universities of their existing and emerging leaders. that were not so pervasively religious as Burchaell de- Biblically and historically, CBTE refers to the manner manded. In response to these two seminal books, Robert in which leaders were developed in the first few centuries, Benne, in Quality with Soul: How Six Premier Colleges as described in 2 Timothy 2:2. Paul was not merely men- and Universities Keep Faith withOnly Their Religious Tradi- toring Timothy one-on-one to take his place, but rather tions (2001), argued that there are more genuine types of guiding him in a process of in-service learning as he par- Christian colleges than Burchaell admitted. While Benne ticipated with Paul in ministry that included the training did not disagree with the major thrust of Burchaell’s of others to train still others in a manner that supported argument, he showed that the world of Christian higher an apostolic movement of exponential church growth. education is more complex and varied than The Dying of the Light averred. He developed a typology that sorted References and Resources out four types of schools that maintained some sort of Barker, Lance R., and B. Edmon Martin. 2003. “Judicatory- relationship with their sponsoring religious traditions. Based Theological Education.” Theological Education 39 (1): (See box C.2.) The typology has been much used in the 155–173. literatureCopy on Christian higher education to help discern Reed, Jeff. 1992. “Church-Based Theological Education: Creat- where indeed a school is located on the continuum be- ing a New Paradigm.” Ames, IA: BILD International. Ac- tween being a robustly Christian school on the one hand cessed 30 April 2013. http://bild.org/philosophy/Paradigm and a heavily secularized one on the other. Recent books, Papers.html. such as Mentoring for Mission, have refined the categories ———. 2001. “Church-Based Training That Is Truly Church- that Benne elaborated. Based.” Ames, IA: BILD International. Accessed 30 April While the typology is for the most part self-explana- 2013. http://bild.org/philosophy/ParadigmPapers.html. tory, it is important to point out that there is a strong di- —Steve Kemp viding line between the two types on the left-hand side of the chart (orthodox and critical mass) and the two on the right-hand side (intentional pluralist and accidental plu- Church-Related Colleges, Types of ralist). The line demarks robustly connected schools from those more weakly connected. In the former, the Chris- The last decade of the 20th century saw the publication tian vision and ethos provide the defining principles and of two important—but seemingly contradictory—books way of life for the school. In the latter, the schools are on Christian higher education. In 1997 William Adrian defined by another organizing principle or by none at all. and Richard Hughes edited a book entitled Models for It seems that the general movement over time of col- Christian Higher Education: Strategies for Success in the leges is toward the right-hand side of the chart, but in Twenty-first Century, which featured reports on a num- some cases colleges indeed strengthen their relationship ber of ChristianContributor colleges that celebrated their success in to their sponsoring heritage by moving leftward. In maintaining their Christian identity. Shortly thereafter, in many cases, colleges remain stable in their placement 1998, James Burchaell published Dying of the Light: The on the continuum. Disengagement of Colleges and Universities from Their Christian Churches, which chronicled the secularization References and Resources of 17 colleges and universities from a number of Chris- Adrian, A., and Richard Hughes. 1997. Models for Christian tian traditions. His dark conclusion was that the vast ma- Higher Education: Strategies for Success in the Twenty-first jority of church-related institutions were headed toward Century. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. 292 Civil Religion, Challenge of

BOX C.2: TYPES OF CHURCH-RELATED COLLEGES Orthodox Critical Mass Intentional Pluralist Accidental Pluralist Major divide: the Christian vision as the organizing paradigm------versus the organizing paradigm coming from secular sources Public relevance of Pervasive from Privileged voice An assured voice Random or absent Christian vision: an ongoing in an ongoing in an ongoing shared point of view conversation conversation conversation Public rhetoric: Unabashed invitation Straightforward Presentation as a Presentation as a to fellow believers presentation as a liberal arts school secular school with to an intentional Christian school but with a Christian scarcely an allusion Christian enterprise including others heritage to Christian heritage Membership Near 100% . . . Critical mass in all Intentional Haphazard sprinkling Requirements: orthodoxy tests facets representation Religion/theology Large and privileged Large flagship Small, mixed . . . Small, religious studies department: theology theology some theology but mostly religious studies Religion/theology All courses affected 2 or 3, dialogical 1 course in general Choice in distribution required courses: by shared religious effort in many other education Onlyor an elective perspective courses Chapel: Required in large Voluntary at high Voluntary at For the few on special church at a quality services in unprotected times occasions protected time daily large nave at a daily . . . low attendance protected time Ethos: Overt piety of Dominant atmosphere Open minority from Reclusive and sponsoring tradition of sponsoring sponsoring tradition unorganized minority tradition—rituals find their private from sponsoring and habits niche tradition (Dominantly secular atmosphere) Support by church: Indispensable Important direct andCopy Important focused Token indirect, student financial and crucial indirect indirect; small numbers no longer majority of students financial; at least minority of students recorded from sponsoring 50% of students tradition Governance: Owned and governed Majority of board Minority of board Token membership from by church from tradition, from tradition by tradition or its official some official unofficial agreement representatives representatives (College or university is autonomously owned and governed)

Benne, R. 2001. Quality with Soul: How Six Premier Colleges Africa, allow citizens to claim religious membership by and Universities Keep Faith with Their Religious Traditions. virtue of national citizenship, which is civil religion.129 In Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. many of these countries, members of the “state church”— Burtchaell, J. 1998. The Dying of the Light: The Disengagement whether it be Lutheran in northern Europe, Roman Cath- of Colleges and Universities from Their Christian Churches. olic in southern Europe and South America, Orthodox Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. in Central and Eastern Europe, Anglican in England, or Simon, Caroline, et al. 2003. Mentoring for Mission: Nurturing Southern Baptist in the southern United States—make up New Faculty at Church-related Colleges. Grand Rapids, MI: the vast majority of the population, yet weekly attendance Eerdmans.Contributorat worship and active participation in these faith com- —Robert Benne munities is in single-digit percentage. What is the effect of this so-called civil religion on the educational mission of the church? Civil Religion, Challenge of

129. Some of the most vigorous criticism of religious practice has come The historical legacies of Christianity in various regions from Kierkegaard and Bonhoeffer, because Christianity in their respective of the world, especially Europe, South America, and countries was intertwined with the political and social atmosphere. Civil Religion, Challenge of 293

The Fiction We Live By Yet to the modern secularist, the notion of a Christian Former U.S. senator Mark Hatfield says many believe America is absurd. The middle-class American subcul- that civil religion130 is better than no religion at all; “Civil ture has existed in such a close relationship with Christi- religion, in my view, is not a harmless, generalized uni- anity that it sometimes is difficult to distinguish what is tarianlike depository of belief, which can help people American from what is Christian. The American form of reflect on God, or even provide helpful ethical guides for Christianity and its identity as a people were born simul- the country. Rather, because most civil religion is devoid taneously.136 But America at its founding was anything of both the prophetic dimension of biblical faith and of but Christian. The founding fathers accepted a civil, not the centrality of God’s revelation in Jesus Christ, it be- a supernatural, religious perspective that falls far short of comes highly vulnerable to being exploited as a tool of biblical Christianity. By 1790, 90 percent of the American national self-righteousness and even idolatry.”131 population was unchurched.137 Even in their present state There is a double-sidedness in American culture: of secular-church attendance, modern France and Great strong secularity and strong religiosity.132 Americans Britain have double the church attendance of postrevolu- continue to be the most religiously active citizenry tionary America. among the industrialized nations; on the other hand, In sum, I argue, Christianity has unfortunately be- there are increasing rates of crime and violence and erod- come synonymous with the American way of life. Civil ing morals. Sociologist Rodney Stark, in The Victory of religion, Christian atheism, environmentalOnly faith, cultural Reason, provocatively contends that Europe and North Christianity—call it what you will. The spirit has gone America thrived because Christianity made possible out of American religious institutions to reshape; rather, political and economic freedoms, modern science, and they have been shaped by society’s agenda. The Gospel is resulting advancement. He thinks the West’s rise was characterized in the New Testament as an offense, but as “an extraordinary faith in reason.”133 As American reli- some preach the Gospel today it is anything but offensive. gion is called upon to serve the practical interests of the The cross is merely adopted as a popular symbol. Because people (civil religion), and now the interests of the self of the continuous exposure of Christianity to the Ameri- (therapeutic religion), it has moved from pragmatism to can people, it has rendered the nation immune to the real existentialism, and consequently, to relativism. disease—authentic Christianity.138 Americans by historical habit wear religion on their Copy sleeve, almost as part of national patriotism.134 This senti- The Counterculture Faith We Aspire To ment can be seen from the Puritans, who had the sense Generations ago Niebuhr pointed out how dangerously that America was perhaps humanity’s last chance to susceptible the churches were to being overtaken by the show God’s mercy before the end of the age; to President values of the larger society.139 American historian Tom Eisenhower’s 1954 pronouncement, “Our government Askew perceptively notes: makes no sense unless it is founded on a deeply-felt religious faith, and I don’t care what it is!”; to modern Historians and sociologists have commented on the shal- religious conservatives who believe America was, and lowness of personal commitment that accompanied much still is, a “Christian” country. The problem is, as Leeming of the post-World War II religious resurgence. Church observes: “When we give form to divinity, we derive that membership could mean little more than respectability and belief in the American way of life.140 form from our own experience. We make gods in our own image because our own image marks the physical But can Christianity overcome its wedding with civil limits of our being. We cannot know the gods; we cannot 135 religion and become what it was intended to be, a coun- know our experience of them.” terculturalvoice? “Counter-culture comes about when those who transform the culture in which they live 130. While the unwelcome condition of civil religion exists in several worldwide regions, as referenced herein, we focus here on a case study of the country in which the most Christians in the world live: the United 136. For more on this, see William A. Dyrness, How Does America Hear States of America. the Gospel? (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1989). 131. Mark Hatfield, Between a Rock and a Hard Place (Waco, TX: Word 137. George Gallup Jr. and Jim Castelli, The People’s Religion (New Press, 1976),Contributor 101. York: Macmillan, 1990), 32, 48. 132. Will Herberg, Protestant-Catholic-Jew (Chicago: University of Chi- 138. It should be noted that the same phenomenon occurs in other cago Press, [1955] 1983). religions as well in conditions where the “state religion” is presumed and 133. Richard N. Ostling, “Christianity Gets Credit for West’s Freedom, identified with by virtually all its nations, e.g., Northern Africa and Islam. Sociologist Claims,” Grand Rapids Press, 28 January 2006, D7. 139. H. Richard Niebuhr, The Social Sources of Denominationalism 134. For a perceptive commentary, see Sacvan Bercovitch, The Ameri- (Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, [1929] 2004) and The Kingdom of can Jeremiad (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978). God in America (Wesleyan Press, [1937] 1988). 135. While many would argue with the last sentence, the first two are 140. Thomas A. Askew and Peter W. Spellman, The Churches and the hard to refute. David Adam Leeming, The World of Myth: An Anthology American Experience: Ideals and Institutions (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 123. 1984), 191. 294 Civil Religion, Challenge of become critically conscious of what they are doing and banned; kids take sex-education courses and are taught elaborate a theory of their deviation from the dominant about alternative homosexual lifestyles, condoms, and model, offering a model that is capable of sustaining it- “safe sex” in a so-called value-neutral environment. self.” 141 American Christianity has been transformed by This is the story of American Christianity. Few exter- culture rather than vice versa. As Nietzche might argue, nal problems hinder the ministry of the contemporary “You have caged [God], tamed him, domesticated him, Western church. It has money and buildings; top-notch and the priests have pliantly lent their aid. The roaring educational institutions to prepare its leaders; ample re- bull has become a listless ox. You have gelded God!”142 In sources—books, tapes, conferences, training centers, and this climate, God can no longer be the universal monarch parachurch ministries; and relative political freedom. Yet who inspires confidence and awe, but rather a weak mas- inauthentic Christian living encouraged by civil religion cot who goes along with the crowd. negates all these external advantages. What can be done? This “god” believed in by so many Americans is the god French sociologist Emile Durkheim described as The Story We Locate Ourselves In a symbolic representation of the collective energy and Reformer-theologian Martin Luther pleads: “When you dominant values of the society that worships him. Simply have Him you have all, but you have also lost all when put, if God created Man in His own image, we have more you lose Him. Stay with Christ, although your eyes do than reciprocated. Campolo offers this comment: not see Him and your reason doesOnly not grasp Him.” The revisions civil religion inflicts upon the Christian faith [I]n America the cultural deity offers prosperity to his remove the vitality and transformational features of God. followers; the biblical God calls us to sacrifice all that we Religious leaders, Christian Smith advises, need to be have for the poor and suffering peoples of the world. . .the more aware of and grapple with the fact that an instru- cultural deity invites self-aggrandizement and self-asser- mentalist, public health justification model of faith—in- tion, the biblical Lord calls us to be meek and humble. The herent in civil religion—as producing healthy and good cultural deity legitimates the existing social order. We say, “God is with us.” He stands for the American way because citizens may increase congregational attendance, but we made him in the image of America. But the biblical comes at a long-term cultural cost: faith and practice God stands opposed to this cultural deity. The God of get redefined as instrumental therapeutic mechanisms Scripture renders us enemies of the religion instituted by to achieveCopy personal goals, which themselves may or may our society.143 not be formed by religious faith and practice.144 The best way to protect Jesus against cultural imprisonment in Not only are we to be enemies of cultural religion, any era is to pass along the historic doctrines the church but cultural religion has become the enemy of authentic has reached regarding Christ’s identity, said 19th-century Christianity. A three-stage shift has occurred in its rela- Princeton theologian Charles Hodge.145 They were true tionship with Christianity. The first stage was character- not because they were unambiguous (language always ized by an embracing acceptance of biblical Christianity. carries ambiguity), but because they respected the cen- Students were led in prayer and Bible reading at school. tral biblical mysteries about Jesus. Dogmas were buffers They used McGuffy Readers laden with Christian values. against the common human practice of making Christ The church was the central focus of the community. The the servant of culture, turning him into a socially useful second stage was characterized by tolerance of Chris- badge or psychologically therapeutic tool. tianity. Several ideologies, among which Christianity While much of the Christian world looks to American was one, coexisted in relative peace. Then a rising of Christianity as a model, they should also look as a clear discomfort became visible, which had little room for old- warning of at what cost their experience comes. One of fashioned and exclusivistic doctrine. The third stage is the most significant obstacles the education of Christians characterized by hostility toward Christianity. Christians must overcome is the subtle civil religion that discour- are depicted as laughable buffoons. In schools, prayer is ages a countercultural faith.

141. Umberto Eco, “Does Counter-Culture Exist?” trans. Jennie Condie, References and Resources in ApocalypseContributor Postponed, ed. Robert Lumley (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- versity Press, 1994), 115. Beiner, Ronald. 2010. Civil Religion: A Dialogue in the History of 142. Cited in Harvey Cox, Religion in the Secular City (New York: Political Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Simon & Schuster, 1984), 200. See also Michael Scott Horton, Made in America: The Shaping of Modern American Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1991); and Mark Oppenheimer, Knocking on Heaven’s Door: 144. Christian Smith, Soul Searching (New York: Oxford University American Religion in the Age of Counterculture (New Haven, CT: Yale Press, 2005), 270–271. University Press, 2003). 145. Reported in Richard Wightman Fox, Jesus in America: Personal 143. Anthony Campolo, A Reasonable Faith (Waco, TX: Word Books, Savior, Cultural Hero, National Obsession (San Francisco: HarperSan Fran- 1983), 101–102. cisco, 2004), 264. Civil Rights and the Impact of Legislation on Christian Education Practices of Congregations 295

Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2005. Religion in Global Civil Society. Impact of Post–Civil Rights Movement Legislation New York: Oxford University Press. There have been tensions, conflicts, and court cases Prothero, Stephen. 2004. American Jesus: How the Son of God involving alleged discrimination caused by civil rights Became a National Icon. New York: Farrar, Straus and legislation and some religion-exempted practices of con- Giroux. gregations. The ministerial exception corollary and the —Mark A. Lamport broader church autonomy doctrine derived from the reli- gion clauses of the First Amendment of the Constitution and/or Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 are often Civil Rights and the Impact of referenced. Some examples of these are discussed here. Legislation on Christian Education Practices of Congregations Employment Discrimination Title VII of the Civil Rights Act “allows religious employ- Studies of the impact of civil rights legislation on Chris- ers unlike other employers, to discriminate on the basis tian education practices of congregations often focus on of religion in employment. In 1987 the Supreme Court social-transformational issues. Harold Burgess (2001) in Corporation of the Presiding Bishop v. Amos . . . inter- discusses the “classical liberal model of religious educa- preted this . . . to permit a church-run gymnasium . . . to tion” that dominated the landscape for the first half of the require that its employees be churchOnly members” (Minow 20th century. He describes it as one that placed more em- 2007, 789). The reasoning was that religious organiza- phasis on human experiences and participation in social tions had the right to advance their own cause. and cultural reconstruction as normative. The modern civil rights movement was informed in part by a desire Gender Discrimination to bring about a social and cultural change that involved “The federal courts have uniformly found that antidiscrim- many congregations. ination laws simply do not extend to the relationships be- tween an organized religious group and its clergy or anyone Impact of Modern Civil Rights Movement Rulings functioning as a minister” (Minow 2007, 801). For example, Some government mandates—like President Truman’s in 2002 the case Rockwell v. Roman Catholic Archdiocese Executive Order 9981, issued in 1948, which stressed of CopyBoston involved Susan Rockwell’s claim that the church equality for all persons in the armed forces, and the 1954 excluded women from the clergy. The court dismissed Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education the claim, thus conveying that this was an internal matter of Topeka, Kansas, which declared that public school within the church, where the courts had no jurisdiction. segregation was unconstitutional and overturned the 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson case, which had sanctioned the Sexual Orientation Discrimination “separate but equal” concept of public education—helped Courts have generally sided with congregations, allowing to effect church-based activism across the South. them to continue with Christian education practices that Such activism included the Montgomery, Alabama, de- are consistent with their beliefs and bylaws, including segregation bus boycott, widespread antisegregation and enjoying an exemption from nondiscrimination practices antidiscrimination protests, rallies, and marches from regarding sexual orientation. An example is the 2002 case the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s, with black churches in Bryce v. Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Colorado. Lee the forefront. These black churches provided four key Ann Bryce worked as St. Aidan’s youth minister, assistant benefits: provisions of free meeting places to mobilize; music minister, and adult Christian education coordinator many established leaders, such as Dr. Martin Luther 1997 to 1999. She was terminated in November 1998 after King Jr., Rev. Theodore Jemison, and Rev. Charles Steele; she engaged in a civil commitment ceremony with her a communication network to spearhead campaigns and partner and coplaintiff, Rev. Sara Smith. The district and boycotts; and congregational members to work in the the appellate court dismissed the plaintiffs’ claims because movement. This resulted in the formation of the South- of the church autonomy doctrine of the First Amendment. ern ChristianContributor Leadership Conference (SCLC), headed In its ruling, the court stated that the courts have “essen- by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., which helped gain broad tially no role in determining ecclesiastical questions, or support from white American congregations and leaders religious doctrine and practice” (Tacha 2002). all over the nation. Dr. King’s philosophy of Christian Of course according to Chief Judge Deanell Tacha charity, nonviolence, forgiveness, and redemptive heal- (2002) of the U.S. 10th Circuit Court of Appeals, churches ing were Christian education themes that resonated with have to obey the law, “like any other person or organiza- nonblack churches (McAdam, 1982, 2007). tion, they may be held liable for their torts and upon 296 Clark, Francis E. their valid contracts. Their employment decisions may be This ministry sought to promote an earnest Christian life subject to Title VII scrutiny, where the decision does not among the young and to provide opportunities for them involve the church’s spiritual functions.” to express their faith in worship and in service.

References and Resources Significant Contributions to Christian Education Brunner, Borgna, and Elissa Haney. 2007. “Civil Rights Time- In the years that followed, the Christian endeavor (CE) line: Milestones in the Modern Civil Rights Movement.” model was taken up by other congregations and rapidly Pearson Education. Accessed 30 October 2012. http://www grew into a national, and eventually an international, .factmonster.com/spot/civilrightstimeline1.html. society with chapters in local churches and regional and Burgess, Harold. 2001. Models of Religious Education: Theory national conventions for its members. The international and Practice in Historical and Contemporary Perspective. spread of CE followed the modern missions movement, Nappanee, IN: Evangel Publishing House. and by 1908 there were more than 70,000 societies Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. n.d. “What Does around the world with more than 3.5 million members. My Congregation Need to Know about Laws Affecting Em- The CE ministry model, which began as a nondenomi- ployees?” Accessed 28 April 2013. http://download.elca.org/ national ministry, became the template for most major ELCA%20Resource%20Repository/Employment_Laws_to denominations as they developed their own ministries _Consider.pdf during the late 19th and early 20thOnly centuries (e.g., Ep- McAdam, Doug. 1982. Political Process and the Development of worth League of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Baptist Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Young People’s Union, Luther League). Press. Following his years at the Williston church, Francis ———. 2007. “Civil Rights Movement.” In Encyclopedia of E. Clark pastored two other churches in Boston during Politics and Religion, edited by Robert Wuthnow, 194–200. the later 1880s. But due to the rapid growth and needs of Washington, DC: CQ Press. the CE Society, from 1887 on he devoted himself to the Minow, Martha. 2007. “Should Religious Groups Be Exempt development of the youth ministry he had launched, be- from Civil Rights Laws?” Boston College Law Review 48 (4): coming the president of the United Societies of Christian 781. http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/bclr/vol48/iss4/1. Endeavor and of the World’s Christian Endeavor Union. O’Brien, T. C. 1979. “Civil Right.” In Encyclopedic Dictionary of He wasCopy an avid traveler, making multiple trips to most Religion, edited by staff at Corpus Publications, Inc., 79–83. regions of the world, speaking in churches and mission Philadelphia, PA: Corpus Publications, Inc. settings and promoting the spread of the CE ministry. Tacha, Deanell. 2002. Bryce v. Episcopal Church in the Diocese Drawing on his interest and experience in journalism of Colorado (USCA, 10th Cir.). http://caselaw.findlaw.com/ from his college days, he became an author and editor, us-10th-circuit/1302884.html. writing many articles and books on ministry and travel —Steve Overton topics, and editing the CE’s major publications, includ- ing the Christian Endeavor World (which began as The Golden Rule) and many resource books and materials for Clark, Francis E. use by leaders in the CE ministry. Clark was a passionate and tireless ministry leader, an Early Background and Education entrepreneur who knew how to use the power of the press Francis E. Clark (1851–1927) was born in Aylmer, Que- to share his ministry ideas. He left the security of parish bec, Canada. Following the deaths of his father (1854) ministry to pursue the spread of the CE ministry with and his mother (1858), he was raised by his uncle, the the young, pouring his time and energy into traveling, Rev. Edward W. Clark, and his wife. Francis graduated speaking, and writing to promote the growth of what he from Dartmouth College in 1873 and from Andover saw as a faithful and fruitful ministry effort. He led this Theological Seminary in 1876. movement for more than 40 years, giving guidance to He was married in1876, and he and his wife, Harriet, what became the dominant model of youth ministry in its were calledContributor to their first pastorate at the Williston Church time in North America and around the world. of Portland, Maine. It was during their fifth year in this growing congregation that they began a new ministry ef- Most Notable Publications fort with youth that birthed the Young People’s Society Clark, F. E. 1895. Worldwide Endeavor: The Story of the Young of Christian Endeavor. On 2 February 1881, following People’s Society of Christian Endeavor, from the Beginning an annual week of prayer in January, they invited the and in All Lands. Philadelphia: Gillespie, Metzgar, & Kelley. youth and young adults of the church to form the Wil- ———. 1922. Memories of Many Men in Many Lands: An Au- liston Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor. tobiography. Boston: United Society of Christian Endeavor. Classical Education 297

———, ed. 1897–current. The Golden Rule (later renamed Chris- used to refer to an aggregate of students who gathered, tian Endeavor World). either in church buildings or homes, with master teachers to become skilled in the seven liberal arts. Studies were Reference focused on gifted writers and their compositions, as op- “Clark, Francis E.” 1911. In Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., posed to merely studying subjects. Students began study edited by H. Chisholm, 385–386 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge in the universitas at the age of 14. University Press. The first component of the seven liberal arts was —Kevin E. Lawson the trivium (“three ways”). The beginning years of the trivium were the “grammar” stage. During the elemen- tary years (grades 1–4), children are eager to memorize Classical Education information; thus students learn many facts, frequently by means of chanting and singing, in addition to the use Classical education is a complex tradition with a history of discussion, instruction, and reading. The word “gram- of more than 2,000 years; it is a traditional approach to mar” is not used in reference to language exclusively; education that combines historic curricula with the peda- rather, each subject of study has a “grammar”; thus the gogy of the seven liberal arts. The methodology of clas- particulars in each subject are many and various. Em- sical education is evident in the paideia (“education” or phasis is not on self-discovery andOnly self-expression; rather, “learning”) of the ancient Greeks, whose system included students learn facts that constitute the “grammar” stage education and training in classical Greek and Hellenistic and prepare for the dialectic (logic) stage. cultures and thus was a systematic process in the develop- Middle school students (grades 5–8) are less interested ment of a liberal and mature mind. The paideia included in learning facts and more prone to ask “how” and “why” subjects such as geography, grammar, gymnastics, math- and to enjoy argumentation and debate. Therefore, ematics, music, natural history, philosophy, and rhetoric. principles and relations are emphasized in the dialectic Dissimilar to the contemporary education system of stage, as students focus on cause and effect, the relation- John Dewey (“the father of modern education”), the ship between various subjects, and the manner in which paideia was not focused on preparing students for the facts can be organized logically. Debate, discussion, and workforce; rather, the emphasis was on an education reasoningCopy are intensified by means of the application of that stimulated mental disciplines for the discussion of logic to all academic subjects. abstract notions such as aesthetics, justice, and truth. The final phase of classical education (grades 9–12) Implementing the Greek notion of classical education, emphasizes effectual, original, and persuasive speaking the ancient Romans developed an arrangement of study and writing. The rhetoric stage thus applies the rules of that was termed the “seven liberal arts” (artes liberales). logic mastered during the dialectic stage to the founda- The methodological arrangement was systematized into tional information acquired during the grammar stage. two phases: (1) the trivium and, (2) the quadrivium. The The rhetoric stage is also the point at which students trivium was to be mastered at the basic level, whereas the begin to specialize in particular disciplines of knowledge. quadrivium was the ultimate goal. The intention of the The quadrivium (“four ways”) included arithmetic, studies was to produce an articulate, knowledgeable, and astronomy, geometry, and music. In addition to the virtuous individual. trivium, these subjects formed the basis of the seven In the early church, the Greek paideia was Latinized to liberal arts and constituted the primary foundation humanitas, which was a model for ecclesiastical institu- of instruction until modern times. Consequently, the tions of higher learning, such as the school of Alexandria seven liberal arts were regarded as the foundation of in Egypt, which provided theology as “the queen of the human knowledge. The trivium prepared students for sciences” (the concluding science of the curricula). The the subjects contained in the quadrivium. Students who term paideia was later combined with engkuklios (kuklos completed education in the grammar schools were thus meaning “circle”), which indicated a broad compendium able to pursue quadrivium studies in the universities. of generalContributor education, hence encyclopaedia (i.e., “all- Moreover, the quadrivium was preparation for the cul- round” knowledge). minating science of educational studies: the pursuit of Classical education seems to have been abandoned philosophy and theology. when the Roman Empire “fell” in the fifth century AD. Classical education was the dominant methodology Through the efforts of Charlemagne (in general) and in Europe and the United States throughout the 1800s, Alcuin (in particular), classical education was revived and initially a form of classical education was taught in and Christianized in Europe by means of the school of a 12-year format. During this time, the three skills of the palace. By the 11th century, the term universitas was the trivium were not emphasized; rather, subjects were 298 Clement of Alexandria incorporated into a 12-year curriculum; as opposed education in philosophy and Greek literature. In adult- to being taught concurrently, the classical skills were hood he converted to Christianity, and as was customary taught consecutively. In the early 1900s, there was an in those days, went to be educated by the most eminent ongoing attrition of classical education, and by 1950 Christian teachers. For this purpose, he traveled to south- the educational methodology of the United States had ern Italy, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. He enumerates six changed significantly, from a classical to a progressive illustrious teachers under whom he studied the “true form of education. The progressive model resulted in tradition of the blessed doctrine of the holy Apostles.” a limited awareness and knowledge of classical educa- His first teacher in Greece was an Ionian persona (maybe tion, which is evidenced in the attitude that the classi- Athenagoras of Athens); in Magna Graecia he encoun- cal model is novel and peculiar, even though it was the tered others, and still different teachers in the East, only dominant methodology for centuries and the progres- to find at last the true master whom he had sought in sive form is the true innovation. Egypt. There can be no doubt that this master was Pan- During the 1980s, the homeschool movement revived taenus, to whom Clement is supposed to have expressed the modified form of classical education that was once his obligation in his Hypotyposes. At that time Pantaenus prevalent in colonial America. The inspiration for this occupied the post of chief of the catechetical school, and revival was a lecture given by author Dorothy Sayers in though the accounts of Eusebius and Jerome conflict in the 1940s, “The Lost Tools of Learning.” Sayers argued their details and chronology, it isOnly certain that upon the that the three skills of the trivium might correspond to death or retirement of Pantaenus, Clement succeeded the natural development of a child. Sayers referred to the to his office (and it is not unlikely that he had acted as grammar stage as “poll-parrot,” the logic stage as “pert,” his colleague before). The period during which Clement and the rhetoric stage as “poetic.” Classical education presided over the catechetical school (c. AD 190–203) is a lifelong process of applying the “tools of learning” seems to have been the season of his greatest literary ac- throughout the various stages of learning (skills acquired tivity. Among his pupils in this period, one stood out: his in the grammar, logic, and rhetoric stages). By mastering successor at the catechetical school, Origen. In AD 202, “tools” rather than content, students who are taught how during his persecution under Septimius Severus, Clem- to learn are able to master more content than otherwise ent, forced to leave Alexandria, went to Cappadocia to his would be possible. discipleCopy and friend, Bishop Alexander, the future bishop of Jerusalem. The same Bishop Alexander, in a letter to References and Resources Origen in AD 215/216, mentions Clement as already de- Adler, Mortimer. 1988. Reforming Education: The Opening of ceased. Consequently, the AD 212 or 215 is presumed to the American Mind. New York: Macmillan. be the year of Clement’s death. Bauer, Susan Wise, and Jessie Wise. 2004. The Well-Trained Among the extant writings of Clement, three works Mind, rev. ed. New York: W. W. Norton. forming a trilogy stand out and characterize his entire Bloom, Alan. 1987. The Closing of the American Mind. New opus, being especially significant due to their depiction York: Simon and Schuster. of the stages of Christian perfection: The Address to the Bortins, Leigh A. 2010. The Core. New York: Palgrave. Greeks (Λόγος προτρεπτικὸς πρὸς Ἕλληνας), The Tutor Lewis, C. S. 1946. The Abolition of Man. London: Geoffrey Bles. (ὁ Παιδαγωγός), and The Miscellanies (Στρωματεῖς). Postman, Neil. 1986. Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Dis- Clement’s pedagogical theory is based on five as- course in the Age of Show Business. New York: Penguin. sumptions. First, in the school of the divine Logos are all Veith, Gene Edward, and Andrew Kern. 1997. Classical Educa- of those who belong to God’s people, regardless of age tion: Towards the Revival of American Schooling. Washing- groups. Due to the advancements in the process of per- ton, DC: Capital Research Center. fecting pupils, these in turn can be classified into three Wilson, Douglas. 1991. Recovering the Lost Tools of Learning. groups: (1) “slaves,” the sinners with stubborn hearts, Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 1991. enslaved by sin; (2) “faithful servants,” intermediate pu- ———. 2003. The Case for Classical Christian Education. Whea- pils who have abandoned sinful habits and practice the ton, IL: Crossway.Contributorvirtues; and (3) “friends of Christ,” who through a great —Ron J. Bigalke love were conformed to God. Second, the tutor is the three-faceted resemblance of the Word of the Father, the Son of God, the divine Teacher: (1) the Physician draws Clement of Alexandria sinners away from the bondage of sin; (2) the Tutor- trains the faithful servants in virtues; and (3) the Teacher Titus Flavius Clemens was born c. AD 150 into a pagan teaches the mysteries. The third assumption is about the family, possibly in Athens. He received a systematic methods of divine pedagogy: toward those of hardened Clerc, Laurent 299 hearts, one applies punishments and reprimands or en- and became an instructor, providing much of the sign couragements and advices; toward the faithful servants, language instruction. In addition to his standing at the through the means of an idea of obedience, based on the school, his fluency in written French and French sign authority of the perfect Tutor, the teacher motivates good language made him the de facto leader of deaf interests behavior; and toward the friends of God, the motive for at the school, and he often argued the cases of aggrieved action is the perfect love. The fourth assumption is about deaf students with other hearing instructors and admin- intellectual and moral formation. Intellectual formation istrators (Mirzoeff 1995, 87). is aimed at general education, knowledge of philosophy Clerc’s autobiographical account recalls his journey that is in accordance with Christ, and the acquisition of with the headmaster of the Paris school to London in wisdom and mystical knowledge; moral formation is to 1815. While this trip was ostensibly to display the sign- obey the commandments springing from the fear of God, language-based methods of education for the deaf that restraint based on hope, practice in good based on the were in use at the Paris school, it also provided a conve- imitation of God’s kindness, and complete union with the nient reason for the headmaster, Abbé Roch-Ambroise will of God—gnostic wisdom. Fifth, the ultimate purpose Sicard, a noted royalist, to be out of the country as Napo- of the process of formation, the paideia, is to bring one leon returned from exile. It was on this trip that Clerc was up to perfect love. introduced to the American Congregationalist clergyman Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. OnlyGallaudet was on an ex- References and Resources ploratory trip, funded by prominent social and religious Ashwin-Siejkowski, P. 2008. Clement of Alexandria: A Project leaders in Hartford, Connecticut, to learn educational of Christian Perfection. New York: T&T Clark. methods for instructing deaf people. Gallaudet accepted Draczkowski, F. 1980. “Qua paideia Clemens Alexandrinus an invitation to visit the Paris school and later convinced imbutus appareat in animadvertenda falsa gnosi.” Studia Sicard to allow Clerc to accompany him to America Antiquitatis Christianae 2: 37–83. and establish a sign-language-based school for the deaf ———. 1983. “Idee pedagogiczne Klemensa Aleksandryjskiego (Barnard 1852, 107–108). On their 52-day journey across [Pedagogical Ideas of Clement of Alexandria].” Vox Patrum the Atlantic Ocean, Clerc taught Gallaudet French Sign 3 (4): 64–80. Language, while Gallaudet taught Clerc written English. Gallinari, L. 1976. La problematica educativa di Clemente Ales- CopyDespite being a deaf Catholic Frenchman among sandrino. Wiltshire, England: Cassino Publishing. hearing people in Protestant New England, Clerc found Karavites, P. 1999. Evil, Freedom, and the Road to Perfection in himself at ease traveling with Gallaudet to raise funds Clement of Alexandria. Supplements to Vigilae Christianae and governmental support for the establishment of 43. Leiden: Brill. their school. His comments appealed to the sensibilities Kovacs, J. L. 2001. “Divine Pedagogy and the Gnostic Teacher of the American Second Great Awakening, in which according to Clement of Alexandria.” Journal of Early Chris- religious fervor brought new energy to efforts to build tian Studies 9: 3–25. social institutions that facilitated the well-being of those Osborn, E. 2005. Clement of Alexandria. Cambridge, UK: Cam- considered less fortunate. In one appeal Clerc stated bridge University Press. that he had come to —Marcin Wysocki speak to you more conveniently of the deaf and dumb, of those unfortunate beings who, deprived of the sense Clerc, Laurent of hearing and consequently of speech, would be con- demned all their life, to the most sad vegetation if nobody game to their succor, but who intrusted [sic] to our Louis Laurent Marie Clerc was a deaf Catholic French regenerative hands, will pass from the class of brutes to man who immigrated to America in 1815 to help estab- the class of men. It is to affect your hearts with regard to lish and teach at the first American school for the deaf their unhappy state, to excite the sensibility and solicit the in Hartford, Connecticut. Born in La Balme, France, on charity of your generous souls in their favor; respectfully 26 DecemberContributor 1785, Laurent Clerc fell into a fireplace to entreat you to occupy yourselves in promoting their as an infant and acquired the telltale scar on his right future happiness. (Barnard 1852, 112) cheek that later led to his sign language name. Clerc’s parents attributed his loss of the abilities to hear and Clerc went on to praise the founder of the Paris school, smell to this accident as well. He entered the Institution Abbé Charles de l’Epée, for developing his educational for the Deaf and Dumb in Paris, the first free school methods, and further stated, “[I]t is consequently to for the education of deaf people, as a 12-year-old, in him that all the deaf and dumb who know how to write 1797 (Barnard 1852, 106). Clerc excelled at this school and read, owe their temporal and spiritual happiness” 300 Clonard Monastery

(Barnard 1852, 112). Despite the exaggerated praise of haired, was educated in the monastic life under the influ- l’Epée and general pathos of this appeal, Clerc was clearly ence of Cadoc in Llangarvan in Wales, a renowned center making a connection between a Christian obligation to of sacred and secular learning. evangelize and general education as a means to achieve Cadoc’s monastery was an austere establishment, with this evangelization. He explained the need for this con- rigorous discipline. In Clonard, Finnian is reported to nection by recounting his own experience as a child: have lived on water and barley bread during the week, but on holy days and Sundays he had grilled salmon, some My mother, affected at my misfortune, had endeavored wheat bread, and a cup of mead or ale. to show me the heavens, and make me know God, imag- It was in Wales that Finnian also became friendly ining that I understood her, but her attempts were vain; with Gildas, the British cleric of the sixth century who I could comprehend nothing. . . . I am sure that the deaf wrote “De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae,” an out- and dumb who are in your country, think as I once did. You must be so kind as to aid us to undeceive them. We spoken attack on the spiritual laxity of the Britain of his shall cultivate their minds and form their hearts. (Bar- day. There can be little doubt that Finnian combined the nard 1852, 112) traditions of Wales with those of his homeland in the establishment at Clonard. The monasteries of Clonard After the establishment of the deaf school in Hartford, and Llangarvan continued to be closely linked in orga- Clerc became the primary teacher of students, as Gal- nization, in that the monks of oneOnly shared the rights of laudet continued to gather financial and political support the other. A monk in Clonard could become an abbot in for his school. Clerc, along with Gallaudet’s son, Edward, Llangarvan, and vice versa. also became a leading proponent of sign-language-based Finnian was in many respects the catalyst for the education for deaf people, in opposition to advocates spread of the monastic ideal in Ireland. Medieval writers of oralist methods, which emphasized training deaf described him as the “Magister Sanctorum Hiberniae.” people to speak over teaching them general informa- Later tradition designated his leading disciples, who tional content (Lane 1984, 330). Clerc’s contribution to graduated from Clonard, as “The Twelve Apostles of Ire- the Christian education of deaf people stemmed from land,” among whom were Ciarán of Clonmacnoise and his motivation to establish a meaningful and accessible Columba of Derry, Durrow, and Iona. Disciples flocked educational institution arising from Christian sentiments to ClonardCopy from all parts of the island of Ireland to learn and motivations. from “the teacher of the Saints.” It is arguably an exagger- ation, but tradition relates that 3,000 disciples followed References and Resources him to Clonard, primarily for the saint’s knowledge of Barnard, Henry. 1852. Tribute to Gallaudet. A Discourse in the Bible, and not one of these left his presence without Commemoration of the Life, Character and Services, of the a Gospel, a crozier, or some other relic around which a Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet, LL.D. Harford, CT: Brockett and monastic settlement, or church, could be established. In- Hutchinson. struction in the school was oral in form except for a few Lane, Harlan. 1984. When the Mind Hears: A History of the manuscripts, which were highly prized. Deaf. New York: Random House. The monastery at Clonard, under Finnian’s leadership, Mirzoeff, Nicholas. 1995. Silent Poetry: Deafness, Sign, and made remarkable contributions to the development of Visual Culture in Modern France. Princeton, NJ: Princeton monasticism in Ireland. First, tremendous importance University Press. was attached to the study of scripture there. Finnian was —Kirk A. VanGilder famous for his profound knowledge of the Bible. There was also an emphasis on memorization, particularly pas- sages from the psalter. Second, Finnian’s was not just Clonard Monastery a teaching establishment, but a missionary church. He insisted that his disciples leave and found their own mon- Hagiographers often describe the guidance of angels as asteries. Apart from the 12 followers referred to above, significantContributor for their subject, and so it was chronicled that we have evidence that in the ninth century, scholars from Finnian was led by an angel to Clonard, in County Meath, Clonard traveled not just in Ireland, but throughout Brit- situated close to the River Boyne, four miles east of Kin- ain and the continent, taking books with them and bring- negad. The monastery established by him there occupies a ing back literature that they had found profitable. They preeminent place in the history of the Irish church. also left a lasting impression on those they met. Third, Born into an underprivileged family in County Carlow Finnian’s success at Clonard defined the course of Irish in the last decades of the fifth century, Finnian, whose church history until the 12th century, when the church name is a derivative of “Find” (Vindos), meaning fair was reorganized in a diocesan structure. Clonmacnoise Monastery 301

At that time Clonard became one of the two episcopal Originally Ciarán was a carpenter and was educated churches of the kingdom of Meath. Clonard was a center under Finnian of Clonard and Enda of Arran. He es- of learning that in reputation compared favorably with tablished the Community at Clonmacnoise with eight any other Irish schools, whether secular or spiritual. followers. Ciarán died in his early thirties, on 9 Septem- Finnian left a lasting legacy, and tradition compared ber 545, when the monastery was still in the process of him to the apostle Paul. Just as Paul died in Rome, for the construction. He faced death with great courage and sake of his fellow Christians, so it was maintained that faith, and his dying words were, “He who perseveres to Finnian died in Clonard, on behalf of the Gaels, that they the end, shall be saved.” The effect of his brief life was might not perish of the Yellow Fever. such that soon after his death, Ciarán’s name was revered Along with Christ and Patrick, the founder of Clonard throughout Ireland. In fact, by the late seventh century, is said to judge the women and men of Ireland at the Clonmacnoise was considered one of the leading monas- Last Day. Whatever the hyperbole that surrounds his teries in the country. There are hundreds of references to memory, it is not without significance that this visionary it in the Annals. was designated the “Teacher of the Saints in Ireland.” Because of its wealth and location at the intersection of two principal medieval routes, Clonmacnoise was plun- References and Resources dered many times. The first recorded raid was in 833, Healy, John, Rev. 1802. Insula sanctorum et doctorum: or, Ire- by Feidlimid mac Crimthainn,Only an overking in Munster. land’s Ancent Schools and Scholars. Dublin: Sealey, Briers The Vikings pillaged the site in 842 and 845, when they and Walker. burned Clonmacnoise, with its wooden churches. Some Hickey, Elizabeth. 1998. Clonard: The Story of an Early Irish 30 subsequent assaults and burnings are recorded up to Monastery 520–1202. Leixlip, Co. Kildare: Elizabeth Hickey the middle of the 12th century, ironically most of them (self published). by Irishmen. The monastery was finally destroyed in the Hughes, K. 2001. “The Golden Age of Christian Ireland.” In mid-16th century by the English garrison at Athlone. The The Course of Irish History, edited by T. W. Moody and F. X. remnants today include the ruins of eight churches, two Martin, 54–66. Cork and Dublin: Mercier Press. round towers, and three high crosses. The high crosses Kenney, J. F. 1993. The Sources for the Early History of Ireland, have been removed to the visitors’ center. One of these, Ecclesiastical: An Introduction and Guide. Blackrock: Four theCopy Cross of the Scriptures, is so named because of a sup- Courts Press. posed allusion to it in chronicles under the year 1060. It is Ó Fiaich, Tómas, Cardinal. 2001. “The Beginnings of Christian- an outstanding example of the craft of the stonecutters of ity.” In The Course of Irish History, edited by T. W. Moody the period. It covers a number of spiritual themes, includ- and F. X. Martin, 41–53. Cork and Dublin: Mercier Press. ing the crucifixion and the Last Judgment. Also on the Ryan, J., Rev. 1931. Irish Monasticism: Origins and Early Devel- site are a large number of memorial slabs, and many of opment. Dublin and Cork: Talbot Press. the kings of the region are buried in the graveyard, which Ryan, John, SJ. 1967. “The Monastic Institute.” In A History of indicates its significance at the time. Irish Catholicism, edited by Patrick J. Corish, 1:1–62. Dublin: Clonmacnoise was no mere tribal institution; whereas Gill and Macmillan. abbots were generally chosen from the family of the —Robert Jennings founder, successors to Ciarán came from all parts of Ireland. It was a monastic house of independence and breadth of vision, built upon the life of its founder, suf- Clonmacnoise Monastery fused with prayer and works of love. Clonmacnoise was a place of great learning, and in Cluain moccu Nóis (Clonmacnoise), the Meadow of the this respect the monastic school, with its lecture hall and Descendants of Nós, gives its name to one of the most scriptorium, was of the utmost importance. A president important monastic houses of its time in Ireland. Situated (fer légind), chosen for his scholarly and administrative on the eastern shore of the River Shannon and some 13 gifts, led the school. Despite threats to its security, the miles southContributor of Athlone, it was set up in the mid-sixth cen- center attracted a number of learned writers and scribes. tury by Ciarán, who had previously founded a monastery The Annals of Tigernach, from the 11th century, and the in what is now County Roscommon. It was a strategic 12th-century Book of the Dun Cow Century, were pro- center, just within the territory of Meath and bordering duced in the scriptorium. The latter is one of the oldest Connacht. Ciarán was born in the vicinity of the royal site extant manuscripts in Irish literature, so called because of Rathcronaghan, now a heritage center, and his family the original vellum on which it was written is alleged to came from the Latharna tribal grouping, associated with have come from the hide of the pet cow Ciarán brought modern-day Larne, in County Antrim. with him to Clonmacnoise. Sadly, only a few of the 302 Clowning/Clown Ministry multiplicity of books that would have been produced by pedagogical style in the way he was finally attired in a such a prestigious institution are extant. The monastery ridiculous costume (Mark 15:16–20)? John the Baptist, also gave the church many missionaries to the continent with his unusual clothing and bizarre diet, can also be of Europe, prominent among whom were Virgilius, understood as a clown-like figure and often provides in- archbishop of Salzburg, and Colgu the Wise, lecturer in spiration for today’s Christian clowns in the way that he theology and rector of the monastic institute and one of used the attention generated by his unusual appearance the teachers of the British scholar and ecclesiastic Alcuin. and behavior to point away from himself and toward Jesus (Mark 1:4–8). References and Resources Archdall, M., ed. 1786. Monasticon Hiberniae: A History of History the Abbies, Priories and Other Religious Houses in Ireland. During the early persecutions of Christians, clown mimes Dublin. were often the only ones able to challenge the Roman Gwynn, Aubrey, and Neville R. Hadcock. 1970. Medieval Reli- Empire. In 287, a deacon at Antinoe (Egypt) who was gious Houses in Ireland. London: Longmans. fearful for his life hired a professional clown named Kenney, J. F. 1993. The Sources for the Early History of Ireland, Philemon to perform a pagan sacrifice on his behalf, but Ecclesiastical: An Introduction and Guide. Blackrock: Four when Philemon had a vision of Christ midway through Courts Press. his performance, he refused to continueOnly with it—where- Office of Public Works. n.d. Clonmacnoise Co. Offaly. upon he and the deacon were both put to death. Others Ryan, J., Rev. 1931. Irish Monasticism: Origins and Early Devel- who suffered a similar fate include Genesius (302), Gelas- opment. Dublin and Cork: Talbot Press. iunus (297), Ardalio (298), Porphyrius (362), and Mascu- Ryan, John, Rev., SJ, DLitt. 1976. Clonmacnois: A Historical las (486). Arius of Alexandria (260–336) is known to have Summary. Dublin: Office of Public Works. presented a mime of the crucifixion, while the Gnostic —Robert Jennings Acts of John mentions mimes of the last supper.146 But it was the 12th century before clowns gained any real prominence in the church. Francis of Assisi (1182–1226) Clowning/Clown Ministry exemplified clownish behavior, and his early followers calledCopy themselves “fools of Christ.” In the medieval Feast Bible of Fools, minor clergy dressed up as clowns to mock The most obvious biblical reference to clowning is St. the pretentiousness of their superiors. Beginning as a Paul’s invitation to become “fools for Christ’s sake” new year festival, this was eventually limited to one day (1 Cor. 1:20–29), imagery that relates directly to the a year (All Fools’ Day, 1 April), but was subsequently Greco-Roman theatrical tradition in which the fool was banned toward the end of the 15th century, and it was a well-known character who was the victim of regular the mid-20th century before clowning reemerged into abuse while also serving as the audience’s conscience. A mainstream Christian life. similar depiction of clowning and comedy is found in the Hebrew prophets. Ezekiel ostentatiously shaved his Modern Developments head with a sword (Ezek. 5:1–5) and lay on one side for The film Parable was a major attraction at the 1964 over a year, restrained by strong ropes and eating food World’s Fair in New York and went on to win awards at cooked on a fire fueled by human excrement (4:4–15), film festivals in Venice, Chicago, and Cannes. Entirely in while Jeremiah made a yoke for himself (Jer. 27:2) and mime, it depicted Jesus as a clown and the world as a cir- used his underwear as a prop (13:1–11). Such mimetic ac- cus. It is recognized in the Library of Congress’s National tions are typical of the classical whiteface clown, though Film Registry as a film that has had a significant influence their unpredictable nature shares some of the slapstick on American culture. It provided the inspiration for John- characteristics of the Auguste clown, and their social Michael Tebelak, creator of the musical Godspell (1971), marginalization echoes the traditional tramp or hobo. and brought the traditional image of Jesus as Holy Fool Similar usesContributor of mime also appear in some descriptions to the attention of a wider public. The cultural upheav- of public worship (Ps. 149:6–9), while later reports of the als of the time were also raising significant questions Feast of Tabernacles depict rabbis using circus skills, jug- gling with flaming torches (Mishnah, Sukkah IV.9). Some 146. For accounts of all this, see Joannes Bollandus, Acta Sanctorum of the hyperbole used by Jesus, about specks and logs (Paris & Rome: Victorem Palmé, 1856), March vii, 751–754; Allardyce (Matt. 7:3–5) or the first being placed last (Mark 10:30), is Nicoll, Masks Mimes and Miracles: Studies in the Popular Theatre (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1931), 17–18, 120–128; and Herbert W. Work- also arguably best understood in a context of clown-like man, The Martyrs of the Early Church (London: Charles H. Kelly, 1913), acting—and was there some intentional parody of Jesus’s 125–126. Coe, George Albert 303 for the understanding and communication of Christian new life. Like the original Holy Fool, the Christian clown faith, and the potential of the arts as a vehicle for spiri- never tells people what the message “means,” but through tual exploration soon became apparent. Early pioneers exaggerated gestures and parody highlights the trash that in Christian clown ministry in the United States include obscures spiritual vision, working in partnership with the Floyd Shaffer and Randy Christensen, whose ministries Spirit to engage with folk at their point of need in ways (along with others) were introduced to a wider audience that enable them to see things differently and inviting by Janet Litherland in Clown Ministry Handbook (1982). them into experiences of transformation. In the United Kingdom, clown ministry was popularized especially by Patrick Forbes, Roly Bain, and Olive Fleming References and Resources Drane—all of whom found wide acceptance in mainline Bain, Roly. 1993. Fools Rush In. London: HarperCollins. denominations. Their clowning styles vary, with some Fleming Drane, Olive M. 2004. Clowns, Storytellers, Disciples. specializing in circus skills while others major in mime or Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg. storytelling, but the one common thread is an awareness Forbes, Patrick. 1988. The Gospel of Folly. East Wittering, UK: that “the medium is the message.” This single realization Angel Press. set this new breed of clown ministers apart from those Hays, Edward. 1993. Holy Fools and Mad Hatters. Leaven- who might previously have regarded clowning in church worth, KS: Forest of Peace Books. either as an advertising gimmick or as a way of illustrating Hyers, Conrad. 1987. And God CreatedOnly Laughter. Atlanta, GA: ideas put forward in sermons or other traditional peda- Westminster John Knox Press. gogical modes. It soon became evident that there is more Liebenow, Mark. 1987. Is There Fun after Paul? A Theology of to Christian clowning than just applying makeup, wearing Clowning. San Jose, CA: Resource Publications. funny clothes, and doing a few tricks. A Christian clown Litherland, Janet. 1990. The Clown Ministry Handbook. 4th ed. grows from within, and discovering the clown type, face, Colorado Springs, CO: Meriwether. clothes, and skills is all part of a more expansive process ———. 1993. Everything New and Who’s Who in Clown Minis- of personal spiritual formation. More than that, it is an try. Colorado Springs, CO: Meriwether. authentic way of doing theology that can offer insights Noble, Philip D. 1996. Fool of the Kingdom. Colorado Springs, into the nature of God and of humanity that other forms CO: Meriwether. of theological reflection do not always provide. Shaffer,Copy Floyd.1984. Clown Ministry . Loveland, CO: Group Books. Theological Perspectives Stewart, Elizabeth-Anne. 1999. Jesus the Holy Fool. Evanston, It is often observed that etymologically the word “clown” IL: Sheed & Ward. is related to the middle-English “clod” (idiot), offering Whedbee, J. William. 1998. The Bible and the Comic Vision. a perfect image of how God empowers the fools of this Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. world to confound the wise, signaling the transformation —Olive Fleming Drane of broken humanity through vulnerability. In this re- spect, clown ministry is deeply rooted in Christology and the absurdity of One who is both king and servant, whose Coe, George Albert true identity and purpose is revealed through its very hiddenness. Like Jesus, the clown combines challenge Early Background and Education and salvation by confronting people with the reality of George Albert Coe, an American religious educational themselves, but then lifting them up and offering a more theorist, was born in Western New York in March 1862. hopeful way of being—while remaining fully involved in The son of a Methodist pastor, Coe attended Rochester the situation of others, addressing issues through laugh- University, earning a BA in 1884. As a result of his educa- ter and in a spirit of personal openness and vulnerability. tion, he left behind the more conservative Protestantism This incarnational rootedness in the learning process is of his youth and turned instead to a faith grounded in the distinctively Christian element of clowning in minis- the “ethical will.” Captivated by his study of zoology, Coe try, as theContributor clown takes the custard pie that others might resolved that he would move beyond his former attrac- be expecting or deserving. By being fully engaged in the tion to a priori revelation and instead follow the scientific moment and utilizing color and larger-than-life gestures, method “wherever it should lead.” This commitment was the clown opens up spaces for people’s own imaginations expanded during his matriculation at the Boston Univer- to explore solutions to their predicaments and encoun- sity School of Theology (MA in theology, 1888; PhD in ter God in redemptive ways, while clown makeup itself philosophy, 1891), where Coe came under the mentor- captures the essence of the Gospel, with the white face ing influence of famed philosopher Border Park Bowne. of death enlivened by the application of the colors of Bowne’s emphasis on both ethical religion and social ac- 304 Coe, George Albert tivism enhanced Coe’s empiricist leanings and stimulated phy can be described as a blending of liberal theology and a desire for further study among liberal Protestants at the the insights of progressive educational theorists such as University of Berlin. Here he was influenced by Albrecht John Dewey and William H. Kilpatrick. Ritschl, whose theology held that religious authority was For Coe, as for other liberals, democracy constituted to be found not in biblical revelation but in the moral both the content and the method of a proper religious and ethical actions of individual Christians. Adopting education. Deeply influenced by the social gospel, Coe set the pragmatist leanings of many theologians and educa- forth a model of Christian education content that rooted tors of his day, Coe began his development from idealism spiritual growth in the corporate realization of a demo- to a more empirically driven realism, locating religious cratic social order marked by love, equality, and human authority in the ethical consequences of human action. brotherhood. In addition, pedagogical method was to be This, combined with Ritschl’s emphasis on the Kingdom thought of as democratic in nature. Resisting transmissive of God, provided the kernel of Coe’s commitment to the models of teaching, in which unchanging information was democratic social gospel. Drawing deeply upon liberal delivered to passive students, Coe advocated a creative theologians’ commitment to biblical criticism, divine approach, in which students and teachers would work to- immanence, religious progress, and optimism about the gether in the development of evolving truths. Coe’s defini- realization of the Kingdom of God on Earth, Coe began tion of Christian education in 1917 unabashedly combined constructing the outlines of what he later called a “social the goals of democratic content andOnly method, noting that theory” of religious education. the goal of such teaching was “growth of the young toward and into mature and efficient devotion to the democracy Significant Contributions to Christian Education of God and happy self-realization therein.”147 Coe’s influence was exerted largely through his work as Coe’s influence, quite strong through the early 1930s, a leader of and theorist within the academic discipline waned with the rise of neo-orthodoxy in the late 1930s of religious education. During tenures at the Univer- and 1940s. As Barthian critiques of liberal theology esca- sity of Southern California (1888–1890), Northwestern lated and liberal optimism gave way to resurgent appeals University (1891–1909), Union Theological Seminary to doctrines of sin and grace, Coe’s modernist theology (1909–1922), and Teachers College, Columbia University and pedagogy held more limited appeal. During the first (1922–1927), he taught several generations of religious 30 yearsCopy of the 20th century, however, George Albert Coe education leaders. In 1903, he was instrumental in the was probably the most influential theorist of the liberal formation and early development of the Religious Edu- religious education movement. cation Association, an organization devoted to research in both religious and character education in a variety of Most Notable Publications educational institutions. As a religious education equiva- Coe, George A. 1900. The Spiritual Life: Studies in the Science of lent of Dewey’s Chicago laboratory school, he established Religion. New York: Eaton and Mains. an experimental Sunday school, the Union School of ———. 1904. Education in Religion and Morals. Chicago: Flem- Religion, under the auspices of both Union Theological ing H. Revell Co. Seminary and Teachers College. His books were widely ———. 1917. A Social Theory of Religious Education. New York: read and quoted, and his articles in such prominent jour- Charles Scribner’s Sons. nals as Religious Education, Christian Century, and Social ———. 1929. What Is Christian Education? New York: Charles Frontier solidified his influence among a wider audience. Scribner’s Sons. He worked closely with other religious and progressive educators to bring the fruits of liberal Protestant thinking References and Resources to such organizations as the Sunday school, the public Coe, George A. 1927. “My Own Little Theater.” In Religion school, and the YMCA. in Transition, edited by Vergilius Ferm, 55–68. New York: Coe’s signal contribution was to link the democratic Macmillan. and scientific mind-set of new progressive educational Hutchison, William R. 1992. The Modernist Impulse in Ameri- theories toContributor the pedagogical and social insights of Jesus. can Protestantism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. In fact, Coe often commented that liberal progressive Kilpatrick, William H. 1952. “George A. Coe: Conception of religious educators were merely rediscovering the rever- Moral and Spiritual Education.” Religious Education 48: ence for personality and democratized social justice rep- 83–86. resented in Jesus’s life and teaching. Coe developed his —David Setran “social theory” of religious education by drawing chiefly on the disciplines of psychology, sociology, philosophy, 147. George A. Coe, A Social Theory of Religious Education (New York: education, and theology. In fact, his educational philoso- Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1929), 55. Cognitive Taxonomy, Bloom’s 305

Cognitive Dissonance, Jesus’s Use of used parables, not least because we could be in danger of eisegesis at that point. Nevertheless, cognitive dissonance Cognitive dissonance is a theoretical concept of social does shed significant light on the “reversal” parables in psychology defined as an anxiety that results from simul- their original context when set alongside other more lit- taneously holding contradictory or conflicting attitudes erary and metaphorical approaches. or beliefs. There is a natural human instinct (with even physiological reactions related to fight/flight instincts) References and Resources to constantly minimize cognitive dissonance by dimin- Crossan, John D. 1973. In Parables: The Challenge of the His- ishing the relative importance of one of the conflicting torical Jesus. New York, Harper & Row. beliefs in favor of the other. Leon Festinger (1957), who Festinger, Leon. 1957. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Lon- first identified the phenomenon, showed how advertising don: Tavistock. functions after a purchase to confirm it by reducing any Gillingham, Michael J. 1998. “The Parables as Attitude Change.” cognitive dissonance that has arisen because the object Expository Times 109: 297–300. of desire has proven less than perfect. John Hull (1985) Hull, John M. 1985. What Prevents Christian Adults from demonstrates how cognitive dissonance can be used in Learning? London: SCM. setting up helpful learning experiences in both adults Parker, Andrew. 1996. Painfully Clear: The Parables of Jesus. and children. He notes that it may have more purchase Sheffield, UK: Sheffield AcademicOnly Press. among children and suggests that it needs to be utilized Scott, B. Brandon. 1989. Hear Then the Parable: A Commentary alongside developmental theories if it is to be a powerful on the Parables of Jesus. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. tool for adult educators. —Nigel Rooms The work of John Dominic Crossan (1973) and Bran- don Scott (1989) on the parables of Jesus showed that cer- tain of them (e.g., the Good Samaritan), rather than hav- Cognitive Taxonomy, Bloom’s ing an exemplary purpose, are designed to disturb and turn upside down existing attitudes—Crossan calls them The Original Taxonomy “parables of reversal.” Michael Gillingham (1998) builds A taxonomy is defined as a classification, a systematic on Crossan’s work, alongside that of Andrew Parker arrangementCopy in groups or categories according to estab- (1996), who takes a similar approach, and applies the the- lished criteria (“Taxonomy” 2008). Benjamin S. Bloom, ory of cognitive dissonance to the attitude change that he associate director of the Board of Examinations of the thinks is the sole purpose of these parables. Gillingham University of Chicago, conceived the idea of an organized believes that cognitive dissonance theory explains “why framework for classifying learning objectives to facili- Jesus used parables and the mechanism by which they tate the exchange of test items among university faculty work” (1998, 299). Many of the hearers of Jesus would be (Krathwohl 2002). Bloom, together with a group of mea- antagonistic to his radical ideas, and other, more sympa- surement specialists, began meeting in 1949, and in 1956 thetic followers also found his teaching difficult to accept they published their final draft of the cognitive domain from time to time. This sets up cognitive dissonance in (Engelhart et al. 1956). the hearers. The parables therefore work by generating Bloom’s taxonomy provided a multitiered model of six an initial world with which the hearer can be consonant cognitive objectives, ordered from simple and concrete (no cognitive dissonance present), but which, when the (knowledge) to complex and abstract (evaluation). The twist occurs (the vehemently hated foreigner does a good, categories were considered cumulative by the taxonomy loving deed), offers the opportunity for the hearer to see authors, in that they believed mastery of the simple objec- the world afresh and change his attitude from within the tives is a prerequisite to the mastery of the complex ones. parable and act differently out of it. For those designing instruction, Bloom’s Taxonomy Some notes of caution may be worth presenting here, is a useful tool for classifying learning objectives and as the theory of cognitive dissonance may be used uncrit- determining the complexity and learning level of the ically inContributor popular culture and the church to mean any kind desired outcomes. Teachers and trainers using the cat- of anxiety or bewilderment, something we can’t grasp, egories may find that their objectives fall in the simpler and its use in these circumstances can be as an unhelp- knowledge level of learning, and the more complex lev- ful “theory of everything which is dissonant.” As Hull els are often neglected. Many would consider the educa- notes (1985, 97), there are many different categories of tional goals of understanding and the use of knowledge cognitive dissonance, and there are clear limits to its ap- to be the most important ones, and these fall into the plication. We also need to be careful in thinking that the categories of comprehension, application, analysis, syn- theory of cognitive dissonance explains fully why Jesus thesis, and evaluation. 306 College Chapel

The Revised Taxonomy “Taxonomy.” 2008. In Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Diction- During the 1990s, Lorin Anderson, a former student of ary, 11th ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc. Bloom, and David Krathwohl, one of the editors of the —Larry Peck original taxonomy, led a group of representative cogni- tive psychologists, curriculum theorists, instructional researchers, and testing and assessment specialists with College Chapel the goal of updating the original taxonomy (Anderson and Krathwohl 2000). The goal of the revision was to in- Campus worship services convened in a college chapel corporate advances in cognitive psychology and to make building and/or a figurative chapel program remain one the taxonomy more usable and teacher friendly even in of the most distinctive and symbolic methodologies in the lower grades. the history of American Christian higher education. In summary, the six major noun categories of the Rooted in the British Puritan understanding of the col- original taxonomy—knowledge, comprehension, ap- lege as a vehicle for the ongoing reformation and revival plication, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation—were of church and society, chapel services are as old as the changed to the verbs remember, understand, apply, nation’s first college (Harvard, 1626) and endure today analyze, create, and evaluate. In addition, “create” was in most overtly Christian colleges and universities, as well moved to the highest level of the list, and “evaluate” was as in many denominationally affiliatedOnly schools. Often moved to second place. The revised taxonomy is not the symbolic center of controversy over changes in the a cumulative hierarchy, in keeping with the nonlinear soul of a given college or university, 148 college chapels view of learning held by the authors. However, the cog- serve as significant campus ethos-shaping institutions— nitive processes do increase in complexity as one moves especially where chapel architecture and/or compulsory up the scale. The revised taxonomy is represented in a attendance dominate the campus landscape and sched- two-dimensional table, with the four types of knowl- ule.149 Even as contemporary Christian colleges and uni- edge (factual, conceptual, procedural, metacognitive) versities struggle for an adequate theology of worship in forming one dimension and the six cognitive processes a learning community, chapel programs and their staff (remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, cre- serve as hubs for most co-curricular spiritual formation ate), with their corresponding 19 gerunds, forming the and service-learningCopy opportunities on campus. second dimension (Krathwohl 2002). The Origins of the College Chapel Program: The Taxonomy and Christian Education Puritan Liberal Education and Revivalism For Christian educators, Bloom’s original taxonomy can The British Puritan penchant for Christian higher help educators target the “head, heart, and hands” of their learning crossed the Atlantic Ocean with the first Pil- students. The goal of Christian education is life change grims, so that George M. Marsden regards the Puritan made possible by the truth and grace of God impacting founding of Harvard College just six years after their first the whole person: how he thinks, what he values, and settlement in the New World as “one of the remarkable what he does. Teaching and training can be made more facts of American history.”150 Following the model of interesting and effective by going beyond the basic levels Emmanuel College, Cambridge—the hotbed of English of rote knowledge and pursuing the more complex levels Puritanism—and the writings of Jonathan Edwards, early of learning, resulting in life and attitude change. The tax- American colleges integrated a classic liberal arts educa- onomies may be a useful tool for Christian educators in tion in the classroom with Puritan revivalist worship churches and schools for accomplishing higher levels of services in a college church,151 consistent with how Puri- learning in Christian education. 148. Widespread use of the word soul to describe the essence of uniquely References and Resources Christian higher education was initiated by George M. Marsden in 1992 in his essay, “The Soul of the American University: A Historical Overview,” Anderson, L. W., and D. R. Krathwohl, eds. 2000. A Taxonomy in The Secularization of the Academy, ed. George M. Marsden and Bradley for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Longfield (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). It was followed by ContributorMarsden, The Soul of the American University (New York: Oxford Univer- Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman. sity Press, 1994); Robert Benne, Quality with Soul: How Six Premier Colleges Engelhart, M. D., E. J. Furst, W. H. Hill, and D. R. Krathwohl. and Universities Keep Faith with Their Religious Traditions (Grand Rapids, 1956. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification MI: Eerdmans, 2001); Stephen T. Beers, The Soul of a Christian University: a Field Guide for Educators (Abilene, TX: Abilene Christian University of Educational Goals. Handbook 1, Cognitive Domain. New Press, 2008); and others. York: David McKay. 149. Benne, Quality with Soul, 11–12, 193–14, 213–14. 150. Marsden, Soul of the American University, 33. Krathwohl, D. R. 2002. “A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An 151. William C. Ringenberg, The Christian College: A History of Prot- Overview.” Theory into Practice 41 (4): 212–218. estant Higher Education in America (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2006), 38. College Chapel 307 tans “combined highly intellectual theology with intense on moral philosophy joined revivalism as the focal points piety.”152 True to the Protestant doctrine of sola scriptura of the college chapel program. “For the next century, and revivalism’s commitment to preaching as the primary these two programs, the revival and moral philosophy, means of conversion and grace, colleges preserved a time were the chief collegiate supplements to traditions of and place for students to sit under the biblical preaching regulated worship”159 and laid the foundation for nearly of the college president. Compulsory attendance at two a century of academic ascendancy that “may be called Sunday worship services (open to the general public) with justice the great age of Christian higher education in and daily preaching and/or prayer services for the col- the history of the country.”160 Chapel services remained lege community was central to the Puritan conception of so integrally identified with American higher education higher education and became the standard for Harvard, that compulsory chapel attendance continued in virtually Yale, and the vast majority of American colleges that fol- all colleges—even state universities—until late into the lowed them. Since these services normally took place in 19th century. 161 Today, many if not most historically de- a college chapel building (often the most architecturally nominational colleges maintain college chapel buildings, dominant and symbolically significant structure on cam- worship services, and chapel staff who assist students in pus), they inevitably became known as chapel services. spiritual formation as well as service-learning opportuni- ties in the local community and global village. The College Church and the Preaching President Only When a college had an especially eloquent president— The College Chapel Program and the Soul of the such as Timothy Dwight at Yale (1795–1817), Francis American University: Secularization and the Wayland at Brown (1827–1855), Charles G. Finney Demise of Compulsory Chapel Programs (1852–1875) at Oberlin, or John McLean at Prince- As the most visible symbol of faith on campus, the col- ton (1854–1888)—“the effect on the students could be lege chapel has often served as a lightning rod in the electric.”153 Yet while the vast majority of college presi- well-chronicled tension between the educational and dents were clergyman,154 few were remarkable preachers, spiritual missions of Christian colleges. Since the demise so that the success of the chapel program often depended of the revival college movement (sometimes called the largely on periodic religious revivals among the students, old-time college), only a handful of American colleges lest chapel preaching fall upon hard hearts and deaf andCopy universities have been able to overcome the forces ears.155 This only increased the influence of revivalism of secularization and maintain their uniquely Christian in Protestant Christian education, especially in the after- soul. Some scholars emphasize the demise of compulsory math of the First Great Awakening, when the founding of college chapel programs as a unique development in the numerous revival-oriented colleges—such as Dartmouth, transition from revival college to modern university.162 Princeton, and Brown—eventually led to the explosion of They point to the elimination of compulsory chapel at more than 500 revival colleges across the American fron- Harvard in 1886 and Yale in 1926 as key points in the tier during the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840).156 40-year secularization of the American academy.163 Other scholars emphasize the continuity of antispirituality pres- Apologetics and Common Sense Realism sures facing Christian colleges since Harvard’s faculty At the turn of the 19th century, the challenge of Euro- rejected the First Great Awakening in 1741.164 They see pean radical skepticism157 led to a dynamic connection between revival colleges and the philosophical worldview Oxford University Press, 2002), 93–113. See also Noll, “The Revolution, the 158 of Scottish common sense realism. Apologetic sermons Enlightenment, and Christian Higher Education in the Early Republic,” in Making Higher Education Christian, ed. Joel Carpenter and Kenneth Shipps (Grand Rapids, MI: Christian University Press, 1987), 58–64. 152. George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture (New 159. Marsden, Soul of the American University, 58. York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 44. 160. Noll, “Revolution, the Enlightenment, and Christian Higher Edu- 153. Ibid., 64. cation,” 64. 154. In 1840, 80 percent of all college presidents at overtly Christian 161. Ringenberg, Christian College, 80–82. colleges were clergyman, as well as nearly 60 percent of state college presi- 162. Such as Ringenberg’s The Christian College; Marsden’s The Soul of dents. Marsden, Soul of the American University, 81. the American University; and Julie A. Reuben’s The Making of the Modern 155. MarkContributor A. Noll, Rise of Evangelicalism: The Age of Edwards, White- University: Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Morality field, and the Wesleys (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 53–60. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). 156. George M. Marsden, Jonathan Edwards: A Life (New Haven, CT: 163. Reuben, Modern University, 119–122; Marsden, Soul of the Uni- Yale University Press, 2004), 499; George M. Marsden and Bruce Longfield, versity, 21. The Secularization of the Academy (New York: Oxford University Press, 164. Such as James T. Burtchaell, The Dying of the Light: The Disengage- 1992), 8–9. ment of Colleges and Universities from their Christian Churches (Grand 157. Particularly David Hume and Voltaire. Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 1998); Michael L. Budde and John Wesley 158. First proposed by Thomas Reid and developed by Princeton presi- Wright, Conflicting Allegiances: the Church-Based University in a Liberal dent Thomas Witherspoon, where Timothy Dwight studied. Mark A. Noll, Democratic Society (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press, 2004); and Benne, America’s God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln (New York: Quality with Soul. 308 College Chapel growing pressure against chapel programs in contempo- voluntary cocurricular activities. These chapel services rary Christian colleges as part of an ongoing pattern in the are often (although not always) invested with the time, history of Christian higher education. space, personnel, and financial support required to re- main ethos-shaping forces on campus, but not because Managing the Tensions of Worship attendance is enforced.171 As Bethel University’s website in a Learning Community declares, “Chapel is the heart and soul of spiritual life on Both sides of this debate recognize that the dualism of the Bethel campus. Chapel attendance is not required, post-Enlightenment conceptions of knowledge creates but we believe it’s a vital part of building community a nearly inevitable force against the life of the Spirit in and learning about our shared faith.”172 Students may colleges committed to the life of the mind.165 Today’s choose to attend worship services to help them worship college chapel programs face increasing faculty pressure God in everything they do, but such colleges believe that to become more denominationally diverse, historically such heart practices are best pursued voluntarily.173 Ide- rooted, and intellectually challenging, even as postmod- ally, such an approach enhances the worship experience ern, consumer-oriented, doctrine-phobic students de- for all who participate and reduces the need to police mand more experientially based, relationally connected, student attendance and behavior. Practically, just as in and individually catered worship experiences.166 Manag- turn-of–the-century colleges, weak programming and ing these pressures has led to two primary approaches to preaching can quickly lead to student dissatisfaction and 174 Only chapel in Christian colleges. a conspicuously empty chapel.

Chapel as an Educational Essential The Heritage of the College Chapel Many colleges view their chapel education programs Two Theological Poles of Worship as an educational essential of a Christian college—not While modern Christian colleges have yet to develop a unlike the general studies courses in a college’s core cur- widespread theology capable of managing these tensions riculum. Similar to the Puritan college church, they serve at the level of the Puritan model,175 both sides in the de- the broader educational mission of integrating highly bate agree that chapel services should be a time when at intellectual pursuits with intense personal piety.167 Cha- the very least a “critical mass” of the college community pel services are required of most students and are held gathersCopy together to celebrate their common faith in mean- in a large, often symbolically enriched worship space ingful expressions of corporate worship; learn the central and at a protected time in the college schedule.168 Ide- tenants of the Christian faith; and consider together how ally, such chapel programs serve as a corporate spiritual to live out their faith throughout their campus com- discipline that both symbolically and educationally ties munity, scholarship, personal lives, and future calling. together the entire Christian college experience, so that On the one hand, Protestant theologies of worship have chapel is “foundational for university-wide commitment consistently emphasized that all of life and not just sa- to integrate faith, learning, and living across campus.”169 cred times and places are potentially acts of worship. The Practically, just as in historic revival colleges, weak pro- commitment to the life of the mind required to forge a gramming and preaching quickly lead to student dissat- genuinely Christian worldview can make “the classroom isfaction and misbehavior within the captive audience.170

171. Benne, Quality with Soul, 49. Chapel as a Student Service 172. Bethel University, “Worship/Chapel at Bethel,” http://cas.bethel Other colleges employ a model that views chapel services .edu/campus-ministries/worship/chapel (accessed15 April 2013). 173. Benne highlights Calvin College (Christian Reformed), Valparaiso as one student service among many—not unlike other University (Lutheran), and the University of Notre Dame (Catholic) as ex- amples where this model appears to be attracting a critical mass of students, 165. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 7–10. at least to Sunday services. Quality with Soul, 145–149, 160–165. 166. A youth group worldview described as “Moral Therapeutic Deism” 174. Benne adds a third college model of institutions whose voluntary by Christian Smith and Melinda Lundquist Denton in Soul Searching: chapel programs are marked by low attendance and without a chapel hour the Religious and Spiritual lives of American Teenagers (Oxford: Oxford in the college schedule in Quality with Soul, 49. Reuben notes that it was University Press, 2005). See also Kendra Kreasy Dean, Almost Christian: not uncommon for college administrations to discover that there is often What the FaithContributor of Our Teenagers Is Telling Us about the American Church no going back from the “disaster” of a voluntary chapel once such critical (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010). mass is lost in Modern University, 123–124. 167. Marsden, Fundamentalism, 44. 175. See David S. Dockery’s discussion of the lack of thorough theology 168. Benne highlights nondenominational Wheaton College and Bap- in Renewing Minds, 124–137. Encouraging starts toward such a theology tist-affiliated Baylor University as examples where this model currently are found in Duane Liftin, Conceiving the Christian College (Grand Rapids, appears to be working. Quality with Soul, 150. MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2004); Cary Balzer and Rod Reed, Building a Culture 169. David S. Dockery, Renewing Minds: Serving Church and Society of Faith: University-wide Partnerships for Spiritual Formation (Abilene, TX: Through Christian Higher Education (Nashville, TN: Broadman, 2007), Abilene Christian University Press, 2012); and James K. A. Smith, Desiring 108. Dockery is president of Union University, an educational-essential the Kingdom: Worship, Worldview, and Cultural Formation (Grand Rapids, chapel school. MI: Baker Academic, 2009) and Imagining the Kingdom: How Worship 170. Burtchaell, Dying of the Light, 232, 320. Works (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2013). College Chapel 309 as a chapel, scholarship as devotion,” so that, “Christian- Beers, Stephen T. 2008. The Soul of a Christian University: a ity at the base of the curriculum and suffusing all studies Field Guide for Educators. Abilene, TX: Abilene Christian (is) the essence of Christian education.”176 On the other University Press. hand, the affirmation that all of life can be worship need Benne, Robert. 2001. Quality with Soul: How Six Premier Col- not discount our need for worship services that train our leges and Universities Keep Faith with Their Religious Tradi- hearts and minds to worship and provide a means of tions. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. grace by which the Spirit forms our soul in unique and Budde, Michael L., and John Wesley Wright. 2004. Conflicting intense ways. As Christian K. A. Smith asserts, “Jesus Allegiances: The Church-based University in a Liberal Demo- seems to establish particular hot spots of sacramentality cratic Society. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press. and . . . endues them with a special sense of presence,”177 Burtchaell, James T. 1998. The Dying of the Light: The Disen- and there is little doubt that a Christian college chapel gagement of Colleges and Universities from their Christian service should certainly be one of these hot spots. Churches. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Carlberg, R. Judson. 2002. “The Evangelical Vision: From Fun- Back to the Future damentalist Isolation to Respected Voice.” In The Future of These two poles of worship guided the Puritan model Religious Colleges, edited by Paul John Dovre, 92–110. Grand of liberal education in the classroom and revival in the Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. college chapel precisely because the renewing power of Dean, Kendra Kreasy. 2010. AlmostOnly Christian: What the Faith the presence of the Holy Spirit in the chapel is the best of Our Teenagers Is Telling Us about the American Church. defense against hard hearts and deaf ears and in the Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. classroom. Perhaps it is not surprising that both volun- Dockery, David S. 2007. Renewing Minds: Serving Church and tary student-service chapel programs and compulsory Society Through Christian Higher Education. Nashville, TN: educational-essential programs work best in seasons Broadman & Holman. of religious awakening,178 or that both types of chapel Dorsett, Lyle W., and Timothy K. Beougher. 1995. Accounts of programs benefited from the last season of spiritual a Campus Revival: 1995. Wheaton, IL: Harold Shaw. awakening on American college campuses (1995).179 As Dovre, Paul J. 2002. The Future of Religious Colleges: The Pro- the contemporary Christian college movement continues ceedings of the Harvard Conference on the Future of Religious to develop deeper theologies of worship in learning com- CopyColleges, October 6–7, 2000. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. munities, there is reason to hope that such intentionality Kennedy, James C., and Caroline Joyce Simon. 2005. Can Hope could lead them back to the future of a second “great age Endure? A Historical Case Study in Christian Higher Educa- of Christian higher education.”180 tion. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Liftin, Duane. 2004. Conceiving the Christian College. Grand References and Resources Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Balzer, Cary, and Rod Reed. 2012. Building a Culture of Marsden, George M. 1992. “The Soul of the American Uni- Faith: University-wide Partnerships for Spiritual Formation. versity: A Historical Overview.” In The Secularization of the Abilene, TX: Abilene Christian University Press. Academy, edited by George M. Marsden and Bradley Long- field, 6–34. New York: Oxford University Press. ———. 1994. The Soul of the American University: From Prot- 176. James Bratt, as quoted in Paul John Dovre, ed., The Future of Reli- estant Establishment to Established Nonbelief. New York: gious Colleges: The Proceedings of the Harvard Conference on the Future of Oxford University Press. Religious Colleges, October 6–7, 2000 (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2002), 203. This “all of life can become worship” perspective is also promi- ———. 2004. Jonathan Edwards: A Life. New Haven, CT: Yale nent at many schools with required chapel. University Press. 177. Desiring the Kingdom, 149. 178. Ringenberg notes this revival effect of compulsory chapel programs ———. 2006. Fundamentalism and American Culture. New in Christian College, 62ff, and Reuben does in voluntary chapel schools in York: Oxford University Press. Modern University, 119. Noll, Mark A. 1987. “The Revolution, the Enlightenment, and 179. In the 1995 campus awakening, voluntary attendance at Hope Col- lege chapel jumped from a handful of students to nearly 90 percent of the Christian Higher Education in the Early Republic.” In Mak- student body, and student satisfaction with Gordon College’s compulsory ing Higher Education Christian, edited by Joel Carpenter chapel programContributor jumped from less than 50 percent to over 90 percent in a single year. James C. Kennedy and Caroline Joyce Simon, Can Hope and Kenneth Shipps, 35–63. Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Endure? A Historical Case Study in Christian Higher Education (Grand University Press. Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005), 188–195; and Lyle W. Dorsett and Timothy ———. 2002. America’s God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abra- K. Beougher, Accounts of a Campus Revival: 1995 (Wheaton, IL: Harold Shaw, 1995), 139–170. ham Lincoln. New York: Oxford University Press. 180. Noll, “Revolution, the Enlightenment, and Christian Higher Edu- ———. 2003. The Rise of Evangelicalism: The Age of Edwards, cation,” 64; R. Judson Carlberg, “The Evangelical Vision: From Fundamen- talist Isolation to Respected Voice,” in The Future of Religious Colleges, ed. Whitefield, and the Wesleys. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Dovre, 231. Press. 310 Colombia and Christian Education

Reuben, Julie A. 1996. The Making of the Modern University: guaranteed equality for all religious denominations. Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Mo- Changes to the law185 were subsequently made to meet rality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. the demands of the new constitution, such as the regula- Ringenberg, William C. 2006. The Christian College: A History tion of religious freedom, signed in 1994, which led to of Protestant Higher Education in America. Grand Rapids, agreements with Protestant churches. MI: Baker Academic. By decree, every educational institution must pro- Smith, Christian, and Melinda Lundquist Denton. 2005. Soul duce a PEI (educational institutional project)186 wherein Searching: the Religious and Spiritual lives of American Teen- public and privately accredited schools provide religious agers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. instruction within the school curriculum, from preschool Smith, James K. A. 2009. Desiring the Kingdom: Worship, to middle school.187 Consequently, the institution identi- Worldview, and Cultural Formation. Grand Rapids, MI: fies the subject and rigorousness of the coursework, as Baker Academic. well as the denomination to be studied. However, the law ———. 2013. Imagining the Kingdom: How Worship Works. provides adult students and legal guardians with the right Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. to reject such education. —Gary D. Stratton Methods of Educating Christians in Colombia Catholic schools teach catechesis Onlyand religion according Colombia and Christian Education to the catechism of the Catholic Church, sacred scrip- ture, and the documents of the Magisterium. Parishes Christianity in the New World and churches also teach the ritual of initiation of adults Christianity arrived in Colombia in 1546 with the estab- (RCIA), while Protestant evangelical churches encourage lishment of the mission diocese of Popayan.181 Missionar- the teaching of sacred scripture through communities of ies played a major role in the defense of the dignity and faith and Sunday school. culture of indigenous peoples during the conquest and Christianity in Colombia is influenced by a mestizaje, evangelization process. or mixing, of elements adopted from popular religious practices. There is a particular devotion to Our Lady of Main Denominations in Colombia Chiquinquirá,Copy patroness of Colombia, and to diverse local Studies by the Episcopal Conference (CEC) show that 90 representations of the Virgin Mary. Local practices such percent182 of the Colombian population is Catholic. How- as the praying of the rosary, devotions to saints, and pro- ever, the Colombian Council of Evangelical Churches cessions, pilgrimages, and altar venerations during Holy (CEDECOL), founded in 1950, represents evangelical Week and the novena of Aguinaldos188 are also common. churches in Colombia and asserts that 13 percent183 of the —Claudia H. Herrera Colombian population identifies as evangelical.

Church-State Relations Columba Since 1811, the right to religious freedom and education has ben observed at the constitutional level.184 All rela- The first great Irish missionary, a pioneer evangelist, tions between the state and the Holy See were regulated poet, political intermediary, and man of deep personal by the Concordat (1887). After the new constitution sanctity, Columba was Ireland’s first indigenous saint. of 1991, the law recognized the reality of a plural state with diverse cultures, ethnic groups, and religions, and 185. “Senate of Colombia Private Policy,” Law 133 of 1994, http://www 181. “Roman Catholic-Episcopal Conference of Colombia Private Pol- .secretariasenado.gov.co/senado/basedoc/ley/1994/ley_0133_1994.html icy,” http://www.cec.org.co (accessed March 2013). For further reference, (accessed March 2013). see also Casiano Floristan and Michael Keefe, “Evangelization of the New 186. “Senate of Colombia Private Policy,” Law 115 of 1994, http://www World: An Old World Perspective.” Missiology 29, no. 133 (April 1992): .secretariasenado.gov.co/senado/basedoc/ley/1994/ley_0115_1994.html 143; and Peterson Anna L. and Manuel Vásquez, Latin American Religions: (accessed March 2013). Histories andContributor documents in Context (New York and London: University 187. “Ministerio de Educación Nacional Private Policy,” Decree No. Press, 2008). 4500, http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1621/articles-115381_archivo_pdf. 182. “Episcopal Conference of Colombia Private Policy,” http://www 188. Traditional Novena of Aguinaldos: This is the most important .cec.org.co (accessed March 2013). popular religious tradition for Catholics in Colombia. During the nine days 183. U.S. Department of State Private Policy, “Colombia: International before Christmas, Colombian families and friends get together to pray the Report of Religious Freedom and Freedom of Worship,” http://www.state novena and to celebrate the road of the Holy Family in Judea. The word .gov/documents/organization/132734.pdf (accessed March 2013). aguinaldo is attributed to the tradition of exchanging gifts before Christ- 184. Diego Renato Salazar, Constitution of Republic of Colombia, 4th mas. For further reference, see also Jean-Pierre Ruiz and Mario J. Paredes, ed., Spanish version (Bogotá, Colombia: Ediciones Libreria del Profesional, La Palabra de Dios y los Católicos Latinos, Spanish ed./The Word of God 1998), 24. and Latino Catholics (Notre Dame, IN: American Bible Society, 2012). Columba 311

The earliest source for his life is the Amra Choluimb most widespread tradition is that Columba was involved Chille (Columcille—the Wonderful Person). It is a somber in a dispute over the copying of a manuscript of the eulogy, the oldest surviving copy of which goes back to the psalter, owned by Finnian of Moville. King Diarmait is 11th century, although linguistic evidence may indicate alleged to have judged in favor of Finnian, and the battle seventh-century composition. The Amra portrays an ideal, was a consequence of Columba’s desire for retribution. rather than a carefully defined depiction of the saint. Another perspective is that Columcille had promised The primary source for Columba’s life is Adamnán’s sanctuary to Curnan, son of the king of the Connachta, Vitae Colombae, which was written a century after its who was murdered by a kinsman of King Diarmait, subject’s death. Adamnán was the ninth abbot of Iona. and the battle was in revenge for his death. The earliest He was a kinsman of Columba, and because of his fam- biographers of the saint make clear that his motives for ily link and position in Iona, oral and written materials leaving Ireland were personal sanctification and a desire about the saint were available to him. He wrote the Life to spread the Gospel of Christ. The basic text that is said for those connected with the Columban monasteries, to to have inspired him is Isaiah 61:1. tell them about their founder and spiritual father in the For the remaining 30 years of his life, Columba dedi- faith and also as a witness to those who might have an cated himself to prayer, study, physical labor, and evan- interest in this outstanding man of God. gelism. Adamnan recounts that never an hour passed that Born in Gartan, County Donegal, in December 521, Columba did not devote to prayer,Only reading, writing, or Columba came from royal stock. His father was Feidlimid, some practical work. A famous legend describes him as and his grandfather was Conall Gulban, from whom the remaining three days in his cell in prayer, without moving, word Donegal (Tír Conaill, Conall’s Land) is derived. so much was he under the influence of the Holy Spirit. Conall Gulban’s father was reputedly the famous Niall His main focus of mission was among the Irish speak- of the Nine Hostages, founder of the powerful Uí Néill ers of Dál Riada and the Picts. Recent scholars have dynasty. Through his mother Eithne, Columba was de- questioned the traditional assessment of his success in scended from a king of Leinster. It is claimed that over Scotland and northern England, suggesting that there a period of 700 years, Columba’s family provided more were already some converts among the Picts. Neverthe- than 40 high kings of Ireland. less, Columba had a remarkable personal impact. His Columba was baptized by Crithnechan and originally visitCopy to King Bruide of the Great Glen, in the Highlands named Criomthann (fox), but as claimed by legend, of Scotland, led to an easing of tension between the Picts he later took the name Columba (Columcille, Dove and the Scots of Dál Riada and paved the way for mission of the Church). According to the custom of the time, among those peoples. Cruithnechan became Columba’s foster parent and was Legend in Scotland associates Columba with the Loch responsible for his education. At that time a child was Ness monster, which at the saint’s command returned to fostered for educational purposes and payment was the depths. According to Adamnan, angels and divine made in terms of cattle, the currency of the day. He later manifestations attended Columba throughout his life. proceeded to Leinster, where in the period of his dia- Columba returned to Ireland from Iona. In 575, he conate he studied classical poetry under the renowned was involved in a convention held at Druim Cett, near Christian bard Gemman. Limavady, County Londonderry, at which he negoti- Columba took holy orders at Clonard and later studied ated a compromise between the Scottish and Irish Dál at Moville. Traditionally it is understood that he com- Riatas. He also spoke on behalf of the filid, or bardic pleted his education at Glasnevin Monastery and while order, defending their cultural position against those who there may have met Comgall of Bangor. The Annals of wanted them banished from the island. Columba died in Ulster record that he founded a new community at Derry June 597 and was buried at Iona. In 878 his bones were in 546. It is a matter of scholarly debate whether Co- brought back to Ireland. However, following a Danish lumba was directly involved in the foundation of Derry; invasion in the 12th century, they were lost. certainly there is a very strong tradition that identifies What then was the personal contribution of Columba? him withContributor that institution. His other major foundation in Bearing in mind that hagiographers wrote primarily Ireland was at Durrow in the 550s. to spiritually edify, rather than for historical accuracy, In 563, two years after the battle of Cúl Dremne, Co- Columba is portrayed as exhibiting genuine concern for lumba left Ireland with a group of 12 followers and sailed people. He was a kindly man who welcomed repentant to Iona off the West Coast of Mull, in Scotland. Medieval sinners, a man of outstanding personal holiness whose legends record that he was forced to leave in penance for prayers fed his spiritual life. He was a teacher very much his part in the battle, which led to the deaths of 3,000 war- at one with nature, who by his example inspired others to riors. Theories about the origins of the battle vary. The live and work for Christ. 312 Columbia International University

References and Resources South Carolina legislative charter to offer degrees (1929); Anderson, A. O., and M. O. Anderson, eds. and trans. 1991. integrated general and liberal arts studies into the Bible Adomnan’s Life of Columba. Oxford: Clarendon Press. school curriculum; initiated a graduate school of theol- Herbert, M. 1996. Iona, Kells and Derry: The History and Ha- ogy and missions (1936); launched a secondary boarding giography of the Monastic “Familia” of Columba. Blackrock, school, Ben Lippen School, to educate children of mis- Ireland: Four Courts Press. sionaries and Christian workers (1940); collaborated in Mac Airt, S., and G. Mac Niocaill, eds. and trans. 1983. The An- the founding of the Accrediting Association of Bible Col- nals of Ulster. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Advanced Studies. leges (1947); and by the early 1950s, grew its enrollment Ó Fiaich, Tomás, Rev. 1963. “Saint Colmcille in Ireland and to hundreds as World War II veterans answered God’s Scotland.” In Irish Monks in the Golden Age, edited by Rev. call to take the Gospel to the ends of the earth. Prof. John Ryan, SJ, 16–30. Dublin and London: Clonmore McQuilkin’s associate, G. Allen Fleece, led the institu- and Reynolds. tion from 1952 to 1966. A man of prayer and faith, Fleece Sharpe, R., trans. 1995. Life of St. Columba. Harmondsworth, led in a bold faith-journey of campus acquisition and mi- UK: Penguin. gration from a historic but cramped downtown Columbia Walsh, John R., and Thomas Bradley. 2003. A History of the Irish location to the institution’s present 400-acre campus in Church 400–700 AD. Blackrock, Ireland: Columba Press. suburban Columbia, South Carolina. Robert McQuilkin’s —Robert Jennings son, Robertson, was persuaded byOnly the board to shift from missionary to missionary mobilizer by returning from his missionary post in Japan to assume leadership of Columbia International University the institution from 1968 to 1990. During Robertson’s celebrated tenure, the institution greatly expanded its Columbia International University (www.ciu.edu) is financial resources while eliminating debt; enhanced its a multidenominational, comprehensive institution of academic reputation and achieved national (ABHE, ATS) Christian higher education known for its extraordinary and regional (SACS) accreditation; substantially expanded contributions to and influence on world evangelization. the range and nature of its curricular programs; launched The institutional mission states, “CIU educates people an award-winning Christian radio station; converted Ben from a biblical world view to impact the nations with the LippenCopy School from a primarily boarding to primarily message of Christ.” Through the institution’s more than commuter student population and relocated to new fa- 18,000 alumni serving in vocational and marketplace cilities on the college’s Columbia, South Carolina, campus; ministry roles in over 115 countries, CIU’s impact on and became an early adopter of extension and distance global mission thought and action far exceeds its size. The education. When Robertson’s wife, Muriel’s, Alzheimer’s institution’s five core values dominate institutional priori- disease advanced to a stage requiring constant attention, ties and practices: (1) authority of scripture, (2) victorious he stunned internal and external observers by resigning Christian living, (3) world evangelization, (4) prayer and from the presidency in order to devote himself fully to her faith, and (5) evangelical unity. care. His testimony concerning this life-altering decision, Living by Vows, won him unsought and enduring admira- Historical Introduction tion. Despite relinquishing his executive responsibilities, The institution dates its founding from 1923, when four McQuilkin’s influence grew as people were drawn to his students enrolled in classes offered in two rented rooms testimony, counsel, speaking, and writing. of the Colonia hotel in downtown Columbia, South Three presidents have served the institution since 1990: Carolina. Robert McQuilkin, a dynamic young protégé Johnny V. Miller (1991–1999), George Murray (2000– of Sunday School Times publisher Robert Trumbull and 2007), and Bill Jones (2007–present). During Miller’s irrepressible proponent of the “victorious life testimony,” tenure, the institution changed its name from Columbia which had its roots in England’s Keswick movement, Bible College & Seminary to Columbia International answered the call of the praying “founding mothers” University, reflecting its increasingly comprehensive to serve asContributor the institution’s first president. McQuilkin, scope and its commitment to removing impediments to whose aspiration to serve as a missionary in Africa liter- graduates seeking to serve in the world’s most restricted ally went up in flames when his transport ship sank in the areas. The university also won approval from its accredi- harbor, remained as Columbia’s president until his death tors for a contractual agreement with Freiehochschule in 1952. During McQuilkin’s prodigious tenure, the small Für Missionen (now Akademie für Weltmission) to offer Bible school acquired and operated the Ben Lippen (Scot- accredited graduate degrees in the German language on tish for “mountain of trust”) conference center in Ashe- its Korntal, Germany, campus. Presidents Murray and ville, North Carolina; received a nearly unprecedented Jones have sustained the university’s commitments to its Comenius, Educational Ideas of 313 historic mission and values while helping to expand its father of modern education. His pioneering focus on reach, resources, and curricular programs. universal education and on provision of instruction suited to the age and nature of the child has helped shape Notable Academic Programs the history of modern schooling in general; his emphasis The institution’s educational programs range from associ- on the necessary connection among faith, virtue, and ate of arts to doctor of ministry and doctor of education learning makes him important for Christian education degrees. All programs of study require a substantial core of in particular. biblical and theological studies. In addition to traditional Bible college “church occupation” programs of study, the Universal Education institution offers a growing array of degree programs that In the Pampaedia, a late summation of his educational facilitate graduates’ deployment and impact in every venue ideas, Comenius expressed his goal thus: of global gospel opportunity, including degree programs in business and organizational leadership, chaplaincy, com- Firstly, the expressed wish is for full power of develop- munication, counseling, digital media production, human- ment into full humanity not of one particular person, but ities, international theological education, Muslim studies, of every single individual, young and old, rich and poor, teacher education, and teaching English as a Foreign noble and ignoble, men and women—in a word, every being born on earth, with the ultimate aim of providing Language (TEFL). The institution’s influence on ministry education to the entire humanOnly race regardless of age, thinking and practice has expanded through establishment class, sex and nationality.189 of the Lowrie Center for Christian School Education, the Zwemer Center for Muslim Studies, and endowed chairs Education is to be universal in at least two senses. It is such as the Stephen Olford Chair of Biblical Preaching and to be universal in reach; it is for “every being born on the Thompson Church Planting Chair. earth,” without favoritism based on ability, socioeco- nomic status, gender, or ethnicity. As Comenius puts it, Christian Philosophy and Mission of Education “there is no exception from human education except for The university’s educational philosophy partakes heav- non-humans.”190 It is also to be universal in scope, fo- ily of the Bible college tradition. College leaders often cused on broad-based development into “full humanity” refer to the “three-legged stool” metaphor to describe an ratherCopy than on a narrower range of knowledge or skills. educational philosophy that features equal emphasis on The watchword was to be omnes omnia omnino, or teach- rigorous academic study, with the Bible as both a major ing all things to all people with reference to the whole.191 subject and an object of study; active cultivation of This focus was reflected in Comenius’s commitment to personal virtues, habits, and standards through faculty the ideal of pansophism, or universal wisdom, whereby modeling, authentic personal and community worship, human understanding is brought to grasp God’s ordering and mutual accountability; and exploration of ministry of the full panoply of creation. calling and gifting and development of ministry and professional skills through structured and supervised View of the Learner concurrent ministry experiences. The emphasis on “development into full humanity” also reflects the theological anthropology underpinning References and Resources Comenius’s view of education. Human nature is un- Hehl, Allene S. 1973. This Is the Victory: The True Story of derstood to be corrupted by sin and so must be recalled Events Leading to the Founding of Columbia Bible College. to its original vocation and subjected to discipline and Columbia, SC: Wentworth Printing Corp. training. Nevertheless, as education becomes a channel Mathews, R. Arthur. 1973. Towers Pointing Upward. Columbia, of God’s redemptive activity, Comenius sees enormous SC: Columbia Bible College. potential for the unfolding of human gifts, a process that McQuilkin, Robertson. 2007. The Five Smooth Stones: Essential is to continue throughout this life and into the next as au- Principles for Biblical Ministry. Nashville, TN: B & H Pub- thentic human nature is increasingly realized. Comenius lishing.Contributor thus uses imagery both of organic growth and of external —Ralph E. Enlow Jr. discipline to describe the educational process.

Comenius, Educational Ideas of 189. A. M. O. Dobbie, Comenius’s Pampaedia or Universal Education (Buckland, OH: Buckland Publishing, 1986), 19. 190. Ibid., 31. John Amos Comenius (1592–1670) was a bishop, theo- 191. John Amos Comenius, The Great Didactic of John Amos Comenius, logian, and educational reformer, now regarded as the trans. M. W. Keatinge (New York: Russell & Russell, 1967), 76. 314 Comenius, Educational Ideas of

In the Great Didactic he summarizes the view of hu- Faith manity that orients his approach under three headings: The third assertion ties the image of God to joy and cor- responds to growth in piety, which involves learning to It is plain that man is situated among visible creatures so bring joy to God while ourselves finding joy in so doing. as to be Piety means: (i.) A rational creature (ii.) The Lord of all creatures that (after we have thoroughly grasped the conceptions (iii.) A creature which is the image and joy of its Creator.192 of faith and of religion) our hearts should learn to seek God everywhere . . . , and that when we have found Him These three claims correspond to three basic goals for we should follow Him, and when we have attained Him we should enjoy Him. The first we do through our un- education: erudition, virtue, and piety. derstanding, the second through our will, and the third through the joy arising from the consciousness of our Reason union with God. 196 First, rational reflection is to be pursued wholeheartedly. Since God has fitted human reason to the basic order of Comenius’s fondness for triadic constructs creates a frac- creation, no boundary is to be set for human reasoning; tal pattern: the goals of learning are erudition, virtue, and it is the human calling to speculate and reason about all piety, and if we focus on piety weOnly find that it in turn en- things. Comprehension is to take priority over memori- gages mind, will, and spirit. Reason is similarly held to be zation, “for it is men that we are forming, not parrots.”193 inseparable from faith and virtue. The interpenetration Reason is not, however, regarded as autonomous—it of these elements is essential to Comenius’s thought. The functions properly when receptive to divine order and goal is not to delimit the sphere of each (so that, for in- working interdependently with faith and virtue. stance, reason would be applied to some things and faith to others), but rather to seek the full development of each Virtue in harmony with the others, for “these three aspects are The second claim derives from Genesis 1:28 and its image so joined together that they cannot be separated.”197 Put of human dominion over the natural world. In Come- in more contemporary terms, the educational, the moral, nius’s scheme, this point correlates with virtue and the the spiritualCopy or religious, and the political were not seen exercise of the will in self-control. Human power is to be by Comenius as legitimately separable. expressed in service: Gardens of Delight To be the lord of all creatures consists in subjecting ev- The sources of learning, accordingly, are to be scripture, erything to his own use by contriving that its legitimate creation, and the words and thoughts of others, with a end be suitably fulfilled; in conducting himself royally, quest for the point at which these speak harmoniously. that is gravely and righteously, among creatures. . .[not being] ignorant where, when, how and to what extent Knowledge, service, and joy are all related to these three each may prudently be used, how far the body should be sources. We are “sent into the world . . . that we may serve gratified, and how far our neighbour’s interests should be God, his creatures, and ourselves, and that we may enjoy consulted. In a word, he should be able to control with the pleasure to be derived from God, from his creatures, prudence his own movements and actions, external and and from ourselves.”198 Comenius picks up traditional internal, as well as those of others.194 Christian imagery in urging that schools and classrooms need to be reformed to become places of light and gardens Cruelty toward creation is explicitly condemned, and of delight. Teachers and learners, similarly, are people the goal of a proper expression of human power over the called to be gardens, but who have become wildernesses world is to be that “all creatures should have cause to join and must be called back to being gardens of delight, in us in praising God.”195 Comenius suggests that the suc- which erudition, virtue, and joy find expression in just ser- cess of Christian education may be judged by the degree vice of the wider community and the wider world. to which thoseContributor raised by it treat the world well and build humane societies. Applications to Educational Reform These core ideas can be seen reflected in Comenius’s various endeavors. He contributed significantly to the 192. Ibid., 36. 193. Ibid., 204. 196. Ibid., 218. 194. Ibid., 37. 197. Ibid., 36. 195. Dobbie, Comenius’s Pampaedia, 26. 198. Ibid., 72. Comenius, Jan 315 improvement and modern development of the learn- ren), which was a branch of the Czech Reformation ing of second and foreign languages. Since all people movement begun in 1457. Inspired by the ideas of Petr are made in God’s image and should be approached in Chelčický (c. 1380–c. 1460) and Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415), terms of learning, service, and delight, learning of oth- they strove for radical piety and a return to a Christ- ers’ languages is vital, and prejudice against foreigners like simplicity of life. Due to their interaction with the is to be resisted. The same commitments are reflected Reformation ideas of the time, the community gradu- in his insistence that learning be offered equally to those ally developed into a Protestant denomination, standing of varying abilities, gender, and social status. His close theologically between Lutheranism and Calvinism. association of piety with joy and his insistence on the Comenius’s life was marked by a series of particularly inseparability of piety, virtue, and learning led him to difficult afflictions, which significantly shaped both his focus on making learning itself more delightful to learn- theology and pedagogy. At the age of 12 (in 1604), Co- ers. This resulted in authorship of a number of innova- menius lost his parents and two sisters, probably from tive and very long-lived textbooks, including the famous the plague, and had to live with one of his other sisters Orbis Sensualium Pictus, or Visible World in Pictures, an and her family. As a 13-year-old boy, Comenius expe- illustrated language text surveying God, creation, and rienced the destructiveness of war; as a consequence of human society that remained in use for three centuries. the religious conflict between the Hungarians (Calvin- His remarkable labors in various aspects of school reform ists) and the Habsburgs (RomanOnly Catholics), he lost all are marked by the coherence of the theological vision that his inherited possessions, as well as his guardian fam- underlay them. ily. His church community soon recognized his natural talent and sent him to one of the best high schools in References and Resources the country. Later Comenius was sent to the Reformed Comenius, John Amos. 1967. The Great Didactic of John Amos universities in Herborn and Heidelberg, where he en- Comenius. Translated by M. W. Keatinge. New York: Russell countered some of the most influential ideas of the time & Russell. (Alstead’s encyclopediasm, Piscator’s irenism, Ratichius’s ———. 1998. The Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of the educational reforms, etc.). Two years after his return Heart. Translated by Howard Louthan and Andrea Sterk. from his studies, he was ordained as a minister, and his New York: Paulist Press. firstCopy pastoral appointment was to the church at Fulnek in Dagmar Čapková, Jaromír Cervenka, Pavel Floss, and Robert northern Moravia. Kalivoda. 1989. “The Philosophical Significance of the Work The beginning of the Thirty Years’ War, in 1618, of Comenius.” Acta Comeniana 8: 5–17. brought about another series of life afflictions for Come- Dobbie, A. M. O. 1986. Comenius’s Pampaedia or Universal nius. His homeland was devastated by various troops of Education. Dover, UK: Buckland. the Habsburg (Roman Catholic) armies. Being a cleric Klaus Goßmann, and Christoph Th. Scheilke. 1992. Jan Amos of the Protestant church, Comenius was forced to leave Comenius 1592–1992: Theologische und pädagogische Deu- both his family and his community and hide in various tungen. Gütersloh, Germany: Gerd Mohn. locations in northern Moravia. By 1623, he had lost virtu- Murphy, Daniel. 1995. Comenius: A Critical Reassessment of ally everything: his house was destroyed, his congregation His Life and Work. Dublin: Irish Academic Press. was dispersed, his library was burned by the Jesuits, and —David I. Smith his young wife, having just delivered their second child, died of the plague along with the two babies. For the next five years, Comenius led an insecure life, until the final Comenius, Jan expulsion of all the Protestants from the country. The Brethren found refuge for a short while in Leszno, Poland. Jan Amos Comenius (1592—1670), Komenský in Czech, Comenius remarried, but his second wife also died, leav- was a Protestant Moravian (currently a part of the Czech ing him with four children. His third wife outlived him. Republic) pastor, philosopher, and educator who is cel- In Leszno he became a co-rector of the Brethren’s school ebratedContributor especially for his revolutionary approach to edu- and later bishop (the last one) of the denomination. It was cation. His universal (holistic) notion of education and during this period that most of his educational works were international success earned him the epithet “the teacher written. Comenius’s fruitful, 28-year-long Leszno period of nations.” (1628–1656) was interrupted by three sojourns to other countries—where he was invited to work on educational Early Background and Education reforms as his reputation as an outstanding educator Comenius was born on 28 March 1592 in Moravia. His spread across Europe. The first invitation came from Eng- family belonged to the Unitas Fratrum (Unity of Breth- land (1641–1642), the second from Sweden (1642–1648), 316 Comenius, Jan and the third from (today’s) Hungary (1650–1654). Co- in respect to curricula at a given educational level and menius even received an invitation to work as rector of vertical unity in the hierarchy of the stages of education. the newly founded Harvard College in America. The For a time when education had neither stable institu- Northern Wars in 1655 between the Protestant Swedish tions nor general programs of study, such a proposal King Charles X Gustav and the Roman Catholic Polish was quite revolutionary. The third contribution was King John II Casimir proved to be fatal for Comenius in language teaching and learning. In 1633, Comenius and his denomination. The Lezsno Brethren community himself was surprised by the worldwide success of his naturally sided with the Swedish party, which the Polish Latin textbook Janua linguarum reserata (The Gate of Catholic majority considered to be a betrayal of Poland. Tongues Unlocked). It was based on the pansophic idea of As soon as the city of Lezsno was no longer protected by the encyclopedic organization of material and the inter- the Swedish troops, the Polish partisans invaded it and connection of real things, sense experience, and words. burned it. Comenius and his family barely escaped with Together with “Principles for Facilitating Teaching and their lives, lost all their property, and were forced into Study,” derived from operations of nature, it proved to exile once again. Particularly painful for Comenius was be very effective in language learning. This was followed the loss of certain manuscripts on which he had worked by a series of other textbooks, of which perhaps the most for more than 40 years. From Leszno he took refuge in famous is Orbis Sensualium Pictus (The Visible World in Amsterdam in the Netherlands, where he died in 1670. Pictures), the first illustrated languageOnly textbook. Contributions to Christian Education Most Important Works Comenius’s contributions to education can be summa- The Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of the Heart rized in three main areas. First is the general philosophy (1631), an allegorical and partly autobiographical narrative of education. He was the first person to formulate the describing the quest for hope and meaning in the midst of idea of “education according to nature.” However, his worldly decay. (John Bunyan, who published his Pilgrim’s ideas were very different from the popular concepts of Progress in 1678, never knew this book, since it was written later thinkers such as Rousseau. Besides his educational in the Czech language.) interests, Comenius also pursued philosophical ones, The School of Infancy (1632), a handbook for parents dealing which he later developed into a specific notion of uni- withCopy the early years of a child’s education. versal wisdom called pansophy. Assuming the universe The Way of Light (1642), an outline of a universal plan for peace is a harmonic unity created by one Creator, Comenius and harmony among nations. saw a fundamental parallelism between the cosmos (na- Opera Didactica Omnia (1657), a complete collection of his ture), the microcosmos (human nature), and revelation educational works. (scripture). Bringing human nature into harmony with De rerum humanarum emendatione consultatio catholica (A nature and scripture is the real essence of education. It is general consultation concerning the improvement of human the “art” (ars) of “forging” such humanity in which the affairs), his final and greatest piece of work, which was lost “nexus hypostaticus” (the personal relationship) to God and remained unpublished for about 250 years. (It was first is restored. Second is a holistic approach to education. published in 1966 in Latin.) The notion of “wholeness” or “universality” is essential in Comenius’s education. He often expressed it in the motto References and Resources omnes, omnia, omneno, meaning that all people ought Comenius, J. A. 1986. “Didactica magna [Great didactics].” In to learn, in all possible ways, all that is necessary for a DJAK, vol. XV: 27–49. Praha: Academia. good life that honors God. Similarly, on the individual Hábl, J. 2011. Lessons in Humanity from the Life and work of level, Comenius argued that the “whole man” has to be Jan Amos Comenius. Bonn: Culture and Science Publishing. educated; that is, both boys and girls need to be trained Murphy, D. 1995. Comenius: A Critical Reassessment of His Life not only in knowledge, but also morals and godliness, for and Work. Dublin: Irish Academic Press. according to Comenius humankind has been endowed Palouš, R. 1992. Komenského Boží Svět [Comenius’ God’s with threeContributor fundamental capacities: (1) to be knowledge- world]. Praha: SPN. able of things, (2) to have power over things and one’s ———. 1994. “J. A.Komenský—náboženský myslitel [J. A. Co- self, and (3) to turn to God, the source of everything. menius—a Religious Thinker].” Studia Comeniana et His- Epistemologically, Comenius expresses this in the triad torica, 51, 225–231. theoria-praxis-chrésis (wise use), pointing to the fact that Patočka, J. 2003. “Komenského duchovní biografie” [Komen- knowledge without virtue and piety is never complete. ský’s spiritual biography]. In Komeniologické studie III [Co- To accomplish such goals, Comenius designed a com- meniological studies, vol. III, 365–395. Praha: Oikoymenh. plex system of schools based on both horizontal unity —Jan Hábl Communities of Practice 317

Communion of the Saints cept, it helps to reduce the isolation and solitude of each human life and provides intimations of the posthuman “Communion of the Saints” is the literal translation of existence to which human life is a prelude. the Latin phrase communio sanctorum. Communion is a translation of the Greek term koinonia, an intimate References and Resources participation or sharing or bonding, while sanctorum Garijo-Guembe, M. M. 1994. Communion of the Saints: Foun- refers to the spirit of holiness or holy persons and things. dation, Nature and Structure of the Church. Collegeville, MN: Christianity involves bonding or rebonding, first verti- The Liturgical Press. cally with God and Jesus Christ through baptism and the Kirsch, J. P. 1911. The Doctrine of Communion of Saints in the Eucharist, and then horizontally with fellow believers and Ancient Church: A Study in the History of Dogma. Beaufort, saints through love, compassion, and charity. The bond- SC: Sands. ing agent is the Holy Spirit, which unites the believer —George Thomas Kurian not only with the past and present in time but also with heaven and earth in space. The phrase “communion of the saints” does not appear Communities of Practice in the New Testament or in any of the ancient creeds of the Eastern or Western churches. Cyril of Alexandria ex- While communities of practiceOnly have existed for millennia pressed the concept in its broadest sense: “Just as the flesh (as gatherings to share techniques and form apprentice- of Christ in the Eucharist makes us one body with Him, ships for artisans, metalworkers, masons, carpenters, pot- so the Holy Spirit dwelling in us forges in us a spiritual ters, etc.), the meaning of the concept is diverse. “Some- unity. We are one through our communion in the sacred times it is a conceptual lens through which to examine the flesh of Christ and through our sharing in the one Holy situated social construction of meaning. At other times it Spirit” (Commentary on John, Book II). is used to refer to a virtual community or informal group Another definition that prevailed in the West was sponsored by an organization to facilitate knowledge that the Communion of the Saints was communion with sharing or learning.”199 Given this diversity, definitions of the cloud of witnesses that Paul speaks of; that is, com- communities of practice vary and have evolved over time munion with those who have died in the faith, especially as Copywell, from “theory of newcomer learning,” in which those who have shared the same Lord, the same hope, identity formation occurs in individuals as they participate and the same faith. This thought, which first appeared in the group, to methods of innovation when communities in Augustine, was taken up by Bernard of Clairvaux and of practice create “new understanding where canonical ac- Peter Lombard. There is a mystical dimension to this counts of work prove inadequate,”200 to ways organizations reality that transcends death. It stresses the fact that for endeavor to capture and share knowledge. a Christian there is no death as the terminus ad quem of The information age, requiring rapid sharing of ideas human life, but only a continuum in which life on earth and technological breakthroughs, knowledge, and prac- morphs into life in heaven. The qualifying element in the tices, has inspired new interest in communities of prac- phrase is “saints.” Communion is limited to the saints tice, and thus many businesses, organizations, and educa- and is not universal. The third Eucharistic prayer in the tional institutions either experiment with or intentionally Roman Rite expressly limits communion to those “filled implement these informal groups. The most widely used with the Holy Spirit who become one body and one spirit definition of communities of practice is “groups of people in Christ.” The communion also transcends time and who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion unites the living with the dead. about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and ex- In the Spirit, Christians are always present and never pertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis.”201 absent. It also confirms that Christians have access to the And in the organizational literature, “the term ‘commu- rich deposit of faith and charity that is held in common nity’ of practice . . . is . . . a relatively informal, intra-or- and forms a common legacy and patrimony. The virtues ganizational group specifically facilitated by management of one believerContributor add the totality of good that is operative to increase learning or creativity.”202 in this world. Spiritual wealth, like physical wealth, is always shared. Intercessory prayer is one way in which 199. Andrew Cox, “What Are Communities of Practice? A Compara- the reality of the Communion of Saints is transmitted to tive Review of Four Seminal Works,” Journal of Information Science 31 (2005): 527. other believers. 200. Ibid., 528. Finally, Communion of Saints defines the pilgrimage 201. Etienne C. Wenger, Richard McDermott, and William M. Snyder, Cultivating Communities of Practice (Boston: Harvard Business School of life in which each pilgrim receives support and sus- Press, 2002), 4. tenance from fellow pilgrims. As an eschatological con- 202. Cox, “What Are Communities of Practice?,” 538. 318 Community

Persons in communities of practice collaborate over competition, may find the cooperative aspect of communi- lunch, around coffee, via e-mail, on the Internet, and/or ties of practice difficult. by teleconferencing, offering individual disciplines and Regarding Christian education, some degree programs experiences (the “practices”) in order to “drive strategy, build in processes that promote communities of practice. generate new lines of business, solve problems, promote In these, students collaborate through online dialogue, the spread of best practices, develop people’s professional postings, projects, papers, and even a formalized cohort, skills, and help companies recruit and retain talent.”203 which studies together for all or parts of a degree program. Each grouping sets their own agendas and leads in ways Some programs require the cohorts to create a community that are the most conducive to their varied contexts. For rule of life that guides their work for the duration of their constant innovation, communities of practice ask: What cohort experience. Because of the sharing of resources and are we learning? How can we do our work better? How ideas, learning increases, and the experience forms ongo- can we apply a technological advancement to our strate- ing practices of collaboration. Often these communities gies? How have others addressed this problem? How remain intact after the completion of the degree program. can we solve this problem? As the community generates —Shelly Trebesch knowledge, it becomes self-perpetuating. In this genera- tive process, persons “reinforce and renew themselves.”204 Because they are gatherings of people with similar CommunityOnly passions, communities of practice are relatively easy to cultivate. Once persons (or management) identify a par- “Community is an unremitting coterie of relationships ticular focus, infrastructure of various types (technology, set within the context of specific traditions and rooted in meetings, conferences, etc.) supports the community and a transcendent vision.”209 Three concepts in this defini- harnesses the ideas. This leads to innovation and synergy. tion by Webb-Mitchell—relationships, traditions, and Assessment is nontraditional, usually by highlighting vision—coalesce to provide the groundedness requisite anecdotes or, in the case of one company, showing in- for faith communities to inspire, propel, and challenge creased revenue and savings as a result of communities the Christian education of their members. of practice ideas.205 There are limitations on communities of practice. (1) The NatureCopy of Community Relationships and conversations take time. With the fast Grace Davies composed a sociologically apt book title— pace of innovations and new technologies, some feel that “belonging without believing”—to describe the postmod- discussions in communities of practice take too much ern phenomenon of fractured cultures, in which indi- time.206 (2) Communities of practice “are diametrically viduals are broken and alienated yet anxious to belong.210 opposed to organizational hierarchy,” since hierarchy de- She illustrates that some will participate in association termines “organizationally sanctioned communication.”207 with Christian communities even if they cannot (at least Some highly structured, hierarchical organizations would yet) accept the theistic beliefs that ultimately bind that re- find communities of practice threatening, since in them, ligious entity. On the other hand, people can be attracted communication happens across authority lines and func- to faith communities because they exude welcoming, lov- tions. (3) Regional and cultural differences may also limit ing postures, which are distinctive, compelling traits, so the function of communities of practice, especially between dissimilar to a bitter and estranging culture. Eastern and Western societies. Typically, Eastern societies are more oriented toward collectivism and the group and Relationships thus may welcome communities of practice.208 (Although C. Ellis Nelson paints a lucid portrait of how community Eastern cultures are often more hierarchical and therefore is such a powerful force in Christian education: may not welcome free-flowing dialogue.) Western societ- ies, which are more oriented toward individualism and Why this insistence on the communal nature of the church? Because it is by this process that faith can be incubated and nurtured. Faith is a concomitant of human 203. EtienneContributor C. Wenger and William M. Snyder, “Communities of association. This is why the church must a gathering of Practice: The Organizational Frontier,” Harvard Business Review (January– Christians which is permanent enough to allow individu- February 2000): 140. 204. Ibid., 143. als to know each other in various facets of their life and 205. Ibid., 144. 206. Steven J. Kemo Jr., “Limitations of Communities of Practice: A 209. Defined then discussed in Brett Webb-Mitchell, Christly Gestures: Consideration of Unresolved Issues and Difficulties in the Approach,” Learning to be Members of the Body of Christ (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies 15 (August 2008): 74. 2003), 12–13. 207. Ibid., 74. 210. Grace Davies, Belonging Without Believing: Religion in Britain since 208. Ibid., 75. 1945 (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing, 1994). Community 319

regular enough in its meetings to be able to develop a from the past, or because it proclaims values they have em- sense of solidarity in Christ and in their mission to the braced as adults. One reason the Church of Jesus Christ of world. The human interaction is the most powerful pro- Latter Day Saints is expanding so dramatically is that many cess we know for creating and sustaining values, and for former Catholics and Protestants see it as the most fully 211 shaping a distinctive style of life. committed to “family values” of any American religion.216 Christianity bends and revises itself based on the sub- Values, attitudes, and behaviors endemic to the Chris- culture in which it exists; it is a transforming faith. In tian way have a greater chance of being interiorized in addition, Christianity is best when it retains its essence the context of a supportive yet challenging faith com- and the practices that ground it in history; it is also a munity than any other means. Formal classrooms (in faith rooted in tradition. These traditions and rituals are which the nature of relationships may be constricted) and significant markers. These ritualizing activities bind faith teacher-centered monologues (which attempt to cogni- communities. In societies where rapid social change is tively transfer content-laden information) are a meager customary, the traditions of our faith work to stabilize us substitute for human socialization into Christian amity. in the long history of those who have come before. These sentiments have surfaced in social science re- Churches and parachurch organizations face two chal- search.212 Several factors correlate with learning as it re- lenges: mobility—that is, faith community members in lates to the teacher-student relationship: frequent, long- some cultures are geographically transient and leave one term contact; warm, loving relationships; exposure to Only church for another; and source—the determination of the inner states of the teacher; observing the teacher in a truth has been culturally conditioned toward democratic variety of life settings; the teacher exhibiting consistency opinion and experiential feelings, which impact even in behavior; correspondence between the behavior of the one’s interpretation of scripture. To the extent that errant teacher and beliefs of the community; and an explanation hermeneutics affect sound biblical teaching, the estab- of the lifestyle of the teacher. lished tradition of the church is compromised. People believe in Jesus because they wish to belong to the assemblies that preach and celebrate Him. Wright Vision observes: “In Europe, where the churches have tended to A Christian community is cemented by relationships stick to charity work and to religious rites narrowly de- and guided by traditions, but unlike most other brands fined, leaving community-building and social fellowship Copy of community, it looks beyond itself with a transcendent aside, rates of churchgoing and membership and of belief vision. Hauerwas writes in A Community of Character, in Christ—are substantially lower.”213 Indeed, Christians “Any community and polity is known and should be are people of the book,214 but they seek concomitant con- judged by the kind of people it develops. . . . The most nections with people with whom they share their lives. important social task of Christians is to be nothing less Westerhoff knows this: “Verbal language, both spoken than a community capable of forming people with vir- and written, has dominated Christian education for too tues sufficient to witness to God’s truth in the world.”217 long. Perhaps as far as Christian faith is concerned, we A community of faith is able to engage in fellowship and have attached too literal an interpretation to the primacy remain faithful to its traditions because it revels in the of the word. By sanctifying the oral and verbal tradi- hope it has in a vision for not only what God intends for tions, we have lost something of the richness of the early this world but also the next. Church where the great truths of the community were As Christians are encouraged to see the story and mis- enshrined in shared experience.”215 sion of God, they join in the present Kingdom of God and engage in service to the world, which is their calling and Tradition destiny. An effective Christian education seeks commu- Christians join churches to have a social life, but not just nity not only as the context for nurturing faith, but also any social life. They choose a community either because it as a foretaste of the kingdom to come. has preserved religious traditions and customs they cherish Contributor References and Resources 211. C. Ellis Nelson, Where Faith Begins (Louisville, KY: Westminster Gibbs, Eddie, and Ryan K. Bolger. 2005. Emerging Churches: John Knox Press, 1971), 101. Creating Christian Community in Postmodern Cultures. 212. Lawrence Richards, Christian Education: Seeking to Become Like Jesus (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1984), 101–102. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. 213. N. T. Wright, “The Great Debate,” Bible Review (August 1999), 12, 54. 216. Richard Wightman Fox, Jesus in America: Personal Savior, Cultural 214. At least they are in theory; in practice, biblical illiteracy is still Hero, National Obsession (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2004), 19. rampant. 217. Stanley Hauerwas, A Community of Character: Toward a Construc- 215. John Westerhoff, Will Our Children Have Faith? (Atlanta, GA: tive Christian Social Ethic (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Morehouse Press, 2000), 83–84. Press, 1991). 320 Community-Building as Christian Practice

Janzen, David. 2012. The Intentional Christian Community as a key partner in how parishes and congregations be- Handbook: For Idealists, Hypocrites, and Wannabe Disciples come resilient and faithful communities. of Jesus. Brewster, MA: Paraclete Press. Drawing from such fields as group dynamics and Pohl, Christine D. 2011. Living into Community: Cultivating group building theory, Christian education has helped Practices That Sustain Us. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. the church to understand that communities by their —Mark A. Lamport nature are clusters of individuals who share a common purpose and common goals through interpersonal in- teraction and mutuality. They gather around common Community-Building rituals and share a common narrative or story with as Christian Practice understood rules and roles, and the strongest of these communities exhibit a remarkable ability to deal with Membership in communities is inevitable and univer- tensions and conflict, both internal and external, in ways sal. Family life, leisure time, friendships, education, and that allow for change and transition while simultaneously careers all occur in some way related to communities or maintaining their core identity. Christian education has groups of persons. Persons are born into a community helped parishes and congregations develop skills and surrounded by caregivers, and this community and oth- practices such as increasing trust, clearly defining roles ers shape and form one’s ways of behaving and thinking. and responsibilities, and engagingOnly in group discernment, Each person is educated and taught to have certain per- all of which have helped to build resilient and imaginative spectives on herself and the world through these commu- communities of faith. nities, and one’s personal identity is derived from the way in which one is perceived and treated by other members References and Resources of the community and by other communities. Johnson, David W., and Frank P. Johnson. 2009. Joining To- With the emergence largely in the late 19th and early gether: Group Theory and Group Skills. 10th ed. Upper Saddle 20th centuries of the field of sociology, most commonly River, NJ: Pearson. defined as the scientific study of the human society, its Rydberg, Denny. 1985. Building Community in Youth Groups. origins, development, organizations, and institutions, Loveland, CO: Group. people began to analyze and give more attention to com- Copy —Rodger Nishioka munities and groups and how they are formed and how they function. Sociology began in its earliest form as a focus on social stratification and social class, largely as Comprehensive Schools, The Impact of these communities related to economics. In the 20th cen- tury, as the field began to expand, sociology included the The rise of comprehensive high schools began in the study of culture, race, ethnicity, gender and sexuality, and United States early in the 20th century. They were a “pe- religion, among others topics. culiarly American phenomenon.”218 Comprehensive high Religious sociologists from the very beginning noted schools were designed to serve all students in heteroge- that churches are a community of persons often subject neous populations, without selective admissions. to the same kinds of principles that apply to any other These schools were designed to prepare students for group in society. At the same time, however, churches the labor market or college and to help them become are somewhat unique, in that their stated purpose is to productive citizens. This model contrasted with those of worship God and to live out what the church believes is many other nations, in which examinations were used as its calling in the world. In the 20th and 21st centuries, a sorting mechanism to track students on a particular ca- churches began more and more to see themselves as a reer path. Comprehensive high schools typically offered community of believers and to focus more on how they multiple tracks for specialization, including a college develop and grow into a strong and healthy community. preparatory track and a vocational track. While this was With increasing distractions and a more mobile soci- the intended design, numerous stereotypical assump- ety, congregationsContributor and parishes have given more atten- tions limited the impact of comprehensive schools. Girls tion to how to attract, welcome, and retain new members. were largely relegated to domestic science and eventually Many congregations and parishes have developed new secretarial training. African Americans were typically member orientation strategies, and some have employed prepared for manual labor, and immigrants were thought staff people to aid in new member assimilation and reten- to be incapable of taking college preparatory classes. tion. All of this has led to a concentration on the task of community-building, and because many see this task as 218. James Conant, The American High School Today (New York: an educational process, Christian education has emerged McGraw-Hill, 1959), ix. Concordia University System 321

During World War I, there was a growing desire to comprehensive high schools. Christian high schools, develop a dual system of education that would separate comprehensive or otherwise, could potentially benefit secondary education between schools that would pre- from this increased choice and flexibility. pare students for college and schools that would provide vocational training. John Dewey argued against the in- References and Resources herent stratification that would occur and for a unitary Coleman, James. 1974. Youth: Transition to Adulthood. Panel system.219 The Commission on the Reorganization of Sec- on Youth of the President’s Science Advisory Committee. ondary Education of the National Education Association Chicago: University of Chicago Press. published the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. in 1918. The report supported Dewey’s view and pro- 1918. Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, 25–26. vided the foundation on which comprehensive schools Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Education. were built. The report stated, “The comprehensive high Conant, James. 1959. The American High School Today, ix. New school is the prototype of a democracy in which vari- York: McGraw-Hill. ous groups must have a degree of self-consciousness as Dewey, John, and Evelyn Dewey. 1915. Schools of To-morrow. groups and yet be federated into a larger whole through New York: E.P. Dutton. the recognition of common interests and ideals.”220 Over Education Policies Commission. 1944. Education for All Ameri- the next 40 years, comprehensive high schools became can Youth. Washington, DC: NationalOnly Education Association. the norm in the United States. At the height of the push —Jon Eckert for comprehensive high school curriculum, progressive education advocates published Education for ALL Ameri- can Youth in 1944. The authors advocated common and Concordia University System specialized curricula for all students and open access to higher education;221 however, other influences, including Concordia is the network of institutions of higher a perceived lack of effectiveness, have eroded support for education affiliated with the Lutheran Church Missouri the comprehensive high school. Synod (LCMS). “Concordia” refers to the Latin title of Comprehensive high schools remain the most com- the Book of Concord, the collection of Lutheran creeds mon form of public high schools in the United States. andCopy confessions. However, in numerous cities and districts across the The system consists of 10 institutions: Concordia country, schools that specialize in such things as the arts, College, Selma (Alabama); Concordia College, New science, and mathematics are opening in the form of York (Bronxville); Concordia University, Ann Arbor charter or magnet schools. This movement away from (Michigan); Concordia University, Chicago (River For- comprehensive high schools began with the space race est, Illinois); Concordia University, Irvine (California); in the 1960s, when some argued that the model should Concordia University Nebraska (Seward); Concordia be abandoned in the interest of national security and University, Portland (Oregon); Concordia University, military efficiency. Adding to this momentum, in 1974 Saint Paul (Minnesota); Concordia University Texas the Panel of Youth of the President’s Science Advisory (Austin); and Concordia University Wisconsin (Me- Committee, chaired by James Coleman, proposed that quon). The LCMS also operates two graduate semi- comprehensive high schools should be replaced by “spe- naries—Concordia Seminary (St. Louis) and Concor- cialized high schools” and advocated the use of school dia Theological Seminary (Fort Wayne, Indiana)—but vouchers.222 This movement toward greater choice and these are governed separately. specialization poses a challenge to comprehensive high schools, which have at times struggled to meet the spe- History of LCMS Higher Education cific needs of all students. The movement toward greater Lutheranism has always been involved with education. choice and vouchers could be a movement away from The Reformation was born in a university. Luther and Melanchthon were professors at the University of Wit- tenberg, an institution built around the humanist cur- 219. JohnContributor Dewey and Evelyn Dewey, Schools of To-morrow (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1915). riculum of the Renaissance. The movement’s emphasis 220. Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, Car- on individual Bible reading necessitated a literate laity, dinal Principles of Secondary Education (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of so Lutherans very early founded a large network of paro- Education, 1918), 25–26. 221. Education Policies Commission, Education for All American Youth chial and municipal schools. (Washington, DC: National Education Association, 1944). Thomas Korcok has defined the Lutheran educational 222. James Coleman, Youth: Transition to Adulthood, Panel on Youth of the President’s Science Advisory Committee (Chicago: University of tradition as a combination of the liberal arts plus theo- Chicago Press, 1974). logical catechesis. He further showed how the theological 322 Concordia University System battles waged by Lutherans were often accompanied by on the American model, rather than six-year gymnasia. educational controversies. The early Anabaptists favored But both institutions would soon be turned into junior Bible-reading schools but considered the liberal arts to colleges. Later, another junior college was founded, in be worldly. The later humanists considered the liberal Ann Arbor, Michigan (1963). arts to be sufficient and catechesis to be unnecessary. Under this system, those who wished to prepare for The Pietists of the 17th and 18th centuries felt the lib- the pastoral ministry would complete the first two years eral arts were worldly and catechesis was too dogmatic, of college at the junior high level, whether at one of the favoring instead vocational training. The rationalists of junior colleges or through the six-year high school-junior the Enlightenment considered the liberal arts to be too college combination that was the classical gymnasium. conservative and catechesis to be too supernatural, favor- They would then attend Concordia Senior College in Fort ing instead a scientific education. Orthodox Lutherans, Wayne, Indiana, for the final two years of their bachelor’s however, in line with their Two Kingdoms theology, degree. This institution, whose campus was designed by consistently promoted the catechetical teaching of the- the great modern architect Eero Saarinen, had a reputa- ology along with a liberal education designed to equip tion as a stellar finishing school in the classical liberal Christians for their callings in the world.223 arts. Students would then enter Concordia Seminary in In the 19th century, Orthodox Lutherans in Germany St. Louis. Products of this system would go to seminary were faced with the problem of the “Prussian Union,” the already well-grounded in the theologicalOnly languages of official project of bringing Lutherans, Calvinists, and other Latin, German, Greek, and Hebrew, as well as other dis- Protestants into one ecumenical state church. The Luther- ciplines of the liberal arts. ans who resisted were met with persecution. Thousands Those who wished to become teachers in the paro- of the “old Lutherans” emigrated to the United States, chial school system would go to the four-year colleges Canada, and Australia. Those who came to America would at Seward or River Forest. (It was possible to become a form the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod. pastor without this rigorous academic background by at- Schools were a priority for the immigrant churches. tending the “practical” seminary in Springfield, Illinois.) Parochial schools were an important alternative to the The LCMS became known for its well-educated pas- public schools, with their civil religion and generic Prot- tors and teachers. The system, though, was geared pri- estantism, reminiscent of the Prussian Union. The early marilyCopy to preparing church workers rather than laity. LCMS schools, again, were built around the liberal arts and The gymnasia were in effect boarding schools for high- catechesis. But classical education was somewhat compro- school-aged boys, a model that was increasingly out of mised as the parochial schools, in an attempt to help their synch with American family life. A theological schism in German-speaking students assimilate into their new coun- the 1970s, which some blamed on the kind of education try, replaced Latin in the curriculum with English. Pastors seminarians received at the Senior College, contributed and teachers, on the other hand, were thought to need a to a reorganization of the LCMS higher education sys- full-blown classical liberal arts education. tem. But the biggest impetus was probably the broad- So the LCMS also established gymnasia, the six-year based desire to conform to the prevailing structures of classical secondary schools, as devised by Melanchthon. American higher education. Some of the earliest of these institutions no longer exist, In the course of the 1970s and 1980s, the gymnasia but the ones in Milwaukee, Wisconsin (1881); Bronx- dropped their high school programs to become junior ville, New York (1881); St. Paul, Minnesota (1893); and colleges, and then the junior colleges became four-year Portland, Oregon (1905) would evolve into colleges institutions. (One of the gymnasia-turned-junior col- of the Concordia University System. In addition, the lege, St. John’s College in Winfield, Kansas, was closed in LCMS would establish two colleges specifically to train 1986.) With subsidies from the church bodies dramati- teachers, in River Forest, Illinois (1864), and Seward, cally cut back, they added non-church-work programs Nebraska (1894). to serve both Lutheran laity and the general public. The Once the German immigrants assimilated into Ameri- senior college was closed, but Concordia Theological can life, theContributor LCMS throughout the 20th century grew Seminary moved there from Springfield and adopted into a large denomination. A new secondary institution academic standards similar to those of the seminary in was founded in Selma, Alabama (1922), as a ministry to St. Louis. A new four-year institution, Christ College, was African Americans, and another was founded in Austin, started in Irvine, California, in 1974. Texas (1926). These were initially four-year high schools, Concordia University 223. Thomas Korcok, Lutheran Education (St. Louis, MO: Concordia The four-year schools grew, some adding graduate pro- Publishing House, 2011), 63–124. grams. Several changed their names from “college” to Cone of Learning 323

“university.” Though the institutions were becoming Cone of Learning increasingly independent from the church body, their property was still held by the LCMS, which continued Edgar Dale (1900–1 985) was born in rural North Dakota to elect their board members. Thus, their connections and later served as professor of education at Ohio State to the LCMS remained stronger than is the case at other University (1929–1970). He made many contributions church-affiliated institutions. to the field of education and is sometimes referred to The LCMS decided to formalize a new educational as the father of modern media in education. In 1946, he structure in 1992, when the Concordia University System developed an icon that is still recognized among educa- (CUS) was organized. This brought all 10 of the colleges tors today. The premise of his theory, represented in his and universities under a single organization, facilitating “Cone of Learning,” is that students tend to remember planning, fund-raising, and cooperative programs. The more by doing than by hearing. The original name for the CUS has a president, with offices based in the synodical cone developed by Dale was the “Cone of Experience,” headquarters in St. Louis. Nevertheless, the CUS is a rela- focusing on the methodologies of teaching delivery and tively loose federation. Each institution retains its own their effectiveness in retention. As shown in figure C.2, president, board, and decision-making authority. Dale argues that the greatest retention (hence the large foundational base) is found in methodologies that in- References and Resources clude saying and doing. Only Lutheran Church Missouri Synod. n.d. “Concordia University The least retention (represented by the small peak System.” Accessed 14 April 2013. http://www.lcms.org/cus. of the pyramid) is found in simply hearing something Korcok, Thomas. 2011. Lutheran Education. St. Louis, MO: read. Dale’s conclusion is that teachers who move from Concordia Publishing House. the passive to participative in their methodologies will —Gene Edward Veith experience a corresponding increase in retention among Copy

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FIGURE C.2. 324 Confession as Christian Practice their students. Ironically, most traditional (and more fre- 23:8); or concede that something is factually true (Heb. quently the default) teaching methods gravitate to the top 11:13; Acts 23:8; BDAG 2000). Confession is a sign of of Dale’s cone rather than the bottom, where the reten- repentance, marking a new life of faith. For early Chris- tion is greater. Whereas expediency, budget, and context tians, public confession of sin equaled freedom from sin may limit the options in Dale’s cone, the implication is (Mark 1:5), and fellowship in the church was dependent that the lower levels of the cone are to be pursued by on the public confession of incarnate Christ, the mark teachers who desire effective retention in teaching. of true Christology in the face of heretical movements (1 It is important to note what Dale’s cone does not John 2:22, 4:2f., 15; cf. Titus 1:16; Fürst 1986). Declara- imply. First, it does not imply that teaching and learn- tion of truth (John 1:20; 1 John 2:2, 4:2, 15), or formal ing must move from the bottom to the top of the cone. public act of confession, served ultimately as praise Second, there is no implied hierarchy of value in one to God for who He is and what He has done (Kane level of the cone over the others. Third, there is no cor- 2001). Other related terms are homologia (expression relation between age and levels of the cone (i.e., older of allegiance as an action, professing), homologoumenos students do better with higher levels of the cone and (uncontestable agreement, beyond question), and ho- younger with lower levels of the cone). Fourth, simply moneo or homonoia (like minded, live in harmony). using a video clip or field trip will not automatically Exomologeo (promise, confess), while greatly associ- cause the student to reach the goal of the lesson. Poorly ated with legal connotations—termsOnly of treaties and law done videos or ill-planned field trips may actually un- courts—has come to mean sacramental confession to a dermine the goals of the lesson. priest (exomologeomia). A number of subsequent versions of Dale’s cone have been created. Some have included percentages of reten- Formative Practices tion listed with each level of the cone. Although these Protestant/Evangelical percentages would seem to empirically validate Dale’s Many Protestants are intentional in seeking out confes- theory, those figures cannot be verified. Still, the theory sors or spiritual directors for more deep spiritual purging seems to have pragmatic support. and formative practices, such as confession. However, Presuming the theory of Dale’s cone is correct, teach- within Protestantism generally, confession of sin is not ers would be wise to ask the following questions: emphasizedCopy as formally or liturgically as in other tradi- tions. Congregations will often offer prayers asking God 1. Where do most of my teaching methods lie on for forgiveness corporately or individually with times of Dale’s cone? silence (e.g., 1 Cor. 11:28) and practice confession in part 2. How can I begin to move my students’ experience through accountability groups, small groups, etc. They from symbolic to engaged? also emphasize asking forgiveness of sins from God in 3. What can I do to make learning more sensory (en- coming to faith and from others they have offended. gage hearing, taste, touch, sight)? Bonhoeffer, while commenting on James 5:16, expressed 4. When are students able to apply this lesson to real- the depth of confession for some Protestants: life context? —Larry H. Lindquist In John 20:33 Jesus gave his followers the authority to hear the confession of sin and to forgive sin in His name. . . . In confession the break-through to community takes Confession as Christian Practice place. Sin demands to have a man by himself . . . . In confession the profession of a Christian brother, the last In the Old Testament, the Hebrew yada refers both to stronghold of self-justification is abandoned . . . and truly praise or giving glory to God and to confessing an of- deter us from further sin. (1954, 114) fence. In Israel, the praise of God was linked to definite past actions of God (salvation or judgment), and the lat- Anglican ter (judgment) meant one who praised also confessed his Within Anglicanism, confession is imbedded in the ser- Contributorvice as confession of faith and confession of sin. The en- transgressions (Josh. 7:19–21; Kane 2001; Fürst 1986). In the New Testament, the word group refers to con- tire liturgy is based on agreeing on belief (Nicene Creed fessing openly, publicly (Paul before Felix, Acts 24:10; confession), agreeing on the Word preached, and hence John the Baptist, John 1:20, Matt. 7:23; Rom. 10:9; Fürst then confessing as a community the shortcomings of not 1986). Confession or homologeo expresses to promise, living up to those agreements. The confession of sin then confess known sin (1 John 1:9); declare, commit oneself, is the “hinge” of the liturgy. Liturgy begins with a Collect share a common view or be of one mind, agree (Acts of Purity (expressing humility and cleansing of the heart), Confession as Christian Practice 325 scripture reading, and the sermon. Confession of faith by Roman Catholic recitation and agreement on the Nicene Creed follows. In Catholicism, the sacrament of confession is part of This harkens the congregant back to baptism, wherein penance and considered a sacrament of healing—that the believer renounced Satan and accepted Christ. The is, mankind suffers from illness of the soul. We are all creed follows preaching of the Word and precedes the affected by original sin, live in an infected world, and Eucharist, because if it (the Word) has been accurately need help. Unlike Protestantism and to some degree Low preached, then the believer ought to act according to Anglicanism, confession in Catholicism is to a priest as it and his profession (creed). But if he has fallen short mediator. In contrition (contritus or ground to pieces, (sinned), then confession of sin is required (Jude 3; 1 Cor. crushed by guilt), when sin is of grievous nature, such 8:6, 15:1–11; 1 Tim. 3:16). Therefore, prayers of confes- that there is a broken relationship with God, the priest sion and both communal and individual awareness of acts in Christ’s stead or on His behalf (Persona Cristi), but confession follow: “Let us confess our sins against God not of anything on his own merit. and our neighbor.” (Silence.) “Most merciful God, we Since Vatican II, Catholic practice regarding penance confess that we have sinned against you . . . we have not (which includes confession) follows a universal pattern: loved our neighbors as ourselves.” With confessed sin (1) gathering—introductory rite; (2) preparation—the against God and one’s brothers, one is able to approach priest’s welcome, sign of cross, invitation/call to worship the Table (Lord’s Supper) as well as express “The Peace,” (penitent’s intro); (3) listening—celebratingOnly the Word, wherein one can worship properly, not holding anything reading from Word (optional), silent reflection/prayer; against a fellow believer (Matt. 5:23–24, 11:25). With this (4) sharing God’s action—conversion and reconciliation; unity, the Eucharist is celebrated and the liturgy is con- (5) confession (general and specific), counsel, acceptance cluded with a prayer of “humble access.” Formal auricular of act of penance, prayer of penitent, absolution, and (pertaining to the ear) or private prayer and absolution is proclamation of praise; and (6) departing—concluding downplayed in the Anglican tradition, though “Maundy rite (Dallen 1974, 298–343). Thursday” is an annual time of confession in which con- In the prayer of absolution, though the priest speaks gregants may participate in auricular confession. in the first person—“I absolve you”—the penitent should feel, “God loves me, not my sin.” The role of priest then is Greek Orthodox. primarilyCopy ecclesial, not sitting in judgment, a representa- Within the Greek orthodox tradition, confession of sin tive of the church community. The role of penitent is co- takes on a more formal auricular practice. Key themes responsible with priests, as members of the community of overtly expressed in Orthodoxy are (1) the communality the faithful, for mission and worship of the church. of sin: all sin is sin against God and one’s neighbor; (2) priestly involvement in confession is but a witness for the References and Resources body of Christ (standing alongside the penitent), a witness Bacovcin, H., trans. 1992. The Way of the Pilgrim. New York: for reality of God’s forgiveness, and a witness of the real- Doubleday. ity of one’s repentance; (3) confession is a healing of the BDAG. 2000. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament soul, and the priest is merely the physician’s assistant; and and Other Early Christian Literature. 3rd ed. Chicago: Uni- (4) confession is part of the process of repentance, which versity of Chicago Press. is the essence of the Christian life. Repentance includes Bonhoeffer, D. 1954. Life Together: The Classic Exploration of awareness, sorrow and contrition, confession, and struggle Faith in Community. San Francisco: Harper. to change. Without confession, repentance is incomplete Dallen, J. 1974. The Reconciling Community: The Rite of Pen- (Shanbour 2013). Practically, this takes the following ance. New York: Pueblo Publishing Company. shape. The priest and penitent face iconostasis (icon stand Dewan, W., and J. Pelikan. 2003. “Confessions of Faith.” In or wall). The penitent usually faces a desk or lectern on New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., edited by T. Carson and which is a cross and icon of the Savior and the Book of the J. Cerrito, 77–82. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson & Gale. Gospels. The priest intentionally expresses that he is only Fürst, D. 1986. “Confess.” In The New International Dictionary a witness:Contributor “Behold, my child, Christ stands here invisibly of New Testament Theology, edited by C. Brown, 344–348. and receives your confession. . . . tell all so you shall have Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. pardon from Our Lord Jesus Christ . . . . I am merely a wit- GAFCON. 2009. Being Faithful: The Shape of Historic Anglican- ness.” After confession the priest asks questions as needed, ism Today. London: Latimer Trust. gives advice, and offers a prayer of absolution which, un- Jacobs, H. E. 1979a. “Absolution.” In The International Stan- like in Catholicism, is in the third person, depreciative, dard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by G. W. Bromiley, 13–14. “May God forgive . . .” and not “I forgive . . .” (Ware 1997). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. 326 Confession, Historical Practices of

———. 1979b. “Confession.” In The International Standard Popular preaching has always had confession as a pri- Bible Encyclopedia, edited by G. W. Bromiley, 265–266. mary focus and is generally representative of the prac- Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. tice of its age. Chaucer, in the Parson’s Tale, preaches Kane, M. 2001. “Confession.” In Evangelical Dictionary of contrition, confession, and satisfaction as the three Christian Education, edited by M. Anthony, 167–168. Grand stages, and the development of the doctrine of purga- Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. tory gave the preachers of indulgences a transactional Latko, E. F. 2003. “Confession, Auricular.” New Catholic Ency- system of confession, prayer, good works, and release clopedia, 2nd ed., edited by T. Carson and J. Cerrito, 75–77. from purgatorial pain. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson & Gale. The Protestant Reformation abandoned sacramen- Mare, W. H. 2001. “Confession.” In Evangelical Dictionary of tal confession, transferring teaching about sin to cat- Theology, edited by W. Elwell, 285. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker echisms, though Luther still espoused it in the Small Academic. Catechism. Repentance for sin remained a prerequisite Shanbour, M. 2013. Confession. Wenatchee, WA: Three Hier- among magisterial reformers for baptism and before archs Orthodox Church. receiving Holy Communion. The Radical Reformation Thomas, T. 2011. “Confession.” In Encylopedia of Eastern taught the principle of the “ban” as social exclusion Orthodox Christianity, edited by J. A. McGuckin, 134–135. (Schleitheim Confession). London: Wiley Blackwell. For the most part, rising literacyOnly and an increasing Ware, T. 1997. The Orthodox Church: New Edition. New York: focus on the spiritual life of the individual shifted the Penguin. teaching of this discipline from priestly social control to ———. 2013. “John of Kronstadt: Saint of Communion, Saint the realm of personal piety. However, the Puritan im- of Confession.” Sermon given in Bath, England, provided pulse of the 17th century and the Evangelical revivals of by Fr. Stephen Supicas, Holy Trinity Greek Orthodox, the 18th, both in the Old World and the New, called for Spokane, WA. deeply felt and publicly expressed conviction of sin, in —Steve Clark texts as varied as Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress and William Law’s Serious Call, in revivalist preaching, and in the altar calls of camp meetings and crusades throughout the 19th Confession, Historical Practices of and 20thCopy centuries. The sacrament of confession remains key in Catholic Confession of sin is central to Christian discipline and and Orthodox teaching, while Protestantism continues to practice. Repentance was demanded of converts in the privilege personal and mostly private confession. Secular- earliest preaching (Acts of the Apostles) and incorporated ization has not removed the concept from contemporary into baptismal liturgies. The first-century Didache includes culture. Rather, it has adapted it to an individualized a moral code that prefigures later moral codifications in search for self-esteem and self-fulfillment within a psy- catechetical material. Justin Martyr’s Second Apology (sec- chological rather than a theological frame of reference. ond century) witnesses to prayer for forgiveness, and the In such contexts, confession is taught and facilitated third-century apostolic tradition of “Hippolytus” provides by counselors and mentors and typically involves the formulaic renunciations of sin, death, and the devil. rejection of thoughts, practices, and self-understanding The baptized Christian is understood to have escaped regarded as negative. Even when “God” is removed from from the death of sin to the life of righteousness. Serious the picture, confession remains a potent ritual of cleans- postbaptismal sin—murder, apostasy, and adultery— ing, reorientation, and personal growth. was at first taught as leading to final exclusion from the —Adrian Chatfield church (Heb. 6.4–6; 1 Cor. 5). This was quickly com- muted to temporary sentences of exclusion from the church and then exclusion from communion. Confirmation, Developments The taught tradition and discipline developed in the in Protestant medieval periodContributor in three ways: pastoral teaching, which emphasized the need for repentance and pastoral care As part of the Reformation and the emergence of the of the penitent (Gregory the Great’s Pastoral Rule); the Protestant traditions, theologians such as Martin Luther, incorporation of penitential practice into monastic rules Ulrich Zwingli, and John Calvin rejected confirmation (Rule of Benedict); and the development of lists of sins as a separate sacrament, largely because they understood and matching penances in the eighth century Peniten- a sacrament to be instituted by God, in which God has tials and the Summas that took their place starting in joined God’s Word of promise to a visible element, and the 13th century. by which God offers, gives, and seals the forgiveness of sin Confraternity of Christian Doctrine 327 earned by Jesus Christ. As further explanation, the Apol- Since many Protestant churches view confirmation as ogy of the Augsburg Confession states: “If we define the a recognition of one’s growth and commitment to Jesus sacraments as rites, which have the command of God and Christ and to the church, Christian education is intri- to which the promise of grace has been added, it is easy cately related to confirmation through the development to determine what the sacraments are, properly speaking. of a curriculum of study. Most Protestant denominations For humanly instituted rites are not sacraments, properly provide a curriculum, but increasingly, congregations speaking, because human beings do not have the author- and parishes are developing their own curricula espe- ity to promise grace. Therefore signs instituted without cially for their adolescents. Current trends in Protestant the command of God are not sure signs of grace, even confirmation are emphasizing less joining the church and though they perhaps serve to teach or admonish the com- membership in the church as the culmination of confir- mon folk.” Further, because the reformers could not find mation and more the profession of faith. Increasingly, a scriptural basis for confirmation, Protestant churches confirmation is viewed as one step in the journey of faith, did not and do not consider confirmation to be a sacra- albeit a significant one, and congregations are becoming ment. Most Protestant churches do, however, continue to more intentional in recognizing this step, especially for practice confirmation. young people. Most Protestant churches practice confirmation as part of the adolescent journey and see its purpose as all or References and Resources Only one of the following. (1) Confirmation as a sealing of the Browning, Robert L., and Roy A. Reed. 1995. Models of Con- Holy Spirit, meaning that through the laying on of hands, firmation and Baptismal Affirmation. Birmingham, AL: as occurs often in the New Testament and is a common Religious Education Press. practice in confirmation, the Holy Spirit comes upon the Melanchthon, Philipp. 1497. The Apology of the Augsburg Con- young person. (2) Confirmation as the completion of fession: Part 18, article XIII (VIII), Of the Number and Use of infant baptism and becoming a member of the church. the Sacraments. http://bookofconcord.org/augsburgdefense Occurring among those Protestant churches who practice .php. infant baptism, confirmation is seen as an opportunity Osmer, Richard Robert. 1996. Confirmation. Presbyterian Prac- for the adolescent to make her own profession of faith, tice in Ecumenical Perspective. Louisville, KY: Geneva Press. done on her behalf as an infant, and in tandem, to join Copy —Rodger Nishioka the church as a full member. (3) Confirmation as the pro- fession of personal faith through baptism after intensive preparation, examination, evaluation, and public commit- Confraternity of Christian Doctrine ment. Occurring among those Protestant churches that practice what many term a “believer’s baptism,” confirma- The origins of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine tion is seen as an opportunity for the young person, when (CCD) are generally traced back to 1536, when Castello he decides he is ready, and often after rigorous study and de Castellano, a Roman Catholic priest in Milan, Italy, an examination by congregational leaders, to be baptized organized a group of laypeople to educate children, and confirmed at once, having made a public profes- youth, and illiterate adults in the doctrine of the Catholic sion of his faith in Jesus Christ. For many congregations, faith. By the time Charles Borromeo arrived in Milan as church membership is included in this act. (4) Confirma- cardinal archbishop in 1565, the Confraternity was well tion as an affirmation of one’s baptism or baptismal re- established throughout the diocese (Collins 1974). Rec- newal, sometimes allowing participation in communion. ognized from the Council of Trent as a strong advocate For some Protestant congregations that practice infant of education and clergy reform, Borromeo strengthened baptism but do not yet allow children to participate in the the CCD with the publication of A Constitution of the Lord’s Supper, confirmation acts as a personal affirmation Confraternity and School of Christian Doctrine for Use in and public profession of their faith in Jesus Christ and ad- the Province of Milan. mits them to the sacrament of communion. (5) Confirma- The Constitution provided direction for the CCD that tion as aContributor blessing and commitment or recommitment. For would prove to be important in the subsequent years; it some Protestant congregations, confirmation is seen more contained a clear pedagogy, detailed description of the clearly as an act along one’s faith journey and an opportu- size of the classes and the mode of study, an emphasis nity for a young person to stand before the congregation on the importance of tailoring instruction to the capac- to signal a new depth of commitment or recommitment ity of the learners, and the directive that those involved to Jesus Christ and for the congregation to bless this indi- in teaching should be carefully selected and well trained. vidual. These congregations do not see any tie to baptism, Building on the dictates of the Council of Trent (1545– communion, or membership in the church. 1563) and the Roman Catechism (published in 1566), the 328 Congo and Christian Education

Constitution served as a firm foundation for the effective the Archdiocese of New York was not established until establishment of the CCD. By the time of Borromeo’s 1936. One of the first diocesan Confraternities was cre- death in 1584, there were over 40,000 participants in 740 ated in the Diocese of Pittsburg in 1908. The following schools of Christian doctrine (Orsenigo 1943, 349). year the Missionary Confraternity of Christian Doctrine In 1560, the CCD was brought to Rome, where it was established in Pittsburg to address the needs of those gained in popularity. It was officially approved by Pope outside the cities, particularly immigrants living in rural Pius V in 1571. During the late 16th and early 17th cen- areas and in the mining districts. This was one of the first turies, the influence of the CCD extended to other cities contexts in the United States in which the connection in Italy and throughout Europe. Its influence began to between CCD and the need to address the social situation wane during the 18th and 19th centuries, when the work of the participants was made explicit. of educating children and youth began to be addressed by No history of the CCD movement in the United States the religious communities of men and women that were is complete without mention of the pioneering work of developing at that time. Bishop Edwin O’Hara. Ordained a priest in 1905, the same year that Pope Pius X promulgated Acerbo Nimis Renewal of the CCD under Pope Pius X calling for the establishment of the CCD in every parish, The modern revival of the CCD can be traced to the O’Hara invested much of his career in attending to the pontificate of Pius X, who served as pope from 1903 instructional needs of children andOnly youth, particularly in until his death in 1914. His first encyclical, Acerbo Nimis, rural contexts. It was through his guidance and persever- “On Teaching Christian Doctrine” (1905), highlighted ance that the National Center of the CCD was opened in the importance of education in religion and mandated May 1935. Under the direction of this office, the CCD that “in each and every parish the society known as the became part of diocesan structures across the country. Confraternity of Christian Doctrine is to be canonically established” (22 IV). Pope Pius X extended the work of References and Resources religious education beyond the catechesis of children Bryce, Mary Charles. 1972. “The Baltimore Catechism—Origin alone, though that is clearly his focus. However, he also and Reception.” In Sourcebook for Modern Catechetics, ed- highlighted the importance of adult instruction, which ited by Michael Warren, 140–145. Winona, MN: St. Mary’s was to consist of an explanation of the Catechism of the Press,Copy 1983. Reprinted from Catechist (April 1972): 6–9, 25. Council of Trent “to the people in a plain and simple style Collins, Joseph B. 1974. “The Beginning of the CCD in Europe adapted to the intelligence of their hearers” (22 VI). The and Its Modern Revival.” In Sourcebook for Modern Cat- mandate for the establishment of the CCD in every par- echetics, edited by Michael Warren, 146–157. Winona, MN: ish became part of the Code of Canon Law in 1914 and St. Mary’s Press, 1983. Reprinted from American Ecclesiasti- served as one of the foundation points for the catechetical cal Review 168 (1974):695–706. renewal of the mid-20th century. –——. 1975. “Religious Education and CCD in the United States: Early Years (1902–1935).” In Sourcebook for Modern Cat- The Modern CCD Movement in the United States echetics, edited by Michael Warren, 158–175. Winona, MN: Beginning in the mid-1800s, a series of national con- St. Mary’s Press, 1983. Reprinted from American Ecclesiasti- ferences of U.S. Roman Catholic bishops were held in cal Review 169 (1975): 48–67. Baltimore, with the education of children and youth a Orsenigo, Cesare. 1943. Life of St. Charles Borromeo. St. Louis, concern at each of the conferences. While emphasis was MO: Herder Books. placed on the establishment of parish schools, there was Pius X. 1905. Acerbo Nimis, “On Teaching Christian Doctrine.” also discussion of the need to provide classes for children http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_x/encyclicals/docu who attend public schools. The Third Plenary Council ments/hf_p-x_enc_15041905_acerbo-nimis_en.html. of Baltimore (1884) called for the creation of a national —Jane E. Regan catechism. The publication of the Baltimore Catechism in 1885 did not lead to the hoped for unification of the work of religiousContributor education in the United States (Bryce Congo and Christian Education 1972). Criticisms of its content and format led to further questioning of the best focus and approach to doing cat- Christianity was first introduced in the Democratic Re- echesis, particularly for young people. public of Congo by Portuguese missionaries in the 1480s. The first CCD was established in the United States in But European wars involving Portugal and tribal wars 1902 at Our Lady of Good Council in New York City in the Lower Congo forced the missionaries to halt their (Collins 1975). While recognized by the bishop of New efforts, and the Christianity implanted in the Congo at York, it included just a few parishes; the Confraternity in that time disappeared. In the late 19th century, King Congregational Church Christian Education 329

Leopold II became interested in the Congo and began ing Academies provided a new and exploratory style of to encourage a large Belgian presence in the area. The learning that has been influential to the present day. The White Fathers agreed to establish missionary stations emphasis on experiment and debate rather than tradition when Leopold II offered to finance their work. Other encouraged the development of the sciences, industry, Catholic groups followed the White Fathers, and later on global exploration, and philanthropy in the 19th century. Protestant missionaries also arrived, mainly from Baptist, Congregationalists, as well as other nonconformists, Methodist, and Disciples of Christ denominations (Sund- were prevented from studying at the major universities in kler and Steed 2000). England until the 19th century. Once the restrictions were The church has had a great impact on education in lifted, colleges were established in Oxford and Cambridge. Congo. For instance, the University of Kinshasa was In Scotland, the universities offered theology degrees, created in 1953 as a private Catholic university. In 1963, which included ministerial training. Ministerial training the University of Kisangani was created by Protestant was offered mainly through these and other colleges until churches. Among private institutions, church-sponsored the 1970s, when the Congregational Church in England institutions enroll 60 percent of all students in higher and Wales split to form the United Reformed Church and education (World Bank 2005). Congregational Federation (with other continuing congre- Although the church in Congo has a trained clergy for gational bodies). Education in mission, youth ministries, both the Catholic and Protestant churches, the political and a variety of other ministriesOnly was offered ecumenically situation in the country has affected the life of the church, through, for example, Selly Oak College in Birmingham. especially in its top leadership. Some top leaders of the church have political positions in the government that Academic Programs dilute their prophetic voice. However, the local church The Congregational Federation, from its formation in has remained active. Women’s ministries are especially 1972, focused on a distance learning model with the vibrant. Some church denominations have their own dis- intention of maintaining the high standards of college cipleship material, and the full Bible has been translated training, but making it accessible to people being called into various dialects. to ministry who were often already established in life. The government of Congo gives full freedom for wor- A training board was formed, and a course developed, ship. Church members can pray during the day or night. basedCopy on the model of the then new Open University.224 There is need for discipleship that encourages believers to Over the years the course has been validated by the transform their communities and come out of the severe University of Wales, Lampeter, and the University of poverty that has characterized the Congolese people for Winchester. The admission requirement is study to foun- many years of dictatorship, corruption, tribal conflicts, dation degree (formerly diploma) level. and various human rights violation. An unaccredited foundation year served as an access course for those without formal entrance qualifications, References and Resources but also as a stand-alone course for people simply wish- Sundkler, Bengt, and Christopher Steed. 2000. A History of the ing to explore or enhance their own Christian disciple- Church in Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University ship. In more recent years, this has been taught locally as Press. well as nationally. World Bank. 2005. Education in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Priorities and Option for Regeneration. Washington, Christian Philosophy and Mission of Education DC: World Bank Publications. The Congregational educational philosophy has always —Faustin Ntamushobora been practical theology; that is, that theology is done through academic study, practical application, and per- sonal development. There is no division between “pure” Congregational Church and “applied”: all is theology. Practical theology can be Christian Education thought of as a dynamic interaction between the text of life (faith experiences) and the text of faith (biblical and Contributor 225 Historical Introduction doctrinal traditions), under the guidance of the Spirit. The Congregational Federation (in England, Scotland, and Wales) inherits the ethos of the 16th- and 17th-cen- 224. http://www.open.ac.uk/ (accessed 23 May 2013). tury Puritans and Dissenters, born out of the freedom for 225. Stephen Pattison, “Some Straw for the Bricks: A Basic Introduc- individuals to read the Bible in their own language and tion to Theological Reflection,” in The Blackwell Reader in Pastoral and Practical Theology, ed. James Woodward and Stephen Pattison (Oxford: have access to printed copies, and the freedom of congre- Blackwell Publishing, 2000), ch. 9; and E. Graham, H. Walton, and F. Ward, gations to seek the mind of Christ together. The Dissent- Theological Reflection: Methods (London: SCM, 2005). 330 Connectivism

It can also be considered congregational to acknowledge Federation participates in ecumenical life in Britain, that we do theology this way; that is, to seek and expect to for example in the Partnership for Theological Educa- find the guidance of God for the contemporary situations tion based at Luther King House in Manchester.226 It is of our congregations. This means that the course modules also in partnership globally with other Congregational are themselves integrated. The Bible is studied as a whole, and Presbyterian bodies through the Council for World Old and New Testament together, with an emphasis on Mission,227 which offers opportunities for training in mis- permitting dissenting voices, such as those that challenge sion and experience enlargement, for example through the hierarchical establishment, to be heard. A newly de- attendance at seminaries in partner churches. The In- veloped BA (Hons) in practical theology makes this focus ternational Congregational Fellowship (ICF)228 includes more explicit, with modules linking religious dissent with the National Association of Congregational Christian dissent in politics and the arts, among other things. Churches in the USA, as well as established and new as- Assignments combine traditional essays with voca- sociations of churches around the world. The ICF Theo- tional activities such as the creation of worship material logical Commission produces the International Congre- or mission and community involvement. From an early gational Journal, a forum for the exploration of theology stage, there was a challenge to see mission and the local and its practice in congregational contexts. The commis- church as prime foci. This is further enabled by the dis- sion also offers seminars for gatherings of local churches, tance learning nature of the course, which means that with an emphasis on settings in whichOnly the resources for the students are studying in the midst of their lives and this kind of exploration are not readily available. Thus discipleship. seminars have been held in Latin and South America, Congregational principles form a strong element and South Africa, and Myanmar. also help to shape the experience of the course. Churches Through these activities, and involvement in other may call men and women into ministries of different teaching and publication, Congregationalists have con- kinds without formal reference to denominational struc- tributed to the fields of worship development, hymnody, tures or training, so students are often already in minis- systematic and ordinary theology, feminist theology, and try before they enter the course. Thus training has to be emerging church, among others. They bring to each of perceived as being valuable, an enhancement of existing these a distinctively nonhierarchical, open perspective, Christian life, rather than simply a required course of whichCopy at its best challenges entrenched positions and preparation before entering on ministry. This leads to a opens the discourse to unheard voices. sense of collaboration between tutors and students, which —Janet Wootton and Michael Armstrong itself models the nature of a congregational church. In the early 21st century there has been a change in emphasis toward learning and development, not only Connectivism of individuals but also for churches as learning congre- gations. Thus the existing FdA and new BA(Hons) in Connectivism is a learning theory introduced by George practical theology are offered as part of whole church Siemens (2005) in “Connectivism: Learning as Network learning. Individuals may elect to take the courses as tra- Connections.” He and others later expounded upon ditional training in specific ministries, but also for their these early ideas, but this initial writing proposes a learn- own development in the life of their local church. ing theory that is fundamentally based on the concept The Congregational Federation also offers resources, that learning is more than what happens within a single both financial and in personnel, to local churches or individual, that it is about building a network. Learning groups of churches for the development of vision through is understood as the process of developing links. These the congregational model of the church meeting and for include links among different people, groups, resources, equipping church members in response to the vision. and technologies. From this perspective, learning is about This may involve engaging with secular agencies, the the ongoing creation of these connections. Once the con- acquisition of specific skills, or working through local nections begin, learners must develop the skills necessary ecumenicalContributor structures. But it also calls on more holistic to navigate them.229 learning in the context of being church in a secular, post- Christian society, and in a specific local setting. 226. http://www.lutherkinghouse.org.uk/ (accessed 23 May 2013). 227. http://www.cwmission.org/ (accessed 23 May 2013). Ecumenical and International Contribution 228. http://intercong.org/; http://ictheocom.org/ (accessed 23 May 2013). Congregationalism continues to make a distinct contri- 229. George Siemens, eLearn Space, http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/ bution to education and thought. The Congregational networks.htm, (accessed 14 February 2012). Conscience 331

Connectivism, emerging from the digital era, often Conscience emphasizes the role of the Internet, social media, and emerging communication technologies as key changes Conscience is the rational faculty that provides moral dis- that allow one to build such connections. Given that a cernment. It helps us to think, reflect, and discern what growing number of individuals around the world have should be done before making a decision or taking action access to the Internet and related technologies, technol- (Reuschling 2011, 368). It cannot be compartmentalized ogy also makes it possible for people to build an unprec- to any one human faculty, but is the holistic integration edented number of connections and relationships that of reason, emotions, and will (Callahan 1991, 14). In are not limited by time and space. As one grows in the Christianity, it is the God-given ability, possessed by all ability to leverage these technologies, that amplifies their people, to discern what is right and wrong, good and evil. capacity to engage in ongoing learning in a wide variety It is a faculty that empowers self-knowledge and self- of ways and in a myriad of subjects. judgment. The Latin term conscientia (literally “knowl- In traditional learning theories (e.g., behaviorism and edge” prefixed by “with”) implies that God has shared cognitivism), the focus of the theory is on what changes with us joint knowledge about himself and knowledge inside the learner, either through visible behaviors or about ourselves. what patterns of thought change. In connectivism, learn- At the Diet of Worms in 1521, when Martin Luther ing is understood as located in the connections that one was asked to recant his views, heOnly replied, “My conscience makes with other people and resources. For this and is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not related reasons, some critics argue that connectivism recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither is not a learning theory as much as it is an educational right nor safe.” Luther believed that going against one’s philosophy that places a heavy emphasis on building con- conscience would endanger one’s soul. John Calvin de- nections with others. scribed conscience as the sense of divinity and divine Regardless of whether connectivism is a learning the- justice (Calvin 2006, 3.19.15). The Puritans saw the ory or an educational philosophy, it serves as a means of conscience as a type of “spiritual nervous system” that promoting the importance of connections and relation- uses guilt to inform us about right and wrong (Beeke and ships in education. It invites those in Christian educa- Jones 2012, 912). It is like a deputy of the soul that arrests tion to aid learners in the process of cultivating positive ourCopy hearts and minds when we have done wrong. From connections and relationships with people, communities, a theological perspective, conscience is one aspect of the and resources that aid them in their spiritual growth, imago dei (Reuschling 2011, 367). even through the use of current and emerging commu- Traditional Christian theology affirms that our con- nication technologies. Examples of such connections are sciences are corrupted by sin. This means that our con- evident in current social media sites, Christian education science does not always rightly discern what is morally blogs, the rapid increase in religious material shared in astute—we sometimes confuse good and evil. Not only audio and video form, and the many communities dedi- that, we sometimes fail to do what is right, even when cated to helping Christians build connections with one we appropriately discern what is morally right. Though another around a variety of shared interests and goals. everyone possesses a conscience, we have “varying ap- titudes for understanding right from wrong due to the References and Resources effects of sin (Rom. 1:12–16)” (Reuschling 2011, 367). Downes, S. 2012. Connectivism and Connective Knowledge. Na- Some consciences are even seared (1 Tim. 4:2), exceed- tional Resarch Council Canada. Accessed 3 April 2013. http:// ingly perverse, and obstinate to God’s holy standard. www.downes.ca/files/Connective_Knowledge-19May2012 The power of the Gospel breaks into the depths of .pdf. our broken humanity, including conscience. Corrupted Kop, Rita, and Adrian Hill. 2008. “Connectivism: Learning consciences can be restored, though not perfectly this Theory of the Future or Vestige of the Past?” International side of the new creation. For the Christian, conscience Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning 9 (3): 1–13. is not merely a matter of personal ideal or social norms; Siemens,Contributor G. 2004. “Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the the Christian conscience aims to conform itself to Christ Digital Age.” eLearn Space. Accessed 14 February 2012. (Nelson 1973, 144). The Christian conscience, then, is http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm. cultivated by deep spiritual and moral understanding ———. 2005. “Connectivism: Learning as Network Connec- (Augsburger 1990, 103). This occurs through the sanctifi- tions.” eLearn Space. Accessed 14 February 2012. http:// cation of the Holy Spirit and by the power of God’s word. www.elearnspace.org/Articles/networks.htm. The Christ-shaped conscience must be informed by the —Bernard Bull Word of God and wed to it. 332 Conscientization

One goal of Christian education is to foster moral an instrument of oppression, domestication, and paci- and spiritual growth so that greater integrity might exist fication of the oppressed, but also stifled creativity and between belief and behavior. As Reuschling explains, dialogue. Freire saw it as a tragedy that oppressed people “Christian community”—that is, preaching, teaching, were educated in ways that both blinded them to their and embodying of the Scripture, education, and rela- oppression and perpetuated it. tionships—“affords a context for moral discourse, delib- eration, and discernment with wise mentors important Definition for gaining knowledge, heightening moral awareness, Conscientization is a process by which education serves a and forming conscience” (2011, 217). Christian educa- liberating purpose. It begins with self-awareness, brought tion, therefore, is necessary for the cultivation of Chris- about by deconstructing the sociocultural myths perpetu- tian conscience. ated by “banking” pedagogy. It continues to fruition via the process of critical praxis, the process by which one References and Resources reflects on and—self-awareness naturally resulting in Augsburger, Myron S. 1990. The Christ-shaped Conscience. action—works toward changing one’s own situation and Wheaton, IL: Scripture Press Publications. context. Thus, freedom is not only the goal but also the Beeke, Joel, and Mark Jones, eds. 2012. “The Puritan on Con- method by which that goal is realized. science.” In A Puritan Theology: Doctrine for Life. Grand Only Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 328-340. Usage Callahan, Sidney Cornelia. 1991. In Good Conscience. San Fran- The role of a teacher in conscientization is to serve as cisco: Harper. a guide while allowing freedom. The teacher must also Calvin, John. 2006. Institutes of the Christian Religion (1559 raise questions and encourage students (and create space) ed.). Translated by Ford Lewis Battles, edited by John T. Mc- to respond—and genuinely listen when students do so. Neill. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. The teacher must be willing to be a partner and fellow Curran, Charles E. 2004. “Conscience in Light of the Catholic pilgrim in learning who involves students in designing a Modal Tradition.” In Conscience, edited by Charles E. Cur- curriculum and flexible instructional objectives that give ran, 3–24. New York: Paulist Press. direction yet are not determinative. Gula, Richard M. 1997. Moral Discernment. New York: Paulist Likewise,Copy students must be self-empowering, self- Press. regulating, and self-determining. They must be willing Nelson, C. Ellis, ed. 1973. Conscience: Theological and Psycho- to take responsibility for and fully participate in dialogue logical Perspectives. New York: Newman Press. and the development of curricula and learning objectives Reuschling, Wyndy Corbin. 2011. “Conscience.” In Dictionary that address their needs, contexts, and so forth, and for of Christian Spirituality, edited by Glen G. Scorgie, 217–218. determining and acting on the outcomes. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Conscientization calls for the student and her experi- Zachman, Randall C. 2005. The Assurance of Faith: Conscience ence to be at the center of the curriculum. It requires in the Theology of Martin Luther and John Calvin. Louisville, curricula and pedagogies to be flexible, collaborative, and KY: Wesminster John Knox Press. dialogical and to provide space for the action, reflection, —Kevin P. Emmert and new action called for by praxis.

Influence on Christian Education Conscientization Conscientization has been especially influential in edu- cation for social justice. However, it has also shaped Roots of the Term contemporary approaches to curriculum design and Conscientization, or “critical conscientiousness,” is an as- pedagogy in Christian education. Since being intro- pect of educational philosophy that resonates with libera- duced by Freire, conscientization and praxis, its associ- tion theology. Brazilian educational theorist Paulo Freire ated term, have consistently been the subjects of numer- imported Contributorthe term into and popularized it in Christian ous professional meetings, journals, and books. Some education. Freire’s perspective had been shaped by his Christian educators have criticized conscientization own life experience, having grown up in poverty, worked for being founded more on Marxism than on Christian with the poor and illiterate, and lived as a political exile. doctrine. However, others, such as Thomas H. Groome He was also influenced by Karl Marx and the educational and Maria Harris, have recognized how consistent the philosophy of Jacques Maritain. Freire held that educa- roots, goals, and methodologies of conscientization are tion cannot be neutral. He believed much of traditional with the jubilee language of Jesus and its implications pedagogy to be mere “banking” that not only served as for freedom. Consciousness 333

Especially influential has been Groome’s seminal most direct applications to understanding the learning Christian Religious Education: Sharing Our Story and process. One of the most foundational contributions to Vision, published in 1980. Groome’s approach is sum- education is the understanding of consciousness as non- marized as “shared praxis,” and conscientization is at binary. Consciousness is not just something one has or its core. does not have, but can be thought of as developing over time in stages (Kegan 1994; Piaget 1954; Rochat 2003). References and Resources As such, teaching strategies need to be adapted for the Freire, Paulo. [1974a]. “Conscientisation.” Cross Currents 24 developmental stage of the student, with a goal toward (1): 23–31. the subsequent stages of development (Gidley 2007; ———. 1974b. Education for Critical Consciousness. New York: Kohlberg 1975). Furthermore, ideas about transforma- Continuum. tive learning and “consciousness raising” have been re- ———. 2000. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 30th anniversary ed. fined based on advances in neuroscience. Insight into the New York: Continuum. workings of the brain suggests how factors such as initial Groome, Thomas H. 1980. Christian Religious Education: Shar- discomfort with an idea, narrative and dialogue, the use ing Our Story and Vision. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. of student life experience and interests, and the role of —Ronnie Prevost the body in learning can contribute to the ability to adopt new perspectives (GunnlaugsonOnly 2007; Taylor 2008). Current neuroscience also highlights the importance of Consciousness attention, working memory, and implicit learning (Bor 2012). These insights have led to explorations of peda- Humans have been intrigued by consciousness and how gogical strategies such as teaching mindfulness (Napoli, we know, and that we know, throughout history. The Krech, and Holley 2005) and chunking, or hierarchically Western world has grappled with consciousness from subgrouping, material so that it can be held in working the moment of temptation from the tree of knowledge memory for learning (Gobet 2005). of good and evil that precipitated the Fall (Bering and In addition to the pedagogical contributions of con- Bjorklund 2007; Gen. 2–3, NIV), through Descartes’s sciousness studies to the work of religious educators, ([1644] 1983) famous cogito ergo sum, “I think, therefore otherCopy aspects of consciousness studies touch on areas of I am,” to William James’s ([1890] 2010) introspection interest or concern to them. For example, understandings and stream of consciousness. However, the field of con- of when consciousness is present affect ethical decision sciousness studies has particularly burgeoned within the making (Vicini 2012). Another aspect of consciousness past 40 years, in part fueled by advances in neuroscience, studies touches on altered states of consciousness, includ- as evidenced by several journals dedicated to conscious- ing different levels of consciousness and mystical experi- ness studies (e.g., Consciousness and Cognition, The Jour- ence (Carderia and Winkelman, 2011; Taylor 2005). nal of Consciousness Studies), conferences, associations, and three recent encyclopedias: The Blackwell Compan- References and Resources ion to Consciousness (Velmans and Schneider 2007), The Bayne, T., A. Cleeremans, and P. Wilken. 2009. The Oxford Oxford Companion to Consciousness (Bayne, Cleeremans, Companion to Consciousness. Oxford: Oxford University and Wilken 2009), and The Cambridge Handbook of Con- Press. sciousness (Zelazo, Moscovitch, and Thompson 2007). Bering, J. M., and D. F. Bjorklund. 2007. “The Serpents’ Gift: Defining consciousness itself proves to be elusive and Evolutionary Psychology and Consciousness.” In The Cam- controversial. Nagel’s (1974) frequently cited article bridge Handbook of Consciousness, edited by P. D. Zelazo, M. “What Is It Like to Be a Bat?” proposed what is perhaps Moscovitch, and E. Thompson, 597–629. Cambridge, UK: the most commonly used starting point: consciousness Cambridge University Press. exists if “there is something it is like” to be the organism Bor, D. 2012. The Ravenous Brain: How the New Science of with consciousness, for the organism with consciousness. Consciousness Explains Our Insatiable Search for Meaning. In 1996,Contributor Chalmers delineated a distinction between the New York: Basic. “easy problems” of consciousness, those that consider Carderia, E., and M. Winkelman, eds. 2011. Altering Conscious- empirically how we know what we know, and the “hard ness: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Vol. 1, History, Culture problem” of consciousness, which is how physical objects and the Humanities; Vol. 2, Biological and Psychological can give rise to subjective experiences. Perspectives. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. For religious educators, the easy problems of con- Chalmers, D. J. 1996. The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fun- sciousness and the science of consciousness offer the damental Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 334 Constantine’s Influence on Education

Descartes, R. (1644) 1983. Principles of Philosophy. Translated by corporation of Greek culture into Roman life.230 Romans V. Rodger and R. P. Miller. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Reidel. assimilated and modified to their own ends a broad spec- Gidley, J. M. 2007. “Educational Imperatives of the Evolution trum of Hellenic civilization, including Greek language, of Consciousness: The Integral Visions of Rudolf Steiner and religion, mythology, and education. As Rome’s influence Ken Wilber.” International Journal of Children’s Spirituality spread, the influence of Greece became more obvious: 12: 117–135. Gobet, F. 2005. “Chunking Models of Expertise: Implications As time went on, Latin education tended more and more for Education.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 19: 183–204. to become absolutely identical with the contemporary Gunnlaugson, O. 2007. “Shedding Light on the Underlying Greek education, and as generation followed generation Forms of Transformative Learning Theory: Introducing the last relics of the archaic tradition through which Rome had asserted her own originality against Greece gradually Three Distinct Categories of Consciousness.” Journal of disappeared. Increasingly the emphasis is on books, and Transformative Education 5: 134–151. education as a result becomes more and more a matter of James, W. (1890) 2010. The Principles of Psychology: Volumes 1 schooling—and Roman schools (to say it once again) had, and 2. Boston: Digireads.com. from the very beginning, been entirely modeled on those Kegan, R. 1994. In Over Our Hheads: The Mental Demands of of Greece.231 Modern Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kohlberg, L. 1975. “The Cognitive-Developmental Approach to This trend culminated in the RomanOnly world inhabited by Moral Education.” The Phi Delta Kappan 56: 670–677. and following Constantine I. Nagel, T. 1974. “What Is It Like to Be a Bat?” The Philosophical Review 83: 435–450. Context: Enkyklios Paideia Napoli, M., P. R. Krech, and L. C. Holley. 2005. “Mindfulness Having consolidated a hold over the entire Roman em- Training for Elementary School Students.” Journal of Applied pire, Constantine also consolidated the Roman educa- School Psychology 21: 99–125. tional tradition. To mark the Byzantine world as begin- Piaget, J. 1954. “The Problem of Consciousness in Child Psy- ning in AD 330, with the foundation of Constantinople chology: Developmental Changes in Awareness.” In Prob- and the adoption of Christianity as a formal religion lems of Consciousness: Transactions of the Fourth Conference, within Rome, as many scholars do, is to acknowledge that edited by H. A. Abramson, 43–59, New York. Josiah Macy the ByzantineCopy world preserved the educational heritage of Foundation. Greece and Rome for 1,123 years until Constantinople’s Rochat, P. 2003. “Five Levels of Self-Awareness as They Unfold fall to the Ottoman Turks in 1543. Early in Life.” Consciousness and Cognition 12: 717–731. Constantine, by founding a new capital, a Second Taylor, E. W. 2008. “Transformative Learning Theory.” In Rome, on the foundations of an ancient Greek city, “Third Update on Adult Learning Theory,” special issue, New transformed the Roman world into one that was situ- Directions for Adult and Continuing Education 136: 5–15. ated within a Hellenistic heritage. By osmosis, Greek Taylor, S. 2005. “The Sources of Higher States of Conscious- language and mores overtook the Latin and Western ness.” International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 24: customs, even as these remained within the bracketed 48–60. definition of Rome. This education in the Greek, the Velmans, M., and S. Schneider. 2007. The Blackwell Companion ενκύκλιος παιδεία, which involved traveling to Greek to Consciousness. Malden, MA: Blackwell. cities to pursue secondary studies, persisted until the Vicini, A. 2012. “Imaging in Severe Disorders of Consciousness: period examined here and for at least another century. Rethinking Consciousness, Identity, and Care in a Relational Christian saints and scholars such as John Chrysostom, Key.” Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics 32: 169–191. Basil of Caesarea, and Gregory of Nazianzus thus spent Zelazo, P. D., M. Moscovitch, and E. Thompson. 2007. The a great deal of their lives in the decades following Con- Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness. Cambridge, UK: stantine’s reign in scholastic centers such as Athens Cambridge University Press. and Antioch, pursuing the curriculum of the enkyklios —Mary Froehle paideia.232 Constantine’s Christian Rome did not de-

Contributor 230. Horace, Epistles ii: I, 156, cited in Henri-Irénée Marrou, A History Constantine’s Influence on Education of Education in Antiquity, trans. George Lamb (New York: Sheed & Ward, 1956), 242. The Latin original states: “Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes intulit agrestic Latio.” “Captive Greece took captive her savage conqueror, 231. Marrou, History of Education in Antiquity, 265. For a lengthier discussion, see Marrou, History of Education in Antiquity, 246–247. and brought civilization to barbarous Latium,” said the 232. See Φαίδων Κακουλές, Βυζαντινών Βίος και Πολιτισμός (Τόμος Α’) Roman poet Horace, speaking generally of the broad in- (Αθήνα: Παπαζήσης, 1990), σελ. 108. Constructivism 335 stroy classical learning; rather, it entrenched it within a Constructivism literary culture built on the importance of literacy and scriptural analysis and composition.233 Constructivism is a learning theory rooted in the psy- This enkyklios paideia had three stages. Primary educa- chology of how humans learn, acquire knowledge, and tion began at the age of seven. Students were under the make sense of the world around them.235 According to care of a ludi magister, or litterator—a derivative of the this theory, learners do not passively acquire knowledge Greek γραμματιστής, a teacher of letters—who concen- or information. Rather, the learner constructs knowl- trated on basic literacy skills. At the age of 11 or 12, they edge. Given this perspective, teaching and learning meth- moved on to a grammar school and were under the care ods that focus on experiential learning, active learning, of a teacher called the grammaticus or litteratus. Here, hands-on experiences, and learner-centered activities students began their studies of the first three liberal arts, find support in constructivism. These methods are de- which are also known as the trivium (grammar, logic, fended from the constructivist viewpoint by noting that and rhetoric). Tertiary education could begin as early as people learn most effectively when they do so through age 15 and continue until the student was 20 or older. direct experience, engaging activities, reflection upon At this stage, students went to the schools of rhetoric, these experiences and activities, making sense of the often living abroad in cities like Athens and Alexan- experiences, and solving problems for themselves. Since dria, where the schools were housed and were taught by constructivists perceive learningOnly to be the process of an rhetors. Here, they were primarily prepared for careers individual actively constructing knowledge, they tend to in law or government. The curriculum consisted primar- emphasize learning environments that require the learn- ily of the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, ers to explore, experiment, and reflect. and music). The trivium and the quadrivium together While some refer to constructivism as a learning composed the seven liberal arts, which persevered even theory, scholars embrace it on different levels. On the one throughout the Middle Ages in the Latin west.234 side of the spectrum, radical constructivists assert that all truth is relative, and that it can only be known within an Conclusion individual learner.236 As a result, this form of constructiv- This was, in sum, the character of the εγκύκλιος παιδεία, ism is sometimes rejected by Christian education schol- which in the Byzantine tradition was also referred to as arsCopy because of the implications for divine revelation and the “έξωθεν παιδεία,” “θύραθεν παιδεία,” and “την παρ’ central truths of the Christian faith. At the same time, Έλλησι παιδείαν.” The first two terms mean “education of many embrace constructivism in more moderate ways, an outside source,” whereas the third names that source acknowledging that truth exists outside the perception as “education of the Greek source.” The lasting legacy of the individual, but that the individual still constructs a of Constantine is the Christian context in which classi- personal understanding of that truth, that people create cal ideas would be interpreted. His strategic move of the new knowledge by building upon prior knowledge and epicenter of imperial Roman power to the Greek east, experiences. This requires that the learner be engaged, which had an established order of schooling that sought active, and reflective in the learning process. Because of to cultivate the ideal of an educated individual through these differences, some educators may refer to themselves literacy and philosophy, preserved the classical enkyklios as constructivist in pedagogy or methodology, but not paideia. For more than a millennium, the Greek and—to necessarily constructivist in philosophy. a lesser extent—the Latin sources of the ancient world were copied, studied, written about, but also translated, References and Resources within a Greek-speaking Byzantine world. Glasersfeld, Ernst von. 1995. Radical Constructivism: A Way of —Theodore Michael Christou Knowing and Learning. London: Falmer Press. Fosnot, Catherine Twomey. 1996. Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and Practice. New York: Teachers College Press. 233. This is the importance of γραφή, or the written text (primarily the Hickman, Larry A., Stefan Neubert, and Kersten Reich. 2009. Gospels). 234. For a lengthier discussion, see F. Eby and C. Arrowood, The History John Dewey Between Pragmatism and Constructivism. New and PhilosophyContributor of Education, 2 vols. (Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, York: Fordham University Press. 1940), 533–536; Cyril Bailey, The Mind of Rome (Oxford: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1926); James Henry Breasted, The Conquest of Civilization (New —Bernard Bull York: Harper and Bros., 1926); Aubrey Gwynn, Roman Education from Cicero to Quintilian (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1926); Paul Monroe, 235. Catherine Fosnot, Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and Prac- Source Book of the History and Philosophy of Education for the Greek and tice (New York: Teachers College Press, 1996). Roman Period (New York: Macmillan, 1901); and Marrou, A History of 236. Ernst von Glaserfeld, Radical Constructivism: A Way of Knowing Education in Antiquity. and Learning (London: Falmer Press, 1995). 336 Contemplation

Contemplation text with the statement made by another contemporary author, Susan Cain, in Quiet: The Power of Introverts in In the secular sense of the word, to contemplate means a World That Can’t Stop Talking (2013): that introver- to give thoughtful observation or full and deep consid- sion is now being categorized by the APA Manual DSM eration; in other words, to reflect. Although the usage of IV as a social maladaptation. the term dates back to ancient Greece (contemplation), it The contrast between these two contemporary texts, is likely that it existed before then with Proto-Indo-Euro- in addition to the prominence of a cooperative learning peans, who used the base term tem to mean a place that is pedagogical paradigm, identifies a tension for Christian cut, or carved out, for a specific purpose. The Latin term, educators, who need to balance research on learning templum, indicates a place that is set aside for reflection, theories with the experiences from tradition to reach the or a place of worship, likely leading to the term “temple” vision of spiritual formation and growth. as a place of worship. The art of contemplation has been a staple in the References and Resources Christian tradition as a spiritual discipline from the Cain, S. 2013. Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That desert fathers, through the discipline of the medieval Can’t Stop Talking. New York: Crown Publishing. monks, to the present day (Foster 2011; Merton 1996; Catechism of the Catholic Church. Part 4, Section 1, Chapter Keating 2002). According to St. Teresa in the Catechism 3, Article 1. Accessed 8 July 2013.Only http://www.vatican.va/ of the Catholic Church, “Contemplative prayer [oración archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p4s1c3a1.htm. mental] in my opinion is nothing else than a close shar- Foster, R. 2011. Sanctuary of the Soul: Journey into Meditative ing between friends; it means taking time frequently to Prayer. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. be alone with him who we know loves us.” Contempla- Johnson, D., and R. Johnson. 1994. Learning Together and tive prayer seeks Him “whom my soul loves.” It is Jesus, Alone: Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Learn- and in Him, the Father. “We seek him, because to desire ing. Needham Heights, MA: Prentice-Hall. him is always the beginning of love, and we seek him in Keating, T. 2002. Foundations for Centering Prayer and the that pure faith which causes us to be born of him and Christian Contemplative Life. New York: Continuum. to live in him. In this inner prayer we can still meditate, Markham, P. N. 2007. Rewired: Exploring Religious Conversion. but our attention is fixed on the Lord himself” (§2709). Eugene,Copy OR: Pickwick Publishers. It involves the hearing of God, silence, and an intense Merton, T. 1996. Contemplative Prayer. New York: Image communion with God (Catechism, §§2714, 2716, 2717). Books. The “contemplative tradition” is also one of the spiritual Smith, J. B., and R. Foster. 2007. A Spiritual Formation Work- traditions identified by James Bryan Smith in his spiritual book. Revised Edition: Small Group Resources for Nurturing formation workbook, along with the holiness tradition, Christian Growth. New York: HarperCollins. social justice tradition, and charismatic tradition (Smith —Laura Barwegen and Foster 2007). Contemplation holds a primary place in our understanding of spiritual formation, both histori- cally and contemporarily. Contemplative Approaches, Children and In secular education, this act of inner contemplation in order to learn has been replaced with the advent of The contemplative approach to Christian education with pedagogies such as cooperative learning (Johnson and children focuses on preparing the way for the child to Johnson 1994). In his book reexamining the doctrine meet God, to come to love and know God intimately. of salvation through the lenses of neuroplasticity and It leads to worship and learning, what we might call the Wesleyan tradition, Paul Markham calls for a move worshipful learning, or learning in a setting of worship. away from an individualistic, contemplative tradition, Worship, in this context, is what happens when children and away from an individual declaration of faith in are still and know that God is real and present. They Christ as a path toward salvation, criticizing figures learn to hear God’s words of love, comfort, and instruc- such as BillyContributor Graham and Bill Bright for their simplistic tion. They respond in awe, wonder, and love. Preparation models of salvation. Instead, he proposes the essential for contemplation and worshipful learning begins with nature of community and the church to spiritually form adults who create a special, calm and quiet place where disciples of Christ, indicating that in alignment with the children can be with God, hear God’s story, and have Wesleyan tradition of sanctification over time, salvation time to wonder, or reflect on the story, time to listen and is not a one-time, individual declaration of an internal talk with God. In the biblical narrative children meet faith, but involves the outward participation in the body and get to know the God whose presence they sense. The of Christ (Markham 2007). Contrast this contemporary adults who lead the children in contemplation also meet Contemplative Approaches, Children and 337

God anew and join the children in listening and reflec- 3. When adults lead children into God’s story, they tion. This contemplative approach grows out of the work can meet God there, and the Spirit of God can lead of Sofia Cavalletti. (To learn more about the life and work the child to discover what he or she most needs. of Sofia Cavalletti, see Cavalletti, Sofia, in this volume.) 4. As adults, we partner with God, the child’s teacher.

History Three of Marie Montessori’s assumptions about chil- Dr. Cavalletti was an Italian Hebrew scholar and profes- dren are foundational to the contemplative approach: sor with a deep knowledge of and love for the scripture. The first time she taught children, Cavalletti spent about 1. The child has great capacity for concentration. two hours with three or four boys and girls, just reading 2. Children love order and silence. the account of creation in Genesis and talking about it 3. The child delights in work (May 2013). with them. At the end of the time, one of the children’s eyes filled with tears and he did not want to leave (May These principles run counter to the assumptions of 2013). The look of deep joy on his face gripped Caval- many in our fast-moving, high-tech, 21st-century world. letti’s heart, and that was the turning point of her career. But those who have entered contemplative worship and She spent the rest of her life sharing the scriptures and learning with children know these principles are still true. liturgy with children, watching their faces to see what For the contemplative approachOnly to be effective, several passages and experiences gripped their hearts. In the key elements must be present: 1950s, Cavalletti and her colleague, Gianna Gobbi, who had been trained by Marie Montessori, began to develop 1. The setting: Meaningful contemplation is most the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd (CGS), a contem- likely to occur in a calm, quiet environment, with plative approach that gives children the opportunity to few distractions. Marie Montessori referred to get to know God (May 2013). Over the past several the such a setting as a place between the classroom decades, CGS has spread into many countries. and the church where children worship and learn In the 1970s, Americans became aware of Cavalletti’s (Cavalletti 1983, 56). It may be a room used only work and began developing adaptations of her concepts for worshipful learning, a classroom rearranged for American churches. Jerome Berryman and Sonja Copyfor the worship time, or a corner of a larger room Stewart were leaders in this project. In 1972, Berry- where children know they can go to be with and man studied with Cavalletti and began to incorporate respond to God. many aspects of CGS into his approach to the religious 2. The story: Scripture is the focal point of contempla- education of children, called Godly Play. In 1982, Sonja tive worship and learning. The biblical story, from Stewart and Berryman began collaborating on a cur- parables or other passages, is told simply, without riculum for children’s worship. Young Children and embellishment, but with a sense of awe and won- Worship by Sonja Stewart and Jerome Berryman was der. The words are carefully chosen to be faithful published in 1989 and continues to be used by churches to the text and to weave theological insights into more than two decades later (Stewart and Berryman the narrative. Simple materials such as figures of 1989, 7–8). Other Christian educators continue to build the characters are used to enact the event as it is contemplative elements into the curriculum resources presented, leading the children to enter the story. they develop. Older children can be guided to engage the biblical narrative directly from the text. Principles of the Contemplative Approach 3. A time to wonder: After hearing God’s story, chil- Several theological assumptions undergird the contem- dren have time to wonder about it. “I wonder” plative approach: questions are designed to lead the child into reflec- tion and contemplation. They focus on the affec- 1. Children are spiritual beings, created in the image tive: I wonder how Zacchaeus felt when Jesus called ofContributor God, who is Spirit. They do not become spiritual him by name? They relate directly to the story: I through an experience later in life; they are spiritual wonder what the great pearl might really be? And from birth. they build a bridge from the story to the child’s 2. Children are born with the potential to experience life: What do you think Jesus wants to tell us in this God and grasp the reality of the transcendent at an story? (May 2013). Children may silently wonder early age. They can experience God’s presence even and contemplate, not having the words to express before they have words to describe that experience what they sense, or they may discuss together their (Wangerin 1986, 20–23). feelings and the thoughts that come to mind. 338 Contemplative Prayer as Christian Practice

4. A time for response: Opportunity for contempla- knowledge, and to experience the joy of serving. But con- tion continues as the children choose how they will templative, worshipful learning is an important element respond to the story. They may choose to draw, to that is often missing in our nurture of children in the use the story materials to recall and spend more home and at church. In addition to providing a particu- time in the story, to write in their journals, or to go lar ministry that focuses on the contemplative approach, to a special area just to spend time with God. Con- elements that lead into contemplation can be woven into templation takes the time and calm provided by the other ministry approaches, and into family conversations response time. and devotional times.

The Role of Adults and the Place of Contemplative References and Resources Approaches in the Christian Education of Children Berryman, J. W. 1991. Godly Play, a Way of Religious Educa- In contemplative worshipful learning, the adult leader, tion. San Francisco: Harper. rather than providing instruction, prepares the way for Cavalletti, S.1983. The Religious Potential of the Child: The children to meet and learn from God. Three responsibili- Description of an Experience with Children Ages Three to Six. ties are critical: New York: Paulist Press. May, S. 2013. “Cavalletti, Sofia.” In Christian Educators of the 1. Creating a special place: Adults who desire to guide 20th Century, edited by by K. Lawson.Only www2.talbot.edu/ children into contemplation begin by creating a ce20/educators/view.cfm?n=sofia_cavaletti. special place where they can meet God, and the Stewart, S. M., and J. W. Berryman. 1989. Young Children and adult leaders maintain the specialness of that en- Worship. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. vironment. They also help children know why this Stonehouse, C., and S. May. 2010. Listening to Children on the place is different from other settings. “It is a special Spiritual Journey: Guidance for Those Who Teach and Nur- place to be with God . . . to talk with God, to listen ture. Grand Rapids, MI: BakerAcademic. to God, and to hear the stories of God” (Stewart and Wangerin, W., Jr. 1986. The Orphean Passages. San Francisco: Berryman 1989, 57). Regularly articulating these Harper & Row. purposes plants in the children’s minds the truth that God wants to be with them, they can talk to CurriculumCopy Resources God, and God will talk to them. McGregor, W. 2006. The Way of the Child: Helping Children 2. Preparing to present God’s story: The desire in con- Experience God. Nashville, TN: The Upper Room Books. templative worship and learning is that the story, and the God of that story, will draw children to Epic: God’s Story Through the Ages. www.nph.com/nphweb/ respond in awe, wonder, and love. That will most html/nph/innerpage.jsp?c=NPH-CE&cs=SS&sc=NA&ss=NA likely happen when the storyteller has prepared well Godly Play Resources. www.godlyplayresources.com/ and in the process experienced God in the story. Tru. tru.davidccook.com/ 3. Preparing questions for contemplation: Contem- —Catherine M. Stonehouse plative questions lead the children to engage with the biblical story and their lives. They do not call for specific correct answers, but encourage the child to Contemplative Prayer discover more of the character of God, meanings in as Christian Practice the story, and what God wants to say to the child. Designing and reflecting on the contemplative “Of God Himself can no man think,” warns the medieval questions is an important part of the adult’s prepa- mystical treatise The Cloud of Unknowing, which goes on ration for leading the children. to say “And therefore I would leave all that thing that I can 4. Taking advantage of resources: Quality contempla- think, and choose to my love that thing that I cannot think tive curriculum resources are available. These can . . . and although it [thinking about God] be a light and a be of great assistance to busy adult leaders. Several part of contemplation: nevertheless yet in this work it shall Contributor 237 are listed at the end of this article. be cast down and covered with a cloud of forgetting.” Herein lies the essence of Christian contemplation: a form Calm, quiet contemplation is not the only experience of prayer in which thought is surrendered in favor of non- needed for the spiritual formation of children. They need discursive, loving encounter with God. fun and active engagement with peers and adults in the faith community. They need opportunities to participate 237. The Cloud of Unknowing, trans. Evelyn Underhill, 2009, Montour- in worship with the whole congregation, to gain biblical seville, PA: Lamp Post Publishing, ch. 6. Continental Philosophy of Education 339

With scriptural roots in the Psalms (“Be still and know ness in order to nurture a relationship with God. Thomas that I am God,” Ps. 46:10; “For God alone my soul in Keating says, “Regular periods of silence and solitude silence waits,” Ps. 62:1), Christian contemplative practice can dispose us to extend our consent to God’s presence emerges in the writings of the desert fathers and mothers, to every moment of our waking lives.”241 The practice of particularly John Cassian and Evagrius Ponticus, who contemplation rests on a theology of the presence of God wrote “Stand guard over your spirit, keeping it free of within each Christian (cf. I Cor. 3:16). Contemplative concepts at the time of prayer so that it may remain in its prayer, therefore, is a wordless practice of “gazing” at own deep calm.”238 In the 12th century, Richard of Saint God, even though such a gaze may not be consciously or Victor described contemplation as the highest form of experientially felt. Thus Meister Eckhart: “The eye with prayer, after thinking and meditation: “Thinking crawls; which I see God is exactly the same eye with which God meditation marches and often runs; contemplation flies sees me. My eye and God’s eye are one eye, one seeing, around everywhere and when it wishes suspends itself in one knowledge and one love.”242 Methods of nondiscur- the heights.”239 sive prayer, such as centering prayer, represent only a Contemplation, therefore, represents a mature prac- means to the end, and contemplation could be experi- tice of prayer, beyond the ordinary dynamic of vocal enced without the practice of any method, as simply a prayer or even thoughtful meditation on spiritual topics. graced gift from God to one willing to enter into such a Another 12th-century source, Guigo II the Carthusian, wordless, loving gaze. Only describes contemplation as the fourth stage of the dis- cipline of lectio divina: after reading a passage of sacred References and Resources scripture, reflecting on the passage, and responding with Anonymous. 1997. The Cloud of Unknowing. Rockport, Dorset, discursive prayer, comes contemplation, in which God England: Element Books. “makes the soul forget all earthly things.”240 Eckhart, Meister. 1994. Selected Writings. Translated by Oliver Because of its association with monasticism, con- Davies. London: Penguin Classics. templative prayer became marginalized in the West, Guigo II. 1979. Ladder of Monks and Twelve Meditations. eschewed by Protestants as a Catholic practice, while re- Translated by Edmund Colledge, OSA, and James Walsh, SJ. garded by Catholic authorities as an “advanced” form of Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications. spirituality not generally accessible to the ordinary Chris- Keating.Copy Thomas. 2006. Open Mind, Open Heart. New York: tian. But the 20th century saw an explosion of interest in Continuum. contemplation, particularly among laypersons interested Laird, Martin. 2006. Into the Silent Land. Oxford: Oxford Uni- in historic Christian spirituality or in interfaith dialogue. versity Press. Spiritual teachers like John Main, OSB, Thomas Keating, McColman, Carl. 2013. Answering the Contemplative Call. OCSO, and Tilden Edwards saw in Eastern meditative Charlottesville, Newburyport, VA: Hampton Roads. practices parallels with the language of Christian contem- Ponticus, Evagrius. 1981. The Praktikos & Chapters on Prayer. plation. Practices such as Main’s “Christian meditation” Translated by John Eudes Bamberger. Kalamazoo, MI: Cis- and “centering prayer”— methods of silent attention that tercian Publications. rely on the use of a prayer word as an object of atten- Richard of St. Victor. 1979. Selected Writings. Translated by tion—are inspired by Eastern meditation, yet point to Grover A. Zinn. New York: Paulist Press. sources like Cassian or The Cloud of Unknowing to affirm Rohr, Richard. 2003. Everything Belongs. New York: Crossroad. their status as authentically Christian forms of prayer. In —Carl McColman Eastern Orthodoxy, the repetitive use of the Jesus Prayer represents another type of contemplative practice. What separates Christian contemplation from non- Continental Philosophy of Education Christian forms of meditation like TM or Zen is its quality as prayer: for Christians, contemplation is always Continental philosophy refers to a set of philosophical oriented toward cultivating a prayerful relationship with traditions that arose among English-speaking philoso- God, evenContributor beyond the limitations of human thought. phers in the second half of the 20th century. This new Christian contemplation is not, as some critics have movement contrasted with the traditional analytical complained, merely a process of “emptying the mind.” tradition, which espoused conceptual clarity, reason, and Rather, it is an effort to seek clarity or serenity of aware- modern logic. In continental Europe, the perceived crisis of liberalism in the English-speaking educational world

238. Ponticus (1981), #69. 239. Richard of St. Victor (1979), book I, chapter 3. 241. Keating (2006), 2. 240. Guigo II (1979), vii. 242. Eckhart (1994), 179. 340 Continental Philosophy of Education constitutes a crisis of modern legitimation in its own of continental philosophies of education, but the major right. The result in continental Europe led to debates streams of continental philosophies and its representative about modernity, legitimacy, and practice of education philosophers that influence educational philosophies are and the influence of a new philosophy of education, in- the following: clude a renewed skepticism about universalism, both in ethics and epistemology.243 Continental philosophy, in 1. Existentialism (Søren Kierkegaard, 1813–1855; contrast to analytical philosophy, in which philosophy of Fiedrich Nietzsche, 1844–1900; Jean-Paul Sarte, education was concerned with analysis and knowledge in 1905–1980): The aim of education is for the indi- schooling, was mainly concerned with helping persons vidual to explore his or her own feelings and relate become properly human. With radical social demands ideas to her or his own life. Existential education and a heightened sense of cultural pluralism, the rational- places emphasis not on scholarly debate but on istic approach to education was in crisis. The real crisis creation; that is, one creates ideas relevant to one’s centers around the question of whether reason can be a own needs and interests. First the individual. then valid guide to action, and even whether rational thinking the ideas the individual creates. Ideas about heaven, is ever the objective and universal guide it claims to be, hell, and God are all human inventions. Therefore, especially in regard to a philosophy of education.244 Thus, the individual can be given credit for the creation the traditional approach to education is criticized by of concepts, both good andOnly bad.247 Existentialists 20th-century philosophers of education, drawing insights believe that a good education is one that empha- from the movement in continental Europe. sizes individuality. It attempts to assist each of us The term “continental philosophy” lacks clear defini- in seeing ourselves with our fears, frustrations, and tion and may mark merely a family resemblance across hopes, as well as the ways in which we use reason different philosophical views. Some suggest that the term for good. Thus, the first step in any education is to may be more pejorative than descriptive, functioning as a understand ourselves by being authentic persons. label for types of Western philosophy rejected by analytical 2. Phenomenology (Edmund Husserl, 1859–1938, philosophers. Regardless of the lack of clarity of the term, Martin Heidegger, 1889–1976; Paul Ricoeur, 1913– there are common themes that typically characterize con- 2005): The aim of education is the emphasis on pos- tinental philosophy. (1) It rejects the view that the natural Copysibility as a goal of education. The emphasis on the sciences are the best or most accurate way of under- human being is really an emphasis on becoming, standing phenomena. Scientific method is inadequate to for human consciousness can never be static. The understanding Kantian conditions of intelligibility. (2) It life-world out of which we interpret what happens typically suggests that philosophical arguments cannot be to us has been constituted through our interpreta- divorced from the textual and contextual conditions of its tion of what has happened to us in the past. This historical emergence. (3) It typically holds that conscious life-world interpretation may be characterized by human agency can change these conditions of possible adequacy or inadequacy, but each of us reacts to a experience. Philosophical inquiries are closely related to new experience in terms of this interpreted back- personal, moral, and political transformation. (4) With its ground. The goal of education is to help the learners emphasis on metaphilosophy, and in the wake of the devel- construct the best life-worlds possible.248 opment and success of the natural sciences, it has sought to 3. Structuralism (Ferdinand de Saussure, 1857–1913; redefine the method and nature of philosophy.245 Claude Lévi-Strauss, 1908–2009): The aim of edu- cation is for the student to become aware of Continental Philosophies of Education language and its potential. Once the educator Continental philosophers included the movements does this, there is a better chance of clarity and of German idealism, phenomenology, existentialism, use of language in the educational process. Since hermeneutics, poststructuralism, French feminism, and language is a complex cultural development and Western Marxism.246 It is difficult to cover all the aspects words have a variety of meanings and usages, one Contributor cannot define a word or prescribe its meaning for 243. Nigel Blake, Paul Smeyers, Richard Smith, and Paul Standish, The everyone else. Thus, one must see concepts, word Blackwood Guide to the Philosophy of Education (Malden, MA: Blackwell meanings, and statements about education in their Publishing, 2003), 6–7. 244. Ibid., 10. 245. Michael Rosen, “Continental Philosophy from Hegel,” in Phi- losophy 2: Further Through the Subject, ed. A. C. Grayling (Oxford: Oxford 247. Howard Ozmon and Samuel Craver, Philosophical Foundations University Press, 1999), 665. of Education, 5th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill Publishing Company, 246. Simon Critchley, Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduc- 1995), 258. tion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 13. 248. Ibid., 261. Continental Reformation, Educational Principles of 341

practical context as opposed to a theoretical, pre- References and Resources scriptive construction.249 Critchley, Simon. 2001. Continental Philosophy: A Very Short 4. Poststructuralism (Michel Foucault, 1926–1984; Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jacques Derrida, 1930–2004): The aims of educa- Cutrofello, Andrew. 2005. Continental Philosophy: A Contem- tion vary based on the stream of thought, but the porary Introduction. New York: Routledge. generalizable aim stresses that ethics must be a Grayling, A. C., ed. 1999. Philosophy 2: Further through the central concern to critical education, particularly Subject. Oxford: Oxford University Press. the different ethical discourses that offer students Leiter, Brian. 2007. The Oxford Handbook to Continental Phi- a richer fund of meanings and that help them losophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. relate to diversity in the wider society. This helps Nigel, Blake, Paul Smeyers, Richard Smith, and Paul Standish. students understand how individual experience is 2003. The Blackwood Guide to Philosophy of Education. Mal- influenced by different ethical discourses and how den, MA: Blackwell. ethical relations are formed between the self and Ozmon, Howard, and Samuel Craver. 1995. Philosophical others, including others of very different back- Foundations of Education. 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Mer- ground, origin, and perspective. The basic func- rill Publishing. tion is for the student to engage in social discourse Slattery, Patrick. 2006. Curriculum Development in the Post- that helps them reject needless human suffering modern Era: Teaching and LearningOnly in an Age of Account- and exploitation, and the purpose is to a sense of ability. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge. responsibility for others, including those consid- —Mark Maddix ered outside the margins of social life. This kind of education is ethically prior to the accumulation of knowledge, although knowledge acquisition oc- Continental Reformation, curs along with empowerment.250 Educational Principles of

Continental Philosophy of Education The Reformation movement embraced transformation A continental philosophy of education requires the edu- in education as much as it did theological and ecclesias- cator to no longer teach subjects as a collection of knowl- ticalCopy reform. In reality, new patterns in education were edge and facts only, but rather to understand the cultural the logical and natural results of a renewed emphasis on context by paying attention to experience, narrative, and theological principles. meaning of language. The educational curriculum rec- ognizes the interconnection of logic and emotion, giving Theological Principles and Educational Reform attention to different perspectives and contexts, and sees The main theological issues that led to church and educa- the world as a text to be interpreted rather than being tional reform were threefold. The first was the supremacy explained. It acknowledges the complex interplay of of scripture or sola scriptura, which affirmed the notion cognition, affect, and conation, as well as the vital impor- that the final authority of faith and practice was the scrip- tance of personal engagement with the subject through tures. Martin Luther (1483–1546) and other reformers participation. It focuses on the individual, helping the taught that believers should not have to be reliant on the student to understand himself or herself to become more interpretation of scripture by popes, church councils, or fully human and construct the best life-world possible. other clergy, as had been the dominant view for centuries The educator helps the student engage in conversations (Anthony and Benson 2003, 199; Pazmiño 1997, 144). about race, gender, and ethnicity as important conver- The second principle was justification by faith or sola sation partners.251 And the educator creates a context fide. Luther insisted that one acquired salvation by a for students to engage in social discourse about human genuine confession of sin and sincere repentance, and suffering and exploitation, so they will have a sense of that it came through faith alone (Rom. 1:17). The Catho- responsibility for the suffering and marginal in society. lic Church had been teaching that salvation was gained Thus, theContributor educator creates a context for where knowledge through works and by the purchase of indulgences. A is being constructed in experiences of the whole body and third principle was the priesthood of all believers, mean- being of the person. ing every individual who had a personalized faith could be his or her own priest and had access to God through 249. Ibid., 300. a personal relationship with Jesus Christ. This theologi- 250. Ibid., 276–77. cal position threatened the very structure of the Catholic 251. Patrick Slattery, Curriculum Development in the Postmodern Era: Teaching and Learning in an Age of Accountability, 2nd ed. (New York: Church (Anthony and Benson 2003, 199; Pazmiño 1997, Routledge, 2006), 131–133. 144; Ulich 1968, 108–109). 342 Continental Reformation, Educational Principles of

The consequence of these principles was educational Christopher Lucas summarizes Luther’s harsh assessment reform that led to a new vision for universal education. of universities as follows: “They were . . . dens of murder- If each individual was personally responsible to God for ers, temples of Moloch, synagogues of corruption, ‘nests knowing scripture, having a personalized faith, and being of gloomy ignorance’ grown moribund under the weight his or her own priest, every person must be equipped to of scholasticism and unbending tradition; and ‘nothing read and study the scriptures. Until education reform more hellish . . . ever appeared on earth . . . or ever would occurred, only the well-educated minority could do appear’” (1994, 85). For all the efforts of Lutheran reform- this (Pazmiño 1997, 144; Lamb 2001, 586). Educational ers, however, significant or dramatic changes were few and reform took place on four fronts: the home, the church, far between (85). On the other hand, where the legacy of state-supported schools for children, and universities. Calvin predominated, significant university reform took place. French Huguenots establish eight universities in Educational Reform and the Home the 16th and 17th centuries, and Calvin himself founded Luther emphasized home education for children as the the famous Geneva Academy in 1557, which included a crux of his educational philosophy. C. B. Eavey summa- Schola publica. The Schola eventually became the Univer- rizes Luther’s view of family education as follows: sity of Geneva (Lucas 1994, 86; Gangel and Benson 1983, 145–146). Other Calvinist universities were founded in He maintained that home training and obedience pro- continental Europe in Leiden (1575), Amsterdam (1632), duced sound family life, and that sound family life is Only and Utrecht (1636) (Lamb 2001, 586). the foundation of good government on all levels. He contended that no one ought to become a father unless Educational Reform and the Church he could teach his children bible truth. He declared also With the advent of the Reformation, various groups that we must be taught from birth if God’s kingdom is to grow. He strongly censured laxity in parents and wrong sought for renewal of education in the church. Calvin, for methods of training. (1964, 147) example, believed that not only should children be given a religious education in the home, they should also attend Likewise, John Calvin (1509–1564) believed that children catechetical classes on Sunday with emphasis in doctrine, should be carefully taught by parents in the context of manners, and morals (Eavey 1964, 150). His Catechism the home and family (Eavey 1964, 150; Reed and Prevost of theCopy Church at Geneva employed a question and answer 1993, 198). approach designed to be used between the pastor and children. The Anabaptists also use the catechetical ap- Educational Reform and State Schools proach to teaching believers prior to baptism. While Luther emphasized education in the home, he believed that parental teaching was insufficient for References and Resources the education of children. In “Letter to the Mayors Anthony, Michael, and Warren Benson. 2003. Exploring the and Aldermen of All the Cities of Germany on Behalf History & Philosophy of Christian Education. Grand Rapids, of Christian Schools,” he argued that schools should MI: Kregel. provide a well-rounded education that included Latin, Eavey, C. B. 1964. History of Christian Education. Chicago: Greek, and Hebrew (Lamb 2001, 586). Nothing was Moody Press. more important to Luther, however, than that public Gangel, Kenneth O., and Warren S. Benson. 1983. Christian schools equip every person to read the Bible (Ulich Education: Its History and Philosophy. Chicago: Moody 1968,109). Luther’s close associate and master educator Press. Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560) founded the Saxony Lamb, Robert L. 2001. “The Reformation.” In Evangelical Dic- school system, the forerunner of the modern state tionary of Christian Education, edited by Michael Anthony, school system (Eavey 1964, 148; Gangel and Benson 584–586. Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academic. 1983, 142–143; Lamb 2001, 586). In Switzerland, both Lucas, Christopher J. 1994. American Higher Education. New Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531) in Zurich, and Calvin in York: St. Martin’s Griffin. Geneva, introducedContributor elementary and secondary schools Pazmiño, Robert W. 1997. Foundational Issues in Christian for children and youth (Eavey 1964, 149–150). Education. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- Educational Reform in Higher Education tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman &Holman. Reforming higher education was a part of the agenda of Ulich, Robert. 1968. A History of Religious Education. New Lutherans and Calvinists alike. For Luther’s part, he was York: New York University Press. merciless in his criticism of the universities of his time. —Harley T. Atkinson Conversion 343

Convergent and Divergent Thinking divergent people are to be admired and valued, while convergent people are dull, plodding, and of lesser value The publication of Joy Paul Guildford’s paper “Creativ- to an organization—an unfortunately common perspec- ity” in 1950 was arguably responsible for redirecting the tive in some sectors of the commercial world. attention of those interested in human personality to- ward the scientific measurement of creativity as an aspect Reference of human intelligence. Guilford, J.P. 1950. “Creativity,” American Psychologist 5: While of itself not an original insight (similar work had 444–454. been done by Hargreaves in London in the 1920s), Guild- —Andrew B. Morris ford’s suggestion that existing methods of psychological measurement of human abilities neglected intellectual abilities, such as fluency, flexibility, and originality of Conversion thought, led to his developing a comprehensive model of the structure of the intellect (SI theory), in which such The English term “conversion” is derived from a Latin abilities were located within the category of divergent word that means “turning.” “Conversion” and the verb thinking (loosely equated with creative thought or activ- “to convert” are used in English Bibles to translate a ity), while those abilities previously measured by psycho- number of different Hebrew nounsOnly and verbs: the mean- metric tests took account only of convergent, noncreative, ing always focuses on “turning” or “returning,” and the thinking (see “Creativity”). However, in extrapolating terms can be used in both ordinary and specifically reli- from his initial model of mental operations acting on dif- gious contexts, as in “turning around” or “turning to or ferent types of product and content (a theoretical total of away from God” or “returning to God” after disobedience 120 intellectual aptitudes), Guildford argued that while and breaking the terms of the covenant. The noun “con- the mental operation of divergent thinking was of unique version” is used only once in the New Testament, to refer importance for creativity, it was not an exclusive reserve to the “conversion of the Gentiles” (Acts 15:3); different of all human creative aptitudes. Greek verbs are translated in the New Testament by the During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, the idea of dif- English terms “to turn” or to “return.” As a theological fering named bipolar mind styles or thinking processes termCopy “conversion” denotes “turning away from self and being exhibited by individuals gained momentum among sin and turning to God in Christ and trusting in him for psychologists and psychiatrists concerned with human salvation.” Theologically, conversion is associated with personality traits. These include, for example, adventur- repentance and faith, and this reflects New Testament ous and closed, intuitive and analytical, flexible and rigid, usage. Since God is the author of salvation, He is also the growth and safety, fluid and crystallized, and defensive- author of conversion, in the sense that through His Spirit ness and openness. However, the terms convergent and God addresses the individual, who “turns” from sin and divergent have dominated this area of study, though spiritual darkness to light and renewal in Christ (Acts whether or not they represent different and distinctive 26:18). For many Christians, the encounter of the apostle human traits, distributed in varying degrees and differ- Paul with the risen Christ on the road to Damascus pro- ing ways through populations, is a matter of dispute and vides a paradigmatic account of conversion: Paul’s zeal conjecture, as are the possible mechanisms whereby they for the Jewish law, which caused him to persecute the occur and the relationship between them. followers of Jesus, was replaced by commitment to the The use of those terms has subsequently undergone proclamation of the Gospel and reliance on God’s gift of a number of subtle and not so subtle developments. righteousness apart from the law for salvation. They are used, simply, to designate a difference between Christian mission that is faithful to the command of open-ended psychometric tests (i.e., those in which the Christ to “make disciples of all nations” (Matt. 28:19) questions have no correct answers) and those that are de- necessarily aims to convert. The most important thing in signed with questions that will have one single correct re- life is to know God and to be reconciled to him; through sponse.Contributor A second use is to differentiate between problems Christ one is released from the penalty and power of that have a correct solution and those that do not. The sin. Conversion to God marks a new birth and a new third application distinguishes two theoretically different beginning. God calls all to convert and to follow a life of types of people and is often used, erroneously in my view, faith and obedience. Christian education in the church to differentiate between those engaged in scientific (con- also aims to convert and to elicit commitment to Christ, vergent) and artistic (divergent) intellectual endeavors. through teaching, by example, and through various types Usually hidden within this last use of the terminology, of ministry, children’s ministry, outreach, and service to more reprehensibly, is the unspoken value judgment that the community that witnesses to Christian truth. 344 Coptic Orthodox Church Christian Education

When conversion occurs in adolescence or in adult- 2002). Furthermore, one may say that Alexandria, above hood, it can be expected that there is often a change of be- all other patriarchates in early Christianity, in accordance lief, behavior, and lifestyle, and this naturally has become with the great city’s love of knowledge and scholarship in the focus of psychological and sociological research. general, began with the most thorough embrace of formal Moreover, the concept of conversion has gradually been Christian education, in addition to informal means. extended to include not just conversions to Christianity but any dramatic shift in a person’s fundamental beliefs Early History and values and the processes and factors that are in- Alexandria’s catechetical school was well known in the volved. Lewis Rambo (1993) has identified seven stages in early church, featuring the prominent Christian teachers the process of conversion: context—the social, political, Clement and Origen, among others, and continued the religious, and personal context of the person before con- spiritual or allegorical method of biblical interpretation version; crisis—any experience that disrupts or threatens of the first-century Jewish philosopher Philo (Boyarin to disrupt the religious identity and commitments of an 2007; van den Hoek 1997). The influence of Origen in individual; quest—a crisis that occasions a search for a particular is unparalleled among ancient Christian writ- new framework; encounter—the individual becoming ers outside of the New Testament. Despite controversy aware of other options and expressing interest in one, surrounding many of his teachings, he developed a vo- typically through personal encounter; interaction—a pe- cabulary and asked questions thatOnly would shape Christian riod of renewed encounter; commitment—open identi- theology and pedagogy for generations to come. fication with a new set of beliefs and values; and finally, In addition, representatives of the Alexandrian patri- consequences—the results that follow from the new com- archate, such as Alexander, Athanasius, Cyril, and Di- mitment and identity. oscorus, figured prominently in the theological disputes In the postcolonial period, basically since World War of the ancient church. Midway through the fifth century, II, the issue of religious conversion has become a po- however, Alexandria’s involvement in the christological litical issue, and some states, historically Islamic, forbid controversy led to a schism in the church in the aftermath individuals and communities from converting from one of the Council of Chalcedon in 451. For the most part, the religion to another. Religious conversion is disparagingly Greek Christians of Egypt, who favored the decision of described as “proselytizing” and thought of as immoral the councilCopy and had imperial support, remained in com- and socially unacceptable. All such arguments, in the munion with the other patriarchates of the Roman Em- final analysis, should be regarded either as instances of pire (Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, and Jerusalem). religious protectionism or as contradicting the right to On the other hand, the ethnic Egyptians or Copts—the freedom of religion. vast majority of Christians in Egypt—broke communion in favor of the theology of Dioscorus, their patriarch or References and Resources pope, as their archbishop is also called, who protested Kerr, Hugh T., and John M. Mulder, eds. 1985. Conversions: at Chalcedon to the phrase of Pope Leo of Rome that The Christian Experience. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Christ is one person “in two natures,” preferring instead Rambo, Lewis. 1993. Understanding Religious Conversion. New the phrasing, “from two natures,” exclusively (McGuckin Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 2004). The schism itself, however, was not official until Thiessen, Elmer. 2011. The Ethics of Evangelism. Bucks, UK: 570, when the Copts appointed their own rival patriarch Paternoster Press. (Kamil 2002). —L. Philip Barnes While the history is far more complex, one may view this as the beginning of what is known as the Coptic Orthodox Church, at least as much as that title denotes Coptic Orthodox Church the church no longer in communion with the Chalce- Christian Education donian patriarchates of the Roman Empire. The schism and estrangement became even more solidified after the The CopticContributor Orthodox Church centers around the non- Muslim conquests of the seventh century largely cut Chalcedonian, Miaphysite see of Alexandria, tracing its Northern Africa off from the Roman world, as well as foundation to the Apostle Mark (Masri 1978). It boasts through their growing reliance on the Coptic and Arabic a long history of Christian education. With regard to languages over the Greek. It is thus a church that takes its informal education, it has its own liturgy in addition to beginnings from a crisis in Christian teaching and repre- unique prayers for other sacraments and rites, as well sents a unique tradition of doctrine and practice, neither as a strong monastic tradition and community, being Roman nor Byzantine. However, according to George one of the birthplaces of Christian monasticism (Kamil (2010, 623), “in spite of separation” the Chalcedonian Coptic Orthodox Church Christian Education 345 and non-Chalcedonian churches of the East “maintain an awakening for the Coptic people, who had previously to this day a remarkable unity in theological approach, been poor and uneducated (theologically and otherwise) liturgical-spiritual ethos and general church discipline.” during the time of dhimmitude (Seikaly 1970).

Modern Educational Reform Pope Shenouda III and Coptic Christian In modern times, the most significant turn in Coptic Education Today Christian education occurred in the 19th century, when From 1971 to 2012, Pope Shenouda III led the Coptic the Copts were released from dhimma status—that of Orthodox Church. In contrast to many of his predeces- being merely a protected people, but not citizens, under sors since Demetrius II, he was very popular with the Muslim rule—and during the papacy of two Coptic laity, even leading a weekly Bible study that drew crowds popes in particular: Cyril IV (1854–1861) and Demetrius in the thousands (Hulsman 2001). Citing only his II (1862–1870). Now full citizens and no longer simply education-related achievements, Shenouda encouraged endeavoring to survive, the Copts could revive their aca- monasticism, ordained hundreds of new bishops for demic heritage. According to Guirguis and van Doorn- new dioceses, reopened certain ministry roles to women, Harder (2011, 74): appointed a special bishop for the youth, expanded missionary efforts in sub-Saharan Africa, and authored Cyril tried to elevate the educational level of priests by polemical works against what he saw as heresies within summoning those living in and around Cairo to weekly Only and without the Coptic Church. He also signed joint meetings for theological reading and discussions. He statements on christology with both the Roman Catho- enforced discipline in churches concerning the use of lic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, working sacred music, the vestments of the presiding clergy, and toward healing the 1,500-year rupture. Shenouda was bans on public intoxication. The Coptic printing press that he had imported from Austria in 1859 produced also a strong opponent of biblical criticism, discouraging Biblical literature and texts such as liturgies, hymnals, its use and study among the Copts (Guirguis and van synaxaria [commemorative readings of the lives of the Doorn-Harder 2011). saints], and lectionaries that were distributed to local Notably, as has been standard since its beginnings, the churches free of charge. Coptic Church has always educated laity through its lit- urgyCopy as well. The Coptic liturgy includes regular biblical They also describe the work of Demetrius II, whose readings from the Psalms, the Epistles of Paul, the Catho- controversial papacy met with the challenge of Protes- lic Epistles, and the Gospels, followed by a homily or tant missionary efforts directed toward Coptic Christians sermon (Masri, 1978). The liturgy also serves to preserve (Guirguis and van Doorn-Harder 2011, 82): their traditional Coptic language, as well as often employ- ing Arabic, Greek, and the local language of whatever To Demetrius, knowledge of the church’s dogmas seemed nation a Coptic community inhabits if outside of Egypt. crucial in order to counter Protestant ideas. It was dur- The Copts also have a rich iconographic tradition, which ing his reign that the priest Philotheos Ibrahim Baghdadi serves didactically as a reminder of the stories of the faith, (1837–1904), the dean of St. Mark’s Cathedral, became both biblical and throughout Christian history. While famous for his sermons and public expositions on the Orthodox faith that could last for over three hours. Trav- education and piety are widespread today, the Coptic eling up and down Egypt, he organized Coptic versions of Church continues to face the challenge of preserving its revival meetings. heritage in the face of persecution, marginalization, and modernization. After these two papacies, however, an uneasy tension between pope and people developed, as well as an edu- References and Resources cated class of Copts with their own vision for the church. Boyarin, Daniel. 2007. “Philo, Origen, and the Rabbis on Divine Educational developments continued rapidly under the Speech and Interpretation.” In The World of Early Egyptian next pope, Cyril V. In 1874, the Coptic laity established Christianity, edited by James E. Goehring and Janet A. the ChurchContributor Community Council to oversee the church’s Timbie, 113–129. Washington, DC: The Catholic University finances. In 1875, this council founded a theological sem- of America Press. inary. Cyril V, however, closed it only a few months later, George, Kondothra M. 2010. “Theological Education in the and it was not reopened until November 1893. From then Oriental Orthodox Tradition.” In Handbook of Theological on it had a considerable impact on the education of the Education in World Christianity: Theological Perspectives— laity. “Alumni of the seminary” launched “Sunday-school Regional Surveys—Ecumenical Trends, edited by Dietrich meetings all over Egypt” (Guirguis and van Doorn- Werner, David Esterline, Namsoon Kang, and Joshva Raja, Harder 2011, 108). In many ways, this time is considered 623–628. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. 346 Correspondence Christian Education

Guirguis, Magdi, and Nelly van Doorn-Harder. 2011. The Emer- correspondence program of study to provide a Christian gence of the Modern Coptic Papacy: The Egyptian Church and education to people unable to attend the Moody Bible In- Its Leadership from the Ottoman Period to the Present. Cairo; stitute but who desired an equivalent biblical education. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. Bible-based correspondence education flourished in Hulsman, Cornelis. 2001. “Reviving an Ancient faith.” Christi- the 19th and 20th centuries as a means of educating anity Today 45 (15, December 3): 38–40. rooted learners as well as others unable to afford or relo- Kamil, Jill. 2002. Christianity in the Land of the Pharaohs: The cate to a Bible school or seminary. Coptic Orthodox Church. London and New York: Routledge. As radio, audio technology, and television became Masri, Iris Habib el. 1978. The Story of the Copts. Barstow, CA: established and available as valid and popular means of St. Anthony Coptic Orthodox Monastery communication, some schools and ministries retooled McGuckin, John A. 2004. Saint Cyril of Alexandria and the correspondence courses to include additional and more Christological Controversy. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s dynamic content delivered electronically. However, most Seminary Press. assignments and tests were still mailed in for grading and Seikaly, Samir. 1970. “Coptic Communal Reform: 1860–1914.” evaluation, and communication between the student and Middle Eastern Studies 6 (3): 247–275. instructor/grader was instigated by the student. van den Hoek, Annewies. 1997. “The ‘Catechetical’ School of Early Christian Alexandria and Its Philonic Heritage.” Har- Types of Correspondence DistanceOnly Education vard Theological Review 90 (1): 59–87. There are two main branches of correspondence educa- —Dylan Pahman tion. The first is a “noncredit” course. These courses are taken mainly for the information and inspirational benefit of the user. Some institutions offer the possibility to earn Correspondence Christian Education a continuing education unit of credit. These courses are generally less expensive than credit-based correspondence Correspondence education is a service providing the courses and may be taken individually or in group settings. student with materials through the mail, who works The other branch is correspondence courses taken through a series of lessons and submits assignments and for academic credit at a school or university and applied tests by return mail. The submitted materials are graded towardCopy a degree. These courses are generally more robust and returned by mail. Communication with an instructor and monitored to ensure equivalency to those courses or office is generally done by letter and is relatively slow. taught in the classroom. Tests and exams are frequently There is little in the way of interaction between the stu- required to be taken in the presence of a neutral proctor dent and the instructor/grader except via the mail. to ensure the integrity of the course. Payment of tuition In 2010, the U.S. Department of Education redefined is required to earn academic credit. a correspondence course to be “a course provided by an institution under which the institution provides in- The Process of Correspondence Christian Education structional materials, by mail or electronic transmission, Correspondence courses require enrollment in a pro- including examinations on the materials, to students who gram of study or at a minimum some demographic are separated from the instructor. Interaction between information being presented to enroll. Once payment is the instructor and student is limited, is not regular and received, if required, the student is sent materials to work substantive, and is primarily initiated by the student. through each lesson. Lessons are often grouped into units Correspondence courses are typically self-paced.” for ease of study and testing. Correspondence Christian education has its roots in Students work through a lesson plan, reading required the letters written to the early church by early church materials either provided or purchased. Often a “study leaders. It was an attempt to teach and instruct by way guide” is included that acts much as the instructor telling of written communication. Though there were no as- the student what to read and/or clarifying the materials signments or tests, these early letters were transmitting read with additional teaching. At the end of each lesson vital informationContributor to these early churches from acknowl- or unit of study, a test is administered and returned to the edged leaders. school or ministry for grading and feedback. The first acknowledged correspondence courses for Since the rise of computer technology and Internet educational purposes began in London in 1858, when availability in the mid-1990s, this method of Christian the University of London offered degrees by correspon- education has experienced a steady decline, in part dence. In 1892, William Rainey Harper began correspon- because much of the information presented by corre- dence courses at the University of Chicago. In 1901, R. spondence Christian education can now easily be found A. Torrey started what is considered the first Christian online and in more vibrant formats. Council for Christian Colleges and Universities 347

Many of the schools and ministries that once had ro- of mission for both church life and addressing social and bust correspondence courses have moved their courses cultural needs in society. into online formats, using different online learning man- —Sadrac Meza agement tools. These courses connect the student and the instructor/grader with faster and more direct contact and communication, thus rendering the mailing of materials Council for Christian back and forth all but obsolete. Colleges and Universities

References and Resources “The Council for Christian Colleges & Universities Goetz, Gene A. 1986. The Story of Moody Bible Institute. Re- (CCCU) is an international association of intentionally vised and updated by James M. Vincent. Chicago: Moody Christ-centered colleges and universities,” which exists Press. “to advance the cause of Christ-centered higher educa- Knowles, Malcolm S. 1962. The Adult Education Program in tion and to help our institutions transform lives by faith- the United States. New York: Hold, Rinehart, and Winston. fully relating scholarship and service to biblical truth” University of London International Programmes. 2013. Our (CCCU 2013). As of 2013, the CCCU consisted of 118 History. Accessed 1 April 2013. http://www.londoninterna North American member institutions and 54 institutions tional.ac.uk/our-global-reputation/our-history. from 20 different countries in Onlyaffiliate status. Full mem- U.S. Department of Education. 2010. Title 34: Education. § 600.2 bership status requires that the institution be a four-year, Definitions. Accessed 27 March 2013. http://www.ecfr.gov. comprehensive college or university with a broad liberal —Kevin J. Mahaffy Sr. arts curriculum, and that it be located in the United States or Canada with full regional accreditation (U.S. institu- tions). Institutions must exhibit a strong commitment to Costa Rica and Christian Education Christ-centered higher education, hire only Christians for full-time faculty and administrative positions, and Costa Rica, like most Latin American countries, has a demonstrate sound finances. strong Catholic influence. The republic’s constitution Although the CCCU was officially founded in 1976 as lists Catholicism as the state’s religion. It is no surprise, theCopy Christian College Coalition, its formation followed then, that Catholic education is taught in the public and built upon several prior organized efforts within schools of Costa Rica. This form of Christian education evangelical higher education. These included the Insti- has been spread throughout the country by both the tute for Advanced Christian Studies (IFAC) in 1966, the church and the state since the 16th century. Protestant- Christian Scholar’s Review in 1970, and the Christian ism, primary as a result of non-Catholic immigrants, ar- College Consortium (CCC) in 1971. In addition to the rived in the 19th century, and since 1892, Costa Rica has desire for cooperative academic efforts, these programs had an increased presence of Evangelicalism. (especially the CCC) arose as a response to perceived “fi- During the first decades of the 20th century, evangeli- nancial, enrollment, and identity issues facing Christian cal Christian education was very important for national colleges” (Patterson 2001, 42). The Consortium (CCC) churches, such as the Central American Mission, Meth- began with 10 Christian colleges as charter members and odists, and Baptists. This was reinforced by the arrival in 2013 consisted of 13 members, the result of a deliber- of the Latin America Mission and the foundation of the ate policy by the member institutions in the mid-1970s Association of Bible Churches. The model of evangelical to limit the organization to their current number at that Christian education was practiced not only directly by time. The Consortium states that it exists to “serve the the church, but also by specific Christian private schools, cause of Christ in higher education by encouraging and reaching both the church and society at large. assisting one another in the pursuit of their respective In the last part of the 20th century Evangelicalism grew missions . . . through scholarships, conferences and ex- rapidly. This gave the Evangelical Church a well-known change programs” (CCC 2013). positionContributor in society, but also it brought about some de- The decision by the Consortium to limit its member- ficiencies in terms of commitment, discipleship, ethics, ship ultimately led to the formation of the Christian and Christian education. At the same time, there was an College Coalition. In the 1970s, Christian colleges in the increasing awareness that textbooks and written guides United States faced a growing number of threats related for Christian education coming from other contexts were to church/state issues that affected regulation and federal not the best options for Latin American culture. aid. In 1975 Gordon Werkema, the first full-time presi- The Evangelical Church in Latin America is in the pro- dent of the Consortium, proposed to that organization cess of redefining its identity and developing a theology the formation of a “Christian College Coalition” as a sub- 348 Counseling sidiary of CCC. He envisioned “a cooperative effort by action in their lives. Counseling covers a variety of situa- those interested in religiously integrated values in higher tions in which individuals feel that they need assistance, education because no one in the nation now focuses their such as family counseling, spiritual counseling, career attention on that group, certainly not from an Evangeli- counseling, individual counseling, pastoral counseling, cal Christian perspective” (Patterson 2001, 42). Werkema and grief counseling. There are professionals who study also proposed that the president of the Consortium act si- counseling as a profession and are available to the Body multaneously as the president of the CCC until the latter of Christ to assist in their spiritual walk. One of the major organization grew to a size warranting the appointment components of counseling is that what is said between of an executive associate. In September 1976, the Chris- the counselor and the client is confidential, which per- tian College Coalition held its organizational meeting, mits the client to have a sense of confidence and freedom with presidents from 26 Christian colleges in attendance, about what is communicated between the client and the including all the members of the Consortium at the time. counselor. However, the counselor does have a respon- Twelve additional institutions that were unable to attend sibility as a mandated reporter when what is communi- also committed to the organization, resulting in the char- cated constitutes harm to the client or another person. ter membership of 38 members. The Coalition formally This should be conveyed to the client at the beginning of separated from the Consortium and became an indepen- the counseling sessions. dent entity in 1981, changing its name to the Coalition There are different methods ofOnly counseling, and coun- for Christian Colleges and Universities in 1995 and to the selors choose the method that works best for their clients. Council for Christian Colleges and Universities in 1999. One of the types of counseling used by Christian coun- The CCCU provides over 100 programs and services selors was developed by Jay E. Adams, called nouthetic aimed at meeting the needs of students as well as ad- counseling. It associates sin in the individual’s life with ministration and faculty in Christian colleges and uni- the difficulties that many experience within the Body of versities. Programs include professional development Christ. As a result, the believer must use the Bible as the opportunities for institutional trustees, executive lead- source to remove the sin from his or her life, resulting in ership, and financial and development officers, as well relief from the difficulty. as faculty. Two of the more popular of these programs Within Christianity, counseling has become a vital are the Women’s Leadership Development Institute and instrument,Copy used by believers who seek to have a closer the Leadership Development Institute. Popular student spiritual walk with God. It is not unusual for believers to programs include the American Studies Program, the seek the services of a spiritual director to assist them in Los Angeles Film Studies Center, and numerous study achieving spiritual maturity in their Christian walk. The abroad programs. Further information can be found at role of the spiritual director has increased in the Body of https://www.cccu.org/about/programs_and_services. Christ. The spiritual director counsels with the individual on a regular basis to assist the believer with drawing References and Resources closer to God. Another very popular role of counseling Christian College Consortium (CCC). 2013. “Welcome to the in Christianity is premarital counseling, which is usually Christian College Consortium.” Accessed 16 April 2013. carried out by the couple’s pastor or spiritual advisor http://www.ccconsortium.org/. and covers issues that would affect the couple during the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU). 2013. marriage, such as financial, fidelity, and sexual issues and “About CCCU.” Accessed 16 April 2013. https://www.cccu raising a family. The term of premarital counseling is .org/about. usually established by the person or persons counseling Patterson, James. 2001. Shining Lights: A History of the Council the couple and can run from a week to four weeks. for Christian Colleges and Universities. Grand Rapids, MI: Family counseling is a very important part of counsel- Baker Academic. ing within the Body of Christ. Many families cope with ———. 2006. Shining Lights and Widening Horizons: A His- dysfunction within the family and want to know how to tory of the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities, resolve those situations in a way that is pleasing to God. 2001–2006Contributor. Washington, DC: Council for Christian Colleges Every family has issues that they must confront and re- and Universities. solve. Often family counseling will begin with the family’s —John Lillis pastor. The pastor will then determine if he or she is ca- pable and able to counsel with the family and for how long. It is not unusual for the pastor to undertake counseling Counseling with a family for a short time, but when longer term coun- seling is necessary, the family is referred to a therapist who Counseling is the ability of a trained individual to listen specializes in family counseling. Therefore it is important to and advise individuals about a particular course of for a pastor to have a list of counselors in the community Counter-Reformation, Educational Principles of 349 in whom the pastor has confidence and who can assist the Movable type and the increase in literacy spawned pastor when long-term counseling is needed. catechisms in the Catholic world. The Council of Trent —Candace Shields issued the Catechismus Romanus, a reference tool for pas- tors. Other catechisms were written in ways that would be more attractive to the common Catholic. For example, Counter-Reformation, a popular English-language catechism, first published in Educational Principles of 1567, addresses the same basic material arranged accord- ing to the theological virtues: faith (addressing the creed), Many Roman Catholic priests and theologians in the late hope (on prayers), and love (on the Ten Command- 15th and early 16th centuries were calling for reform of ments, the church commandments, and control of the the church. Some ultimately split off from the Roman five human senses so as to avoid sin). It also contained Catholic Church (Protestant Reformation), but others sections on the seven sacraments and on actively doing wanted reform from within. The latter is known as the justice, and the 1583 edition added a section on ceremo- Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation. It was a nies, rituals, and symbols. multifaceted movement that culminated in the Council Visual art, the lives of the saints, exposition of the of Trent (1545–1563). It addressed ecclesiastical struc- Blessed Sacrament (consecrated Body of Christ), and ture, governance, and accountability; political reform; praying the rosary were amongOnly the aspects of popular the training and lifestyles of priests and monks; spiritual devotion that served as informal religious education. renewal, including new devotional movements and reli- Protestant reformers objected to images and relics as pro- gious orders; and ultimately, general education. voking idolatry, but the Council of Trent, acknowledging Christian education started with and was most sig- that abuses had crept into popular practice, affirmed an nificantly delivered by the family. Parish priests focused earlier council’s decision that theologically the objects most of their instructional energy on educating the par- testified to the Incarnation and that in educating the ents and godparents through preaching and catechetical faithful, material reminders of scripture and the exem- lectures. Priests from the religious orders supplemented plary lives of the saints were significant aids to learning these efforts. In some places, Sunday school lessons for and commitment. children were also provided before the Council of Trent. CopyThe mystical theologians of the era opened windows In 1565, Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, for- on personal relationship with God, and the lay confra- malized a plan for Sunday Christian education lessons in ternities offered ways for common people to gather, talk, the creation of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, and pray with like-minded souls. The humanism of the or CCD. This in turn raised awareness of the need for time infused Catholic education, and Catholics were in- better education for priests and any lay catechists. vited to attend to the subjective experience of faith. The Jesuit order took the lead in developing a better education system for the priests of its order, creating Mission Evangelization and Education a network of colleges and universities. It created the Beginning in the 1520s, but rapidly increasing as the cen- Ratio Studiorum, a rulebook for making its education tury unfolded, priests and brothers undertook dangerous system uniform. It addressed behavior, daily and annual journeys to the lands that the explorers had found. Many schedules, classroom procedures, and all other aspects of of these evangelizers envisioned growing a fresh, utopian teaching and school administration. The Jesuit schools Catholic Church in these lands, unsullied by the corrup- gradually became available to lay and clerical students tion evident in the church in Europe. At first they used who were not members. In the early 17th century, the art and theater to teach; later they translated the church Ursulines began a similar school system for girls. teachings into the vernacular languages. Back in Europe, the conversion and catechetical work of the missionaries Christian Educational Content was at least partially understood as one more front in the The content of Christian education in the Middle Ages war between Catholics and Protestants. focusedContributor on supporting the ideal of Christendom or a “Christian civilization” (Elias 2002, 96), the church on References and Resources Earth as a model of and vehicle for a hoped-for eternal Elias, John L. 2002. A History of Christian Education: Prot- life with God. The content of Roman Catholic Christian estant, Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: education in the 16th century focused in large part on Krieger. fighting Protestant teachings and claims and centered Sawacki, Marianne. 1988. The Gospel in History: Portrait of a on the creed, the Ten Commandments, the seven sacra- Teaching Church; The Origins of Christian Education. New ments, and prayer. York: Paulist Press. 350 Creation, Doctrine of

Vaux, Laurence. 1583. A Catechisme or Christian Doctrine. Re- education. First, humans are created to know their Cre- print Cheatham Society, 1885. Accessed 7 May 2013. http:// ator. Theological education is a critical part of a person’s www.aloha.net/~mikesch/vaux.htm. formation. Knowledge of God shapes one’s worship and —Eileen M. Daily confession. It also shapes one’s vision of human life. Hu- mans live in a dynamic relationship with God, and it is the knowledge of God gained through this relationship Creation, Doctrine of that forms their understanding of good and evil, right and wrong. The knowledge of God transforms human God is the Creator. This is the first reality encountered understanding of the world and life in it. Second, hu- when one enters the biblical canon, and it is the presup- manity—as the image of the sovereign God—is called position for all divine revelation. There is only one God, to rule the world in ways that reflect the character of and God has no competitors. God is full of life, a life of God. Human stewardship of creation demands the kind complete actuality. God is all truth, goodness, and beauty of learning manifested in studies that encompass the fully realized. Nothing in God is left merely as potential. entirety of human life, studies that may be undertaken This vision of the divine life reaches fulfillment in the informally or formally. We must understand our place doctrine of the Trinity. Three divine Persons share one in the world, and the way humans thrive and flourish. divine essence; God is love. The Father, Son, and Holy We must also understand the worldOnly itself, and the way Spirit enjoy abundant communion. God creates in order other creatures thrive and flourish. Holistic education, to share God’s love—God’s wonderful life—with creatures including forms of education aimed at ends as diverse as so that these creatures might also enjoy God. This loving, character formation and empirical knowledge, is neces- generous, hospitable, life-giving triune God is the Creator. sary for humanity to fulfill its God-given role in creation. Creation exists dependent on the triune God. Crea- The God who knows and loves has invited His human turely existence is a gift. The doctrine of creation helps creatures to share in the knowledge and love of God, us distinguish between God, who alone necessarily ex- humanity, and the world. Education aids in the devel- ists, and the things God has made, the things that exist opment of this knowledge and these loves. Sin hinders because God has called them into existence. This distinc- successful education. Yet, God has reconciled humanity tion is aided by the Christian tradition’s insistence that to HimselfCopy in Christ. Human reconciliation with God God created ex nihilo—out of nothing. Creatures receive reestablishes the possibility of a truly holistic education. their existence, function, and purpose from God. See also Atonement; Sin. God’s creation is temporal; in time, creation grows, develops, matures, and changes. As a small picture of References and Resources God’s fullness of life, creation is active and lively. Cre- Aquinas, Thomas. 1963–1976. Summa Theologiae: Latin Text ation is also teleological—it is headed toward the goal of and English Translation, Introductions, Notes, Appendices, true worship and enjoyment of God and rightly ordered and Glossaries. 60 vols. Edited by T. Gilby and T. C. O’Brien. fellowship with God. Creation has the potential to be- New York: McGraw-Hill. come what God intends it to be. In time, God’s creatures Barth, Karl. 1958–1961. Church Dogmatics, Vols. III/1–III/4. are intended to mature by participating in and enjoying Edited by G. W. Bromiley and T. F. Torrance. Edinburgh: God’s good gifts. T&T Clark. Blocher, Henri. 1984. In the Beginning: The Opening Chapters Implications of the Doctrine of Creation of Genesis. Translated by David G. Preston. Downers Grove, for Christian Education IL: InterVarsity Press. Creation is full of potential that is realized through Gunton, Colin. 1998. The Triune Creator: A Historical and Sys- growth and maturation. Education guides human growth tematic Study. Edinburgh Studies in Constructive Theology. and maturation for the sake of enabling humans to func- Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. tion well in the world and to rule the world in ways that Webster, John. 2010. “Trinity and Creation.” International help creationContributor function as God intends. Education is suc- Journal of Systematic Theology 12: 4–19. cessful when this development and growth is aimed at the —Ryan S. Peterson ends for which God made his creatures. The root of this conviction is located in humanity’s identity as the image and likeness of God. Creativity “God made humanity in his image and in his likeness” (Gen. 1:27). Humanity’s identity as God’s image and Inserting creativity in education or creativity in schools likeness establishes the motivation for holistic Christian into a search engine will generate, depending on the cho- Creativity 351 sen phrase, between 7.5 and 11 million results in English remote consequences arising from unlikely or unexpected alone, so this short article cannot possibly do justice to the events—which, he argued, specifically measured, and subject, but it can identify some possible areas of interest. could help develop, human creativity. Within an educa- Consequently, not least in the context of Christian tional context he saw creative education as a social good education, it is important to establish on what level one that would develop self-starting, resourceful, confident, discusses creativity as a human intellectual and physical and tolerant individuals. He went further in his claims, process. There are several strands of meaning underpin- however, suggesting that creativity is the key to education ning the English verb to create. While the Hebrew con- in its fullest sense and to the solution of mankind’s most cept is centered on the work of God independent of any serious problems. Various other open-ended tests were other causal influences, there are others, such as shaping, developed in the 1960s. Particularly notable were the making, forming, inventing, causing, and begetting, to Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, in both verbal and name just a few. Consequently, inasmuch as humanity figural forms, which measured three problem-solving is constantly developing understanding in the light of abilities, scored for the total number of ideas generated new experiences, so creativity can be regarded as almost (fluency), their statistical rarity (originality), and the a defining characteristic that raises us above the animals. amount of detail they included in response to the stimu- It implies all the uniqueness of human intellect enabling lus (elaboration). mankind’s organizational and adaptive abilities that can The possibility of measuring,Only and therefore possibly be brought to the material circumstances in which we developing, creative abilities generated a variety of psy- exist. As such, it can be considered a Christian concept chometric tests designed to identify children’s creative rooted in theological understanding of the relationship potential and a remodeling, or perhaps more correctly, between God and mankind. a renaming of aspects of the curriculum in an attempt The development of the post-Christian concept that to make their education, beyond the recognized arts tends to exclude or deny the God/man relationship, and subjects, a more creative process. One example from simply stresses mankind’s ability to organize, adapt, and the United Kingdom was the rebranding of the teach- connect previously unconnected areas of experience to ing of handicraft skills in wood or metal in the 1970s as develop new insights or discoveries about the world, can “creative design,” which in turn became known as design be dated from the Renaissance period. technology.Copy All this coincided with the then-growing Creativity literature has at different times suggested popularity of child-centered approaches to schooling that creative abilities were the province of great thinkers and the demand for industrial and commercial product rather than a universal human attribute. The first real innovation as a means of sustaining national productivity attempt at an empirical study of such individual qualities and competitiveness. can perhaps be attributed to Francis Galton’s “Hereditary The exact relationship between high scores on such Genius,” published in 1869. More recently, the universal- creativity tests and measures of intelligence (IQ) is dis- ist concept of creativity being a defining human charac- puted. Some have argued that creativity and intelligence teristic has been championed across various branches of are separate and distinct abilities. Others claim that high philosophy, evolutionary anthropology, biology, sociol- intelligence, though distinct from creative thought, is a ogy, and psychology. necessary attribute for high levels of creativity; that is, In the early 20th century, the work of Graham Wallas there is a high correlation between the two but only up (who developed a model of the creative process involving to a certain threshold, when that correlation disappears. five steps or stages) and of Alfred Whitehead in the 1920s Still others argue that the cognitive processes involved are dominated public thinking about human creativity until, identical, but the consequences or outcomes are judged in 1950, the work of J. P. Guildford in America stimulated differently. interest in the measurement of human creative potential Because of the complexity of the concept and the wide (see Convergent and Divergent Thinking). It is impor- variety of definitions, whether it is possible to iden- tant to realize that Guildford does not talk of creativity tify, measure, and develop overarching creative ability as beingContributor distinct from intelligence, but as an important (however defined) in children through their schooling aspect of it. His concern was that until he began to isolate remains an open question. Some would argue that it is its specific intellectual traits, creativity had been ignored certainly possible for schools to establish the conditions in psychometric testing and so wasted potential talent. in which children can use their (innate) creative imagi- During the 1960s, Guildford developed a number nations. Others, while not decrying the potential of such of tests using open-ended questions—such as asking educative approaches, argue that they do not necessarily participants to provide original titles for stories, to sug- change, develop, or improve creative cognitive abilities or gest unusual uses for common objects, and to name behavior. In contrast, there are those who argue that the 352 Creeds very process of schooling, with its necessarily conformist it.”253 Though many of the early writings only reveal tendencies, militates against the development of creative fragmentary creedal statements, they did reflect Trinitar- abilities. Nevertheless, in recent years the numbers of ian elements that served both baptismal instruction and educational programmers claiming to provide techniques apologetics.254 Beginning with the third century, particu- for fostering creativity are legion, and these techniques larly the writing of Hippolytus (c. AD 215), more formal are often very popular, both in education and especially expressions appeared, first with the Apostles’ Creed. Sub- in the industrial sector. sequent fourth-century creeds surfaced in Nicea (325), The current interest in human creativity has developed and later in Constantinople (381), to both counter hereti- to a stage where within educational circles, for the most cal teachings (like those of Arius) and also elaborate on part, the concept has taken on the mantle of all that is the basic Trinitarian expression of the Christian faith.255 good and desirable. Nevertheless, within compulsory ed- The Apostles’ Creed defines the rudiments of the ucational systems, in which schools and teachers are held Christian faith in Trinitarian fashion: accountable for meeting often externally determined and measurable pupil outcomes, there is a counterbalancing I believe in God, the Father Almighty, Creator of Heaven need for maintaining traditional hierarchical and organi- and Earth zational structures that require high levels of conformity And in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord to function effectively. Too much creativity, it can be Who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the virgin Mary, Only argued, can be socially damaging. Suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died and was buried References and Resources He descended to Hades, on the third day rose again from Craft, Anna. 2005. Creativity in School: Tensions and Dilemmas. the dead London & New York: Routledge. He ascended into Heaven, sits at the right hand of God, the Craft, Anna, Bob Jeffrey, and Mike Leibling. 2001. Creativity in Father Almighty Education. London: Continuum International. From thence He will come to judge the living and the dead Robinson, Ken. 1999. All Our Futures: Creativity, Culture and I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy, catholic, church, the Education. National Advisory Committee on Creative and communion of saints Cultural Education. London: Department for Education & TheCopy resurrection of the dead and the life everlasting, Amen Employment. Christian educators should note the basic description of —Andrew B. Morris God the Father; the birth, passion, death, resurrection, and return of Jesus (the Gospel); and the activity of the Holy Creeds Spirit in both the creation of community and the promise of resurrection. At its core, this creed not only summarizes the Christian faith, but also provides a “rule” or “canon” of Creeds define specific, often written, confessions of faith, faith that “provides a measure or norm for Christian iden- adopted particularly during the early church period. tity, particularly how Christians should read their sacred Each creed served several purposes, including the basic writings and how they should live.”256 The creeds framed education of new and existing converts. Following E. not only Christian instruction but also formation. Glenn Hinson (1979), the creeds addressed several goals The creeds often figured prominently in the instruc- for sustaining Christian faith, including (1) instruction tion of baptismal candidates in the early church as and baptism of new converts; (2) regular worship, (3) catechesis, theology, and dogma combined to shape healing and exorcism, (4) resistance to persecutors, and seekers,257 though the intensity of this instruction waned (5) differentiation between heresy and orthodoxy.252 in later centuries.258 For instance, Bishop Cyril of Je- Christian creedal confessions most likely followed Jewish precedent, such as the Shema (Deut. 6:4–9). However, the creeds became anchored in the central scriptural phrase 253. J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, rev. ed. (New York: Harper “Jesus is Lord” (Rom. 10:9). & Row, [1960] 1978), 90. Contributor 254. Ibid., 83–108. According to J. N. D. Kelly ([1960] 1978), the early ap- 255. Luke Timothy Johnson, The Creed: What Christians Believe and ostolic fathers “appeared to be witnesses of the traditional Why It Matters (New York: Anchor Doubleday), 30–39. faith rather than interpreters striving to understand 256. Ibid., 46. 257. Marianne Sawicki, The Gospel in History: Portrait of a Teaching Church; The Origins of Christian Education (New York: Paulist Press, 1988), 125–126. 258. Maxwell E. Johnson, The Rites of Christian Initiation: Their Evo- 252. E. Glenn Hinson, “Confessions or Creeds in Early Christian Tradi- lution and Interpretation (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1989), tion,” Review & Expositor 76 (Winter 1979): 1, 5–6. 181–188. Critical Thinking 353 rusalem developed a series of 18 lectures (c. 348) that Later, Scholasticism (1100–1500) marked a period of addressed the theological topics within the Apostles’ critical thinking that used this dialectical method to Creed.259 Both the Apostles’ Creed and the Nicea/ investigate and defend the dogma and teaching of the Constantinople Creeds continue to shape systematic church. In contrast, during the Enlightenment (1650– treatments of theology and even theologies of Christian 1800), critical thinking emerged as the systematic chal- education.260 Christian educators might utilize these lenging of traditions and assumptions using reason and summative statements less as abstract statements and scientific skepticism. Because much of this inquiry and more as guiding professions of faith that unite commu- examination was directed at the church’s teaching, criti- nities of faith toward a common identity. cal thinking during this period was seen to be at odds with Christian education. References and Resources In the 20th century, following the work of Jean Piaget Hinson, E. Glenn. 1979. “Confessions or Creeds in Early Chris- and John Dewey, critical thinking became an integral part tian Tradition.” Review & Expositor 76 (Winter): 1, 5–6. of Christian pedagogy. Dewey (1910, 74) for example, Johnson, Luke Timothy. 2004. The Creed: What Christians asserted that critical thinking is “suspended judgment; Believe and Why It Matters. New York: Anchor Doubleday. and the essence of this suspense is inquiry to determine Johnson, Maxwell E. 1989. The Rites of Christian Initiation: the nature of the problem before proceeding to attempts Their Evolution and Interpretation. Collegeville, MN: The at its solution.” Following thisOnly theme of inquiry, critical Liturgical Press. thinking in Christian education was further enhanced Kelly, J. N. D. (1960) 1978. Early Christian Doctrines. rev. ed. by the insights of critical theorists, notably the Frankfurt New York: Harper & Row. School, and later educational theorists such as Paulo Mitchell, Leonel L. 1981. “The Development of Catechesis Freire, bell hooks (2010), Ira Shor (1992), Joe Kincheloe in the Third and Fourth Centuries: From Hippolytus to (2008), and Henry Giroux (2011), among others. These Augustine.” In A Faithful Church: Issues in the History of theorists came to identify critical thinking as both inte- Catechesis, edited by John H. Westerhoff and O. C. Edwards gral to the process of education and a crucial outcome of Jr., 49–78. Wilton, CT: Morehouse-Barlow. critical pedagogy. No pedagogue’s work has had more of Pazmiño, Robert. 2001. God Our Teacher: Theological Basics an impact on critical thinking in Christian pedagogy than in Christian Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. PauloCopy Freire. Most notably his works Education for Criti- Sawicki, Marianne. 1988. The Gospel in History: Portrait of a cal Consciousness ([1974] 2005) and Pedagogy of the Op- Teaching Church: The Origins of Christian Education. New pressed ([1970] 2011) laid the foundation for pedagogical York: Paulist Press. concepts in Christian education such as problem-posing —Dean Blevins education, conscientization, and dialogical education. Given this history, critical thinking in Christian peda- gogy is regarded in three distinct ways: Critical Thinking 1. Critical thinking is a skill to be learned (Vermeer “The heartbeat of critical thinking is the longing to 2012). know—to understand how life works” writes bell hooks 2. Critical thinking is an activity that involves examin- (2010, 7). Critical thinking in Christian education is the ing the lived experience of the learner (Freire [1970] reflective thought and interrogation of one’s beliefs, faith 2011). commitments, assumptions, traditions, and actions. The 3. Critical thinking is a dialectical experience among a act of critical thinking involves logic: the use of sound in- community of learners that can lead to the transfor- ductive or deductive reasoning to assess the validity and mation of the particular historical situation, similar value of beliefs, assumptions, claims, and actions. to notions of critical reflection (Groome 1980, 85). Critical thinking can be traced to the Socratic method originating in ancient Greece. This dialectical method is Today, critical thinking in Christian education reflects a discourseContributor in which individuals ask and answer ques- Henry Giroux’s (2011, 14) definition of critical pedagogy: tions to evaluate concepts, beliefs, and truth claims. it “is about more than a struggle over assigned meanings, official knowledge, and established modes of authority: it is also about encouraging students to take risks, act on 259. Leonel L. Mitchell, “The Development of Catechesis in the Third and Fourth Centuries: From Hippolytus to Augustine,” in A Faithful their sense of social responsibility, and engage the world Church: Issues in the History of Catechesis, ed. John H. Westerhoff and O. as an object of both critical analysis and hopeful trans- C. Edwards Jr. (Wilton, CT: Morehouse-Barlow Co., 1981), 55–63. 260. Robert Pazmiño, God Our Teacher: Theological Basics in Christian formation.” Following this reasoning, critical thinking in Education (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001). Christian pedagogy is a dialectical method with the pur- 354 Croatia and Christian Education pose of social and ecclesial transformation. In order to Approximately 78–100 percent of students participate in engender critical thinking and advance Christian educa- these classes (ethics lessons are an alternative). Catechesis tion, this definition invites critical inquiry and investiga- is supervised by the bishops and the National Catecheti- tion of its epistemological foundations, definitive claims, cal Office (NCO). There are also confessional religion and tacit assumptions. lessons for Muslims, Orthodox Christians, Protestants, See also Analytic Philosophy and Theology; Freire, Jews, and other denominations. These classes undergo Paulo; Pedagogy, Critical Liberative grading, and the grades appear on school reports, but they do not refer to religious practices. Curricula are References and Resources agreed with education authorities. Religion teachers have Boys, M. 1999. “Engaged Pedagogy: Dialogue and Critical a canonical mission and are school employees. Parish cat- Reflection.” Teaching Theology and Religion 2 (2): 129–136. echesis with its own syllabus and books is organized once Dewey, J. 1910. How We Think. New York: D. C. Heath. a week and is designed for children and youth. It prepares Freire, P. (1970) 2011. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 30th anniver- them for the sacraments and should introduce them into sary ed. Translated by Myra Bergman. New York: Continuum. the life of particular parishes. ———. (1974) 2005. Education for Critical Consciousness. New York: Continuum. References and Resources Giroux, H. 2011. On Critical Pedagogy. New York. Continuum. Chalupniak, Radoslaw. 2002. “KatehezaOnly w Chorwacji.” Kat- Groome, T. 1980. Christian Religious Education: Sharing Our echeta 46 (11): 65–68. Story and Vision. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Kielian, Andrzej. 2010. Modele nauczania religii rzyms- hooks, b. 2010. Teaching Critical Thinking: Practical Wisdom. kokatolickiej w krajach europejskich. Kraków: UNUM. New York: Routledge. —Radoslaw Chalupniak Kincheloe, J. 2008. Critical Pedagogy: Primer. New York: Peter Lang. Shor, I. 1992. Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for So- Cross-cultural Storytelling cial Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Vermeer, P. 2012. “Meta-concepts, Thinking Skills and Reli- During the first century AD, Jesus adopted storytelling gious Education.” British Journal of Religious Education 34 as oneCopy of the primary means through which He taught (3): 333–347. his followers about the Kingdom of God. Speaking to the —Patrick Bruner Reyes multicultural audiences of Israel, Jesus shared narratives and proverbs that were laden with spiritual insights and biblical truths. As the early church expanded geographi- Croatia and Christian Education cally, narrative continued to be a common method used to educate Christian believers. Both oral and written sto- This state, inhabited by 4.5 million people, is located in ries about the lives of the Christian saints and the expan- southern Europe in the Adriatic Sea. A former Roman sion of the church into new territories circulated widely. province for centuries, it has remained under differ- Literary works such as the Confessions of St. Augustine of ent influences. After World War II it was incorporated Hippo in the fourth century and the miracle narratives into Yugoslavia. The independence of Croatia was pro- of the Venerable Bede in the seventh–eighth centuries claimed in 1991. At present 87 percent of the inhabitants served to broaden the influence of Christianity. Narra- are Catholic; Orthodox Christians constitute about 6 tives were also a way in which Christian morality and percent, and Muslims 3 percent. Croatia is divided into beliefs were taught. Influential instructive texts include 15 dioceses and 1,533 Catholic parishes, in which 1,590 Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy, John Milton’s Paradise priests work. School religious education, introduced after Lost, and John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress. the transformation of Croatia’s political system and the Despite the great variety of stories shared throughout collapse of communist rule, is based on the Concordat Christian history, written and oral narratives frequently (1993), AgreementContributor between the Holy See and the Repub- reflect universal themes that express the common pas- lic of Croatia on Cooperation in Education and Culture sions, joys, experiences, hopes, and fears of humanity. (1996), and Executive Regulations on Religious Educa- Narrative has the ability to go beyond simply conveying tion at Public Schools and Kindergartens (1999). Religion information and instead connects directly with both peo- lessons—one to two hours weekly—are facultative and ple’s hearts and minds. The effectiveness of storytelling as confessional, treated equally with other subjects, and take a means of conveying Christian truth is its innate ability place in all types of public schools. The decision to at- to kindle curiosity, encourage recollection, and unite the tend them is made by parents or by students over age 14. audience together through its shared experience. Crusades, Educational Influence of the 355

Although in recent decades storytelling has been of intellectual, cultural, political, and economic revival, overshadowed by systematic theology, scholars have driven in part by the Crusades, the “Holy Wars” that increasingly discovered the value of narrative. In current would ultimately lead to the European Renaissance.261 theological education, the method of conveying theol- These Holy Wars were launched by the churches and ogy through story is often referred to as narrative or oral kingdoms of Europe against the expansion of Islam by theology. Texts such as Why Narrative: Readings in Nar- the Muslims of the Middle East. The purpose of the cru- rative Theology (1997), by Stanley Hauerwas and L. Greg- sades was initially to release the Holy Land, in particular ory Jones, and Narrative Reading, Narrative Preaching the city of Jerusalem, from Muslim possession, but in (2003), edited by Joel Green and Michael Pasquarello, re- time they extended to Spain, Eastern Europe, and the flect this returning interest in story. Whether it is through islands of the Mediterranean. A total of nine Crusades biblical narrative, life stories, or community stories, occurred from 1095 through 1291. The Crusades led to narrative theologians deem all stories possible sources enlightenment and an awakening in Europe that was not of knowledge about the nature, actions, and purposes of present since the fall of Rome.262 God. The key assumptions of narrative theology are that During the period of the Crusades, Europe witnessed (1) the focus of biblical narrative is God, (2) scripture the revival of the arts and literature to a level that has should be viewed both holistically and independently, (3) been compared to the Renaissance of the later medieval narrative penetrates and influences the real world, (4) the period.263 Until the 12th centuryOnly there had been little narrative’s message cannot be separated from the narra- contact in education between the Latin West and the tive itself, (5) narratives have cyclical interpretations, and Eastern Arabic cultures. As the crusaders returned from (6) God still speaks through biblical narrative. the East, they carried with them both an expanded view Oral theology is similarly experiencing a revival in of the natural world as well as a philosophical view- educational circles. Particularly in non-Western cul- point different from their own. The Crusades began to tures, the practice of verbally conveying theological turn perspectives away from local conflicts to expanded principles through narrative continues to be a common thought regarding a foreign, “heathen” culture that was mode of evangelistic communication. In The New Faces far superior to that of the Western mind of the 11th cen- of Christianity: Believing the Bible in the Global South tury.264 With the influence from the East, advances in art, (2008), Philip Jenkins notes numerous examples of oral architecture,Copy poetry, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, theology expressed creatively in Christian communi- theology, and so forth began to spread across continental ties worldwide. Whether conveyed through story, song, Europe. With this newfound knowledge from the East, drama, proverbs, poetry, or sermons, this contemporary universities were established emphasizing education that reintroduction of storytelling is doing much to revital- included ancient authors such as Ptolemy, Aristotle, Eu- ize global Christianity. clid, Archimedes, and others. These centers of learning were established in Salerno, Paris, Montpellier, Toulouse, References and Resources Naples, Bologna, Salamanca, Oxford, and Cambridge.265 Koehler, Paul. 2010. Telling God’s Stories with Power: Biblical One of the major contributions from the East was Storytelling in Oral Cultures. Pasadena, CA: William Carey the Arabic translations of ancient texts in philosophy, Library. mathematics, and science. The contribution of Greek Steffen, Tom A. 2006. Reconnecting God’s Story to Ministry: learning transmitted through Arabic culture to Euro- Cross-cultural Storytelling at Home and Abroad. Downers pean education was almost incalculable. In Arabic cul- Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ture there had been a strong emphasis on the translation Stroup, George W. 1997. The Promise of Narrative Theology: of original Greek, Syriac, and Hebrew texts. In the ninth Recovering the Gospel in the Church. Eugene, OR: Wipf & century, Ptolemy’s Almagest (an influential work in the Stock. area of astronomy) and Euclid’s Elements (a leading —Sarita D. Gallagher work in mathematics) were first translated into Ara- Contributor bic. By the 12th century, both works appeared in Latin Crusades, Educational Influence of the 261. Brenda Stalcup, Introduction to The Crusades, ed. Brenda Stalcup (San Diego: Greenhaven, 2000), 11. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century, 262. Williston Walker, A History of the Christian Church (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1970), 224. Europe collapsed into a period known as the “Dark 263. Hywel Williams, A History of the Middle Ages: Power and Pag- Ages.” The majority of the population of Europe lived eantry, 950–1450 (New York: Metro, 2011), 84. 264. Lewis Joseph Sherrill, The Rise of Christian Education (New York: in ignorance and poverty. By the 11th century, the Dark Macmillan, 1944), 256. Ages were approaching an end as Europe entered an era 265. Williams, History of the Middle Ages, 84. 356 Cuba and Christian Education translations. These works would revolutionize Western is reflected in science, mathematics, philosophy, and thought in mathematics and astronomy. In science, it theology today. During the Crusades, the West was was the Arabic translations of Aristotle’s Physics, Meteo- introduced to the education of the East. This interac- rology, and De Caelo that revolutionized Western think- tion would profoundly change the educational system ing regarding the natural world. In medicine, it was of Europe and ultimately lead to scholasticism and the the translations by Arabic doctors of the ancient Greek European Renaissance. literature from Galen and Hippocrates that transformed medical practice in Europe.266 References and Resources In addition to the Arabic translations, another major Asbridge, Thomas S. 2010. The Crusades: The Authoritative impact of the Crusades on education was the Arabic in- History of the War for the Holy Land. New York: Ecco Press. fluence on the quadrivium, part of the seven liberal arts Gonzalez, Justo L. 1999. The Story of Christianity. Montreal, that comprised the education of the medieval period. Canada: Prince Press. The impact of this expansion on geometry, arithmetic, Sherrill, Lewis J. 1944. The Rise of Christian Education. New astronomy, and music can be seen in the terms borrowed York: Macmillan. from Arabic that are still used in the Western world, such Stalcup, Brenda. 2000. The Crusades. San Diego: Greenhaven as algebra, zero, and cipher in mathematics, as well as Press. almanac, zenith, and nadir. In Western cultures, Arabic Tyerman, Christopher. 2006. God’s War:Only A New History of the numerals (i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) are used instead of Roman Crusades. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. numerals (i.e., I, II, III, IV, etc.) in mathematics. In the Walker, Williston. 1970. A History of the Christian Church. field of chemistry, words such as camphor, benzene, al- New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. cohol, alkali, soda, and borax come from Arabic sources. Williams, Hywel. 2011. A History of the Middle Ages: Power and These terms are merely a representative sample of those Pageantry, 950–1450. New York: Metro. used today in the fields of agriculture, trades/crafts, and —Andrew Burggraff science.267 In addition, various Arabic works influenced the development of European schools. In the field of science, the Book of Optics by Alhazen became a foun- Cuba and Christian Education dational work that influenced Roger Bacon. In chemis- Copy try, a series of Arabic textbooks on alchemy influenced Roman Catholicism was the only official religion in Cuba European thought for centuries. In medicine, Ibn Sina’s until after the end of the Spanish-American war in 1898. Canon of Medicine remained a standard textbook in Eu- The United States then occupied this Caribbean island rope until the 17th century.268 for four years, until Cuba became an independent coun- As the East collided with the West during the Cru- try in 1902. During those years many Protestant groups sades, philosophical and theological understandings were from the United States arrived to minister in Cuba. Dif- also challenged and expanded. With the Arabic transla- ferent Protestant denominations focused on different tions of Aristotle’s works by Averroes, the West was geographical areas. Consequently, Protestantism in Cuba introduced to classical Greek thought by one of the grew considerably during the first half of the 20th cen- world’s best known philosophers. Averroes’s translation tury, and many denominations established schools and of, and commentary on, Aristotle’s works led to the de- seminaries throughout the island. velopment of scholasticism in Europe. By the end of the In 1959, Fidel Castro’s guerrilla movement defeated 12th century, Aristotelian logic had been absorbed into the government of Fulgencio Batista and took control of European thought and influenced the great medieval the country. In 1961, Castro declared Cuba a communist theologian/philosopher Thomas Aquinas. The introduc- country and established a close relationship with the tion of Aristotelian philosophy gave rise to a great deal USSR. During this time hundreds of thousand of Cubans of philosophical and theological activity throughout the left the island, including most prominent Protestant lead- medieval period.269 ers. At the same time foreign missionaries were expelled, The CrusadesContributor had a profound impact on the educa- the Cuban government nationalized all schools run by re- tional curricula of the Middle Ages, and this influence ligious institutions with the exception of the seminaries, and denominations with close ties to the United States 266. Ibid., 89–90. struggled to survive. 267. Martin Erbstosser, “An Influx of Knowledge from the East,” in The Crusades, ed. Stalcup, 144; and Williams, Middle Ages, History of the After a long period of hardship for believers in Cuba, Middle Ages, 89. since 1985 their relationship with the government has 268. Erbstosser, “Influx of Knowledge,” 149. 269. Justo L. Gonzalez, 2010. The Story of Christianity (New York: been slowly improving. In the early 1990s, Protestantism HarperOne), 300. in Cuba experienced unprecedented growth, and this Cully, Iris 357 spiritual awakening has spread to all regions and affected While raising her daughters, Melissa and Patience, and all denominations, especially the Pentecostals and the supporting her husband’s pastoral ministry, Iris pub- Baptists. The house-church movement is a major factor lished church-ministry-related articles and curriculum, in church growth in Cuba, and nearly every local church and she and her husband coauthored their first book, sponsors house-churches led by lay leaders. Two Seasons: Advent and Lent (1954). Through a joint Cubans value education, and Christian education has program of Garrett Theological Seminary and North- become a major priority for Protestantism. One-to-one western University, Iris received her bachelor of divinity discipleship is an essential component of Christian edu- degree (1954) and PhD (1955), the first woman to receive cation, and new believers are carefully walked through a doctorate in religion from Northwestern University. the main tenets of the Christian life. The main challenge Iris’s introduction to neo-orthodox theology while at for Christian churches is to keep up with the growth Northwestern provoked new questions and insights, and to disciple new believers. Although external circum- influencing her move toward a new theoretical paradigm stances are difficult, these are the best times for Christi- and related curriculum for Christian education. anity in Cuba. From 1955 to 1964, Iris taught part-time at Garrett —Octavio Javier Esqueda Theological Seminary, Chicago Lutheran Seminary, Ken- dall College, the Baptist Missionary Training School, and Northwestern University’s eveningOnly school. When the Cully, Iris Cullys returned to New York in 1964, Iris taught one day a week at Yale, Drew, Union, and New York University. Iris Cully (1914–2010) was an American educator whose In 1965, Iris accepted a full-time position as associate pioneering leadership, extensive teaching and publica- professor of religious education, the first woman granted tions, progressive theory of Christian education, and faculty status at Yale Divinity School. prominent expansive scholarship advanced the field dur- When New York Seminary closed its academic pro- ing the 20th century. grams in 1970, the Cullys moved to Vermont, where together they founded the Review of Books and Religion Early Background and Education in 1971. The publication continued as Books and Religion Iris was born on 12 September 1914 in Brooklyn, New untilCopy 1992. While living in Vermont in the early 1970s, York, and baptized as an infant at the New York Avenue Iris also taught courses at St. Michael’s University, Ver- Methodist Episcopal Church, where she enjoyed Sun- mont; Meinrad Seminary, Kentucky; Fordham Univer- day school as a young child. Her parents did not attend sity, New York; and LaSalle College, Philadelphia. church, despite their descent from a Scottish Presbyterian In the 1970s, Iris filled key leadership roles in the field family (father) and a German-Irish Roman Catholic fam- of religious education: vice president of the Religious ily (mother). They did, however, play a very influential Education Association, 1972–1973; the first woman pres- role in her vocation as a Christian religious educator by ident of the REA, 1973–1974; member of the REA board encouraging Iris to write, and by sending her, the first as well as the REA journal advisory board, 1975–1979; woman on either side of the family, to college. serving on the Association of Theological Schools fac- Iris attributed her passion for Christian education to ulty grants committee, 1977–1979; and ATS curriculum personal spiritual experiences in the church, her eighth- workshop leader for seminary faculty, 1980. grade public schoolteacher, and a Sunday school teacher In 1976, after four months as a visiting professor, Iris at the Methodist church, as well as books she read dur- accepted an invitation to serve as the Alexander Camp- ing adolescence on philosophy and religion. In response bell Hopkins Professor of Religious Pedagogy at Lexing- to the unexpected death of a friend during college, Iris ton Theological Seminary, the first woman on the faculty changed her career plans. Rather than become a high of any Disciples school. She remained at LTS until her re- school English teacher, she embraced a vocation as a tirement in 1985. Iris was active in the Episcopal Church Christian educator. Following graduation from Adelphi and a devoted member of the Society of the Companions CollegeContributor in New York, Iris completed a master’s degree of the Holy Cross until her death on 24 February 2010. at Hartford Seminary Foundation School of Religious Education in 1937. She then served as secretary and Significant Contributions to Christian Education director of religious education at Hollis Presbyterian By her example and voice, Iris prominently advanced Church. In 1939, Iris married Kendig Brubaker Cully, the leadership opportunities for women in theologi- a Hartford Seminary PhD graduate and minister in the cal education. In addition to her role as professor Congregational Church. and writer, Iris had a profound influence through her 358 Cully, Kendig publications, which included 30 books, more than 140 Cully, Kendig articles, more than 40 curriculum publications, several audio and video presentations, 117 book reviews, and at Kendig Brubaker Cully (1913–1987) was born in Millers- least 9 published editorials. ville, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Most of his early Through her teaching and publications, Iris shaped years were spent in Meyerstown, Pennsylvania. He grew Christian education theory and practice in child de- up under the influence of a Presbyterian father, a Method- velopment, spiritual growth, teaching methodology, ist mother, and an evangelical church, which later identi- resources for understanding and teaching scripture, fied itself as the Evangelical United Brethren church. Later educational leadership, and educational program de- he pastored a Congregational church but with an Anglican velopment. The life-centered theory that Iris pioneered flavor, served as a minister of education at a Methodist through her PhD dissertation, published in Dynamics church, and was instrumental in launching a master’s of Christian Education (1958), underlies various aspects degree program in religious education at an Episcopal of her teaching and research and was perhaps her most school. This landscape plays a role in his ecumenical focus, extraordinary and pivotal scholarly contribution to the evident in the book he edited, Does the Church Know How field of Christian education. to Teach? An Ecumenical Inquiry (1970). The life-centered theory advanced the field of Chris- Another formative experience visible through a career tian education by wedding theistic theology with progres- change was his love for journalism,Only although he majored sive educational philosophy and methods. Iris looked in English at the American International College in to neo-orthodox theology, with particular attention to Springfield, Massachusetts. During these college years he kerygma—the proclamation of divine action rather than worked proofing and editing newspaper articles. Also, in the Didache, the written teachings of the apostles—as early pastoring (1949–1951), he served as the Massachu- the source and framework of her theory and method setts correspondent for The Christian Century. of Christian education. Christian nurture based on the Cully’s theological training came from two institu- Didache meant alignment with theological propositional tions. First, he earned an MRE (1938) and a PhD (1939) prescriptions, whereas Christian nurture grounded in from Hartford Theological Seminary. He also earned a the proclamation meant existential encounter with God master of sacred theology degree from Seabury-Western according to the good news of God’s redemptive and rec- TheologicalCopy Seminary (1953) and started teaching. He onciling activity in history. Teaching based on the proc- was also ordained into the Episcopal priesthood at the lamation focused on the living God who is encountered Church of St. John the Evangelist in St. Paul, Minnesota, in life, thus requiring life-centered methods that included in 1955, and was attracted to Barthian neo-orthodoxy, participation, recognition, and communication. with a focus on biblical theology (Warner 1998–2012). From this profile of education and work, Sharon War- Most Notable Publications ner (1998–2012) identifies three major career changes The Bible in Christian Education. 1995. Minneapolis, MN: in Cully’s lifetime: pastorate, teaching, and publishing. Fortress Press. Although his curriculum vitae demonstrates that he The Dynamics of Christian Education. 1958. Philadelphia: was involved somewhat in all three activities simultane- Westminster Press. ously, there were major shifts that characterized certain Education for Spiritual Growth. 1984. San Francisco: Harper eras of his life. In his early years one observes pastorate & Row. and Christian education in a church. Then, with proper Harper’s Encyclopedia of Religious Education. 1990. San Fran- teaching credentials he taught religious education at Ken- cisco: Harper & Row. (Coedited with Kendig Brubaker dall College (1952–1955) and later at Seabury-Western Cully.) as professor of religious education and director of the master of arts program, where he remained until 1964. References and Resources His next teaching endeavor took place at New York Mercer, Joyce Ann. 1997. “Imparting the Word.” In Faith of Theological Seminary, where he functioned as a dean Our Foremothers:Contributor Women Changing Religious Education, (1965–1971). From the outset, one observes the expo- edited by Barbara Anne Keeley, 139–154. Louisville, KY: sure of his teaching to other institutions such as Bethany Westminster John Knox Press. Theological Seminary, Lutheran School of Theology Mercer, Joyce Ann. n.d. “Iris V. Cully,” Talbot School of Theol- (Chicago), and Union Theological Seminary (New York) ogy: Christian Educators of the 20th Century. http://www2. (Cully 1956, 11) and later as a visiting professor at the talbot.edu/ce20/educators/view.cfm?n=iris_cully. Episcopal Theological Seminary in Lexington, Kentucky, —Beverly C. Johnson-Miller from 1976 to 1980 (Warner 1998–2012). Cultural Anthropology and Christian Education 359

His religious publishing occurred soon after he left Cultural Anthropology New York Theological Seminary in 1971. As if life were and Christian Education coming full circle, his passion for journalism flowered again. With his life companion and academic partner, Cultural anthropology and Christian education share a Iris Cully, he founded Review of Books and Religion, “a mutually enriching relationship. The former studies the journal that would bridge the gulf between new books human subject in the milieu of its lived experience. As and their potential readers” (Warner 1998–2012). Their an embodied, social, and meaning-seeking being, the goal was to help laypeople and professionals in the selec- subject of cultural anthropology is a dynamic, creative, tion of resources to advance their ministries. In 1976, this and transformational agent. Embedded within culture, publication changed its name to New Review of Books the subject is shaped by the culture and in turn shapes and Religion, and by 1984 it was housed in Duke Divinity the culture. Christian education draws from its own pre- School as Books & Religion Shortly after he retired and suppositions concerning the human. Couched in what moved to Pilgrim Place in Claremont, California, in 1985, could be called the Hebrews’ notion of a sacred ontology, he died of complications from lung cancer, on 29 March the subject of Christian education finds its purpose for 1987m at the age of 73 (Warner 1998–2012). being in a shared covenant with the Almighty, a cov- Cully’s contributions to Christian education endorse enant that is initially sealed with the gift to the creature his ministerial role, teaching, writing, and editing. Their of the Creator’s own image. Thus,Only the anthropologist is scope is seen in works such as Westminster Studies in concerned with lived experience as a way of deepening Christian Communication (1962) and the Westminster the relationship between the subject and its environ- Dictionary of Christian Education (1963). For the acad- ment, while the Christian educator is concerned with the emy he edited works such as Basic Writings in Christian subject’s proper appropriation of the Christian tradition Education (1960) and Confirmation: History, Doctrine, for the sake of its proper practice and subsequent trans- and Practice (1962). After concluding the Westminster mission. Though distinct in both aim and method, both dictionary he envisioned yet another volume, published enterprises endeavor to enrich the lived experience of the with coeditor Iris Cully three years after his death: human subject. Harper’s Encyclopedia of Religious Education (1990). Christianity, from the outset, has asserted itself as a She recognized this work as “the crowning achievement forceCopy for the transformation of both the human and the of more than thirty-five years of writing and editorial culture. Early on in his ministry, Jesus promises to trans- work” (1990, xxiii). form fishermen into “fishers of men,” an indication of Kendig B. Cully envisioned a religious education his intent to shift the priorities of the culture in the eyes rooted theologically and connected historically, and as of His followers (Matt. 1:19). Yet Jesus, like His disciples, such moving beyond “a how-to-do-it laboratory” and was a product of his cultural milieu. He was a devout helping “to recover the teaching ministry of the church Jew who valued the traditions that shaped the Judaism in its fullness” (1965, 174–175). In The Search for a of His time. He spoke in the language of His parents and Christian Education—Since 1940 (1965), he exposed the shared the indignation of His people toward Roman rule. plurality of voices, and in Does the Church Know How to He was a man striving to grapple with what it meant to Teach? An ecumenical Inquiry (1970), he promoted a dia- be human in the midst of tremendous existential angst. logue. One might say he accomplished his mission in life. Thus, implicitly, Christian history emerges out of a deep engagement of the movement’s leaders with the forces of References and Resources their respective cultures. Cully, Iris V., and Kending Brubaker Cully, eds. 1990. Harper’s Yet Jesus often clashed with the culture. His efforts at Encyclopedia of Religious Education. San Francisco, CA: religious education exposed the presence of social struc- Harper & Row. tures, which would resist Him to the death. Later on, the Cully, Kendig Brubaker. 1956. The Search for a Christian Edu- apostle Paul would express his own concerns about the cation—Since 1940. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. proper relationship between his faith and the culture of ———, ed.Contributor 1970. Does the Church Know How to Teach? An Ecu- his time. He praises God for delivering him from this menical Inquiry. New York: Macmillan. world of evil (Gal. 1:4). Paul Tillich’s words are very apt Warner, Sharon. 1998–2012. “Kendig B. Cully.” In Christian here when he articulates what he calls “the problem” Educators of the 20th Century. Accessed 8 November 2012. of Christian education, or what he terms “The Church www.talbot.edu/ce20. School”: “The problem of the Church School is more —Regina Steibel than the problem of a particular educational aim. It is the 360 Cultural Anthropology and Christian Education problem of the relation of Christianity and culture gener- the human as a cultural subject helps to deconstruct and ally and Christianity and education especially.”270 reimagine traditional Christian notions of the human. The contemporary debate concerning the relationship Finally, cultural anthropology informs Christian educa- between cultural anthropology and Christian educa- tion by helping to raise the latter’s potential for the emanci- tion properly speaking has its roots in the theological pation of the human. The emancipation motif is sustained movements of the 20th century. According to Mary C. only when the Christian educator and the anthropolo- Boys, “It was the neo-orthodox interpretation of the gist are talking to each other. Historically, education has human situation that established the contours of Chris- shown its potential for oppression and occlusion. Paulo tian education.”271 However, with theology no longer Freire makes that point clear in his renowned Pedagogy of viewed as the “clue” to religious education, as Randolph the Oppressed. Christian education is particularly culpable, Crump Miller used to insist, room was created for Chris- as it has served as a tool of oppression by king and priest tian educators to appropriate the tools of the social sci- alike. The consequence of an emancipatory motif is that ences, including cultural anthropology and sociology.272 it exposes the power structures that are active within the Cultural anthropology informs Christian education culture, at both the educative and religious levels, stripping at least in the following three ways. First, it offers them of their sanctimony, and freeing the subject to a life a deep understanding of culture. Writes Charles H. of self-fulfillment within both the culture and the church. Kraft in “Cultural Anthropology: Its Meaning for Chris- Yet, as Freire also makes clear, “‘education,’ especially Only275 tian Theology”: “Any discipline that seeks to deal with Christian education, [is] the practice of freedom.” human beings needs the sharpest insights possible into Much more could be written about the relationship the nature and workings of that within which humans between cultural anthropology and Christian education. “live and move and have their being’—culture.”273 Such Let it be noted that the relationship is mutual. Christian understanding, according to Kraft, is significant for at education informs anthropology in diverse ways. Cer- least three reasons: (a) a deep understanding of culture tainly, the biblical tradition’s insistence on a divinely enriches the interactions between the Christian educator ordained human ontology stands as a strong corrective and the biblical texts and enhances the interpretative act; to the humanist agenda of the anthropological enterprise, (b) it facilitates the application of “theological insights” to as Barth’s neo-orthodox theology would insist. Cultural the educator’s own culture; and (c) it enhances the educa- anthropology’sCopy gift to Christian education consists of a tor’s own self-understanding.274 In essence, if the educa- deepened understanding of the human as an agent who tor’s self-understanding includes a robust engagement participates in and is shaped by cultural forces, which are with the cultural element, he or she might be more likely distinct from culture to culture and from time to time. to appreciate the cultural located-ness of others. Centu- Christian education’s nature as a theologically oriented ries of colonial oppression bear witness to the destructive and transformational enterprise finds in the anthropolo- and demonic effects of an uncritical approach to the gist a dialogue partner whose insights into the human human as a cultural agent. Cultural anthropology’s con- prove indispensable for the effective transmission of the cern for the integrity of the human impresses upon the Christian faith across both generations and cultures. Let Christian educator the imperative of leveling the playing Christian educators heed Josiah Royce’s warning in The field by relativizing cultural location, helping to expose Problem of Christianity: “And so, when a religion loses the cultural biases active in the biblical texts themselves. touch with human needs, it dies.”276 A deeper understanding of the self in light of one’s own culture translates into a more nuanced and in- References and Resources formed notion of the human. An enriched notion of the Boys, Mary C. 1989. Educating in Faith. Lima, OH: Academic self constitutes anthropology’s second gift to Christian Renewal Press. education. At this level, Christian education benefits Freire, Paulo. 1984. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: from research in ethnography, linguistics, feminist and Continuum. critical theory, and gender studies. An understanding of Kraft, Charles H. 1985. “Cultural Anthropology: Its Meaning Contributor for Christian Theology.” Theology Today 41 (4): 390–400. Royce, Josiah. 1968. The Problem of Christianity. Vol. 1. Chi- 270. Paul Tillich, Theology of Culture (London: Oxford University press, cago: Gateway. 1959), 156. —Emmanuel Buteau 271. Mary C. Boys, Educating in Faith (Lima, Ohio: Academic Renewal Press, 1989), 74. 272. Ibid., 129. 275. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Continuum, 273. Charles H. Kraft, “Cultural Anthropology: Its Meaning for Chris- 1984), 69. tian Theology,” Theology Today 41 no 4 (1985): 394. 276. Josiah Royce, The Problem of Christianity (Chicago: Gateway, 274. Ibid. 1968), 1:387. Culture 361

Cultural Influences in individual; rather, the conception is that the individual Educating Christians cannot be understood apart from his or her place in the community. From the postmodern perspective, Christian The importance of understanding cultural influence in communities that are open to diversity will be more at- educating Christians should never be underestimated. tractive to the postmodern sensibility, whereas commu- The better one understands contemporary culture, the nities that strive to be homogeneous will close themselves more effective one will be as a Christian educator. At the off from the diversity that is inherent in postmodern heart of any culture lie meanings, values, and a particular thought and way of life. pattern of thinking and behaving. Contemporary culture Many commentators on Christian faith and culture shapes the meaning systems and values of people. Thus, point to the importance of enabling people, and young when cultural change occurs, people’s meanings, values, people in particular, to engage in cultural discernment, and ways of behaving change. This is especially true in the critique, and analysis, by providing them with skills case of the younger generation, and it offers a significant whereby they can reflect on and critically examine challenge to those involved in the ministry of Christian the culture in which they are immersed. Furthermore, education, not only for the young but for all age groups. there is need for explicit Gospel-rooted discernment of The “developed” world has witnessed an unforeseen, culture in religious education classes and in parish or profound, and accelerating economic, social, and cultural congregational youth groups. OnlyIf religious education or shift during the past few decades. Economic change al- youth ministry is to be relevant to the lives of today’s ways leads to social change, and this in turn brings about adolescents, it must take seriously the issue of Gospel- cultural change. Economic and social changes occur at rooted cultural discernment. the level of observable data, whereas cultural change oc- The manner in which people experience reality is curs in a covert manner, beneath the surface of what can culture-bound, and any Christian educational endeavor be easily measured. Cultural change concerns meaning that does not take account of the contemporary cultural and values, and it is this type of paradigm shift that affects milieu in which all age groups are immersed is destined religious belief and practice, presenting a new challenge to be less than adequate. The relationship between reli- to one’s inherited understanding and approach to Chris- gious nurture and religious education needs to be recon- tian education. sideredCopy and the two aims of religious education taken Since culture constitutes a total context that shapes into account—namely, formation in the faith (religious each person, how then can the culture of the present time nurture) and the academic understanding of religion be best described? There is general agreement among (religious studies). philosophers, sociologists, anthropologists, and educa- tors that contemporary culture can be most accurately References and Resources labeled postmodern. Brennan, Oliver, ed. 2005. Critical Issues in Religious Education. The culture of postmodernity presents both chal- Dublin: Veritas Publications. lenges and new opportunities for Christian education. Sweet, Leonard. 1999. Soul Tsunami—Sink or Swim in the New While there is a rejection of absolutes and at best an Millennial Culture. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. indifference toward institutionalized religion, especially ———. 2000. Post-Modern Pilgrims—First Century Passion for among the rising generation, there is, on the other hand, the 21st Century World. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. a new openness to interactive community and to the —Oliver V. Brennan spiritual as a reaction to the rationality and individual- ism of modernity. The renewed openness to the spiritual dimension of Culture life, in whatever form it takes, provides an opportunity for Christian religious educators to build on an existing The Cultural Mandate foundation. The search for wholeness and for meaning- As H. Richard Niebuhr explains, “Culture is the ‘artificial, ful spirituality offers the possibility of dialogue with the secondary environment’ which man superimposes on the Contributor 277 Christian story in its institutionalized, symbolic, and natural.” Humans are called to be stewards of the rest of liturgical expression. creation (Gen. 1: 28), tasked with developing nature into One feature of the philosophy of postmodernity that culture to serve human needs (Gen. 2:15). This cultural augurs well for a community-based religious faith is the mandate is made more difficult by sin (Gen. 3:17–19). nonindividualistic attitude that is replacing the individu- alism of modernity. This renewed sense of the impor- 277. H. Richard Niebuhr, Christ and Culture (New York: Harper & Row, tance of community does not deny the significance of the 1956), 32. 362 Culture

We are tempted into cultural idolatry, worshipping the accommodationist approach to education: progressive works of our own minds (Gen. 11:1–9; Rom. 1:22–25). ideologies like higher criticism, Darwinism, and post- modern relativism283 are embraced. Yet the foundation of Christ’s Twofold Call the Gospel may be lost: miracles, original sin, and objec- The proper Christian response to culture is also compli- tive truth are rejected as outmoded. The danger is nullify- cated by the duality of Christ’s Lordship. In his vertical ing the Word of God for the sake of human intellectual relation with the Father, Christ points away from this tradition (Matt. 15:1–9). world to our eternal destiny (Heb. 11:13–16). Yet in The three more complex models all recognize the de- his horizontal relation with humanity, Christ calls us to mands of both Christ and culture. They affirm both the remain in our station (1 Cor. 7:20), so that we can love vertical and the horizontal call of Christ. and serve our neighbor. We are not to be of the world The “Christ above Culture” model (e.g., Aquinas) says (heaven is our home), and yet we are to remain in the that grace completes nature. This encourages the synthe- world (John 17:14–18). sis of Christian theology with the world’s best ideas (e.g., Christian Aristotelianism, theistic evolution). The advan- Christ and Culture in Education tage is a comprehensive, coherent Christian worldview Both culture and Christ make demands, and as H. Rich- with great philosophical power. A possible disadvantage ard Niebuhr argued, several different models have been is the illusion that the works ofOnly fallible, finite human proposed to help determine the proper Christian re- minds have the same authority as the Word of God. Such sponse.278 The model one accepts makes a huge difference an intellectual marriage is destined to divorce when the to how the task of Christian education is conceived.279 shortcomings of those works are exposed. The two simplest models accent either the demands The “Christ the Transformer of Culture” model (e.g., of Christ or the demands of culture. The “Christ against Calvin, F. D. Maurice) emphasizes the effect of sin on Culture” approach (e.g., Tertullian, Tolstoy, and the our intellectual faculties. Yet it is optimistic that not only Mennonites) emphasizes Christ’s vertical call away from individuals but cultural institutions can be redeemed for culture. This encourages a separatist approach to educa- Christ. There is an emphasis on Christian education (e.g., tion: the world’s ideas are perceived as a threat to our Christian politics and science). The advantage is that stu- allegiance to Christ. Institutionally, this may lead to dentsCopy critically engage the world’s ideas from a Christian defection from mainstream education and parallel educa- perspective. A disadvantage may be overestimating the tional institutions. The separatist may make an authentic ability of fallen humanity to reclaim the world. protest against God-denying ideologies (Col. 2:8).280 Yet The “Christ and Culture in Paradox” model (e.g., Lu- this fails to engage these ideologies and abandons the ther) says that the new man of faith is at war with the neighbor in mainstream education to their influence.281 old sinful nature (Rom. 7:15–25).284 Only Christ’s work is Proponents of “Christ of Culture” (e.g., Abélard, Ernst redemptive, so we cannot hope to redeem the academic Troeltsch, the emerging church282) emphasize Christ’s world. Yet, standing on the Word of God, we can pursue horizontal call into the world and understand Christ as a critical dialogue with the world’s ideas in order to har- the trajectory of the best in culture. This encourages an vest insights for serving our neighbor’s temporal needs.285 The advantage is a combination of full engagement with 278. For an evaluation of Niebhur’s methodology, see Angus Menuge, the world’s ideas while maintaining critical distance. No ed., Christ and Culture in Dialogue (St. Louis, MO: Concordia Academic Press, 1999); and Donald A. Carson, Christ and Culture Revisited (Grand theory is off limits for discussion, and yet none should Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012). supplant Christ or his Word (Ps. 146:3; Matt. 24:35). A dis- 279. For an excellent study of Christian institutions of higher learning advantage may be fence-sitting and intellectual quietism. that have kept the faith with their tradition, see Robert Benne, Quality with Soul: How Six Premier Colleges and Universities Keep Faith with Their Religious Traditions (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001). Helpful guidance References and Resources for the individual Christian academic is provided by Richard T. Hughes, The Benne, Robert. 2001. Quality with Soul: How Six Premier Col- Vocation of Christian Scholar: How Christian Faith Can Sustain the Life of the Mind, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005); and Mark A. Noll, leges and Universities Keep Faith with Their Religious Tradi- Jesus Christ and the Life of the Mind (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2011). tions. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. 280. A strongContributor defense of a nuanced form of separatism is provided by John Howard Yoder’s “How H. Richard Niebuhr Reasoned,” in Authentic Transformation: A New Vision of Christ and Culture, by Glenn H. Stassen, D. 283. See Gene Edward Veith, Postmodern Times (Wheaton, IL: Crossway M. Yeager, and John Howard Yoder (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1996). Books, 1994). 281. For a powerful critique of academic separatism, see Mark A. Noll, 284. This model is intimately bound up with the Lutheran doctrines of The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1995). vocation and the Two Kingdoms. See Gustaf Wingren, Luther on Vocation 282. A sympathetic yet critical evaluation of the emerging church (Evansville, IN: Ballast Press, 1999). is found in R. Scott Smith, Truth and the New Kind of Christian: The 285. This ideal of Christian education is developed at length in Gene Emerging Effects of Postmodernism in the Church (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Edward Veith, Loving God With All Your Mind: Thinking as a Christian Books, 2005). in the Postmodern World, 2nd ed. (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 2003). Culture and Learning 363

Carson, Donald A. 2012. Christ and Culture Revisited. Grand b. Relationships and similarities vs. rules and cat- Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. egories. Asians are more likely to organize objects, Hughes, Richard T. 2005. The Vocation of Christian Scholar: events, and people on the basis of some kind of How Christian Faith Can Sustain the Life of the Mind. Rev. relationship, while European Americans are more ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. likely to group on the basis of a shared category. Menuge, Angus, gen. ed. 1999. Christ and Culture in Dialogue. c. Experiential knowledge vs. formal logic. When en- St. Louis, MO: Concordia Academic Press. gaging in deductive reasoning, East Asians tend to ———. 2011. Learning at the Foot of the Cross. Austin, TX: Con- prefer beginning with experiential knowledge based cordia University Press. on intuitive understandings emerging from direct Niebuhr, H. Richard. 1956. Christ and Culture. New York: perception, reflecting a general understanding of Harper & Row. truth and reality as relational and changeable. In Noll, Mark A. 1995. The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind. contrast, Western students tend to rely on logic and Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. abstract principles, reflecting a general understand- ———. 2011. Jesus Christ and the Life of the Mind. Grand Rap- ing of truth and reality as consistent and logical. ids, MI: Eerdmans. d. Dialectics vs. the law of noncontradiction. East Smith, R. Scott. 2005. Truth and the New Kind of Christian: The Asians and European Americans have differing lev- Emerging Effects of Postmodernism in the Church. Wheaton, els of commitment to avoidingOnly apparent contradic- IL: Crossway Books. tion in deductive reasoning. Western logic is gov- Stassen, Glenn H., D. M. Yeager, and John Howard Yoder. erned by rules, such as the law of identity (a thing is 1996. Authentic Transformation: A New Vision of Christ and identical to itself), the law of noncontradiction (no Culture. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. statement can be both true and false), and the law of Veith, Gene Edward. 1994. Postmodern Times. Wheaton, IL: the excluded middle (any statement is either true or Crossway Books. false). In contrast, Chinese logic avoids “rules” and ———. 2003. Loving God with All Your Mind: Thinking as a rather embraces dialectic principles (Spencer-Rod- Christian in the Postmodern World. 2nd ed. Wheaton, IL: gers et al. 2009), such as the principle of change (re- Crossway Books. ality is dynamic, and therefore a thing may change Wingren, Gustaf. 1999. Luther on Vocation. Evansville, IN: Copyand hence not be identical to itself), the principle Ballast Press. of contradiction (old and new, good and bad, exist —Angus Menuge in the same object or event and indeed depend on one another for their existence), and the principle of relationship or holism (nothing is isolated and Culture and Learning independent, and attempting to isolate elements of some larger whole can only be misleading). An overwhelming body of research has established what cultural anthropologists have intuited for decades: In summary, Nisbett suggests that Westerners tend people from different cultures think in fundamentally toward information processing that is linear, specific, different ways. While the differences are not absolute, analytic, theoretical, and individualistic-competitive, and there is wide diversity and individual variation, while East Asians prefer to think through patterns that there are strong, statistically significant differences are circular, interconnected, holistic, experiential, and between the ways in which information is processed by communal. Research elsewhere in the world suggests people from different cultural backgrounds, and this has that Western patterns are just that—Western. While the a profound impact on the ways in which learning takes specifics differ, the general pattern of information pro- place from culture to culture. cessing throughout most of the non-Western world tends The seminal work found in Nisbett and colleagues toward holism and networked thinking, rather than the (2001) points to four areas in which Westerners and East tight specificity so typical of Western thinking (see, e.g., Asians Contributorprocess information differently: Bauman & Skitka 2006; Schwartz 1992; Triandis 1989). Christian educators need to recognize the different a. Attention and control. In general, East Asians tend gifts each culture brings to the table of learning. Western to focus on the overall field, seeing wholes, and logic enhances objectivity in reading scripture, avoiding observing covariations, while Westerners tend to the danger of reading one’s own preconceptions into the focus on specifics, isolating and analyzing the ele- text (Chang 1981). And while insufficient alone, logic ments as the necessary step toward generalization. and rationality are important tools for comprehending 364 Curriculum and communicating Christian truth (Enns 2005). On Curriculum the other hand, holistic and dialectic approaches are often better able to capture the complexity of biblical The Latin root of curriculum refers to the course over truth and recognize the foundational role that narrative which one runs or journeys, which can include a very spe- plays in the scripture, with its call to intense subjective cific planned route or more generally the passage through engagement rather than objective analysis. And com- life itself, from birth to death to afterlife. For life’s passage munal approaches affirm the fundamentally relational itself, God can be seen as our ultimate teacher and all of nature of biblical knowing (Shaw 2011). The provision of creation as subject to revelation, formation, and learning space whereby both Western and non-Western voices are across the life span and in community with others who as heard will enrich and empower the church. disciples are essentially lifelong learners. For planned Christian education, curriculum can be References and Resources defined more formally as the content made available to Ango, S. P. 2007. “Lessons for Effective Christian Education in students and their actual learning experiences guided by Golmo: An African Traditional Approach to Teaching and a teacher. That content includes information, formation, Learning.” Christian Education Journal 4 (1): 17–33. and transformation for head, heart, and hand impacting Bauman, C. W., and L. J. Skitka. 2006. “Ethnic Group Differ- all of life. In other words, curriculum is the game plan ences in Lay Philosophies of Behavior in the United States.” for the practice of teaching. LikeOnly a coach who carries Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 37 (4): 438–445. around her game cards with all the plays and strategies, Chang, P. 1981. “Steak, Potato, Peas and Chopsuey: Linear and teachers enter a classroom or other learning setting with Non-linear Thinking in Theological Education.” Evangelical their lesson plans and curricular vision for what they Review of Theology 5 (2): 279–286. hope will transpire during an actual game with all of its Enns, M. 2005. “‘Now I Know in Part’: Holistic and Analytic contingencies and possible scenarios. In exploring teach- Reasoning and Their Contribution to Fuller Knowing in ing and planning for it, the three phases of preparation, Theological Education.” Evangelical Review of Theology 29 instruction, and evaluation need to factor into curricular (3): 251–269. thought and construction. Lingenfelter, J. E., and S. G. Lingenfelter. 2003. Teaching Cross- Preparation looms prominent in curricular planning. Culturally: An Incarnational Model for Learning and Teach- PlanningCopy needs to be context-specific and addressed to ing. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. the particular persons involved in learning, while teach- Nisbett, R. E. 2003. The Geography of Thought: How Asians and ers draw upon their Christian curricular and educational Westerners Think Differently . . . and Why. New York: The foundations. These foundations include scripture, theol- Free Press. ogy, philosophy, history, and the social sciences, along Nisbett, R. E., I. Choi, K. Peng, and A. Norenzayan. 2001. with a host of insights from diverse studies such as fine “Culture and Systems of Thought: Holistic versus Analytic and applied arts, economics, political sciences, life sci- Cognition.” Psychological Review 108 (2): 291–310. ences, physical sciences, systems theory, management Schwartz, S. H. 1992. “Universals in the Content and Structure theory, engineering, and even mathematics. From these of Values: Theoretical Advances and Empirical Tests in 20 wells, teachers creatively and critically draw key insights Countries.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, to organize their curricular plans, honoring their par- edited by M. Zanna, 1–65. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. ticular perspective, voice, and gifts. Even with the use Shaw, P. W. H. 2011. “A Welcome Guest: Ministerial Training as of a published or set curriculum, each teacher needs to an Act of Hospitality.” Christian Education Journal 7 (1): 8–26. adapt his plan to the persons and setting under his care. Shiraev, E. B., and D. A. Levy. 2012. Cross-Cultural Psychology: For this reason, the “quick fix” of a curriculum change Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications. 5th ed. is to be avoided in addressing educational problems that Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. call for a more comprehensive approach over time and Spencer-Rodgers J, H. C. Boucher, S. C. Mori, L. Wang, and in communication with others. In preparation, teachers K. Peng. 2009. “The Dialectical Self-Concept: Contradiction, must consider a wide range of methods, each of which Change, Contributorand Holism in East Asian Cultures.” Personality and has its strengths and weaknesses. Social Psychology Bulletin, 35:29–44. Instruction is suggestive of different plays or moves Triandis, H. C. 1989. “The Self and Social Behavior in Differing that teachers provide for order and ardor, for form and Cultural Contexts.” Psychological Review 96: 506–520. freedom in teaching that relies on the work of the Holy Wlodkowski, R. J., and M. B. Ginsberg. 1995. Diversity and Spirit through prayer, attentive listening, and discern- Motivation: Culturally Responsive Teaching. San Francisco: ment in the process. In relation to teaching moves, Jossey-Bass. the image or metaphor of a dance emerges, in which —Perry W. H. Shaw teachers attempt to anticipate and skillfully respond to Curriculum Development 365 serendipitous elements not predicted in their careful rian Jaroslav Pelikan noted: “The church is always more preparation. than a school. . . . But the church cannot be less than a Evaluation of a curriculum and its actual implementa- school. Its faith, hope, and love all express themselves tion is highly emphasized in educational practice with a in teaching and confession.” To carry out its teaching broad focus on assessment and outcomes. Such evaluation responsibility, the church has always used some form of honors the need for accountability, but may fail to honor curriculum as the basis for its instructional task. those things not easily or readily measurable in the actual In the earliest Christian communities, AD 50–70, the use of a curriculum. Serendipity, surprise, and wonder are Didache served as a very early curriculum. During the essential parts of an educational experience that allows period of the church fathers, St. Augustine and St. Cyril room for the Holy Spirit in the practice of Christian educa- of Jerusalem, among others, wrote catechetical instruc- tion, while teachers and learners sustain a teachable spirit tion as curriculum for the postapostolic era. During honoring the place of continuity and change in the life of the Reformation, Martin Luther and John Calvin both the Christian community and wider world. authored catechisms as curriculum for the young. With the advent of the Sunday school, multiple Christian ed- References and Resources ucation curricula for the instruction of children, youth, Cully, Iris V. 1983. Planning and Selecting Curriculum for and adults emerged. Christian Education. Valley Forge, PA: Judson. Only Eisner, Elliot W. 1985. The Educational Imagination: On the Curriculum Defined Design and Evaluation of School Programs. 2nd ed. New Etymologically, the word “curriculum” is from the Latin York: Macmillan. word currere, “to run,” as in running a race course. One Estep, James R., M. Roger White, and Karen L. Estep, eds. 2012. can envision a curriculum or racecourse in the hippo- Mapping Out Curriculum in Your Church: Cartography for drome in Rome. The curriculum includes everything Christian Pilgrims. Nashville, TN: B & H Academic. that happens from the beginning to the end of the race. Ferguson, Nancy. 2008. Christian Educator’s Guide to Evaluat- Analogously, the curriculum would be everything that ing and Developing Curriculum. Valley Forge, PA: Judson. happens to a person from the time he or she enters the Harris, Maria. 1989. Fashion Me a People: Curriculum in the ministry setting until the time he or she leaves. A cur- Church. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. riculum,Copy then, may be defined as a “plan for action or Jackson, Philip W. 1968. Life in Classrooms. New York: Holt, a written document that includes strategies for achiev- Rinehart & Winston. ing desired goals or ends.” Curriculum is far more than Lee, James M. 1973. The Flow of Religious Instruction. Dayton, printed teaching materials—it is the plan for learning and OH: Pflaum/Standard. growth, of which printed materials are but one part. ———. 1985. The Content of Religious Instruction: A Social Sci- There are four important considerations in curricu- ence Approach. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. lum development. The first is selecting content that can Miel, Alice. 1946. Changing the Curriculum: A Social Process. be taught within the given teaching time and is aligned New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. with the overarching goals of the congregation. This Pazmiño, Robert W. 1992. Principles and Practices of Christian requires evaluating the instructional resources available Education: An Evangelical Perspective. Grand Rapids, MI: and the methodology used to accomplish goals. The Baker Books. second consideration is the scope and sequence of the Richards, Lawrence O. 1970. Creative Bible Teaching. Chicago: curriculum. The scope includes all the material to be Moody Press. covered, and the sequence describes the manner in which Stenhouse, Lawrence. 1975. An Introduction to Curriculum Re- it will be covered, such as a chronological or a logical/ search and Development. New York: Holmes & Meier. topical approach. A third emphasis is appropriate age- Tyler, Ralph W. 1949. Basic Principles of Curriculum and In- level sequencing. This includes ensuring that material struction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. is developmentally appropriate for children and youth. Wyckoff, D. Campbell. 1961. Theory and Design of Christian The fourth and final emphasis is the appropriate uses of EducationContributor Curriculum. Philadelphia: Westminster. instructional media and technology. While it may not be —Robert W. Pazmiño feasible to utilize all the latest technology, Christians can- not afford to ignore the technological revolution that is taking place in the world today. Curriculum Development A final related consideration is the unintended cur- riculum. Something may spark discussion that is outside At the beginning of his monumental five-volume work the planned curriculum, and such discussion can be of on the history of Christian doctrine, Yale church histo- great value when it is Spirit-lead. Teachers should not 366 Curriculum Planning, Jane Vella and overlook potentially valuable teaching opportunities in in the health and growth of the ministry, just as the root an effort to “stick to the curriculum.” system does for a tree.

The Role and Nature of Curriculum The Role of the Bible in Curriculum A Christian education program that does not have a In Christian education, the Bible must be at the center curriculum is analogous to a ship without a rudder. The of all teaching. It is the primary content to be taught. program can flounder along with little or no deliberate The Bible stands as God’s revelation of Himself and His direction, experiencing limited effectiveness. Curriculum redemptive acts in history. God’s Word provides un- provides orderly guidance toward the goal of producing derstanding of human origin, the fall of mankind, and Great Commandment and Great Commission believers. the story of God’s redemption for humanity. It has been providentially preserved through history and speaks to Curriculum Design human needs today. Scripture leads individuals to salva- In his little classic on curriculum design, Ralph Tyler tion and peace with God. It confronts believers’ sin and developed a basic pattern for instructional design. Tyler’s then provides the means to live a godly life in this world. model focuses on precise instructional objectives that It gives believers an understanding of the world to come. guide curriculum development. Instructional objectives The Bible is always the primary content and essential are developed from various sources. These sources in- foundation of Christian education.Only clude society, the student, and the discipline for study. Christian educators would add the Bible and theology The Role of Evaluation in Curriculum as additional sources. Sources shape the development of Finally, evaluation of the teachers, learners, and curricu- general educational objectives. lum is in order. Evaluation facilitates greater effective- The general educational objectives must then be ness as educational leaders revise the curriculum, adjust screened through one’s educational philosophy and psy- teaching methods, and monitor the teaching environ- chology. These two areas include considerations such as ment. The process of evaluation begins even before the growth and development issues, theories of learning, and teaching process, with the selection of materials that are instructional methodology. Christians would add the in accordance with the goals for the ministry. In choos- additional screen of biblical and theological appropriate- ing appropriateCopy curriculum materials, several issues must ness. After developing general educational objectives, the be examined, such as age-level sequencing, biblical/ Christian educator can further specify precise objectives theological soundness, scope and sequence, the role of at each age level. the teacher, and the role of the learner. Evaluation is Colson and Rigdon approach curriculum development an ongoing process of adjusting curriculum to meet the in another manner, with the analogy of an umbrella to changing needs of learners and to increase effectiveness indicate the role of curriculum in a church’s program. in the learning environment. The church performs other functions such as proclama- —Virginia Gray tion, worship, witness, education, missions, and ministry. Curriculum is the overarching framework that informs each of these functions in the church. Curriculum should Curriculum Planning, Jane Vella and assist in improving and unifying the various educational agencies and ministries in the church. Curriculum planning is used widely to refer to plan- Colson and Rigdon also use another analogy, of a ning and implementing educational experiences for tree, to contrast the visible and invisible parts of the cur- children and adults. Historically, there have been many riculum. (This should not be confused with the intended/ models for curriculum planning, including Ralph Ty- unintended curriculum, discussed previously.) The vis- ler’s (1949) classic model, which proposed a four-step ible parts of the curriculum are the printed curriculum planning process for any and all educational situations: materials, the learning environment, and the media used determine the needs of the learners and the situation, in the learningContributor environment. These are like the trunk, design the learning event, organize and implement the branches, and leaves of the tree—in these areas growth plan, and evaluate the outcomes. Postmodernists and and change are highly visible. Among the invisible parts critical theorists have challenged the notion of curricu- of the curriculum are the educational philosophy and the lum frameworks and indeed the purposes of education, theological and biblical foundation. These are like the in- noting that such frameworks and steps do not account visible root system that supports and nourishes the tree. for power imbalances in the learning situation or the Though these things are not overt, they play a vital role context of the learning. Curriculum Theory 367

One of the more accessible frameworks for curriculum Jane Vella offers a practical and useful framework was proposed by Jane Vella (2002) in Learning to Listen, for Christian education. She reinforces the need to be Learning to Learn. Building on her experience of educa- learner-centered and to have an active, engaged learning tion as a Maryknoll sister in international development environment. Her principles strengthen our insight into contexts and her immensely practical understanding of the need to work with learners when we plan and teach. how to teach adults, she provided a set of 12 principles Finally, she reminds us that with careful planning, Chris- for learning. Though she prefers the word planning to tian education can be a rewarding and engaging process. curriculum, Vella’s 12 principles are an amalgam of the work of Tyler and of Malcolm Knowles (1980), a later References and Resources theorist who focused specifically on teaching adults. Knowles, M. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Knowles promoted the concept of andragogy, a set of as- From Pedagogy to Andragogy. Wilton, CT: Association Press. sumptions about how adults learn, which was to be one of Pelikan, Jaroslav. 1975. The Christian Tradition: A History of the most influential ideas in adult education in the 20th the Development of Doctrine, 5 vols. Chicago: University of century (Reischmann 2005). He pointed out that not only Chicago Press. is it important to plan and implement learning, as Tyler Reischmann, J. 2005. “Andragogy.” In International Encyclope- proposed, but it is also important to focus on adult learn- dia of Adult Education, edited by L. M. English, 58–63. New ers who want to know why they are learning something. York: Palgrave. Only He also noted that adults are mostly internally motivated Tyler, R. W. 1949. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruc- to learn, want to build on their experience in learning, tion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. and learn things that will help them solve their immediate Vella, J. 2002. Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach: The Power problems or issues. This person-centered approach has of Dialogue in Educating Adults. Rev. ed. San Francisco: been taken up by many Christian educators in their prac- Jossey-Bass. tice, though they may not have named it explicitly. Vella —Leona M. English expanded these andragogical assumptions, through cases and stories that make them a strong guide for teaching adults or children in religious settings. Curriculum Theory Vella’s first step in educational planning is to deter- Copy mine the needs of the learners through dialogue with Curriculum can be defined as an organized educational them. The second (creating safety in the learning envi- plan and process by which a learner progresses through ronment) and the third (establishing sound relationships) a predetermined course or series of systematic learn- speak to the need to have respect between learners and ing activities and experiences toward an identifiable teachers. The fourth principle, using sequence and rein- educational goal. Curriculum development and design is forcement, is a reminder for educators to move from the directly shaped by educational theories and formulations most simple to the most complex ideas and to constantly such as philosophy of education, scope and sequence reinforce previous learning. The fifth principle, praxis, (the breadth and content of the curriculum, and the combines reflection with action and encourages learning necessary steps in the instructional process), pedagogy by doing. Vella’s sixth principle builds on earlier prin- (specific instructional strategies), and outcomes (an- ciples in stressing that learners need to play an integral ticipated instructional learning objectives). Curriculum role in deciding what happens in a learning event. The theories tend to organize according to four primary seventh principle, learning with ideas, feelings, and ac- formulations. (1) The academic disciplines approach em- tions, suggests that educators take the whole person into phasizes passing on scholarly academic content accord- account when teaching. The eighth principle stresses ing to traditional disciplines, often as a fixed or classical immediacy or teaching what people will find useful. The body of knowledge and values. (2) The social efficiency ninth highlights the importance of dialogue (not discus- approach seeks to actively direct students in engaging sion) and mutual listening in a learning environment. with and meeting the needs of contemporary society. The 10thContributor principle (teamwork) and the 11th (active (3) The individual developmental approach focuses on engagement in learning) support working together with fostering personal growth and promoting the improve- learners and helping them become fully engaged. The last ment of individual skills and capabilities. (4) The social principle, accountability, focuses on whether the learner reconstructive approach seeks to articulate, promote, and has learned all he or she wanted or needed to know. The facilitate a better tomorrow. Curriculum theory from a stress in each principle is on the learner and the learning Christian perspective should meaningfully and inten- environment, whether doing bible study, preparing for tionally incorporate facets from each of these primary sacraments, or studying for a bar mitzvah. theoretical approaches, passing on scholarly academic 368 Cursillo as Christian Practice content, engaging with the needs of society, developing chomotor, or behavioral; contain one single performance personal growth, and moving toward a future hope for component that describes what the learner will know or society. What makes the curriculum distinctively “Chris- be able to do in specific terms at the conclusion of the tian” is the biblical content of the instruction, facilitat- instruction; be clearly stated without ambiguity as a mea- ing the understanding and articulation of a Christian surable learning outcome; and be appropriate, reason- worldview, and encouraging personally transformative able, and attainable for the level of learning targeted by learning outcomes related to the Christian faith. the course or program of education. A basic framework for understanding curriculum Educational outcomes are generally of two types: in- theory consists of four primary educational categories: tended learning outcomes, which are directly aligned antecedents, influences, transactions, and outcomes. For with the philosophy of education, stated instructional every educational activity, there are “givens”: current objectives, and learning outcomes, and unintended out- institutional and student characteristics that are well comes, which can be described as observable learning established and actively influencing both the learner outcomes that are not specifically defined by the in- and the context of learning. These can be understood in structional objectives or addressed by the stated learn- terms of educational antecedents. These include existing ing outcomes. The unintended learning outcomes can student characteristics such as academic preparedness, consist of values, perceptions, or behaviors not specifi- current knowledge, experience, age, and stage of life, as cally addressed in the course or curriculum.Only While these well as the mission, objectives, teaching personnel, and outcomes can sometimes be referred to as serendipitous programs of the institution. personal insights, discoveries, or experiences, other nega- Educational influences are typically described as the tive connotations could be identified as well, related to philosophical perspectives that provide ideological, theo- the social interactions and contexts of the educational retical, and operational guides in the construction and experiences. The intended learning outcomes describe implementation of the curriculum. Curricular choices what the learner should know or be able to do at the need to be consistent with the stated philosophy of edu- conclusion of the course of instruction. These outcomes cation and should aim to provide instruction that is com- are defined in clear and measurable terms and are aligned prehensive and meaningful and that connects to learners with, and evaluated by, formative and summative assess- in terms of personal experience, while presenting a vital mentsCopy in the form of specific course assignments. Forma- and engaging Christian worldview that moves beyond the tive assessments measure learning outcomes at specific theoretical and into the practical. The formulation of an points during the course of instruction, with summative educational mission statement should include integrative assessments evaluating the student learning outcomes at language providing a necessary impetus for curriculum the conclusion of the course. and learning outcomes. However, if the stated educa- tional goal does not take place in the classroom, and if References and Resources the student does not actually experience some level of in- Harris, Maria. 1989. Fashion Me a People: Curriculum in the tegration of intellect, faith, and action, the mission state- Church. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ment is misleading at best and fallacious at worst. Educa- Lattuca, Lisa R., and Joan S. Stark. 2009. Shaping the College tional integration requires a high degree of intentionality Curriculum: Academic Plans in Context. 2nd ed. San Fran- and must permeate all aspects of course and curriculum. cisco: Jossey-Bass. Educational transactions are the identification, design, Schiro, Michael Stephen. 2013. Curriculum Theory: Conflicting and organization of specific learning experiences and Visions and Enduring Concerns. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: activities. Here the concepts of scope and sequence are Sage Publications. vitally important at both the program and individual Tyler, Ralph W. 1969. Basic Principles of Curriculum and In- course levels. The breadth of concepts, information, struction. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. and experiences included in the course; the sequence by —Gino Pasquariello which the learner encounters them; and the manner in which theContributor student moves incrementally toward the ac- complishment of the learning outcomes are critical to the Cursillo as Christian Practice overall success of the learning experience. Instructional objectives should be included that address specific and Cursillo de Christiandad, or “Little Course in Christian- incremental areas of learning related to the overall goal ity,” is a movement originating in the Roman Catholic of the course. Instructional objectives should begin with Church that seeks to foster spiritual renewal and evan- a verb corresponding to the appropriate and specific gelism among the laity. A “cursillo” is a weekend retreat learning outcome, whether it be cognitive, affective, psy- in which participants (“cursillistas”) are equipped to em- Cursillo as Christian Practice 369 brace their identity as followers of Christ. Through teach- there are several other renewal ministries, such as Walk ing, sharing, discussion, and prayer, cursillistas focus on to Emmaus, influenced by the cursillo movement. intensive Christian discipleship and community in order to live out their faith through “apostolic action” in their Methodology and Philosophy of Christian Formation particular contexts, bringing Christ to the world. Cursillo has three primary stages: pre-cursillo, cursillo, and post-cursillo. Pre-cursillo is a time of preparation for Historical Background the cursillo candidates, who are mentored by their spon- In Spain in the 1930s, Catholic Action for Youth, an sors (see below). The cursillo itself, starting on Thursday organization that sought the religious enrichment and evening and ending Sunday afternoon, includes several mobilization of youth in an increasingly secularized cul- talks, small group discussion, time for personal devo- ture, proposed a massive pilgrimage to the Cathedral of tions, and a community Mass each day. When the three- Santiago de Compostela. The Spanish Civil War and then day retreat is over, the “Fourth Day,” or post-cursillo, the outbreak of World War II delayed the pilgrimage, but begins. The cursillistas, now equipped to live faithfully they added to the sense of spiritual unrest. To nourish in their contexts, embrace the ongoing task of participat- and prepare young men for the pilgrimage, in the early ing in the mission of the church. To aid in this process, 1940s Catholic Action for Youth began holding one-week cursillistas continue to meet together, usually weekly, to retreats across the nation, called “Cursillos for Leaders of share insights and experiences,Only encouraging one another Pilgrims.” On the island of Mallorca, a young and spiri- in their apostolic work. tually sensitive soldier named Eduardo Bonnín Aguiló Cursillos usually involve 30–40 participants (men and (1917–2008) attended one of these retreats during Holy women typically have separate cursillos), including the Week of 1943; deeply affected, he suggested the creation priests and laity who present the talks (called “rollos” or of a shorter course for more general use. A three-day “drills”). After each talk, the cursillistas break into small retreat was planned and held in August 1944; its goal was groups to discuss how they can appropriate the material to help its attendees experience spiritual conversion and in their different contexts. Community is a focus of the revitalization, learning how a relationship with Christ cursillo weekend; the participants learn, through the rol- might transform their lives in their daily environments. los and experience, what Christian community should be Undergoing continued development, the weekend cur- like.Copy Cursillistas share life stories, wisdom, prayer, and sillo was held annually on Mallorca, along with the week- song, as well as the central and unifying act of the Mass. long retreat, until the planned Santiago pilgrimage was “Friendship” is a crucial idea to cursillo, as it describes finally held in August 1948. Returning from the pilgrim- one’s relationship with Christ and with others; friendship age, responding to renewed religious enthusiasm, and is how cursillistas seek to engage those who are “far away” with the approval of the local bishop, Bonnín and some from faith in their contexts—in ways that priests cannot. friends coordinated and held the first official cursillo at Cursillo does not end when the weekend is over. Cur- the Mallorcan monastery of San Honorato on 7–10 Janu- sillistas continue their discipleship journey in what is ary 1949. Cursillos now had the purpose of empowering called the Fourth Day. They are to live in an “apostolic” Christians for the ongoing pilgrimage of faith. (evangelistic) way in their “environment”—workplace, Cursillos soon spread throughout the rest of Spain home, neighborhood, etc.—growing in personal faith and the Spanish-speaking world, including the south- while actively participating in the church’s mission to the western United States. The first cursillo in the United world. Community continues to be critical to this life- States was held in Waco, Texas, in May 1957, and the style, and to facilitate spiritual nourishment, cursillistas first English-speaking cursillo followed a few years meet together in weekly small groups (“group reunions”) later. The cursillo movement quickly became a global and larger monthly groups (called “ultreyas,” from an phenomenon, and in 1980 an international office (the old Spanish word for “onward” that was often spoken Organismo Mundial de Cursillos de Christianidad, or to encourage those on pilgrimages). These meetings aim World Body of Cursillos in Christianity) was estab- to provide community edification and support as the lished. ContributorThe movement has been supported by Popes cursillistas seek to be more like Christ in their particular Paul VI, John Paul II, and Benedict XVI, but finally contexts, and they function to hold members accountable received official canonical recognition by the Pontifi- in their evangelistic endeavors. cal Council for the Laity in 2004. Today more than 60 Attending a cursillo is not simply a matter of signing countries hold cursillos, and over five million people up to go if someone is interested. Cursillo candidates have participated in them. Cursillos have also been have to be deemed ready by their local church leader- adopted by non-Catholics, including Episcopalian and ship. Candidates must have a sponsor in the commu- other Anglican groups, and Presbyterians. In addition, nity, someone who has already gone through cursillo. 370 Cyprus and Christian Education

The sponsor is involved in the candidate’s entire cursillo The state protects religious freedom and respects the experience. During pre-cursillo, the sponsor helps pre- right to worship in the free areas controlled by the Re- pare the candidate for attending the weekend retreat public of Cyprus, which is a member of the European and may even help pay for the candidate. The sponsor Union and the only state entity on the island that is rec- transports the candidate to and from the retreat and ognized by the United Nations and internationally. This actively supports the returning cursillista for at least six is not the case in the northern part of Cyprus, which has months of the Fourth Day. Thus, in cursillo, sponsor- been occupied by Turkey since 1974. The occupation ship is central to the model of the spiritual formation of army prohibits, inter alia, the freedom of religious prac- the laity in local parishes. tice of Greek-Cypriots and other refugees. In cursillo, the equipping of the laity is personal, In the Republic of Cyprus, every religious community communal, and missional. Cursillistas learn about and has the freedom to teach, practice, worship, and observe strengthen their personal relationships with Christ according to the UN Universal Declaration of Human through individual devotions and prayer. They are sup- Rights. Every religious community educates its members ported through community interaction (Fourth Day in its own way: in general, with its entire presence and group reunions and ultreyas) and support their local witness and, particularly, with its catechetical schools. church community through leadership and sponsorship. The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus provides They engage in evangelistic mission in their ordinary for the separation of the state andOnly religious communi- lives through friendships, including those with nonbe- ties; however, there is cooperation on issues of common lievers. From its inception, the cursillo movement has interest. Religious studies are taught in public schools sought to enable the laity to spread the love of Christ in as part of a separate course in all years of primary and their particular social environments, where clergy may secondary education. The state has the overall respon- not have natural access. While there has sometimes been sibility for its curricula, textbooks, teacher recruitment, tension between church hierarchy and lay movements— evaluation, and so forth. usually for fear that the latter will become spiritually —Stavros S. Fotiou ghettoized, victim to the manipulations of its lay leader- ship, or overly focused on social aspects—the ideal is for priests and congregants to partner together to accom- CopyCyril of Alexandria plish the same goals within the church and in the world. Thus, with support from clergy, church community, and Cyril of Alexandria (c. AD 376–444) served as the pow- formal and informal cursillo group activities, cursillistas erful patriarch of Alexandria from 412 to 444 and was are empowered to be faithful witnesses within the con- an articulate defender of orthodox Christian doctrine. texts of their everyday pilgrimage of faith. During his tenure as patriarch, Cyril was embroiled in numerous religious and political controversies. However, References and Resources he wrote many works that solidified the orthodox posi- Bonnin, Eduardo. 1981. Cursillos in Christianity: The How and tion among the Christian community. the Why. Dallas, TX: National Ultreya Publications. Early Life and Education National Cursillo Center (U.S.A.). www.cursillo.org. Cyril was born around AD 376 in Theodosios, a small OMCC (World Body of Cursillos in Christianity). www Egyptian town. When he was only a few years old, his .orgmcc.org maternal uncle, Theophilus, ascended to the position —Mike Langford of patriarch of Alexandria, a position he held from 385 to 412. Theophilus, at the insistence of Cyril’s mother, ensured that Cyril received a well-rounded education; Cyprus and Christian Education he studied grammar, rhetoric, humanities, and theology over a span of 12 years (390–402). Following his formal ChristianityContributor was brought to Cyprus in AD 46 by the education, Cyril accompanied Theophilus to Constanti- apostles Paul and Barnabas. Since then, the Christian nople and was present at the Synod of the Oak, the coun- faith has been reflected in all aspects of the life and his- cil that condemned John Chrysostom to death (Cyril sup- tory of the country. The vast majority of the population ported the council’s decision). When Theophilus passed belongs to the Orthodox Church. Other religious com- away in 412, Cyril succeeded him as patriarch, though he munities, recognized by the Constitution of the Republic faced opposition from Archdeacon Timothy. of Cyprus (founded in 1960), include the Armenians, the His tenure as patriarch was marked by controversy Maronites, the Latins, and the Turkish-Cypriots. and quarrels with various constituencies in his territory. Cyril of Jerusalem 371

He closed the churches of the Novations (a sect of Chris- works served to further cement orthodoxy in the Chris- tians who descended from ancestors who had proclaimed tian community, as Cyril wisely articulated the Trinity, Christ in the midst of persecution some 260 years earlier the divinity of Christ, the incarnation, and other issues and refused to worship alongside those with a less pure with precise logic. ancestry of persevering in faith). Cyril expelled the Jews In Cyril’s time, very few clerics were literate or received from Alexandria, as they had massacred many Christians a quality education. It remained the responsibility of the over laws regulating their dancing exhibitions. This an- church to supplement the inadequacies of the educa- gered the governor, Orestes, who was continuously at tional system. The character of Cyril’s commentary on odds with Cyril over matters of jurisdiction and power Isaiah indicates that the commentary itself grew out of a and was grieved that the city had lost such a sizable series of instructional lectures Cyril regularly gave to his population. Orestes had the political support of Hypatia, deacons and presbyters. These times of instruction gave a noted philosopher, astronomer, and moral authority in relatively uneducated clergy the skills to master biblical Alexandria. Christians perceived Hypatia to be behind exegesis and teach the Bible in their own congregations Orestes’s refusal to accept peace offerings made by Cyril. and towns. Thus, in addition to his role as a bishop and A group of Christians who supported Cyril brutally ardent defender of Christian orthodoxy, Cyril was a reli- murdered Hypatia, setting off an uprising of Christians gious educator with direct influence on the educational against the intellectual prowess of those in Alexandria. practices of those under his supervision.Only Though he com- Cyril, representing the Alexandrian school, heav- posed no texts related to his practice of pastoral educa- ily engaged in theological and ecclesial debate with the tion, it is safe to assume that Cyril’s educational practices Antioch school. This rivalry widened when the third drew upon the emphases on grammar, rhetoric, and liter- canon of the First Council of Constantinople granted ary interpretation common in classical education. Constantinople authority over Alexandria and Antioch. Cyril’s theological rival, Nestorius, became archbishop References and Resources of Constantinople in 428, and theological tensions soon Cassel, J. David. 2002. “Cyril of Alexandria as Educator.” In In mounted between the two. Nestorius sought to separate Dominico Eloquio: In Lordly Eloquence: Essays on Patristic Christ’s divine and human qualities from one another, Exegesis in Honor of Robert Louis Wilken, edited by Paul M. deemphasizing Christ’s divinity and amplifying His hu- CopyBlowers, Angela Russell Christman, David G. Hunter, and manity. Nestorius challenged the church’s title for Mary, Robin Darling Young, 348–368. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Theotokos (“God-bringer”), instead favoring the title McGuckin, John Anthony. 2004. St. Cyril of Alexandria: The Christotokos (“Christ-bringer”), emphasizing Christ’s Christological Controversy: Its History, Theology, and Texts. humanity. Cyril contended that Nestorius had violated Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press. church teaching and petitioned Pope Celestine I to hold Russell, Norman. 2000. Cyril of Alexandria. London: Routledge. a meeting in Rome. At the direction of Celestine I, Cyril Weinandy, Thomas G., and Daniel A. Keating. 2003. The presided over the Council of Ephesus (431), which con- Theology of St. Cyril of Alexandria: A Critical Appreciation. demned Nestorius. Confusion followed the council’s Edinburgh: T & T Clark. decision, with various parties holding their own councils Wessel, Susan. 2004. Cyril of Alexandria and the Nestorian and condemning either Cyril or Nestorius. However, Controversy: The Making of a Saint and of a Heretic. Oxford: Emperor Theodosius II eventually condemned Nestorius Oxford University Press. to exile, and Cyril’s theological position was triumphant —Benjamin Espinoza for a time. The controversies continued, as councils afterward debated the nature of Christ and Mary. Cyril died in 444. Cyril of Jerusalem

Contribution to Christian Education Later bishop of Jerusalem and a church father, Cyril was Cyril was a brilliant theologian and educator, as evi- born to Christian parents in Palestine between 313 and dencedContributor by his numerous commentaries and theological 315. He rose through the ranks of clergy, becoming a works and his education of the clergy under his epis- presbyter by 343 and ascending to Jerusalem’s episcopal copal supervision. His early writings were primarily see by 350. expository commentaries on many books of the Old and In the bitter aftermath of the Council of Nicaea in New Testaments, only some of which have survived. In 325, Cyril did not give his support to either the Arian his later years, Cyril devoted himself to writing theo- understanding of Jesus Christ or the homoousios (“of the logical treatises against Arian and Nestorian thought, same nature”) formula of the Council. Like many of his perhaps the hallmark of his theological legacy. These contemporaries, Cyril recognized the full deity of Christ, 372 Czech Republic and Christian Education but he was reluctant to introduce into Christianity philo- to their lives: God the Father, who is Father because He sophical language foreign to the New Testament. How- has a Son eternally, has created all that exists, seen and ever, he came to embrace the definition of Nicaea over unseen; the Son, Jesus Christ, who is truly divine and time, leading to forced expulsions from his episcopacy through the incarnation truly human, has died for the by Arians in 357, 360, and 367. When Cyril returned to sins of humanity on the cross, has risen from the dead, Jerusalem from his final 12-year exile in 379, Gregory of has ascended into glory, and will come again to judge all Nyssa traveled to see him and officially recognized him of humanity; the Holy Spirit, “who with the Father and as a supporter of the Nicene faith. Cyril later participated the Son together” is honored with the glory of the God- in the Council of Constantinople in 381 and approved head, has spoken through the Old and New Testaments; its additions to the Nicene Creed, recognizing the deity there is only one baptism for the forgiveness of sins; hu- of the Holy Spirit as “the Lord, the giver of life, who manity will be bodily resurrected and made incorruptible proceeds from the Father” and “with the Father and Son at Christ’s second coming; the holy catholic church is the is worshiped and glorified.” He remained bishop of Jeru- mother of all Christians and the bride of Christ; and there salem until his death in 387. is life eternal, which will come from the Father, through Cyril’s most important literary activity was his Cat- the Son, and in the Holy Spirit. echetical Lectures, providing detailed insight into the In the five mystagogical catecheses, given the week education of catechumens preparing for baptism in the after the catechumens’ baptism onOnly Easter Sunday, Cyril fourth-century church. These 24 lectures are divided into explains the different rituals they experienced. First, he three groups: the procatechesis (one lecture), the cateche- describes their baptism as a grave into which they de- ses (eighteen lectures), and the mystagogical catecheses scend in death and arise in resurrection to new life. Next, (five lectures). he explains chrismation with oil as an anointing of the Specifically, in his procatechesis, Cyril exhorts cat- Holy Spirit, whereby their foreheads are anointed for echumens to take their preparation for baptism seriously, deliverance from Adam’s shame, their ears to empower since baptism is unrepeatable, by listening closely to the understanding of the divine mysteries, their noses to lectures, making true repentance of sin, and looking to remember their lives as a sweet incense offering to God, God in faith. He warns them not to share any informa- and their chests for empowerment against the devil’s tion they receive about the Christian mysteries beyond schemes.Copy Finally, Cyril addresses the Eucharist, helping the baptized, because this would be casting “pearls before them see the bread and wine as a divine transformation swine.” Finally, he promises that if his instructions are into the body and blood of Christ, facilitating greater followed, they will have “the delight of paradise” and union with Christ in life. receive all the benefits of baptism: the forgiveness of sins, new life, the sealing of the Spirit, and armor against the References and Resources assaults of their spiritual enemies. Cross, F. L. 1951. St. Cyril of Jerusalem’s Lectures on the Chris- In the first five catecheses, Cyril begins by addressing tian Sacraments. London: S.P.C.K. Publishing. foundational issues: the role of repentance in salvation, Telfer, William. 1955. Cyril of Jerusalem and Nemesius of the origin of sin with the devil and humanity’s first Emesa. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. parents, personal sin, and the unlimited extent of God’s Yarnold, E. J. 2000. Cyril of Jerusalem. London: Routledge. mercy in the forgiveness of sin. He then discusses the —Chris Bounds meaning and effects of baptism. Because humanity is an embodied soul, a physical substance is needed to touch the body, while the Spirit cleanses the soul. Highlighting Czech Republic and Christian Education John 3:3, Cyril shows how water baptism is the means by which God absolves human sin and gives new birth. The Czech Republic is a Central European country with Finally, after giving a brief summary of the key points of 10,436,560 inhabitants in 2011. It has been a member of Christian doctrine and free will, Cyril describes the per- the European Union since 2004. Christianity arrived in sonal faithContributor catechumens must exercise for baptism to be this area at the end of the eighth century, the key turning efficacious: a personal trust and confidence in God to do point being the Byzantine mission of Constantine and what baptism has been ordained to do. Methodius (863). Under the influence of complicated In the rest of the catecheses, lectures six through historical, religious, and social processes, currently it is eighteen, Cyril unpacks the Jerusalem Creed, which was one of the most secularized countries in Europe. memorized by the catechumens and publicly recited In the 2011 census, there were 14 percent believers before baptism. He walks his students carefully through who identify with a church or religious society, with the creed phrase by phrase, pausing to make application Christian churches 12 percent, including 10 percent Czech Republic and Christian Education 373

Roman Catholics; 7 percent believers who do not identify There is official separation between the church and with a church or religious society; and 35 percent declare state; however, the property settlement between the state no religion. The Catholic Church is made up of two and churches and religious societies began only in 2013. ecclesiastical provinces: the Czech Province (Archdiocese After a history of state-owned churches and properties, of Prague and four dioceses) and The Moravian Province these actions serve as a tangible means of officially sepa- (Archdiocese of Olomouc and dioceses). There is also the rating religious properties from state holdings and the Apostolic Greek Catholic Exarchate. palpable ties that bind. No concordat with the Holy See Since the fall of communism in 1989, according to the has yet been approved. new laws on religious freedom and the status of churches, the churches are allowed to teach confessional religion in References and Resources all types of schools (law 171/1990, 308/1991), as an op- Horák, Záboj. 2012. Církve a školství: vybrané dokumenty ke tional subject at public and private schools. The minimum studiu českého konfesního práva. [The Churches and the school number of pupils is seven. Laws 561/2004, 563/2004, and system: Selected documents to study the Czech ecclesiastical 48/2005 outline the conditions churches have to meet to law.] Praha: Univerzita Karlova v Praze, Právnická fakulta. gain permission to teach religion in these schools. Kadlec, Jaroslav. 1991. Přehled českých církevních dějiny. [Over- At church schools, religion is usually an obligatory view of Czech religious history.] Praha: Zvon. subject. In parishes, catechesis is offered according to Statistical Yearbook of the Czech OnlyRepublic 2012. 2012. Praha: age, as well as preparation for sacraments, which enriches Czech Statistical Office. the initiatory-educational aspect of the school subject. The Catholic Church in the Czech Republic. 2013. Praha: Czech Religious education and catechesis is supervised by the Bishops’ Conference, Kostelní Vydří: Karmelitánské nakla- respective dioceses in cooperation with the National Cat- datelství. echetical Office. —Mariusz Kuźniar Copy

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Contributor D Only Dallas Theological Seminary ministry-related technique and application. Hendricks ingrained the simple rule of good Bible study—obser- The Dallas Theological Seminary (DTS) was founded in vation, interpretation, and application—in thousands 1924 by Lewis Sperry Chafer in Dallas, Texas, with 13 stu- of seminary students. The seminary’s CE department dents as a nondenominational seminary and has grown offers basic courses to Christian educators in Christian to 2,024 students in all programs and locations. It is an pedagogy, the Christian family, and church leadership evangelical and theologically dispensational graduate formation. These have gradually been joined by more in- institution for theology and professional ministry prepa- novative courses, on audiovisual media, Christian camp- ration. The seminary’s academic departments include ing, creativity, journalism, discipleship, programming biblical counseling, biblical exposition, Christian educa- forCopy youth ministries, ministry among women, Christian tion, New Testament studies, Old Testament studies, pas- school administration, legal and financial issues, and so toral ministries, spiritual formation, theological studies forth. The current full-time faculty of six (all possessors (which encompasses systematic, biblical, and historical with PhD or DMin degrees) includes Linden McLaughlin theology), and world missions and intercultural studies. (chair), Michael Lawson, Jay Sedwick Jr., Sue Edwards, In terms of Christian education, DTS has attempted to Mark Heineman, and James Thames; there are 10 adjunct progressively explore every creative and effective ap- professors.2 The media element of CE has been intro- proach to teaching the Bible and training Christian ser- duced, expanded, and creatively developed by longtime vants. While insisting on the highest academic standards, audiovisual specialist Donald Regier, whose work at the DTS has focused on a practical approach to introducing seminary began around 1980. DTS quickly exploited students to biblical content, reasonable and accurate electronic presentation methodologies in both its cur- hermeneutics, and a faithful evangelical theology. Chris- riculum and instructional pedagogy. tian education techniques at this institution have affected The stated purposes of DTS’s Department of Christian and enhanced the teaching in each of the other academic Education are (1) to equip students to explore and un- disciplines offered by the school. derstand biblical and other foundations basic to effective The Christian education (CE) department is renowned Christian education; (2) to formulate a biblically based for its recently deceased and longtime resident scholar philosophy of Christian education for ministry in home, (1946–2013), Dr. Howard Hendricks, author of 16 vol- church, and school; and (3) to develop skills essential to umes on Christian living, ministry, and education. He competent Bible teaching and administration in Chris- was the seminary’s first professor of Christian educa- tian organizations. Contributor1 tion, the builder of its CE department, and his approach In recent years, as online education has escalated, to Christian education can be characterized as a blend DTS has kept pace and has efficiently exploited its op- of theological foundation-building with practical and portunities, offering courses, seminars, and individual lectures through various Internet avenues. As with 1. John D. Hannah, An Uncommon Union (Dallas Theological Seminary and American Evangelicalism) (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009). 2. Dallas Theological Seminary Catalog, 2012–2013.

— 375 — 376 Dance as Christian Practice many educational institutions, this has significantly movement for the priests. By the 18th century, religious broadened the appeal of and access to CE offerings to a dances were scarce, and they had almost completely wider audience. faded away during the Enlightenment, with the excep- —Neil C. Damgaard tion of certain religious sects like the Shakers, for whom religious dance was central (Kline-Chesson 1989, 314). According to Kline-Chesson, liturgical dance began to Dance as Christian Practice reappear in the church in the late 1930s and 1940s. Deit- ering writes, “The liturgy as dance has gone from activity Dance, an expressive movement of human body and to spectacle, and is now returning to community activity” spirit and an art, has been used as a critical means of (cited in Kline-Chesson 1989, 314). Margaret Fisk Taylor communication. Scholars in the field of religious educa- (dance choirs); Carla de Sola, the founder of the Omega tion have agreed that dance in its origins is attached to Liturgical Dance Company; Judith Rock, the founder of “sacredness” and used to express and convey religious the Body and Soul Dance Company; and Doug Adams at meanings (Oesterley 1984, 16). In the Christian tradition, Pacific School of Religion are some of leading people in dance has been included in Christian worship and labeled this trend (Bentley 1982, 601). “sacred dance,” “liturgical dance,” “rhythmic choirs,” As liturgy is for both personal and communal encoun- “motion choirs,” “symbolic movement,” “body worship,” ter with God, dance as part of liturgyOnly has been used to “worship in movement,” “creative movement,” and “cre- achieve specific purposes such as community building, ative rhythmic movement.” repentance, rejoicing, and rededication. One of the very There is evidence in the Old Testament that dance specific purposes of liturgical dances has been to create was a normative feature of Israelite worship. Some of the active participation in worship. In fact, the Hebrew term more commonly used terms for sacred dance in the OT “company” is derived from the term mecholah, meaning are chul (vigorous, energetic dancing) and ragad (more “dancing with others.” Also, dancers are referred to as diverse dance forms, employing instruments and/or a “band (hebel),” meaning “rope,” which indicates con- singing) (Long 1986, 28). Miriam’s dance of thanksgiving nectedness and unity (Oesterley 1984, 108). Processional (Exod. 15: 20–21), David’s dance of ecstasy before the ark dance is used as a community-building function. (2 Sam. 6:12–23), the dance of the daughters of Shiloh DanceCopy as part of liturgy was also used to create an (Judg. 21:16–25), and dance in the Psalms (Ps. 118:27, environment for people to repent before God. Encir- 149:3, 150:4) are good examples. In the New Testament, cling dances, which were related to sacrifice in the OT sacred dance is in the parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke tradition, were practiced to have a consecrating effect 15:25). According to Adams, the Greek term used to (Oesterley 1984, 36–42). Today, prayer dances and reflec- describe “dance” in this passage is chorea, which means tive dances are practiced as a means of the repentance a group or communal dance that grew in significance in function. Prayer dances offer the congregation a means the life of the early church (1976, 20). to focus on God, and reflective dances involve thought- In the early church up to the fourth century, the term ful exegesis of a scripture or other meditative material chorea was used repeatedly, and it involved a variety of (Kline-Chesson 1989, 316). movement rituals incorporating music (Taylor 1981, Rejoicing dances were practiced in order to create 8). Scholars and historians have confirmed that dance the people’s response to God’s grace and goodness. In was commonly used in the church in the second and the NT the Aramaic word for “rejoice” in Luke 6:23 is third centuries. Justin Martyr wrote, “It is not for the synonymous with the term for “dance” (Adams 1976, little ones to sing alone, but rather together with instru- 11). Harvest dance in the OT is a rejoicing dance. Today, ments and dancing and rattles, just as one enjoys songs celebration dances express joy and thanksgiving. . . . in church.” Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and oth- Dances aiming at rededication to God focus people ers wrote favorably of the Miletians in Alexandria, who on the awareness of their nature, their relationship with danced while singing, clapping their hands, and striking God, and their commitment to all of God’s creatures. bells (citedContributor in Taylor 1981, 73). In the OT, the Israelites expressed God’s purposes and When the house-church moved to public worship set- actions upon their lives through dances. Today, con- tings due to the growing numbers of Christians, worship gregations create various communal movements during became much more formal, and people became more communion in order to encourage the member’s rededi- passive observers rather than participants in worship. cation to God. Recession dances is another moment that Dance became the sole movement of the priests. In the can inspire the rededication of the members. Wedding 16th and 17th centuries, the Roman Catholic Church dances, funeral dances, prostrations, bowing, lifting hands formalized church liturgy and defined every gesture and in prayer, and swaying are all embraced as individual as Dark Ages, Christian Education in the (AD 476–1000) 377 well as community’s movement as prayer to God (Oes- Middle Ages began and advancements equated with de- terley 1984, 36–42). velopments such as Gothic architecture, universities, and Dance, as body worship, is one of the most popularly scholasticism came to the fore. used communication tools in Christian education for Few scholars take the term “Dark Ages” seriously as children. Since children are imaginative in nature and a literal description of the period. Nonetheless, the term learn better by actively participating in the learning has much historical weight and symbolism. However processes, dance is not only effective in helping children colorful and dubious it might be, the term has a cer- learn the content of the Bible, but it helps them express tain meaning worth remembering. It implies a time of their knowing and feeling of God. Likewise, dance can chaotic violence, superstition, and illiteracy, which fol- be an effective teaching tool for children with learning lowed the Roman Empire’s collapse in the West in AD disabilities as well as senior citizens who have difficulty 476. Such developments are usually associated with the expressing themselves verbally. Dance is also an excellent “barbarian” groups (often Germanic) that overran and approach for Christian education in intergenerational settled on the territories that had once been Roman. settings. Today, many Christian organizations (e.g., In- This process began during the years of later antiquity ternational Christian Dance Fellowship) are making ef- and continued until well into the Middle Ages. Internal forts to form Christian fellowship by sharing Christian forces within the Roman Empire—notably the rise of dances in different cultural settings. Christianity, as well as the coarseningOnly and militarization of Roman government during the empire’s turbulent References and Resources final centuries—are also frequently emphasized in usage Adams, D. 1976. Congregational Dancing in Christian Worship. of the term “Dark Ages.” Aurora, IL: The Sharing Company. The idea of the Dark Ages comes from many sources. Bentley, S. 1982. “To Animate the Body of Christ.” The Chris- One critical theme in this regard is the Romans’ own tian Century, 19 May, 601–605. often condescending attitudes toward Germanic peoples Eaton, J. H. 1975. “Dancing in the Old Testament.” In Wor- who overran Roman territory. Even before the cata- ship and Dance, edited by J. G. Davies, 15–29. Birmingham, strophic invasions of the fourth and fifth centuries, many England: University of Birmingham Institute for the Study of Romans had long equated Germanic cultures with bar- Worship and Religious Architecture. barism.Copy This prejudicial view colored numerous Roman Kline-Chesson, K. 1989. “The Living Word: Dance as a works, like that of the late first-century Latin historian Language of Faith.” The Christian Century, March 22–29, Tacitus. His famous Germania (AD 98) is one of the 314–316. most important and earliest works focusing on the Ger- Long, A. 1986. Praise Him in the Dance. London: Hodder & manic tribes. While an invaluable source, Tacitus’s work Stoughton. frequently supports images and stereotypes that would Oesterley, W. O. E. 1984. The Sacred Dance: A Study in Com- come to dominate perceptions of the Germanic tribes for parative Folklore. New York: Horizons. many centuries: the Germans’ lack of respect for political Taylor, M. F. 1961. “Creative Movement in the Christian Edu- officialdom, their lack of monumental architecture, their cation of Children.” International Journal of Religious Educa- tendency toward drunkenness, their brave but disorderly tion (April): 164–181. militarism, and the general simplicity of their social ———. 1981. A Time to Dance: Symbolic Movement in Worship. structures. The barbarian invasions that began wreaking Aurora, IL: The Sharing Company. so much havoc in the late fourth century only reinforced —Mariana Hwang such attitudes. Images of marauding Germanic tribes who vandalized refined Roman cities—however inaccu- rate or sensationalized they might have been—inflamed Dark Ages, Christian Education the popular imagination for centuries. The loss of Greco- in the (AD 476–1000) Roman educational and literary heritages was an impor- tant component of these images. The IdeaContributor of the Dark Ages People living in the early Middle Ages did not gener- The “Dark Ages” were those centuries following the fall ally conceptualize the Western Empire’s fall in AD 476 of the Roman Empire in the West. They are characterized the way that those in later centuries did—as a historio- by chaotic tribal movements into territories abandoned graphical event of almost metaphysical proportions. The by the Romans. The period is also marked by the failure empire’s decline and fall actually involved many decades and disappearance of once stable Roman public institu- of gradual change. The deposition of the last emperor was tions. The Dark Ages traditionally correspond to the not all that noticed or mentioned by many writers and early Middle Ages until around 1000, when the “High” commentators of the day. It only in the Renaissance that 378 Dark Ages, Christian Education in the (AD 476–1000) the notion of the Dark Ages, and the related concept of to mental and physical health. Private associations (col- the Middle Ages, really emerged. legia) like schools flourished in this supportive physical For the most part, the idea of the Dark Ages comes environment, benefiting from the relatively ample physi- from Renaissance-era humanists. By their extreme idol- cal and cultural amenities provided by the state. This ization of classical Roman and Greek writings, they quality gives ancient schooling its relatively modern feel, indirectly indicted medieval culture as inferior. It was even though nothing truly comparable to modern formal therefore during the Renaissance that the concept of the educational systems existed in the ancient world. The Middle Ages came to be: a sort of downtime marking the Roman infrastructure found in many cities provided a years between the brilliance of the classical world and campus-like setting. The system of roads and the possi- the brilliance of the Renaissance. The early Middle Ages, bility of sending letters and texts also played a huge role. which witnessed the brunt of Rome’s catastrophic decline It supported the dissemination of ideas and texts and and fall, fared even worse. fostered communication between scholars in different The Enlightenment era historian Edward Gibbon ar- geographical locations; it provided a charming space for ticulated most substantively—and with the most focus— learning, lecturing, performing, and discussing. the notion of the great decline in learning that occurred When the Roman Empire fell, the public spaces and in late antiquity and the early medieval period. His De- infrastructure that had played such a significant role cline and Fall of the Roman Empire, the first volume of in classical education also largelyOnly disappeared. Along which appeared in 1776, chronicled page after laborious with the flat-out depopulation of many cities, the great page of decline in virtually all areas of intellectual life: buildings and green spaces of classical urban centers in- literature, schooling, poetry, the sciences, and even moral evitably fell into disrepair and, in many cases, ruination. and ethical outlooks. “It is almost unnecessary,” Gibbon The ambience of the famous classical schools vanished, wrote, “to remark that the civil distractions of the empire, replaced by a world that can often seem chaotic and re- the license of the soldiers, and the progress of despotism mote, especially to the casual observer. In some cases, the had proved very unfavorable to genius and even to learn- newcomers purposely destroyed the old buildings and ing. . . . The voice of poetry was silent. History was re- city centers, using their fine marble and brick stonework duced to dry and confused abridgements, alike destitute as a ready-made quarry for their own purposes. of amusement and instruction” (1776, chapter XIII). In Nonetheless,Copy many qualities of Roman public life were another famous section, he alleged that “a cloud of crit- retained by the Christian church in the early Middle ics, of compilers, of commentators, darkened the face of Ages. This was certainly true in terms of schooling and learning, and the decline of genius was soon followed by education, in which ecclesiastical resources such as mon- the corruption of taste” (1776, chapter II). asteries emerged as intellectual havens. They provided the chief form of learning and teaching in the centuries The Demise of Roman Public Life and Infrastructure immediately following the empire’s fall. So if it is not true In AD 476 the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus that learning in these so-called Dark Ages disappeared Augustulus (r. 475–476), was deposed by the German entirely, it certainly is true that learning and the insti- general Odoacer. Odoacer was technically a Roman gen- tutions that supported learning dramatically changed. eral, and his troops were technically Roman soldiers. But The cloister gradually replaced the forum as the primary in reality the practice of hiring German mercenaries in focus of intellectual life. The church also took over many the Roman legions had all but overrun the once mighty of the most important services that the Roman state had Roman army. The deposition of Romulus Augustulus once provided for learning and cultural life, including an traditionally marks the beginning of the Middle Ages. international structure. In both the Western and Eastern The empire’s disappearance in the West accompanied branches of Christianity, the church retained the inter- the demise of the public institutions and infrastructures national connectivity that had made classical learning so that had supported education. The absence of public, vibrant. And—especially with the new institution of mo- urban spaces and infrastructure is probably one of the nasticism—the church found a way to support teaching reasons thatContributor early medieval intellectual life and school- and learning, at a time when public life in most of Europe ing appears so different. The presence of public spaces in was faltering. urban centers constituted one of the most important fea- Finally, the pattern of abandonment and decay that tures of the oft-cited classical “schools” that supposedly affected Roman cultural life and infrastructure was gen- existed in ancient urban intellectual centers like Athens, erally prevalent in all the old Roman territories, though Rome, and Alexandria. In the Roman Empire, the thriv- probably in varying degrees depending on geographical ing forums of downtown city centers often provided location. Areas such as southern Italy or southern Gaul libraries, theaters, baths, and other amenities appealing seem to have maintained more of a Roman feel than Dark Ages, Christian Education in the (AD 476–1000) 379 other areas. And, of course, large areas of Central and source of energy and renewal. In this regard, the famous Eastern Europe had never been part of the Roman Em- “hermit saints” of the third and fourth centuries greatly pire at all, so the influence of the church, when it arrived, influenced what came later. Along with the physical and was especially significant. social deprivations like celibacy, hermitic poverty, and All in all, the classical heritage of the ancients lin- fasting, early Christian asceticism also emphasized prayer gered longer than simple labels such as the Dark Ages and the reading of the scripture. The ascetics emphasized might imply. Pockets of classical learning and civiliza- learning, even if they were reclusive and remote in their tion certainly survived well into the early Middle Ages. approaches. While often remembered as almost colorful Settlement patterns of some of the barbarian tribes were or humorous figures, desert or hermit saints like Saint localized, with some areas more drastically affected than Anthony and Saint Mary of Egypt reflected a growing others. In Gaul (France), for example, the Gallo-Roman emphasis on contemplative living, including meditation; world continued to thrive in many areas. Gallo-Roman long hours of solitary, intensive studying; and prayer. In- scholars like the famous Gregory of Tours—who ulti- deed, the famous biography of the desert saint Anthony mately served as bishop of Tours from 573 to 594—wrote describes him as having an uncanny memory for books his important work The History of the Franks, a key work (Athanasius, Life of Anthony, V). that provides a precious glimpse of these “dark” years The first formal monastic order is usually associated when the Merovingians ruled France, as well as many with Benedict (480–543). A RomanOnly born of noble origins areas of Germany. Though living in the very depths of the in a world still steeped in the afterglow of classical antiq- chaotic post-Roman world, Gregory’s work more or less uity, Benedict resembled other aristocratic figures of later retained the Latin of his Gallo-Roman ancestors. antiquity like Augustine, Ambrose, and Saint Martin of In later antiquity, Christianity intellectual vitality and Tours, in that he found the public, secular life of cities increasingly wealthy congregations had created some- and careers distasteful and corrupt. For a time in his thing of a “brain drain” on Roman society. Many of youth he spent a “hermit period” living in rugged caves the best and brightest of antiquity’s learned men and and forests outside of the city. In 529 he founded his fa- women were increasingly attracted to the church. In the mous monastic community, in Monte Cassino, outside of late fourth century, Ambrose of Milan, the learned and Naples. While borrowing heavily from the outlooks and eloquent bishop who had so moved Augustine, was such mentalitiesCopy of earlier ascetic figures, Benedict’s approach a figure. Also, Gregory of Tours similarly came from an distinguished itself by synthesizing the seemingly irrec- aristocratic and senatorial background, showing that this oncilable principles of community and solitude: a mo- trend continued well into the late sixth century, at least nastic group of close-knit followers ruled by an “abbot,” in some areas. Even more telling was Boethius (480–524), living apart from the public world. the learned Roman who lived in Ostrogothic Italy. His Benedict promulgated a “rule” of living in the monas- famous book The Consolation of Philosophy reflects per- tic community that would deeply shape other monastic haps the last great specimen of truly classical learning— endeavors for centuries to come. Among their other including familiarity with Aristotle—in western Europe endeavors, Benedictine contributions to learning and until the dawn of the Renaissance. education were especially significant. The “Benedictine Rule” included in its “Prologue” the command for monks The Monastic Heritage living by the rule to establish a school around which to After 476, learning would be closely equated with the center their contemplative and educational activities. monastic institutions that developed in the years follow- Above all, the school’s sole raison d’être was the service ing the empire’s demise. Monastic traditions also came to of God. Perhaps more than any other single entity, the dominate learning in the Byzantine Empire. Benedictine Rule established a powerful bond between In both East and West, monastic impulses derived Christianity and education that would deeply shape the from the ascetic traditions of earlier centuries. Well face of Western learning for many centuries to come. before monastic orders were formally recognized in the As Benedict’s influence spread into lands dominated sixth century,Contributor strong ascetic tendencies had emerged by barbarian tribes, monasteries came to symbolize quiet in the church. Monasticism took the vigor and energy oases of tranquility and order in a sometimes chaotic from these earlier ascetic traditions and channeled them age. They were also centers of literacy and schooling in a more orderly, constructive, institutional direction. in a time of illiteracy and ignorance. Pope Gregory the The extreme activities and practices of some of the her- Great (r. 590–604) is often credited for spreading the mit saints arguably entailed harmful aspects physically, monastic systems and encouraging their formal status as psychologically, and spiritually. However, in terms of a holy order in Western Christianity. The second of his their devotion to faith, the ascetics represented a vital written Dialogues praised Benedict. Gregory recalled that 380 Dark Ages, Christian Education in the (AD 476–1000)

Benedict had had the finest education in the liberal arts, help facilitate the conversion of the Visigoths, Ulfilas but had a reaction similar to that of Augustine of Hippo developed a written script for the Gothic language. He to the popular elite learning of the time. In particular, omitted the warlike book of Kings in his translation, no Benedict had found the secular approach to education doubt convinced that the frequently marauding Visigoths corrupt—a means to worldly pleasures, riches, and vani- needed no further encouragement in this regard. Perhaps ties. Benedict yearned for a deeper learning that brought of even greater significance were the Byzantine mission- the heart and mind to Christ. Praising Benedict’s sincer- aries Saints Cyril (827–869) and Methodius (826–885), ity and humility, Gregory became an active promoter of credited with having developed the Cyrillic alphabet, monastic communities organized along the Benedictine especially prevalent amongst the Slavic languages. lines. Indeed, the Gallo-Roman historian Gregory of Despite the influence of missionaries, there was rela- Tours reported that Gregory had already founded six tively little “national literature” in the major Slavic monasteries in Sicily and one in Rome—with his own languages until late in the Middle Ages or early modern resources—before taking on the great mantle as pope period. The first work entirely in Polish was not written (Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, X. 1). until 1513. Works in the Russian language were virtually The monastic ideals regarding education also extended nonexistent until the 17th century. Throughout much to women. Nunneries began to appear sporadically quite of the Middle Ages, Orthodox Slavic churches relied on early in the Middle Ages, like the nunnery at Arles de- “Slavonic,” a language developed Onlyprimarily for ecclesias- scribed by Gregory of Tours in his famous work History tical purposes by Byzantine teachers. of the Franks (IV. 26). The Arles nunnery is described With regard to the division between Eastern and as already existing during the reign of the Merovingian Western churches that characterized learning in the ruler King Charibert (d. 567), which would fix the date Dark Ages, these missionary activities played a key role sometime around the mid-sixth century—even before in the distinctions between educational models in the Gregory’s time as pope. Given their relative adherence to Byzantine and Catholic worlds. An important distinc- the same general principles as their male counterparts, it tion that emerged early on would shape literacy patterns seems probable that nuns were the early medieval world’s for centuries to come. The Catholic world of the Latin most well-educated women. West discouraged the translation of the Vulgate into the vernacularCopy languages of the people. It also sought to Missionaries and Education maintain Latin liturgy. This ensured that the Latin lan- As learning and education took more institutional form guage would not only become a virtual lingua franca for at the core of Christian discipleship, Christian missionary the medieval world—especially in terms of literature and activity came to have an increasingly educational dimen- letters—but also arguably gave a greater sense of con- sion. Indeed, education and training has always been at nectivity to the Latin church than the Byzantine one had. the heart of most missionary endeavors ever since. The Conversely, the Byzantine church was generally more church’s missionary outreach to pagan and barbarian accommodating to the translation of the scripture from peoples in its early evangelical period is no exception. Greek or Hebrew. This meant that many of the Slavic The missionary activity of the early Middle Ages espe- peoples who converted to the Orthodox brand of Chris- cially emphasized literacy, if for no other reason than tianity ultimately developed “national” churches, within that literacy promoted the reading of the Bible. In some the framework of the Orthodox fellowship. Nothing re- cases, whole alphabets or writing systems were devised ally comparable to the East’s “national churches”—like by Christian missionaries, deeply influencing language the Bulgarian Orthodox Church or the Russian Ortho- and literacy patterns still visible today in the linguistic dox Church (each with its own patriarch)—existed in the framework of Europe. In other cases, holy languages such Latin West. This also affected the respective influences of as Latin were promoted among non-Romanized peoples, the Greek and Latin languages. While Greek remained pushing ancient languages like Latin forward into the an important language of scholarship and learning—as Middle Ages and further promoting their already huge well as being the original language of the New Testa- influence onContributor learning and literacy. ment—it did not overlay vast geographical territories, as Among the best early examples of missionary activ- Latin did in western Europe. ity with regard to literacy and the alphabet was Ulfilas (310–383). An Arian, Ulfilas helped spread his heretical Libraries version of Christianity to the Visigoths, who would take One popular image of the Dark Ages is that of the barbar- Arianism with them into Spain (they finally converted ians burning libraries. It is a potent and symbolically rich to orthodox Nicene, Catholic Christianity in 589). To image, to be sure. Nonetheless, many questions remain. Dark Ages, Christian Education in the (AD 476–1000) 381

Great libraries like those on the Capitol Hill in Rome are classical and biblical—tend to be more recent, often dat- often imagined to have been destroyed or burned during ing from the Carolingian period. barbarian sacks of the city, like those of the Visigoths in 410 or the Vandals in 455. But though such images cer- The British Isles tainly correspond to long-held conceptions of the fall of In the English-speaking world, few areas evoke the sense Rome to barbarism, the details of any such destruction of the Dark Ages more than the British Isles in the early of the empire’s libraries are not really clear. Yet clues do Middle Ages. With its rich mix of Celtic and Germanic emerge. One thing that seems certain is that many books heritages and its literature and legends, the early me- of the ancient world were lost to the ages, along with the dieval British Isles has long fascinated scholars of the libraries that once housed them. period. Invading Germanic tribes like the Angles, Sax- While there are many allusions to libraries in ancient ons, and Danes brought to Britain a Viking-like world, or early medieval writings, they are often made in pass- imported directly from the non-Romanized areas of the ing and lack detail. Specific information about the func- European continent: Scandinavia and central Germany. tion of these libraries is scarce. Moreover, cataloging The petty warlords with their shifting tribal realms and of book collections in the modern sense seems to have violent codes of honor and plunder evoke everything been rare or nonexistent. There are virtually no library popular culture has long associated with the Dark Ages. records from these early periods. Indeed, many of the When the Romans began withdrawingOnly troops from ancient world’s most famous libraries—like the Library England under Emperor Honorius (r. 393–423), the at Alexandria—seem to be fixtures of myth and legend. island descended into chaos. Led by the semilegendary It can therefore be difficult to chronicle or catalog librar- warlords Hengist and Horsa, Anglo-Saxon invasions ies of the ancient or early medieval worlds. Indeed, even began by the mid-fifth century, pushing the old Roman- defining what a library was (as opposed to a few scattered ized Celtic Britons farther back into the fringes of the is- books) can prove difficult. land like Cornwall, Wales, and Scotland. In the years that The monks of early medieval monasteries showed followed, a “heptarchy” of seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms great respect for the ancient world’s books and librar- settled on the southern and eastern areas of the island— ies. They took it upon themselves to preserve what they the area that today corresponds to England proper. These could of the ancient libraries and to continue the useful smallCopy kingdoms were Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Kent, East practice of collecting books. At some point early in the Anglia, Northumbria, and Mercia. By the 10th century, Middle Ages, collections from the old libraries—both these counties had unified into a single English nation— public and private—were apparently moved to the new Angleland, the Land of the Angles. monastic settings. The extent of this transfer is very Of all the areas that had once been Roman territory, murky and subject to a fair amount of popular specula- few suffered a greater “decline” in culture, stability, and tion. Yet despite the murky nature of the period in gen- learning than England did in the fifth and sixth centuries. eral, it seems clear that when the dust had settled, mo- The Latin language virtually disappeared from Britain nastic libraries across Western Europe were the primary with the departure of Roman troops. By way of contrast, holders of what ancient books remained. Whether this Latin remained deeply rooted in lands such as Gaul, resulted from the actual physical movement of ancient Spain, Romania, and Italy. Indeed, in many of those areas books into monastic collections or monastic recopying Latin had become the everyday vernacular. Conversely, efforts will likely never be known. Britain entered into an obscure period with few written Most monastic libraries housed codex collections. records and much violence. Legendary, quasi-historical Older papyrus scrolls—while not unknown in the figures like King Arthur reflect the murky historical West—generally appear with far greater frequency in the understanding of events in this period following Rome’s Arab and Byzantine sites of North Africa and the east- withdrawal. ern Mediterranean. The ancient scrolls—while of enor- Nonetheless, the British Isles retained important pock- mous value today in terms of archaeology and textual ets of learning and education in these years. In Ireland, a criticism—hadContributor far less practical value to early medieval distinctive brand of Celtic monasticism emerged in the people than did competent, reliable copies of the an- years following the conversion of the people under the cient documents. As a general rule, Western collections tutelage and guidance of Saint Patrick. Ireland had never housed fewer of the great classical texts of the ancient been conquered by Rome. This independent sensibil- world. Even today, many of the most important classical ity, along with Ireland’s other charming and distinctive texts that were preserved are edited with medieval Arab qualities, lent the Christianity that evolved there a pow- or Greek markings. Also, Western manuscripts—both erful bond to the local and regional Celtic cultures of the 382 Dark Ages, Christian Education in the (AD 476–1000) island. Even today, Celtic Christianity possesses a distinc- family members, or absorbed by osmosis in the warm, tive feel that many still find highly attractive. close-knit communities that characterized most of the In the sixth and seventh centuries, many of the most Anglo-Saxon groups. important centers of learning were in Ireland. Learned In terms of education and learning, perhaps the most figures such as Saint Finnian (d. 549), the abbot of the critical event in Anglo-Saxon history occurred in 596, monastery at Clonard, taught his monastic students a when Gregory the Great sent the monk Augustine to be rich blend of Celtic traditions along with Latin texts like a missionary to the pagan peoples of the Anglo-Saxon the Vulgate or other ecclesiastical writings. Missionary kingdom of Kent. Pagan king Ethelbert (r. 590–616) of activity from such Irish communities spread the intel- Kent was encouraged in this regard by the apparently lectually vital brand of Christianity to new areas both in very persuasive charms of his Roman Catholic wife, the British Isles and on the continent. One of the most Bertha, a Merovingian princess from Christian France. famous of the Irish missionary monks was Columba of Upon arriving in Kent, Ethelbert acquiesced to both his Iona, who left Ireland in 565 on a missionary journey to wife’s and Augustine’s diplomatic entreaties, allowing the Picts of Scotland. A leading scholar of his time, Co- the monk to establish a monastic community there in lumba founded a monastery at Iona. As abbot, he trained Canterbury, which went on to become the seat of all disciples in the reading of the scriptures. He also reported English Christianity. The archbishop of Canterbury seeing the Loch Ness monster, which at the time was de- would in time become one of the Onlymost important offices picted as a type of giant reptilian sea horse. in English politics. But if Ireland and the Celtic fringes of Great Britain Having established a foothold in the southeast of Eng- retained strong literary and monastic cultures, the Anglo- land, the church began to promote learning and literacy Saxon areas of the island were practically illiterate. Most among the Anglo-Saxon peoples. Significantly, mission- of the Anglo-Saxon language (i.e., “Old English”) seems aries began to bring books and other learning materials to have been orally transmitted in its earliest appear- to the island. In 601, Augustine communicated to Pope ances. The Anglo-Saxon language was written in runic Gregory the need for more priestly help and supplies. lettering on occasion, but such examples are rare and Gregory sent Abbot Mellitus, who would later become often reserved to inscriptions. Later in the Anglo-Saxon both archbishop of Canterbury and the first bishop of period, around the seventh century, when Beowulf was London.Copy In his important work The Ecclesiastical History probably written, Latin lettering was adopted, with some of the English People, the historian Venerable Bede writes runic symbols and elements retained. In general, prob- that among the supplies Mellitus brought with him from ably most of the scholars who could write Anglo-Saxon southern Europe was an ample library of books (I. 29). also knew Latin, so Latin greatly influenced the devel- The introduction of these books, understated in Bede, opment of Anglo-Saxon writing. By the ninth century, represented the beginning of a major shift in Anglo- many of the most important Anglo-Saxon scholars, like Saxon intellectual life and culture. When one considers Venerable Bede (673–735), wrote in Latin. The important that there were probably next to no books in all of Anglo- biography of the Anglo-Saxon king of Wessex, Life of Saxon England at this point, the significance of these first King Alfred the Great, was also written in Latin, by the imported library collections becomes even more appar- Welsh monk in Alfred’s employ, Asser (d. c. 909). Old ent. From this point forward, study of holy texts—both English remained an important language until well after the Bible and other writings—became an integral compo- the Norman invasion of 1066, when it gradually yielded nent of the Christianization of the English nation. to Middle English. Nonetheless, much of the scholarship As the connectional nature of Roman Christianity was increasingly in Latin. began to spread to the other little Anglo-Saxon monar- chies, the seeds of a refined English literary culture grew Bringing Books to the North and disseminated. Within several decades of Augustine’s Prior to the advent of monasticism in the late sixth cen- first visit to Kent, all the Christian areas of Anglo-Saxon tury, there were virtually no libraries in the Anglo-Saxon England would acknowledge the see at Canterbury. In world. CulturalContributor amenities such as theaters, or classi- 664, Pope Vitalian (r. 657–672) sent the great scholar cal guilds in areas such as medicine or teaching, were and priest Theodore to Canterbury, where he served as virtually unknown. Typical of most Germanic tribes, the first archbishop of Canterbury to be acknowledged especially in the smaller and more rustic settlements, the by all the English. Born in Tarsus, in Cilicia, Theodore Anglo-Saxons possessed a largely oral culture. Training possessed an excellent education in the older sense, being was probably done by parents, emphasizing practical schooled in both Greek and Latin. He was also familiar matters of livelihood and survival. Cultural matters such with the classical ancient sciences. Once he was in Eng- as religious or moral values were also probably taught by land, education became a major part of Theodore’s out- Dark Ages, Christian Education in the (AD 476–1000) 383 reach as archbishop. Wherever he visited on the island, over the island, along with Christianity, Anglo-Saxon he would gather round him a group of students, to whom England became one of Western Europe’s most learned he taught not only scriptures, but also science, poetry, locations during these “dark ages.” and astronomy. He taught them to calculate the proper Gradually Angle-Saxon energy and common wisdom dates for Christian observances, using the Christian- fused with the refined brand of postclassical learning ized Roman calendar. During his tenure as archbishop gaining strength in the monasteries and ecclesiastical of Canterbury, Theodore founded the famous School at centers of Western Europe. In the years after the intro- Canterbury, which ushered in a new epoch in terms of duction of Roman Christianity into Kent, learning and Anglo-Saxon learning. education in Anglo-Saxon England steadily spread and Along with Archbishop of Canterbury Theodore and increased. By the eighth century, England had emerged as Abbot Hadrian, another important scholarly figure from one of Western Europe’s most refined and important in- this period in Anglo-Saxon history was the monk Bene- tellectual centers. The kingdom of Northumbria became dict (628–690). Bede wrote about Benedict in both his particularly equated with learning, beginning with the Ecclesiastical History of the English People and his Lives conversion of King Edwin (r. 616–633) to Christianity of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow. Benedict would in 625. Following the conversion of Edwin, the Whitby found the important library at Northumbria. It became a Abbey became a major center of learning and worship. major center of learning not only in Anglo-Saxon Eng- The famous Anglo-Saxon poet,Only musician, and convert land, but in Western Europe as a whole. An Anglo-Saxon to monasticism Caedmon (d. 680) served the Whitby by birth, Benedict had lived in Rome on an extended pil- Abbey, where his poems and writings on topics such grimage to the city of St. Peter. When the pope sent Theo- as Creation and Old Testament epics inspired many. dore and Hadrian to England from Rome, he appointed Although a somewhat folkloric figure, he remains an Benedict to accompany them as an interpreter and guide. important touchstone in modern understandings of the Benedict was a lifelong voracious student. Upon the ar- musical arts and literature in the still relatively rough- rival of his holy entourage in England, Benedict served hewn Old English culture of the day. as abbot of the Monastery of St. Peter’s in Kent (later Perhaps the most important figure in the brilliant renamed after Saint Augustine of Canterbury). Two years period of Northumbrian learning was Venerable Bede later he returned to Rome, where he procured a huge (673–735).Copy Bede’s writings rank among the most valu- number of books. Some were bought at advantageous able, and sophisticated, of the period. Alongside its prices in the markets of Rome. Some, interestingly, were essential narratives regarding the important bishops, given to Benedict as charitable donations (Lives of the Ab- abbots, and kings of Anglo-Saxon England, much can bots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, IV). Stopping by Vienne, also be gleaned about teaching and learning among the France, on his return to England, he procured even more early Anglo-Saxon Christians. Bede’s most famous work, books from friends he had there. Ecclesiastical History of the English People, ranks as one of Upon returning to England, Benedict made his way the most important sources for this often murky period home to his native Northumbria, where King Egfrid (r. of transition in Anglo-Saxon culture. Among other in- 670–685) received him favorably. Egfrid gave Benedict valuable details Bede provides, he emphasizes the role of a huge tract of land on the banks of the Wear River. teaching and training as an essential component of mis- Benedict used the gift to establish a major Benedictine sionary activity to the pagans. His other extant writings monastery. He also established his famous library there. are also significant in this regard. In his famous letter to In the coming years, he would augment the monastery’s Bishop Egbert (d.729), Bede encourages memorization collection with books procured from subsequent trips to of prayers and scripture in both Latin and Anglo-Saxon. Rome. This was one of the most famous and important This letter also implies that while new converts are to libraries of the early Middle Ages. be encouraged and taught using the Saxon vernacular, knowledge of the Latin tongue should be encouraged and Northern Europe Catches Up expected of all mature Christians. In the Contributoryears following the lives of learned men like The famous Saint Boniface (c. 675–754) is usually cited Theodore, Hadrian, and Benedict, Anglo-Saxon England as the first Anglo-Saxon to write an instructional Latin became one of Western Europe’s most important centers grammar book. In 719, he left England as a missionary of learning. The “English” then went on to develop one to the Germans on the continent. Famous for chopping of the most important and sophisticated literary cultures down the famous “Oak of Thor” in Hesse, Boniface in the early Middle Ages. A rich tradition developed in evangelized his way across Frisia and Germany, eventu- terms of written literature in “Old English,” as Anglo- ally becoming the archbishop of Mainz. The Carolingian Saxon would come to be known. As monasticism spread family of the Franks supported his missionary endeavors, 384 Dark Ages, Christian Education in the (AD 476–1000) welcoming his expansion of Roman Christianity into the rampant illiteracy that was accepted as normal in the pagan areas of Germany. He founded many monaster- Middle Ages (Einhard, Life of Charlemagne, 25). None- ies and schools across Germany, promoting the blend of theless, Charlemagne was a great proponent of liberal arts Latin and German intellectual culture that was increas- education. Einhard reports that Charlemagne took care ingly prevalent in his native England. to provide his children with the finest education available Another important Anglo-Saxon writer in the years at the time. He had them trained in the traditional liberal before the Norman invasion of 1066 was Aelfric. Liv- arts, including physical activity like riding and hunt- ing in the late 10th century, Aelfric was a learned Old ing, which the king also regarded as equally formative English writer who, among his many other intellectual and beneficial for the young. Charlemagne also began activities, emphasized the learning and transmission a circuit of “cathedral schools.” The most important of of Latin. His Colloquy provides a discourse between the cathedral schools were at Chartres and at Paris. But a Latin teacher and Anglo-Saxon students. As well as others of generally comparable approach and style were being an important window into the blending of Old found throughout the areas of Frankish control. English and Latin culture in the learning and education Cathedral schools constitute a link between the re- of the time, it more generally provides a glimpse into mote monastic schools of the earlier Middle Ages and the banter and telling exchanges between a teacher and the great universities that arose during the 11th and young 10th-century students. 12th centuries, the height of medievalOnly civilization. Pub- By the time of the watershed invasion of England by lic institutions of sorts, they seem to have been available the Normans in 1066, Anglo-Saxon culture had devel- to children of all ages. Cathedral schools also promoted oped into a rich and intellectually vibrant heritage. It learning in the classical liberal arts, at a time when combined Old English with a Latin overlay, drawing these humanistic endeavors were largely unknown heavily on both ecclesiastical resources and national by the mainstream of Frankish culture. Education character and traditions. It also reflected more generally in cathedral schools also further promoted the Latin the growing universality of the Latin language as a form tongue, especially in areas where the German dialects of communication and means of literary expression. prevailed. Moreover, in further testimony to the grow- ing vibrancy of Anglo-Saxon intellectual life during this Continental Developments: period,Copy Charlemagne imported the great scholar Alcuin The Carolingian Renaissance (735–804), sometimes called Albinus, from England to On the continent, Christianity’s contributions to educa- supervise education in the cathedral schools. He was tion intersected heavily with the ever-growing power one of the most learned men of the day. of the Frankish monarchs. Early monastic libraries and In still another key development during the period, schools like the one founded by Pope Gregory the Great Carolingian scholars endeavored to recopy many of the at Arles in the sixth century had continued to grow, ancient texts, which by the eighth century were mold- providing something of a haven of order and reason in ering in monastic libraries. This was a huge endeavor. this bloody, warrior age. In the eighth century, the great Unfortunately, in the process of recopying ancient doc- Frankish king Charlemagne (r. 768–814) launched an uments—a much-needed service to future generations especially vigorous attempt to stimulate learning and in an age preceding the printing press—they frequently education. His efforts in this regard are sometimes burned the earlier versions of the texts as redundant junk. called the “Carolingian Renaissance.” The Carolingian Of course, today the earlier versions of these texts would Renaissance was prompted by an acute awareness that be of great value to scholars, since the art of studying much in the way of learning had been lost in the years early documents invariably requires getting as close as since the fall of the Roman Empire. This fact alone possible to a text’s original wording and meaning. This is makes it highly significant. Though it faced significant especially true because alterations in wording, punctua- challenges, the Carolingian Renaissance laid the foun- tion, and even content invariably appear over generations dation for many educational developments that arose of manual recopying. In Western Europe today, many of later in theContributor Middle Ages. the most important and earliest copies of ancient manu- Charlemagne’s royal biographer Einhard (775–840) scripts are from the Carolingian period. describes the king as generally illiterate, having begun his The monks of the Carolingian period developed a new formal education late in life. He would practice writing script to facilitate easier copying and reading. Called Car- the alphabet letters late into the night. Einhard reports olingian minuscule, this new script featured small letters that the king struggled to learn even these basic rudiments and other forms of punctuation, making reading much of reading and writing—an especially telling reminder of easier. Over time, the new script enabled the downward Darwin and Evolutionary Theory 385 dissemination of simple reading mechanics into lower Riché, Pierre. 1976. Education and Culture in the Barbarian social classes. This new script also arguably aided the West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century. Translated move toward use of vernacular languages such as French, by John J. Contreni. Columbia: University of South Carolina German, and Italian. Press. Rouse, R. H. 1992. “The Transmission of the Texts.” In The The Iberian Peninsula Legacy of Rome: A New Appraisal, edited by Richard Jenkyns, Perhaps the most heterogeneous and vibrant area of edu- 241–267. New York: Oxford University Press. cation and intellectual life in the Dark Ages was Spain. Wickham, Chris. 2009. The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating By the early sixth century, the Visigoths had settled in the Dark Ages, 400–1000. New York: Penguin Books. much of Spain, following their famous marauding treks —David Leinweber through much of southeastern Europe, Italy, and Gaul. Arian Christians, the Visigoths uneasily blended their rough barbarian mannerisms with Christian, Latin influ- Darwin and Evolutionary Theory ences, not unlike other Germanic peoples during this pe- riod. In 589, the Visigoths converted to Roman Catholic, Many battles over the content of Christian general edu- Nicene Christianity. With formal bonds now connecting cation and doctrinal teaching have been fought with one them to the system of bishop and abbots elsewhere in Eu- eye on the issue of evolution. MostOnly biologists argue that rope, Roman Catholicism in Spain furthered the inroads the evidence and explanatory power for the descent, of monastic learning into the Visigothic culture. Vi- with modifications, of all present-day organisms from sigothic Spain became another one of Europe’s somewhat common ancestors is so strong that evolution must be unlikely centers of learning and education, with a vibrant declared a fact. While debate continues over the detailed intellectual heritage that not only enriched peninsular pattern and mechanisms of evolution, few doubt that the learning per se, but also influenced all of Western Chris- natural selection of chance variations,3 as proposed by tendom. It was in this period that the bishop Isidore of Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and (independently) Alfred Seville (d. c. 636) penned his important Etymologies. This Russel Wallace (1823–1919), is a major driver. Differen- work sought to classify various branches of knowledge in tial survival and reproduction inevitably favor the inheri- a way that helped shape educational disciplines and areas tanceCopy by future generations of those characteristics that of inquiry later in the Middle Ages. better adapt animals and plants to their environment, In 711 the Arabs invaded Spain, ending Visigothic leading to changes over time that may be reflected in the domination of the Iberian Peninsula. The Arabs brought fossil record as well as in the comparative anatomy and with them some of the world’s most advanced learning biochemistry of contemporary organisms (especially in at that time. Though often vaguely considered more their DNA). North African than Western European, the excellent Darwin also proposed a role for sexual selection, in Arab scholars who came into Spain in this period had which individuals are selected relative to other members of an enormous influence on Western learning. Over time, the same sex for anatomical or behavioral features related Arab scholarship and learning would especially influence to mating. Geographical distribution and random genetic areas such as medicine. Arab mathematicians also proved drift are additional evolutionary mechanisms; reproduc- influential. Algebra and “Arabic numerals”—including tive separation in different environments led different zero—were great improvements in numbering and math- populations to evolve into distinct species (“speciation”). ematics. In the coming years, Arabic numerals would gradually replace the cumbersome system of Roman Theological Implications of Evolution numerals in all but the most formal numbering schemes. Prior to Darwin, the striking complexity of organisms And it was from the Arab centers of education in Is- and their adaptations to their environment seemed to lamic Spain that Aristotle—largely forgotten by Western require a supernatural designer. With organisms, as with Christians—would eventually move across the Pyrenees watches, “when several different parts contribute to one into France. Arab learning in these “dark ages” arguably effect . . . [this seems] decisive evidence of understanding, Contributor 4 surpassed that of the Latin West. intention, art.” But Darwin eventually came to believe that “there seems to be no more design in the variability References and Resources of organic beings and in the action of natural selection, Gibbon, Edward. 1776. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- pire. New York: Penquin Classics, 1996. 3. These variations (now tracked back to gene or chromosome muta- tions) are regarded as “random” or “chance” events in the sense of being Herman, Arthur. 1997. The Idea of Decline in Western History. unrelated to the organism’s need for survival or reproduction. Florence, MA: Free Press. 4. William Paley, Natural Theology (London: R. Faulder, 1802), 282. 386 Darwin and Evolutionary Theory than in the course which the wind blows.” Evolution, it tist to be a scientist.”6 But doctrinally, creation is primar- is often claimed, involves no more than a “blind watch- ily about God’s continuous preservation of (an evolving) maker,” working through a “blind, unconscious, auto- world—which is a metaphysical view, rather than about matic process.”5 its origins—which are open to scientific exploration. Various reformulations of the argument for design Evolution, operating with amoral indifference, is often are possible, and theistic evolution includes a variety of said to exacerbate the problem of suffering. For sentient theological accounts of how God creates through evolu- organisms, pain is an inevitable by-product of the com- tion. All accept that God creates and sustains the laws of petition and struggle for limited resources that results in natural selection and the mechanisms of mutation, and selection. It is also an unavoidable consequence of the perhaps determines the fundamental physical constants (equally inevitable?) evolution of predators, parasites, of nature so as to permit life to exist. Some hold that and pathogens. Although Darwin’s deistic view of God God, having once designed the process, leaves the process originally allowed him to think that an omniscient God to produce the products; others argue for a providential could be the primary cause of the “secondary means” of steering of the course of evolution, either at a very general the law of natural selection,7 a more complete agnosticism level or through God’s additional activity operating in a finally triumphed—fed by Darwin’s recognition of the hidden way below the level of statistical scientific laws. lowly origins of the human mind as well as the problem of More radically, intelligent design (ID) theorists, while dis- pain. Even in 1860 he confessed: Only“There seems to be too tancing themselves from older creationist traditions that much misery in the world. I cannot persuade myself that opposed at least all macroevolution (evolution at the level a beneficent and omnipotent God would have designedly of species and above), hold that unnatural interventions created the Ichneumonidae [parasitic wasps] with the ex- are required to form many complex structures and chem- press intention of their feeding within the living bodies of ical pathways within cells and organisms. (A. R. Wallace caterpillars, or that a cat should play with mice.”8 also allowed for the need for some additional input from Wallace, by contrast, judged the sufferings of animals “a world of spirit,” particularly in the evolution of human in the evolutionary struggle for existence to be “altogether beings.) However, although chance alone could not pro- insignificant.” Others have argued that nature’s “beautiful, duce biological complexity from scratch, like a hurricane tragic, and perpetually incomplete” lives “speak for God; sweeping through a junkyard and assembling an aircraft, they Copyprophesy as they participate in the divine pathos. All evolution works in a piecemeal, cumulative fashion, have ‘borne our griefs and carried our sorrows.’”9 modifying the functions of existing elements. In this way, random changes, together with the selection of effective Evolution and Education adaptations, can build complex structures. The most careful recent polls report that around 39 per- From the first, Darwin’s theory embraced human be- cent of adults in the United States and 18 percent in the ings, and he later argued that the differences between United Kingdom reject human evolution. In response to humans and present-day apes were differences only of questions about compulsory education, however, most degree, with both groups sharing common anthropoid surveys show that a majority want “a range of theories” ancestors. Compared with the doctrine of a special cre- to be taught, reflecting the creationists’ protest that “the ation of humans in the image of God and the biblical arguments on both sides [evolution and special creation] claim that the rest of creation was created by God for should be presented, and children should be free to choose human beings (Gen. 1:26–28), evolution offers a humbler between them.”10 But creationism and ID are dismissed perspective. At another level, evolutionary theory chal- by almost all biologists on account of their lack of empiri- lenges some theologies of Adam’s Fall, by giving Homo cal support, poor predictive power, inconsistencies with sapiens a history of ancestors in evolutionary history and other areas of science, and inability to illuminate scien- replacing the paradisal environment of Genesis with one tific problems or advance scientific knowledge. in which suffering and death were already present. Theories about the origin of species appear to be The challenge of “Darwinism” ran deeper than a treated by the wider public rather like political ideolo- particular view of scripture, to general questions about Contributor 6. Owen Chadwick, The Victorian Church (London: A. and C. Black, method (How is truth to be found?) and about the auton- 1970), Part II, 20. omy of science: “The conflict was not ultimately over the 7. Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species (London: John Murray, first theory of evolution . . . but over the freedom of the scien- edition 1859), ch. XIV. 8. Francis Darwin, ed., The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin (New York: D. Appleton & Co, 1901), 2:105. 9. Holmes Rolston III, Science and Religion: A Critical Survey (New 5. Charles Darwin, The Autobiography of Charles Darwin, 1809–1822, York: Random House, 1987), 145. ed. Norma Barlow (London: Collins, 1958), 87; and Richard Dawkins, The 10. D. C. C. Watson, The Great Brain Robbery (Chicago: Moody, 1976), Blind Watchmaker (London: Penguin, 1988), 5. 103. Dawson, Christopher Henry 387 gies, for which fairness demands that each has an equal on-Wye on the Welsh-English border and was educated hearing. Science would not progress on that model. at Winchester College and Trinity College, Oxford, While creationist and ID beliefs are proper topics within where he studied history and economics under Sir Er- a study of religion and help to clarify the logical status nest Barker. Dawson was influenced by a wide variety of of the doctrine of creation and the distinction between writers, including Ernst Troeltsch, Max Weber, Edmund scientific and religious claims, most scientists hold that Burke, and Frederic Le Play. Through the works of these it is educationally irresponsible to teach them within the writers, Dawson became convinced that religion has science syllabus. played a dynamic role in cultural development and, on Many empirical studies show that young people’s a grander scale, the growth and decay of civilizations. adoption of a creationist view is detrimental to their in- He believed that the crises of his time were the result of terest in science, and also that their adoption of scientism declining “Christian culture” as a unifying, moral force (the view that absolute truth may be obtained through in the West, and that liberalism’s dismissal of the tran- science, and only through science) suppresses the devel- scendent spiritual and moral order was bringing about oping of a positive attitude to Christianity. Some studies “secular totalitarianism.”12 The West, he argued, and also reveal a significant underlying positive relationship Christians in particular, had to rediscover the organic, between the attitude pupils hold toward Christianity (or religious elements that had played a progressive role in theism in general) and their attitude toward science, but its development and achievements.Only On a trip to Rome in find that this is obscured where students adopt either 1914, Dawson committed to conversion from his Anglo- creationism or scientism. There are implications here for Catholicism to Roman Catholicism. He also vowed to the teaching of both religion and science.11 write a multivolume history of civilizations, not coinci- dentally where Edward Gibbon had made his own vow to References and Resources write his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Although Alexander, Denis. 2008. Creation or Evolution? Do We Have to he never completed the series, Dawson was a remarkably Choose? Oxford: Monarch. prolific writer throughout his long career, writing close Ayala, Francisco J. 2006. Darwin and Intelligent Design. Min- to 30 books and over 200 articles between 1920 and 1961. neapolis, MN: Fortress Press. He was Gifford Lecturer at the University of Edinburgh Barton, Stephen C., and David Wilkinson, eds. 2009. Reading inCopy 1946 and 1947, and his first full-time academic post Genesis after Darwin. New York: Oxford University Press. was as the first Chauncey-Stillman Chair of Roman Cath- Dembski, William A., and Michael Ruse, eds. 2004. Debating olic Studies at Harvard University, a position he took up Design: From Darwin to DNA. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge in 1958. During his tenure at Harvard, Dawson suffered University Press. a series of strokes; he resigned from his position in 1962 Peters, Ted, and Martinez Hewlett. 2003. Evolution from Cre- and returned to England, where he died in 1970.13 ation to New Creation: Conflict, Conversation and Conver- gence. Nashville, TN: Abingdon. Significant Contributions to Christian Education Ruse, Michael. 2001. Can a Darwinian be a Christian? The Dawson believed that Christians, particularly Catholics, Relationship between Science and Religion. Cambridge, UK: had an important role to play in the coming age but Cambridge University Press. lamented that they were largely ignorant of historical Sarkar, Sahotra. 2007. Doubting Darwin? Creationist Designs on “Christian culture.” His aim—particularly during the Evolution. Oxford: Blackwell. 1950s—was to develop and promote a program to edu- —Jeff Astley cate Christians about Christian culture, its contributions to Western thought, and its constructive role in reviv- ing modern culture. “However secularized our modern Dawson, Christopher Henry civilization may become,” he wrote in 1949, “[the] sacred tradition remains like a river in the desert, and a genuine Biography and Education religious education can still use it to irrigate the thirsty ChristopherContributor Henry Dawson (1889–1970) was a British lands and to change the face of the world with the prom- historian and Catholic intellectual. He was born in Hay- 12. James F. Hitchcock, “Rehearsal for Deconstruction,” Fellowship of Catholic Scholars Quarterly (Winter 2007): 3; and Glenn W. Olsen, Intro- 11. William K. Kay and Leslie J. Francis, Drift from the Churches: At- duction to The Crisis of Western Education (Washington, DC: Catholic titude Toward Christianity during Childhood and Adolescence (Cardiff: University of America Press, 2010), xv. Both pieces are excellent sum- University of Wales Press, 1996), ch. 8; Jeff Astley and Leslie J. Francis, maries of Dawson’s program for Catholic education and contemporary “Promoting Positive Attitudes towards Science and Religion among Sixth- responses to it. form Pupils: Dealing with Scientism and Creationism,” British Journal of 13. Christina Scott, A Historian and His World: A Life of Christopher Religious Education 32, no. 3 (2010): 189–200. Dawson (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction, 1991), 1–35. 388 Dawson, Christopher Henry ise of a new life.”14 Dawson proposed that the study of the “ghetto” from which they were emerging.21 More “culture” be at the center of the Catholic postsecondary broadly, elements of Dawson’s historiography and ideas curriculum. His book The Crisis of Western Education were unfashionable by the 1960s with changes in histo- (1961)—a compilation of lectures and conference papers riography that moved away from broad, sweeping nar- he delivered throughout the United States—outlined this ratives to narrow specialization.22 Numerous institutions proposal. What was needed was a program that tran- nevertheless incorporated aspects of Dawson’s program scended entrenched biases of modern historiography into their programs, including: Saint Mary’s College, against religion and the “medieval period,” namely that University of Notre Dame (the Christianity and culture religion and tradition held no intellectual value.15 Yet at program); St. Michael’s College, University of Toronto, the same time, Dawson believed the parochial historiog- and the University of St. Thomas, St. Paul, which contin- raphy of Catholic educators had to move beyond church ues to experiment with Dawson’s ideas.23 history as hagiography, doctrine, and the history of in- stitutions. Dawson recognized that “there was a danger Most Notable Publications that secular education would push towards an extreme Age of the Gods (1929) metaphysical relativism and Catholic education towards Progress and Religion (1929) metaphysical absolutism, making the two mutually ex- The Making of Europe (1932) clusive and incomprehensible to one another.”16 Dawson Enquiries into Religion and Culture (1933)Only saw his program as a much-needed media. Religion and Culture (1948) The United States loomed large in Dawson’s vision. “I Religion and the Rise of Western Culture (1950) have come to feel,” he wrote after World War II, “that Dynamics of World History (1957) it is in [the United States] that the fate of Christendom The Crisis of Western Education (1961) will be decided.”17 His belief was based on at least two observations. First, the United States emerged as a References and Resources global power and had a strong political tradition that Allitt, Patrick. 1997. Catholic Converts: British and American linked Christianity with liberty and progress. Second, it Intellectuals Turn to Rome. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University had a large Catholic population with a vast network of Press. universities and colleges that had resisted the tendency Dawson,Copy Christopher. 1948. Religion and Culture. New York: to exclude religion from education.18 Dawson’s books Sheed & Ward. had become central to many of the curricula of these ———. 1949. Education and the Crisis of Christian Culture. Chi- institutions, providing fertile ground for his proposals cago: Henry Regnery. for education.19 Despite his ambition, his proposals were ———. 1970. Age of the Gods. New York: Howard Fertig. widely dismissed by the Catholic educational establish- ———. 1991. Religion and the Rise of Western Culture. New ment. On the one hand, his program was seen as an York: Image Books. unwelcome challenge to the long-established dominance ———. 2001. Progress and Religion: An Historical Inquiry. of the traditional classical curriculum of many Catholic Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. institutions. Displacing philosophy and theology with ———. 2002a. Dynamics of World History. Wilmington, DE: cultural history in curricula was seen as dangerous, Intercollegiate Studies Institute. given the relativism and flux in historical development. ———. 2002b. The Making of Europe: An Introduction to the On the other, his recommendations were shunned by History of European Unity. Washington, DC: Catholic Uni- liberal Catholic educators such as John Tracy Ellis, who versity of America Press. had spent his career pushing for continued broaden- ———. 2009. Enquiries into Religion and Culture. Washington, ing of Catholic institutions to bring them on a par with DC: Catholic University of America Press. their secular counterparts.20 The post–World War II ———. 2010. The Crisis of Western Education. Washington, DC: era had seen progress to this end, and for Ellis and oth- Catholic University of America Press. ers, Dawson’s proposals would put Catholics back into Hitchcock, James F. 2007. “Rehearsal for Deconstruction.” Fel- Contributor lowship of Catholic Scholars Quarterly (Winter): 3. 14. Christopher Dawson, Education and the Crisis of Christian Culture Olsen, Glenn W. 2010a. “Christopher Dawson and the Renewal (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1949). of Catholic Education: The Proposal That Catholic Culture 15. Hitchcock, “Rehearsal for Deconstruction,” 3. 16. Ibid., 3. 17. Scott, Historian and His World, 197–198. 18. Olsen, Introduction, xv–xvi. 21. Ibid., 6. 19. Patrick Allitt, Catholic Converts: British and American Intellectuals 22. Allitt, Catholic Converts, 271. Turn to Rome (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 269. 23. Ibid., 269; Olsen, “Christopher Dawson and the Renewal of Catholic 20. Hitchcock, “Rehearsal for Deconstruction,” 5. Education,” 16. de Foucauld, Charles Eugene 389

and History, not Philosophy, Should Order the Catholic histories, but also for other topics of interest, such as how Curriculum.” Logos 13 (3): 14–35. American missionaries communicated non-Western cul- ———. 2010b. Introduction to The Crisis of Western Education, tures, the role of women in missions, and the effects of by Christopher Dawson. Washington, DC: Catholic Univer- missionaries on indigenous societies. sity of America Press. In 1932, the Yale University Divinity School moved Scott, Christina. 1991. A Historian and His World: A Life of to a new campus in New Haven, Connecticut, and con- Christopher Dawson. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers. solidated its three specialized libraries: the Trowbridge —Stephen Carter Reference Library, Sneath Library of Religious Education, and the Day Library. By this time the Day collection had expanded to about two-thirds of the Divinity Library’s Day Missions Library, The original collection (over 21,000 volumes). Starting in the (Yale University Divinity School Library) 1940s, the Day Library’s collection was integrated into the broader collection of the Divinity Library, so that by In 1892 George Edward Day, a professor of Hebrew 1950 any missions-related materials were absorbed di- and biblical theology at Yale University (1866–1891), rectly into the general collection of the library. Today the donated his collection of missions-related materials to “Day Missions Library” refers to the whole body of docu- the Yale Divinity School. This became the catalyst for mented materials connected toOnly missions at the Divinity the formation of a “Historical Library of Foreign Mis- Library and comprises about one-third of the library’s sions,” which he hoped would become “the most full 500,000 volumes. and complete collection of work on Foreign Missions in The scope also has changed, from an original focus the United States and perhaps in the world.” This was on missionary training to documenting the history and at a time when the American Protestant missionary en- practice of world Christianity. In addition to expand- terprise was undergoing expansion as tens of thousands ing the coverage of the printed documentation of world sailed to foreign shores to spread the Christian faith and Christianity, which is housed in the Day Missions Read- Western civilization. ing Room, the library has also purchased all com- Day had a keen interest in missions’ history, and from mercially available microform collections of missionary his retirement in 1891 until his death 15 years later, he archives.Copy Paul F. Stuehrenberg, in the Ten Year Report devoted himself to the new library, traveling widely to of the Yale Divinity School Library, concluded, “The Day collect materials. By 1905, the collection had grown to Missions Collection was already (arguably) the strongest some 7,000 volumes. Originally the Day Missions Library collection anywhere in the world relating to the history of was viewed as an educational opportunity for missionar- Christian missions and the life, thought, and practice of ies, with the new building erected in 1911 (from bequests Christianity outside the West” (January 2012). in the wills of Day and his wife, Olivia Hotchkiss Day) designed to house a printing press, carpentry shop, and References and Resources mapmaking and photography rooms to train foreign Bainton, R. H. 1957. Yale and the Ministry. San Francisco: workers in practical skills. This activity was endorsed Harper & Row. by Yale University, since it had supported the missions’ Kelley, B. M. 1974. Yale: A History. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni- movement, with 162 students entering missionary service versity Press. in the 19th century, almost half of them involved during Pierson, George Wilson. 1988. The Founding of Yale: The the years of Day’s professorship. Legend of the Forty Folios. New Haven, CT: Yale University The Library of Foreign Missions contained six cat- Press. egories of materials that focused primarily on Protestant —Robert L. Gallagher missions: the history of missions around the world, biographies of missionaries, materials for missionary workers, missions’ periodicals, documentary literature de Foucauld, Charles Eugene such as Contributorannual reports of mission agencies, and literature regarding Jewish missions. In addition to these areas of Charles Eugene de Foucauld (1858–1916), a French in- interest, materials were collected in comparative reli- cognito explorer, hermit, and missionary, was born in gions, linguistics (such as Bible translations, dictionar- Strasbourg. Although coming from a devout Catholic ies, grammars, and foreign-language books prepared by family, he lived a depraved life as an aristocrat and a cav- missionaries), ethnology, geography, and fundamental alry lieutenant in Algeria and Morocco. In 1883–1884, de Roman Catholic books and periodicals. The library’s Foucauld secretly explored Morocco and four years later collection was noteworthy not only for its institutional published Reconnaissance au Maroc. For his scientific 390 de Sales, Francis observations during this expedition, he was honored by places to help poor families, there were no conversions the Paris Geographical Society. or successors. “I am a monk, not a missionary. Made for Impressed by the simple piety of Islam, de Foucauld silence, not for preaching.” His vocation was to “preach entered a time of spiritual searching, which under the the Gospel silently.” Yet he earned the respect of both guidance of Abbé Henri Huvelin at the church of St. Au- the Islamic desert tribes and the French military. He was gustine in Paris led him back to the Catholic faith in 1886. killed in 1916 during a failed kidnapping attempt by Tu- Following a pilgrimage to the Holy Land (1888–1889), areg raiders and was buried in El Ménia, Algeria. he gave himself to extreme asceticism, residing in the De Foucauld’s personal papers and rules for com- remote Cistercian Trappist monasteries of Notre-Dame- munities were published after his death and testify to des-Neiges in France and Akbès in Syria (1890–1896). a life committed to “cry the Gospel.” Even though no After receiving permission to leave the order, Charles person ever joined him during his lifetime, his writings traveled to Palestine in 1897 to voluntarily serve the Poor motivated René Voillaume and four other priests in 1933 Clares in Nazareth and Jerusalem and to live an even to seek “the death in the desert; the prayer in forgotten more austere and solitary existence of silence, prayer, places.” They established themselves at El Abiodh Sidi and contemplation. This imitation of Christ became his Cheikh on the periphery of the Sahara and lived ac- standard and one central focus for the rest of his days. cording to de Foucauld’s first monastic rule. The Little “Follow me. I am your rule.” Nazareth became wherever Brothers of Jesus still live a contemplativeOnly life today, but he worked with Jesus in humility, poverty, and silence. are also a part of the local society, sharing their lives by In 1901, at the age of 43, de Foucauld returned to working for a living alongside the indigenous people and his homeland for priestly ordination at Viviers. A few wearing ordinary clothes. months later, he went to the Sahara in French Algeria Likewise, the Little Sisters of the Sacred Heart (1933), and established a small hermitage he called the “Frater- the Little Sisters of Jesus (1939), and later the Little nity” for “adoration and hospitality” at the oasis of Béni- Brothers (1958) and Little Sisters of the Gospel (1965) Abbès near the Moroccan border. Here he led “a life of were inspired by de Foucauld. Motivated by the life of the prayer at the foot of the tabernacle.” Four years later, he French hermit, these Catholic orders still have Tamanras- settled in the inaccessible Ahaggar mountains among the set as their spiritual center, as they live in small scattered Muslim Tuareg tribes near the oasis of Tamanrasset in communitiesCopy among the poor and disadvantaged of southern Algeria: “not preaching but giving hospitality Africa and Asia. In recent years, the Vatican promoted to all comers, good or bad, friends or enemies, Muslim Foucauld as an exemplar of interreligious dialogue and a or Christian, and welcoming every human being as a connection to the Muslim world. beloved brother.”24 He made his home for the next 11 years living among the Tuareg, the most warlike of all the References and Resources desert tribes, welcoming visitors and strangers to share Hamilton, Elizabeth. 1968. The Desert My Dwelling Place: A his bread. He remained in supportive contact with the Study of Charles de Foucauld. London: Hodder & Stoughton. French military all his life, yet had a markedly different Hillyer, Philip. 1990. Charles de Foucauld. Collegeville, MN: approach to Christian-Muslim relations in Algeria. The Liturgical Press. After learning the language of the Tuaregs, de Fou- Voillaume, René. 1955. Seeds of the Desert: The Legacy of cauld involved himself in translation work and produced Charles de Foucauld. London: Burns & Oates. the first Tamashegh grammar and dictionary, as well as Wright, Cathy. 2005. Charles de Foucauld: Journey of the Spirit. becoming an expert in their history and customs and Boston: Pauline Books. translating the tribal poetry of the Tuareg into French. —Robert L. Gallagher His French-Tuareg dictionary was published posthu- mously in four volumes. Today he is remembered as a lexicographer and grammarian of the Tuareg language de Sales, Francis and its unique tifinagh alphabet. The ChristianContributor “hermit of the Sahara” lived in unbend- Early Background and Education ing asceticism among these Muslim tribal people, to Francis de Sales (1567–1622) was born in Sales, France, whom he was known as a holy person, the imitation of to a noble family. He was educated at the College of Cler- the Islamic Jesus. As he witnessed Christ more through mont, a Jesuit school in Paris, where he studied the clas- his deeds than his words, such as traveling to isolated sics and learned Greek and Hebrew. He went on to study law and theology at the University of Padua, Italy. After 24. Charles de Foucauld, Letter, 23 June 1901, in Inner Search: Letters briefly practicing law, he turned to the religious life. He (1889–1916) (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1979), 83–84. was ordained a priest in the Roman Catholic Church in Deaf, Education of the 391

1591. Francis lived through tumultuous times, in which Most Notable Publications Calvinism and Roman Catholicism were in great compe- De Sales’s most notable works are the Introduction to the tition. He undertook missionary work to solidify and win Devout Life and Treatise on the Love of God. back to the Roman Catholic faith many of those in France —Charles Taliaferro and Switzerland who had embraced Calvinism or other Protestant or Reformed traditions. Francis was ordained the bishop of Geneva in 1603. Deaf, Education of the

Significant Contributions to Christian Education Christian sentiments and motivations have a long his- The life and work of Francis de Sales contributed to tory of supporting the establishment of institutions Christian education in at least four areas. First, religious for the formal education of deaf people. The history education should chiefly be about (and involve) the love of of deaf education is marked by a debate between two God and neighbor. Francis’s Treatise on the Love of God is methodologies. Manualism posits that deaf people are unsurpassed as a devotional classic. It is rich with practical best educated through the use of signed languages, advice on instilling and living out a life of love for and in which originate in the hands of communities of deaf God’s love for us. For Francis, love is not limited to action users. Oralism attempts to use the spoken languages of or charitable behavior, but it is affective and emotive, an hearing populations to train Onlydeaf people to make use affaire d’amour. Francis makes ample use of colorful im- of speech, lip-reading, and residual hearing to achieve ages and metaphors to enhance his lessons. Perhaps only educational goals. Both approaches are employed in St. Bernard of Clairvaux’s sermons on the Song of Songs Christian education of the deaf, and both approaches are equal in elegance and passion to Francis’s Treatise. have been supported using justifications that appeal to Bernard and Francis would both council that a good edu- Christian scripture and theology. cation should involve enchantment and love. Although there is evidence that some deaf people Second, the relationship between a teacher (profes- gained education through home educational efforts and sor, tutor, educator) and student should involve genuine apprentice relationships, in much the same manner that love for the student. Francis approached many of those hearing people did, formalized methodologies can be who sought his guidance with the humble kindness and tracedCopy back to 16th-century Spanish monastics. Susan openness of a caring spiritual advisor. This involved his Plann (1997, 13–14) notes that monks of this period were taking the time to give individual attention to people, as often charged with the education of the deaf children of evidenced in the epistolary friendships he cultivated. nobility, who were left in the care of monastic communi- Third, a Christian education in the spiritual life should ties as a means of hiding them from public view. Bene- make clear that everyday life and secular (worldly) voca- dictine Pedro Ponce de León rose to notoriety with his tions are compatible with a life of meditation and con- successful education of two deaf noble brothers through templation. Francis’s Introduction to the Devout Life is a combined method of gestures and speech training (28). a practical guide to living a spiritually oriented life amid The vowed periods of silence in this monastery led to the the many distracting projects that can blind us to what development of a system of gestures and hand shapes really matters: a life of gratitude, worship of God, and that were used for communication. These hand shapes love of neighbor. were the foundation of a one-handed manual alphabet Fourth, a Christian education requires patience and that remains in use among many signed languages in perseverance. From Francis’s point of view, Calvinism the world today (39–40). Although gestures were used in was an unfortunate turning away from what he thought early Spanish education of deaf nobles, the aim was to en- of as the gracious mercy and integrity of the church able them to speak in order to inherit property and titles. of Christ. He sought to convert Calvinists to what he Formalized education of the deaf in France also has thought of as the true faith. Whether or not he was right, Christian origins, as the 18th-century Catholic cleric the way he undertook this is instructive. He employed Charles-Michel de l’Epée began educating deaf people no threatsContributor or bullying tactics. He approached others who in Paris. Unlike the Spanish monastics, l’Epée used an held very different views of Christianity with openness, entirely manual methodology. Nicholas Mirzoeff (1995) patience, and perseverance. In college and university life speculates that this approach may have been used in with traditionally aged students (17 to 22 years old), some part because of l’Epée’s Jansenist theological leanings, students approach religious matters with the urgent sense which emphasized the will of God as unknowable until that all doubts and beliefs require immediate, clear reso- it was made visible. His concern for the salvation of lution. Francis’s approach to education and spiritual in- deaf people for the Catholic Church made l’Epée’s views quiry invites us to a patient, unhurried form of learning. unique, as the prevailing opinions of his time viewed 392 Denmark and Christian Education deaf people as automata or living machines without a References and Resources soul (31–32). L’Epée’s efforts led to the first free public Ilabor, Emmanuel. 2009. Andrew Jackson Foster: The Most Cou- institution for the education of deaf people, which was rageous Educator and the Most Visionary Missionary to Deaf founded in Paris in 1760. Africans. Ibadan, Nigeria: Christian Mission for the Deaf. Early education of the deaf in England was largely an Lane, Harlan. 1984. When the Mind Hears: A History of the enterprise of the Braidwood family, who employed oralist Deaf. New York: Random House. methods in the period when l’Epée began using his meth- Mirzoeff, Nicholas. 1995. Silent Poetry: Deafness, Sign, and ods in France (Lane 1984, 106). Whereas the Paris school Visual Culture in Modern France. Princeton, NJ: Princeton became the primary place of deaf education in Europe University Press. and was modeled on free education as Christian char- Olney, Kent R. 2007. “The Chicago Mission for the Deaf.” In ity, the Braidwood schools became the primary places in The Deaf History Reader, edited by John Vickrey Van Cleve, Europe for oral education and were privatized and profit- 174–208. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. able endeavors (107). Plann, Susan. 1997. A Silent Minority: Deaf Education in Spain, American efforts at deaf education were part of the 1550–1835. Berkeley: University of California Press. greater social and spiritual fervor of the Second Great Valentine, Phyllis. 1993. “Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet: Benevo- Awakening. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, a Congrega- lent Paternalism and the Origins of the American Asylum.” tionalist clergyman, was charged with the establishment In Deaf History Unveiled: InterpretationsOnly from the New Schol- of a school for the deaf in America. In 1815, he traveled arship, edited by John Vickrey Van Cleve, 53–73. Washing- to England at the bequest of a group of societal leaders ton, DC: Gallaudet University Press. in Hartford, Connecticut. His encounter with the highly —Kirk A. VanGilder privatized oral methods of the Braidwood schools was frustrating, and he later traveled to Paris to observe the manualist method (Lane 1984, 192–195). He returned Denmark and Christian Education from Paris with a deaf teacher, Laurent Clerc, to es- tablish the first school for the deaf in America in 1816. Denmark is a secularized country. Although it was Phyllis Valentine (1993) situates Gallaudet’s religious Christianized in the 10th century, and the evangelical motives as a form of the benevolent paternalism and in- LutheranCopy church continues to be the official church of stitution building prominent in early 19th-century New Denmark, with nearly 80 percent of the population as England. Gallaudet’s appeals for support for his school members, Christianity plays a minor role in public life. often made reference to biblical passages and the fervor However, between 30 and 50 percent of the population of the Second Great Awakening to convert the lost to claim the label “believer.” The new government is striv- Christianity (58–59). Later American clergypersons ing to make the church of Denmark more independent often established educational institutions for the deaf from the state. by making similar religious appeals to societal duty and Religious education is a compulsory subject in Dan- spiritual betterment when lobbying private donors and ish public schools and is taught in either the second or state legislatures for funding. third year of the students’ 10-year educational journey. Many schools for the deaf in the global South were All students have religious education for one year, but the result of the Christian missionary movements that they can choose to continue that study for another year brought Western educational methods to these peoples. at higher levels. The content of this required year of reli- Catholic orders often exported the various methods being gious studies includes Christianity, Islam, and one other employed in their schools in Europe as they established major world religion. Although Christianity is a priority schools throughout the world. Protestant missionaries (and that is currently under review), religious education also established schools, such as the Chefoo School for in the public school serves more to orient and sensitize the Deaf in China, which was supported by financial con- the citizens to various religions. tributions, including from deaf congregations in America Homeschooling is legal in Denmark, although few (Olney 2007,Contributor 198–199). The global reach of Christian families pursue this option. Among private schools, missions in deaf education is also illustrated by Em- the number of Christian schools (also known as “free manuel Ilabor’s (2009) recounting of the mission work schools”) is second only to academically oriented gram- of the first African American deaf graduate of Gallaudet mar schools. These Christian schools are known less University, Andrew Foster. Foster became a clergyman for their Christian curriculum than for their traditional and spent his life in mission establishing schools for the family values. deaf throughout West Africa. —Larry H. Lindquist Developmental Psychology 393

Desert Fathers and Mothers In the late fifth or early sixth century (probably in Pal- estine), material from these earlier collections was used The terms “Desert Fathers” and “Desert Mothers” refer to compile the Alphabetical Collection of the Apophtheg- to Christians in the fourth and fifth centuries AD who mata patrum (Sayings of the Fathers). In this collection, left urban and village life to take up a semi-eremitical the sayings of individual spiritual guides are grouped life of prayer and spiritual discipline in desert regions under the name of each guide, with these names being of Egypt and adjacent areas. The sayings and actions of ordered alphabetically (according to the letters of the such persons were regarded as exemplifying radical obe- Greek alphabet). Roughly one-seventh of this collection dience to the Gospel and providing guidance for the care is devoted to Abba Poemen, whose sayings probably of one’s soul and were transmitted in various collections formed the nucleus around which the alphabetical col- produced in and after the sixth century. lection developed. By the end of the third century, individuals seeking a Later in the sixth century, an interest in organizing deeper life of prayer had sought greater solitude and free- these sayings not by the name of the author but rather dom from distractions by moving to the edge of village by the theme of the content (i.e., monastic virtues like settlements. There they supported themselves by weaving silence, humility, discretion, vigilance, self-control, etc.) baskets and cultivating small garden plots, setting aside led to the development of the Systematic Collection. extended periods of time for uninterrupted prayer. Other collections were subsequentlyOnly developed that in- In the fourth century, a desire for greater distance from cluded additional anonymous (unattributed) sayings the conventions and obligations of traditional society led and longer narratives about the actions of well-known monks to retreat into the Nitrian Desert of the northwest- ascetics (extracted from Palladius’s Lausiac History: The ern Nile delta. Settlements were established at Nitria, Scetis, History of the Monks in Egypt, John Moschus’s Spiritual and Kellia. The cells or caves in which the monks dwelled Meadow, and similar works). Translations and new col- were often clustered together and located near a church lections of sayings were produced in Latin, Coptic, Syriac, and/or a refectory. This semi-eremitical mode of life al- Armenian, Georgian, Arabic, Ethiopic, Sogdian, and lowed each monk to spend weekdays in individual prayer Paleoslavonic and continue to play an important role in and work (weaving linen or plaiting palm blades into rope, contemporary Eastern Christian spirituality. baskets, and mats, while chanting the psalms or reciting Copy scriptural texts). On the weekend, monks could gather for References and Resources communal worship, eat together, and negotiate any matters The “Anonymous” Sayings of the Desert Fathers: A Select Edition relevant to their decentralized form of life together. and Complete English Translation. 2013. Translated by John Often a monk would live in close proximity to several Wortley. New York: Cambridge University Press. disciples, training them in prayer and spiritual disciplines The Book of the Elders: Sayings of the Desert Fathers. The Sys- (fasting, psalmody, night prayer vigils, etc.). The goal of this tematic Collection. 2012. Translated by John Wortley. Trap- training was to help them conquer pride and temptation pist, KY: Cistercian Publications. and arrive at humility, obedience, and unceasing prayer. Hamilton, Andrew. 1983. “Spiritual Direction in the Apo- Advice on how to overcome spiritual obstacles was phthegmata.” Colloquium 15: 31–38. commonly sought from older, more experienced monks Louf, Andre. 1982. “Spiritual Fatherhood in the Literature of who were known for providing spiritual guidance. The the Desert.” In Abba: Guides to Wholeness and Holiness East inquirer would typically reveal the content and move- and West, edited by John R. Sommerfeldt, 37–63. Kalama- ments (promptings) of certain sinful thoughts that trou- zoo, MI: Cistercian Publications. bled him or her, submitting these to the judgment of The Sayings of the Desert Fathers: The Alphabetical Collection. the spiritual guide. The latter, under the direction of the 1975. Translated by Benedicta Ward. Kalamazoo, MI: Cister- Holy Spirit, would offer a short, pithy word of guidance. cian Publications. This word of guidance revealed the underlying dynamics Ward, Benedicta. 1984. “Spiritual Direction in the Desert Fa- of the temptation and helped to break the power of the thers.” Way 24: 61–70. latter. TheContributor inquirer could therefore rely implicitly upon —Byard Bennett this word, immediately embracing its counsel, replacing doubt and irresolution with the humility of obedience. The words of guidance (apophthegmata) offered by a Developmental Psychology particular spiritual guide were initially transmitted orally in Coptic and/or Greek by his or her disciples. In the fifth Development psychology is a branch of the broader century, collections of the sayings of individual figures discipline of psychology devoted to the scientific study appeared in written form in Greek. of human growth and development, incorporating the 394 Developmental Psychology domains of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial devel- the apparent conflict between their experience and their opment. During the early 20th century, developmental schemata and reconstruct their mental frameworks to psychology focused on the development of children and include the current experience. A weakness can be that adolescents. However, research in the neurosciences and students become overwhelmed by the disequilibrium and in the psychosocial domain has contributed to the real- instead of working to accommodate it, simply give up. ization that development in humans occurs over a life We see Christ utilizing this methodology frequently, as span, not just in childhood and adolescence. One of the He desires us and those He encountered to think deeply key questions in developmental psychology is the nature/ about His purpose and ministry. For example, the books nurture debate: How much of human development is of Matthew (25–33), Mark (48–51), and John (19–21) designed by nature, and how much of it is conditioned tell about Jesus walking on water. This experience brings by the environment, or nurture? them to a state of disequilibrium, because their schemata Several main theories are identified under the aus- do not include people walking on water. The disciples pices of developmental psychology, and all contribute initially assimilate this experience to their understand- to the development of various aspects of the individual ing of ghosts and claim that they see a ghost (Mark 6:49; and are included in almost all college courses bearing Matt. 14:26), a part of their schemata that is already in the title “Developmental Psychology.” For the Chris- existence. However, as Jesus approaches, they realize it tian, the task is to reflect on the degree to which each is not a ghost; therefore, they are forcedOnly to accommodate of these secular theories aligns with what is known or this new experience, realizing that Jesus has power even believed to be scriptural in order to effectively use them over natural events. Mark states that “they were com- in Christian education. pletely amazed” (v. 51) and Matthew states that “those who were in the boat worshiped him, saying, ‘Truly you Cognitive Theory are the Son of God’ (v. 33). In this example, Piaget’s The cognitive theory of Jean Piaget (1896–1980), a Swiss cognitive theory was used to lead the disciples into an psychologist and philosopher, describes intellectual de- understanding of His Nature as God, a conclusion that velopment with two complementary processes. First is may have been unlikely had Jesus simply told them. a process of equilibration and disequilibration. Piaget states that all humans have an internal drive for mental PsychosocialCopy Theory equilibrium, meaning that we desire to have our mental Erik Erikson is credited as the father of psychosocial framework, or schema, of how the world works con- theory; he took his lead from his studies under Sigmund firmed by the experiences we have with the world (Piaget Freud (Berger 2009). Erikson describes human develop- 1952, 1954). When there is a conflict, usually through an ment through the psychoanalytic tradition, stating that experience we have that does not conform to our under- at various stages, individuals encounter a psychological standing of how the world should work, we experience crisis through which they must navigate (Erikson [1950] disequilibrium and adapt in order to bring ourselves 1993, [1968] 1994). For each of the stages, one can ar- back into equilibrium. Adaptation can take two forms: rive at a place on the spectrum of a positive resolution (1) assimilation, in which we interpret the experience or a negative resolution. In order to resolve a crisis, the in a way that makes it fit within our mental framework; individual relies on the surrounding environment, par- or (2) accommodation, in which we change our mental ticularly social interactions with others, to help him or framework in order to enable the experience to be a her navigate, with the social radius of influence growing part of how we now understand the world. Regarding larger as the individual ages. The overall aim is the estab- the second process, Piaget claims that as we develop, we lishment of one’s identity at particular points throughout progress through four stages of cognitive development, development. As did Freud, Erikson believed that how each stage enabling us to have a greater capacity to expe- one navigates the earlier stages of development will have rience and interpret our world: sensorimotor (ages 0–2), a significant effect on the identity of the individual during preoperational thought (ages 2–7), concrete operational the later stages. Erikson’s stages and their resolutions are thought (agesContributor 7–11), and formal operational thought (12 summarized in table D.1. through adulthood) (1962). It is interesting to note that Identity is a common theme throughout the New Tes- researchers have found that only approximately 35 per- tament, and humans are encouraged to seek their identity cent of individuals will reach formal operational thought in Christ, not in comparison with others. This identity (Lutz and Huitt 2004). will be fully consummated when Christ returns and at A strength of using Piaget’s cognitive theory for the final resurrection of all believers. Several authors educators is that providing experiences for students to have explicated ways that Erikson’s stages are applicable encounter disequilibrium allows them to struggle with to the stages of spiritual formation, beginning with the Developmental Psychology 395

TABLE D.1 Erikson’s Stages of Development and Their Resolutions Stage Virtue Positive Resolution Negative Resolution Trust v. mistrust (ages 0–2) Hope Trust in themselves and others. Relaxed, See the world as inconsistent and optimistic, and generous attitude. threatening. See life as not predictable, and view good things as temporary. Autonomy v. shame and Will Good sense and command of their will Fear being exposed as inadequate. Attempt doubt (ages 2–4) power. Feel free to be themselves. to hide their feelings of powerlessness.

Initiative v. guilt (ages 4–5) Purpose Believe they know how the world works. Fear of being inadequate and of making Clear sense of what they want in life. mistakes. Self-restrictive and sometimes overconscientious. Industry v. inferiority Competence Relish achievement and like to tackle Feel inadequate, incapable, and estranged. (ages 5–12) challenging tasks. Lack ambition. Identity v. role confusion Fidelity Know who they are, what their goals are, See conflict in who they are and what they (ages 12–20) and where they’re going. would like to be. Intimacy v. isolation Love Commit to partnerships and have the Self-absorbed. Identity is too fragile to (20–40) ethics to abide by the commitments. maintain the uncertainties of intimacy. Generativity v. stagnation Care Concern for creation of a better world. Lack long-term goals and commitments. (40–64) Focus on service to others. Live for short-termOnly gratification.

Ego integrity v. despair Wisdom Feel their lives have meaning and View life as filled with missed opportunities. (65–death) significance. trust versus mistrust stage at the time of conversion and challenging individuals to see beyond themselves and continuing through each of Erikson’s stages as the be- consider the needs of others before themselves (e.g., Phil. liever becomes spiritually mature (Fowler 1981; Tate and 2:2–4). Second, Kohlberg’s conventional moral reasoning Parker 2007).25 involves questions such as “Do others think I am good?” (Stage 3) and “What is the rule of law?” Decisions are Moral Development consideredCopy moral if they are aligned with societal expec- Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) is credited as the father tations or if the concrete, literal rule of law is obeyed. of the theory of the stages of moral development, which Although this is considered a positive response, scriptur- focuses not on the morality of the decision itself but on ally, as with the law of God provided in Exodus (Exod. the rationale that individuals provide for the decision- 20:1–17), Jesus condemns the possibility of hypocrisy if making process (Kohlberg 1969, 1981; Power, Higgins, one becomes too legalistic, like the Pharisees (Matt. 23). and Kohlberg 1989). He published his theory 25 years Other areas of psychology encompassed in devel- after Piaget proposed his stages of cognitive development opmental psychology include, but are not limited to, (Piaget 1932), and Kohlberg’s moral reasoning is aligned physical development, attachment theory, social and with the cognitive stages identified by Piaget, so that emotional development, and memory development. The they can be correlated as follows: preconventional moral categories of human development are generally identified reasoning/preoperational thought; conventional moral as prenatal, infancy (0–1), early childhood (2–6), middle reasoning/concrete operational thought; and postcon- childhood (7–11), adolescence (12–22),26 early adult- ventional moral reasoning/formal operational thought. hood (twenties and thrities), middle adulthood (forties Individuals in the preconventional stage are egocentric through 60), and old age (sixties through hundreds). in nature and morally reason by asking the questions An understanding of development psychology is es- “How can I avoid punishment?” (Stage 1) and “What’s sential for secular and Christian educators alike. How- in it for me?” (Stage 2), similar to Piaget’s egocentric ever, for the Christian educator, the grounding is in the preoperational thought, with a focus on appearances and knowledge that humans are created in the very image of lack of understandingContributor of logical operations. Decisions are God (Gen. 1) and are valuable enough to Him so that He considered moral if the individual avoids punishment or gave His only, begotten Son so that whoever believes in receives a personal reinforcement, or reward. Scripture Him might have a restored relationship with God (John preaches against this lower level of moral reasoning by 3:16). Understanding how they grow and develop—phys-

25. Tate and Parker (2007) provide an excellent, detailed explication of 26. The end age of adolescence is a current area of dispute, with some a Christian analysis of each of Erikson’s stages, including applications for researchers placing the end as early as 18 and others identifying a stage of the Church. late adolescence lasting through the late 20s. 396 Devotional Materials, History of ically, emotionally, socially, psychologically, morally—is through certain inward and outward actions and expres- important for teaching, discipling, and journeying with sions. Faith is strengthened and hearts renewed because the family of God. Utilizing the theories of Piaget, Erik- of devotional materials that penetrate the individual son, and Kohlberg, James Fowler (1981) has identified Christian by bringing conviction, awareness, and repen- stages of faith development in his text and its applicability tance in one’s personal relationship with Christ. to Christian formation. Some common devotional materials used in the early church and Middles Ages were the Apostles’ Creed, References and Resources hymns, confessions, benedictions, doxologies, other Erikson, E. H. (1950) 1993. Childhood and Society. New York: creeds, liturgies, scripture reading, meditation, prayers, W. W. Norton. the Lord’s Supper preparation, baptism preparation, ———. (1959). Identity and the Life Cycle. New York: Interna- worship preparation, and catechism (Webber 1982). tional Universities Press. Another common devotional activity was the Eucharist, ———. (1968) 1994. Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: W. which was a community gathering celebrating the sac- W. Norton. rifice of Jesus. For hundreds of years this service was a Fowler, J. E. 1981. Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human primary devotional tool, because most of the people were Development and the Quest for Meaning. New York: Harp- illiterate. Communities joined together in daily worship, erCollins. singing, prayer, and listening toOnly God’s Word. A large Kohlberg, L. 1969. “Stage and Sequence.” In Handbook of interdependence existed between Christians out of the Socialization Theory and Research, edited by D. A. Goslin, necessity to survive in this period. 374–480. New York: McGraw-Hill. The Didache was produced in the first and second ———. 1981. Essays on Moral Development. Vol. I, The Philoso- centuries. It was the first instruction manual for new phy of Moral Development. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Christians. Catechumens were also created, which were Lutz, S., and W. Huitt. 2004. “Connecting Cognitive Develop- used to teach new Christians the basic doctrines of ment and Constructivism: Implications from Theory for Christianity through a question and answer format. Instruction and Assessment.” Constructivism in the Human Clement of Rome was a late first century church leader Sciences 9 (1): 67–90. who provided examples of prayer, fasting, and giving to Marcia, J. E. 1966. “Development and Validation of Ego Iden- the poorCopy as exemplars of Christian spirituality. The Bible tity Status.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3 as a complete book was not yet available, and even indi- (5): 551–558. vidual portions of scripture were very expensive. Spiritual Piaget, J. 1932. The Moral Judgment of the Child. London: formation was instilled in a communal life because most Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. people could not read or did not have any physical copy ———. 1952. The Origins of Intelligence in Children. New York: of scripture. Ignatius of Antioch, another first-century International University Press. church leader, provided examples of worship, prayer, ———. 1954. The Construction of Reality in the Child. New York: unity, and love within the congregation. He wrote letters Basic Books. to other churches and visited other leaders. Also in the ———. 1962. The Language and Thought of the Child. London: first century, of expressed the desire to Routledge & Kegan Paul. be martyred to prove that he was a true disciple. He also Power, F. C., A. Higgins, and J. E. Kohlberg. 1989. Lawrence wrote letters to churches and trained his congregation in Kohlberg’s Approach to Moral Education. New York: Colum- how to worship, serve the poor, and focus on Christ. bia University Press During the Middle Ages (AD 500–1500), ceremo- Tate, Y. B., and S. Parker. 2007. “Using Erikson’s Developmen- nial, priest-led worship was developed, replacing per- tal Theory to Understand and Nurture Spiritual Develop- sonal devotion with corporate worship. Latin became ment in Christians.” Journal of Psychology and Christianity the language of the Mass, and the clergy were the only (3): 218–226. ones to perform any church ceremony. The monastic —Laura Barwegen movement during this period brought about a deeper Contributorpractice of prayer and personal piety, using devotional manuals for daily prayer (Webber 1982). Benedict of Devotional Materials, History of Nursia (480–547) established the Benedictines and wrote the “Benedict Rule.” His writings, which are still in use Each era of the New Testament church has had unique today, presented a life of prayer, study, and work. Francis expressions of worship and adoration to God through of Assissi (1181–1226) established the Franciscans and devotional materials. People in different generations advised: “Preach the gospel at all times and, if necessary, demonstrate their love for God and dedication to Him use words.” Saint Dominic (1170–1221) founded the Devotional Reading as Christian Practice 397

Dominicans and trained them to be excellent preachers White, James. 1993. A Brief History of Christian Worship. Nash- and defenders of the faith. Bishops and monastic leaders ville, TN: Abingdon Press. served as spiritual guides and provided cathedral schools ———. 2000. Introduction to Christian Worship. 3rd ed. Nash- to train both clergy and laypeople in the congregation ville, TN: Abingdon Press. (Hull 2006). Wiersbe, Warren. 2000. Real Worship: Playground, Battle- In the early modern age (1500–1899), the Protestants ground, or Holy Ground? Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. rejected the Mass and other church practices. Protestant Wilhoit, James. 2008. Spiritual Formation as If the Church Mat- leaders wanted individuals to be present and participate tered: Growing in Christ Through Community. Grand Rapids, in the Lord’s Supper in their own language and to en- MI: Baker Academic. gage in Bible study. The Book of Common Prayer was —Steve Yates introduced in 1549 to guide worshippers in the corporate worship service and provide devotional examples. The Strasbourg Liturgy further separated worship and devo- Devotional Reading tional acts from the Mass and emphasized the Word of as Christian Practice God, focusing worshippers on Christ rather than rituals. Protestant worship and devotion included an antiliturgi- What It Is cal stance, with an emphasis on understanding the Word Devotional reading, often calledOnly spiritual or sacred read- of God, and an emphasis on experiencing God in worship ing, refers to a private or group practice aimed at nurtur- (Webber 1982). ing one’s relationship with God. As the primary source Examples of classic devotional materials, which are for devotional reading, the Bible conveys that the Word still applicable and in use today, are Imitation of Christ of God, as embodied by Jesus (John 1:14), fosters spiri- by Thomas á Kempis, the “Benedictine Rule,” The Con- tual growth (Ps. 1:2–3, 119:105; Heb. 4:12). As opposed fessions of St. Augustine, Pensées by Blaise Pascal, Intro- to simply gaining knowledge or to teaching or preach- duction to the Devout Life by Francis de Sales, Purity in ing preparation, devotional reading invites the presence Heart by Soren Kierkegaard, The Spiritual Exercises of St. of God through the Holy Spirit to awaken the senses in Ignatius, On the Incarnation by Athanasius, Revelations union with and worship of the living Lord. Therefore, the of Divine Love by Julian of Norwich, Private Devotions by purposeCopy is not primarily informational, although such Lancelot Andrews, and Christian Perfection by Francois reading may result in greater biblical knowledge, but Fenelon (Hull 2006, 274, 223). rather transformational, with the goal of becoming more like Christ (2 Cor. 3:17–18).27 The scriptures are activated References and Resources when the Holy Spirit conveys truth to the human spirit, Hardman, Oscar. 1937. A History of Christian Worship. Lon- which serves to exhort, guide, convict, and encourage don: University of London Press. hearers (cf., 2 Tim. 3:16). Whether the devotional source Hull, Bill. 2006. The Complete Book of Discipleship: On Being is the scriptures, inspirational vignettes connected to and Making Followers of Christ. Colorado Springs, CO: scripture, or classical Christian writings, devotional read- NavPress. ing opens the way for the Holy Spirit to speak personally Hurtado, Larry. 2000. At the Origins of Christian Worship: The to the human heart, mind, and spirit. Context and Character of Earliest Christian Devotion. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Why It Is Important ———. 2003. Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Devotional reading based on scripture is a primary Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. source for one’s spiritual growth. Scripture reading and Jones, Ilion. 1954. A Historical Approach to Evangelical Wor- application are emphasized throughout the Bible. For ship. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. example, God instructed the children of Israel to live Maxwell, William. 1963. An Outline of Christian Worship: Its not by bread alone, but rather by every word that pro- Development and Forms. London: Oxford University Press. ceeds out of the mouth of God (Deut. 8:3), which Jesus Sanders,Contributor Oswald. 1980. Enjoying Intimacy with God. Chicago: quoted during the temptation (Matt. 4:4). God spoke Moody Press. to Joshua about meditating on the Book of the Law day Tozer, Aiden. 1997. The Pursuit of God: The Human Thirst for and night (Josh. 1:8). The psalmist declared his love for the Divine. Camp Hill, PA: Christian Publications. God’s Word as “a lamp to my feet and a light to my path” Webber, Robert. 1982. Worship: Old and New. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. 27. Richard J. Foster, Life with God: Reading the Bible for Spiritual Transformation (New York: HarperOne, 2008), 57–132; and M. Robert ———. 1986. Celebrating Our Faith: Evangelism through Wor- Mulholland, Shaped by the Word: The Power of Scripture in Spiritual For- ship. San Francisco: Harper & Row. mation (Nashville, TN: Upper Room Books, 1986), 47–60. 398 Dewey, John

(Ps. 119:97–105). And when affirming that the Word of the spiritual journey.31 Reading time-tested devotionals God is truth, Jesus declared that believers are to be sancti- such as Oswald Chambers’s My Utmost for His Highest,32 fied by it (John 17:17). Lettie Cowman’s Streams in the Desert,33 and Kenneth As a spiritual discipline, devotional reading contrib- Boa’s Face to Face: Praying the Scriptures for Spiritual utes to spiritual growth when aligned with seeking God in Growth34 likewise fans the flame of spiritual growth in prayer.28 Biblical examples abound of those who sought the scripture, anecdotes, and personal reflections. Other God (Ps. 5:3; 88:13; 143:8), and the reward for doing devotional resources are available to connect readers to so (Heb. 11:6). The experience of Augustine of Hippo the Word of God and fuel their relationship with Him. (354–430), whose writings greatly influenced Christian —Diane J. Chandler thought, conveys the importance of reading as founda- tional for the Christian life. During his spiritual struggle to fully commit his life to Christ, Augustine heard a voice Dewey, John repeatedly singing, “Pick it up and read, pick it up and read,” referring to the scriptures.29 As described in his Early Background and Education autobiography, Augustine turned to Romans 13:13–14, Born in 1859 in Burlington, Vermont, American phi- whereupon he experienced a light flooding his heart, losopher and progressive educator John Dewey was which dissipated all doubt. Through the ages, devotional an avid student from his earliestOnly years. At age 15, he reading has provided both spiritual encounter and per- enrolled at the University of Vermont, taking special sonal encouragement. interest in philosophy under the tutelage of H. A. P. Torrey. Completing his bachelor’s degree in 1879, he Lectio Divina spent two years as a high school teacher before decid- Lectio divina (Latin; “divine reading”), developed from ing to pursue graduate work in philosophy at Johns a Benedictine practice in the fifth century, integrates Hopkins University. At Johns Hopkins, Dewey studied biblical studies with Christian spirituality. Christian fig- under such luminaries as Hegelian philosopher George ures such as John Cassian (360–430) and Saint Benedict Sylvester Morris and experimental psychologist G. Stan- (480–550) reference lectio divina in their works. This ley Hall, cultivating an interest in both disciplines. After practice became more formalized in the 12th century completingCopy his doctorate in 1884, Dewey was hired to under Guigo II, an Italian monk, through a fourfold teach philosophy and psychology at the University of process for developing greater intimacy with God: Michigan. While there, he began an intellectual shift (1) lectio, reading of scripture; (2) meditatio, medita- from Morris’s Hegelian idealism to the empirical ex- tion of the passage through the Holy Spirit’s guidance; perimentalism and pragmatism that would define his (3) oratio, response in prayer; and (4) contemplatio, mature thought. After 10 years at this institution (bro- contemplation in silence. Lectio divina encourages read- ken up by a single year teaching philosophy at the Uni- ers to slow down enough to seek God, listen to God’s versity of Minnesota in 1888), he left to join the faculty voice through the biblical text, and respond in thanks- of the University of Chicago in 1894. Consolidating his giving and prayer. Contemporary resources provide pragmatist leanings in this setting, Dewey was also able direction in undertaking this ancient practice.30 to develop, together with his wife, a laboratory school in which he implemented some of his nascent thoughts Resources for Devotional Reading on educational philosophy. Two of his most important In addition to the Bible, other devotional reading of- early educational works, The School and Society (1900) fered by ancient writers provides perspective regarding and The Child and the Curriculum (1902), were penned while he was at Chicago and reflected Dewey’s growing interest in applying philosophical thinking to educa- 28. For more on reading and meditating of scripture, see Richard J. tional issues. His last professorial post (1904–1930) Foster, Celebration of Discipline: The Path to Spiritual Growth, 3rd ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 1998), 15–32; Eugene H. Peterson, Eat This Book: A Conversation in the Art of Spiritual Reading (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 31. For example, see Cindy Crosby, ed., and Thomas C. Oden, gen. 2006); and DonaldContributor S. Whitney, Spiritual Disciplines for the Christian Life ed., Ancient Christian Devotional: A Year of Weekly Readings (Downers (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1997), 23–60. Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2007). See also John R. Tyson, ed., Invitation 29. Augustine, The Confessions, VIII.29, trans. Maria Boulding (Hyde to Christian Spirituality: An Ecumenical Anthology (New York/Oxford: Park, NY: New City Press, 1997), 206–207. Oxford University Press, 1999). 30. David G. Benner, Opening to God: Lectio Divina and Life as Prayer 32. Oswald Chambers, My Utmost for His Highest (Ulrichsville, OH: (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2010); Tim Gray, Praying Scripture Barbour Publishing, 2000). This was first published in 1935. for a Change: An Introduction to Lectio Divina (West Chester, PA: Ascen- 33. Lettie Cowman, Streams in the Desert (Grand Rapids, MI: Zonder- sion Press, 2009); and James C. Wilhoit and Evan B. Howard, Discovering van, 1999). This was first published in 1925. Lectio Divina: Bringing Scripture into Ordinary Life (Downers Grove, IL: 34. Kenneth D. Boa, Face to Face: Praying the Scriptures for Spiritual InterVarsity Press, 2012). Growth (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997). Dialogue Education and Jane Vella 399 was at Columbia University (and Columbia’s Teachers rather than relying on external compulsion, would capi- College) in New York, where he taught philosophy and talize on students’ natural motivations and purposes. In worked to develop a more robust theory of progressive contrast to those who stressed the centrality of content pedagogy. His most famous work on education, Democ- or the centrality of the student, Dewey called attention to racy and Education (1916), was written during this im- the interaction between objective (content, teacher, en- portant phase of his career. He continued to write and vironment) and internal (students’ needs, interests, and speak on philosophical and educational topics after his purposes) factors, noting that education must account for retirement, dying in 1952 at the age of 92. both factors in the child’s experience. Many Christian ed- ucators, both liberals and conservatives, have employed Significant Contributions to Christian Education and adapted versions of this philosophy in their teaching, As a liberal Congregationalist in his early teaching career, looking to stimulate the interaction between Christian Dewey was interested in religious issues. Early on during content and life experiences. his tenure at the University of Michigan, he joined the Dewey also wanted teachers to recognize the critical Student Christian Association on campus and led Bible importance of the continuity of students’ experiences. study groups in this setting. He was a founding member He noted that each educational experience offered would of the Religious Education Association, initiated by Uni- be interpreted in light of previous experiences and live versity of Chicago president William Rainey Harper. Yet on to modify future experiences.Only Dewey therefore sug- his greatest influence on Christian education occurred gested that all educational experiences must be evaluated through his writings on educational theory and philoso- not only in terms of their present enjoyment, but also in phy. Dissolving the dualism between the sacred and the light of their influence on future experiences. Educative secular, Dewey believed that democratic methods and environments would open up students for positive future structures constituted the curriculum of a proper “reli- experiences of growth, while miseducative experiences gious” education. In fact, he suggested that a democratic would render them less able to learn and grow through social order marked by justice and brotherhood was the future experiences. In all of this, Dewey desired to help fulfillment of Jesus’s announcement of the Kingdom of teachers see that education is not simply a preparation for God. Many liberal religious educators embraced Dewey’s future living, but life itself. John Dewey’s was probably joint commitment to democracy and scientific method, theCopy most influential educational theorist of the 20th cen- rejecting transmissive teaching and creedal absolutes in tury, and his work has shaped the discourse of Christian favor of methods that highlighted joint problem solving education in significant ways. framed by the experimental testing of value hypotheses. They also appreciated his sense that curriculum should Most Notable Publications be devised not from predigested content or abstract “sub- Dewey, John. 1900. The School and Society. Chicago: University jects,” but rather from the pressing needs and purposes of Chicago Press. of active students. The teacher in such a model was to be ———. 1902. The Child and the Curriculum. Chicago: University a facilitator and guide in this process, authority deriving of Chicago Press. from his or her position as the most experienced mem- ———. 1916. Democracy and Education. New York: Macmillan. ber of the group. Dewey’s epistemological appeal to the ———. 1938. Experience and Education. New York: Macmillan. evolving nature of truth certainly struck a chord with liberals who espoused a similar belief in the progressive References and Resources development of truth over time. Rockefeller, Steven. 1994. John Dewey: Religious Faith and Demo- Whether they recognize it or not, Christian educators cratic Humanism. New York: Columbia University Press. of all varieties have likely been influenced by Dewey’s Westbrook, Robert B. 1993. John Dewey and American Democ- progressive appeals to growth, purposeful activity, and racy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. the continual reconstruction of experience. His instru- —David Setran mentalist philosophy, which evaluated ideas not on their immutabilityContributor but on their pragmatic value in forging solutions to felt difficulties, led him to privilege problem Dialogue Education and Jane Vella solving as the chief framework for educational processes. Within this method, Dewey called on teachers to help The genesis of the theory and practice of “dialogue students identify and define felt needs, develop sugges- education” is widely attributed to Jane Vella. As a tions (hypotheses) for how to meet those needs, and Roman Catholic religious woman in Tanzania with experiment with these hypotheses until they were either the Maryknoll Sisters from 1956 to 1977, Vella facili- accepted or rejected. Dewey noted that such a process, tated popular adult education in the midst of disparate 400 Dialogue Education and Jane Vella cross-cultural barriers, limited language proficiency, and • Person-centered: The holistic development of all per- complex socioeconomic and political factors that could sons involved is its purpose, not merely information have deterred teacher-learners from achieving cognitive, or content sharing. affective, and psychomotor growth. In a letter to a col- • Prepared: From the initial needs assessment, to the league, Vella describes how she learned dialogue the hard application of the eight steps of design, to the design way—in Swahili!—by listening with three ears. Informed of materials, the learning is designed for this par- and formed by educational theorists such as Paulo Freire, ticular group of learners, and adequate time is used Malcolm Knowles, Kurt Lewin, and Benjamin Bloom, to prepare it. Vella “educated in dialogue” with communities in Africa, North America, and Asia for over 40 years and founded These characteristics support the 12 principles of dialogi- Global Learning Partners. cal education: Who needs what, as defined by whom? This funda- mental question highlights a constitutive principle that, • Needs assessment that demands the participation of as active subject-agents of learning or decision making, the learners in naming what is to be learned adult learners make meaning optimally and creatively • Safety in the environment and the process for learn- through “dialogue,” that is, by mutually engaging the ing “word between us.” One of dialogue education’s basic • Sound relationships between teacherOnly and learner and assumptions is that adults have enough life experi- among learners ence to be in conversation with any teacher about any • Sequence of content and reinforcement subject; therefore, they will construct new knowledge, • Praxis, which denotes action with reflection or attitudes, or skills best in relation to that life experience. learning by doing Essentially, dialogue education is an integrated, holistic, • Respect for learners as decision makers intentional, spiritual, and energetic approach to adult • Ideas, feelings, and actions that comprise quantum education. learning Such “quantum” process advances “both-and” and • Immediacy of the learning, which connects what is “certainty or uncertainty” modes of thinking. Dialogue learned to the purpose and to its direct application education is designed to incorporate purposefully the • RolesCopy and roles development that are clarified daily life and struggle of participants as core ingredi- • Teamwork and use of small groups ents and provide an environment of mutual respect and • Engagement of the learners in what they are learning safety. It creates an innovative space for participants to • Accountability, which poses the question “How do bring diverse symbols and values and utilize indigenous they know they know?” or local ways of knowing toward adaptive and generative change. So, when participants ask, “How do we know that In closing the distance between teachers and learn- we know?” they can respond, “We just did it.” ers, dialogue education brings about a learning-centered Dialogue education is rooted in six salient characteris- process that reflects on past experience (inductive), tics that reframe adult teaching and learning: introduces new information (input), explores possible contexts for application of acquired insight (implemen- • Political: It has to do with power and the distribu- tation), and closes the loop by reverting back to the tion of power, both in the process and in the content learner’s context (integration). selected. • Problem-posing: It examines the potential issues and References and Resources challenges, a dialogue around topical adult themes Vella, Jane. 1995. Training Through Dialogue: Promoting Effec- incorporating adult materials that evoke affective, tive Learning and Change in Adults. San Francisco: Jossey- psychomotor, and cognitive responses. Bass. • Part of a whole: It must have follow-up and continu- ———. 2002. Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach: The Power ity, notContributor be a single event raising and then dashing of Dialogue in Educating Adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. hopes. In quantum terms, this aspect considers the ———. 2008. On Teaching and Learning: Putting the Principles whole context of the learner’s situation. and Practices of Dialogue Education into Action. San Fran- • Participative: Everyone involved will have time to cisco: Jossey-Bass. speak, listen, and participate actively in the learning. Vellla, Jane, and Associates. 2004. Dialogue Education at Work: In quantum terms, they construct new skills, con- A Case Book. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. cepts, and attitudes to fit their context. —Faustino Cruz Didache as an Educational Tool 401

Didache as an Educational Tool prayer is to be as the hypocrites (the form of the latter is similar to Matt. 6:9–13, yet not identical). Only those who The Didache (“The Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles are baptized may partake of the Eucharistic thanksgiving. through the Twelve Apostles”) is a catechetical manual The statement in 7.1 (“having first said all these things”) written in the first century of the church fathers (AD indicates that the ethical instruction was to be used in 95–c. 150). Until the 20th century, the title Didache prebaptismal catechesis. Likewise, chapter 11 begins (Greek “teaching”) was known among ancient lists of with an introductory formula with regard to what has books that were not included in the New Testament. preceded (“Whoever therefore, comes and teaches you Athanasius included the Didache among those nonca- all these things that have been said before, receive him”). nonical books that were “appointed by the Fathers to The disciplinary instruction begins by addressing how be read by those who newly join us, and who wish for to distinguish false apostles and prophets from the true. instruction in the word of godliness” (Festal Letter 39), Itinerant teachers who are prophets may only abide three and Eusebius of Caesarea (Eccl. Hist. 3.25.4) acknowl- days; however, work is necessary if one wishes to settle edged the manual as “spurious” (albeit not heretical, within the community. Prophets and teachers are worthy since it does not claim to be inspired). By contrast, to receive food and first fruits of possessions. Conclud- Clement of Alexandria (c. AD 140/150–c. 220) cited the ing matters address community worship, appointment Didache as “scripture” (Strom. 1.20). of bishops and deacons, and fraternalOnly relationships. The When a man named Bryennios discovered this oldest concluding instruction provides an important, early ex- extant handbook of church order and conduct in 1873, ample of extrabiblical teaching with regard to the return in an ecclesiastical library in Constantinople, it became of the Lord and the associated events. Watchfulness and one of the most debated and discussed works of antiq- readiness is commended when the “world-deceiver” ap- uity. Scholars have debated the date of composition, pears, and then all humanity will experience “the fire of with some estimates being as early as AD 60 and others testing,” which concludes with “the Lord coming upon extending to AD 90. The place of origin has been de- the clouds of heaven.” bated; however, two locations predominate. The manual As an educational tool, the Didache is important as a was used extensively in Egypt, yet the content suggests depiction of the Christian life of the early church. The Syria. The specific author (or compiler) is unknown; knowledgeCopy and inspiration of the catechetical literature thus, it is best attributed, in general, to the apostolic edified numerous Christian communities for a period of fathers (in the East), who composed the work for the time and may continue to be useful in this regard. The purpose of edifying believers in matters of church life, doctrine of the “two ways” is a recurring theme through- liturgy, and morality. out the Old and New Testaments (Deut. 30:15–20; Ps. 1; Even the most casual of readers may discern the Matt. 7:13–14; John 14:6; Rom. 12:16–21; 13:8–12). One clearly delineated sections: (1) ethical instruction, spe- should also note that the arrangement of the content cifically the “two ways” of life—“the way of life” and appears to be based on the canonical order of the New “the way of death” (chs. 1–6); (2) liturgical instruction Testament books. The Didache may be integrated and (chs. 7–10); (3) disciplinary instruction (chs. 11–15); supplemental with the study of scripture. and (4) eschatological instruction (ch. 16). The first section closely resembles the two ways of life in the References and Resources Epistle of Barnabas; however, a noticeable difference is Jefford, Clayton N., ed. 1995. The Didache in Context: Essays on the avoidance of an allegorical interpretation. The Di- Its Text, History, and Transmission. New York: Brill. dache articulates the basic practices and precepts of the Lightfoot, J. B., and J. R. Harmer. 2007. The Apostolic Fathers: Christian faith without exaggerated or fanciful notions. Greek Texts and English Translations of Their Writings. 3rd Even the eschatological instruction is interpreted in a ed. Edited by Michael W. Holmes. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker direct and precise manner, as opposed to providing a Books. speculative “spiritual” meaning. The ethical instruction Niederwimmer, Kurt. 1989. Die Didache. Göttingen: Vanden- describesContributor the actions consistent with a Christian life, hoeck & Ruprecht. in contrast to the multitudinous vices that characterize Quasten, Johannes. 1986. Patrology. 4 vols. Notre Dame, IN: those who pursue the way of death. Christian Classics. The liturgical instruction first addresses water bap- Vokes, Frederick E. 1938. The Riddle of the Didache. London: tism, which includes an inclination for cold, living (run- Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. ning) water and a triune blessing. Neither fasting nor —Ron J. Bigalke 402 Didache as Early Christian Education Strategy

Didache as Early Christian the Eucharist, principles for the order of churches, and Education Strategy a concluding eschatological warning.40 With limited theological development and many obvious references “The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles,” or as it is com- to and echoes of the New Testament, we can deduce that monly referred to today, the Didache, is perhaps the the creator of the Didache assumed the readership would earliest extant example of an attempt at Christian educa- already know (and probably embrace) the Gospel fully. tion outside the New Testament. As such, it is important Adding to this, the sections on baptism, the Eucharist, for understanding early Christian education. The text of and church order imply that the primary readers will, the Didache was composed by an anonymous author or for example, be those doing the baptizing, rather than compiler in the first century AD, with modern scholars receiving baptism (Did. 7.4).41 As a result, the text is most estimating that it was composed sometime between the likely intended as a training tool for early church lead- middle of the first century and the beginning of the sec- ers (or their apprentices).42 Among the church fathers, ond century.35 It was cited quite favorably by a number of Athanasius recognized the instructional value of the text church fathers and excerpted in several documents in the in AD 367.43 However, the importance of the Didache in first few centuries, after which, it fell out of use and was the educational formation of early Christianity is often largely unknown throughout the medieval period, until a overlooked today.44 We may conclude that the Didache chance rediscovery by Philotheos Bryennios in Constan- was highly successful in accomplishing its educational 36 Only tinople in 1873. While much has been written on the strategy, as many of its guidelines have become the norm Didache in the last century, getting a precise read on the for Christian practice for many segments of the church, particulars of the text has been more difficult. Though a even into the modern era. few scholars believe the text is a unified whole originat- ing with one author, more scholars view it as a com- References and Resources posite document compiled from several (perhaps oral) Draper, Jonathan A. 1991. “Torah and Troublesome Apostles sources.37 Another major point of contention is identify- in the Didache Community.” NovT 33 (4): 347–372. ing the purpose and role of the Didache; most scholars Draper, Jonathan A., ed. 1996. The Didache in Modern Re- agree it is to some degree a catechetical document,38 but search. AGJU 37. Leiden: Brill. this is where the agreement ends. Part of the problem is Milavec,Copy Aaron. 2003. The Didache: Text, Translation, Analysis, the opening lines of the text, “The teaching of the Lord and Commentary. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. through the twelve apostles to the nations (Gentiles),” Niederwimmer, Kurt. 1998. The Didache: A Commentary. does not seem to line up with the later intent of the text Translated by Linda M. Maloney. Edited by Harold W. At- (e.g., Did. 7.1). This has led several scholars to argue tridge. Hermeneia. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. that the text has in mind a general audience, but a more O’Loughlin, Thomas. 2011. “The Missionary Strategy of the plausible case may be made that the Didache has a much Didache.” Transformation 28 (2): 77–92. more focused intent.39 Porter, Stanley E., and Andrew W. Pitts, eds. 2013. Christian The Didache is unlike the texts that comprise the Old Origins and Greco-Roman Culture: Social and Literary Con- and New Testaments. Its stated goal is to inform and texts for the New Testament. TENT 9. ECHC 1. Leiden: Brill. educate (Did. 1.1, 7.1). The text covers four major areas: Schwiebert, Jonathan. 2008. Knowledge and the Coming King- an opening explanation of the “way of life” contrasted dom: The Didache’s Meal Ritual and its Place in Early Chris- with the “way of death,” instructions on baptism and tianity. LNTS 373. London: T&T Clark. Van de Sandt, Huub, and David Flusser. 2002. The Didache: Its 35. Ranging from the arguments of Milavec to Niederwimmer, respec- Jewish Sources and Its Place in Early Judaism and Christian- tively, see Aaron Milavec, The Didache: Text, Translation, Analysis, and Commentary (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 2003), ix; and Kurt ity. CRINT. Assen: Van Gorcum. Niederwimmer, The Didache: A Commentary, trans. Linda M. Maloney, —Douglas Estes ed. Harold W. Attridge, Hermeneia (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1998), 53. 36. Huub van de Sandt and David Flusser, The Didache: Its Jewish Sources and Its Place in Early Judaism and Christianity, CRINT (Assen: 40. Cf. Niederwimmer, The Didache, 1. Van Gorcum,Contributor 2002), 3. 41. Thomas O’Loughlin, “The Missionary Strategy of the Didache,” 37. See, e.g., Milavec, The Didache, xiii; and van de Sandt and Flusser, Transformation 28, no. 2 (2011): 78. The Didache, 1, respectively. 42. Contra William Varner, who argues the Didache was meant for new 38. William Varner, “The Didache as a Christian Enchiridion,” in Chris- Christians; see Varner, “Didache as a Christian Enchiridion,” 651. tian Origins and Greco-Roman Culture: Social and Literary Contexts for the 43. Athanasius, Festal Letter 39. New Testament, ed. Stanley E. Porter and Andrew W. Pitts, TENT 9, ECHC 44. Jonathan A. Draper, “Torah and Troublesome Apostles in the 1 (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 651. Didache Community,” NovT 33, no. 4 (1991): 347; and cf. Jonathan 39. See, e.g., Varner, “Didache as a Christian Enchiridion,” 651; and Schwiebert, Knowledge and the Coming Kingdom: The Didache’s Meal Thomas O’Loughlin, “The Missionary Strategy of the Didache,” Transfor- Ritual and its Place in Early Christianity, LNTS 373 (London: T&T Clark, mation 28, no. 2 (2011): 77–79, respectively. 2008), 11. Didactics 403

Didache as Early Church Manual References and Resources Draper, Jonathan A., ed. 1996. The Didache in Modern Re- The Didache is an early, anonymous Christian document, search. Leiden, New York: T & T Clark International. probably written about AD 80–90, although some schol- Jefford, C. N., ed. 1995. Didache in Context: Essays of Its Text, ars think it appeared in the second century. Some schol- History, and Transmission. London: E.J. Brill. ars also think it predates most of the New Testament. Milavec, Aaron. 2003. The Didache: Text, Translation, Analysis, Originally this little book, a religious manual (about 40 and Commentary. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press. pages), written in koinė Greek, had no title, but later it Del Verme, Marcello. 2004. Didache and Judaism: Jewish Roots received the title Didache Kyriou Dia Ton Dodeka Apos- of an Ancient Christian Jewish Work. London: T & T Clark tolon Ethesin (“The Teaching of the Lord by the Twelve International. Apostles to the Gentiles”). Some have translated the last —Alvin J. Schmidt word of the title as “Heathen” rather than “Gentiles.” Eusebius (fourth-century church historian) mentions the Didache in his Ecclesiastical History (vol. 3), but for Didactics more than a millennium no copies seemed to have re- mained extant after his time. But in 1873 Philotheos Bry- Education can be reduced to one simple rule: put the ennios, an Eastern Orthodox ecclesiastic, rediscovered a cookies on the bottom shelf. OnlyStudents must be able to copy in a monastery in Constantinople (now ). access knowledge taught; teachers are responsible to When the early Christians first began assembling make the knowledge accessible. Communication of the New Testament canon in the third and fourth content is the essence of what educators do. So teaching centuries, some lists included the Didache as one of is not separated from learning; the teaching-learning the inspired books. For instance, Athanasius’s Paschal process is unified. Letter (AD 367), which lists 27 New Testament books now found in most Bibles, also lists the Didache as a Biblical Theology of Didactics supplemental book. Answers to the questions “How does everything fit As a church manual, the Didache spells out two paths together?” and “How does life make sense?” are based for Christians to choose. One is the way of life that onCopy the intersection and unification of heaven and earth pertains to loving God and one’s neighbor. The second through Jesus, who holds all things together (Col. 1:17). is the way of death, which mostly lists moral vices that There is a unity of Truth (2 Kings 19:15). All “truth” is Christians must avoid: murder, adultery, pederasty, abor- inclusive within His “Truth.” Since God alone made the tion, and infanticide. As a Christian manual, it prescribes heavens and the earth (Neh. 9:6; Prov. 30:4; Isa. 44:24), how baptism is to be performed, namely by using “living and the whole of creation gives Him praise (Ps. 69:34), [flowing] water, but if such water is not available, then Christian thinkers must answer the question “How do other water may be poured on the person’s head three our studies give praise to God?” Christian teaching- times in ‘the name of the Father, the Son, and the holy learning must synthesize the source of all wisdom, Jesus Spirit’” (ch. 7:1). Citing this mode of baptism seems to (Col. 2:3), proclaiming Him, admonishing and teaching indicate that the early Christians did not insist on only everyone with all wisdom (Col. 1:28). one mode of baptism, for example immersion or submer- God is the transcendent source of all knowledge and sion, as the only valid means of baptism. Since the 16th authority (1 Sam. 2:3; Num. 24:16; Prov. 2:6). By this century, however, some denominations (e.g., Baptists knowledge, God created the world (Ps. 104:24), and and Pentecostals) accept only the latter mode of baptism with the wisdom still embedded within creational law for church membership. (Prov. 8:12–31), the natural world operates on super- The Didache also directs Christians to confess their natural ordinances. sins before they receive the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist). People are responsible to this God and His Truth This reference evidently influenced ensuing liturgies in (Prov. 1:7; 9:10). Fearing God is premised upon a rela- ChristianContributor churches, for later many orders of service con- tionship that is the essential component of all knowledge: tained the rubric of confession and absolution, usually at to love God (Mark 12:30, 31). People simply discover— the beginning of a divine service, following the Trinitar- they do not create—truths resident within creation from ian invocation. It also instructs Christians not to partake the Creator (Isa. 28:23–29; Prov. 25:2). Humans continue in the Supper if unresolved conflicts between them and to discover truths hidden from earlier generations owing others still exist. It also gives directions for fasting and to unfathomable depths of God’s mysteries (Job 38–41). prayer, along with instructions for ordaining bishops and Truth in the world is interpreted through the Truths deacons if they “are worthy of the Lord” (ch. 15:1). in God’s word (2 Cor. 10:3–5), which are eternal and 404 Didactics universal (Isa. 40:8; John 17:17; 1 Pet. 1:25). Human pur- tending delight and wonder for the discoverer (Job 26, suit of knowledge must be earnestly sought and granted 28:1–11; Prov. 25:2). Ways of knowing (epistemology) by God (Prov. 23:23) by those who are discerning (Prov. are premised on “the fear of The Lord” (Prov. 1:7; 9:10). 14:6, 15:14, 18:15). Because human knowledge is skewed The Christian scriptures are the central organizing core by sin (Tim. 1:15), scripture is the final authority for as- of education (2 Tim. 1:14, 2:15, 3:14–17), allowing for sessing the assumptions of worldviews (1 John 4:4). evaluation and interpretation of all theories and data, while giving purpose to the process of being Christian. Biblical Philosophy of Didactics The Christian scholar (2 Chron. 17:7–9; Prov. 2:1–6; 2 The life of a Christian teacher is as important as the Cor. 10:3–5) bears responsibility to develop a theological curriculum she or he communicates: the teacher is the awareness so as to employ a Christian thought process in “living curriculum” (Luke 6:40). Teachers should model the pursuit of true Truth. their belief (1 Thess. 2:7–12). Students must be trained in a holistic, cohesive Christian paradigm (2 Kings 23:25; Christian Practice of Didactics Ezek. 7:10; Acts 2:42–47). Knowing should affect being, Intentionality should be a Christian teacher’s watch- producing action (1 Thess. 1:6–9). Teachers are ac- word. Planning is the first step in creating a system- countable for what they teach (James 3:1). Teachers are atic approach to teaching. Interiority is the ultimate authorities, whose authority is given by God (1 Thess. Christian education change agent.Only Teaching is a craft. 5:11–12; Heb. 13:17). A teacher’s gifting matters. Learning should engage a Students have worth, value, and dignity because they multiplicity of learning styles, modalities, and meth- have been created in God’s image (Gen. 1:26–27). Stu- ods, since people are multifaceted, yet whole. Christian dents are also inherently corrupt in their nature because scholars can learn from unbelievers, because the human of the Fall of humanity (Gen. 3; Rom. 3). Pupils need, discoverer of truth is subservient to the true Truth. The then, direction and discipline corralling sinful proclivities ability to know and to grow in knowledge of the Cre- (Deut. 30:11–15) through Jesus’s sacrifice; what is twisted ator and His creation is within the purview of thinking by sin is reconciled through Christ (2 Cor. 5:17–21). The people (cf. Ps. 64:9, 65:8, 66:1–5, 67). Believers must student is seen as an individual with varying learning continue to mine truths no matter where they are found styles and potentialities (1 Pet. 4:10–11). or byCopy whom they are found. Furthermore, though cul- Christian instruction is distinctive. Change in method ture and context may condition the perceptions of dif- does not demand change in message (1 Cor. 9:19–22). ferent groups, the common nature of reality is true for Since God is Truth, His Spirit instructs Christian au- all people in all places at all times (Ps. 117). thority in academic realms (Rom. 8:5–9; 2 Tim. 1:14). Christian teachers may facilitate learning experiences, Christian teachers, nurtured with a Christian philosophy but teaching is not the facilitation of experience or the of education, direct students as they discover the truth construction of knowledge. Knowledge is not static. It of God’s world around them (1 Tim. 4:11–16). Learn- is ever expanding. This does not mean, however, that ing is work that is adversely affected by the Fall (Gen. truth is invented or created. Truth is discovered, ordered, 3:17–19). Christian education must recognize the general analyzed, and applied. Truth exists apart from the truth rebellion against the discipline to learn (Prov. 1:1–9, 22). seeker. Teachers help students discover truth and order it Transformational learning is the goal of Christian educa- in a manner that is consistent with the ultimate Truth of tion (Isa. 29:13; James 1:22–25), best done in community the Word of God. (Acts 2:42–47). Skills, facts, ideas, and procedures are all Herein the learner should understand both that she reclaimed for the Christian classroom premised on the bears responsibility for learning (Prov. 2:1–6) and that unifying truth of scripture (1 Kings 4:29–34). Because all teachers are encouraged to bring learning to the learner truth is God’s Truth (Ps. 119:89–96), students are taught (Ps. 71:14–18). Understanding steps in the learning to discern truth wherever it may be found (Heb. 5:11–14). process—stages of maturation—would help instructors The latest theories, the oldest philosophies, the most fine-tune their methods to the learning styles of their recent practicesContributor in schooling are evaluated biblically to pupils (Heb. 5:11–14). Ultimately brought to a place of discover purloined pieces of truth and their applicability ownership (Acts 17:11), students would become teachers to the Christian educator’s approach (Isa. 28:23–29). (Gal. 6:6). In this way, the “holes” of human nature shot There is no dichotomy between secular and sacred: through with corruption can be made “whole” through the whole world and all of life belong to the Creator (1 the process of maturation (Ps. 119:97–100) within the Chron. 29:10–16; Ps. 24:1, 50:9–12, 89:11). Common scope of scriptural principles (Ps. 119:89–91). Children as grace—truth found within creation—can be accessed corrupt image bearers (Ecc. 7:29), then, can acknowledge because the Creator was pleased to leave it there, in- that there is Someone outside themselves to whom they Differentiated Instruction 405 must give an account. But the process of moving children ever, the content of the message can change, dependent to that level of commitment is the task of the teacher, elu- upon the needs of the learners. For example, in his letter cidating and magnifying a transcendent source of truth to the Ephesians (2:8–9) and again to the Romans (5:1–2, (Ps. 71:14–18). 2:14, 17), Paul emphasizes the importance of salvation through faith. Yet in James we read “What good is it, my References and Resources brothers, if a man claims to have faith but has no deeds? Hendricks, Howard. 2003. Teaching to Change Lives: Seven . . . In the same way, faith by itself, if it is not accompanied Proven Ways to Make Your Teaching Come Alive. 2nd ed. by action, is dead” (2:14, 17). These messages support the Colorado Springs, CO: Multnomah Books. main objective of repenting and believing the good news, Van Brummelen, Harro. 2002. Steppingstones to Curriculum: but the content is crafted toward the needs of the people A Biblical Path. 2nd ed. Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful to whom the letters are sent; there is a context. Likewise, Design. when differentiating for process, the calling of the 12 dis- —Mark Eckel ciples involves Jesus asking them to follow Him (Matt. 9:9; Mark 1:16–20, 2:14), yet Jesus employs a different process for calling the apostle Paul (Acts 9:1–14). The Differentiated Instruction process by which these apostles were appointed was dif- ferentiated. Finally, we see differentiationOnly in product with Differentiated instruction refers to a teaching methodol- regard to “different kinds of gifts, but the same Spirit. ogy, established primarily by Carol Tomlinson (1999a, There are different kinds of service, but the same Lord. 1999b, 2001, 2003), that identifies the purpose of educa- There are different kinds of working, but the same God tion as the learning of the student, and the role of the works all of them in all men” (1 Cor. 12:4–6). teacher as discovering the knowledge and skills that In each of these examples of how the Lord differenti- each student has in order to design instruction—which ates content, process, and product, the end goal of “go includes the content, the process, the product, and the and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the environment—to meet the needs of the students so name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, they can learn. In Differentiated Instruction (1999a), and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded Tomlinson first establishes the necessary conditions for you”Copy remains the overriding objective. As Christian differentiation, beginning with the need for a clear, set educators, then, by differentiating instruction, we are learning objective for what the learners should know and/ acknowledging each person’s uniqueness and reaching or be able to do at the end of the learning session. This each of them as the Imago Dei. clearly stated and communicated objective enables both the teacher and the student to differentiate the content, References and Resources process, product, or environment because both know Chapman, C., and R. King. 2005. Differentiated Assessment what the end goal is. According to Ellis and colleagues, Strategies: One Tool Doesn’t Fit All. Thousand Oaks, CA: differentiated instruction is the process of “ensuring that Corwin Press. what a student learns, how he or she learns it, and how Ellis, E., R. A. Gable, M. Gregg, and M. L. Rock. 2008. “REACH: the student demonstrates what he or she has learned is A Framework for Differentiating Classroom Instruction.” a match for that student’s readiness level, interests, and Preventing School Failure 52 (2): 31–47. preferred mode of learning” (2008, 32). Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple In- The concept of a differentiated classroom connects to telligences. New York: Basic Books. numerous other educational theories, including Howard Tomlinson, C. A.1999a. “Mapping a Route Toward a Differen- Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (1983), brain- tiated Instruction.” Educational Leadership 57 (1): 12. based learning (Willis 2007; Wolfe 2001), understanding ———. (1999b). The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to by design (Wiggins and McTighe 2001), and assessment the Needs of All Learners. Cranbury, NJ: Pearson Education. (Chapman and King 2005). ———. 2001. How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability AlthoughContributor differentiated instruction is a term utilized Classrooms. 2nd ed. Alexandria, VA: Association for Super- by schools in relationship to K–12 student learning, we vision and Curriculum Development. see evidence of differentiated instruction by virtue of ———. 2003. “Fulfilling the Promise of the Differentiated Class- differentiating the content, process, product, and learn- room: Strategies and Tools for Responsive Teaching.” Al- ing environment by Jesus. Just as with the tenets of dif- exandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum ferentiated instruction, the overall objective remains the Development. same: “The time has come. The kingdom of God is near. Wiggins, G., and J. McTighe. 2001. Understanding by Design. Repent and believe the good news” (Mark 1:15). How- Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. 406 Disability Ministry

Willis, J. 2007. Research-Based Strategies to Ignite Student Other ministry collectives provide online resources for Learning: Insights from a Neurologist and Classroom Teacher. “How to Start a Disability Ministry,” and “Exceptional Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curricu- Teaching Online Training Course.”47 Many congregations lum Development. have begun training programs for mentors who covenant Wolfe, P. 2001. Brain Matters: Translating Research into Class- to work with specific individuals and their families both room Practice. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision inside and outside the church. Curriculum addressing and Curriculum Development. persons with special needs is also available. Churches and —Laura Barwegen church groups are also shaping ministries for persons whose disabilities may relate to such psychological realities as mental illness, autism, bipolar struggles, and depression. Disability Ministry In addition, the growing number of senior adults experi- encing dementia and Alzheimer’s disease has led many In The Disabled God, Nancy Eiesland wrote: “The his- churches to develop respite care programs that provide tory of the church’s interaction with the disabled is at daily assistance for seniors and their families. best an ambiguous one. Rather than being a structure for Some congregations maintain separate programs for empowerment, the church has more often supported the persons with disabilities, particularly those with learning societal structures and attitudes that have treated people or speech difficulties. Others, however, work to “main- 45 Only with disabilities as objects of pity and paternalism.” For stream” persons with special needs as fully as possible many years, while certain churches and denominations into the worship, sacramental, and teaching programs made consistent efforts to respond to the disabled in their and ministries of the community of faith. midst, many ignored them, minimized their presence, or herded them together in “handicapped-group” minis- References and Resources try. By the latter 20th and early 21st centuries, multiple Giffin, Suzanne. 2012. “Discovering Effective means for the faith communities moved toward a variety of disability- Church to Increase Faith Development and Support to Per- specific ministries, often with the intention of responding sons and Families Affected by Alzheimer’s Disease.” Journal to the disabled in ways that facilitate ministry from them, of Religion, Disability & Health 16 (4): 394–419. not simply for them. Scholars such as Eiesland pressed Yong,Copy Amos. 2012. The Bible, Disability and the Church. Grand religious institutions and individuals to review and renew Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. principles and policies related to persons with disabili- —Bill J. Leonard ties, while publications such as the Journal of Religion, Disability & Health provided a venue for research that benefited academic and faith communities. Disability, Emotional Increasingly, churches and denominations have devel- oped curriculum for use by persons with varying disabili- Emotional disability, also called emotional disturbance or ties, distinguishing special needs related to sight, hearing, disorder, most typically indicates a disorder of mood or accessibility, and learning and motor skill difficulties. For anxiety.48 The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act example, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (IDEA) defines emotional disturbance as “a condition (ELCA) has an extensive educational and awareness exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics program that delineates specific programs for specific over a long time, and to a marked degree that adversely disability needs. The ELCA website stresses the need for affects educational performance: (a) A student’s inabil- inclusion of persons with disabilities, not simply minis- ity to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, tries “to” or “for” the disabled. The document notes: “As sensory, or other health factors, (b) An inability to build a church we make a special effort to be inclusive of all or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with people. This includes welcoming all and sharing hospi- peers and teachers, (c) Inappropriate types of behavior tality. For the benefit of church leaders, we’ve included or feelings under normal circumstances, (d) A general informationContributor on how to have a more proactive approach to including those who are disabled. We’ve also included 47. “How to Start a Disability Ministry,” http://www.buildingchurch a course for students with disabilities.”46 leaders.com/multimedia/articles/howtostartadisabilityministry.html; “Christian Disability Organizations & Resources,” http://www.restminis tries.org/health/prof-ministries-disability.htm. 48. Janet Shakuntala Walker and Jonathan Kessler Melvin, “Emotional 45. Nancy Eiesland, The Disabled God: Toward a Liberatory Theology of Disorders (In Children and Adolescents),” in International Encyclopedia of Disability (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1994), 20. Rehabilitation, ed. John Stone and Maurice Blouin (Buffalo State University 46. “Inclusion,” http://www.buildingchurchleaders.com/downloads/ of New York, Center for International Rehabilitation Research Information childrensministry/developchildrensministry/. and Exchange, 2013), http://cirrie.buffalo.edu/encyclopedia/en/article/7/. Disability, Intellectual 407 pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression, (e) A deal of praise, encouragement, and personal attention. tendency to develop physical systems or fears associated Additional workers/helpers are necessary to create a safe with personal or school problems.”49 Emotional disabili- and effective learning environment in the classroom with ties include, but are not limited to, depression, anxiety persons with any type of emotional disorder. disorders, and conduct disorders. Every person deserves to know and experience the Causes for emotional disturbance or disability can be love of God—which is most manifest in the community genetic, environmental, or chemical imbalance or injury of believers and where people with emotional disorders to the brain.50 Because of the varying causes of emotional need to feel they belong. Resources for the Christian edu- disturbance, symptoms can begin at any age. cator and for churches committed to creating a welcom- Emotional disturbance is manifested in externalizing ing environment for those with emotional disabilities behavior (more common in boys) and internalizing be- include those produced by the CLC Network (Christian haviors (more common in girls). Externalizing behaviors Learning Center)53 and the Christian Churches Disability include aggression, destructiveness, and defiance. Inter- Ministry,54 and others available through the Calvin Insti- nalizing behaviors include depression, eating disorders, tute of Christian Worship.55 anxiety, and suicidal thoughts. Although the external- izing behaviors are easier to recognize in the classroom References and Resources setting, internalizing behaviors are equally detrimental to Calvin Institute of Christian Worship. worship.calvin.edu 51 Only the child and should be monitored very closely. CLC Network (Christian Learning Center). www.clcnetwork.org In the classroom, teachers will need specific plans and techniques to deal with externalized behaviors such as ag- Christian Churches Disability Ministry. n.d.-a. “Behavior Man- gression toward staff and fellow students, destruction of agement in the Church.” Available at www.ccdmonline.org. furniture and supplies, and interruption of lessons. The ———. n.d.-b. “Including Students with Emotional and Behav- creation of plans of care should be a collaborative effort ioral Problems.” Available at www.ccdmonline.org. between parents of the student and all workers who will McDevitt, Teresa M., and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod, eds. 2002. Child be involved with that student. Providing a clutter-free Development and Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pear- environment, arm’s-length distance from other students son Education. in the seating plan, and a place for students to calm down Oosterhuis,Copy Alyce. 2002. “The Development of a Christian will be essential. Simple, clear rules and consequences— Ideology of Inclusive Education.” Journal of Research on consistently enforced—allow the child with externalized Christian Education 11 (1): 5–31. behaviors to improve self-discipline and will eventually Pierson, Jim. 2002. Exceptional Teaching: A Comprehensive lead to better behavior in the classroom. Creating a safe Guide for Including Students with Disability. Cincinnati, OH: emotional environment that includes acceptance, posi- Standard Publishing. tive attitudes, and encouragement is essential.52 Swanson, Susan. 2010. “Experiential Religion: A Faith Forma- Internalized behaviors present a different set of chal- tion Process for Children with Autism.” Journal of Religion, lenges for the teacher. These students will often shy Disability & Health 14 (3): 238–255. away from participation in activities and isolate them- Walker, Janet Shakuntala, and Jonathan Kessler Melvin. 2013. selves from their peers. This child’s fears and anxieties “Emotional Disorders (In Children and Adolescents).” In may cause others to tease or bully her or him, which International Encyclopedia of Rehabilitation, edited by John increases isolation and feelings of unworthiness. This Stone and Maurice Blouin. Buffalo: State University of New child may complain of a physical ailment in order to York, Center for International Rehabilitation Research In- avoid participating in group activities. Children with formation and Exchange. http://cirrie.buffalo.edu/encyclo internalized emotional disturbance will require a great pedia/en/article/7/. —Carol Anne Janzen and Jennifer Riley

49. Cited in Jim Pierson, Exceptional Teaching: A Comprehensive Guide for Including Students With Disability (Cincinnati, OH: Standard Publish- ing, 2002), 63. IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, USA). Disability, Intellectual 50. TeresaContributor M. McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis Ormond, eds., Child Develop- ment and Education (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2002), 335–336. Intellectual disability is a disability in which impair- 51. Ibid., 335. ments to the brain result in limitations in intellectual 52. “Behavior Management in the Church,” http://storage.cloversites .com/christianchurchesdisabilityministry/documents/Behavior%20Man- agement.pdf and “Including Students with Emotional and Behavior Prob- lems,” http://storage.cloversites.com/christianchurchesdisabilityministry/ 53. www.clcnetwork.org. documents/Emotional%20and%20Behavior%20Problems.pdf; Christian 54. www.ccdmonline.org. Churches Disability Ministry, ccdmonline.org. 55. worship.calvin.edu. 408 Disability, Intellectual functioning, requiring extra supports to enable a person multisensory, and reinforcing teaching tools.60 As with to participate in activities involved with typical human all students, learning styles will vary, and the instructor functioning.56 The three essential elements of intellec- will need to invest the time necessary to discover how the tual disability, as defined by the American Association intellectually disabled child best processes information. on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, are (1) The inclusive classroom is now the norm in secular significant limitations in intellectual functioning, (2) be- education and should be the norm for Christian educa- havioral restrictions in adapting to ecological demands, tion. Current pedagogical theory holds that children do and (3) identification or diagnosis before age 18.57 Causes better in an inclusive environment because of higher ex- of intellectual disability include genetic disorders such as pectations of the children with disabilities and richer op- Down syndrome; prenatal conditions such as maternal portunities for social interaction; such benefits should be malnutrition or drug or alcohol misuse, medical condi- sought in an environment dedicated to spiritual develop- tions arising during pregnancy, or infections; problems ment as well.61 The presence of persons with intellectual experienced during birth, such as a lack of oxygen during disabilities is also a reminder that faith development is delivery; and experiences during childhood, including not exclusively a cognitive function.62 diseases such as meningitis and encephalitis, accidents Resources for the Christian educator and for churches that damage the brain, and exposure to toxins. committed to building an inclusive ministry with the For the Christian educator, a clear understanding intellectually disabled are available from the CLC Net- Only63 of the individual’s capabilities, behaviors, and physi- work (Christian Learning Center) and the Christian cal limitations will be as important as knowing every Churches Disability Ministry,64 as well as the Calvin Insti- detail of a diagnosis. The preferred term “mental age” tute of Christian Worship.65 is used to describe the person’s ability to function and understand concepts. For example, a 10-year-old child References and Resources with a mental age of three will understand concepts Calvin Institute of Christian Worship. worship.calvin.edu presented at the preschool level, not at a preteen level. Christian Churches Disability Ministry. www.ccdmonline.org Adjustments to curriculum will need to be made based CLC Network (Christian Learning Center). www.clcnetwork.org on the mental age of the student; this mental age will be the starting point for setting developmental goals and Erhardt,Copy Martin. 2010. “Affirming Baptism: Recommendations evaluating achievement. for Pastors and Teachers Teaching Students with Intellectual The intellectually disabled person generally has dif- Disabilities.” Journal of Religion, Disability & Health 14 (2): ficulty adapting to his or her surroundings and will value 132–142. familiar spaces and routines. Mental age will not only McDevitt, Teresa M., and Jeanne Ellis, Ormrod, eds. 2002. determine the ability to understand the material being Child Development and Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: presented, but also affect adaptive skills such as lan- Pearson Education. guage and communication, social interactions, self-care McNair, Jeff. 2010. “Knowledge, Faith Development, and Re- (personal and health care), safety awareness, and home ligious Education That Includes All.” Journal of Religion, living.58 It is important to recognize that while teaching Disability & Health 14 (2): 186–203. curriculum content, the instructor will also need to work National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. on adaptive skills. Helping the learner with adaptive skills 2001. “Intellectual Disability.” NICHCY Disability Fact Sheet will eventually lead to better performance and interaction 8.” January. http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/intellectual. in the classroom.59 Oosterhuis, Alyce. 2002. “The Development of a Christian Most children with a mild to moderate intellectual dis- Ideology of Inclusive Education.” Journal of Research on ability are capable of learning new skills and concepts— Christian Education 11 (1): 5–31. learning will simply happen more slowly. Concepts must be presented in simplified terms using interactive, 60. Martin Erhardt, “Affirming Baptism: Recommendations for Pastors and Teachers Teaching Students with Intellectual Abilities,” Journal of 56. MichaelContributor L. Wehmeyer and Shea Obremski, “Intellectual Disabili- Religion, Disability & Health 14, no. 2 (2010): 140–141. ties,” in International Encyclopedia of Rehabilitation, ed. Stone and Blouin, 61. Alyce Oosterhuis, “The Development of a Christian Ideology of http://cirrie.buffalo.edu/encyclopedia/en/article/15/. Inclusive Education,” Journal of Research on Christian Education 11, no. 57. Ibid. 1 (2002): 5–31. 58. Jim Pierson, Exceptional Teaching: A Comprehensive Guide for 62. Jeff McNair, “Knowledge, Faith Development, and Religious Educa- Including Students with Disability (Cincinnati, OH: Standard Publishing, tion That Includes All,” Journal of Religion, Disability & Health 14, no. 2 2002), 24–25. (2010): 200–201. 59. “Intellectual Disability,” NICHCY Disability Fact Sheet 8, January 63. www.clcnetwork.org. 2011, National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, http:// 64. www.ccdmonline.org. nichcy.org/disability/specific/intellectual. 65. worship.calvin.edu. Disability, Learning 409

Pierson, Jim. 2002. Exceptional Teaching: A Comprehensive rah Creamer (2009), Thomas Reynolds (2008), Hans Guide for Including Students with Disability. Cincinnati, OH: Reinders (2008), and Amos Yong (2007). Although Standard Publishing. there are disparate views about the theological nature of Wehmeyer, Michael L., and Shea Obremski. 2013. “Intellectual disability, the general consensus among contemporary Disabilities.” In International Encyclopedia of Rehabilitation, Christian scholars is that special education is a ministry edited by John Stone and Maurice Blouin. Buffalo: State Uni- to which Christian teachers can and should be called. versity of New York, Center for International Rehabilitation For Christian educators, working with students with dis- Research Information and Exchange. http://cirrie.buffalo abilities is one way to learn about the diverse world God .edu/encyclopedia/en/article/15/. has created (Anderson 2012, xxi). Anderson argues that Whitney, Trevor. 2009. “Intellectual Disability and Holy Com- Christian educators should seek to help students with munion: The Peace that Passes Understanding.” Journal of learning disabilities reach their fullest potential (2012, 4). Religion, Disability & Health 13 (3–4): 247–259. While contemporary secular theories of learning dis- —Carol Anne Janzen and Jennifer Riley abilities often focus on information processing and execu- tive function (Lerner and Johns 2011), from a Christian perspective, these theories must be integrated with the Disability, Learning spiritual dimension of human life (Anderson 2012, 62). And while there is internal debateOnly among Christian schol- Introduction ars regarding the extent of the effects of sin on disability Learning disability refers to a disorder in one or more (Brock and Swinton 2012), Christians can generally af- basic psychological processes, resulting in difficulty firm that students with disabilities have “an equal value as learning according to typically defined patterns and bearers of God’s image” (Anderson 2012, 129; Yong 2007, processes in academic areas. Areas of difficulty may vary 16). Ultimately, a biblical perspective on disability “under- in degree among one or more of the following: input scores the sanctity of life” (Anderson 2012, 43). (auditory and visual perception, receptive language), Further, Joe Sulton (1997) calls Christian educators integration (sequencing, abstraction, and organization), to take responsibility for students with learning differ- memory (working, short-term, and long-term memory), ences, because all are members of the Body of Christ and output (expressive language), and motor (fine and gross “membersCopy should have the same care one for another” motor). A learning disability includes conditions such as (1 Cor. 12:25). Having a disability does not preclude an perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dys- individual from “living a meaningful life and furthering function, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. God’s purposes” (Anderson 2012, 26). Thus, Christian educators can see students with learning differences not Diagnosis and Identification as disabled, but different, and seek to enable them to A learning disability does not include a “learning prob- achieve God’s purposes for their lives. lem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional References and Resources disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic Anderson, D. 2012. Toward a Theology of Special Education: disadvantage” (20 U.S.C. §1401.30), or lack of academic Integrating Faith and Practice. Bloomington, IN: WestBow- instruction. While in the past learning disabilities were Press. diagnosed specific to an academic skill area (dyslexia, Brock, B., and J. Swinton, eds. 2012. Disability in the Christian dysgraphia, dyscalculia), contemporary understanding Tradition: A Reader. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. views a specific area of difficulty as symptomatic of an Creamer, D. 2009. Disability and Christian Theology: Embod- underlying issue that often affects multiple areas of learn- ied Limits and Constructive Possibilities. New York: Oxford ing. Private psychological and mental health profession- University Press. als can diagnose learning disabilities, but students are Lerner, J. W., and B. Johns. 2011. Learning Disabilities and not eligible to receive publicly funded special educational Related Mild Disabilities. 12th ed. Independence, KY: Wad- servicesContributor until a public school determines that they meet sworth Publishing. legal criteria for a disability. Reinders, H. 2008. Receiving the Gift of Friendship: Profound Disability, Theological Anthropology, and Ethics. Grand Rap- Christian Perspectives on Learning Disabilities ids, MI: Eerdmans. Several contemporary Christian scholars have considered Reynolds, T. 2008. Vulnerable Communion: A Theology of Dis- the nature of disability (intellectual, learning, cogni- ability and Hospitality. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press. tive, physical) from a decidedly Christian perspective, Sulton, J. 1997. Special Education: A Biblical Approach. Grand- including Brian Brock and John Swinton (2012), Debo- view, MO: Hidden Treasures Ministries. 410 Disabled, the

Yong, A. 2007. Theology and Down Syndrome: Reimagining Dis- scribed as inspirational and heroic for completing every- ability in Late Modernity. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press. day tasks, instead of being seen as individuals living side ———. 2011. The Bible, Disability, and the Church: A New Vi- by side with the rest of society. Moreover, disabled people sion of the People of God. Grand Rapids. MI: Eerdmans. are often invisible within society, lessening their chances —Joshua D. Reichard and Adam J. Richards of being mainstreamed in school and affecting their op- portunities for employment and for being given an equal place within the body of Christ. Christian education Disabled, the must create for disabled individuals a welcoming and safe place for their learning experience. The dignity and the There is a growing segment of individuals in contempo- integrity of the disabled individual must be maintained rary society who are disabled. The term disabled applies at all costs, so that they are not made uncomfortable. The to any individual who needs assistance, either physically disabled must be considered in Christian education. or mentally, to perform everyday activities. Disabilities range from the very mild to the extremely reliant on the References and Resources assistance of others. Anytime there is a military action, Nario-Redmond, Michelle R. n.d. Cultursl Stereotypes of some individuals return from service with disabilities, Disabled Men and Women, Consensus for Global Category which change their lives. As terrorist acts increase in the Representations and Diagnostic DomainsOnly. Portland, OR: Western Hemisphere, some individuals survive the at- Reed College. tacks but are left disabled, either mentally or physically. Shah, Sonali. 2008. Young Disabled People, Aspirations, Choices There are also individual(s) who are born with disabilities and Constraints. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. or are injured in accidents of various kinds. Shaw, Donita M., and Laurel Disney. 2012. “Expanding Access, There is a mandate for the learning needs of the dis- Knowledge, and Participation for Learning Disabled Young abled to be met, within society and within the body of Adults with Low Literacy.” Journal of Research & Practice for Christ. Arrangements must be made so that the disabled Adult Literacy, Secondary & Basic Education 1 (3): 148–160. have access to learning models that permit them to learn —Candace Shields at their own pace. Just as the public schools have found models that meet the needs of the disabled, so must Copy Christian education. Instructors, teachers, and pastors Disadvantaged, Education of the must access all available resources to provide an atmo- sphere that is conducive for the individual to learn or Social Disadvantage and Educational Attainment grasp the meaning of whatever lesson is being taught. Within the history of the development of state involve- Even within the Christian education system, it is vital ment in education, three main intertwined purposes can that necessary arrangements be made for the participants be detected: economic, social, and humanitarian. Educa- and family members who have a disability. Christian tion has been regarded as a means of increasing the long- education must also make adjustments for family mem- term prosperity of the nation through a better educated bers who are struggling with the disability of their loved and trained workforce. It has been seen as a way in which ones. Their lives are also affected, and they must learn to the lives of individuals could be improved or controlled, accept changes in their loved one and in their lives. The and through them, society as a whole. Education has also learning process must be taken into consideration so that formed an essential part of the process of socialization everyone can learn at some level. of children as they develop into fully functioning adults. Often people who have disabilities are struggling to Well before governments began to secure education overcome the stigma that society has placed on them be- for the general populace, Christian churches (of various cause of their disability. Confronting their disability may denominations and across a variety of jurisdictions) were be a struggle, interfering with their concentration and providing schools. Prior to the Enlightenment, teaching making it difficult for them to stay focused on the learn- and learning were primarily conceived of as religious ing situation.Contributor During this adjustment period, society may activities, and the earliest schools were been attached to view disabled individuals unrealistically. For example, ac- monasteries or other Christian centers. Teaching and cording to Michelle R. Nario-Redmond (n.d.), individu- learning were mainly considered religious activities, to als who are disabled are culturally stereotyped by society. be experienced within the context of the community life Society often believes that individuals with disabilities are and concerned, primarily, with preparing individuals for dependent, incompetent, and asexual. Also many believe roles in the church. Over time, however, such schools, that the disabled are illiterate and incapable of learning, along with those developed by various craft guilds, be- leaving the disabled marginalized. They are also often de- came the preserve of the (relatively) wealthy. Disadvantaged, Education of the 411

The effect of home circumstances on pupil achieve- perform a sociological and political function as well as an ment in schools has been well documented in recent educational one. They enable such migrants to support years in many jurisdictions. There is a high correlation one another, often in a culture within a culture, so that between large social disparities and levels of educational they can combat marginalization and enjoy social and attainment. Social deprivation has a real and negative material progress. While in many countries Christian effect on children’s academic attainment, and that dis- schools provide just such a model of education, it is the advantage persists into their adult lives. Across different case that some, though founded for this purpose, have societies, the relationship seems to hold good in both for a variety of historical reasons become dependent primary and secondary phases and across educational on charging fees for their continued existence, with the sectors, inasmuch as the smaller the percentage of so- result that they can only serve a financial elite. Such is cially disadvantaged pupils on the rolls, the higher will the case with a number of Australian Church of England be the pupils’ and the schools’ overall attainment levels. schools and Catholic colleges in the United Kingdom. Of course, not every child from a socially deprived back- On the other hand, where Christian schools are able ground will necessarily have lower than average attain- to serve the general population or are located in the ment levels at school. However, research suggests that inner cities, they appear to be particularly supportive of the overall level of social disadvantage can account for as disadvantaged pupils. While they are not able to elimi- much as 80 percent of the apparent difference between nate the depressing effects ofOnly socioeconomic depriva- schools’ academic outcomes. tion, their pupils, particularly those attending Catholic The positive impacts of schooling, therefore, are most schools, seem to achieve higher levels of academic at- likely to be in the form of modest improvements for tainment than others in similar circumstances attending disadvantaged children, rather than fundamental trans- institutions provided and run by the state. In England, formations of their lives. However, the effectiveness of where there is a rigorous national testing regime, there Christian, particularly Catholic, schools with disadvan- is evidence suggesting that the greater the proportion of taged pupils is strong, although causal reasons are not disadvantaged pupils attending the school, the greater the clear and remain a matter of (sometimes ideological) differential in overall attainment over state school out- dispute. The individual factors and their complex inter- comes measured at the school level. In the United States action are difficult to ascertain with certainty, so estab- also,Copy Catholic schools succeed in producing excellent lishing the school-based causal factors of differential in- academic results for many of the nation’s poorest pupils. stitutional performance and replicating them in differing One by-product of that academic success is a gradual contexts is problematical. change in the material and social standing of immigrant Christian communities as, partly the result of the educa- Who Are the Poor? tion they have received, they begin to move from the It can be argued that material deprivation is not the sole fringes toward the heart of society, both socially and terri- determinate of social disadvantage and low levels of aca- torially. Any general movement of Christian populations demic attainment. Differences in family (or individual toward the suburbs raises concerns about the nature of or group) circumstances that shape lives can relate to a the educational commitment of Christian institutions to range of factors, including ethnicity, religion, income, the poor in the inner cities. It raises questions of whether health, and physical access to services and facilities, to their primary purpose is to support Christian parents in name but a few. Children may also often be burdened the education of their children or the poorest in society, by forms of nonmaterial poverty. They may come from irrespective of the parents’ religious or philosophical broken families incapable of love, be spiritually poor, convictions. Different Christian denominations have re- and find themselves in circumstances that promise sponded to these questions in different ways, depending only future unemployment and social marginalization. on their particular historical/political circumstances and In some jurisdictions, particularly those that may have the jurisdictions in which they operate. degrees of ethnic segregation often associated with ma- terial deprivation,Contributor a pupil’s ethnic background may also References and Resources have a negative impact. These are all children to whom, Congregation for Education. 1997. “The Catholic School on traditionally, the majority of Christian educational in- the Threshold of the Third Millennium.” In An Anthology stitutions have responded. of Catholic Teaching on Education, edited by L. Franchi, 489–501. London: Scepter. Schools Serving the Disadvantaged Convey, John, ed. 1992. Catholic Schools Make a Difference: In many countries where there is a Christian minority, Twenty-Five Years of Research. Washington, DC: National often comprising mainly immigrants, Christian schools Catholic Educational Association. 412 Discernment as Christian Practice

Dennis, Norman. 2001. The Uncertain Trumpet: A History of guide for decision making.70 As represented in these dis- Church of England School Education to AD 2001. London: crete forms, discernment combines a sense of judgment Institute for the Study of Civil Society. and action, with openness to God’s work in and through Francis, Leslie J., and David W. Lankshear, eds. 1993. Chris- creation for the sake of redemption and reconciliation. tian Perspectives on Church Schools. Leominster, England: Discernment, as a broad discipline, appears in a Gracewing. number of spiritual traditions and among other areas Hayes, Michael A., and Liam Gearon, eds. 2002. Contemporary of scripture, particularly regarding decision making.71 Catholic Education. Leominster, England: Gracewing. Theologian Mark McIntosh charts the emphasis of dis- Hunt, Thomas C., Ellis A. Joseph, and Ronald J. Nuzzi, eds. cernment both across Christian antiquity and among 2002. Catholic Schools Still Make a Difference: Ten Years of specific traditions, including Desert spirituality, Puritan Research 1991–2000. Washington, DC: National Catholic practice, and the intellectual engagement of John Henry Educational Association. Newman.72 For McIntosh, discernment exists between Morris, Andrew B. 2008. Fifty Years On—The Case for Catholic the tension of contemplation and active practice and in- Schools. Chelmsford, UK: Matthew James Publishing. cludes five dynamic patterns: ———, ed. 2012. Catholic Education: Universal Principles, Lo- cally Applied. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Schol- 1. Discernment as faith: grounding in a loving and ars Press. trusting relationship with God;Only Stock, Marcus. 2012. Christ at the Centre: Why the Church 2. Discernment as distinguishing good and evil im- Provides Catholic Schools. London: Catholic Truth Society. pulses that move people; Worsley, Howard, ed. 2013. Anglican Church School Educa- 3. Discernment as discretion, practical wisdom, tion: Moving Beyond the First Two Hundred Years. London: moderation, and general good sense in practical Bloomsbury. situations; —Andrew B. Morris 4. Discernment as sensitivity and desire in pursuing God’s will in everything; and 5. Discernment as contemplative wisdom that fills all Discernment as Christian Practice Copytruth with the presence of God.73 Discernment incorporates both a spiritual gift and a McIntosh does add the qualification that discernment spiritual discipline to both critically and creatively un- is not merely an individual matter, one existing only derstand the work of God within the world and particu- between director/mentor and protégé. Discernment in- larly as Christian practice in people’s lives. In scripture, cludes the full life of the congregation in worship and discernment is often associated with the apostle Paul’s ministry as a formative presence.74 vision of spiritual giftedness, particularly the discern- Christian educators should note that McIntosh’s de- ment of spirits (1 Cor. 12:10) for the sake of Christian scription affords the opportunity to see discernment as a unity.66 In the early church this emphasis shifted to the primary domain for a number of educational and leader- Desert Fathers and their emphasis on discrimination and ship activities. This approach incorporates the reading of spiritual direction or guidance.67 However, it is probably scripture as both a critical and creative endeavor; theo- the writing of Saint Ignatius of Loyola that established the logical reflection on the nature of God, the general guid- tradition of discernment as a spiritual exercise for daily ance of individuals through the life of discipleship, and living.68 Michael Ivens notes: “the discernment of spirits, the assessment of the life of the church and local commu- one of the major themes in Ignatius’ spiritual doctrine, nity in naming God’s intent and activity.75 Frank Rogers is brought to bear on the concrete decisions that arise notes that discernment remains a dangerous practice, from the life of action.”69 Those in later traditions, like the Quakers, often practiced discernment as a communal 70. Frank Rogers, “Discernment,” in Practicing Our Faith: A Way of Life for a Searching People, 2nd ed., ed. Dorothy Bass (San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 2010), 108–111. 66. BarbaraContributor E. Bowe, Biblical Foundations of Spirituality: Touching the 71. Luke Timothy Johnson, Scripture & Discernment: Decision Making Finger to the Flame (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), 157–158. in the Church (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1996). 67. Kenneth Leech, Experiencing God: Theology as Spirituality (New 72. Mark A. McIntosh, Discernment and Truth: The Spirituality and York: Harper & Row, 1985), 132–133. Theology of Knowledge (New York: Herder & Herder, 2004). 68. The Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius, trans. Anthony Mottola 73. Ibid., 5–6. (New York: Imgage/Doubleday Books, [1964] 1989). 74. Ibid., 249–255. 69. Michael Ivens, “Ignatius Loyola,” in The Study of Spirituality, ed. 75. Dean G. Blevins and Mark A. Maddix, Discovering Discipleship: Cheslyn Jones, Geoffrey Wainwright, and Edward Yarnold (New York: Dynamics of Christian Education (Kansas City, MO: Beacon Hill of Kansas Oxford Press, 1986), 361. City, 2010), 195–207. Discipleship 413 one always susceptible to prophetic subversion or self- ence and attentiveness. To abide in Jesus—to be discipled deception when not governed by fidelity to scripture and by Him—is to learn to see as He sees, hear as He hears, tradition, manifested in the fruit of the spirit, yielding love as He loves (cf. Mark 4:9; Matt. 13:16; John 15:9ff.). inner peace, and promoting communal harmony. Rogers It is to undergo transformation of heart and mind, con- also believes authentic discernment requires persons to version of the will, education of all desires. As the begin- engage the process with integrity and to seek insight that ning (and end) of Christian discipleship, abiding in Jesus enhances rather than diminishes life.76 Embracing this is the slow, patient work of a lifetime. cautious, yet broad view should allow Christian educa- The evidence of discipleship, of abiding in Jesus, is the tors to forge specific discernment practices faithful to bearing of “much fruit” (John 15:8, 16; Matt. 7:16–20). their ministries. Christian discipleship has a particular shape, the contours of which consist of patterns and practices that reflect the References and Resources very character of God and bear witness to a life lived in Blevins, Dean G., and Mark A. Maddix. 2010. Discovering and through the Spirit. Saint Paul names these patterns Discipleship: Dynamics of Christian Education. Kansas City, and practices—this fruit—as love, joy, peace, patience, MO: Beacon Hill of Kansas City. kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self- Bowe, Barbara E. 2003. Biblical Foundations of Spirituality: control (Gal. 5:22). Touching the Finger to the Flame. Lanham, MD: Rowman & In contemporary practice, discipleshipOnly is commonly Littlefield. conceived of in pragmatic, programmatic terms, and Ivens, Michael. 1986. “Ignatius Loyola.” In The Study of Spiritu- sometimes narrowly as a task undertaken by the profes- ality, edited by Cheslyn Jones, Geoffrey Wainwright, and Ed- sional educator. Discipleship “materials”—often slickly ward Yarnold, 357–362. New York: Oxford University Press. produced and aggressively marketed—abound. Classes Johnson, Luke Timothy. 1996. Scripture & Discernment: Deci- and curricula, many of them well done, have their place sion Making in the Church. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. in ecclesial life. But the nurturing of Christian disciple- Leech, Kenneth. 1985. Experiencing God: Theology as Spiritual- ship occurs in the myriad ways in which the Church is ity. New York: Harper & Row. Christ’s body in the world, the called-out people of God McIntosh, Mark A. 2004. Discernment and Truth: The Spiri- who worship and pray, serve and forgive, heal and rec- tuality and Theology of Knowledge. New York: Herder & oncile.Copy Far from a do-it-yourself-project (What book or Herder. program or spiritual technique will fix me, bless me, in- Rogers, Frank. 2010. “Discernment.” In Practicing Our Faith: A spire me?), discipleship is the vocation of the whole body Way of Life for a Searching People, 2nd ed., edited by Doro- as it learns together what it means to show forth the love thy Bass, 103–116. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. of God in the world. The Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius. (1964) 1989. Trans- Discipleship is also cruciform in shape, since abiding lated by Anthony Mottola. New York: Image/Doubleday in Jesus means keeping the company He kept and fol- Books. lowing Him to his journey’s end at the cross: “If they —Dean Blevins persecuted me, they will persecute you” (John 15:20). This is the paradox of the Gospel and the call (and cost) of discipleship: that in suffering there is hope, in sorrow Discipleship there is rejoicing, in death there is life. Apprenticing ourselves to the master-teacher, abiding in Him always, In the New Testament, μαθητής is translated “disciple” seeking fruit-bearing lives—in all of this we learn that our and suggests learner or follower. In the ancient world, joy is complete (John 15:11). to learn from or follow another involved not merely the digesting of information or adherence to precepts, but a References and Resources kind of reorientation of the self: to be a true disciple was Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. 2001. Discipleship in Dietrich Bonhoeffer to become like the teacher. Works. Vol. 4. Edited by Geffrey B. Kelly and John D. God- WhenContributor Jesus called His disciples (and there were many sey. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. of them, men and women, beyond the familiar 12), the Ford, David. 1997. The Shape of Living: Spiritual Directions for invitation was to abide in Him (John 15), to become like Everyday Life. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Him through mutual indwelling (“abide in me as I abide Kenneson, Philip D. 1999. Life on the Vine: Cultivating the in you”), to experience and practice a constancy of pres- Fruit of the Spirit in Christian Community. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books. 76. Rogers, “Discernment,” 111–114. —Debra Dean Murphy 414 Discipleship in the Digital Age

Discipleship in the Digital Age Campbell, Heidi. 2005. Exploring Religious Community Online: We Are One in the Network. New York: P. Lang. Discipleship in the digital age refers to spiritual forma- ———. 2013. Digital Religion: Understanding Religious Practice tion or nurturing of individuals in the Christian faith in in New Media Worlds. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. a way that better prepares them for faith and life in the Careaga, Andrew. 2001. Eministry: Connecting with the Net context of an increasingly technological world.77 While Generation. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel. many aspects of discipleship remain constant across Jewell, John P. 2002. New Tools for a New Century: First Steps in time and context, this phrase is used to draw attention Equipping Your Church for the Digital Revolution. Nashville, to those aspects that may be distinct given some of the TN: Abingdon Press. psychological, social, spiritual, and ethical influences Malphurs, Aubrey, and Michael Malphurs. 2003. Church Next: of digital culture. For example, some argue that digital Using the Internet to Maximize Your Ministry. Grand Rapids, culture is resulting in changing perceptions of self, com- MI: Kregel. munity, reality, truth, authority, time, and space, each of Piatt, Christian, and Amy Piatt. 2007. MySpace to Sacred Space: which has potential spiritual implications. In addition, God for a New Generation. St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press. individuals in the digital world have increased access to Schultze, Quentin J. 2002. Habits of the High-Tech Heart: Living information in a wide variety of forms: text, hypertext, Virtuously in the Information Age. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker audio, video, and multi-modal. Proponents of disciple- Books. Only ship in the digital age, then, argue for cultivating spiritual Watts, D. Jonathan. 2007. Gospeltelling to a Digital Culture: discernment of messages that are communicated in these The Forensic Reconstruction of a Good Story. South Bend, IN: many formats. Cloverdale Books. There are three common approaches to discipleship in —Bernard Bull the digital age: devotional, worldview studies, and par- ticipation. The devotional approach, sometimes informed by Acts 17, seeks to use artifacts or examples from digital Discrimination against culture as illustrations and object lessons for spiritual Christian Education messages (e.g., Paul’s message to the Athenians, which referenced their “idol to an unknown god”). This is often DiscriminationCopy is an issue about which there is little done in an effort to contextualize religious messages in a intentional study and research in the field of Christian way that is more easily understood by individuals who are education (CE), or in theological education, for that mat- immersed in the digital world. The second area, world- ter. Therefore, the reflection here aims at serving more view studies, involves engaging learners in an analysis of as a conceptual approach for guiding future research and emerging ideas, practices, and values in the digital culture, study on this problem. Discrimination, as used here, is comparing or contrasting them with corresponding teach- understood as “the process and/or set of actions executed ings in the Christian faith. An example might be helping by a group of people in order to treat unequally and/or individuals consider how the Ten Commandments apply to deny access to valuable resources to another group” to one’s online activity. What are stealing, adultery, and (Aguirre and Turner 2004, 6). Such discrimination in the idolatry in online contexts? Doing this challenges indi- context of CE appears in at least three contexts: (1) the viduals to apply the unchanging truths of the Christian ministry of the local church, (2) the pastoral leadership worldview to the constantly changing technological world. of a congregation, and (3) the theological curriculum. The third area, participation, refers to examples of active Although the evidence may be anecdotal, it is undeniable involvement in the digital world, engaging in outreach that many people involved in CE at any of these levels and discipleship using digital tools or in digital contexts. could tell stories of discrimination, whether of their own An example of this last approach is teaching the faith or about others. through social networks, traditional websites, or a variety At the congregational level, there is a tacit history of of technology-enhanced teaching methods. discrimination against a ministry that is often recognized Contributoras crucial and important by its leaders, but that in real- References and Resources ity is not given the financial support, the organizational Bull, Bernard, and Michael Uden. 2010. “Is It OK to Be a infrastructure, or the biblical and educational grounding Technology Illiterate Teacher of the Faith? ‘No!’” Issues in to make it effective and relevant. If the amount of energy, Christian Education 6: 22–29. time, and resources invested in an activity is a sign of the value given to that activity, then it is not hard to prove

77. Bernard Bull and Michael Uden, “Is It OK to Be a Technology Illiter- that there is discrimination against CE. Its treatment as a ate Teacher of the Faith? ‘No!’” Issues in Christian Education 6 (2010): 23. ministry of the church has been “unequal.” For example, Discrimination against Christian Education 415 it is not uncommon to witness “unequal treatment” in naries parallels the types of discrimination mentioned the perception of Sunday school teachers as compared above. Christian education as a field of study “tends to with the high regard given to other church officials. be rather lightly regarded” (Burgess 2001, 19). Not few In some denominations, strong distinctions have been seminary professors, outside and inside the field, attri- maintained between the role of the professional educa- bute this to CE’s natural “bias toward the practical” or, tor and that of the pastor, denying CE directors access to even worse, to the fact that “students majoring in reli- employee benefits and ministerial functions reserved for gious education frequently are less academically gifted ministers. In too many churches, CE is often denied criti- than those majoring in [Bible or Theology]” (Lee 2000, cal resources to overcome the one-hour Sunday school 248). It is not difficult to document cases in which CE pattern to which it has been reduced. Christian education departments have been shrunk to a minimum or even directors and Sunday school teachers are usually denied eliminated as a result of seminaries’ economic crises. It the financial resources and the training opportunities to is also not difficult to document how hard it is some- do their work and to develop as effective church educa- times for professors in the field of CE to obtain tenured tors. During economic crises, the “trimming” of church positions or to be accepted as scholars by members of ministries and programs at local and denominational other departments. Although this type of discrimina- levels usually starts with staff and programs related to tion certainly varies from seminary to seminary (e.g., CE. The fact that this discrimination happens many times evangelical seminaries tend toOnly offer more CE-related unconsciously or unintentionally does not take away the programs and hold them in higher regard than do Prot- negative effects it has on the overall ministry of a church, estant seminaries), the “unequal treatment” of the field nor does it erase the responsibility congregational leaders exists, and even continues to be “concealed.” should assume for it. Certainly there are other forms of discrimination The function of the pastor as a “teaching elder” or against CE that need to be brought to light, involving “teaching minister” received some special attention at the role of denominational structures as well as class, the close of the 20th century. Biblical and theological gender, and racial/ethnic issues. In addition to study and arguments were offered to support the thesis that, in more research, the challenge for the unmasking and over- light of the various crises facing the church, “teaching coming of such discrimination will require seminaries, the Christian faith is the central task of ministry” and, pastors,Copy and congregations to move the teaching of the therefore, ministers should start seeing themselves more Christian faith to center stage, which in the end, is what as teachers than as church administrators, psychothera- Jesus commanded His disciples to do. pists, or even preachers (Williamson and Allen 1991, 7–9). But, as has also been argued, books on the pastor References and Resources as an educator have not been as popular as books on Aguirre, Adalberto, and Jonathan Turner. 2004. American Eth- the pastor as counselor or manager. And there is re- nicity: The Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination. search that supports this “unequal treatment” of pastors 4th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill. regarding their function as the leading teachers of CE Browning, Robert. 1989. The Pastor as a Religious Educator. in the church. In the late 1980s, a national study about Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. the status of CE in Protestant churches, conducted by Burgess, Harold. 2001. Models of Religious Education: Theory the Search Institute, found that, in spite of pastors’ and Practice in Historical and Contemporary Perspective. expressed commitment to CE, only 62 percent of pas- Nappanee, IN: Evangel Publishing House. tors were involved in programs with adults, only 51 Lee, James Michael. 2000. Forging a Better Religious Education percent were involved in youth education programs, in the Third Millennium. Birmingham, AL: Religious Educa- and only 42 percent were involved in children’s educa- tion Press. tion (Roehlkepartan 1993, 112). Through this lack of Osmer, Richard. 1990. A Teachable Spirit: Recovering the involvement, many pastors are “denying” their CE Teaching Officer in the Church. Louisville, KY: Westminster directors and their church educators one of the most John Knox Press. qualifiedContributor resources they have at hand: the pastors them- Roehlkepartan, Eugene. 1993. The Teaching Church: Moving selves. This is serious because, in most cases, pastors are Christian Education to Center Stage. Nashville, TN: Abing- the only ones who have seminary education and are the don Press. “most knowledgeable of denominational policies, pro- Williamson, Clark M., and Ronald J. Allen. 1991. A Credible grams and teachings” (Osmer 1990, 205). and Timely Word: Process Theology and Preaching. Atlanta, As a field of study, the status of CE in the academic GA: Chalice Press. culture and curriculum of theological schools and semi- —Fernando Cascante 416 Discrimination against Christian Education, Governmental

Discrimination against Christian the revenue from which would be used to pay teachers Education, Governmental of religion.82 Jefferson, now in France, was unable to lead the opposition to the bill. Instead, opposition was Governmental Discrimination Defined led by James Madison, the very man who in 1789 would To discriminate is to set aside someone or something author the federal Constitution’s free exercise and es- for different treatment from the remainder of a group. tablishment clauses. Governmental discrimination against Christian educa- Madison eloquently wrote in opposition to Henry’s tion falls into two categories: that which is unlawful and bill: that which is lawful (and indeed necessary under the law). The distinction between the two is found in the First Whilst we assert for ourselves a freedom to embrace, to Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which provides profess and to observe the Religion which we believe to that the government may not establish an official reli- be of divine origin, we cannot deny an equal freedom to those whose minds have not yet yielded to the evidence gion (the establishment clause) nor may it infringe upon which has convinced us. If this freedom be abused, it is an any citizen’s free exercise of religion (the free exercise 78 offence against God, not against man: To God, therefore, clause). These two clauses exist in perpetual tension. not to man, must an account of it be rendered.83 Historical Origins In the end, Madison carried the Onlyday. Not only was the The origins of the free exercise and establishment bill before the legislature defeated, but the assembly went clauses are rooted in the very founding of our nation— even further, adopting Thomas Jefferson’s Act for Es- primarily in the actions of Virginia during the Ameri- tablishing Religious Freedom, which had been defeated can Revolution. seven years earlier. When the Virginia legislature instructed its delegates to the Continental Congress to seek independence for the Modern Iterations and Implications American colonies in 1776, the document they drafted for Christian Education stated that “all men are equally entitled to the free exer- As the free exercise clause clearly protects the activi- cise of religions, according to the dictates of conscience,” ties of Christian educators in private settings (such as a concept that would be eventually included in the federal churches),Copy governmental discrimination against Chris- constitution as the free exercise clause.79 tian education tends to appear only where it intersects Three years later, Thomas Jefferson introduced a bill with actual or apparent governmental authority (such as in the Virginia legislature, the Virginia Act for Establish- in public schools). ing Religious Freedom, that would limit the exercise of As a general rule, an individual is free to act within religion. This bill argued that in light of the fact that the the free exercise clause. For example, a public school God of “both body and mind . . . chose not to propagate student who wants to say a prayer for her meal cannot be [himself] by coercion on either . . . [despite] his power to restrained from doing so.84 Contrast this, however, with do so,” then neither should “impious . . . legislators and the actions of an individual who is a public school teacher rulers . . . themselves fallible and uninspired” be permit- and thus acts in many cases with the power of the govern- ted to coerce the dictates of another’s religious liberty on ment behind her. For the teacher, her free exercise must the general public.80 Though the bill initially failed, this be moderated by the establishment clause when she acts concept would eventually be included in the federal con- on behalf of the government.85 stitution as the establishment clause.81 To avoid the inappropriate exercise of governmental Seven years later, in Virginia’s first test of the tension authority, the U.S. Supreme Court has, over time, ad- between these two concepts, Patrick Henry introduced opted three tests, each of which, if failed, indicates the a bill which, if enacted, would levy a tax on all citizens, impropriety of the activity at issue. The first test, known as the “Lemon Test,” holds that the establishment clause 78. The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other requires that governmental action (1) have a secular pur- Organic Laws of the States, Territories, and Colonies Now or Heretofore Forming the UnitedContributor States of America, ed. Francis Newton Thorpe (Wash- ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1907). 82. Norine Dickinson Campbell, Patrick Henry: Patriot and Statesman 79. Ibid.; and From Jamestown to Jefferson: The Evolution of Religious (Old Greenwich, CT: Devin-Adair Company, 1969). Freedom in Virginia, ed. Paul Rasor and Richard E. Bond. (Charlottesville: 83. James Madison, Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious As- University of Virginia Press, 2011). sessments, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, 28 July 1785. 80. Virginia Act for Religious Freedom, reprinted in Church and State 84. Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe, 530 U.S. 290, 313 in the Modern Age: A Documentary History, ed. J. F. McClear (New York: (2000). Oxford University Press, 1995). 85. Policy Guidance on Constitutionally Protected Prayer in Public El- 81. Challenges to Religious Liberty in the Twenty-First Century, ed. Ge- ementary and Secondary Schools (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of rard Bradley (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012). Education, 7 February 2003). Discussion as Christian Practice 417 pose, (2) not have the primary effect of either advancing classrooms and enhance learning (Brookfield and Preskill or inhibiting religion, and (3) not result in excessive gov- 2005; Laing 2007). ernmental entanglement with religion.86 As an example, under the Lemon Test, the use of public university meet- Discussion as Theory and Practice ing space by a student group for Bible study was found In its basic definition, discussion is the practice of to be permissible because student use of university space group talk. Brookfield and Preskill (2005, 6) describe had a public purpose, as its primary effect was neither the the practice of discussion as “an alternately serious and advancement nor the inhibition of religion, and it created playful effort by a group of two or more to share views no excessive entanglement with religion.87 and engage in mutual and reciprocal critique.”93 Their Although there is some debate about whether the definition interweaves the complementary concepts Lemon Test has evolved into or been completely dis- of dialogue and conversation. They also argue for the placed by later tests, the predominant approaches to democratic and critical nature of the practice of discus- these questions today are the “Endorsement Test” and sion. Freire (1974) has long advocated the creation of the “Coercion Test.”88 These tests are best illustrated by democratic learning spaces and has delineated the hori- the Santa Fe case.89 In Santa Fe, a public school held an zontal and co-intentional nature of dialogue. Palmer election in which students elected a fellow student to (1998, 102) adds that “truth-learning in community” offer a prayer at each home football game.90 The Court is best facilitated when learnersOnly and teachers pose as a concluded that the election and the forum for offering the circle of knowers with the subject matter at the center of prayers violated the establishment clause, because these the circle. In the process of understanding a subject, the actions gave students and spectators the impression that teacher holds back his or her own thoughts and man- the prayer—including its content—was endorsed by the ages the discussion. Discussion is conceptualized with school and should be accepted by others.91 the learners and their learning in mind.

Conclusion Implications for Teaching and Learning Thus, as a general rule, the government may only discrimi- Dewey (1938) emphasized the value of experience in nate against Christian education if doing so is necessary to learning and the role of learners to critically reflect on the avoid what an “objective observer” would view as govern- meaningCopy of these experiences. In a healthy dialogue con- mental endorsement/advocacy of religion, endorsement/ versation, a subject is allowed to intersect with students’ advocacy meaning not just favoring one religion over an- experiences, and as critical reflection is fostered, different other, but also favoring religion over irreligion.92 interpretative voices shape the meaning of the subject. A —Silas McCormick democratic discussion suggests openness to rethinking long-held assumptions so that students are not simply comfortable with boxed information or remaining at Discussion as Christian Practice the periphery of knowledge. Dialogue encourages fresh thinking, hinders the fossilization of ideas, and forces the Discussion as a teaching method is often in the repertoire creation of new knowledge. of the teachers’ teaching techniques. But it can also be Power play or authoritarian teaching invalidates the a frustrating and aimless task. There are teachers who democratic space of conversation (Freire 1974; Simonaitis complain that only a few students actively engage in the 2002). Laing agrees that class discussion can be a “messy conversation, or that it is time consuming at the expense and frustrating business” (2007, 63), and that it is more of content. Could it be that the problem is that teach- convenient to simply tell students what we know or ers exercise too much power in the discussion? Or that think. However, he also insists that we cannot undermine discussion questions are not designed for further learn- the value of discussion, because more learning is actually ing? Discussion, when effectively facilitated, can enliven taking place than we may think.

The Challenge to Christian Educators 86. LemonContributor v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971). 87. Widmar v. Vincent, 454 U.S. 263, 271 (1981). Christian education is premised on a biblical worldview, 88. Doe v. Elmbrook School District, 687 F.3d 840 (7th Cir. 2012); Cyn- and Christian educators are perceived to be experts in this thia V. Ward, “Coercion and Choice Under the Establishment Clause,” discipline. The scheme of truth-telling has thrived in most University of California at Davis Law Review 39 (2006): 1621. 89. Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe, 530 U.S. 290 (2000). 90. Ibid. 91. Ibid., 308. 93. Brookfield and Preskill (2005, 247–262) rely on three traditions to 92. Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, No. 04 CV 2688, p. 11 (M.D. inform the practice of discussion, namely, structuralist analysis, poststruc- Pa 2005). turalism, and repressive tolerance. 418 Dissenting Academies of our classrooms, and so in these learning spaces, students was dictated by that connection. As a result of this asso- often feel inhibited about voicing different and opposing ciation, these schools were established to train clergymen views, because teachers are assumed to have the last word. for ministry. Discussion should be a hospitable learning space in which The Dissenting Academies were established to pro- students or the community of faith can actively engage vide Protestant students dissenting from the Church of with the issues of the faith, participate in the formation England with an education similar to that at Oxford and of new understanding, and together bring a robust and Cambridge. relevant perspective to the implications of these faith con- The Dissenting Academies were largely the result of the structs for personal growth. Susan Simonaitis (2002, 101) conformity legislation of 1662. With the passing of the Act wisely reminds Christian educators that “religious worlds of Uniformity, schoolmasters and teachers, in both private and theological systems” are human responses to experi- and public schools, were required to conform to the liturgy ences of the sacred, and as human constructs they are also established by law and to obtain a license from the respec- “complex, robust, powerful, persuasive and problematic” tive archbishop, bishop, or ordinary of the diocese. As a and therefore subject to rethinking and critique. result, the conformity legislation accentuated the differ- The goal of Christian education is nurture and life ences between the orthodox schools and those academies transformation. Discussion is one of the best ways to nur- established by nonconformists, primarily the Puritans. ture growth in reflective thinking, because it is premised After further legislation was passed,Only including the Five on the idea that only through collaboration and coopera- Mile Act of 1665, which fined nonconformist teachers tion with others can we challenge the deeper and more £40 pounds for teaching without church approval, the significant implications of our faith. Dissenters were inspired to support two important truths: the liberty of conscience and a free liberal education. The References and Resources church attempted to limit the impact of the Dissenting Brookfield, Stephen D., and Stephen Preskill. 2005. Discussion Academies with strict legislation; however, the new laws as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic only increased the effect of the Dissenting Academies. Classrooms. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Three main factors led to the prominence of the Dis- Dewey, John. 1938. Experience and Education. New York: Col- senting Academies from the 1660s through the 1800s. lier Books. First,Copy nonconformist ministers and laymen would not Freire, Paulo. 1974. Education for Critical Consciousness. New allow their sons to go to the universities that subscribed York: Continuum. to the Act of Uniformity. Second, with the ejection of the Freire, Paulo, and Donaldo Macedo. 1995. “A Dialogue: Cul- nonconformist teachers, most of the efficient and pro- ture, Language, and Race.” Harvard Educational Review 65 gressive teachers who were trained at Oxford and Cam- (3): 377–402. bridge were removed from the Catholic schools. Third, Laing, D. 2007. “Nurturing Discussion in the Classroom.” In parents wanted their children to receive the best possible Teaching, Learning, Assessing: A Guide for Effective Teach- education. With the best teachers leaving for the Dissent- ing at College and University, edited by K. Smith, 58–77. ing Academies, the majority of students were drawn to Oakville, ON: Mosaic Press. these educational institutions. Palmer, Parker J. 1998. The Courage to Teach. San Francisco: The Dissenting Academies taught students in the fields Jossey-Bass. of theology, philosophy, literature, and science. They Shor, Ira, and Paulo Freire. 1987. “What Is the ‘Dialogical have been considered the greatest schools of their day. Method’ of Teaching?” Journal of Education 169 (3): 11–31. During a period when grammar schools were struggling Simonaitis, Susan M. 2002. “Teaching as Conversation.” In The and the universities were sterile, the Dissenting Acad- Scope of Our Art: The Vocation of the Theological Teacher, emies were not only surviving but were active and thriv- edited by L. Gregory Jones and Stephanie Paulsell, 99–119. ing. In a time when the education centers were failing the Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. goals established by their founders, the Dissenting Acad- —Joanna Soberano emies effectively instructed the youth of England. In the Contributor19th century, the academies were rendered obsolete by the founding of University of London and the provincial Dissenting Academies universities, which were open to Dissenters, and by the eventual reform of Oxford and Cambridge. At the beginning of the 17th century in England, three educational systems were prominent: the university, the References and Resources grammar school, and the elementary school. All these Parker, Irene. 1914. Dissenting Academies in England: Their schools were an extension of the church; their curriculum Rise and Progress and their Place Among the Educational Diverse Media, Computers, and Social Networking 419

Systems of the Country. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer- engagement.96 In addition, creative models of informa- sity Press. tion building, using Wiki technology, signal new avenues Rivers, Isabel, and David Wykes. 2011. “Dr. Williams’s Cen- of learning.97 tre for Dissenting Studies.” http://www.english.qmul.ac.uk/ The second major phenomenon involves the world of drwilliams/academies.html. video gaming. Gamers, using either computers or gam- —Andrew Burggraff ing consoles, connect and participate in massive online games. These role playing games (RPG) may take com- petitive forms, like first person shooter games. Other net- Diverse Media, Computers, worked environments include more participatory, and and Social Networking collaborative, forms of games or alternative realities, like the virtual worlds touted in Second Life. Some of the con- The rise of the personal computer, linked with the advent structivist games incorporate a sense of transcendence or of the Internet, afforded a host of new innovations in religiosity as part of the engagement.98 Participants may computer software and networking that influence cur- adopt different personas, yet also engage in construc- rent Christian education in both formal and informal tive and imaginative forms of creation and production. settings. The resulting explosion of computers, and the Within these virtual environments, traditional forms means by which to connect them electronically to each of gaming and work prove interchangeable,Only when busi- other, initiated a host of new educational efforts. In ness and education adopt the environment to conduct particular, the advent of online instruction introduced networked board meetings or educational processes.99 an accompanying interest in constructivist educational Christian educators might feel reluctant to adopt vir- practices, as well as spiritual formation, within virtual tual environments, particularly since many participants environments.94 Alongside the networking of personal adopt virtual personae (avatars) that are different from computers, other technology, including video games and themselves and in certain settings engage in questionable mobile technology, provides similar opportunities to net- practices.100 However, as James Gee observes, gaming work with friends and strangers alike. environments often include a particular educational logic Within the networked computer environment, par- that invites constructive engagement, with a deep sense ticipants connect to share vital information or engage ofCopy collaboration, that results in a new form of “literacy” or in lighthearted play. The weblog, or blogging, allows for means of navigating social spheres.101 Ultimately, Chris- both self-expression as well as interactive engagement tian educators will discover students who have developed with strangers and peers. Research has demonstrated alternative learning methods based on their interactions both the benefits and frivolity of blogging, which repli- with gaming.102 cates older forms of narrative, like memoires or journals, Mobile technology, the fastest growing expression of but with distinct differences. The immediate feedback networked engagement through voice and data exchange, and the “presentism” of initial posts (in which people may offer additional forms of social networks.103 Already must “look back” for historical data rather than follow a memoir from beginning to end) result in a different 96. Joe Lambert, Digital Storytelling: Capturing Lives, Creating Com- narration of the self. Networked engagement provides munity, 2nd ed. (Berkley, CA: Digital Dinner Press, [2002], 2006). Christian educators with unique challenges, since tradi- 97. Peter Pericles Trifonas, Learning the Virtual Life: Public Pedagogy tional narratives, including the scriptures, often must be in a Digital World (London: Routledge, 2012). 98. Mark Hayse, “Toward a Theological Understanding of the Reli- “reverse engineered” to mirror the experience of blog- gious Significance of Videogames,” Common Ground Journal 7, no. 2 (April ging.95 Nevertheless, blogging has opened other avenues 2010): 68–80. 99. Feihong Wang and John K. Burton, “Second Life in Education: A of disclosure using methods of “digital storytelling” that Review of Publications from Its Launch to 2011,” British Journal of Educa- also allows learners to offer more completed narratives tional Technology 44, no. 3 (May 2013): 357–371. as a framework for social interaction and collaborative 100. Kevin Schut, “Evangelicals’ Quest to Find God’s Place in Games,” in Understanding Evangelical Media: The Changing Face of Christian Com- munication, ed. Quentin J. Schultze and Robert H. Woods Jr. (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2008), 198–209. 94. Rita-MarieContributor Conrad and J. Ana Donaldson, Engaging the Online 101. James Paul Gee, What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learn- Learner (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004); Mark A. Maddix, James R. ing and Literacy, rev. and updated (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), Estep, and Mary E. Lowe, eds., Best Practices of Online Education: A Guide 37–43. for Christian Higher Education (Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publish- 102. Brian M. Slator and Associates, Electric Worlds in the Classroom: ing, 2012); and Rena M. Palloff and Keith Pratt, Building Online Learning Teaching and Learning with Role-Based Computer Games (New York: Communities: Effective Strategies for the Virtual Classroom, 2nd ed. (San Teachers College Press, 2006). Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007). 103. Alejandro Echeverría, Miguel Nussbaum, Juan Felipe Calderón, 95. Dean Blevins, “Story Telling or Storied Telling? Media’s Pedagogical Claudio Bravo, Cristián Infante, and Andrea Vásquez, “Face-to-Face Col- Ability to Shape Narrative as a Form of “Knowing,” Religious Education laborative Learning Supported by Mobile Phones,” Interactive Learning 102, no. 3 (Summer 2007): 250–263. Environments 19, no. 4 (September 2011): 351–363; Maximizing Mobile: 420 Diverse Media, Computers, and Social Networking participants can play games or exchange information cluding ritual, identity, community, authority, and even based strictly on the use of global positioning devices the nature of religion itself.108 Christian educators may (GPS). In addition, people can play games using mobile find themselves engaging in a host of conversations about applications (apps) that superimpose game imagery upon networked communities. a local landscape through the combination of the phone’s camera and data overlay.104 These mobile devices (phones, References and Resources watches, even eyeglasses) provide unique models of social Blevins, Dean. 2007. “Story Telling or Storied Telling? Media’s networking without the necessity of using a computer or Pedagogical Ability to Shape Narrative as a Form of “Know- gaming device. As this field continues to grow, Christian ing.” Religious Education 102 (3): 250–263. educators will need to develop methods for utilizing the Campbell, Heidi A., ed. 2013. Digital Religion: Understanding technology in learning environments. Many congrega- Religious Practice in New Media Worlds. London: Routledge. tions and ministries have already integrated text messag- Conrad, Rita-Marie, and J. Ana Donaldson. 2004. Engaging the ing (a mobile phone phenomenon based on e-mail tech- Online Learner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. nology), including “real-time” educational and preaching Daniel, Sir John. 2012. “Making Sense of MOOCs: Musings events. Other innovations will surely follow. in the Maze of Myth, Paradox, and Possibility.” Academic While the future of individual technology seems to be Partnerships (September). Accessed 13 June 2013. http:// expanding at an incredible rate (so much so that repre- blog4222.blogspot.com/2012/09/making-sense-of-moocsOnly sentative illustrations in this entry will shortly become -musings-in-maze.html. dated), there is one other phenomenon that Christian Echeverría, Alejandro, Miguel Nussbaum, Juan Felipe Calde- educators should consider. Harry Jenkins notes that rón, Claudio Bravo, Cristián Infante, and Andrea Vásquez. often social networking develops around the existence 2011. “Face-to-Face Collaborative Learning Supported by of traditional media (film, television, or publications) Mobile Phones.” Interactive Learning Environments 19 (4): by extending the process in another mediated form.105 351–363. Reality show television presentations invoke networks Gee, James Paul. 2007. What Video Games Have to Teach Us that attempt to “spoil” the end of the shows’ competition about Learning and Literacy. Revised and updated. New through collaborative studies. What might have been York: Palgrave Macmillan. traditional fan clubs become interactive e-publishing Godwin-Jones,Copy Bob. 2005. “Messaging, Gaming, Peer-to-Peer concerns through the use of blogging to extend story Sharing: Language Learning Strategies & Tools for the Mil- lines.106 The presence of these communities “converg- lennial Generation.” Language Learning & Technology 9 (1): ing” on multiple media forms to collectively build social 17–22. networks presents an opportunity for development for Hayse, Mark. 2010. “Toward a Theological Understanding of future Christian educators. Future models of education the Religious Significance of Videogames.” Common Ground may have to be multivalent and interactive, combining Journal 7 (2): 68–80. gaming, narrative engagement, and mobile flexibility in Jenkins, Henry. 2006. Convergence Culture: Where Old and one setting. Recent educational experiments with massive New Media Collide. Updated edition. New York: New York open online courses (MOOCs) may offer a glimpse into University Press. highly interactive, social combinations of technology, Lambert, Joe. 2006. Digital Storytelling: Capturing Lives, Creat- media, and group participation.107 These possibilities may ing Community. 2nd ed. Berkley, CA: Digital Dinner Press. challenge more traditional educational models, but also Maddix, Mark A., James R. Estep, and Mary E. Lowe, eds. open the door for enhanced flexibility and creativity in 2012. Best Practices of Online Education: A Guide for Chris- the future. tian Higher Education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Ultimately, the diverse explosion of digital technology Publishing. may influence a number of key religious practices, in- Palloff, Rena M., and Keith Pratt. 2007. Building Online Learn- ing Communities: Effective Strategies for the Virtual Class- 2012 Information and Communications for Development 2012 (Washing- room. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ton, DC: World Bank 2012). Schut, Kevin. 2008. “Evangelicals’ Quest to Find God’s Place in 104. Bob Godwin-Jones,Contributor “Messaging, Gaming, Peer-to-Peer Sharing: Language Learning Strategies & Tools for the Millennial Generation,” Lan- Games.” In Understanding Evangelical Media: The Chang- guage Learning & Technology 9, no. 1 (January 2005): 17–22. ing Face of Christian Communication, edited by Quentin J. 105. Henry Jenkins, Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Schultze and Robert H. Woods Jr., 198–209. Downers Grove, Collide, updated (New York: New York University Press, 2006). 106. Ibid., 25–58, 175–216. IL: IVP Academic. 107. Sir John Daniel, “Making Sense of MOOCs: Musings in the Maze of Myth, Paradox, and Possibility,” Academic Partnerships (September 2012), http://blog4222.blogspot.com/2012/09/making-sense-of-moocs-musings- 108. Heidi A Campbell, ed., Digital Religion: Understanding Religious in-maze.html (accessed 13 June 2013). Practice in New Media Worlds (London: Routledge, 2013). Dominicans 421

Slator, Brian M., and Associates. 2006. Electric Worlds in the teachings of the Pharisees, and the Lord opposed those Classroom: Teaching and Learning with Role-Based Com- doctrines of theirs that were humanly contrived and op- puter Games. New York: Teachers College Press. pressive to the populace (e.g., Matt. 16:1–12; Mark 7:6–13; Trifonas, Peter Pericles, ed. 2012. Learning the Virtual Life: Luke 11:39–52; John 8:31–47). He also affirmed the Old Public Pedagogy in a Digital World. London: Routledge. Testament as instruction from God Himself and refuted 2012 Information and Communications for Development: Maxi- the erroneous instruction regarding its doctrine (e.g., mizing Mobile. 2012. Washington, DC: World Bank. Matt. 15:1–20). Jesus taught based on His character (e.g., Wang, Feihong, and John K. Burton. 2013. “Second Life in Ed- Luke 7:36–50), power (John 10:25–38), and sovereignty ucation: A Review of Publications from its Launch to 2011.” (Matt. 25:31–46). Third, the apostolic doctrine consisted British Journal of Educational Technology 44 (3): 357–371. of Christ’s teaching and eyewitness testimony concern- —Dean Blevins ing Jesus (John 14:25–26; 1 John 1:1–4). Moreover, the apostles taught that salvation was by faith in Jesus and “no one else” (Acts 4:12). The apostolic instruction was Doctrines, Instruction in based on the Old Testament revelation (Acts 2:14–36, 5:29–32, 7:2–53). Fourth, the epistolary doctrine provides The term doctrine (Latin doctrina) is derived from the the interpretation and application of the apostolic mes- Greek word didaskō (“to instruct,” “to teach”). The sage, which would include RomansOnly through Revelation term doctor is related to didaskō, and thus didaskalos (in canonical order). The epistolary instruction provides is attested in the equivalent sense of teacher (cf. Luke the meaning of the life, death, and resurrection of Christ 2:46, 5:17; Acts 5:34). Doctrine can denote both the act (the book of Revelation forming the consummation of of teaching and the content of what is taught (cf. Deut. this doctrine, as it reveals the climax of God’s redemptive 32:2; Job 11:4; Prov. 4:2; Isa. 28:9, 29:24; Jer. 10:8; Matt. plans for the world). 7:28, 15:9; Mark 1:22, 4:2; John 7:16–17; Acts 2:42, 13:12; Rom. 16:17; 1 Tim. 4:13, 16, 5:17; 2 Tim. 3:10, 16, 4:3; References and Resources Rev. 2:14–15, 24). Instruction in doctrines is the imparta- Downs, Perry G. 1994. Teaching for Spiritual Growth: An tion of information. The word doctrine connotes (1) one Introduction to Christian Education. Grand Rapids, MI: who is instructed and (2) the knowledge presupposed of CopyZondervan. the teacher. Especially with regard to the second aspect, Edge, Findley B. 1995. Teaching for Results. Rev. ed. Nashville, in the context of practical arts and crafts, the example of TN: Broadman & Holman. the teacher forms an integral relationship between the Gangel, Kenneth O., and Howard G. Hendricks, eds. 1988. The ability and knowledge of the learner. Therefore, doctrine Christian Educator’s Handbook on Teaching. Wheaton, IL: is the impartation of specific content, within a context of Victor. continued and persistent activity, whereby a learner as- LeBar, Lois E. 1995. Education That Is Christian. Wheaton, IL: similates and systematizes fundamental instruction. Victor. Instruction in doctrines, that is, “sound words” and —Ron J. Bigalke “the doctrine conforming to godliness” as revealed by God in His holy and inspired Word, is of tremendous importance to the Christian educator (cf. 1 Tim. 6:3–5). Dominicans The inspiration of scripture means that the Bible con- tains the very words that God intended; thus it is es- The Order of Friars Preachers, or the Dominicans, was sential to provide instruction in doctrine. Christian born during a 13th-century upsurge of evangelical fer- educators must not only claim to value the Bible, but vor and mission activity, which pressed for the renewal also indeed provide instruction in doctrines. Educators of the church from within and without official ecclesial instruct in the doctrines of scripture with the expecta- sanctions and structures. In 1206, founder Dominic of tion of witnessing transformation in the lives of those Guzman (1170–1221) found himself deeply involved in studentsContributor who receive its teaching. preaching Christian doctrine against particular forms of There are four biblical classifications for doctrine. dualism, the heretical teaching of the Albigensians and First, the doctrines of the Pharisees were based on a Cathars, while traveling through southern France with rather condensed and specific foundation of teaching, in Diego, his bishop from Osma, in Spain. addition to including authoritarian traditions, such as the These heterodox Gnostic groups posited a universal Talmud. Pharisaic doctrine was greatly revered and thus conflict between good and evil, the material and spiritual, transmitted from one generation of teachers to another. winning converts through their popular preaching, pas- Second, the doctrines of Christ were in contrast to the toral care, and ascetic way of life. This posed a number 422 Doubt of challenges to official doctrine and practice, creating an References and Resources urgent need for an educated and devoted clergy, which Bennett, R. F. 1971. The Early Dominicans: Studies in Thir- was made all the more pressing by the emergence of an teenth-Century Dominican History. Cambridge, England: increasingly articulate, critical laity. Dominic’s spiritually Russell & Russell. and intellectually rigorous response to these heretical Hinnebusch, William A. 1961. The History of the Dominican groups, his “holy preaching,” was the inspiration for the Order. Staten Island, NY: Alba House. founding of the Dominicans as an order dedicated to Tugwell, Simon, ed. 1982. Early Dominicans: Selected Writings. embodying the apostolic mission of the Gospel within a New York: Paulist Press. movement of itinerant, mendicant preachers. —Michael Pasquarello III The Dominicans were a movement of traveling preachers who vowed to imitate what they pictured as the simple way of humility, obedience, and poverty: the Doubt evangelical life characterizing the preaching ministry of Jesus according to Luke 10. In 1215, the bishop of Tou- Religious doubt takes on many different forms. Some louse, in southern France, issued a document in support people doubt God because they want to believe but do of the newly formed band of preachers that instituted not dare to or do not find it easy to believe. Others doubt Dominic and his companions as preacher to root out God because they believe but do Onlynot want to (Guinness heresy, drive out vices, teach the rule of faith, and in- 1976, 9–10). Some doubt because they wrestle with phi- still right morals. In 1216, the order was approved as losophies and ideas contrary to their faith, or because an Order of Preachers but was neither confined to any they encounter certain experiences that contradict their diocese nor dependent on any bishop for its mandate beliefs. Doubt is not primarily an obscure philosophical to preach. The order became known for being founded or theological concept, nor simply a state of spiritual or initially for the sake of preaching and the salvation of psychological anguish; it is a matter of truth—knowing souls, and every concern of the order’s life and organi- who God really is and whether we can trust Him (Guin- zation was to be primarily and passionately directed to ness 1976, 10). Doubt involves questions such as “Is God this all-important goal. real?” “How can I be sure?” “Does God love me?” “Is The Dominicans were not simply people who were JesusCopy Christ the only way to salvation?” available for the task of preaching as might be needed, Doubt is a universal experience, regardless of religious but by right and definition were a particular type of belief or stage of life. It is included in faith, even mature order who earned their living by preaching and pasto- faith, as a structural feature (Creel 1977, 81). This means ral care, pursuing a life of prayer and study to become Christians are not immune to doubt. John Calvin ex- living instruments of the Word. The Dominicans were plained that faith is not untouched by doubt nor assailed unique as a guild of preachers whose purpose was to by no worry (Calvin 2009, 181). Rather, Christians battle preach by learning to craft words in service of the divine a lack of confidence because of the imperfection of our Word. Their preached words provided the tools for a faith (Calvin 2009, 182). The existence of doubt does learning and eloquence that would act as a purging fire not imply the absence of faith, but rather is a continual for all those who had fallen into error, but for all the reminder of our sinful nature, which hinders us from indifferent faithful they would serve as instruments of knowing God perfectly. This is why Augustine asserts renewal and reform. that Christians love God by faith now but will love him Sharing in the agitations and miseries of growing by sight in the new creation (Augustine 1961, 140). In the cities and urban dwellers, the preaching friars sought eschaton, sin will no longer create a barrier between us to embody the apostolic and missionary dimensions of and God, for we will see God for who He truly is. the Gospel as both a message and a way of life. Join- Christians should therefore not be surprised when they ing serious study and following the way of Christ with or their loved ones encounter seasons of doubt. We are a commitment to poverty, humility, and dependence broken and sinful people, who live in a broken and sinful on the graceContributor of the Holy Spirit, they were a mission of world. Christians should aim to understand doubt and evangelization and catechesis that aimed to bridge the how to rightly address it. As Guinness explains, doubt gap between learned preachers and uneducated listen- can act as a “sparring partner both to truth and error” ers. Uniting the ministry of the Word with hearing (1976, 36). While doubt may hinder us from embracing confessions, the Order was shaped by theological, spiri- the truth, it can also aid us in deflecting lies and therefore tual, and moral wisdom embodied by a community of grow in our faith. This means there is a positive element preachers guided by the gift of holy teaching and moved of doubt, for the Christian. By wrestling with and through by the virtue of charity to mediate the truth of Christi- doubt, Christians can become more assured of the truth anity to all walks of life. and who God is. Scripture explains that the “testing of Durrow Monastery 423

[our] faith produces perseverance,” and that persever- the Slighe Mhór on the line of the gravelly, Eiscir Riada. ance renders us “mature and complete” (James 1:2–4). The name in its Irish form, Dairmag, means “The place of Doubt can therefore be instrumental in the perfection oakwood.” Recent scholarship holds that a branch of the of our faith and should be battled courageously. Creel Uí Néill dynasty related to Columba arrogated the land. (1977) explains that self-conscious faith “is an act of This suggests that the monastery represented not only the courage, a daring affirmation of one’s deepest desires.” enlargement of the Columban “familia,” but also politically This does not mean, however, that one simply believes the extension of the authority of the northern Uí Néills. At whatever one hopes to be true. Rather, true faith wrestles this point, Columba appears to have been well established to affirm what the biblical faith holds to be true, despite in Britain, and the foundation of Durrow is indicative of one’s spiritual and psychological anguish. his ongoing role in the affairs of his native land. The Christian cannot do this alone. Doubt is best Following the foundation of the monastery, Columba addressed in the context of Christian community. As returned to Iona, leaving the monk Laisrén, a close rela- Dietrich Bonhoeffer explained, the Christian “needs his tive, in charge of the building of the center, with instruc- brother solely because of Jesus Christ. The Christ in his tions on how it was to be constructed. In a well-known own heart is weaker than the Christ in the word of his story from Adomnan, we learn that Columba, living in brother; his own heart is uncertain, his brother’s is sure” Iona at the time, wept at the stringent demands made (1954, 23). The goal of Christian education is to nurture upon the monks by Laisrén in theOnly building of the monas- and strengthen faith. It is therefore a fundamental tool in tery. Such was the spiritual power attributed to Columba, instilling and restoring to believers confidence in God. that Laisrén was said to have ordered the monks to cease work, contemporaneously with his kinsman’s vision. References and Resources Durrow grew in power as a monastic settlement. A Augustine. 1961. Enchiridion on Faith, Hope, and Love. Wash- notable synod convened at Mag Léna in 630 to discuss ington, DC: Regnery Publishing. the observance of Easter, was situated near Durrow, or in Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. 1954. Life Together. San Francisco: Harper- its neighborhood. According to Bede, many other mon- Collins. asteries had been established in Britain and Ireland from Calvin, John. 2009. Institutes of the Christian Religion (1541 Iona and Durrow. Little is known of the settlement in the ed.). Translated by Elsie Anne McKee. Grand Rapids, MI: MiddleCopy Ages. It had a large secular population, and the Eerdmans. annals record a pitched battle between Durrow and Clon- Creel, Richard E. 1977. Religion and Doubt: Toward a Faith of macnoise, another monastic town, in 746, in which the Your Own. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. former lost 200 men. The conflict arose over which section Denbeaux, Fred. 1960. The Art of Christian Doubt. New York: of the Uí Néills would succeed Domnall Midi. Monasteries Association Press. seem to have willingly participated in such battles. Guinness, Os. 1976. In Two Minds: The Dilemma of Doubt & Later, in 1095, the Annals of Ulster record the burning How to Resolve It. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. of many churches, among them Durrow with its books. Helfaer, Philip M. 1982. The Pyschology of Religious Doubt. This may well account for the paucity of information Boston: Beacon Press. about it extant today. After the Reformation and the —Kevin P. Emmert dissolution of the monasteries, the church at Durrow became a parish church. It continued as such until the last decades of the 19th century, when a new church and Durrow Monastery graveyard were provided for the members of the Church of Ireland in the nearby village. Columba (Columcille, Dove of the Church) founded the There are some important artifacts connected with the Durrow Monastery, in County Offaly, in the Midlands monastery at Durrow. The most significant is the Book of of Ireland, probably between 585 and 589. The eighth- Durrow, one of the finest examples of Irish illuminated century English monk Venerable Bede observed that manuscripts. Mystery surrounds its provenance, with most ColumbaContributor had established Durrow before he left Ireland scholars favoring an early to mid-seventh-century date and for Britain. The earliest recorded evidence, however, from a Northumbrian or Ionian origin. It has been confidently Adomnan, the biographer of Columba, is that the found- located in Durrow, between 877–916 and the early 12th ing of the monastery took place when the saint was visiting century. The book contains an illuminated manuscript of in Ireland from Britain and during the abbacy of Alither, the Latin Vulgate version of the Gospels and is now kept in Clonmacnoise. Alither was abbot between 585 and 599. in the library of Trinity College Dublin. It is a testimony The monastic site is situated in the demesne of Dur- to the importance of scripture in the life of the monastic row Abbey, between Kilbeggan and Tullamore, County schools, as well as the artistic brilliance of the monks. An- Offaly. In ancient times, this was a strategic location on other important artifact is the very impressive High Cross, 424 Dykstra, Craig which has now been moved into the renovated church. its religion grant-making program. In that role, Dykstra This contains stories from the Old and New Testament: helped to fund significant research, writing, and on-the- the themes of the Crucifixion and Resurrection are the ground practical experiments in Christian education and focus of the west and east faces of the cross. One of the formation. Perhaps most notably, Dykstra was pivotal in unique features is the depiction of the humans and the supporting “theological programs for high school youth,” focus on their emotions. The High Cross provides elo- which many theological schools adopted, and programs quent preaching material in an oracular society. for the “theological exploration of vocation,” which con- tinue at more than a hundred colleges and universities References and Resources across the United States. Anderson, A. O., and M. O. Anderson, eds. and trans. 1991. Early in his writing career, Dykstra raised questions Adomnan’s Life of Columba. Oxford: Oxford University Press. about whether the then-reigning developmental psychol- Bede. 1969. Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People. ogy-based approaches provided an adequate theoretical Edited and translated by B. Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors. framework for the conception and practice of Christian Oxford: Oxford University Press. education.109 Responding to Christian educational ap- Herbert, M. 1988. Iona, Kells, and Derry: The History and Hagi- proaches based on the contemporary moral develop- ography of the Monastic Familia of Columba. Oxford: Oxford ment110 and the faith development111 theories, Dykstra University Press. argues that they leave out significantOnly dimensions of what Mac Irt, S., and G. Mac Niocaill, eds. and trans. 1983. The An- it means to be moral or to be a person of faith according nals of Ulster. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Advanced Studies. to Christian tradition. He posits that Christian education Meehan, B. 1996. The Book of Durrow: A Medieval Masterpiece needs to pay attention to the complex character of the life at Trinity College Dublin. Dublin: Townhouse and Country of faith; to the many dimensions of the church’s ministry; House. and to the manifold resources of the Christian tradition O’Brien, Elizabeth. 2012. “Rediscovering Columba’s Monastery in determining what communities of faith and educators at Durrow, Co. Offaly.” In A Carnival of Learning, edited by actually need to do to nurture children, youth, and adults Peter Harbison and Valerie Hall, 111–124. Roscrea, Ireland: in the life of faith. Cistercian Press. To that end, Dykstra offers a constructive reframing Smyth, A. P. 1989. Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland, AD of ChristianCopy education around the concept of “Christian 80–1000. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press. practices” and a focus on Christian faith as a way of life.112 —Robert Jennings He includes 14 Christian practices, among them worship- ping God corporately, praying and interpreting the scrip- tures together, confessing our sin and being forgiven, Dykstra, Craig participating in acts of service, working for justice, and providing hospitality.113 Dykstra has collaborated with Early Background and Education Dorothy Bass to publish a series of books and articles on The Reverend Doctor Craig Dykstra, of Dutch descent, practicing the life of faith individually and communally. is an American theologian and professor as well as an They include such practices as hospitality, keeping the ordained minister in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.). Dr. Sabbath, forgiveness, and saying “yes” and “no” as essen- Dykstra earned a master of divinity from Princeton Semi- tial components of a lively faith.114 Bass and Dykstra also nary, where he also received a PhD, magna cum laude, coedited For Life Abundant: Practical Theology, Theologi- in moral theology and Christian education. During his career in teaching and pastoral ministry, Dykstra served 109. Craig Dykstra, Vision and Character: A Christian Educator’s Alter- native to Kohlberg (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1981). as Thomas W. Synnott Professor of Christian Education 110. See Lawrence Kohlberg, Stage and Sequence: The Cognitive- at Princeton Theological Seminary (where he was also Developmental Approach to Socialization (New York: Rand McNally, 1969). editor of Theology Today), associate professor of Chris- Other resources include Kohlberg, “Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach,” Moral Development and Behavior: tian education at Louisville Presbyterian Theological Theory, Research, and Social Issues 1 (1976): 31–53. Seminary, and assistant minister of Westminster Church 111. James W. Fowler, Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human De- Contributorvelopment (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1995). See Dykstra’s critique of Detroit. As of 2014, he is research professor of practi- in Craig Dykstra and Sharon Parks, eds., Faith Development and Fowler cal theology and senior fellow in leadership education at (Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press, 1986), ch. 2, “What Is Faith?” Duke Divinity School. and ch. 11, “Religious Education and Faith Development.” 112. Craig Dykstra, Growing in the Life of Faith: Education and Christian Practices, 2nd ed. (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005). Significant Contributions to Christian Education 113. Ibid., 42–43. 114. More information and additional resources by Bass and Dykstra In 1989, Dr. Dykstra began a 23-year tenure as senior vice (and others) regarding Christian practices, Christian education, and prac- president for religion at Lilly Endowment, where he led tical theology can be found at http://www.practicingourfaith.org/books. Dykstra, Craig 425 cal Education, and Christian Ministry, in which they and Growing in the Life of Faith: Education and Christian Practices. a number of other authors open a window on what the 2005. 2nd ed. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. “new” practical theology has begun to look like. Practicing Our Faith: A Way of Life for a Searching People. 2010. 2nd ed. Edited by Dorothy Bass, chs. 1, 14, and 15. San Most Notable Publications Francisco: Jossey-Bass. For Life Abundant: Practical Theology, Theological Education, Vision and Character: A Christian Educator’s Alternative to and Christian Ministry. 2008. Edited by Dorothy Bass and Kohlberg. 2008. Reprint. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. Craig Dykstra. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. —Bryce Hantla

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Contributor E Only Early Christian Education, Whom Education Was For Jewish Influence on In the pre-Christian era Hebraic and Jewish communi- ties, children and adults normatively participated mean- Within the milieu of the Jewish and Greco-Roman edu- ingfully, fully, and often together in expressing their cational practices of the first century AD, the fledgling covenant relationship—and adults and children alike Christian church needed to determine what strategies to continued to need to be challenged, encouraged, and adopt to equip its members to fulfill its mandate. It seems nurtured to fulfill the perceived rights they had and to en- certain that the church assumed a continuity with the hance their significant contributions in the community. educational philosophy and methods of the Old Testa- Jesus reinforced this inclusiveness through his unique ment (OT) Hebraic covenantal community and Jewish teachingCopy style, which demonstrated an ability and will- developments in the intertestamental period, first mod- ingness to reach out to all people, including the ordinary erated by an understanding of the extent to which Jesus and marginalized. And again, early Christian education its Lord either reaffirmed or negated the earlier practices, was benchmarked on similar principles. then applied into their cultural context. Insights from Greco-Roman educational philosophy were considered Educational Curriculum when they were perceived not to be in conflict with these In the pre-Christian era Hebraic and Jewish communi- principles and practices. ties, educational content centered on the revelation of the ethical/moral and spiritual standards expressed in Educational Goals and Outcomes the Torah, so systematic understanding and application The primary focus of education in the OT Hebraic and of the Hebrew scriptures dominated the curriculum. Jewish eras before Christ was on covenant faithfulness and Language comprehension, numeracy, and “liberal arts” holiness. The Israelites needed to be trained in the effec- subjects had a place only as a means to the end of better tive service of God in the whole of life and relationships, at appreciating the covenant expectations. the national, tribal, and household levels, and as a lifelong In the early church, the educational curriculum simi- process. Of course they were always prone to deviate, and larly focused on the development of whole-of-life com- Jesus’s approach to discipleship and kingdom community mitment to God’s covenant standards, revealed through living demonstrated passionate concern for a reformation the scriptures and revitalized by Jesus’s radical reaffirma- of these essential and enduring values of the OT covenant. tion of their intent. Three integrated strands of educa- In theContributor early church, these same covenant values were tional intervention are recognizable, for knowledge of the effectively reflected in the goal of education for both basis of the Christian faith, maturing personhood, and individuals and the corporate faith communities: holis- corporate community identity. tic maturity in Jesus Christ, encapsulated especially in the term commonly used by the aostle Paul, oikodomeō Educational Environments (building-up, or edification) and its cognates.1 The settings for Hebraic education were fascinatingly var- ied, ranging from formal teaching to daily experiences, and 1. See Education, Paul’s Concept of. capitalized on the cycle of Sabbath and religious festivals.

— 427 — 428 Early Church, Christian Education in the

The primary institution for education was the multigen- Ng, David, and Virginia Thomas. 1981. Children in the Wor- erational kinship household, which provided scope to shiping Community. Atlanta, GA: John Knox Press. express the informal and informal strategies best suited to Perkins, Pheme. 1990. Jesus as Teacher. Cambridge, UK: Cam- enhancing values and attitudinal change for spiritual for- bridge University Press. mation. What is noticeably absent in the OT is the learning Skolnik, Fred, ed. 2007. “Education, Jewish.” In Encyclopaedia environment we recognize as school. Judaica. 2nd ed., 6:162–169. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing The intertestamental period saw the rise of the Jewish House. school system, based on the synagogue and primarily Van Engen, John, ed. 2004. Educating People of Faith: Explor- for males: the elementary beth hasepher (“house of the ing the History of Jewish and Christian Communities. Grand book”) and the beth hammidrash (“house of study”) for Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. prospective scribes and scholars. But while the temple, —Allan Harkness synagogue, and school became important institutions by Jesus’s time, they never surpassed the training role of the kinship-based household. Early Church, Christian Education in the Despite the availability of other options, the primary setting for early Christian education continued to be the Christian education, like Christianity itself, has its roots household (oikos, a root of oikodomeō), with other loca- in Judaism and a strong emphasisOnly on lifelong learning. tions used as they could be relationally oriented. Jewish education was strongly rooted in oral tradition and the study of the Torah (first five books of the Old The Teaching Function Testament) in home settings and then later in corporate In the earlier Jewish communities, parents were en- gatherings at the synagogue. After the Babylonian captiv- trusted with the training of their children, but respon- ity, as Jews were dispersed, the synagogue became the sibility was spread naturally over other members of the center of Jewish worship and instruction.2 The Hebrew household and clan. Other teaching models included the word “hanak” means to educate, or train. Its root word priests, prophets, and wise sages. A wide range of creative implies consecration or dedication in the pursuit of and sensory teaching aids was utilized. A profession of knowing God through education.3 Instruction was often teacher arose to serve the Jewish schools. doneCopy through rabbinical method, involving question and The early churches drew on the Judaistic teaching answer discourse between a teacher and his students. models, but with a different dynamic, impacted by Jesus’s Jesus continued in rabbinical tradition by careful highly relational teacher/disciple “mobile learning com- instruction of a select group of disciples, often through munity” model, which incorporated the action/reflection question and answer. This small group method of in- cycle to equip people for participation in the all-embrac- struction centered on understanding the scriptures can ing corporate kingdom life of God’s people. The Holy be seen in the early church as “everyday, in the temple Spirit was deemed the ultimate teacher, and under Him and from house to house, they kept right on teaching the teaching function was spread around: all members and preaching Jesus as the Christ” (Acts 5:42). In the (including children) were entrusted with a concern for apostolic period directly following the death and res- the edification of each other, and some were charismati- urrection of Jesus, groups met in the synagogue and cally endowed for a teaching function. in homes for instruction, fellowship, and worship. As in the synagogue, the emphasis was on knowing God References and Resources through scripture.4 Barclay, William. 1974. Educational Ideals in the Ancient As the Gospel spread throughout the Roman Empire World. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. in the first century, it encountered non-Jewish culture Blackburn, G. H. 1966. “The Aims of Education in Ancient and a Gentile population. And as the Gospel reached far- Israel.” Journal of Christian Education 9 (1): 46–56. ther from Jerusalem, Christian education had to change Castle, E. B. 1961. Ancient Education and Today. Harmond- to accommodate the needs of the non-Jewish world, sworth, UK:Contributor Penguin. who were not familiar with Jewish scripture, culture, or Harkness, Allan. 2000. “De-Schooling Christianity in the New tradition. New converts had to be taught about cultural Millennium.” Journal of Christian Education 43 (1): 51–61. Hill, Brian. V. 1985. The Greening of Christian Education. Syd- 2. C. B. Eavey, History of Christian Education (Chicago: Moody Press, ney: ANZEA Publishers. 1972), 62. 3. Robert E. Clark, Lin Johnson, and Allyn K Sloat, Christian Education: Judge, Edwin A. 1985. “The Reaction Against Classical Educa- Foundations for the Future (Chicago: Moody Press, 1991), 34. tion in the New Testament.” Spectrum 17 (2): 22–27. 4. Eavey, History of Christian Education, 82. Early Church Families and Education 429 background to understand scripture, and teaching meth- spread, churches were established and a bishop came to odology needed to adapt to facilitate styles of learning preside over the church, at that time called a “cathedral.” common to Gentile culture. In the later part of the first The bishop of the church trained clergy under his super- century, Christian instruction began to take on a distinc- vision at these cathedral schools, and the curriculum was tive Roman pattern to train new converts. The late first heavily oriented in favor of instruction in the rules and and early second centuries saw the rise of catechumenal canon of the church. In the second, third, and fourth schools to train new converts to Christianity. These con- centuries, the cathedral school became the predominant verts were called “catechumens,” from the Greek word form of education for clergy in the church.10 for “instruct.”5 Several unintended consequences of the catechetical Catechumens were instructed in a two- to three-year and cathedral models for Christian education developed curriculum with three different grades of student. The by the beginning of the fifth century as the Roman Em- “Hearers” listened to scripture and sermons to gain pire was nearing its end. Education began to focus more elementary instruction. If found faithful, catechumens and more on preparing clergy for ministry and less on could advance to being “Kneelers,” who remained after preparing the convert for meaningful church member- the Hearers departed for focused prayer and more ad- ship and baptism. Lack of preparation of laity became vanced instruction. Finally, the catechumen progressed even more pronounced by AD 450, when infant baptism to being one of the “Chosen,” to receive more intense was introduced. Further controversyOnly developed between doctrinal, liturgical, and ascetical instruction in prepara- the Greek church and its catechetical emphasis on the tion for baptism.6 The central purpose of catechumenal study of scripture and Greek literature, and the Western instruction was to prepare believers morally and spiritu- cathedral model and its exclusion of “pagan literature,” ally to be members of the church.7 banned by official decree in AD 401.11 Despite their dif- In the last half of the second century and into the third, ferences, both Western and Greek Christian education a new kind of school began to develop, the catecheti- served to preserve the teaching of Christ and the apostles, cal schools, which began to emphasize the preparation answer heretical opposition with reasoned truth, and in- of clergy for the work of the ministry with the kind of struct the people and clergy of the early church with the intellectual training given to the learned people of that highest possible level of education available at that time.12 time.8 This instruction produced a number of Christian Copy —James Flynn scholars who laid down the very foundations of Christian doctrine and practice. Justin Martyr (AD 100–166) at- tempted to reconcile Gentile with Christian philosophy Early Church Families and Education in order to win the lost. Tertullian (AD 150–225) became the founder of the theology of Western Christianity. The Introduction catechetical school in Alexandria, supposedly founded Christian educators often turn to the history of early by Mark, rose to prominence with its first recorded church families in response to tensions expressed in leader, Pantaneus, a converted Stoic philosopher, in AD contemporary societies over the nature of family identity 179.9 Clement followed as this school’s leader, steering it and family practice.13 In part, the turn to church history toward an emphasis on the study of Greek literature, his- begins when educators discover that examples of parent- tory, and the sciences in addition to scripture, to produce ing and family life in the Bible reveal many more “flawed well-rounded scholars who could converse with the most families” than models of ideal practice.14 Often those learned of their day. Origen (AD 185–254) followed as biblical examinations also reveal a greater tension in light leader of this school and was one of the finest Christian of Christian assumptions, which creates a more limited minds ever to exist, wrestling to reconcile Christian and theological view of the family’s role than imagined.15 The pagan thought. The influence of this school continued New Testament maintains the same tension between the well into the seventh century. In addition to the catechetical model of Christian edu- 10. Ibid. cation, another model, called the “cathedral” or “episco- 11. Ibid., 90. Contributor 12. Clark, et al., Christian Education, 47. pal” school, developed during this period. As Christianity 13. Herbert Anderson, Don S. Browning, Ian S. Evison, and Mary Stew- art Van Leeuwen, eds., The Family Handbook (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998). 5. Ibid., 84–85. 14. David E. Garland and Diana R. Garland, Flawed Families of the 6. Ibid., 85–86. Bible: How God’s Grace Works through Imperfect Relationships (Grand 7. Ibid. Rapids, MI: Brazos Press, 2007). 8. Ibid., 88. 15. Rodney Clapp, Families at the Crossroads: Beyond Traditional & 9. Ibid. Modern Options (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Press, 1993). 430 Early Church Families and Education role of the family and the life of faith through specific sto- the life of the family mirrored the education, mentoring, ries like Mark 10:29–30 and Matthew 12: 46–50, in which and formative practices resident within the early New Jesus’s own words appear to contrast family relationships Testament church at many points.19 with faithful discipleship.16 Yet family appears to remain important, particularly since Jesus was part of one. Mary Early Church Indicators and Joseph exist as part of the redemption history along- As the church proceeded from the New Testament into side their family genealogies. early church history, families played key roles within the structure of the church, even as household churches Early Church Families in the New Testament became less frequent. Often children in Roman society Families appear in odd junctures in the book of Acts, were “exposed” if unwanted (a harsh form of popula- but given due consideration, as in the story of the con- tion control), yet Christians opposed and forbade this version of Cornelius the jailer and his household (Acts practice (with stories of rescuing the young of pagans).20 10:1–48, 11:1–18). The apostle Paul’s own ministry seems Beyond this injunction, the early church fathers (Clem- driven by the eschatological vision of the Kingdom of ent of Alexandria, Basil of Caesarea, John Chrysostom, God, which has little room for family life. However, as Jerome, and Augustine) encouraged the role of the fam- churches settle into place, and families negotiate their ily and children. Chrysostom believed “the character of newfound Christian faith within households and among the ecclesial family is decided largelyOnly by the relation- interpersonal relations, Paul and other New Testament ships of husband and wife as father and mother to their writes offer insights on the nature of families. Christian children.”21 Never allowing human conception to equal educators should recognize that New Testament fami- the creative power of God, the fathers did see parenting lies do not operate in a vacuum. Paul and others adopt both as cooperating in God’s creation and mimicking it. language that both mirrors and subverts Greco-Roman Procreating was often seen as the purpose for marriage, household codes of living, adapting them to include re- and children were heralded as a demonstration of the ciprocal relationships between husband and wife as well hope of the future. 22 as parents and children.17 These writings mirror later Parents were admonished to nurture and educate tendencies to Christianize Greek and Latin notions of their children. Spiritual “childbirth” (to salvation) was “domus” (household) as well as “oikos/familia” as Chris- seen Copyas parallel to physical childbirth. The early church tian family expressions, which often included extended fathers also placed more importance on the cultiva- family, slaves, and even slave families on occasion.18 tion of “virtue” instead of rhetoric, since character was Ultimately, house-churches became central “family more important than status or wealth. Ecclesial leader- churches,” which also practiced Christian hospitality ship also encouraged dedicating the child to God (as by receiving strangers into their homes. As noted in the in the biblical stories of Hannah and Samuel), living Old Testament, family takes on many forms of kinship, and teaching Christian “culture” through practices, determined as much by their commitment to Christ using the Bible creatively in teaching, and disciplining as by blood relations. New Testament homes tended through a moderate form of corporal punishment. They to educate through the employ of teachers, which also were cautious with pagan entertainment and even mirrored the role of prophets and teachers, male and traditional classical education texts (used with modera- female, in household churches. These teachers commu- tion and interpretation).23 nicated both the tradition of the faith and fresh insight from scripture (building on Old Testament readings as Methodological Implications and Principles well as New Testament writings) for the sake of guiding As Timothy Sedgwick notes, Christian educators may families in faith. In addition, families taught through learn best from early church families when they abandon special meals, ritual meals, and acts of hospitality simi- lar to gatherings within the household church. Overall, 19. Carolyn Oseik and David L. Balch, Family in the New Testament World, Households and House Churches (Louisville, KY: Westminster John 16. Carolyn Osiek, “Families in Early Christianity,” in The Family Knox Press, 1997), 156–173, 193–222. Handbook, ed.Contributor Anderson et al., 287–290. 20. O. M. Bakke, When Children Became People: The Birth of Childhood 17. Peter T. O’Brian, Colossians, Philemon, Word Biblical Commentary in Early Christianity (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2005), 15–55. 44 (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1982), 214–234. Ben Witherington III, The 21. Vigen Guroian, “The Ecclesial Family: John Chrysostom on Parent- Letters to Philemon, the Colossians, and the Ephesians: A Socio-Rhetorical hood and Children,” in The Child in Christian Thought, ed. Marcia J. Bunge Commentary on the Captivity Epistles (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerd- (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2001), 66. mans, 2007), 181–196. 22. Bakke, When Children Became People, 119–222. 18. Dale B. Martin, “Slave Families and Slaves in Families,” in Early 23. James Riley Estep Jr., “The Christian Nurture of Children in the Christian Families in Context: An Interdisciplinary Dialogue, ed. David L. Second and Third Centuries,” in Nurturing Children’s Spirituality: Chris- Balch and Carolyn Osiek (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2003), tian Perspectives and Best Practices, ed. Holly Catterton Allen (Eugene, OR: 207–230. Cascade Books, 2008), 61–77. Easter 431 attempts to find ideal models to adopt for contemporary O’Brian, Peter T. 1982. Colossians, Philemon. Word Biblical homes. The historical/cultural distance may prove too Commentary 44. Waco, TX: Word Books. great for simple guidelines and implementation.24 In part, Oseik, Carolyn, and David L. Balch. 1997. Family in the New the difference may lie in the fact that households were Testament World, Households and House Churches. Louis- not part of a “private” sphere different from the public ville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. domain. 25 Sedgwick notes that “(t)he household stands Witherington, Ben, III. 2007. The Letters to Philemon, the Co- rather as the threshold where domestic relationships and lossians, and the Ephesians: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary practices connect members of a household to persons on the Captivity Epistles. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. outside the immediate household.”26 Instead, Sedgwick —Dean Blevins argues that the change practices within the household served to subvert and resist dominant cultural expecta- tions within society through a Christian moral vision of Easter “mutuality, equality, and solidarity” that overturned cus- tomary patron-client relationships, codes of honor and It is not known exactly when Christians began com- shame, and unequal gender relationships of the time.27 memorating Christ’s bodily resurrection, now called Eas- As Christian educators explore how a similar moral vi- ter in English. Some evidence exists that some Christians sion might challenge contemporary cultural, or custom- already commemorated His resurrectionOnly during the first ary, views, they may explore with families new avenues two centuries, and that they called the commemoration for teaching, mentoring. and shaping faithful Christian Pascha, a Greek term derived from the Hebrew Pesah, education today. meaning “Passover.” The church historian Eusebius in the fourth century stated that in about AD 154, Bishop References and Resources Polycarp from Asia Minor met with Bishop Anicetus of Anderson, Herbert, Don S. Browning, Ian S. Evison, and Mary Rome regarding the dispute that existed in the church Stewart Van Leeuwen, eds. 1998. The Family Handbook. with respect to when Pascha was to be celebrated. But Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. whether Pascha in the second century included celebrat- Bakke, O. M. 2005. When Children Became People: The Birth of ing Christ’s resurrection, or just His passion, cannot be Childhood in Early Christianity. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress determinedCopy definitively. But by the fourth century, the Press. term Pascha referred to both the death and resurrection Balch, David L., and Carolyn Osiek, eds. 2003. Early Christian of Christ. The Council of Arles (France) in 314 and the Families in Context: An Interdisciplinary Dialogue. Grand Council of Carthage (northern Africa) in 397 both used Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. the term Pascha to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. Bunge, Marcia J., ed. 2001. The Child in Christian Thought. The early Christians, at least in some regions, also Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. referred to the week of Easter as hebdomada alba (white Clapp, Rodney. 1993. Families at the Crossroads: Beyond Tra- week), a designation derived from the white garments ditional & Modern Options. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Press. catechumens wore for their baptism when they became Estep, James Riley, Jr. 2008. “The Christian Nurture of Children members of the church during the Easter week. in the Second and Third Centuries.” In Nurturing Children’s In the English-speaking world, some think it odd that Spirituality: Christian Perspectives and Best Practices, edited the greatest event in human history—the physical res- by Holly Catterton Allen, 61–77. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books. urrection of Jesus Christ—has been named “Easter,” a Garland, David E., and Diana R. Garland. 2007. Flawed Fami- name reportedly derived from Eostre, the Teutonic pagan lies of the Bible: How God’s Grace Works through Imperfect goddess of the light of day and spring, according to the Relationships. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press. book De temporum ratione (On the Reckoning of Time) Moxnes, Halvor, ed. 1997. Constructing Early Christian Families: by the Venerable Bede (673–735), the renowned English Family as Social Reality and Metaphor. London: Routledge. theologian and historian. Some have argued that if the church did in fact adopt the pagan name “Easter,” which once symbolized the light of day and spring, it did so to 24. HalvorContributor Moxnes, “What Is Family? Problems in Constructing Early Christian Families,” in Constructing Early Christian Families: Family as underscore that Christ proclaimed He was “the light of Social Reality and Metaphor, ed. Halvor Moxnes (London: Routledge, the world” (John 8:12). Although Bede is often credited 1997), 13–41. with having coined the word “Easter” from Eostre, there 25. Timothy F. Sedgwick, “Theological Education and the Analogical Imagination,” in Early Christian Families in Context: An Interdisciplinary is some question whether that is its real origin. Dialogue, ed. David L. Balch and Carolyn Osiek (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. In the latter half of the second century, disputes arose B. Eerdmans, 2003), 337–344. 26. Ibid., 341. over when to observe Easter. Christians in Asia Minor 27. Ibid. celebrated Christ’s resurrection on the 14th day of Nisan 432 Eastern Orthodox Church Christian Education

(Jewish month similar to modern-day April). This meant Johnson, E. 1967. “Easter and Its Cycle.” In New Catholic Ency- Easter Day could fall on any day of the week, but Chris- clopedia, 5: 411–13. San Francisco: Gale Group. tians in the West preferred to remember His resurrection Talley, Thomas J. 1986. The Origins of the Liturgical Year. New on Sunday. The dispute was so intense that Bishop Victor York: Pueblo. I (d. ca. 198) in Rome even excommunicated Christians Wright, N. T. 2003. The Resurrection of the Son of God. Min- called Quartodecimans (Fourteeners in Latin, referring neapolis, MN: Fortress Press. to the adherents of the 14th day of Nisan). To resolve the —Alvin J. Schmidt dispute, the Council of Nicaea in 325 reportedly ruled that Easter should always be observed on the first Sunday following the full moon after the spring equinox, which Eastern Orthodox Church in 325 was 20 March. But if the full moon occurred on a Christian Education Sunday after spring equinox, then Easter would fall on the next Sunday. This meant Easter could never coincide The chief characteristic of the Eastern Orthodox Churches with the Passover, the 14th day of Nisan. (But it needs is their adherence to the first seven Ecumenical Councils, to be noted that no canon of this reputed decision of the held between AD 325 and 787, which defined doctrines Council of Nicaea seems to exist.) about the Holy Trinity and Jesus Christ, promulgat- All four Gospels in the New Testament report that ing statements such as the Nicene-ConstantinopolitanOnly Christ rose bodily from the dead early Sunday morning, Creed. Additional distinctive characteristics are their the third day after His crucifixion. Whether the day of conservative approach to worship and liturgy, retain- Christ’s resurrection is called Pascha, Hemdomada Alba, ing rites and practices from the early Christian church or Easter is not significant. Its real significance lies in and Byzantine era, and their reliance on the theologi- what that day underscores. To Christians, Easter means cal writings of the church fathers largely from the first God’s Son, Jesus Christ, conquered sin and death by His millennium of Christianity. They rely on the 49-book rising from the dead. As St. Paul told the Christians in canon of the Old Testament and the New Testament, Corinth, “O death, where is your victory? O death, where but also consider other sources—texts, liturgy, icons, is your sting?” (1 Cor. 15:55). and hymns—as important for theology. Globally, there Easter commemorates Christ’s bodily resurrection as is oneCopy church composed of 14 independent churches in an empirical event in history. It underscores the very pil- communion with one another, under the leadership of lar of Christianity, for as St. Paul declared, “if Christ has the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, which not been raised, then our preaching is in vain and your organizes and coordinates them internationally. The 14 faith is in vain” (1 Cor. 15:14). To corroborate that Christ are the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople; the did in fact rise from the dead, Paul names the apostles Patriarchates of Alexandria (for all of Africa), Antioch, and notes that some 500 people, including himself (1 Cor. Jerusalem, Russia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Geor- 15:4–8), who were eyewitnesses, had seen Christ after His gia; and the independent, self-governing (autocephalous) resurrection. They all knew His bodily resurrection had Churches of Cyprus, Greece, Poland, Albania, and the indeed happened. They had even witnessed Christ say- Czech Lands and Slovakia. In North America, there is the ing, “See my hands and my feet, that it is I myself. Touch Orthodox Church in America (OCA), the former Russian me, and see. For a spirit does not have flesh and bones as Orthodox Metropolia () in North America, you see I have” (Luke 24:39). Shortly after He spoke these which was granted independence (autocephaly) in 1970 words, He asked for some food, and when they gave it to by the Church of Russia. While the OCA is the second Him, He “took it and ate before them” (Luke 24:43). largest Orthodox community in North America, its au- These and other instances that the apostles said they tocephaly is not universally recognized by all Orthodox. had witnessed in connection with Christ’s bodily res- Many of these autocephalous churches have eparchies urrection indicate it was an authentic phenomenon and territories in the Americas, Western Europe, Aus- in history. Thus, it was not their faith that established tralia, and Asia, in a so-called diaspora. For example, the Christ’s resurrection.Contributor Rather, it was His resurrection that Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America (the USA) is established and verified their faith. And this distinguishes an eparchy of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constan- Christianity from all other religions. tinople. The Patriarchate of Antioch has an archdiocese for South America. The Eastern Orthodox Churches have References and Resources close ties with the Oriental Orthodox Churches: the Ar- Bradshaw, P. F., and L. A. Hoffman, eds. 1999. Passover and menian, Coptic Church, Ethiopian Church, and Indian Easter: Origin and History of Modern Times. Notre Dame, Church. They are called Oriental Orthodox, reflecting IN: Notre Dame University Press. that their traditional locations are in the far reaches of Eastern Orthodox Curriculum Outcomes 433 the Byzantine Empire. The Eastern Orthodox and Ori- also have offices for education; however, their publishing ental Churches broke communion after the Fourth Ecu- efforts are more limited in scope. Other English-speaking menical Council (AD 453) and are sometimes called non- Orthodox communities around the globe utilize many of Chalcedonian or Monophysite. Finally, there are Eastern the resources produced by the Greek Orthodox Archdio- Catholic Churches: Melkite, Maronite, Ukrainian, and cese of America. In addition, an inter-Orthodox group, others. These Churches are in communion with the the Orthodox Christian Education Commission (OCEC), Roman Catholic Church. These churches are sometimes was created in 1957 for collaboration and cooperative called “Uniate,” for having signed documents of union work. The OCEC offers a series of textbooks for students (unia in Latin) with the Roman Church. from preschool to high school levels. While still in large use by the Orthodox communities with Slavic roots (e.g., Understanding Christian Education Systems OCA, Serbian) in America, the programs of the Greek in the Eastern Orthodox Churches Orthodox Archdiocese largely dominate the creation of Two general approaches to Christian education can be new resources. identified, determined by a particular local church’s re- lationship to the government of the country in which it References and Resources is located: a legally privileged status (e.g., a state church, Binns, J. 2002. An Introduction to the Christian Orthodox such as that in Greece or Finland), or separated from the Churches. Cambridge, UK: CambridgeOnly University Press. state (e.g., as in the United States). In those countries Boojamra, J. 1989. Foundations for Orthodox Christian Educa- where the Eastern Orthodox Church is closely affili- tion. Crestwood, NY: SVS Press. ated with the state, education in Orthodox Christianity Krindatch, A. 2011. Atlas of American Orthodox Christian is part of the public school curriculum, with sequences Churches. Brookline, MA: Holy Cross Orthodox Press. and standards being established by national departments Vrame, A. 1999. The Educating Icon: Teaching Wisdom and of education (in Greece it is the Ministry of Education, Holiness in the Orthodox Way. Brookline, MA: Holy Cross Lifelong Learning and Religious Affairs) in collaboration Orthodox Press. with church officials. The national ministries or related Ware, T. 1997. The Orthodox Church. New York: Penguin Books. entities (e.g., the Pedagogical Institute of Greece) direct —Anton C. Vrame the creation of classroom resources. In these countries, Copy we also see Orthodox Christian theology included in public higher education, in faculties of theology, training Eastern Orthodox Curriculum Outcomes clergy and other ministers. In those places with separation of church and state, A single set of curriculum goals has not been developed Orthodox Christian education is the responsibility of the by the Eastern Orthodox churches. This is due to the local church bodies, through their Departments of Reli- organizational nature of the churches and the differences gious or Christian Education and local parishes, largely between them—namely, whether or not there is state- through a parish-based Sunday church school model, sponsored Christian education. One would have to in- which typically begins for children of preschool age and vestigate each church individually to determine its goals. continues through high school. In North America, the Theorists and curriculum developers have largely Sunday school became the dominant approach to Ortho- agreed that theosis is the goal of Christian education. dox Christian education by the mid-20th century. Chris- Theosis is defined as fellowship or communion with tian education programs for adults are still relatively the Holy Trinity, which is nurtured through “the life in limited in number and scope, although there are more Christ” or life in the Church. Theosis, therefore, can be programs being developed. seen as both process and product of Christian education. Each local church develops resources, policies, and Vrame (1999) has offered the most comprehensive state- programs to support the parish-based programs. They ment about the goals of education: “The aim of education are developed by the local church’s department of reli- in the Eastern Orthodox Church is to nurture, instruct, gious educationContributor and approved by the various local gov- and direct each member of the community of faith—the erning authorities of that church: hierarchies, councils, Church—in Christian living, or as Orthodox writers typi- and so forth. In North America, the largest and best cally call it, the life in Christ, so that each person grows organized is the Department of Religious Education of ‘in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America. This office Christ’ (2 Pet. 3:18) and becomes ‘a partaker of the divine creates and publishes the vast majority of textbooks and nature’ (2 Pet. 1:4).” other resources in use by American Orthodox parishes. Following Acts of the Apostles 2.42–47, Orthodox edu- The other Orthodox communities in the United States cators have identified the community of faith, mainly the 434 Ecclesia Docens: The Teaching Church parish, as the primary locus of education through its life after year with new information, concepts, and depth. or “curriculum” of koinonia (community life), leiturgia Finally, the new texts incorporated the shared Christian (worship and sacrament), diakonia (service and minis- praxis approach of Groome, thus making deeper con- try), kerygma (preaching) martyria (witness), and didache nections between the life of the learners and the religious and matheteia (teaching and learning). In the community materials being studied. Older works had assumed that of faith, the individual is socialized (Boojamra 1989) into the religious tradition was being lived in the home; the the Orthodox phronema or outlook and way of life and student needed only religious information. In 2012, the instructed in its doctrines and teachings. Through the production of a revised series began. For junior high stu- influence of Fr. Alexander Schmemann (1983), liturgi- dents and high school students, thematic units of study cal and sacramental participation have been considered have been developed. These rely on the same scope and central to this socialization. According to Schmemann, sequence charts. “taste and see” (Ps. 34:8), experience in the liturgical life The curricular goals and textbook resources of the Or- then instruction about that experience, is the historic ap- thodox Christian Education Commission (OCEC) have proach to education in the Orthodox Church. retained the liturgical centrality developed by Schme- These principles have guided the North American mann. The OCEC’s work has been overshadowed by context, where the Sunday church school model domi- curricular developments in the Greek Orthodox Arch- nates Christian education. In those countries with state- diocese of America. Only sponsored Christian education, curriculum goals largely fall under an academic, information-centered approach. References and Resources In the 1980s, the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Boojamra, J. 1989. Foundations for Orthodox Christian educa- America began a complete revision of its Sunday church tion. Crestwood, NY: SVS Press. school materials. It produced a lengthy statement, “Or- “Orthodox Catechesis.” 1986. Greek Orthodox Archdiocese thodox Catechesis” (1986), which discussed the phi- of America Department of Religious Education. Accessed losophy and goals of Orthodox education. The document 21 January 2013. http://www.goarch.org/archdiocese/depart names theosis as the goal of education. Significantly, ments/religioused/resources/orthodoxcatechesis. “Orthodox Catechesis” then proceeds to name educa- Schmemman, A. 1983. Liturgy and Life: Lectures and Essays tional goals and objectives, unprecedented at the time. on CopyChristian Development Through Liturgical Experience. “Orthodox Catechesis” identifies two basic dimensions Syosset, NY: Orthodox Church in America Department of of education: (1) “the content of right knowledge (ortho- Christian Education. doxia)” and (2) “the living and application of Christian Vrame, A. 1999. The Educating Icon: Teaching Wisdom and truth (orthopraxia).” It also names specific areas of con- Holiness in the Orthodox Way. Brookline, MA: Holy Cross tent for both areas. These were “translated” into a scope Orthodox Press. and sequence chart and learning objectives were named, —Anton C. Vrame with curricular goals from preschool to 12th grade. This guided the development of textbook resources. The chart named 15 areas of curriculum goals, which were Ecclesia Docens: The Teaching Church central in the development of the Archdiocese’s Living Our Orthodox Faith textbook series, published between Ecclesia docens is a Latin term meaning “the teaching 1989 and 1993, for preschool to fifth-grade Sunday church.” The Apostles’ Creed references “the commu- church school programs. This series replaced textbooks nion of the saints” (Lat. communio sanctorum), which that had been created in the 1950s and 1960s. The Liv- meant that the church is comprised of a spiritual commu- ing Our Orthodox Faith texts revolutionized Christian nion (fellowship) of all saints, including those living and education in Orthodox parishes for a number of reasons. those deceased. Not until the end of the second century First, the new textbooks were lavishly illustrated with (and in response to the problem of escalating heresies) drawings and photos and published in color. Older text- did the early church focus on defining specific charac- books containedContributor only text, with almost no illustrations of teristics of the church as an external institution. From any kind. Second, the new series incorporated liturgical the time of Cyprian (c. 200–258) until the 16th century, music and commissioned songs that reinforced concepts. Christians sought to delineate the essence of the church Third, rather than a content-based approach, in which as an external and visible organization. The tendency to one religious topic was studied in depth in one grade and prioritize the external nature of the church resulted in rarely studied afterward, the new textbooks integrated emphasis on the hierarchical organization of a fellow- many theological topics, such as worship, saints, or ship of believers as a component of the visible. Roman scripture, into one year of study, returning to them year Catholicism, for instance, affirmed that there was no Ecclesia Docens: The Teaching Church 435 church invisible that was not a part of the visible Roman ing of inequality, and thus the term ecclesia docens would Catholic Church (thus the crucial question was whether delineate all Roman Catholic clergy and laity. Hanvey one belonged to this visible church). If the visible church (2004) argued that this latter usage denotes a merely is preliminary, then the visible gives birth to the invisible, functional distinction (as opposed to an epistemic justifi- which means the Roman Church is a mother of believers cation). One may also assert that the ecclesia docens and (mater fidelium) prior to being a community of believers the ecclesia discens should not be perceived as fractions; (communio fidelium). The term ecclesia docens originates rather, the distinctions indicate functions of the Roman from the vocabulary of Roman Catholic theology. Catholic Church. According to the Catholic Catechism of the Catholic Ecclesia docens is conventionally used with regard to Church (1994), the church is “all legitimately organized the teaching magisterium. Technically (and generally), local groups of the faithful, which, in so far as they the magisterium is still a term used with regard to the united to their pastors, are also quite appropriately called teaching authority that is inherent among and exercised Churches in the New Testament. . . . In them the faith- by the Roman Catholic hierarchy and bishops in a com- ful are gathered together through the preaching of the parable manner. The notion of a “double” magisterium is Gospel of Christ, and the mystery of the Lord’s Supper based in both episcopal ordination (i.e., the pastoral mag- is celebrated” (§832). Similarly, the Baltimore Catechism, isterium of the cathedral chair) and theological aptitude which was “the de facto standard Catholic school text in (i.e., the magisterium of the professorialOnly chair). The basis the United States from 1885 to the late 1960s,” affirmed for a “double” magisterium is Thomas Aquinas, who dis- the church as “the congregation of all the Faithful, who, tinguished between the magisterium cathedrae pastoralis being baptized, profess the same faith, partake of the and the magisterium cathedrae magistralis. same sacraments, and are governed by their lawful pas- Unofficially (and generally), the magisterium is the tors, under one visible head on earth” (IX.I.2). In other teaching authority that is inherent in and exercised by words, the church is the assembly of the faithful who every member of the Roman Catholic Church. Therefore, affirm the doctrines of Roman Catholicism and who con- the magisterium of the entire church is the ecclesia docens cede the authority of the pope. and is based in baptism. Whereas previously the term Based on such definitions, one may affirm that the ecclesia docens was limited to the Catholic hierarchy, and ecclesia docens is endowed with active infallibility when in ecclesiaCopy discens distinguished the assembly of the faithful, discharge of that office, and thus by virtue of such author- such distinctions have disappeared subsequent to Vatican ity may define a doctrine with regard to faith and morals II (1962–1965). The traditional distinction suggests that as unalterable, and is thus the supreme authority with the ecclesia docens receive truth by virtue of their office regard to any and all controversies. The ecclesia docens is and training, whereas the ecclesia discens passively receive composed of those who rule and teach, whereas the ecclesia such truth. Brown (1978) contended that such a distinc- discens (“the learning church”) are those who are governed tion would constitute an abuse of teaching authority, for and taught, and who receive the sacraments. On the basis it would assign responsibilities too simplistically within of God’s authority, the ecclesia docens possessed supreme Roman Catholicism (i.e., a definitive representation of the authority over the vast majority of Catholics: the ecclesia ecclesia docens, and everyone else as the ecclesia discens). discens. The distinction was primarily historical yet often Since the Second Vatican Council, the Catholic posi- explained polemically. The ecclesia docens was entrusted tion is that the church is all the people of God; it affirms with the responsibility to teach the doctrines imparted to this belief by contending that everyone has a mission them; therefore, it was not common for them to seek the to proclaim the Gospel and by emphasizing the signifi- counsel of specialists in the natural sciences, philosophy, cance of consultation and reception. Roman Catholic and theology. The ecclesia discens were forbidden to pub- theology affirms the teaching and learning responsi- lish any works that addressed religious matters without bilities of all the people of God (albeit with missions in the imprimatur of the ecclesia docens; consequently, a various habits). Consequently, the magisterium is the significant number of Catholics appealed directly to public ecclesia docens, yet this office is also called to be a listen- opinionContributor through the medium of the press. ing and learning body of teachers (magisterium discens). Ecclesia discens distinguishes the assembly of the The cadenced dynamic of the ecclesia docens is under- faithful (traditionally, the laity and the lower clergy). stood in terms of a commutative (communio) and re- The distinctions were used prominently in the period ceptive (receptio) ecclesiology. The ecclesia discens is not between the First and Second Vatican Councils and can to be passive, nor is the ecclesia docens to be regarded as be regarded as delineating Roman Catholics as a society a merely passive receiver of the sensus fidelium (“sense of unequals (societas inaequalitas). However, it is also of faith”), although it is the faith of all the people of God possible to apply the distinction without the understand- that the ecclesia docens is to communicate. 436 Ecumenism

References and Resources For example, the 1993 joint statement of the Joint Barth, Karl. 1956–1975. Church Dogmatics. 13 vols. Edinburgh: Working Group between the Roman Catholic Church and T&T Clark. Vol. 1:797–884. the World Council of Churches, “Ecumenical Formation,” Berkhof, Louis. (1939), 1941. Systematic Theology. 4th ed. Grand emphasized the need to educate church leaders and laity Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Pp. 562–567. to understand the failure to achieve God’s desire for the Brown, Raymond E. 1978. “The Dilemma of the Magisterium church’s unity. In order to build a spiritual community, it vs. the Theologians: Debunking Some Fictions.” Chicago argued, the church needs a pedagogy built on communion Studies 17: 282–299. and oriented toward learning about other traditions so as Crosby, Michael H. 2012. Repair My House: Becoming a “King- to make working together possible. Since the openness of dom” Catholic. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. Christian traditions to each other, according to the joint Davis, Charles. 1967. A Question of Conscience. New York: declaration, makes interreligious dialogue possible, such Harper & Row. formation should employ every possible medium of com- Finucane, Daniel J. 1996. Sensus Fidelium: The Use of a Con- munication in order to be more effective. cept in the Post-Vatican II Era. San Francisco: International As evidenced by more recent studies growing out of the Scholars Publications. 2010 Edinburgh World Council of Churches conference Hanvey, James. 2004. “Tradition as Subversion.” International on mission, a consensus has emerged that the theological Journal of Systematic Theology 6: 50–69. curriculum is inextricably tied toOnly the church’s mission. Moltmann, Jürgen, and Hans Küng, eds. 1981. Who Has a Say Theological education must reflect both the historical in the Church? Edinburgh: T&T Clark. experience of the worldwide church and local conditions Newman, John H. (1961) 2006. On Consulting the Faithful in and traditions, while also equipping the whole people of Matters of Doctrine. New York: Sheed & Ward; reprint, Lan- God for mission by addressing missiology, intercultural ham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. theology, and ecumenics. The wide variety of hermeneu- Rush, Ormond. 2009. The Eyes of Faith: The Sense of the Faith- tical approaches in the worldwide church, around both ful and the Church’s Reception of Revelation. Washington, the Bible and experience, calls for an educational pro- DC: Catholic University of America Press. gram that exposes participants to as wide a range of ideas Thompson, William M. 1977. “Authority and Magisterium in as possible, and the ecumenical movement has therefore Recent Catholic Thought.” Chicago Studies 16: 278–298. consistentlyCopy emphasized the need for schools of theology Yarnold, Edward. 1981. “Teaching with Authority.” The Way to work interculturally. 21: 163–172. Another emerging emphasis centers on access and —Ron J. Bigalke sustainability: since theological education is far more readily available in the urban centers of Europe and North America than elsewhere, and to men more than to Ecumenism women, new forms of cooperation and models of educa- tion are emerging. Some of them will involve increased Ecumenism draws its name from the Greek word oik- use of online technology, but sustainable solutions will oumene, which serves in the New Testament to describe also demand attention to curriculum, the building of the known world, and in ancient Christian sources libraries and other learning infrastructure, the training refers to the worldwide, united church whose doc- of teachers, and the ways in which denominational and trine is reflected in the work of the Seven Ecumenical educational organizations work together. Education in, Councils. Drawing on this idea of the church’s whole- and for, the ecumenical movement thus faces significant ness, the modern ecumenical movement, beginning challenges and equally significant opportunities. with the Edinburgh meeting on mission of 1910, has emphasized the need to form Christians for mutual ser- References and Resources vice and shared worship. The ecumenical movement’s Kasper, W. 2009. Harvesting the Fruits: Basic Aspects of Chris- three constituent directions (Faith and Order, Life and tian Faith in Ecumenical Dialogue. New York: Continuum. Work, andContributor Mission) all emphasize a different aspect Kinnamon, M. 2003. The Vision of the Ecumenical Movement. of the church’s work and life in the world, but in all Atlanta, GA: Chalice. dimensions, education is a presupposition and ongoing Radano, J. A., and W. Kasper. 2012. Celebrating a Century of emphasis of the movement and constituent churches, Ecumenism: Exploring The Achievements of International insofar as they emphasize the unity of the worldwide Dialogue. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. church, the relevance of the local ecumenical context, Werner, D., et al. 2009. “Challenges and Opportunities in the development of future ecumenical leaders, and the Theological Education in the 21st Century.” Joint Informa- church’s holistic mission to the world. tion Service of ETE/WCC and WOCATI. Edge, Findley 437

———, eds. 2010. Handbook on Theological Education in World dria at the Council of Ephesus (431) over the dual nature Christianity. Oxford: Regnum. of Christ. Cyril and fellow delegates from Alexandria World Council of Churches. 1982–1998. “Ecumenical Forma- emphasized the unity of divinity and humanity of Christ, tion: Ecumenical Reflections and Suggestions.” In Growth while the representatives of Edessa (Antiochenes) saw in in Agreement II: Reports and Agreed Statements of Ecumeni- Christ “two subjects, two persons, or two Sons (classical cal Conversations on a World Level, edited by Jeffrey Gros, Nestroianism)” (Winkler 2003, 23). For a very brief time Harding Meyer, and William G. Rusch) 884–890. Geneva: the two parties came closer together, with Bishop Rab- WCC Publications/Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. bula of Edessa changing sides. After the death of Rabbula —Samjung Kang-Hamilton in 435, Ibas became his successor as bishop, followed by Narses in 437. Under the leadership of these two men, Edessa turned once again to Nestorianism. Finally, in 489 Edessa, School of Emperor Zeno forced Bishop Cyrus II to close the school, and on the site of the school a church was erected honor- The town of Edessa was located in southeast Turkey, ing Mary, the Mother of God. present-day Urfa. In 363 the city of Nisibis was taken by the Persians (more specifically the Sassanian Empire). References and Resources Among the Christians who fled the city was Ephraem Baum, Wilheim, and Dietmar Winkler.Only 2003. The Church of the the Syrian (AD 306–373), who had been the head of East: A Concise History. London: RoutledgeCurzon. the school at Nisibis. While Ephraem is associated or Drijvers, Jan Willem. 1995. “The School of Edessa: Greek credited with the founding of the school in Edessa, this Learning and Local Culture.” In Centres of Learning: Learn- is not historically accurate (Baum and Winkler 2003, ing and Location in Pre-modern Europe and the Near East, 21; Drijvers 1995, 51–52). Most likely the school existed edited by Jan Willem Drijvers and Alasdair A. MacDonald, centuries before Ephraem and over the centuries became 49–59. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Christianized (Drijvers 1995, 52). Murphy, F. X. 1967. “The School of Edessa.” In New Catholic En- When Ephraem arrived at Edessa, the school appears cyclopedia, vol. V, edited by William J. McDonald et al., 103– to have been an informal group rather than an established 104. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America. academy like Nisibis. Most likely Edessa had a long history Copy —Harley T. Atkinson of teacher-student circles in which varieties of theological and philosophical thoughts were propagated. Han Drijvers assumes that at the time of arrival of Ephraem, there were Edge, Findley “Bardaisanites, Marcionites, and Manichaeans, besides pa- gans, astrologers, soothsayers and, of course Jews” (1995, Findley Bartow Edge (1916–2002) was an American 57). However with Ephraem’s leadership the school gradu- Christian educator and one of the most influential among ally developed into a well-known formal Christian acad- Southern Baptists in the second half of the 20th century. emy (Baum and Winkler 2003, 21). Ephraem himself was an ascetic whose written works included poems, sermons, Biography hymns, and exegetical writings. In addition, he vigorously Findley Edge was born in Albany, Georgia, on 6 Septem- debated and contended with the various heretical sects that ber 1916. Attending Stetson University on a basketball were present in Edessa. scholarship, he graduated with an AB in 1938 (and was The reputation of Edessa as a significant place of theo- later given an honorary doctor of divinity degree by Stet- logical scholarship and training continued long after the son). In 1939, he married Louvenia Littleton and enrolled death of Ephraem. Edessa was the gateway through which in the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (SBTS) the theological advances of the Roman church entered in Louisville, Kentucky. At SBTS, Edge studied under the East (Baum and Winkler 2003, 22). Many of the fifth- Gaines S. Dobbins, completing his ThM in 1942 and his century students at Edessa became bishops in Persia, ThD in 1945 (his dissertation was “Religious Education includingContributor Simeon of Beit Arsam, Marun Eloyoto, Acacius and the Problem of Institutionalism”). the Aramean, Absuto of Nineveh, John of Beit Garmay, In 1947, Edge began his teaching career at SBTS, where Paul bar Qaqay of Karka, Abraham the Mede, and Narses he would teach Christian education until his retirement the Leper. These bishops contributed significantly to the in 1984. SBTS named Edge Basil Manly Professor of Re- development and eventual acceptance of Nestorianism in ligious Education (later Basil Manly Chair of Christian the Persian church (Murphy 1967, 103). Education) in 1956. Eventually delegates of the school at Edessa became Edge began study at Yale University during a sabbatical embroiled in a theological debate with Cyril of Alexan- and ultimately completed an MA in 1955. During his study 438 Education and Leadership Ministries Commission (National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA) at Yale, he developed a relationship with divinity professor ———. 1985. The Doctrine of the Laity. Nashville, TN: Conven- Randolph Crump Miller, an Episcopalian priest and Chris- tion Press. tian educator. Edge also became acquainted with Quaker ———. 1971. The Greening of the Church. Waco, TX: Word theologian, philosopher, and writer Elton Trueblood. It Books. was Trueblood who, in 1965, recommended that Edge visit Mayr, Marlene, ed. 1983. Modern Masters of Religious Educa- the Church of the Savior in Washington, DC, a church tion. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. with which Edge’s concern for church renewal resonated, Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- informing his subsequent writing. This visit also played a tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. role in Edge’s founding of the Vineyard, an interdenomi- Yates, Steve, and Larry Purcell. n.d. “Findley B. Edge.” In Chris- national conference center for study and spiritual renewal, tian Educators of the 20th Century. http://www2.talbot.edu/ which was an innovative move in the Protestant church. ce20/educators/view.cfm?n=findley_edge. Edge wrote prolifically, consistently authoring and —Ronnie Prevost contributing to numerous books, journal and periodi- cal articles, and denominational curricula. He was ac- tive in various professional organizations, including the Education and Leadership Ministries Religious Education Association, the Southern Baptist Commission (National Council of Religious Education Association, and the Eastern Baptist Churches of ChristOnly in the USA) Religious Education Association. Upon his retirement in 1984, Edge moved to central The National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA Florida. He died in Orlando, Florida, on 28 October 2002. (NCCC) (www.ncccusa.org) is an organization of coop- erating denominations that meet together, communicate Themes their views to each other and to the world, and work For Edge, Christian education must obviously be con- together on programs and projects. Membership in the cerned with matters of pedagogy, but also must have council is an expression of unity and common mission. truly Christian theology, ethics, and living at its core. Within its structure, there are five commissions that over- Beginning with his doctoral dissertation, Edge was con- see its mission. The Education and Leadership Ministries cerned that institutionalization had rendered the church CommissionCopy (ELMC) connects a broad range of education lethargic; numbed to the core of its mission; and insensi- programs for all age groups, including church support of tive to the critical social issues of the day, such as, but public and higher education, education for mission, and not limited to, racism, racial reconciliation, and civil recruiting and training of professional church leaders. rights. Edge’s answer was to recapture the heart of the Once known as the Cluster on Education and Ministry, priesthood of all believers and stress the importance of the ELMC traces its roots to the formation of the Ameri- laity. By a church functioning as a seminary, it would be can Sunday School Association in 1824. One of its early equipping laity to accomplish the mission of the church. committees, the Division of Christian Education (now For example, improved teacher training and preparation Bible Translation and Utilization), provided the work would lead to more purposeful Bible study. This would that led to the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) of in turn result not only in increased Bible knowledge, but the bible. The group included scholars representing Or- also in people being motivated to act on and to live out thodox, Catholic, and Protestant Christian groups as well the implications and challenges of that knowledge. as Jewish scholars responsible for the Hebrew scriptures or Old Testament. Influence Today the ELMC engages in ministries of education Edge directly influenced several generations of master and faith formation for persons and communities by pro- and doctoral students at SBTS, the readers of his rich viding a dynamic ecumenical setting in which denomina- writing, and those who attended the many conferences at tions and other institutions gather. Its calling is grounded which he spoke. His impact in and on Christian educa- in the biblical story, the Gospel of Jesus Christ, and the tion has particularlyContributor to do with emphasis on ethics, teach- global vision of God’s shalom for all creation. Two par- ing, small groups, and laity as key to church renewal. ticular strategic goals were established for 2007–2011:

References and Resources • To provide support for and educational opportuni- Edge, Findley B. 1956. Teaching for Results. Nashville, TN: ties to communions and congregations in Christian Broadman Press. education, discipleship resources, faith formation, ———. 1963. A Quest for Vitality in Religion. Nashville, TN: leader development, and justice advocacy to the Broadman Press. church and the world. Education for Mission 439

• To be proactive in identifying and responding to Literacy Committee released Repairing the Breach: emerging trends in faith formation, development, A Just Agenda for Public School Reform, and ad- nurture, and justice advocacy. vocacy document containing questions for federal and state candidates in the 2012 election year. A The Education and Leadership Ministries Commission Pastoral Letter on Federal Policy in Public Educa- is an umbrella for 12 ecumenical program committees, tion: An Ecumenical Call for Justice was released in clustered into four areas: May 2010.

1. The Curriculum and Leader Formation area has The priorities of the ELMC continue to be to (1) pro- three committees. The Committee on the Uniform vide relevant approaches and resources for strengthen- Series is the oldest ecumenical committee in exis- ing families, so that every child may grow up and fulfill tence, having celebrated its 140th anniversary in her or his full potential; (2) provide leadership develop- 2012. The Uniform Series is a six-year cycle built ment for congregational leaders; (3) provide creative around several biblically rooted themes, of weekly projects to enhance and foster spiritual formation; lesson plans offering the same scripture passage for (4) promote and support high-quality, comprehensive all ages on any given Sunday. The Curriculum Con- public education; and (5) provide action programs to versation Relating Theory and Practice is its newest dismantle institutional racism.Only committee. They discuss emerging research and —Sharon Ely Pearson papers. The Professional Church Leadership is a colleague group focusing on both lay and ordained leadership. Education for Mission 2. Family and Age Level Ministries has the follow- ing committees: Families and Children develops Purpose resources, translates research, advocates for justice, John Piper argues that “missions exists because worship empowers leaders, promotes healthy relationships, doesn’t.”28 The purpose, then, of missionary training explores theological implications, and lifts up prac- must be to develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills tical applications, with a priority on faith formation, thatCopy will enable Christians to guide diverse peoples into a justice, healthy relationships, and children. There is saving and worshipful relationship with God. Such a rela- also an Ecumenical Young Adult Ministries Team tionship involves transformation not only of individuals, and Ecumenical Youth Ministries Staff Team, who but also of communities, cultures, and the environment. provide support to denominational leadership in As a branch of practical theology, missiology examines those age areas. the church’s mandate, message, mission, and means of 3. The Racial/Ethnic Culture and Specific Minis- partnering with God in bringing His kingdom to all peo- tries includes the Committee on Deaf Ministries, ples. Establishing local churches and discipling believers the Pacific/Asian-American Canadian Christian are essential missionary tasks. Education Committee, the Black Congregational Ministries, and a new group in exploration, the Curriculum Committee on Hispanic/Latino Ministries. Missions, missionaries, and mission work and contexts 4. The most active cluster in recent years has been the are so varied that it is not advisable to consider a uni- Special Needs and Settings. The Disabilities Com- versal curriculum. However, the mix of mission studies mittee has developed materials to assist congrega- usually includes biblical perspectives on missions; theol- tions in assimilating children with disabilities into ogy; apologetics; missionary spiritual formation; cross- the regular Christian education setting, including cultural communication and contextualization; inter- a policy statement, “Disabilities, the Body of Christ personal relationships; cultural anthropology; language and the Wholeness of Society.” Outdoor Minis- acquisition; geography; history of particular groups; and triesContributor produces an annual curriculum (published by the expansion of the Christian faith, comparative reli- Chalice Press) for use in Christian summer camps. gion, and training for specific tasks and roles. These tasks InsideOut: Christian Resources for Outdoor Min- and skills vary as widely as the professions themselves, istries is a four-year sequence (2013–2016) that is but all need to relate in some way to demonstrating the geared to an outdoor setting, based on scripture, love of Christ, establishing of churches, and nurturing respectful of creation, and flexible to meet the needs of multiple camping schedules (www.church 28. John Piper, Let the Nations Be Glad! The Supremacy of God in Mis- campresources.com). The Public Education and sions (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1993), 15. 440 Education for Urban Mission believers. Developing a biblical worldview and missional References and Resources lifestyle are foundational to all contexts, but require Brynjolfson, Robert, and Jonathan Lewis, eds. 2006. Integral adaptation to specific contexts for successful practice. Ministry Training: Design and Evaluation. Pasadena, CA: Training should provide participants with the tools to William Carey Library. determine what are primary and what are secondary is- Ferris, Robert W. 2000. Establishing Ministry Training. Pasa- sues and tasks, what is universal among all believers and dena, CA: William Carey Library. what is denominational, and what is cultural and what is Harley, David. 2001. Preparing to Serve. Pasadena, CA: William universal. Education for mission must begin with the end Carey Library. product in view. Woodberry, J. Dudley, Charles Van Engen, and Edgar J. Ellis- ton, eds. 1997. Missiological Education for the 21st Century. Training Structures Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. Training structures include informal, nonformal, and —Lee Wanak formal approaches. Informal training often takes place in families and local churches, which serve as incubators for developing missional values and practices. These Education for Urban Mission natural learning environments involve such practices as welcoming and serving the stranger (e.g., international Historically, almost all humans livedOnly in isolated, mono- students, refugees), sacrificial giving to missions, fervent cultural rural agrarian contexts. Today over half of the prayer for unreached groups, and loving care for mis- world’s population are urbanites, some in agglomerations sionaries. Nonformal training takes place in such ven- of 20 to nearly 40 million people. As this trend has de- ues as local church mission conferences, InterVarsity’s veloped, some churches with urban roots have embraced triennial Urbana Student Mission Conference, Youth the city, but others, having an anti-urban bias, have with a Mission’s Discipleship Training School, and escaped the city or isolated themselves within the city. missional activities such as short-term mission trips. For these churches, reengaging the city requires reeduca- Mission agencies often use internships with repeated tion regarding God’s intentions for the city. Education cycles of action and reflection as a way of helping people for urban mission begins with a love for the city and its identify their roles in cross-cultural ministry. Formal diverseCopy people as well as an appreciation of its creativity training involves coursework in an institution such as a and influence beyond its borders. Such an education re- college, seminary, or university. It often includes short- quires reading the Bible and doing theology through the term experiences or internships. The Perspectives on eyes of the urban poor. It builds an understanding and the World Christian Movement course developed by the value system that grasps how God feels about the poor. U.S. Center for World Mission includes both nonformal Two-thirds of the world’s cities are bursting at the and formal learning and is offered at hundreds of loca- seams with the influx of rural people seeking a better tions in the United States and abroad. life but finding only urban squalor. The church in this context must address not only “spiritual” issues but also a Training Challenges host of social problems endemic to poverty and explosive One of the greatest challenges in educating for missions population growth. Medical needs, environmental issues, is to nurture the ability to step out of one’s own culture land usage, homelessness, injustice, violence, marginal- in order to think and act in terms of the other, to in- ization and inequality, inadequate access to education tegrate the Christian faith with another culture and its and finances, and corruption are just some of the prob- values in ways that are consistent with scripture. Train- lems confronting urban church leaders. ing in cross-cultural communication and contextualiza- Unfortunately, little formal ministerial training ad- tion is essential. dresses these issues. Curriculum for urban poor leader- Another educational challenge is developing the skill ship needs to be developed from the grassroots contexts to address both spiritual and physical needs in order to of the urban poor rather than from preconceived West- develop a Contributorbiblical holism that addresses diverse peoples ern patterns of ministerial training. Ministry among the in their environment. With maturing national churches poor is often learned by trial and error or by following all over the world, missionaries need the skills to work a trusted mentor. Though there are many exceptions alongside national Christian leaders. globally, colleges and seminaries tend to be middle-class A final educational challenge is training missionaries places that find it difficult to be downwardly mobile. to work with the end in mind. Valuing leadership devel- Those that have embraced the city have courses that opment and empowerment and avoiding dependency are reflect both the spiritual and physical needs of the city. essential for an indigenous movement. Nonformal training is often done through organizations Education in the Home, Biblical Models of 441 such as the Christian Community Development Associa- chief ambition is for the education of our children. . . . tion in the United States or the Center for Community We take most pains of all with the instruction of children Transformation in the Philippines. and esteem observation of the laws and of the piety . . . The preparation of urban ministers requires particular the most important affair of our whole life.”29 Parents are focus on urban spirituality and self-care. Most urban told to teach these commands “diligently.” This suggests poor workers are underpaid and hold other jobs. They intentionality and earnestness. Apparently Timothy’s are busy day and night and often encounter burnout in mother and grandmother had been intentional and ear- the 24/7 city environment. Part of their spiritual training nest about teaching him the scriptures. We read: “From a is to find inner peace and harmony with God in the midst child, you have known the holy scriptures which are able of chaos. Urban ministers need training to develop vision to make you wise unto salvation” (2 Tim. 1:5 and 3:15). and empower others to build a better world, creativity in evangelism, church planting and community develop- Answering Questions Posed by Children ment, and resourcefulness in fund-raising. The Old Testament mentions in several places the impor- Education for urban mission also involves teach- tance of answering questions that children ask. Exodus ing leaders how to network urban poor communities 12:25–27 says, “When your children ask you, ‘What does with government and nongovernment organizations this ceremony mean?’ . . . tell them, ‘It is the Passover sac- and with churches and businesses in order to raise rifice to the Lord who . . . sparedOnly our homes.’” Joshua 4:6 consciousness and build partnerships that empower says, “When your children ask . . . ‘What do these stones these communities. Teaching advocacy skills to urban mean?’ tell them . . . . ‘The flow of the Jordan was cut off leaders links the powerless with the powerful in ways before the ark of the covenant of the Lord.’” A similar that transforms both groups and makes the city a more word of instruction is given in Joshua 4:21. As Jesus spent humane place to live. Urban mission training thus has much of his teaching time answering questions posed by two audiences, both the rich and the poor, the powerful the disciples, so parents are told to be ready for the teach- and the powerless, learning to work together in seeking able moments when their children ask them questions the shalom of the city (Jer. 29:7). about God and faith. References and Resources ParticipationCopy in Worship Claerbaut, David. 2005. Urban Ministry in a New Millen- In Old Testament times, families participated together nium. Federal Way, WA: Authentic Media/World Vision in the great religious festivals. At Passover, “the family Resources. searched the house for leaven which must be removed. Conn, Harvie M., and Manuel Ortiz. 2010. Urban Ministry: The The taste of bitter herbs recreated God’s acts of deliver- Kingdom, the City & the People of God. Downers Grove, IL: ance.” During the Feast of Tabernacles, the family “built InterVarsity Press. outdoor booths to relive the stories of the wilderness days.” Fuder, John. 2001. Training Students for Urban Ministry: An Families also participated in the Feast of Purim, the Feast Experiential Approach. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. of Weeks, and the Day of Atonement. In each of these, the Lupton, Robert. 2005. Renewing the City: Reflections on Com- child participated both as a “worshipper and a learner.”30 munity Development and Urban Renewal. Downers Grove, Children also gathered with their parents to hear the read- IL: InterVarsity Press. ing of the Law on various important occasions. —Lee Wanak Family Prayers Some of the earliest prayers in the Bible deal with impor- Education in the Home, tant issues in the family. (1) Abraham prayed for his son, Biblical Models of Ishmael: “Oh that Ishmael might live before thee” (Gen. 17:18), and God responded, “I have heard your prayer” Intentional Daily Instruction (Gen. 17:20). (2) In Genesis 24:12–14, there is a prayer DeuteronomyContributor 6:6–7 says, “These words which I com- for guidance in finding the right spouse for Isaac. God mand you this day shall be in your heart and you shall answered this prayer by directing Isaac’s servant to Re- teach them diligently to your children . . . when you sit bekah. (3) In Genesis 32:9–12, there is a prayer concern- in your house, and when you walk by the way, and when ing a broken relationship between two brothers, Jacob you lie down and when you rise up.” In these early words from scripture, parents are instructed to give priority to 29. Josephus, Against Aphion 1.12, quoted in William Barclay, Educa- tional Ideals in the Ancient World (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1974), 12. the task of teaching God’s commands to their children. 30. David Ng and Virginia Thomas, Children in the Worshiping Com- Concerning this responsibility, Josephus writes: “Our munity (Atlanta, GA: John Knox Press, 1981), 50, 51. 442 Education, Paul’s Concept of and Esau. God answered this prayer and reconciliation led them with the cords of kindness” (Hosea 11:1–4). (2) ensued. We may assume that children in biblical families “As a father has compassion on his children, so the Lord were aware of the prayers offered by their parents (and has compassion on those who fear Him” (Ps. 103:13). related adults) and were instructed by these examples. Against the advice of his disciples, Jesus treated children with kindness and respect. Ephesians 6:1 cautions us not Imparting Wisdom to make children angry or discouraged by the way we give Large sections of the Book of Proverbs are devoted to the them instruction. instruction of children. Some Bible scholars call Prov- erbs “the oldest handbook of education.”31 Parents are Involvement of Both Parents instructed to teach their children “how to live a happy The Book of Proverbs often reminds us of the role of and prosperous life.”32 This includes instruction in basic the father and the mother in giving spiritual instruction religious values such as honesty, humility, kindness, gen- to children: “Listen, my son, to your father’s command- erosity, justice, industry, sexual purity, and self-control. ments and do not forsake your mother’s teaching” (Prov. A major goal of Hebrew parents was to impart wisdom 1:8); “My son, keep your father’s commandments and do about the practical affairs of life through teaching the not forsake your mother’s teaching” (Prov. 6:20). While values delineated in the Book of Proverbs. Ephesians 6:1 speaks of the role of the father in providing nurture and training, 1 Timothy 1:5Only suggests that Timo- Training in Holiness thy’s mother and grandmother were the most important The principle of qadesh (holiness or separation) was fun- figures in his early spiritual development. (This should be damental to Hebrew religion. William Barclay says, “First an encouragement to single parents as well as to women and foremost, the Jewish ideal of education is the ideal of who teach boys in the local church.) If we take the most holiness, of difference, of separation from all other peoples common biblical passages about child-rearing, we find in order to belong to God.”33 As the family prepared the that most of them are addressed to both parents, while Passover sacrifice, participated in a Sabbath meal, or ex- one refers only to the father and one refers to the mother plained the covenant of circumcision, children learned and the grandmother. that God’s people were to be distinct and separate. This distinctive lifestyle was both an indication of their dedica- ReferencesCopy and Resources tion to God and a protection from customs and behaviors Barclay, William. 1974. Educational Ideals in the Ancient that might lure them away from their faith. Many stories World. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. in the Old Testament illustrate how individuals (and fami- Clark, Robert E., ed. 1991. Christian Education: Foundations for lies) failed to live a life of separation and fell into sin. The the Future. Chicago: Moody. story of Lot in Genesis is an example of what happened to Jones, Timothy Paul. 2011. Family Ministry Field Guide. India- a family whose parents failed to live a life of separation. napolis, IN: Wesleyan Publishing House. Psalm 106:34–37 (a good summary for this story) says: Kesler, Jay, ed. 1987. Parents and Children. Wheaton, IL: Vic- “They . . . mingled among the heathen . . . and learned their tor Books. works. . . . They sacrificed their sons and their daughters.” May, Scottie, Beth Posterski, Catherine Stonehouse, and In contrast to Lot’s failure to embrace the principle of ho- Linda Cannell. 2005. Children Matter: Celebrating Their liness/separation, God said regarding Abraham: “I know Place in the Church, Family, and Community. Grand Rap- him that he will instruct his children and his household ids, MI: Eerdmans. after him . . . and his household after him . . . and they shall Ng, David, and Virginia Thomas. 1981. Children in the Wor- keep the way of the Lord (Gen. 18:19). shiping Community. Atlanta, GA: John Knox Press. —Keith Springer Teaching Children by Kindness and Respect Many of the best pictures of “loving care for children appear in the parent-child metaphors of the Bible.”34 (1) Education, Paul’s Concept of “When IsraelContributor was a child, I loved him. . . . It was I who taught Ephraim to walk, I took them up in my arms. . . . I Educational processes in contemporary churches and Christian organizations encompass terms such as Chris- tian education, discipleship, spiritual formation, nurture, 31. A. R. S. Kennedy, quoted in Barclay, Educational Ideals, 25. 32. Barclay, Educational Ideals, 27. and catechesis, but these are not common in the New 33. Ibid., 47. Testament (NT) writings attributed to the apostle Paul. 34. Scottie May, Beth Posteriski, Catherine Stonehouse, and Linda Can- nell, Children Matter: Celebrating Their Place in the Church, Family, and However, Paul’s letters contain a commonly used term Community (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005). that correlates well with the transformative development Education, Paul’s Concept of 443 that lies at the heart of education: oikodomeō (and its noun promoted the “church in one’s house” (e.g., Rom. 16:5; form, oikodomē), which is often translated as “building- 1 Cor. 16:19; Col. 4:15) because it provided opportunity up” or “edification.” A representative sample of uses of for the integration of both formal and informal edu- oikodomeō includes Romans 14:19, 15:2; 1 Corinthians 8:1, cational processes consistent with the spiritual growth 14:12, 17, 26; 2 Corinthians 10:8, 12:19, 13:10; Ephesians and formation connoted by oikodomeō. These processes 2:22, 4:12, 16, 29; and 1 Thessalonians 5:11. clearly contrasted with the dominant schooling model of The oikodomeō process involved the apostles facilitat- education in the surrounding Greco-Roman and Jewish ing growth in individuals toward holistic maturity in cultures, an impact observed in two areas. Jesus Christ, which entailed the centrality of knowing First, Paul appears to have intentionally avoided the Jesus Christ in increasingly deeper ways; the expression use of the common educational terminology of Hellenist of agapē as the core value in one’s relationships with self, education, when aspects of what the Christians were others, and God; and becoming more “adult” (1 Cor. attempting to do educationally within their churches 13:11–12) in one’s thinking and reasoning. could well have been described in those ways: “The value But the goal of the intentional edification process system upon which Greek education has been built up is had “twin aspects, inseparable from one another, being deliberately overthrown. . . . In its place [Paul] set out a the mature person and the mature community.”35 Thus fundamentally new pattern of human relations in which “oikodomeō is used to describe the growth and expansion each is endowed by God with gifts to contribute to the 36 38 Only of the community through the Spirit” and “the inner upbuilding of the others.” This clear demarcation would growth of the community and the content and purpose of have clarified for the churches and surrounding society its liturgical life and its meetings.”37 This comes about as that edification was not achievable using a school-based the various gifts bestowed by the Holy Spirit on members educational model, but rather by the development of are exercised for the common good (1 Cor. 14). relationships based on the best features of the household, The outworking of oikodomeō integrated the three catalyzed by the Spirit of the living Christ. strands that the early Christians perceived to constitute Second, the children of Christians (mainly from the the church: (1) knowledge of the objective historical facts upper classes) who could afford to pay for a “regular lib- of the Gospel centering on the life, death, resurrection, eral education” still received it within the secular system, and ascension of Jesus (e.g., Rom. 1:1–3, 1 Cor. 15:3–8ff.); evenCopy though the Christians were upholding ideals that faith was closely linked to this knowledge (e.g., Rom. 10:17, were in ideological conflict with that system. It was as- Gal. 3:5, Eph. 4:20); (2) the necessity for individuals to ap- sumed that biblical training at home and in church would propriate a restored relationship with God through faith in counteract the dangers that arose.39, 40 Jesus, demonstrated in a transformed life marked by loving With his focus on the oikodomeō process, Paul did not and obedient service (e.g., Eph. 2:1–10; Col. 1:21–23 and reject teaching per se. But his move away from the ter- 2:6–7); and (3) the essential reality of the church corporate minology of classical teaching served to refocus the place as the people of God, the body of Christ, and the fellowship of both teaching and knowledge. Teaching was central in of the Holy Spirit, with its mandate to bear witness by the the life of the early churches, but “[their] teaching minis- quality of its community life (koinōnia) and to reach out to tries are not an art-form or professional skill, performed the world in holistic mission. with an eye to self-display, but have as their sole objective The root of oikodomeō is oikos, the traditional house- the sharing of the knowledge of God that will transform hold of Greco-Roman society. The oikos, which usually one’s thinking and life-style.”41 The right sort of knowl- included both kin and dependents of the household, edge was crucial. became the basic unit for the NT churches, adequate in A different perspective on the role of teachers was also size to allow the members to fulfill the major functions in- highlighted through the oikodomeō processes. Teachers volved in “being church” as an inclusive community across boundaries of age, gender, occupation, and social status— 38. Edwin A. Judge, “The Reaction Against Classical Education in the and those churches’ major educational environment. New Testament,” Spectrum 17, no. 2 (1985): 26. The oikos setting and the oikodomeō process were 39. Edwin A. Judge, “The Conflict of Educational Aims in New Testa- Contributor ment Thought,” Journal of Christian Education 9 (June 1966): 32–45, and closely intertwined. It seems that the churches did not “The Interaction of Biblical and Classical Education in the Fourth Cen- mold their educational strategies to fit their setting; tury,” Journal of Christian Education Papers 77 (1983): 31–37. rather, as a matter of principle Paul and his colleagues 40. Christians made no effort to establish their own schools until the fourth century, when the Roman emperor Julian “began by excluding [the Christians] from the right to teach in the Hellenic schools, and challenged 35. William E. Andersen, “From Gospel to Education: Exploring a them to try to train their youth on Matthew and Luke in the churches Translation, Part 1,” Journal of Christian Education Papers 79 (1984): 28. instead. Forlorn enthusiasts took up the challenge” (Judge, “Conflict of 36. The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, 2:252. Educational Aims,” 34). 37. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, 5:141. 41. Ibid., 31. 444 Educational Leadership in the NT churches, unlike in the secular schools or the president) in defining, declaring, and representing the Jewish models, do not appear as a distinct group of peo- institution’s vision and mission is self-evident. The vast ple with a monopoly on the knowledge to be imparted. majority of these institutions are the offspring of dynamic Instead, consistent with the developing theology of the founders whose personalities, passions, and dedication churches as charismatic communities, the teaching func- focused energy and enlisted followers. Their compelling tion was achieved in several ways:42 (1) The apostles had presentation of vision, and call to sacrifice in order to a strategic and itinerant teaching/discipling role as the achieve it, are the driving forces God uses to address the founders of the new churches and as stewards of sound Christian education needs of society. Such institutions teaching; (2) special gifting (charisma) from the Holy prosper as their leaders are active, effective, and focused. Spirit equipped others for a specific teaching ministry By contrast, when these leaders leave, die, retire, or most within specific churches (e.g., Rom. 12:7; 1 Cor. 12:28; significant, fail, the institution’s ability to sustain its mis- Eph. 4:11); (3) all the members of each church were sion can falter. equipped, and had a responsibility, to teach one another As faith-based institutions mature, their dependence (e.g., Col. 3:16); (4) the Holy Spirit enabled believers to on leaders to create, project, and maintain the mission re- learn by themselves (e.g., John 14:26, 1 John 2:27); and mains strategic. Such leadership casts vision, creates struc- (e) the settings used—predominantly the oikos—had a ture, selects key personnel, and spearheads the effective powerful “hidden curriculum” teaching role. marketing and successful fund-raisingOnly required to fulfill the mission. While without a vision the people perish (Prov. References and Resources 29:18), it is clear that without the visionary, the people Andersen, William E. 1984. “From Gospel to Education: Ex- needed to perform and fulfill the vision soon lose sight of ploring a Translation. Part 1.” Journal of Christian Education and commitment to the mission. And as leadership goes, Papers 79: 26–37. so goes the ability to deliver on the institution’s promise. Brown, Colin, ed. 1975. The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Vol. 2. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. The Learning Leader Giles, Kevin N. 1981. “Teachers and Teaching in The Church: Edgar Schein’s Organizational Culture and Leadership Part 1.” Journal of Christian Education Papers 70: 5–17. (1997) is among the most helpful in considering how Hill, Brian V. 1985. The Greening of Christian Education. Syd- leadersCopy influence, for good or ill, the effectiveness of their ney: Lancer Books. organizations. That effectiveness depends on how leaders ———. 1990. That They May Learn: Towards a Christian View shape corporate culture through a variety of value propo- of Education. Exeter, UK: Paternoster Press. sitions, business strategies, and reward systems that are Judge, Edwin A. 1966. “The Conflict of Educational Aims in anchored within the character and commitments of the New Testament Thought.” Journal of Christian Education 9 individual leader, whose humility creates the context for (June): 32–45. continuous learning. Schein asserts that to be effective, ———. 1983. “The Interaction of Biblical And Classical Educa- leaders must be learning and growing constantly in both tion in the Fourth Century.” Journal of Christian Education self-understanding as well as professional and adminis- Papers 77: 31–37. trative acumen, in order to shape the vision, create the ———. 1985. “The Reaction Against Classical Education in the identity, and deploy the resources needed to accomplish New Testament.” Spectrum 17 (2): 22–27. the mission of their organizations. These learning leaders Kittel, Gerhard, and Gerhard Friedrich, eds. 1967. Theological will need to demonstrate six core qualities in order to ad- Dictionary of the New Testament. Vol. 5. Grand Rapids, MI: dress the major changes on the horizon: Eerdman. —Allan Harkness 1. New levels of insight into the realities of the world and themselves. 2. Extraordinary motivation to endure the pain that Educational Leadership necessary change will produce. Contributor 3. Emotional strength to manage their own and oth- For the Christian educational institution, the effective- ers’ anxiety as change occurs. ness of the CEO (headmaster, head of school, principal, 4. New skills in analyzing and changing cultural as- sumptions. 42. Kevin N. Giles, “Teachers and Teaching in the Church: Part 1,” Jour- 5. Willingness and ability to involve others and en- nal of Christian Education Papers 70 (1981): 13; Brian V. Hill, The Greening courage their participation. of Christian Education (Sydney: Lancer Books, 1985), 30–32; and Brian V. Hill, That They May Learn: Towards a Christian View of Education (Exeter, 6. Ability to learn the assumptions of rapidly changing UK: Paternoster Press, 1990), 62–63. organizational cultures. Educational Leadership 445

The research on the significant impact of leadership The Organizational Priest on organizational mission provides a foundation for a Where the prophet speaks to the people on behalf of God, truly Christian approach to leading. The findings show the priest speaks to God on behalf of the people. Pastoral a decided shift from the what, when, where, and how of tones and perspectives shape the identity of the leader organizational systems and structures to the who and why who is motivated to care for the most needy and vulner- of character, attitude, and motivation that ultimately de- able the institution serves. Deep interest in the personal termine leadership performance and effectiveness. While and spiritual life of the students is usually the major focus Christian leadership also is concerned about the process of this type of leadership. As with the prophetic motif, the and systems of leadership, its strength is the focus on the organization reflects the style, dispositions, and character personhood of the leader. Since there is an abundance of of the leader, usually with an emphasis on God’s love, materials on how to lead in a Christian school context, forgiveness, mercy, and compassion. this article focuses more on who is doing the leading (personhood), believing, as the research shows, that in The Organizational Monarch the end, character with competence produces the most The monarch motif is distinguished from the prophet and effective leaders. What is the personhood of Christian priest primarily in its approach to doing the work of the leadership, and how does that personhood influence institution. While prophets cajole and priests comfort, leadership style and effectiveness? monarchs tend to create structuresOnly and issue the com- mands necessary for the implementation of the vision. Leadership Motifs: Impact on Effectiveness In this motif, measurable evidences of success drive the It is helpful in understanding Christian education leaders leader. Growth and expansion are highly valued rubrics to explore four basic motifs of personhood found in the for determining God’s blessing. Loyalty to the leader scriptures. No leader fits fully into any one of these char- and the mission are expected; there is little tolerance for acterizations, because of the raw materials of personality, those who do not embrace the mission as identified and experiences, motivations, and skill sets each individual projected by the leader. In these organizational cultures, brings to the specific situation. Current institutional followers implement mission as directed by the leader needs and emerging opportunities also influence the and are rewarded for their effectiveness in fulfilling the tailoring of these motifs to fit the person with the place. CEO’sCopy expectations. This is a top-down culture, very The majority of effective leaders understand their pre- dependent on the leader for mission interpretation and ferred motif of leadership and work from that position of communication. There often is a great deal of emphasis experience and disposition. However, the most effective on command and control strategies. Personnel are seen leaders willingly adapt their leadership preferences and more as employees than collaborators. Monarchs can be predispositions to changing conditions as required while effective when institutions are facing times of significant not compromising the essence of who they are as persons change, reengineering, and/or recovery. redeemed in Christ. The Apostle Facilitator The Institutional Prophet In the apostolic motif of leadership, there is a decided The prophet motif is the one most characteristic of shift from the focus primarily on the leader to a coop- founder leaders, particularly in faith-based institutions. erative, collaborative, and facilitating leadership dispo- The prophets of the Old Testament stood as emissaries sition. Prophets cajole, priests comfort, and monarchs on behalf of God, declaring in compelling, convincing, command, but apostles coordinate and facilitate, as and correcting tones God’s plans for His people. The mis- well as course-correct and nurture the vision and mis- sions of organizations led by such prophets tend to be fo- sion through others. The first three motifs operate in cused, specific, and targeted in their ministry objectives. an independent fashion, assuming the final authority These leaders have an urgency to achieve their vision, for decisions and direction. Even if they have boards, believing that time is short, needs are great, and this cause they function more as ratifying and advisory councils is worthContributor both living as well as sacrificing for in terms of rather than as governing accountability-based entities. commitment and resources. For such leaders, their mis- The apostle usually operates more in a collaborative and sion has world-changing, culture-shaping implications. team-building manner, seeking to discover, resource, and Their leadership is driven by a conviction that they have empower the right people for the tasks at hand. a unique and distinctive call from God to be a John the Baptist voice to and for this generation. Institutions that The ultimate model of Christian leadership is found in are in crisis or significant transition often require a pro- the example of Jesus Christ. The apostle Paul, in Philippi- phetic leader to rally support and redefine mission. ans 2, provides an excellent insight into the Jesus model. 446 Educational Leadership

He suggests that the characteristic of Christlike leader- vision that comes only from the Holy Spirit requires an ship adapts the chosen or preferred leadership style to the appropriation of spiritual disciplines and an attitude of needs of the led rather than to the needs or preferences of teachable humility that is inherently difficult for the typi- the leader. This orientation stands in stark contrast with cal Type A personality. Being still and knowing who and much of the strengths-based theories present in both what is of God (Ps. 46:10) requires the cultivation of the secular as well as Christian literature and practice. disciplines of divine revelation. There are specific circumstances when what is needed Various theological traditions emphasize differing for the good of the mission is a particular leadership style. means for awakening and sustaining God’s revelation of Any and all of these can work well when operated in the calling and purpose. Some use the disciplined study of context of the Jesus model. The needs of the led and the the scriptures as the pathway for understanding God’s current challenges of the organization dictate the style revelation. Others find periodic retreats of prayer, re- of leadership chosen. Any of the four motifs can be ap- flection, and meditation the most helpful for sensitizing propriate and effective when driven by this simple but the heart and mind. Some find divine leading clearer in profound insight. Within such a servant leadership pri- places and experiences of worship and praise. And still ority, each of the four styles has the potential to advance others believe that God’s direction is best determined in the mission. the context of the wise counsel of those who demonstrate track records of spiritual wisdom Onlyand insight. Usually all Spiritual Formation in Leadership Effectiveness of these, in varying degrees, are important means of grace Finally, spiritual formation can help focus the sacred mis- for finding God’s purposes for the institution. Whatever sions entrusted to Christian educational leaders and pro- disciplines awaken the leader’s spirit to the divine voice mote the Jesus model. If leaders get the spiritual dimen- need to be employed regularly to keep minds clear and sions right, they are able to better discern the methods hearts focused. and modalities that best serve their institutions’ purposes. The challenge of leaders to cast vision, shape identity, The reality about mission is that it must be alive in the and ensure success is nurtured and protected in the leader in order for it to be vital and compelling for those revealed presence of the One who has called them. No to be led. Keeping the vision and mission burning in the Christian leader will perform this calling without the bones of leaders requires an unquenchable awareness, a exerciseCopy of the spiritual disciplines necessary to keep in revelation, of the divine mandates required to lead the touch with and submissive to the Master on whose behalf work entrusted to them. we serve until He returns. In Timothy Beals’s The Es- Philip Greenslade, in Leadership, Greatness and Ser- sential Engstrom: Proven Principles of Leadership (2007), vanthood (1984), provides helpful insight into where ef- a summary of Dr. Ted Engstrom’s (former president fective mission and clear identity originate: of World Vision) lifelong principles of Christ-centered leadership is recorded: Revelation is vital to leadership. God’s view of things and not man’s has been the starting point for all great move- 1. Commit yourself to God. He wants to share the ments. We need to know who God is and where He wants privilege and the joy of carrying His Word. to take His people. . . . When God’s chosen instrument 2. Set your goal on the next runner. Miraculously we (the leader) has seen God’s plan and purpose he can stir bear not one, but untold thousands of torches—the and motivate the people of God, keeping them on course when the going gets rough—as it usually does. (p. 41) more we hand out the more we have to share. 3. Be motivated by the things that motivate God. Anchoring his exhortations to the familiar without a 4. Open your heart to God and He will fill it with vision passage in Proverbs 29:18, Greenslade offers an- genuine enthusiasm. other rendition of this benchmark challenge. He suggests 5. Live in honesty—they who receive the torch from that where there is no prophetic vision (among the lead- you must be willing to believe you when you speak ers), the people whom they lead become confused, disor- of its importance. ganized, andContributor rebellious. The point of his argument is that 6. Be strong and of good courage—though the night leaders must seek a spiritual understanding, a revelation, is dark, you will always walk in light when bearing of the unique work that God calls them to that is more His torch. than just the appropriation of best practices or success 7. Decide to decide—indecision is inaction and inac- models of others whose ministries they admire. Making tion leads to failure. the time to seek first God’s Kingdom and righteousness 8. Act responsibly. (Matt. 6:33) for their organizations through the inner 9. Keep first things first. Educational Ministry of Jesus 447

10. Respect the future—He who inhabits eternity in- who would then go out and make other disciples (Wilkins vites you to share His home there with Him (293). 2001, 236). In order to do that, Jesus had to educate His followers to be like Him. That is, “the ultimate goal of dis- As leaders shape and lead the missions of their educa- cipleship is transformation into the image of the Master, tional institutions, they must demonstrate the integrity Jesus Christ” (236). For Christian educators, this means that comes from the revelation that God has called and that we are to pursue Christlike transformation in our equipped them for this important task. William Barclay own lives, even as we educate students toward godliness translates Eph. 1:18 as a benediction for those called to (Wilhoit 1991, 114). lead: “I pray that your inner vision may be flooded with The content of Jesus’s educational ministry was fo- light, to enable you to see what hope the fact that He has cused almost exclusively on God. He taught His followers called you gives you.” about God the Father, who He was as the Son of God, and spoke of the coming Holy Spirit. He wanted His students References and Resources to know God, so the content of His education instructed Ackerman, Laurence D. 2000. Identity Is Destiny: Leadership them to understand each of these characters. In addi- and the Roots of Value Creation. San Francisco: Berrett- tion, Jesus spoke regularly of the Kingdom of God and Koehler Publishers. how to have a new life in Him (MacGregor 2001, 382). Barber, Cyril. 1999. Nehemiah and the Dynamics of Effective “God’s redeeming, transformingOnly presence in all of life, Leadership. Neptune, NJ: Loizeaux Brother. God’s Word-become-flesh, calls us to leave behind our Barclay, William. 2002. The Letters to the Galatians and Ephe- old selves and social patterns and enter into an eternal sians (New Daily Study Bible), Louisville, KY: Westminster relationship that recreated everything we are, calls us to a John Knox Press. discipleship of following the ways of God’s new creation” Beals, Timothy J. W. 2007. The Essential Engstrom: Proven (Blackwood 2001, 684). Principles of Leadership. Franklin, TN: Authentic Press. The methodology Jesus used in His educational min- Edwards, Gene. 1992. A Tale of Three Kings: A Study in Broken- istry varied depending on the situation He was in and ness. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers. whom He was instructing. His educational approach al- Greenslade, Philip. 1984. Leadership, Greatness and Servant- ways fit His audience. Jesus taught primarily by example, hood. Ada, MI: Bethany House Publishers. becauseCopy He lived out his lessons before His students McKenna, David L. 2006. The Leaders Legacy: Preparing for (Luke 11; John 13). His most used technique was that of Greater Things. Newberg, OR: Barclay Press. the parable, but He also used longer discourses, as in the Schein, Edgar H. 1997. Organizational Culture and Leadership. Sermon on the Mount (Nichols 2001, 231). The common New York: Jossey-Bass. theme for each technique of instruction was that His au- Sonnefeld, Jerry. 1998. The Hero’s Farewell: What Happens dience would grow in their spiritual maturity. Pazmiño When CEOs Retire. Cambridge, MA: Oxford University identifies five guiding principles related to the content of Press. Jesus’s teaching, which are helpful for understanding His —David Gyertson methods of teaching: “1. Jesus’ teaching was authorita- tive. . . . 2. Jesus’ teaching was not authoritarian. . . . 3. Jesus’ teaching encouraged people to think. . . . 4. Jesus Educational Ministry of Jesus lived what he taught. . . . 5. Jesus had a love for those he taught” (1992, 125–129). Since Jesus began His teaching ministry, it has been The educational ministry of Jesus was not a stagnant viewed with much curiosity, and at various times even one, made up of a series of theoretical laws and principles the disciples wondered about the way Jesus taught (Matt. that had no impact on life. His educational ministry in- 13:10–17). These disciples sought ultimately to live out tended that His followers would become like Him in their what they had seen in Jesus as a result of their time with lives, as holy representatives of God in the world, and as a Him. The Gospels and the first chapter of Acts are the result live out their faith in a manner that was endearing primaryContributor resource for viewing the educational ministry of to others who might follow along as well. This must be re- Jesus, as these are the direct means of identification for stated: Jesus expected that His followers would continue His teaching purpose, content, and methodology. His work. That is, Christians down through the centuries It has repeatedly been said that Jesus was a master are to “go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing teacher (Pazmiño 2001, 115), and this is evident in each them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the of the facets of His educational ministry. First, Jesus’s Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything [Jesus] purpose for education was that He would make disciples, commanded” (Matt. 28:19–20, NIV). 448 Educational Mission of the Church

References and Resources rites. The process of formation may have many dimen- Blackwood, V. L. 2001. “Teachings of Jesus Christ.” In Evan- sions, such as relationships, institutional commitments gelical Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by M. An- or allegiances, lifestyle guidelines, values, and vision. thony, 684–686. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. In other words, formation involves intentional pro- MacGregor, J. C. 2001. “Jesus Christ.” In Evangelical Dictionary cesses by which groups initiate new members into their of Christian Education, edited by Michael Anthony, 380–382. shared views and way of life, processes for internalizing Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. the values, expectations, and institutional framework of Nichols, C. H. 2001. “Education in the Gospels and Acts.” In the faith community culture. These intentional initiation Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by Mi- processes vary according to the traditions and vision of chael Anthony, 230–231. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. each faith community and often include some form of Pazmiño, Robert W. 1992. Principles and Practices of Christian membership classes, fellowship groups, and expectations Education: An Evangelical Perspective. Grand Rapids, MI: (both overt and covert) regarding conversion and com- Baker Book House. munity life. The formation process may be implemented ———. 2001. “Jesus: The Master Teacher.” In Christian Educa- through clearly defined and structured steps of initiation tion: Foundations for the Twenty-first Century, edited by Mi- and/or participation in the ordinary life of the group. chael Anthony, 111–116. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. The educational mission of the early church, as re- Wilhoit, Jim. 1991. Christian Education & the Search for Mean- corded in the New Testament (Acts18:24,Only 19:9, 23, 22:4, ing. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. 22; Gal. 6:6), involved a Christian formation process Wilkins, M. J. 2001. “Education of the Twelve.” In Evangelical known as catechesis, a word derived from the Greek verb Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by Michael An- katecheo, meaning “to impart information” or “to teach.” thony, 234–237. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. The four interrelated functions of teachers included —Donald R. Shepson III instruction of children and other members of the com- munity, interpretation and application of the tradition, the inculcation of a religious identity distinct from the Educational Mission of the Church dominant culture, and answering the attacks of nonbe- lievers. By the fourth century, catechesis had evolved into The educational mission of the church is to enable in- a formalCopy initiation into the Christian community that dividuals, church communities, and society at large to entailed a period of instruction; rituals of baptism, Chris- open their lives to a faith-forming, life-transforming, and mation, and Eucharist; and mystagogy. world-repairing experiential communion with God. This While formation means bringing something into being involves entering the mystery of God’s love through on- and transformation means changing or reshaping what going alignment of our lives with the radical person and exists, transformation does not occur apart from forma- passion of Jesus Christ. To align with Christ means to tion. In contrast to the initial shaping dynamics of forma- demonstrate the character of Christ, to identify with and tion, transformation means change or a series of changes embody all that Christ is and represents. Education, in in relationship with, or in response to, one’s initial for- the fullest sense, invites and enables this process. mation experiences. For example, in a formative Chris- For something to be called education, it must be truly tian experience, one may understand and experience educative. Transmitting bodies of information and rules prayer in a particular form or style that provides a par- or values collected in the past does not equal education. ticular degree or kind of spiritual meaning. Transforma- Education involves movement beyond limitations and tion would involve changes that alter, expand, or deepen frees people to live life more fully as God intended. Chris- this formative understanding, practice, and meaning of tian education is about Christ-centered cultivation of prayer. Formation is about shaping, and transformation formation and transformation toward wholeness (spiri- is about reshaping. Formation involves initiation into a tual, emotional, intellectual, vocational) and freedom life of faith, and transformation moves a person or group (personal and social) in all aspects of life and faith. beyond the limitations of the formation experience to- FormationContributor is a process of bringing something into ward greater spiritual depth and authenticity. being. This involves an initial act or acts of shaping, giv- Transformation allows individuals and groups of indi- ing form, and bringing into existence. Learning about viduals to move beyond the limitations of the dominant God as a child or attending a church for the first time are social paradigm, to build upon, expand, or alter existing examples of possible initial acts that may shape the be- ways of being in faith. Transformation enables creativity ginnings of our Christian faith. Christian formation is a and birth of possibilities from within or in response to process of leading one into a particular form of existence the initial faith enculturation experience. Transformation or way of life that is informed by beliefs and confessions, means movement toward depth, authenticity, integrity, systems of symbols and rules, and worship practices and and fresh vision. Formation and transformation are vital Educational Mission, Paul’s Concept of 449 processes in our journey toward maturity in Christ. This that accrue to the followers of Christ after His ascension process of change continues throughout the life span. to the Father (4:10). As a display of His victory over his The many specific reasons that we educate in the enemies (Col. 2:13–16) and the last enemy (1 Cor. 15:56), church fit within a fourfold focus: Christ distributed the spoils of war (4:8) and gave gifts to His subjects. The spiritual gifts given by Christ and dis- 1. Tradition-Gospel-Bible-centered education—tell- tributed by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 12:11) are given “for ing the gospel story, making accessible the re- the equipping of the saints” (4:12a), as they do “the work sources of the tradition (beliefs, symbols, rituals, of service” (4:12b) that result in “the building up of the disciplines, and values), and teaching people to body of Christ” (4:12c). This process of edification and think theologically. equipping continues, in Paul’s view, “until we all attain 2. Person-centered education—nurturing relation- . . . to complete maturity (teleios), to the measure of the ship with God, empowering people to live in the fullness of Christ . . . to grow up in all aspects into Him fullness of their faith and values, nurturing growth who is the head, even Christ” (4:13–15). toward Christlikeness, developing one’s potential as a human being (imago dei), and nurturing experi- Paul’s Educational Strategies ence of the holy. While Paul envisions this end state as the outcome, Chris- 3. Church-centered education—creating a commu- tians achieve this goal through Onlya process of Christian de- nity of faith in which people live in transforma- velopment and growth. Thus, he can say in 2 Corinthians tional tension with society, helping people discover 3:18: “We are being transformed from glory to glory.” Paul and live their gifts and roles within the church com- facilitates the process of growth in Christians individu- munity, and helping people worship. ally and corporately through an educational process that 4. Society/mission-centered education—calling and involves teaching (Acts 11:26, 15:35, 18:11, 20:20, 21:21, equipping people for action within the world (heal- 28:31; Rom. 16:17; Col. 1:28), admonishing (1 Cor. 4:14; ing, compassion, justice, and evangelism). Col. 2:28), exhorting (Acts 20:1–2; 1 Cor. 1:10, 4:16), strengthening (Acts 14:22, 15:32, 41, 16:5, 18:23; 1 Thess. All aspects of the church’s educational mission em- 3:2), edifying (2 Cor. 10:8, 13:10; 1 Thess. 5:11), explaining power participation in the saving work of Jesus Christ. (ActsCopy 28:23), and reasoning (Acts 17:2, 18:19). All of these The educational mission of the church is not a call to educational efforts aim at achieving Paul’s stated out- theorize about Jesus, but rather to reproduce Him in our come, elucidated above. Paul edified his churches through lives and in the world. protracted and apparently systematic instruction in the scriptures. As Bowers notes, “there is no restless rushing References and Resources from one new opening to another but rather a methodical Dykstra, Craig. 1999. Growing in the Life of Faith: Education progress concerned both with initiating work in new areas and Christian Practices. Louisville, KY: Geneva Press. and at the same time with bringing the emergent groups in Smith, David I., and K. A. James. 2011. Teaching and Christian those areas to stable maturity” (1987, 190–191). Practices: Reshaping Faith and Learning. Grand Rapids, MI: One of the unique features of Paul’s educational strate- Eerdmans. gies was to employ coworkers (sunergoi) like Barnabas, —Beverly C. Johnson-Miller Titus, Timothy, and a host of about 100 (Ellis 1978). Paul practiced what he taught about the function of the body of Christ, which required the participation of all of its Educational Mission, Paul’s Concept of members in order for growth to occur (Eph. 4:16). Bow- ers observes that not only are the team members involved Like any good educator, Paul clearly understood his in- in evangelizing and establishing churches, but “as it is vis- structional goal, stated in several places but all governed ible in his letters is a church-nurturing team” (1987, 190). by his use of the tel-word group. Paul used the Greek Paul’s teaching reflected his theology of mutuality and word teleiosContributor in its various manifestations (telos, teleo, reciprocity, depicted in his fondness for “one another” teleiōs, teleiaō, holoteleis) to great effect to set out what (allēlōn) imperatives (Rom. 12:10, 16, 15:7). Romans he understood as the outcome of Christian teaching and 1:11–12 typifies Paul’s instructional approach, which instruction. Bible translators gloss the word teleios as modern educators might describe as collaborative. Bor- “mature,” “complete,” or “perfect.” Paul mentions this ing, commenting on this passage, suggests that it “rep- targeted outcome in several places (1 Cor. 2:6, 14:20; Phil. resents the genuine mutuality of the teaching ministry 3:12, 15, 4:12; 1 Thess. 5:23). between apostle and church that Paul understands to be However, in Ephesians Paul crystallizes his teaching on inherent in the Body of Christ” (1999, 124). the subject. In Ephesians 4:7–16, Paul sets out the benefits 450 Educational Philosophy

Education and Paul’s Mission Furnish, V. 1961. “Kerygma and didache Reconsidered.” Per- As Thompson argues, “Paul’s major concern is not with kins School of Theology Journal 14: 31–37. numerical growth but with the maturation of the church Thompson, James. 2006. Pastoral Ministry according to Paul: A he planted” (2006, 14) and the “center of Paul’s thought is Biblical Vision. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. a theology of transformation” (19). Paul seeks to facilitate Worley, R. 1967. Preaching and Teaching in the Earliest Church. the spiritual maturity of his churches by the transform- Philadelphia: Westminster Press. ing power of the Spirit (2 Cor. 3:18), operating through —Steven Lowe protracted periods of biblical instruction that he and his coworkers provide. For example, Paul stays in Corinth for 18 months, using the home of Titius Justus as his base Educational Philosophy of operations while “teaching the word of God” (Acts 18:7–11). Education in Paul’s epistles was mission-driven Educational philosophy is an educational expression and served to make possible the continued expansion of of a philosophy or worldview. Education is ultimately the church through evangelism and church planting. Be- rooted in philosophy. Instructional methods are tied to lievers who are growing in their faith sustain the mission theories of learning, but learning theory is a reflection of the church across the generations and across national of philosophical assumptions. Figure E.1 illustrates that and ethnic boundaries. root philosophical assumptions oftenOnly have accompany- ing educational expressions, that is, educational phi- Paul’s Educational Settings losophies. These inform educational theory (which places Paul would always begin his ministry in a new location the philosophy within an actual sociocultural-political in the Jewish synagogue, but would often move from that context, often shaping the ideals of the philosophy) and location after his initial proclamation of the gospel (Acts ultimately shape a curriculum and what teachers and 14:1, 17:1, 18:4, 19). On one occasion he moved to a facil- students experience in the classroom. ity next to the synagogue (Acts 18:7, 19:9), on another occasion he stopped by the riverside (Acts 16:13), in 1. Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, and axi- Athens he met with interested citizens on the Areopagus ology (Acts 17:22ff.), and in Rome he lived under house arrest 2. CopyEducational philosophy: implications of philosophy (Acts 28:16). It is important to note that Paul did not alter 3. Education theory: philosophy in context his teaching strategies based on the context in which he 4. Curriculum and practices: practical expression ministered. We find the same terms used for Paul’s edu- cational strategies (methods) regardless of the setting in What we experience as students in an educational con- which he used them. This means that the bright line that text is the tangible reflection of the educational philoso- Dodd (1964) saw between kerygma and didache fails to phy informing it. Christian educators and education are garner support from a closer examination of the textual inseparable from their philosophical assumptions. Phi- evidence (Worley 1967; Furnish 1961). What is true of losophy is preeminently influential for our educational these terms is true of any of the terms used for Paul’s task, but often remains in the background. educational endeavors. Philosophy and Education References and Resources Educational philosophy not only answers the basic ques- Boring, M. Eugene. 1999. “Paul as Teacher of the Whole tions of philosophy, but translates them into practical Church: Romans as the Model.” Mid-Stream 38: 119–127. reality for the educational setting. These three basic ques- Bowers, P. 1987. “Fulfilling the Gospel: The Scope of the Pau- tions (What is real? What is true? What has worth?) are line Mission.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society no less relevant for educators who are Christian, since 30: 185–198. we too must respond to these primary human inqui- Dodd, C. H. 1964. The Apostolic Preaching and Its Develop- ries. Metaphysic, epistemology, and axiology form the ments. NewContributor York: Harper & Row. philosophical framework with educational implications, Ellis, E. 1978. “Paul and His Co-workers.” In Prophecy and forging educational agendas that reflect those assump- Hermeneutic in Early Christianity, edited by E. Earl Ellis, tions. Table E.1 identifies the main Western educational 876–880. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. philosophies and their basic educational implications.

FIGURE E.1 TABLE E.1 Philosophical Schools ContributorLearners Teachers Curriculum Method Content Educational Process Outcomes Idealism 4image of ideal 4example of values 4reports 4wisdom of ages 4holistic 4grasp ideas • Perennialism 4microcosmic mind and ideas 4dialectic 4symbols, ideas 4absorbing ideas 4better person for society • Essentialism 4mind to be molded 4model of truth 4lecture 4eternal truths 4teacher centered 4whole moral, intellectual, 4purveyor of culture 4discussion 4cultural heritage 4draw out of student spiritual being Proponents: 4contemplation 4classics Plato, Immanuel Kant, Donald Butler, Hermon Horne Realism 4knowledge recipients 4demonstrator 4demonstration 4natural law 4golden mean, 4orderly change • Perennialism 4sense mechanism 4imparts knowledge 4recitation 4natural sciences desirable middle toward perfection of • Essentialism 4passive 4liaison between 4scientific inquiry 4design in nature 4training in reason, understanding • Positivism student and nature 4master facts & rules, conduct 4produce students information adjusted to real world Proponents: 4logic Aristotle, John Locke, Maria Montessori, Jean Rousseau Thomism 4good intellect 4mental disciplinarian 4repetition 4dogma, tradition 4synthesize intellect & 4prepare for life • Neo-Thomism 4deprived will and moral spiritual 4drills 4classics spirit content 4absorb moral, • Manualism 4rational and spiritual leader 4catechism 4discipline behaviors intellectual, and spiritual being 4instrument of God to reason content Proponents: 4soul to be saved through church 4emphasize past Thomas Aquinas, Jacques Maritain, Karl Rahner Pragmatism 4problem solver 4inquiry leader 4projects 4technical 4social experience 4growth is aim • Progressivism 4experiencing 4project director 4groupCopy cooperatives 4science based 4rebuild social order • Experimentalism organism 4facilitator 4problem solving 4social sciences 4tailored to task 4better person for society • Social Reconstructionism 4equal learner 4social learning 4ever changing 4discovery 4reorganize human Proponents: experience John Dewey, William Kilpatrick Existentialism 4essentially good 4sounding board 4experiential 4life 4learner centered 4self fulfillment • Phenomenology 4questioning attitude 4noninterference 4Socratic dialogue 4world beyond 4relational 4whatever happens 4ultimate chooser 4unnecessary 4choice of subject classroom 4self expression 4create personal destiny Proponents: 4absolute freedom matter 4humanities 4arouse personal Kierkegaard, Maxine Green, George 4search for self response Keller, Van Cleve Morris and meaning undetermined Only Postmodernism 4personal awareness 4facilitator 4debate, skeptical 4multicultural 4social reconstruction 4overcome relativism via Proponents: 4challenge paradigms 4deconstructor for the inquiry 4history 4broadening worldview personal determination Henry Giroux, Stanley Aronowitz, 4seeker student 4multicultural 4music 4free the mind from of life Michel Foucault 4challenge status quo perspectives 4literature and any encumbrance social sciences, e.g., politics

Source: Based on Moore (1994) , with Anthony and Benson (2003, 408–409). 452 Educational Program Outcomes

How does Christian education relate to these philoso- these questions are shaped by our current situations, the phies? Some Christian educators choose to simply adopt questions themselves are timeless. an educational philosophy and apply it to the church, The institutional mission provides the core goals and while others choose to selectively engage the philoso- values, serving as a compass indicating who we are, where phies, borrowing from each what is deemed acceptable we are going, and how we will get there. These goals and to the Christian community. The former approach mini- values provide foundational guidelines for all programs. mizes the Christian distinctive of education within the Once these are clearly established and articulated, the church, while the latter preserves the distinction of edu- institution can then move on to determine institutional cation that is Christian while appropriating the best ideas learning outcomes, which are common learning out- of the education community. comes evident in all graduates regardless of which degree or program is completed. It is then at the degree program References and Resources level that the specific learning objectives for individual Anthony, Michael, and Warren Benson. 2011. Exploring the programs are defined. This creates a well-defined link, History and Philosophy of Christian Education. Eugene, OR: ensuring continuity between the institutional mission and Wipf & Stock. program objectives. Degree program objectives should be Estep, James R., Gregg Allison, and Michael Anthony. 2008. A clearly differentiated from other programs offered, writ- Theology for Christian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman ten in clear and measurable terms,Only and aligned with the & Holman. institutional mission. Once the program outcomes are Knight, George R. 2006. Philosophy and Education: An Intro- defined, appropriate student learning outcomes can be duction in Christian Perspective. Berrien Spring, MI: An- assigned to the individual courses that are required in the drews University Press. specific degree program. ———. 2008. Issues and Alternatives in Education. Berrien Too often the course design process begins at the Spring, MI: Andrews University Press. point of selecting course titles and topics, omitting the Murphy, Madonna. 2005. The History and Philosophy of Educa- prior consideration of what should be taught and why. A tion: Voices of Educational Pioneers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: thoughtful and coherent program of Christian education Prentice Hall. provides a cohesive and guiding trajectory for determin- —James Riley Estep, Jr. ing specificCopy educational objectives related to a well-con- ceived curriculum. Each course required in the program should include specific student learning outcomes that Educational Program Outcomes map back to the program objectives and align with spe- cific course assignments. Program outcomes in Christian higher education are Program learning outcomes define what the student closely linked and triangulated with the overall purpose should know or be able to do upon completion of the of higher education, the educational philosophy of degree program. Designated course assignments, capstone the institution, and the specific Christian mission and courses, and student portfolios serve as representative sam- purpose of the institution. While these influences may ples of student learning indicating how well the institution not be readily apparent, these foundational statements is achieving the stated program and institutional learning directly influence the educational aims, goals, and ob- outcomes. Summative direct assessments of student learn- jectives of the program. A well-developed philosophy ing outcomes are determined through faculty evaluation of of Christian higher education addresses fundamental a representative sample of student work. These evaluations questions: What is the aim or purpose of Christian are scored by a rubric designed to measure learning out- higher education? Is the goal personal development, the comes on a programmatic level. Assessment findings are preservation of a Christian culture, or to change soci- then analyzed, summarized, and disseminated to faculty ety according to Christian priorities and values? What and other academic leaders to provide data-driven deci- does the educated Christian person look like? What sions for improvement in regularly scheduled program does she orContributor he experience? What kind of information reviews and curriculum revisions. and experiences are educated Christians exposed to? Should the curriculum offer a broad liberal education References and Resources from a Christian perspective, or should the focus be on Allen, Mary J. 2004. Assessing Academic Programs in Higher specific biblical studies and practical skill development? Education. Bolton, MA: Jossey-Bass. How do people of different ages and stages of life learn Bresciani, Marilee J. 2006. Outcomes-Based Academic and Co- best? Should we focus on the past, the present, or the Curricular Program Review: A Compilation of Institutional future as our learning emphasis? While the answers to Good Practices. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing. Educational Psychology 453

Suskie, Linda. 2009. Assessing Student Learning: a Common chologists attend to both the content taught and the Sense Guide. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. instructional methods used to facilitate learning. Many —Gino Pasquariello notable Greek philosophers documented ideas that still resonate with educators. For example, Aristotle is cred- ited with observing that learning can be facilitated and Educational Psychology retention promoted by the context in which learning takes place. Much later, Jaun Luis Vives (1492–1540) Educational psychology emphasizes systematic attention called upon educators to take contextual features into to ensuring that students learn important information account when making instructional decisions by reflect- that reflects societal values and provides a foundational ing upon what was to be taught, to whom, and where, as understanding for social improvements. Educational well as the individual learning needs and preferences of psychologists Weinstein and Way (2003) suggest that students (Weinstein and Way 2003). In Psychology as Sci- this focus reflects the educational efforts of past elders ence, Johann Herbart (1824) built on the assumptions of who sought to transmit valued knowledge and skills to Vives and outlined five progressive steps for teaching any younger generations. A Judeo-Christian model of this subject that are consistent with lesson planning methods type of systematic instruction is illustrated in the fol- commonly considered to be among the best instructional lowing passage from Deuteronomy 6:1–9, in which the practices today (Marzano 2007;Only Weinstein and Way ancient Hebrew people were preparing to enter into a 2003; Wolfe 1987). new country and to confront challenges that were decid- The mid-20th-century shift in psychology’s con- edly unknown: centration away from individual and private mental processes and toward behaviorism was reflected in edu- Now this is the commandment—the statutes and the cation, along with many other cultural institutions. The ordinances—that the LORD your God charged me to belief that behaviors, not thinking, could be observed teach you to observe in the land that you are about to and measured influenced educational goal-setting, and cross into and occupy, so that you and your children and measurable behavioral objectives became the drivers of your children’s children may fear the LORD your God all the days of your life, and keep all his decrees and his lesson-planning activities. The timely development of commandments that I am commanding you, so that your a Copycognitive psychology provided the discipline with a days may be long. Hear therefore, O Israel, and observe framework for scientifically assessing—if not the con- them diligently, so that it may go well with you, and so tents of the mind itself—artifacts of learning presumed that you may multiply greatly in a land flowing with milk to serve as proxy variables for the mind’s inner learn- and honey, as the LORD, the God of your ancestors, has ing processes. Benjamin Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy of promised you. Hear, O Israel: The LORD is our God, the Objectives Handbook 1: The Cognitive Domain reflects LORD alone. You shall love the LORD your God with all this behavioral-cognitive focus. Various renditions of your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might. Bloom’s taxonomy continue to be widely referenced in Keep these words that I am commanding you today in contemporary educational settings. your heart. Recite them to your children and talk about them when you are at home and when you are away, when Assessment and Evaluation you lie down and when you rise. Bind them as a sign on your hand, fix them as an emblem on your forehead, and An ongoing discussion in education revolves around write them on the doorposts of your house and on your assessment and evaluation. In recent decades, teacher gates. (New Revised Version) preparation and professional development programs have dramatically changed positions, from admonishing Much debate has surrounded questions about exactly teachers not to teach standards or test content explic- what content students should learn and how this mate- itly to a backward design model claiming that teaching rial should be taught, but the goals to preserve important must be carefully aligned with standards-based assess- knowledge, train learners to be guardians of this knowl- ments to result in mastery of the desired content (e.g., edge, andContributor equip these learners to face future challenges Tomlinson and McTighe 2006). An assumption of the endure across generations and cultures. former approach rested on a concern with what students were taught, known as educational inputs. This concern History posited that test items should merely sample the breadth Educational psychology is a division of psychology that of content that students were expected to acquire. Thus, has traditionally emphasized identifying problems in limiting teaching and learning activities to narrowly education and working to create solutions to these attend only to specifically tested material was consid- problems (Weinstein and Way 2003). Educational psy- ered a disservice to students who deserved a full and 454 Educational Psychology comprehensive education. The paradigm shift that has terials for meeting the needs of learners with less secular resulted in the current approach has been a concen- oversight (Col. 3:23). While educators may dramatically tration on what students have learned, or educational differ in their educational philosophies, Christian educa- outcomes, resulting in an assumption that assessments tors generally share an interest in grounding educational should reliably demonstrate what students know and activities in a Christian tradition (Prov. 22:6). Formal can do. Thus, many proponents of the current approach applications of this principle can range from augmenting maintain that it is not actually “teaching toward a spe- existing curricular materials with values-based content cific test that must be considered” (Quinn 2010, xiii). to integrating a specific Christian theoretical perspective On the contrary, the accompanying argument is that “if into every aspect of the teaching and learning experience local, state, and national assessments are aligned with the (e.g., www.biblicalintegration.com). Finally, Christian curriculum—then test scores should be a valid measure- educators, learners, leaders, and families tend to enjoy ment of how students are progressing on mastering the a unifying purpose made possible through shared faith assigned curriculum” (Quinn 2010, xiii). (Eph. 4:1–6). This unity allows for diverse expressions A natural complement to the measurement of student of individual gifts and callings as each person makes mastery is the concurrent assessment of teaching and a uniquely personal contribution and everyone works leadership practices that support this student mastery. together to facilitate the development of each member In response to the U.S. Department of Education’s (1 Cor. 12:12–26; Rom. 12:5–21).Only (U.S.D.O.E.) 2009 initiative Race to the Top Program, an overwhelming majority of U.S. states and territories References and Resources adopted the Common Core State Standards (www.core Bloom, B. S. 1956. Taxonomy of Objectives Handbook 1: The standards.org/) and implemented frameworks for sys- Cognitive Domain. White Plains, NY: Longman. tematically evaluating teacher and school leader per- Cawelti, G. 2006. “The Side Effects of NCLB.” Educational formance effectiveness (e.g., www.marzanoevaluation. Leadership 64 (3): 64–68. com/). Most of these new assessment systems incorpo- Herbart, J. F. 1824. Psychologie als wissenschaft: Neu gegrundet rated highly structured performance reviews, including auf erfahrung, metaphysik und mathematik. Konigsberg: evaluation based on student achievement test scores. A.W. Unzer. While few if any educators could object to the values Marzano,Copy R. J. 2007. The Art and Science of Teaching: A Com- espoused by these improvement programs (i.e., increas- prehensive Framework for Effective Instruction. Alexandria, ing student achievement and promoting highly effective VA: ASCD. teaching and leadership practices), linking these reforms Quinn, G., W. 2010. Improving Test Scores in Five Easy Steps: to the extrinsic motivator of money has disturbed psy- The Silver Bullet. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Edu- chologists and educators alike. Similar to The No Child cation. Left Behind Act of 2001 (U.S.D.O.E. 2002), these newer Ryan, R. M., and K. W. Brown. 2005. “Legislating Competence: initiatives were ostensibly adopted by schools in order to High-stakes Testing Policies and Their Relations with Psy- obtain funding, subsequently rendering them vulnerable chological Theories and Research.” In Handbook of Compe- to potential negative and unintended consequences. For tence and Motivation, edited by A. J. Elliot and C. S. Dweck, example, Ryan and Brown (2005) make a compelling 354–372. New York: Guilford Press. argument that a behavioral model such as high-stakes Tomlinson, C. A., and J. McTighe. 2006. Integrating Differenti- assessments, in which rewards and penalties are designed ated Instruction and Understanding by Design: Connecting to reinforce desired behaviors, should not be linked to Content and Kids. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervi- outcomes. That is, operant conditioning is designed sion and Curriculum Development. to address behaviors over which subjects have control U.S. Department of Education. 2002. The No Child Left Behind rather than outcomes (e.g., test scores) over which sub- Act of 2001. 7 January. Archives of U.S. Department of Educa- jects do not have control. The application of this model tion. http://www2.ed.gov/nclb/overview/intro/execsumm.pdf. has led to allegations of abuse such as cheating and ———. 2009. Race to the Top Program. November. http://www2 manipulatingContributor scores. Even more prevalent are reports of .ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/executive-summary.pdf. widespread stress, demoralization, and attrition among Weinstein, C. E., and P. J. Way. 2003. “Educational Psychol- educators (e.g., Cawelti 2006). ogy.” In Handbook of Psychology: History of Psychology, edited by D. K. Freedheim and I. B. Weiner, 269–277. Hobo- Applications in Christian Educational Contexts ken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Perhaps one of the benefits of working in Christian Wolfe, P. 1987. “What the ‘Seven-Step Lesson Plan’ Isn’t!” Edu- educational contexts is the greater freedom to pursue sin- cational Leadership 44 (5): 70–71. cerely held convictions about the best methods and ma- —Angela L. Watson Eisner, Elliot 455

Egypt and Christian Education role in Christian education. There are many curricula for Sunday schools, high school students, and family educa- Christianity came to Egypt in the first century AD. The tion. There is a highly developed program of Christian Coptic Orthodox Church considers Saint Mark to be its education in the Egyptian churches that would be ben- founder, believing that he first preached the Gospel in Al- eficial to other Arabic-speaking countries in the region. exandria about AD 61.43 Through the Christian school of —Tharwat Wahba Alexandria, Egypt played a leading role from the second through the fifth centuries in developing a Hellenized Christian theology. Egypt also contributed generously Eisner, Elliot to Christendom through its active participation in ecu- menical councils, the founding of monasticism, and the Early Background and Education creation of a vast Christian literature. Elliott Eisner was born in 1933 and grew up in Chicago. The first Protestant church in Egypt was the Presby- His early life and training pointed to a vocation in art. terian Church of Egypt, founded when the American Displaying talent as a child, he was enrolled while in missionaries from the Associate Reformed Presbyterian the third grade in the Art Institute of Chicago. He later Church arrived in 1854.44 By the end of the 19th century, earned a BA in art and education (1954) at Roosevelt missionaries from other Christian denominations also University, Chicago. As a resultOnly of teaching art to inner- began to establish local churches. In addition to the Cop- city youth in Chicago, his interest shifted from art alone tic Orthodox and the Presbyterian churches, there were to art education. He completed an MS in art education the Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, Brethren, Assemblies (1955) from the Illinois Institute of Technology, then of God, and other smaller denominations. an MA and a PhD in education at the University of According to the latest census in 2009, Egypt has a Chicago (1958, 1962). He has served on the education population of about 80 million. However, it is difficult to faculty of Stanford since 1965, ultimately being named find exact numbers about many aspects of its social, eco- the Lee Jacks Professor Emeritus of Education and Pro- nomic, or religious life. The number of Christians in Egypt fessor Emeritus of Art. is particularly difficult to determine.45 Although Christians in Egypt can practice their faith inside the walls of their SignificantCopy Contributions to Christian Education churches, they cannot take it outside. In general, the lack of Although Eisner’s primary field has been art education, religious freedom makes life difficult for Christians. Egyp- he has made significant contributions to education in tian Christians have faced discrimination, marginalization, general through his research and writing in curricu- difficulty in obtaining building permits for new churches, lum studies, educational assessment, and school reform. and difficultly securing fair representation in the govern- Leaning heavily on the aesthetic aspects of reality, Eisner ment, specifically the parliament.46 had developed a unique perspective on education at all Egypt has a number of Christian seminaries: the Cop- levels and applications through the development of new tic Orthodox have six, the Catholics have two, and the educational concepts or modifying existing ones. Of par- Presbyterians have one. There are also several smaller ticular interest to Christian educators are his views on seminaries supported by other denominations. Sunday educational objectives and his concept of the educator as schools, preparatory school meetings, and high school artist. These are applicable to both the formal contexts meetings are among the main Christian educational (i.e., schools) and the informal applications (e.g., parish activities for most of the congregations in the country. ministry) of Christian education. Training centers and conference centers are involved in equipping teachers for Christian education. Educational Objectives The country has a largely oral culture, giving Christian Eisner insisted that education should embody a “diversity satellite channels, cassettes, and other media a leading of outcome” (Eisner 2012, 1). As a result, he proposed three categories of educational outcomes or objectives. 43. C. H. Roberts, Manuscript, Society and Belief in Early Christian The first was instructional objectives and represented Egypt, TheContributor Schweich lectures of the British Academy (London: Oxford University Press, 1977), 49. Eisner’s concession that there was a place for “clearly 44. T. The Wahba, “The Practice of Mission in Egypt: A Historical defined behavioral objectives in a school curriculum” Study of the Integration between the American Mission and the Evangelical (Eisner 1979, 98). However, believing that there are valu- Church of Egypt, 1854–1970” (PhD thesis, Brunel University, UK, 2008), 18–21. able learning activities and experiences for which well- 45. N. L. Bibawi, Mashakil al-Aqbāṭ fī Miṣr wa-ḥululuha [The Problems defined, homogeneous outcomes could not be explicitly of Copts in Egypt and Ways to Solve Them] (Cairo: n.p., 2001), 92. 46. Ibrahim Sacd Al-Den, The Copts of Egypt (London: The Khaldoun defined, Eisner proposed two additional categories: prob- Center for Development Studies, 1996), 22. lem-solving objectives and expressive outcomes. 456 Eisner, Elliot

Problem-solving objectives involve the student for- to fully plan, predict, and evaluate it through a quantita- mulating the solution to a problem that is relevant to the tive, scientific approach alone. Educators must be able field of study. Although the problem is stated in a clear to think and understand beyond numerical descriptions manner with a well-defined set of criteria to indicate the of the phenomenon and appreciate its complexity. Thus, problem is solved, the valid “forms of its solution are educators must be connoisseurs. This involves “that art virtually infinite” (Eisner 1979, 101). Therefore, the exact of perception that makes the appreciation of such com- nature of learning will vary from student to student and plexity possible.” This appreciation is more than merely cannot be specifically defined in a homogeneous man- liking or preferring something, but must include “an ner for all learners. A problem-solving objective is not awareness of its characteristics and qualities” (Eisner a problem that requires the student to apply learning al- 1977, 345). Such appreciation, rather than motivational ready acquired. Rather, it engages students in an activity theories or quantitative results, is what leads experienced that will necessarily lead to new learning. For example, teachers to make judgments and decisions about appro- a class for evangelism might be completely structured priate educational practice in certain situations. around the problem of formulating a strategy for evange- Whereas educational connoisseurship involves ap- lizing a particular geographical and cultural context, with preciation, educational criticism involves disclosure. Al- students free to research various methods on their own though the critic must also be a connoisseur, the inverse and develop their own unique solutions. is not necessarily true. The critic’sOnly task is to provide a Expressive outcomes begin with the activity itself rather rich narrative of what happens in an educational activ- than the intended objectives or a particular problem to be ity in order to influence the perception of the activity by solved. Eisner suggested that “expressive outcomes are others. The educational critic adds to the understanding the consequences of curriculum activities that are inten- of a given educational activity by providing “metaphor tionally planned to provide a fertile field for personal pur- and analogy, suggestion and implication” to the quan- posing and experiencing” (1979, 103). Field trips are the titative, behavioral description of the standard scientific most common example of activities employed to achieve and technical approaches to educational evaluation. “The expressive outcomes in the various modes of education. language of criticism, indeed its success as criticism, is An activity that the teacher knows has valuable potential measured by the brightness of its illumination. The task for the learners is planned, but what each participant will of theCopy critic is to help us to see” (Eisner 1976, 139). learn cannot be determined beforehand with certainty or specificity. Eisner admitted that “appraisals we make as a Notable Publications result of activities we engage in are clearly complex and One of Eisner’s most influential works is The Educational highly rational, employing a wide range of criteria that, Imagination (1979, 1985, 1984), a treatment of his funda- although not explicit, operate in out judgments” (1979, mental ideas concerning curriculum design and evalua- 104). However, he argued that this does not make them tion. The Art of Educational Evaluation (1985) is a collec- any less valid as planned educational experiences. tion of essays that summarize his early writings and ideas. Eisner’s views on qualitative research applied to education Educator as Artist are summarized in The Enlightened Eye (1991). His con- Eisner insisted that education should not “be controlled tributions to school reform are best summarized in The by a set of laws that can be transformed into a prescrip- Kind of Schools We Need (1998) as well as in Reimagining tion or recipe for teaching.” On the contrary, he proposed Schools: The Selected Works of Elliot W. Eisner (2012). that “teaching is an activity that requires artistry, school- ing itself is a cultural artifact, and education is a process References and Resources whose features may differ from individual to individual, Eisner, Elliot W. 1976. “Educational Connoisseurship and context to context” (Eisner 1976, 139). There is more to Criticism: Their Form and Functions in Educational Evalua- the educational process than can simply be measured. tion.” Journal of Aesthetic Education 10: 135–150. Thus, the teacher is as much an artist as a technician, and ———. 1977. “On the Uses of Educational Connoisseurship and education Contributormust be evaluated as much by judgment as by Criticism for Evaluating Classroom Life.” Teachers College quantitative measurements. To implement this thinking, Record 78 (3): 345–358. Eisner proposed that educators must utilize an artistic ———. 1979. The Educational Imagination: On the Design and paradigm as well as a scientific one. To establish the para- Evaluation of School Programs. New York: Macmillan. digm, Eisner recommended the functions of educational ———. 1985. The Art of Educational Evaluation: A Personal connoisseurship and educational criticism. View. London: Falmer Press. Because the practice of education in its myriad contexts ———. 1991. The Enlightened Eye: Qualitative Inquiry and the is extremely complex and complicated, one cannot hope Enhancement of Educational Practice. New York: Macmillan. Emerging Adult Learning 457

———. 1998. The Kind of Schools We Need: Personal Essays, from the late teens through the twenties,”47 this stage Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. of the life cycle is a function of a particular cultural and ———. 2012. Reimagining Schools: The Selected Works of Elliot economic context: W. Eisner. Kindle ed. World Library of Educationalists. New York: Taylor and Francis. What is mainly required for emerging adulthood to exist —John Lillis is a relatively high median age of entering marriage and parenthood, in the late twenties or beyond. Postponing marriage and parenthood until the late twenties allows El Salvador and Christian education the late teens and most of the twenties to be a time of exploration and instability, a self-focused age, and an age of possibilities.48 Christian education in El Salvador takes many forms. Many churches use Sunday school. Churches also use Christian Smith further expands the criteria for the various models of semiformal discipleship, like the G-12 social construction of emerging adulthood. He notes movement and the Navigators 2:7 program. that the global economy has undermined stable lifelong Churches and denominations have also founded a careers, requiring that young people “approach their multitude of Christian day schools. A few of the better- careers with a variety of skills, maximal flexibility and known evangelical day schools in the capital are the Liceo readiness to retool as needed.”Only49 The financial support Cristiano Salvadoreño, the Colegio Nazaret, the Liceo required to fund both the expenses of necessary extended Cristiano Reverendo Juan Bueno, and the Colegio Josué. education and the time free from full-time work to take The churches often use Bible institutes to train work- classes is made possible by parents, whose “resources ers for Christian ministry. This has sometimes taken the help to subsidize the freedom that emerging adults enjoy form of a central Bible institute in the capital (San Salva- to take a good, long time before settling down into full dor), with extensions in various other cities. adulthood, culturally defined as the end of schooling, a On the university level, two prominent religious uni- stable career job, financial independence, and new family versities in the capital represent the Catholic and evan- formation.”50 Emerging adulthood exists in the countries gelical sectors of Christianity in El Salvador. of the “postindustrialized” West, particularly the United The Central American University José Simeón Cañas States,Copy Japan, and South Korea, and among the middle (www.uca.edu.sv) was founded in 1965 by the Society of and upper socioeconomic classes.51 Jesus to provide an alternative to the National Univer- sity. Born in the context of social inequality and human Religious Beliefs and Practice in Emerging Adulthood rights abuses at the hands of military dictatorships, the Religious belief and practice within this age cohort is university’s focus has tended to be the transformation of eclectic, and the importance of any religious faith, let Salvadoran society. During the Civil War (1979–1992), alone Christian faith, is highly individualized.52 Snell and members of the Salvadoran armed forces massacred six Denton categorize the religious beliefs of the emerging Jesuit faculty members. adult period as “moralistic therapeutic deism,”53 which is The Evangelical University (www.uees.edu.sv) was best summarized by the following beliefs: founded in 1981 as a nondenominational evangelical university. It offers degrees in medicine, odontology, 1. A god exists who created and ordered the world and social science, agriculture, engineering, and architec- watches over human life on earth. ture. Its focus is to train professionals to personally inculcate biblical ethics, on the one hand, and to excel 47. Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from in their field, on the other. the Late Teens through the Twenties (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). —Francis Schmidt 48. Ibid., 21. 49. Christian Smith with Patricia Snell, Souls in Transition: the Religious and Spiritual Lives of Emerging Adults (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 5. Emerging Adult Learning 50. Ibid. Contributor 51. Arnett, Emerging Adulthood, 21. 52. Jeffrey Jenson Arnett and Lene Arnett Jensen, “A Congregation of Context and Characteristics of Emerging Adulthood One: Individualized Religious Beliefs among Emerging Adults,” Journal of Emerging adulthood is a new classification in Western Adolescent Research (September 2002): 271–301. 53. Christian Smith and Melinda Lundquist Denton, Soul Searching: developmental psychology and religious education. The Spiritual and Religious Life of American Teenagers (New York: Oxford Defined by Jeffery Jensen Arnett as “the winding road University Press, 2005). 458 Emory University

2. God wants people to be good, nice, and fair to each Arnett, J. J., and L. A. Jensen. 2002. “A Congregation of One: other, as taught in the Bible and by most world Individualized Religious Beliefs among Emerging Adults.” religions. Journal of Adolescent Research (September): 48–72. 3. The central goal of life is to be happy and to feel Barry, C. Mc., and L. J. Nelson. 2005. “The Role of Reli- good about oneself. gion in the Transition to Adulthood for Young Emerging 4. God does not need to be particularly involved in Adults.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 34 (3): 245–255. one’s life except when God is needed to resolve a doi:10.1007/s10964-005-4308-1. problem. Dean, K. C. 2010. Almost Christian: What the Faith of Our 5. Good people go to heaven when they die.54 Teenagers Is Telling the American Church. New York: Oxford University Press. Implications for Christian Education Edgell, P. 2009. “Faith and Spirituality among Emerging Emerging adults present a challenge to the mainline Adults.” Changing Sea Project. http://www.changingsea.net/ Christian churches. This is a cohort in transition, both essays/Edgell1.pdf. geographically and spiritually. Moving between the Fowler, J. W. 2001. “Faith Developmental Theory and the Post- parental home and faith community to institutions of modern Challenges.” International Journal for the Psychology higher learning, places of temporary work, and living of Religion 11 (3): 159–172. situations with love interests or friends leaves emerging Hackett, C. 2009. “Emerging Adult ParticipationOnly in Congrega- adults little opportunity or desire to belong to larger tions.” Changing Sea Project. http://www.changingsea.net/ communities, including Christian churches. Spiritually, essays/Hackett.pdf. emerging adult beliefs are highly individualized and do Martinson, R. 2002. “Spiritual but Not Religious: Reaching an not require a community of faith for their spiritual prac- Invisible Generation.” Currents in Theology and Mission 29 tice. Most Christian education for those in the eighteen (5): 326–340. to late twenties age group has traditionally focused on Parks, S. D. 2001. Big Questions, Worthy Dreams: Mentoring reengaging young adults who have formed a new family Young Adults in Their Search for Meaning, Purpose and of their own, and who return to the Christian church Faith. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. seeking baptism/dedication and a good Christian edu- Smith, C., and M. Denton. 2005. Soul Searching: The Spiritual cation for their children. With people postponing mar- andCopy Religious Life of American Teenagers . New York: Oxford riage and children until the late twenties or early thir- University Press. ties, Christian churches will have to find new ways of Smith, C., with P. Snell. 2009. Souls in Transition: The Religious engaging this age cohort. Emerging adults are not likely and Spiritual Lives of Emerging Adults. New York: Oxford to seek out the Christian church as a place of mean- University Press. ingful engagement or spiritual practice. Furthermore, —Elizabeth Leggett Windsor Christian teaching and practice and the living of a faith- ful, committed life of discipleship are not compatible with moralistic therapeutic deism. Christian educators Emory University and pastors must reach out to emerging adults in the places where they gather, not just the local coffee bar or Emory University began in 1836 as a small liberal arts Internet café, but through available social media. En- college, founded in Oxford, Georgia, by the North Geor- gaging emerging adults individually or in small groups, gia Conference of The Methodist Episcopal Church. In through thoughtful dialogue, participation in mission keeping with the Methodist values of the founders, gam- work, and an invitation to share in the more experien- bling and alcohol were strictly forbidden. Students often tial practices of Christian worship (chanting, labyrinth worked for the campus or local citizens. walking, etc.) may be the best way to evangelize and Emory was named after John Emory (1789–1835), a teach this cohort about the Christian life. prominent Methodist bishop who had recently died in a carriage accident. Along with Emory College in Georgia, ReferencesContributor and Resources Emory and Henry College in Virginia was also founded Arnett, J. J. 2004. Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road in honor of the deceased bishop. Ignatius Few (1789– from the Late Teens through the Twenties. New York: Oxford 1845) served as the first president of Emory. University Press. In 1844, Emory at Oxford was the focus of interna- tional controversy. James Andrews, a prominent Meth- odist bishop and a member of the Emory College Board 54. Kenda Creasy Dean, Almost Christian: What the Faith of Our Chil- dren Is Telling the American Church (New York: Oxford University Press, of Trustees, owned a young slave-girl named Kitty. At 2010), 14. the General Conference of the Methodist Church in Emory University 459

1844, northern Methodist bishops passed an ordinance versity maintained Emory College as the core of a great decreeing that no Methodist bishop could own a slave, institution. It also added professional/graduate pro- effectively stripping Andrews of his clerical credentials. grams, making Emory a real university. The Theology In response, bishops of the southern states formed a School and Medical Schools were the two major graduate block supporting Andrews. The split thereby effectively schools at that time. The Law School also was quickly created a new Methodist Church, The Methodist Episco- established on the new Atlanta campus. Over the coming pal Church, South. The two Churches—The Methodist years, many schools were added to the university struc- Episcopal Church and The Methodist Episcopal Church, ture, including the Nursing School, the School of Public South—reunited in 1939. Health, and the Business School. In the 20th century, Atlanta’s Emory University be- The War and Its Aftermath came a prominent fixture of the Georgia and southern Emory College closed during the Civil War (1861–1865). scene. As well as producing some of the leading Meth- Confederate authorities converted several of its buildings odists in North America, it also educated some of the into hospitals. During the fighting around Atlanta, many leading figures in the Atlanta community, especially in wounded were brought to Oxford by the train routes that business and medicine. passed through Covington, Georgia. Following the con- clusion of the war, classes renewed at Emory. On Thanks- The 1960s and Beyond Only giving Day in 1880, Emory President Atticus G. Haygood During the 1960s, controversy erupted on the Atlanta (1839–96) gave his famous “New South” speech in the campus when a faculty member, Thomas Althizer (b. sanctuary at Old Church in Oxford. Borrowing a phrase 1927), penned a number of works seemingly to imply from journalist Henry Grady’s phraseology, Haygood’s that “God is dead.” Many prominent Methodists, includ- call for reconciliation and rebuilding inspired many in ing bishops associated with the Emory Board of Trustees, those years when Georgia was still war-torn. called for the removal of Dr. Althizer from his position. The Georgia Institute of Technology also has Emory In the face of strong ecclesiastical opposition, Emory offi- connections. In 1888, Emory President Isaac Hopkins cials supported Althizer. The decision is often celebrated (1841–1914) left Emory to begin a new school more ori- as a defining moment in Emory’s history, as a time when ented toward technology. A position was offered to him EmoryCopy showed its strong support for academic freedom, as the first president of The Georgia Institute of Technol- despite much bad publicity. ogy, which he accepted. In 1979, a gift from noted Coca-Cola magnate Robert The last years of the 19th century saw continued Woodruff greatly benefited Emory. Woodruff gave $105 growth and success for Emory. Following the depar- million to Emory in one fell swoop. The gift transformed ture of Isaac Hopkins, the presidency passed to Warren Emory, with many new buildings and programming fol- Candler, a prominent Georgia Methodist. Warren was lowing in its wake. The major gift enabled Emory to enter elected bishop in 1898. Warren’s brother, Asa Candler into the ranks of North America’s most endowed and (1851–1929), was a key founder of the Atlanta-based selective universities. beverage company Coca-Cola. Both staunch Methodists, Emory is one of the relatively few (if not the only) the Candler brothers established a strong bond between highly selective private research universities that main- Emory and Coca-Cola. tains an active church association. Two of Emory’s schools, the Candler School of Theology and Oxford Col- The Move to Atlanta lege of Emory University, continue to receive annual sup- In 1919, Emory moved to Atlanta, a result of the “loss” port for the Methodist church. This support particularly of Vanderbilt to the Methodist Church. In 1914, the helps with scholarships and financial aid. Tennessee Supreme Court declared that the Vanderbilt Board of Trustees should be free from any church influ- References and Resources ence or control. Methodist officials decided to regroup. Bullock, Henry. 1936. A History of Emory University. Nashville, They foundedContributor both Southern Methodist University in TN: Parthenon Press. Texas and Emory University. Both schools were meant Hauk, Gary. 1999. A Legacy of Heart and Mind: Emory Univer- to be “flagship” Methodist schools in the southern states sity since 1836. Atlanta, GA: Bookhouse Group, Inc and The Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Emory’s Moon, Joseph. 2003. An Uncommon Place: Oxford College charter dates to this 1919 period. of Emory University, 1914–2000. Atlanta, GA: Bookhouse The move to Atlanta was facilitated by Asa Candler’s Group. donation of $1 million of Coke money. The new uni- —David Leinweber 460 Emotional Development

Emotional Development Explanatory theoretical models of emotion have been and continue to be subject to the changing worldviews At the heart of the study of emotion lies the assumption of the academy. Baumeister observed that it is quite that in order to understand people, one must necessar- “possible to trace the history of psychology as a series ily attempt to understand emotion. Much debate has of pendulum swings” (2010, 7). Early studies focused ensued, however, regarding the relationships among on motivation (i.e., “hot” processes), until it fell out perceptions of emotion-inducing events, cognitions, and of fashion in favor of cognition (i.e., “cold” processes) physiological effects (Mandler 2003). (2010, 7). Dai and Sternberg (2004) acknowledge this trend and note the current tendency to reintegrate these History components into understandings of human function- This field has historically been plagued by a lack of ing that recognize the complementary roles of emotion, agreement about what exactly constitutes emotion. For motivation, and cognition. In many ways, then, Aristo- example, Aristotle referred to feelings as an integral tle’s early model continues to provide utility value for part of human functioning. His discussion of the phe- promoting understandings of emotion and its relation- nomenological process of feeling included cognitive, ship to human development. affective, and motivational components, establishing an early link between emotion and cognition (Corrigan Applications in Christian EducationalOnly Contexts 2008; Mandler 2003). The Stoics further developed the Insofar as emotion (i.e., feeling) can be linked to cogni- connection between thinking and feeling, suggesting tion (i.e., thinking) and motivation (i.e., will or volition), that emotions and cognitions were reflective of ethical Christian educators play an important role in fostering judgments, which should be aligned with subsequent healthy emotional development (Prov. 26:12). Both for- behaviors. St. Augustine extended this line of thought mally and informally, instructional modeling and cur- in theorizing that emotions could be shared with God, riculum can be specifically designed to promote a trans- joining the individual with the divine (Corrigan 2008). formed alignment among the will, the mind, and the heart Thomas Aquinas later asserted that emotions could be to find harmonious expression in right living. Students distinguished from thinking, that passions could threaten should be exposed to multiple and repeated opportunities logical thought, and that feelings should thus be carefully to exploreCopy their own thoughts and feelings and to reflect controlled (2008; Mandler 2003). Descartes proposed a upon how these strengthen or undermine their volition to dualism between the mind and body, claiming that emo- live a godly life. The range of appropriate learning activi- tion was a physical phenomenon that originated in the ties is varied. Socratic dialogues can open learners’ minds brain’s response to stimulation (Corrigan 2008). Much to critically evaluate their emotions and how these affect subsequent study led to multiple arguments over the their beliefs. Discussion of actual case studies and ficti- accuracy of the James-Lange theory, which posited that tious moral dilemmas (e.g., Kohlberg 1970) can provide emotion was merely the cognitive interpretation of the students with opportunities to test the veracity of their physical response to a stimulus, leading to many varied own emotions and cognitions in light of problems both trajectories of model development (Mandler 2003). real and imagined and within the context of both bibli- cal and social views on these problems. Journaling and Contemporary Views other open-ended forms of free expression allow learn- Corrigan (2008) describes a long-standing connection ers to process the contents of their evolving feelings and between emotion and religion. The nature of this rela- thoughts as they develop, test, and refine their perspective tionship, however, has often been shrouded in mystery. and responses. Finally, explicit instruction in the scrip- Great variation in emotional experience has led to more ture can provide an invaluable tool for framing emotions, questions than answers regarding the nature of emotion. thoughts, and behaviors within a biblical worldview, even Despite the long-standing work of multiple theorists, for those living in a postmodern secular culture. Learners questions continue to persist about whether emotion is should be taught that Christians do not have to be subject a superficialContributor reaction to pain or pleasure or evidence of to obeying unregenerated desires (Rom. 6:12–13), because some deeper activity of the mind or soul. Corrigan fur- they have been given grace to supersede base worldly re- ther points out that the study of emotion, which typically sponses by the transformative power of Christ (Rom. 12:2; involves investigation into “an assortment of often deeply Phil. 2:13; Titus 2:11–13). held beliefs about self and culture, has been prone to polarization” (2008, 8). Moreover, the ephemeral nature References and Resources of emotion has made narrowing its scope for systematic Baumeister, R. F. 2010. “Social Psychologists and Thinking study a daunting prospect. about People.” In Advanced Social Psychology: The State of Empirical Theology and Christian Education 461

the Science, edited by R. F. Baumeister and E. J. Finkel, 5–24. biblical studies will engage with a range of skills shared New York: Oxford University Press. with scholars studying other kinds of texts. Corrigan, J. 2008. “Introduction: The Study of Religion and Inside a second laboratory (systematic theology), seri- Emotion.” In The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emo- ous work is exploring, refining, debating, and applying tion, edited by J. Corrigan, 3–13. New York: Oxford Uni- the doctrines of the church. Collectively, systematic versity Press. theologians will engage with a range of skills shared with Dai, D. Y., and R. J. Sternberg. 2004. “Beyond Cognitivism: To- scholars studying fields like history and philosophy. ward an Integrated Understanding of Intellectual Function- Inside a third laboratory (empirical theology), serious ing and Development.” In Motivation, Emotion, and Cogni- work is examining a host of materials relevant to the con- tion: Integrative Perspectives on Intellectual Functioning and temporary experience of God. One project may be focus- Development, edited by D. Y. Dai and R. J. Sternberg, 3–38. ing on making sense of thousands of accounts of religious Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. experience, like those collected by Sir Alister Hardy. A Kohlberg, L. K. 1970. “Education for Justice: A Modern State- second project may be analyzing 30,000 questionnaires, ment of the Platonic View.” In Five Lectures on Moral Educa- like those recently completed by Anglican churchgoers tion, edited by N. Sizer and T. Sizer, 57–60. Cambridge, MA: in the diocese of Southwark in South London. A third Harvard University Press. project may be testing a psychological theory about the Mandler, G. 2003. “Emotion.” In Handbook of Psychology: hypothesized linkages betweenOnly glossolalia and psycho- History of Psychology, edited by D. K. Freedheim and I. B. logical well-being. A fourth may be studying the way in Weiner, 157–175. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. which secular pilgrims are stirred by the architecture and —Angela L. Watson the atmosphere of medieval cathedrals. A fifth project may be examining the identity, growth, and challenges experienced by black-led, black-majority churches in Empirical Theology and London. A sixth may be analyzing the impact of church Christian Education schools on students’ attitudes toward religious diversity. Looking inside the empirical theology laboratory, the Theology is generally understood to be the study of onlooker may be surprised to see theologians so commit- God, in the same way as geology is understood to be the tedCopy to serious empirical enquiry. Such theologians are, study of rocks or as psychology is understood to be the however, responding to the invitation issued by Jesus study of the human mind. The study of God, however, himself. When people asked Jesus to teach them what life is somewhat more problematic than the study of rocks is like when God reigns, Jesus invited them to become or the study of the human mind. The subject matter is empirical scientists: to observe the sower, to note the more elusive, more difficult to get hold of, impossible to patterns they observed, and to work out the implications. put under the microscope or to wire up to electrodes. In In order to do their work to the highest professional practice, theologians need to focus their discipline on the standards, empirical theologians are drawing on the human experience of God. best theories and methods developed by colleagues in Disciplines in the university tend to be characterized the social sciences. In this sense, there is good potential by their distinctive methods of enquiry, by their distinc- for conversation and collaboration involving empirical tive academic tools. The geologist may carry around a theologians, sociologists of religion, and psychologists of hammer and the psychologist may use psychometric religion. At the same time, however, empirical theology tests or projective pictures to get to the mind of the is different from the social scientific study of religion client, but theologians tend to borrow many of their precisely because it is rooted in the place where the other tools from other disciplines, depending on precisely disciplines of theology are practiced and taken seriously. which aspect of the human experience of God they are Empirical theologians shape their research question and examining. Imagine three groups of theologians work- interpret their empirical research findings in a theologi- ing in adjacent laboratories in the university, pursuing cally informed environment. three veryContributor different trades: biblical studies, systematic The development and recognition of empirical theol- theology, and empirical theology. What in practice are ogy as a proper branch of theology owes much to the pio- they doing? neering insights and initiations of Professor Hans van der Inside one laboratory (biblical studies), serious work Ven in Nijmegen (see van der Ven 1998). The discipline is exploring the text of scripture, perhaps one group was stimulated by the launch of Journal of Empirical The- working on the Old Testament and another on the New ology in 1987 and consolidated by the inauguration of the Testament, or perhaps with greater specialization, one International Society for Empirical Research in Theology group on the Gospels and another on Paul. Collectively, in 2000. Alongside the journal, the series of books result- 462 Encouragement as Christian Practice ing from the conferences of the society provide further erally means “a calling to one’s aid to give comfort and insight into the variety of research now being developed counsel.”57 Just as the Holy Spirit comes alongside to by empirical theology to further the agenda of Christian teach and comfort believers in this journey of life, teach- education (see Francis, Robbins, and Astley 2009; Francis ers have the high calling to follow the same pattern. A and Ziebertz 2011). teacher who determines to allow her or his role to fully integrate encouragement believes that not only is the References and Resources content important, but also that the manner in which Francis, L. J., M. Robbins, and J. Astley, eds. 2009. Empirical he or she delivers the content will lead the student to Theology in Texts and Tables: Qualitative, Quantitative and be confident. Comparative Perspectives. Leiden: Brill. The classroom provides ample opportunities for Francis, L. J., and H-G. Ziebertz, eds. 2011. The Public Signifi- teachers to engage in corporate (many students) as cance of Religion. Leiden: Brill. well as individual encouragement. Christian educators Van der Ven, J. A. 1998. Education for Reflective Ministry. who have a commitment to sharing both truth and Louvain: Peeters. encouragement demonstrate the following attributes —Leslie J. Francis and patterns. Learning often is replacing old patterns of understanding with new ones. Thus the learner often feels exposed. A teacher who integratesOnly encouragement Encouragement as Christian Practice in her or his teaching patterns communicates a full ac- ceptance of the learner while going through the process. The story of Barnabas, found in the book of Acts, is a Embarrassment caused by the awkward nature of learn- strong foundation for anyone in the field of Christian ing should never be met with impatience, sarcasm, or education. When this first-century believer sold all his indifference from a Christian educator. Acceptance of goods and gave the money to the apostles in Jerusalem, the learner allows him or her to be confident to con- they began to call him son of encouragement. Later, Acts tinue to practice what needs to be done until the change 13:1 designates him as a teacher and a prophet, but he did is fully met. “Practice makes perfect” is not a true idiom; not exchange one designation for another, but by God’s it should say “Perfect practice makes perfect.” Whatever enablement allowed this platform of teaching and sharing the foundation,Copy the idea is that learning takes time and God’s truth to magnify his gift of encouragement. involves making mistakes. One of the greatest fears We have all experienced some level of fear when learn- hindering people from learning is the fear of rejection. ing something new. As Christian educators, we can fully Christian educators who demonstrate an unconditional integrate the exhortation found in 1 Thessalonians 5:11, love for students allow this fear to be mitigated. “Encourage one another and build each other up,” into Teachers who integrate encouragement in their teach- our pattern of teaching. One of the distinctive marks of ing patterns listen twice as much as they talk. It is a Christian education is that teachers love their students common belief that this is why God made us with two as well as the content area they teach. In Encouragement, ears and one mouth. Given the demands of teaching, The Key to Caring, the authors boil down the practice of it is not uncommon for teachers to give quick advice, encouragement to “words that encourage are motivated whether in responding to a question or even anticipating by the speaker’s love and directed toward the hearer’s a question. James 1:19 exhorts us to be “quick to listen, fear.”55 This is not a de-emphasis on speaking words of slow to speak and slow to become angry.” Stephen Covey instruction or truth, but an equal emphasis on speaking describes one of the habits of highly effective people as truth in a manner that helps the listener gain confidence. the ability to “seek first to understand and then to be This is not dissimilar to the role the Holy Spirit plays understood.”58 Untimely advice communicates a disre- in the lives of each believer. Encourage literally means spect of the person. As teachers, we should be focusing on “to cause another to be confident.”56 It is not hard to see understanding why the student is having a problem, not that the word itself has two parts, the prefix en (typically trying to solve the problem. The collaboration is messier meaning “toContributor cause”) and the root word courage (the and the latter is quicker, and thus solving problems is opposite of fear). Scripture is clear that the Holy Spirit often more tempting. The time spent in listening leads to is our paraclete. The word encouragement used in the equipping the student, whereas a quick response can lead Bible stems from the Greek word paraklesis, which lit- 57. “Encourage,” in Vine’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and 55. Larry J. Crabb and Dan B. Allender, Encouragement: The Key to Car- New Testament Words, electronic ed., ed. W. E. Vine, Merrill F. Unger, and ing (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1984), 81. William White (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1996). 56. “Encourage,” in The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, vol. 1, 58. Stephen R. Covey, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People: Pow- ed. Lesley Brown (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). erful Lessons of Personal Change (New York, Simon & Schuster, 1989), 235. England/Wales and Christian Education 463 to a feeling of being criticized. Teachers who integrate beliefs of the tradition are examined, taken apart, cri- encouragement in their teaching patterns will purposely tiqued, and reassembled in new ways. allow their words to be reflective, clarifying, exploring, Placing formative education and critical education and personal to their students, thus becoming a type of alongside each other raises a further question about Barnabas to the students in this generation, knowing it is whether enculturation (with an assumed concomitant in and through sound teaching and encouragement that acculturation) holds enough criticality within itself to the Holy Spirit enables us to fulfill His work and purpose. be transforming and liberating on its own terms. Astley (1994, 92) disagrees with Thomas Groome on this point, References and Resources claiming that formative education can provide the basis Brown, Lesley, ed. 1993. The New Shorter Oxford English Dic- for a self-generated critique from within the tradition. It is tionary. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press. at this point that we introduce a further concept, this time Covey, Stephen. R. 1989. The Seven Habits of Highly Effective a theological (or even missiological) one. Inculturation, it People: Powerful Lessons of Personal Change. New York: is claimed (Rooms 2008), is placed between enculturation Simon and Schuster. and acculturation as a theological concept rooted in the Crabb, Larry J., and Dan B. Allender. 1984. Encouragement: incarnation. Inculturation is then understood as a double The Key to Caring. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. movement of both indwelling the tradition or faith and at Vine, W. E., Merrill F. Unger, and William White. 1996. Vine’s the same time in a dynamic wayOnly transforming it. Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Since the incarnation of God in Christ in Christian Words. Electronic ed. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. theology leads inexorably and inevitably to the ultimate —David Nemitz transformative moment for both the world and God in the cross and resurrection, it would seem reasonable to assume that Christian faith does indeed contain within Enculturation itself the ability to both hold on to cherished belief tradi- tions as well as let go of others and discover new ones. Enculturation is a sociological concept akin to social- Several approaches to contextual theology (Bevans 2002) ization, a process that can be seen in children who are and theological reflection (Graham, Walton, and Ward brought up within a culture to observe and obey its 2005)Copy allow authentic inculturation to take place, and cultural and social norms. The subject finds herself as of each has an implicit pedagogy contained within it. the culture when the process is complete. There is a con- comitant sociological term that needs to be understood References and Resources alongside enculturation. Acculturation is the process of Astley, Jeff. 1994. The Philosophy of Christian Religious Educa- two cultures meeting, by which both are changed. How- tion. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. ever, acculturation is often governed by power dynamics, Bevans, Stephen B. 2002. Models of Contextual Theology. Rev. in that the more powerful culture determines the path of and exp. ed. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. cultural change. Graham, Elaine, Heather Walton, and Frances Ward. 2005. In terms of education, and more specifically Christian Theological Reflection: Methods. London: SCM. education, it is a simple step to understand encultura- Rooms, Nigel J. 2008. “Towards a Pedagogy for Inculturation: tion as the process by which children or non-Christian Adult Theological Education and the Interaction of Chris- adults are inducted into the faith through some form of tian Faith and Culture.” ThD thesis, University of Birming- catechesis. In this sense, enculturation is clearly related ham. http://etheses.bham.ac.uk/135/. to the concept of formation in the Christian tradition. —Nigel Rooms However, adults and even children (e.g., if they are edu- cated in secular schools) do not arrive at their catechesis as tabula rasa, and therefore we could expect a proper England/Wales and Christian Education acculturation to occur alongside their enculturation. How farContributor the acculturation reaches back to critique the Until the introduction of the National Curriculum in 1988, tradition that is being taught is a key question in this under the terms of the Education Reform Act, religious field, relating to important issues of ideological closure, education was the only subject mandated by law to be indoctrination, and syncretism. A further complication taught in all schools in England and Wales. As early as is that formative Christian education as both encultura- the 1870 Elementary Education Act, a clause provided for tion and acculturation is often contrasted as a polarity compulsory “Religious instruction” in schools; however, a on a continuum with critical education (Astley 1994, further clause, the “Cowper-Temple” clause, named after 79), defined as when the assumptions, values, and the member of Parliament who introduced it, required 464 English Puritanism and Separatism that such instruction in “county schools,” as opposed to Non-Statutory National Framework (2004) which, while church schools, was to be nondenominational. The 1944 retaining the emphasis on the study of six major faiths, Education Act to some extent maintained earlier distinc- with the study of Christianity at each key stage, also tions and legislated for “county schools” and “voluntary “recommends” the study of a range of further traditions schools,” that is, those schools originally established and such as the Baha’i faith, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism and funded, for the most part, by the churches through their “secular philosophies” such as humanism. These recom- various societies. Voluntary schools were further distin- mendations have proved controversial, and a number of guished into aided, controlled, and special agreement prominent religious educators have argued that secular schools (with regard to religious education, nothing turns worldviews should not be included within religious on the distinction between aided and special agreement education and that a study of so many religions results in schools). Under the terms of the act, “religious instruc- truncated teaching and superficial learning. tion” and religious observance in the form of “collective The common legislative character that English and worship” (which according to the act together comprise Welsh religious education had previously shared was religious education) were confirmed as compulsory ele- ended in 2008 with the publication of the Welsh As- ments of the school curriculum of all county and voluntary sembly government’s National Exemplar Framework for schools. The act further specified that religious instruction Religious Education. The Welsh Framework enumer- in both county and voluntary controlled schools was to be ates three core skills for RE: engagingOnly with fundamental according to an “Agreed Syllabus.” By contrast, voluntary questions; exploring religious beliefs, teachings, and aided schools (chiefly Roman Catholic schools and some practice(s); and expressing personal responses. Anglican schools) could provide religious instruction in a Since the events of 11 September 2001 and the London form appropriate to the beliefs and interests of the found- bombings of 7 July 2007, increasingly critical questions ing church or body; in other words, they could provide have been asked about the capability of current British denominational religious education. models of nonconfessional, multifaith religious educa- The religious provisions of the 1944 Education Act re- tion to challenge religious prejudice and intolerance and mained in effect until the Education Reform Act of 1988. to contribute to effecting positive relationships between Section 8.3 of that act stated that any new agreed syllabus different communities and individuals with different com- for religious education “shall reflect the fact that the reli- mitments.Copy Critics also claim that historically, multifaith gious traditions in Great Britain are in the main Christian religious education in England and Wales has failed to ad- whilst taking account of the teaching and practices of the dress the issue of religious truth claims and to attend to the other principal religions represented in Great Britain.” controversial aspects of religion. Many religious educators Some influential commentators, including John Hull, are content to provide stereotypical, positive interpreta- maintain that no agreed syllabus in England and Wales tions of the different religions, predicated on the assump- meets the requirements of the law if it does not include tion that they all find their origin in a common spiritual study of the teachings and practices of Judaism, Islam, source. Such views are regarded by others as hopelessly Hinduism, Sikhism, and Buddhism, alongside Christian- naive and inadequate to the aim of equipping pupils to live ity. The act legislated for “multifaith” religious education respectfully and responsibly amid religious diversity. in England and Wales, and this in fact gave legal support to what was already practiced in most schools. In 1971, References and Resources Schools Council Working Paper 36 had drawn attention Barnes, L. P. 2009. Religious Education: Taking Religious Differ- to the increasingly secular nature of British society and ence Seriously. Impact no. 17. London: Philosophy of Educa- endorsed a phenomenological, “nondogmatic,” mul- tion Society of Great Britain. tifaith approach to religious education as opposed to ———. 2014. Religion, Education and Diversity: Developing a a confessional approach, and in the following decades New Model of Religious Education. London: Routledge. Christian nurture came to be completely abandoned in Copley, T. 2008. Teaching Religion: Sixty Years of Religious county schools, regarded not only as inappropriate but Education in England and Wales. Exeter, UK: University of as indoctrinatoryContributor and incompatible with the principles Exeter Press. of liberal education. In 1994, the School Curriculum and —L. Philip Barnes Assessment Authority (SCAA) published two “model” syllabuses to exemplify good practice. It also became common in the 1990s to speak about “learning about reli- English Puritanism and Separatism gion” and “learning from religion” and to regard these as two distinctive assessment objectives. The SCAA model English Puritanism was a movement that arose within the syllabuses have subsequently been superseded by a single Church of England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth English Puritanism and Separatism 465

I (1558–1603). The Puritans emerged in response to the the first Baptist congregations in 1609 at Amsterdam continued acceptance within the Church of England of and in 1612 at London. an episcopal structure and high church worship. The ma- Puritans in England continued to exist peacefully jority of Puritans tended to remain within the Church of within the Church of England even after the disappoint- England with the hope of encouraging further reform of ment they experienced at Hampton Court. Their position the church from within. Other Puritans, known as Sepa- became more precarious during the reign of Charles I. ratists, determined to break with the Church of England Charles’s appointment of the strict Arminian William and form congregations organized according to their Laud as archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 resulted in interpretation of scripture. The Puritan commitment to attempts by Laud to suppress Puritanism. Puritan op- education produced many enduring works of theology position to Charles and Laud led them to back the Par- and Reformed political theory. They founded or heav- liamentary cause when the English Civil Wars began in ily influenced several important academic institutions, 1641/1642. Puritan interests provided strong support including Harvard University and Cambridge University. for the Parliamentary forces. The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell (1653–1658) marked the zenith of Puritan Historical Overview political influence in England. With his death in 1658 English Puritanism derived much of its early strength and the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, Puritans from the faculty and students at Cambridge University. once again suffered legal restrictionsOnly along with other Thomas Cartwright, one of the early leaders of the Puri- “nonconformists.” The Puritan story merges with that of tan movement, was appointed Lady Margaret Professor English nonconformity at this point. They experienced a of Divinity at Cambridge, only to have his appointment lifting of most legal restrictions on their worship services revoked in 1571 by Archbishop and Vice-Chancellor in 1689, but nonconformists of all varieties continued to John Whitgift. A number of Cambridge luminaries, such live under restrictions to their autonomy in the realms of as Laurence Chaderton and William Perkins, were de- education and public service. voted to Puritan ideals of church order and worship. A number of future English Separatists, among them Fran- Influence on Christian Education cis Johnson and John Smyth, also studied or taught at The intellectual legacy left by the Puritans is significant. Cambridge during the 1580s and 1590s. A strong Puritan It Copyis a reflection of the strong Puritan and Separatist presence continued to influence Cambridge throughout emphasis on the reading of scripture and the preaching the period of the Civil Wars and Interregnum. of the Gospel. In terms of academic administration, Pu- Separatist Puritanism originated with the exodus of ritan leaders were among the most respected college and Robert Browne’s congregation in 1582. Browne’s trea- university leaders of their day. Puritans such as Laurence tise, A Reformation without Tarrying for Anie (1582), Chaderton served in a variety of administrative capacities advanced the view that Puritans should separate and at Cambridge during the late 16th century. Walter Trav- form their own congregations if the Established Church ers served as provost of Trinity College, Dublin, from refused to compromise. Browne moved with his con- 1594 to 1598, and John Owen served as vice-chancellor gregation to the Netherlands, but eventually returned of Oxford University from 1651 to 1658. to the Church of England. Later Separatist leaders like Puritan leaders naturally excelled in the study of the Henry Barrow and John Greenwood refused to ac- scripture and the writing of theological treatises, many knowledge Browne’s influence on them, because they of which have been acknowledged as classic statements were disgusted by his betrayal. Barrow and Greenwood of Reformed theology. Puritans, both of the Presbyterian gathered a congregation in London, which settled in and Independent persuasions, were instrumental in the Amsterdam under the leadership of Francis Johnson in crafting of the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646), the late 1580s and early 1590s. A second wave of Eng- The Westminster Longer Catechism (1647), and the lish Separatists migrated to Amsterdam after James I Westminster Shorter Catechism (1647). William Perkin’s refused to make any strong concessions to Puritanism at A Golden Chaine (1591) is still considered a classic work the HamptonContributor Court Conference of 1604. The Separatists of early Puritan theology. The English Separatists con- split into a number of different factions during the first tributed their own confession of faith in the form of The two decades of the 17th century. One group of English True Confession (1596 and 1604). John Owen produced Separatists from Scrooby, led by John Robinson, settled classic theological treatises such as The Death of Death in Leiden. They became the nucleus of the Separatist in the Death of Christ (1647) and Of the Mortification of group that crossed the Atlantic in 1620 and settled at Sin in Believers (1656). The prolific Richard Baxter wrote Plymouth, Massachusetts. Another faction of this same a number of surviving sermons and treatises, including group, led by John Smyth and Thomas Helwys, formed The Saints’ Everlasting Rest (1650). 466 Enlightenment Philosophy and Theology

Puritan intellectual influence also shaped the literature Foundations of the Enlightenment of 17th-century England. Foremost among Puritan men The theological and philosophical currents of the En- of letters in the 17th century was John Milton, whose lightenment should not be separated from the scientific Paradise Lost (1667) and Paradise Regained (1671) pre- and political advances that both supported and were sented the story of humanity’s fall and redemption in supported by developments in philosophy and theology. epic poetry. Milton also wrote Areopagacita (1644), an Thinkers like René Descartes (1596–1650) applied the ra- impassioned plea for freedom of expression in speech tionalist approach of scientific thinkers such as Nicolaus and print. The Baptist John Bunyan incorporated Puri- Copernicus (1473–1543) and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) tan themes in his allegory The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678). to the question of how knowledge and understanding are Bunyan’s exploration of the Christian’s journey through gained. Descartes’s writings on philosophical methodol- this life to the celestial city was teeming with Puritan ogy and epistemology helped define the mode of thinking theological concepts and metaphors. adopted by many Enlightenment rationalists. Among The North American Puritans’ commitment to educa- his noted works are Discourse on the Method (1637), in tion was evident in their creation of catechetical state- which he introduced the world to his famous dictum ments for their congregations and founding of important Cogito ergo sum. Descartes sought to establish the exis- centers for education. Puritans and their Congregation- tence of God and the immortality of the soul using only alist heirs were instrumental in the founding of Harvard evidence that could be establishedOnly through reason in his University (1634–1646) and Yale University (1701) in the Meditations on First Philosophy (1641). American colonies. The Puritan influence on American Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) began to dialogue with the culture was profound and placed New England at the writings of Descartes and constructed his own philosophy, forefront of American cultural influence well into the which had a tremendous impact on the science of biblical mid-19th century. interpretation. Spinoza was of Portuguese and Jewish de- scent. He lived for all 44 of his years in the Dutch Republic. References and Resources Spinoza was expelled from his synagogue at the age of 23, Bremer, Francis J. 2009. Puritanism: A Very Short Introduction. possibly for questioning orthodox interpretations of the Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hebrew scripture. Spinoza’s most influential publication, ———. 2012. First Founders: American Puritans and Puritanism EthicsCopy (1677), was published shortly after his death. He en- in an Atlantic World. Durham: University of New Hamp- gaged in literary dialogue with a number of philosophers, shire Press. including Descartes, in Ethics. He proposed a concept of Culpepper, Scott. 2011. Francis Johnson and the English Sepa- God in which God was closely identfied with the universe ratist Influence. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. itself, leading some readers to accuse him of Pantheism. Haller, William. 1947. The Rise of Puritanism. New York: Co- Religious views were deeply impacted by the new lumbia University Press. philosophical currents. John Locke’s views on anthropol- Lake, Peter. 2004. Moderate Puritans and the Elizabethan ogy marked an important departure from the Reformed Church. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. theology of his youth. Locke argued in An Essay Concern- White, B. R. 1971. The English Separatist Tradition from the ing Human Understanding (1690) that human beings Marian Martyrs to the Pilgrim Fathers. Oxford, UK: Oxford are born as a tabula rasa or blank slate. He believed that University Press. human failings were the result of poor nurture and ex- —Scott Culpepper perience rather than an inherent sinful nature. His more optimistic appraisal of human nature tended to guide Enlightenment thought in the 18th century. Locke also Enlightenment Philosophy and Theology discussed the veracity of scripture and the miraculous in The Reasonableness of Christianity (1696). While at- The Enlightenment is generally identified as the period tempting to defend Christianity properly interpreted as an from roughly 1600 to 1800, during which major develop- eminently reasonable belief system, Locke raised serious ments in scientific,Contributor philosophical, political, and religious questions about the veracity of the supernatural aspects of culture transformed European society. The emergence of scripture. He also championed the cause of religious tol- Enlightenment thought is often connected to the rise of eration in A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689). Though modernity and the general acceptance of scientific ratio- the religious settlement in England after the Glorious nalism as the primary means of understanding the world. Revolution of 1688 did not live up to Locke’s ideal, he pro- Enlightenment thinkers were often willing to discard tra- posed in his Letter the vision of a society in which people ditional beliefs and practices in light of insights gleaned were free to practice their faith without legal coercion or from the use of their rational faculties. penalty. Locke’s political views grew organically from his Enlightenment Philosophy and Theology 467 fundamental belief that human beings were capable of If Voltaire could be considered the father of the French making sound choices, and that governments were tasked Enlightenment, Denis Diderot (1713–1784) was its most with the responsibility of protecting their goods and au- gifted promoter and chronicler. Diderot is best known tonomy. He provided classic statements of the imperative for his editorship of the Encyclopédie (1751–1772), a for governments to protect life, liberty, and property in 28-volume compendium of Enlightenment thought that Two Treatises of Government (1689). included contributions from the most influential think- ers in 18th-century Europe. Jean Le Rond d’Alembert Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment Philosophy assisted Diderot in the arduous task of compiling and and Theology editing the Encyclopédie. Diderot struggled to complete Francois Marie Arouet (1694–1778) captured the imagi- the work under threat from ecclesiastical and political nation of European thinkers and became the witty voice authorities, who saw the collection as a bastion for their of the 18th-century Enlightenment as “M. de Voltaire.” political opponents to air subversive views. Like Voltaire, Voltaire was not of noble birth, but aspired to join those Diderot was hostile to traditional religion. He originally ranks. An altercation with a nobleman resulted in his embraced Deism, but he ultimately became an atheist by being exiled to England, which inspired him to write the late 1840s. Philosophical Letters or Letters on the English Nation The Scottish scholar David Hume (1711–1776) repre- (1733–1734). Voltaire expressed his admiration for Eng- sented for many the apex of skepticalOnly empiricism. Hume lish advances in the sciences, philosophy, politics, and explored the development of religion from ancient poly- religious toleration. He desired to see a similar situation theism to 18th-century forms of popular religion in The in his native France. Voltaire produced works of litera- Natural History of Religion (1757). His method of identi- ture in a variety of genres, including poetry, drama, his- fying natural rather than supernatural causes for religious tory, satire, literary essays, political theory, and works of developments cemented his place in the minds of many philosophy. He used the philosophical tale as one method readers as an irreligious and possibly atheistic thinker. of relaying a philosophical argument, by contextualizing Hume also contributed the comprehensive History of it in a fictional tale. Despite his achievements in such a England (1754–1761), which challenged many of the nar- wide array of literary styles, Candide (1759) or L’Optisme rowly political and partisan methods of writing history is often considered his most enduring work. This short thatCopy had dominated the scholarship of recent years. philosophical tale offered a scathing satirical critique of The work of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) focused on the philosophical optimism espoused by Gottfried Wil- critiquing the weaknesses of empiricism and rationalism helm Leibniz. Le Siècle de Louis XIV (1751) was his most by arguing that experience and emotional perception significant contribution to historical studies. Voltaire shaped reality alongside human reason. The Critique of helped to shape historiography and historical method- Pure Reason (1781) and the Critique of Practical Reason ologies through works such as “Essay on the Customs (1788) were among his classic statements of this per- and on the Spirit of the Nations” (1756), in which he spective. Kant also provided an interesting analysis of emphasized the importance of studying all aspects of a the nature of enlightenment in Beantwortung der Frage: society in the pursuit of historical awareness. Was ist Aufklärung? or Answering the Question of What Voltaire embodied several intellectual tendencies Is Enlightenment (1784). In this essay, Kant described that became typical of the 18th-century Enlightenment. enlightenment as the human emergence from a self- Among them was a critical distrust of organized religion imposed immaturity. He believed humans must discover and its dogmas. Voltaire pursued his early education at the courage to use their minds and dare to be free. He the College Louis-le-Grand in Paris under the tutelage of prescribed a political structure that allows humans the Jesuit instructors. These early experiences did not predis- freedom to explore intellectual and practical questions pose him to support the church, nor did his later clashes freely in order to facilitate enlightenment. Kant adopted with ecclesiastical censorship. Voltaire was a Deist who a sort of progressive view of religion that recognized the believed that the existence of God alone could be demon- validity of faith while arguing that the church of the pres- strated Contributorrationally. He supported religious toleration and ent age has the right and responsibility to grow beyond rejected the factual veracity of much of the Bible. In The the creeds and theological formulations of the past. He Sermon of Fifty (1752), Voltaire proposed the adoption believed devotion to these forms could become another of a simple faith that recognized the existence of God variety of self-imposed immaturity. and common brotherhood of his creatures, but rejected all dogmas of specific Christian or Jewish sects. Thomas The Legacy of the Enlightenment Paine (1737–1809) argued for a Deism similar to Vol- The legacy of Enlightenment philosophy was extensive, taire’s in The Age of Reason (1794). touching every area of human experience from scientific 468 Environmental Ethics theory and political life to theology. The creative tension nificant biblical and theological reflection has yielded between rationalist and empiricist schools of thought several principles that lie at the foundation of a Christian produced a culture of curiosity in which humans believed environmental ethic: God is knowable in and through that God had endowed them with the tools to compre- creation; creation is christologically centered; creation hend the nature of reality. While this belief could lead to a should be treated with care and reverence; and creation deification of reason and experience as ways of knowing, is itself the object of redemption. Education of Christians it also liberated thinkers to explore realms of knowledge through institutions of higher education and local par- that had previously been strictly controlled by traditional ishes is a significant element of the church’s response to authorities. This opening of inquiry has shaped the na- environmental degradation. ture of knowledge acquisition and educational philoso- phy since the Enlightenment, particularly in the West. Environmental Ethics in Christian Higher Education Broadly, environmental ethics in Christian higher educa- References and Resources tion is evidenced in curricular programs, institutional Furbank, P. N. 2011. Diderot: A Critical Biography. London: initiatives, and extracurricular student activism. Renewal, Faber and Faber. a Christian creation care student network (www.renew Gay, Peter. 1995. The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Pa- ingcreation.org), surveyed 60 schools in the United States ganism. New York: W. W. Norton. and Canada to measure environmentalOnly sustainability ef- ———. 1996. The Enlightenment: The Science of Freedom. New forts at these institutions in terms of institutional initia- York: W. W. Norton. tives and academic offerings. Fifty-four schools surveyed Israel, Jonathan I. 2002. Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy offered academic courses related to environmental stud- and the Making of Modernity, 1650–1750. Oxford: Oxford ies, 41 offered academic majors, 37 offered academic University Press. minors, and 34 offered research or internship opportuni- ———. 2009. Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, ties (frequently in conjunction with such organizations and the Emancipation of Man, 1670–1752. Oxford: Oxford as Au Sable in the United States, Costa Rica, and India, University Press. and the Creation Care Study Program in Belize and New ———. 2011. Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolu- Zealand). Virtually all of the institutions in the Renewal tion, and Human Rights, 1750–1790. Oxford: Oxford Uni- surveyCopy modeled environmental sustainability in some versity Press. institutional program, such as chapel services, business Nadler, Steven. 2011. A Book Forged in Hell: Spinoza’s Scandal- and facility operations, and/or student organizations. A ous Treatise and the Birth of the Secular Age. Princeton, NJ: recent effort called the Green Seminary Initiative (www Princeton University Press. .greenseminaries.org) seeks to create a network through Pearson, Roger. 2005. Voltaire Almighty: A Life Lived in Pursuit which seminaries can share resources, stories, and sup- of Freedom. London: Bloomsbury Publishers. port in helping seminaries become examples of environ- Porter, Roy. 2001. The Creation of the Modern World: The mental sustainability in their operations as well as in their Untold Story of the British Enlightenment. New York: W. W. training of students to bring a creation care emphasis Norton. into their practices of parish ministry. ———. 2001. The Enlightenment. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave College students are often involved in extracurricular Macmillan. student activism. In addition to student organizations on —Scott Culpepper campuses, groups such as Renewal, mentioned above, and Young Evangelicals for Climate Action (www.yec action.org) engage students in efforts of national and Environmental Ethics international scope.

With the publication in 1967 of his seminal article, “The Environmental Ethics in Christian Education Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis,” historian Lynn Education in environmental ethics in local parishes is White Jr. Contributoreffectively enlisted Christianity, albeit largely provided in two major areas: curriculum and liturgical reluctantly, into assessing its role in the causes and so- resources. In addition to curriculum resources produced lutions of environmental degradation. While White’s by denominations, several organizations provide such re- article has been subsequently engaged by various Chris- sources for the church at large. Examples include Web of tian voices for its shortcomings and lack of nuance, it Creation’s (www.webofcreation.org) Green Congregation has functioned as an effective catalyst for Christians Program, which includes a congregational training man- to address how they are to respond to the destruction ual in addition to curriculum resources; the Evangelical of a world they hold to have been created by God. Sig- Environmental Network (www.creationcare.org), which Ephesus, School of 469 produces a blog, podcasts, and curriculum for congrega- (modern-day Turkey) until the fourth century. It had a tions; the National Association of Evangelicals, which has significant reputation in ancient Christianity as a center produced a “conversation piece” addressing Christian of theological instruction. Asia Minor was in fact the hub response to environmental degradation; and the National of the Gentile church in the first and second centuries. Council of Churches, which has launched an eco-justice The conversion of Ephesus is described in the Acts of the program with resources for local parish education (www Apostles (chapter 19), undertaken c. AD 55 by St. Paul .nccecojustice.org). Green Faith (www.greenfaith.org) is himself, who delivered daily lectures at the house of the an interfaith organization that provides resources for con- rhetorician Tyrannus and stayed as long as three years gregations of diverse religious backgrounds. in this city. Acts also notes that the Hellenistic preacher Several denominations provide local parishes with li- Apollos, well-known for his theological acumen, taught turgical resources. A noteworthy example is the practice in this city (18:24–25). A canonical letter by St. Paul ad- among Eastern Orthodox communions of offering prayers dressed to Ephesus survives (although modern critical for the protection and preservation of creation on 1 Sep- scholarship has expressed doubt both about its author- tember each year, the beginning of the new ecclesiastical ship and its recipients), which focuses extensively on year. This observation is accompanied by an encyclical preaching and catechesis (4:11–13, 6:4), and Paul’s letter letter written by the Ecumenical Patriarch emphasizing the to Timothy implies that Paul left this favored protégé in Christian duty to care for God’s creation. There are also Ephesus, giving him extensive Onlyinstructions on preaching ecumenical resources available. An example is the volume and teaching (1 Tim. 4:6, 13, 5:17; 2 Tim. 2:2, 3:15–4:5). by Norman Habel, David Rhoads, and H. Paul Santmire, A very early tradition has St. John the Apostle living and The Season of Creation (2011), which suggests setting aside teaching in Ephesus, and a much later tradition (with four weeks in the liturgical calendar (the authors recom- very little historical foundation) has the Virgin Mary mend September) to place a special focus on the care of residing there as well. St. Ignatius of Antioch (d. AD 107) creation. Resources are provided for each of the three years also addressed a letter to the Christians of this city, warn- in the Revised Common Lectionary. ing against heterodox teaching there. While these references indicate that Ephesus was a References and Resources bustling center of Christian faith and instruction, little Boorse, Dorothy. 2011. Loving the Least of These: Addressing a evidenceCopy survives for an organized school per se. Yet Changing Environment. New York: National Association of there must have been many pagan teachers of philosophy Evangelicals. in Ephesus, for numerous grammarians, poets, and phi- Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew. 2012. On Earth as in losophers emerged from this city in the fourth century, Heaven: Ecological Vision and Initiatives of the Ecumenical and archaeological digs have uncovered at least a medical Patriarch Bartholomew. Edited by John Chryssavgis. New school. St. Justin Martyr (c. AD 100–165) implies that he York: Fordham Press. received a philosophical education in Ephesus in the sec- Habel, Norman, David Rhoads, and H. Paul Santmire. 2011. ond century (Dialogue with Trypho, 2–8), and sometime The Season of Creation: A Preaching Commentary. Minne- later the pagan emperor Julian recruited from Ephesus apolis, MN: Fortress Press. his own philosophical tutor, Maximus of Ephesus (310– Lamp, Jeffrey S. 2011. “Environmental Ethics.” In Encyclopedia 372). After his conversion to Christianity, Justin seems to of Christian Civilization, edited by George Kurian, 2:836– have continued his philosophical activity in Ephesus, for 838. Oxford: Blackwell. the Dialogue with Trypho seems to be set in that city; yet John Paul II. 1990. Peace with God the Creator, Peace with All of Justin very soon departed for Rome, and no other histori- Creation. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. cal reference to a school in Ephesus exists. Any form of Renewal. [2011]. “Green Awakenings Report 2011.” http:// Christian instruction given in Ephesus would presum- renewingcreation.org/wp-content/uploads/GreenAwaken ably have followed the pattern of the school Justin later ingsTwo.pdf. established in Rome: a synthesis of the best insights of White, Lynn, Jr. 1967. “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Hellenistic philosophy with the truths of biblical revela- Crisis.”Contributor Science 155 (10 March): 1203–1207. tion. In any case, the erection of the imperial capital in —Jeffrey S. Lamp nearby Constantinople in the fourth century, soon after- ward raised to the level of a patriarchate, seems to have overshadowed the church of Ephesus. Later, in AD 431, Ephesus, School of an ecumenical council of bishops was held in Ephesus to resolve the Nestorian controversy, as was the so-called The city of Ephesus, founded in the 11th century BC, Robber Council in 449; yet this site seems to have been served as a capital of the Roman province of Asia chosen for its political importance and geographical 470 Episcopal Church Christian Education convenience (as a major port city) rather than any par- youth was the curriculum prepared for use in closely ticular role in the controversy itself. The seventh and graded church schools. Begun in 1955, the last revision eighth centuries saw the eclipse of Christianity in Asia appeared in 1969, when the courses for K–8 had been Minor due to the incursions of Islam. revised twice, with nursery and grades 9 and 10 having been revised once. References and Resources As financial resources for Christian education began Archambault, G. 1909. Justin, Dialogue avec Tryphon. Text to be withdrawn after 1967, issues and questions with grec, traduction française, introduction, notes et index. 2 vols. implications for Christian education were beginning to Paris: Nabu Press. surface, leading to a resolution in 1985 from the 68th Foss, Clive. 1979. Ephesus after Antiquity: A Late Antique, General Convention calling for the appointment of a task Byzantine and Turkish City. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge force to “study the history and present state of Christian University Press. education and recommend actions to strengthen the Janin, R. 1963. “Éphèse.” In Dictionnaire d’histoire et de géogra- Church’s educational ministry.” This pattern repeated phie ecclésiastiques, edited by R. Aubert and E. van Cauwen- itself numerous times in subsequent General Conven- bergh, 15:554–561. Paris: Letouzey et Ane. tions, with task forces created for studies and national Oster, Richard E. 1987. Bibliography of Ancient Ephesus. education staff positions eliminated, including funding Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. for national initiatives, reverting Onlyback to local and dioc- Quasten, Johannes. 1950. Patrology. Vol. 1. Westminster, MD: esan initiatives. Christian Classics. Called to Teach and Learn was published by DFMS in —Jamie Blosser and Jeremy P. Sienkiewicz 1994 following the work of one such task force. A seminal document, it articulated the understanding of Christian education as primarily Sunday school and Bible study to Episcopal Church Christian Education Christian formation as catechesis, the ancient model of formation in which the church seeks to equip the whole The Episcopal Church is rooted in a history of prepar- person for his or her life in Christ. It called the church to ing individuals for proclaiming the Gospel locally and focus beyond the imparting of knowledge in particular internationally since it was established in 1789 as an discreteCopy subjects to look holistically at how all ages are American denomination. The creation of the Domestic equipped to be followers of Christ. Within this perspec- and Foreign Missionary Society in 1835 had led to the tive, education remains a major and critical piece of establishment of a board of missions and then, later in the formation, but not its sole component. However, many century, the General Board of Religious Education and continue to prefer “Christian education” to uphold the Joint Commission on Social Service. In 1919, the General importance of the pedagogical dimension of learning. Convention directed the presiding bishop and council Christian education in the Episcopal Church has to administer and carry on the missionary, education, flourished best at the grassroots level, with locally cre- and social work of the church, building on the corporate ated programs bubbling up to national popularity. The model of business that much of America was following. first lectionary-based curriculum, Living the Good News, In 1934, the Forward movement was inaugurated to was created by a partnership of the Episcopal Diocese of stimulate the spiritual life of the church. It proposed a Colorado and the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Colo- disciple’s rule of life: Turn—Follow—Learn—Pray— rado in the early 1980s. Other models include Godly Play, Serve—Worship—Share. It continues to publish devo- a Montessori approach of catechesis for children devel- tional and educational booklets. The Church Hymnal oped by Jerome Berryman in 1990 (Houston, Texas); Society (today Church Publishing Incorporated) was the Journey to Adulthood youth program by David established to publish liturgical resources for the church. Crean and Amanda Hughes (Durham, North Carolina, The Church’s Teaching series, six basic volumes, each in 1993); and Education for Ministry (EfM), a four-year with one or more guides for leaders of adult group dis- course of theological education and reflection for the cussions onContributor topics regarding scripture, church history, laity on the local level, developed and administered by worship, and mission were published by Seabury Press the School of Theology at the University of the South, from 1949 to 1958, emphasizing adult education as well Sewanee, since 1975. as classes for parents and godparents. The Seabury Series In 1997, The Children’s Charter for the Church was was the only curriculum ever produced under a national developed by a grassroots movement of educators who church mandate. At the time it was the most professional, wanted to highlight the recognition of children as full skillfully designed Christian education curriculum. The members of the church. It reflected a deep commitment major emphasis of this “new program” for children and to include children and youth in the life of the church, Epistemology, Modern 471 recognizing the ministry of, by, and for children. Its aim Christian Formation in the Episcopal Church 1967–2008.” was to help churches to affirm the practice of integrat- Report to Executive Council from “Proclaiming Education ing the lives of children into the church and to integrate for All”—PEALL—Task Force as presented for the General the church into the lives of the children. This reflected a Convention, NewYork. commitment to Christian formation as a cradle-to-grave Pritchard, Robert. 2003. A History of the Episcopal Church. 2nd enterprise involving both lifelong and daylong learning, ed. Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Publishing. which continues today. Sibley, Lois, ed. 1994. Called to Teach and Learn: A Catecheti- At the 76th General Convention (2009), the Charter cal Guide for the Episcopal Church. New York: The Domestic for Lifelong Christian Formation was adopted as a model and Foreign Missionary Society. for education for all. It defined lifelong Christian forma- Webber, Christopher L. 1999. Welcome to the Episcopal Church: tion in the Episcopal Church as growth in the knowl- An Introduction to Its History, Faith, and Worship. Harris- edge, service, and love of God as followers of Christ that burg, PA: Morehouse Publishing. is informed by scripture, tradition, and reason. It in- —Sharon Ely Pearson volves a prayerful life of worship, continuous learning, intentional outreach, advocacy, and service. The study of scripture, mindful of the context of our societies and Epistemology, Modern cultures, calls Episcopalians to seek truth anew while re- Only maining fully present in the community of faith. It calls Modern epistemology is the formal study of the nature the church to develop new learning experiences and and structure of knowledge (episteme) as it took shape in equip disciples for life in a world of secular challenges European and North American academia during and fol- while carefully listening for the words of modern sages lowing the Enlightenment. It is frequently characterized who embody the teachings of Christ. Lifelong Christian by a concern for the universal justification and verifica- formation in the Episcopal Church is a journey with tion of all knowledge, seeking the sources of authentic Christ, in Christ, and to Christ. knowledge, defending knowledge against skepticism, Today, Christian education is seen as part of a ho- etc. Many such explorations assume a certain degree of listic view of Christian formation, centered in baptism optimism in believing that trustworthy knowledge can and shaped by the Holy Eucharist. Whether in a class- beCopy acquired by individual persons, via operative reason, room setting, intergenerational gathering, or worship, observation, or some other means. Perhaps epitomized the themes of gathering, story, prayer, sharing, and going by the scientific method, modern epistemology can also out form the basis of education. Each congregation dis- describe some contemporaneous and often reactionary cerns what curricula and program best suits its context movements to analytical approaches. Such assumptions and need for educating all ages, with the baptismal cov- about human knowledge continued to be prevalent in enant as a model for learning and living out one’s faith in Western philosophies as late as the mid-20th century, daily life. Education for all ages is grounded in scripture, particularly in Great Britain and the United States. Today tradition, and reason. these are heavily criticized, although their effects on Western societies continue to be widely felt. References and Resources Developing out of the “epistemological crisis” (Dupré Bernardin, J. B. 1983. An Introduction to the Episcopal Church. 1993) in late medieval Europe—precipitated by Renais- Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Publishing. sance humanism, the scientific revolution’s challenge to The Charter for Lifelong Christian Formation. 2009. http:// the Catholic Church, the Protestant Reformation, etc.— www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution the origins of modern epistemology are often traced back .pl?resolution=2009-A082. to René Descartes. As these social upheavals had begun A Children’s Charter for the Church. 1997. http://www to cast doubt on the former protectorates of knowl- .episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl?reso edge—that is, church and state—his Meditations and lution=1997-B005. Discourse on Method sought to demonstrate the triumph Hunter, ContributorCarman St. J. 1987. Christian Education in the Episco- of individual human reason over tradition as the new pal Church 1940s to 1970s. New York: The Episcopal Church source of human certainty. His famous aphorism cogito Center. ergo sum (“I think, therefore I am”) can be considered a Gillespie, Joanna B. 1987. “What We Taught: Christian Educa- summary statement for several of modern epistemology’s tion in the American Episcopal Church, 1920–1980.” Angli- central features: Trustworthy knowledge must be built can and Episcopal History LVI (March): 376–402. upon what is indubitable (often called foundationalism); Pearson, Sharon Ely, ed. 2006. “Lessons, Legacies, and Lifelines: knowing must be radically separated from “being” (via a The Past, Present, and Future of Theological Education & mind-body dualism); and the individual self is capable 472 Epistemology, Modern of discovering the foundation of knowledge (a cogni- irrefutable notions that could withstand the refutations tive individualism). Descartes, along with Leibniz and of skeptics and could be taught in other contexts while Spinoza, were rationalists who sought to establish the maintaining their veracity. mind’s reasoning, in its capacity to consider abstractions Kant’s division between scientific and ethical knowl- and systems, as the source of trustworthy knowledge a edge encouraged many churches to adopt liberal edu- priori (i.e., independent of experience). Prominent sci- cational approaches (e.g., Bushnell), which emphasized entists of the day, such as Bacon and Newton, as well as the moral transformation of society without impeding the later philosophers Locke, Berkeley, and Hume, were science’s epistemological territory. Religious education in contrast empiricists. That is, while they likewise valued (beginning with Coe) represented an important synthesis individual human reason, they instead prioritized knowl- in the United States of liberal pedagogy and theology with edge obtained from experience (i.e., a posteriori) and pragmatist concerns. In other settings, a biblical version were skeptical of claims about innately existing ideas. The of foundationalism and an emphasis on the individual’s impasse between these two approaches remained until capacity to ascertain truth became defining features Kant attempted a synthesis, in which both empirical and of American fundamentalism. Its proponents (Hodge, rational capacities worked together to ascertain knowl- Strong, and others), in contrast to liberals, saw them- edge. His resulting system defended the view that ideas selves as epistemological rivals to science. The influence are “self-enclosed” (Taylor 1995) phenomena, which also of Edwards, who distinguished “notional”Only and “spiritual” accurately represented things-in-the-world (noumena). knowing and prioritized the latter, contributed to the It also completed what Descartes had begun—by reduc- evangelical emphases of knowledge as conversion and ing the focus of philosophy to epistemology, by making truth as individually ascertainable revelation. Sunday epistemology the foundation of all knowledge including schools in the United States throughout the 19th and the sciences, and by severing knowledge from ethical and 20th centuries powerfully disseminated both this revival- religious concerns. ism and the notion of an irrefutable Bible as the basis of Beginning in the 19th century, the idealism of G. Christian faith and knowing. Catholic school systems, at W. Hegel and others attempted to reunite the division least formally, remained largely untouched by modern between mind and reality. Reacting against Cartesian- epistemology prior to Vatican II (1962–1965). Afterward, Kantian foundationalism and dualism, idealists sought CatholicCopy educators experimented with various combi- to recover philosophical metaphysics, albeit by propos- nations of modern epistemological systems, blending ing an adapted version that relied on modern assump- them with existing strategies (e.g., catechesis) along with tions about subjectivity and human progress. Hegel emerging postmodern critiques. also represented an alternative to the verification of Today, despite a greater variety of available resources, truth claims via foundationalism known as coherent- many churches continue to feature pedagogies with ism, which validated assertions by examining their foundationalist and individualist epistemologies, which explanatory power within a particular system of beliefs. place high value on the veracity of truth claims. Yet even Throughout this period, philosophical trends such as contemporary alternatives to such approaches continue phenomenology and existentialism also exemplified to carry forward the legacy of modern epistemology in a coherentist approach—even while also preserving part: Increasingly common emphases on the unity of varying degrees of individualist and dualist presump- theory and praxis echo the pragmatist tradition; critical/ tions common to modernist thinking. The pragmatist liberation pedagogies (à la Freire) revise the Cartesian philosophers during the middle-late modern period, methodology of doubt as “critical reflection”; post- primarily in the United States (Peirce, James, Dewey, et liberal and narrative approaches reflect a coherentist al.), exemplified a third kind of verification that stressed form of verification; etc. What unites so-called post- the purposefulness of truth claims and praxis as onto- modern pedagogies, however, is the desire to weaken logically prior to epistemology. foundationalist claims; to reunite the Kantian divide Yet despite these alternative perspectives, founda- between knowing, being, and ethics; and to reclaim the tionalist approachesContributor to verification largely prevailed as relational, participatory, embodied, and/or contextual a defining feature of modern epistemology. Its popu- aspects of human learning. larity peaked from the middle of the 18th century in continental Europe in the form of neo-Kantianism and References and Resources logical positivism, to the early to mid-20th century in Audi, Robert, ed. 2006. The Cambridge Dictionary of Philoso- predominantly Anglo-American logical atomism and phy. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press. analytic philosophies. These mostly empirically based ap- Boys, Mary. 1989. Educating in Faith: Maps and Visions. San proaches sought scientific precision and clarity based on Francisco: Harper & Row. Epistemology, Personal 473

Coe, George Albert. 1969. A Social Theory of Religious Educa- ask these questions: How do individuals come to know? tion. New York: Arno Press and the New York Times. What theories and beliefs do they hold about knowledge, Descartes, René. 2003a. “Discourse on Method.” In Discourse knowing, and learning? on Method and Meditations, translated by Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross, 121–137. Mineola, NY: Dover The Roots and Trajectory of Publications. Personal Epistemology Studies ———. 2003b. “Meditations on First Philosophy.” In Discourse Jean Piaget’s work on childhood cognitive development on Method and Meditations, translated by Elizabeth S. in the 1950s and William Perry’s longitudinal study in Haldane and G. R. T. Ross, 371–393. Mineola, NY: Dover the late 1950s were foundational to personal epistemol- Publications. ogy research. Perry offered a developmental model for Dewey, John. 1938. Experience and Education. New York: Col- interpreting student’s epistemological responses to their lier Books. learning experiences. Dupré, Louis. 1993. Passage to Modernity: An Essay in the Since then, intersecting lines of studies have evolved Hermeneutics of Nature and Culture. New Haven, CT: Yale representing the three models of theoretical and con- University Press. ceptual research in personal epistemology. The first Freire, Paulo. 2000. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Translated by cluster of research is the developmental model follow- Myra Bergman Ramos. New York: Continuum. ing the scheme of Perry. TheseOnly are the women’s ways of Groome, Thomas H. 1980. Christian Religious Education: Shar- knowing, by Belenky and others (1986); the epistemo- ing Our Story and Vision. San Francisco: Harper & Row. logical reflection model, by Baxter (1992); and the re- Hegel, G. W. F. 1949. The Phenomenology of Mind. 2nd ed. flective judgment model, by King and Kitchener (1994). Translated by J. B. Baillie. London: George Allen & Unwin. The second trajectory of research departs from the de- Hodge, Charles. 1891. Systematic Theology. 3 vols. New York: velopmental scheme; Schommer (1990) conceptualized Charles Scribner’s Sons. personal epistemology as a system of beliefs. The third Kant, Immanuel. 1965. Critique of Pure Reason. Unabridged ed. strand of research represents alternative conceptions of Translated by Norman Kemp Smith. New York: St. Martin’s personal epistemology: epistemology as personal theo- Press. ries (Hofer 2001) and epistemology as resources (Ham- Locke, John. 1924. An Essay Concerning Human Understand- merCopy and Elby 2002). ing. Abridged and edited by A. S. Pringle-Pattison. Oxford: Personal epistemology studies across diverse cultures Clarendon Press. have addressed beliefs about the definition of knowl- Marsden, George M. 1980. Fundamentalism and American edge, how knowledge is resourced and constructed, how Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelism: knowledge is evaluated, and the process of knowing. The 1970–1925. New York: Oxford University Press. studies have also categorized personal epistemologies Moser, Paul, and Dwayne Mulder, eds. 1994. Contemporary within the spectrum of sophistication or naiveté. Approaches to Philosophy. New York: Macmillan. Murphy, Nancey. 1996. Beyond Liberalism and Foundational- Personal Epistemology and the ism: How Modern and Postmodern Philosophy Set the Theo- Teaching-Learning Process logical Agenda. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International. Studies in personal epistemology have brought support- Rorty, Richard. 1979. Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. ing perspectives on the direct link of personal episte- Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. mology to academic learning.60 For example, King and Taylor, Charles. 1995. Philosophical Arguments. Cambridge, Kitchener’s (1994) study has shown how individuals MA: Harvard University Press. handle new information, resolve competing claims, and —Joshua Lunde-Whitler and S. Steve Kang make decisions. Other studies have also shown that beliefs about the nature of knowledge may influence comprehension, strategy use, and cognitive processing. Epistemology, Personal Epistemological beliefs have also been linked to concep- Contributor tual change learning. Epistemological thinking is also a Personal epistemology is a term created by Hofer and critical component of lifelong learning. Pintrich (2002) to refer to a growing field of research The developmental studies suggest that students whose that investigates the nature and development of students’ epistemological perspectives are more sophisticated tend epistemological frameworks.59 Researchers in this field

60. See, e.g., Hofer’s (2001, 372) illustration of how personal epistemol- 59. See Hofer and Pintrich (2002) for a comprehensive presentation of ogy relates to learning and thereby argues for many possibilities in produc- this flourishing research. tive interaction. 474 Epistemology, Praxis to be more successful in their learning, and vice versa. Khine, Myint Swe, ed. 2008. Knowing, Knowledge and Beliefs: The results gleaned from the research do point to the Epistemological Studies Across Diverse Cultures. Dordrecht: promotion of a teaching-learning process that seriously Springer. considers the student as a knower, knowing as a process, King, P. M., and K. S. Kitchener. 1994. Developing Reflective and knowledge as complex. 61 Judgment: Understanding and Promoting Intellectual Growth and Critical Thinking in Adolescents and Adult. San Fran- Implications of Personal Epistemology Research cisco: Jossey-Bass. for Christian Education Merriam, Sharan B., Rosemary S. Cafarella, and Lisa M. Given what we know about personal epistemology and Baumgartner. 2007. Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehen- its direct relation to learning, what might Christian sive Guide. 3rd ed. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. educators do? The complementary studies in personal Perry, William G. 1970. Forms of Intellectual and Ethical De- epistemology challenge Christian educators to foster the velopment in the College Years: A Scheme. New York: Holt, development of epistemological maturity, especially for Rinehart and Winston. adult learners.62 Christian education needs to assume a Piaget, Jean. 1966. The Origins of Intelligence in Children. New bigger picture of what truth learning is all about. This York: International Universities Press. means that educators intentionally create more reflec- Qian, G., and Donna E. Alverman. 2000. “Relationship Between tive learning spaces and assist the community of faith to Epistemological Beliefs and ConceptualOnly Change Learning.” think more critically about the issues of their faith and Reading and Writing Quarterly 16 (1): 59–74. the implications for Christian living. More important, Schommer, M. 1990. “The Effects of Beliefs about the Nature nurturing the life of the mind supports the notion of lov- of Knowledge in Comprehension.” Journal of Educational ing God with our minds (Luke 10:27). Psychology 82 (3): 498–504. —Joanna Soberano References and Resources Ambrose, Susan A., Michael W. Bridges, Michele DiPietro, Marsha C. Lovett, and Marie K. Norman. 2010. How Learn- Epistemology, Praxis ing Works: Seven Research-Based Principles for Smart Teach- ing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass The foundationsCopy of a “praxis way of knowing” lie in the Baxter, Magolda. 1992. Knowing and Reasoning in College: field of hermeneutics following Hans Georg Gadamer’s Gender-related Patterns in Students’ Intellectual Develop- work in Truth and Method (1989), which Anthony This- ment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. elton claims stands as “a paradigm shift in epistemology Belenky, M. F., B. M. Clinchy, N. R. Goldberger, and J. M. Ta- and hermeneutics” (1992, 314). Gadamer’s work offers rule. 1986. Women’s Ways of Knowing: The Development of a rejection of Enlightenment rationalism and the false Self, Voice and Mind. New York: Basic Books. dichotomies of truth/method and fact/value. Gadamer Hammer, David, and Andrew Elby. 2002. “On the Form of is able to hold together in creative tension both the uni- a Personal Epistemology.” In Personal Epistemology: The versal and the particular, which emphasizes the herme- Psychology of Beliefs About Knowledge and Knowing, edited neutical nature of all reality, such that no perspective is by B. K. Hofer and P. R. Pintrich, 169–190. Mahwah, NJ: privileged over another. In the interaction of the particu- Erlbaum. lar and universal, there is therefore no fixed character to Henze, Mak E. 2006. “Re-examining and Refining Perry: Epis- either element, so interpretation is not a linear process. temological Development from a Christian Perspective.” Thus there emerges the concept of the hermeneutical Christian Education Journal, Series 3, no. 2: 260–277. circle, in which meaning (and therefore learning) is gen- Hofer, Barbara. 2001. “Personal Epistemology Research: Impli- erated in an endless cycle. cations for Learning and Teaching.” Journal of Educational Jürgen Habermas (1978) and his colleagues in the neo- Psychology Review 13 (4): 353–383. Marxist Frankfurt School are attributed with developing Hofer, Barbara, and Paul R. Pintrich, eds. 2002. Personal Epis- sociocritical hermeneutics building on Gadamer’s work temology:Contributor The Psychology of Beliefs about Knowledge and (Thiselton 1992, 6). Here the emphasis is on unmasking Knowing. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. the self-interests and power structures that dominate in the generation of knowledge and meaning, leading to an emancipatory critique. It is on this basis that the work of the Brazilian educationalist Paulo Freire (1972), who 61. Ambrose et al. (2010) and Merriam et al. (2007) alluded to this championed the notion of praxis as a way of knowing growing research. 62. Henze (2006) posits the usefulness of the Perry scheme when we aim and an educational methodology, has to be understood. to develop the critical thinking skills of learners. Given the limitations of space, we take Freire here to be Erasmus 475 the source and prime example of an educator espousing b. introduces issues of power into the educational a praxis epistemology. process; and Freire presents a fundamental shift or “epistemological c. offers a way of examining and transforming as- break,” to use the words of the Liberation theologians, sumptions, beliefs, and values in learners. in the process of education, which takes the concrete situation of the poor seriously. Given the privilege pro- References and Resources vided to theoria as a way of knowing since Aristotle, the Astley, Jeff. 1994. The Philosophy of Christian Religious Educa- major educational methodology that prevailed over many tion. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. centuries was a linear “from theory to practice” process Freire, Paulo. 1972. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Harmond- (Groome 1980). Freire described the pedagogical results sworth, UK: Penguin. of this approach as “banking” education, in which the Gadamer, Hans-Georg. 1989. Truth and Method. 2nd ed. teacher holds all the information and therefore power. Translated by Joel Weinsheimer and Donald G. Marshall The teacher transfers selected information from the bank [1975]. London: Sheed & Ward. to the students, which they reproduce unchanged. Groome, Thomas H. 1980. Christian Religious Education: Shar- Paulo Freire thus introduced the question of power ing Our Story and Vision. New York: Harper & Row. relations into the educational process and its outcome, Habermas, Jürgen. 1978. Knowledge and Human Interests. 2nd which for him is political action to transform society ed. with appendix. Translated Onlyby Jeremy Shapiro. London: emerging from reflection on experience. Praxis educa- Heinemann. tion for Freire is dialectic between action and reflection, Thiselton, Anthony C. 1992. New Horizons in Hermeneutics. which enables conscientization to occur in the student. It London: HarperCollins. changes the nature of the teacher-student relationship as —Nigel Rooms well as the content of education and its process, which becomes a cyclical interaction of action–reflection, lead- ing to renewed action. It is a short step from here to the Erasmus development of the pastoral cycle and the praxis method of theological reflection. Desiderius Erasmus was born Geert Geertsen, the ille- An important critique of praxis epistemology is avail- gitimateCopy son of Gerhard de Praet (a priest) and Margaret able from several sources. Freire’s praxis is contextually (a physician’s daughter), in Rotterdam (Netherlands), dependent, so can the learning generated escape the on 27 October c. 1466, and died in Basel (Switzerland), boundaries of the context it is found in and become use- on 12 July 1536. In 1487, he became an Augustinian ful elsewhere? There is evidence that the method is less canon, and in 1492, he was ordained as a priest. Eras- applicable, for example, in nonpoor Western societies. mus is often considered the intellectual father of the Some Christian commentators accuse Freire, despite Protestant Reformation, even though he eventually dis- his overt Christian faith (at least in later life), of being approved of Luther and the reformers. Erasmus labored humanistic to the point of unhelpful optimism about to make internal reforms within the medieval Roman human nature and working with little or no reference Catholic Church (the same as the initial motivation of to the transcendent. A further criticism is that Freire- the reformers); however, his desire for such reform was ian methodology privileges theory above other forms of never achieved. His unique experiences influenced him knowledge, and that despite differing philosophical back- to abandon the scholastic method and to study scripture grounds, his project and that of Western liberal education thoroughly, in addition to the ancient classics, of which “blossom on the same hedgerow” (Astley 1994, 89 n42). he was enamored. As a devoted scholar of Greek and Finally, Freire is criticized for being overly dependent on Latin, he was certainly a forerunner of the Reformation. the cognitive domain of learning, to the detriment of the His contemporaries proclaimed, “Erasmus laid the egg affective. For instance, he does not take seriously enough that Luther hatched.” Erasmus has thus been called the the popular religiosity or system of meaning-making of “journalist of scholarship.” the oppressed.Contributor In the end, praxis epistemology can lead He published the Adages in 1500, an annotated collec- to too “thin” a description of the world where a thicker tion of Greek and Latin proverbs. In 1503, he published one is required. the Enchiridion, a handbook on the nature of true reli- Nevertheless, praxis epistemology: gion and piety. He began translating the New Testament in 1505. The following year, he accomplished his youthful a. rediscovers the importance of action (and therefore dream to visit Italy. He remained several weeks at Turin societal transformation) as an outcome of educa- and received the degree of doctor of theology. In 1509, tion and learning; he published his best-known literary work, The Praise of 476 Erikson, Erik

Folly, a criticism of abuses in the church and world. His known as the Textus Receptus (the notion of it being the Familiar Colloquies, published in 1518, similarly used “Received Text” is based on a statement in the preface satire to condemn evils “concerning men, manners, and of the second edition in 1633 by Elzevir) and was used things.” In 1516 (a year prior to the beginning of the by the translators of the King James Version of the Bible Protestant Reformation), he published his Greek edition (1611). During this time, Erasmus stayed primarily in of the New Testament (Novum Instrumentum omne, dili- Basel, where he continued to prepare critical editions of genter ab Erasmo Rot. Recognitum et Emendatum), which ancient classics. Erasmus believed the goal of education included annotations and a Latin translation. was to encourage study of a broad selection of classical The second edition (1519) of his work used the more works in their initial form so that the original intent of familiar term Testamentum as opposed to Instrumentum. the writings would be unhindered. Martin Luther used this edition to render his German translation (1522). William Tyndale likely used the third References and Resources edition of Testamentum (1522) for the translation of the For studies concerned with matters related to the influ- first New Testament (and a portion of the Old Testa- ence of Erasmus, see Jerry H. Bentley, Humanists and ment) in English from the original languages (1526); Holy Writ: New Testament Scholarship in the Renaissance it was also the basis for the Robert Stephanus edition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983). (1550), which was used by the translators of the Geneva Only Bible and King James Version. The definitive fourth edi- Augustijn, Cornelis. 1991. Erasmus: His Life, Works, and Influ- tion (1527) contained parallel columns of the Greek text, ence. Translated by John C. Grayson. Toronto: University of the Latin Vulgate, and Erasmus’s own Latin translation. Toronto Press. The fifth edition (1535) was principally the same as the Bainton, Roland. 1969. Erasmus of Christendom. New York: fourth, with the exception that the Latin Vulgate was Scribner. not included. Erasmus’s Greek New Testament was the Dorey, T. A. ed. 1970. Erasmus. London: Routledge & Kegan standard text for nearly 400 years, even though it was Paul. obviously not the best text; it was circulated extensively Harbison, E. Harris. 1956. The Christian Scholar in the Age of and popularly as a consequence of being published first, Reformation. New York: Scribner. and because it was a cheaper, more portable work. In the Huizinga,Copy John. 1957. Erasmus and the Age of Reformation. preface to the Novum Testamentum, he wrote, “I wish New York: Harper & Row. that the Scriptures might be translated into all languages, Hyma, Albert. 1930. The Youth of Erasmus. Ann Arbor: Uni- so that not only the Scots and the Irish, but also the Turk versity of Michigan Press. and the Saracen [Muslims] might read and understand Hyma, Albert, and Richard Claverhouse Jebb. 1890. Erasmus. them. I long that the farm-labourer might sing them as Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. he follows his plough, the weaver hum them to the tune Phillips, Margaret Mann. 1949. Erasmus and the Northern Re- of his shuttle, the traveller beguile the weariness of his naissance. London: Hodder and Stoughton. journey with their stories.” Erasmus’s sentiment was re- Screech, Michael. 1980. Ecstasy and the Praise of Folly. London: peated by Tyndale, who also remarked, “If God spare my Duckworth. life, ere many years pass, I will cause a boy that driveth Thompson, Geraldine. 1973. Under Pretext of Praise: Satiric the plough shall know more of the Scriptures than thou Mode in Erasmus’ Fiction. Toronto: University of Toronto [the Pope] dost.” Press. For the majority of his Greek text, Erasmus used two Woodward, William H. 1904. Desiderius Erasmus Concerning inferior Greek manuscripts dated approximately to the the Nature and Aims of Education. Cambridge, UK: Cam- 12th century, which were available at the university bridge University Press. library at Basel. Having been completed in less than a —Ron J. Bigalke year, his Greek text was published in haste. For instance, Erasmus could not locate any Greek manuscripts for the last fewContributor verses of Revelation and therefore adopted Erikson, Erik many readings of the Complutensian Polyglot (a six- volume set coordinated by Cardinal Francisco Ximénez Early Background and Education de Cisneros and delayed for publication until 1520, Erik Homberger Erikson, a prominent developmental with final publication in 1522, apparently due to Pope psychologist, was born in Frankfurt, Germany, on 15 Leo X’s patronage of Erasmus; this multiple-language June 1902. Erikson’s life work revolved around the con- Bible was published in Hebrew, Greek, Aramaic, and cept that personality development is the result of a series Latin). The Greek New Testament of Erasmus became of identity crises, perhaps because he experienced his Establishment Clause 477 own identity crisis at an early age. It has been reported doing so himself. Erikson died in his sleep at the age of that Erikson was conceived in an extramarital affair, 91 on 12 May 1994. and until he was three his young Jewish mother, Karla Abrahamson, raised him on her own. She then married Most Notable Publications his pediatrician, Dr. Theodor Homberger. Erikson never In 1950, Erikson published his first book, Childhood and knew his biological father, an unnamed Danish man, and Society. He continued to develop his model of human was raised to believe Homberger was his father. When development through subsequent publications, including Erikson learned Homberger was not in fact his biologi- Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968) and Young Man Luther cal father, he experienced confusion about his identity. (1958). In 1970, Erikson received the Pulitzer Prize and His identity crisis was perhaps intensified because he had the National Book Award in the Philosophy and Religion Nordic features (tall, blond, blue eyes) and was teased category for his work on Gandhi’s Truth (1969). by the children at his temple school; once in grammar school he was teased because of his Jewish background. References and Resources He continued to struggle with his identity as a young Goldberger, Nancy Rule. 1998. Knowledge, Difference, And adult. After graduating from high school, he took some Power: Essays Inspired By Women’s Ways of Knowing, New art classes and spent some time traveling around Europe. York: Basic Books When he was 25, at the urging of a friend, he applied for Raimo, Hakola. 2009. “Erik H. Erikson’sOnly Identity Theory and and was offered a teaching position at a school organized the Formation of Early Christianity.” Journal of Beliefs & on psychoanalytic principles, run by a friend of Anna Values: Studies in Religion & Education 30 (1): 55. Freud, daughter of Sigmund Freud. While teaching at the Wallerstein, R. S., and Leo Goldberger, eds. 1998. Ideas and Heitzing School, Erikson received regular psychoanalytic Identities: The Life and Work of Erik Erikson. Madison, CT: sessions from Anna. He also earned a certificate from International Universities Press. the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute as well as a teaching —Lucinda S. Spaulding degree in the Montessori method. He continued teach- ing and soon married a Canadian dance teacher from his school named Joan Serson. They had three sons, and in Establishment Clause 1933 immigrated to Boston, Massachusetts, prompted by Copy the rise of the Nazis and economic pressures. The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution contains Erikson was the first practicing psychoanalyst in the two clauses relating to religion. The first is referred to Boston area. He soon earned positions at Harvard and as the establishment clause and states, “Congress shall Yale as a research assistant and assistant professor and make no law respecting an establishment of religion.” In eventually moved to San Francisco to accept a position conjunction with the subsequent free exercise clause, the teaching at the University of California at Berkeley. establishment clause defines the parameters of the rela- tionship between government and religion. The clause Significant Contributions to Christian Education is absolute and demarcates the functions and operations While in California, Erikson set up his own practice of religious and governmental institutions in our society. and became an integral member of the psychoanalytic Over time, the U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted community. He was influenced by several prominent the establishment clause in nuanced and evolving opin- anthropologists and focused his research on child devel- ions. Until 1947, there were very few cases involving opment in Native American children. Erikson eventually the establishment clause, because the First Amendment expanded on Freud’s stages of development from birth only applied to the federal government. In 1947, in to age five, theorizing that the individual progressed Everson v. Board of Education,63 the Supreme Court held through eight distinct stages of psychosocial development that the establishment clause was a liberty protected across the life span. He also emphasized in his theory that by the due process clause in the Fourteenth Amend- culture and society play a tremendous role in shaping ment, which meant that all federal, state, and local individualContributor identity. Erikson has been referred to as “the government action must abide by the restrictions of theological psychoanalyst” (Goldberger 1998), given his the establishment clause. In this opinion, the Supreme emphasis on worldview construction and respect for the Court upheld a New Jersey statute that provided fund- religious and spiritual dimensions of life. ing for bussing to parochial schools because it provided Erikson credited his wife as a significant contributor funding for all students. In the opinion, justice Hugo to his developmental model. As they grew elderly, Joan continued to work on the model and presented it on be- 63. Everson v. Board of Education of the Township of Ewing, 330 U.S. 1 half of her husband when his health prevented him from (1947). 478 Estonia and Christian Education

Black cited the “wall of separation of church and State” Jefferson, Thomas. 1802. Letter to the Danbury Baptists, 1 to which Thomas Jefferson referred in his letter to the January. Baptists of Danbury, Connecticut.64 Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971). In 1971, in Lemon v. Kurtzman,65 the Supreme Court Lynch v. Donnelly, 465 U.S. 668 (1984). identified what would later be known as the Lemon test. Mitchell v. Helms, 98 U.S. 1648 (2000). In this case the Court struck down a Pennsylvania pro- Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, 536 U.S. 639 (2002). gram that provided aid to religious K–12 schools. The —Jon Eckert Lemon test required the court to determine if the law or government action had a secular purpose, if the law or action advanced or inhibited religion, and if the law or Estonia and Christian Education action excessively entangled religion and government. The Lemon test evolved over time, with various Su- Christian influences may be detected in Estonia in ar- preme Court justices attempting to refine the test. In chaeological relics from the 10th century. Estonia was Agostini v. Felton, 1997,66 the Supreme Court defined Christianized during the Northern Crusades in the 13th three criteria for determining if a particular action century. In the 16th century, Estonia became a Lutheran advanced religion: (1) government indoctrination, (2) country. A significant increase in Orthodox Church defining the recipients of government benefits based on membership took place in the 19thOnly century with prom- religion, and (3) excessive entanglement between govern- ises of land for converts. ment and religion. Justices Anthony Kennedy and Sandra In 1939, 79 percent of Estonians were Lutherans, 19 Day O’Connor have attempted to clarify whether a gov- percent were Orthodox, and 2 percent had no religious ernment action leads to coercion67 or endorsement68 of affiliation. Soviet occupation dramatically changed the religion. Ultimately, the Court has prevented funding di- national and religious landscape. According to the 2011 rectly to religious schools but has allowed aid to religious census, 29 percent of the Estonian population adhered colleges and universities when the funds are used for to some religion, and the two largest groups were the such things as the construction of buildings. Where aid Orthodox (16 percent) and Lutherans (10 percent), with to religious schools is deemed to be neutral and does not 2 percent belonging to other Christian denominations allow schools to reallocate funds to religious purposes, (Baptists,Copy Catholics, Pentecostals, Old Believers, Adven- the Court has allowed funding. For example, in Zelman v. tists, Methodists, etc.). Simmons-Harris (2002),69 religious schools were allowed Religious education is an optional nonconfessional to continue to receive money from vouchers, and in subject in Estonian public schools, aiming at provid- Mitchell v. Helms (2000),70 the state was allowed to pro- ing impartial knowledge about world religions and vide reading teachers to low-performing students even at developing tolerance. Recently, several private schools religious schools. Neutrality was the guiding principle in and kindergartens with an open Christian ethos have Everson v. Board of Education (1947) and continues to be been established by Catholic, Lutheran, or Orthodox so in most decisions. If state money goes through a par- churches. Sunday schools, youth ministry, and confir- ent or third party and is indirect aid to a religious school, mation classes are the means of education in churches. the Court has determined this to be neutral and does not Higher theological education may be acquired in the deem that the government is favoring one religion over Theological Faculty of Tartu University and in several nonreligion, or one religion over another. private confessional institutes, namely the Theological Institute of the Lutheran Church, the Higher Theo- References and Resources logical Seminary of the Baptist Churches, and the Baltic Agostini v. Felton, 96 U.S. 552 (1997). Methodist Theological Seminary. Allegheny County v. ACLU, 492 U.S. 573 (1989). The laws and policies in Estonia protect religious Everson v. Board of Education of the Township of Ewing, 330 freedom. U.S. 1 (1947).Contributor —Olga Schihalejev 64. Thomas Jefferson, letter to the Danbury Baptists, 1 January 1802, Library of Congress, June 1998, vol. 57, no. 6, http://loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/ Ethics danpre.html 65. Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971). 66. Agostini v. Felton, 96 U.S. 552 (1997). Whether conceived of broadly as the pursuit of happiness 67. Allegheny County v. ACLU, 492 U.S. 573 (1989). and the cultivation of virtue, as individual actions governed 68. Lynch v. Donnelly, 465 U.S. 668 (1984). 69. Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, 536 U.S. 639 (2002). by duty and obligation, or as decision making intent to 70. Mitchell v. Helms, 98 U.S. 1648 (2000). achieve the greatest good for the greatest number, “ethics” Ethiopia and Christian Education 479 is a word always determined by a context, grounded in a Hays, Richard. 1996. The Moral Vision of the New Testament: worldview, shaped by particular convictions, and practiced A Contemporary Introduction to New Testament Ethics. New in historically conditioned settings. In recent decades, for York: HarperCollins. example, especially in the 24-hour news cycle of corporate Johnson, Kelly. 2007. The Fear of Beggars: Stewardship and infotainment, “ethics” has most often been summoned in Poverty in Christian Ethics. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. service of stories about political corruption and celebrity McCabe, Herbert. 2005. The Good Life: Ethics and the Pursuit of scandal. It is also regularly deployed in the bitterly divisive Happiness. New York: Continuum. discourses surrounding issues like abortion, homosexual- —Debra Dean Murphy ity, capital punishment, and torture. Christian ethics as an academic discipline is relatively new (“invented,” some would say, in light of modernity’s Ethiopia and Christian Education turn to the subject). But the matters on which it reflects— scripture’s drama of salvation and the church’s historic Landlocked Ethiopia takes its name from the Greek practices—are not. How these stories and practices shape “burnt faces.” There are three distinct groupings: the the lives of those who have been baptized into Christ— original Cushites; the Semitic peoples, who moved into their character, habits, dispositions, and desires—is at the the Horn of Africa somewhere around the first century center of the enterprise. Christian ethics, so conceived, AD; and the Nilotes, mainly confinedOnly to the west. The inheres in narrative: the story of God’s redemptive pur- current population of Ethiopia is estimated at 84 million. poses for the world God created and loves. In this way, Orthodox Christianity was planted in Ethiopia in the Christian ethics is fundamentally about participation in fourth century by two Syrian Christians, Frumentius this cosmic drama; it is, at heart, initiation into a story and Edesius. Haile Selassie (emperor 1930–1974) is to be and its attendant way of life. credited with bringing Ethiopia into the modern era. In As such, Christian ethics as an academic discipline 1974, a military coup led to the formation of a Commu- and as the work of shaping identity over a lifetime is of a nist regime. In 1994, this regime was in turn swept away piece with the whole of the church’s life and witness. The by an Eritrean-led invasion. tidy separations that obtain in both the church and the academy belie this fundamental truth: ethics is not ex- EducationCopy in Ethiopia tractable or separable from theology, sacraments, prayer, Throughout most of Ethiopia’s history, education was in and mission. Its primary locus is worship, since this is the hands of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Higher ed- where Christian identity is conferred (baptism) and nur- ucation began in 1950, with the formation of the Univer- tured (Eucharist). To be clear, the church’s liturgy is not sity College of Addis Ababa. The Orthodox Church has a resource for ethics; rather, it is, as Vigen Guroian (1997) established its own theological college in Addis Ababa. aptly contends, “its ontological condition.” Among the Protestants there were several undergraduate As the formation of a people through the life pilgrim- level theological colleges, notably the Evangelical Theo- age from baptism to death, Christian ethics is also an logical College and the Mekane Yesus Theological Semi- exercise in social critique—a means by which Christians nary. In 1996, these two institutions provided the basis register their inability to be at home in a world where for the Ethiopian Graduate School of Theology (EGST). greed and waste and war are often taken to be inescap- able and necessary. This incompatibility displays vividly Religious Groups the narrative character of all human formation: there Some 68 percent of the population claims to be Christian, are multiple stories (and stories within stories)—many with Islam as the religion of 32 percent. Of the Christian of which are conflictual, contradictory—through which churches, the Orthodox Church claims the largest mem- identity is understood and articulated. Forming persons bership, although much of this is nominal. The Ethio- and communities well in the Christian story (and here we pian Kale Heywet Church (EKHC) is the largest of the see the utter continuity of Christian ethics and Christian Protestant groups, claiming 6.7 million members. The education)Contributor is the church’s lifelong task and privilege. Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus (EECMY) claims 5.3 million members. Pentecostal groups have References and Resources flourished in recent years, and there is a small Roman Guroian, Vigen. 1997. “Moral Formation and Christian Wor- Catholic community. ship.” Ecumenical Review 49 (3): 372–388. Hauerwas, Stanley, and Samuel Wells. 2011. The Blackwell Church and State Companion to Christian Ethics. 2nd ed. West Sussex, UK: For most of the 20th century, the Orthodox Church Blackwell Publishing. opposed the growing Protestant Church. With the over- 480 The Ethiopian Graduate School of Theology (EGST) throw of Haile Selassie, the power of the Orthodox of an ambitious development plan was completed, to be Church all but disappeared. With the end of the Men- followed in 2013 by Phase Two. Uniquely, the six-story gistu Haile-Maryam regime in 1994, a more tolerant phase one building was rented out, to provide ongoing government emerged, with a policy of noninvolvement finance for EGST, operating in the phase two building. in religious affairs. Academic Programs References and Resources In 2013, EGST had a total of more than 200 postgraduate Greenfield, R. 1967. Ethiopia: A New Political History. London: students, reading for master’s degrees, with seven poten- Pall Mall Press. tial Ethiopian faculty members studying for doctorates Pritchard, James, ed. 1974. Solomon and Sheba. London: in the West and South Africa. The EGST philosophy was Phaidon. uncomplicated: students should be required to research Ullendorff, Edward. 1968. Ethiopia and the Bible. London: Ox- topics relevant to the Ethiopian context. This was a focus ford University Press. rarely possible in academic institutions outside Ethiopia, Zewde, Bahru. 1991. History of Modern Ethiopia. Athena: Ohio and in conformity with this principle it was desirable to University Press. introduce qualified Ethiopian academics into the school’s —Peter Cotterell faculty as soon as possible. In its early years EGST has consciously restricted itself to awardingOnly degrees at the level of the master’s degree, but with the gradual return of The Ethiopian Graduate School Ethiopian faculty from their doctoral studies abroad, the of Theology (EGST) PhD degree will also be offered. The graduate school has established an annual lecture Historical Introduction series, “The Frumentius Lectures,” named after one of the In 1996, three men met in Addis Ababa to discuss the two Syrian Christians who first brought Christianity to need for a postgraduate School of Theology for the Ethiopia, in the fourth century. The lectures are delivered burgeoning churches of Ethiopia: Dr. Eshetu Abate, by internationally acknowledged academics from around representing the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Makane the world, bringing to life the names of authors the stu- Yesus (ECMY), with its origin in the work of Lu- dentsCopy encounter in the library. theran missionaries, mainly from Scandinavia; Dr. Steve Strauss, representing the Ethiopian Kale Heywet Philosophy of the School Church (EKHC), with its origins in the S.I.M.; and In a definitive article in the first edition of the school’s Ato Assayehegne Berehe, representing the Evangelical journal, The Graduate: EGST Alumni, published in 2001, Churches Fellowship of Ethiopia (ECFE). They pro- Dr. Steve Strauss set out the basic EGST philosophy. The posed a single postgraduate school to serve all the school was to provide a truly graduate-level theological churches of Ethiopia. In view of a long history of mis- education in a thoroughly Ethiopian context, to bring to- trust, particularly between EECMY and EKHC, this was gether evangelicals from every theological background, to a bold proposition. At a subsequent meeting of church unite their resources for what he designated “a Kingdom leaders at a hotel in Addis Ababa on 17 June 1996, their task,” and finally, to serve as a catalyst for evangelical proposal was endorsed. unity throughout the country. These four goals constitute Later that year the first director, an expatriate, Dr. Peter the basic philosophy under which EGST operates. Cotterell, was appointed. He had spent some 20 years in The EGST leadership was concerned to ensure that Ethiopia. He stipulated that after two years an Ethiopian the academic standards demanded of students would be director must be found. Two years later the first students acceptable to academic institutions elsewhere, not only were registered. There were only twelve students, includ- in Africa but in the rest of the academic world. But the ing one woman. The graduation of the first cohort was emphasis was to be on Ethiopia, with Ethiopian faculty, celebrated in 2001, six students being awarded the MA and with thesis topics focusing largely on Ethiopia while degree andContributor six the degree of MTh. Initially lectures were maintaining global emphases. That this last goal is being given in two local theological colleges. But EGST grew realized is confirmed by the thesis topics of the first MTh rapidly. After the stipulated two years, Dr. Debela Birri graduates: “An Attempt to Understand the Liturgy of the from EECMY was appointed, to be succeeded in 2007 by EECMY”; “The Christological Position of the Ethiopian Dr. Desta Helisso. Orthodox Church”; “The Charismatic Movement in the EGST operated initially from a single room, but later EECMY”; “The World View of the Woliyita, and At- moved to a spacious bungalow, and in 2002 was able to tempts to Contextualize the Gospel”; and “The Evange- buy a prestigious site in Addis Ababa. In 2009 Phase One lism Strategy of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.” Ethnic Diversity 481

The determination of the founders of EGST to have a essentially equal.”73 They assert that the only exception single postgraduate school to serve all the churches has is Euro-American culture, with its “Judeo-Christian had a significant side effect: students receive lectures underpinnings,” which is not only criticized, “but often and seminars from qualified faculty drawn from diverse condemned as racist, sexist, and classist.”74 theological traditions. They are therefore exposed to con- Christian colleges and universities have responded to cepts and interpretations of which they would possibly be ethnic diversity in a number of ways. Because faith-based ignorant or that they would have viewed with suspicion institutions are more homogenous than the general four- or even hostility. In the academic context, however, they year colleges, Christian schools have had to be more in- are expected to listen with respect to unfamiliar views, tentional about reaching out to students, faculty, and staff to debate them, and to understand them. This has led of color to make their multicultural efforts successful. to a diminution of previous tensions and disagreements, One related area of continued concern was reflected often born out of ignorance and prejudice. in a recent study by the Council for Christian Colleges —Peter Cotterell and Universities (CCCU). The question was asked, “Do CCCU students relate appropriately with individuals of different races and genders?”75 Reports revealed both Ethnic Diversity promising and discouraging results. The data found that CCCU students tended to studyOnly with others of their same Ethnic diversity, often referred to as multiculturalism, is race or gender far less than do students in general four- generally used in two ways, one descriptive and the other year colleges.76 However, CCCU seniors admitted to in- normative. As a descriptive term, it refers to the demo- frequently socializing with students from different ethnic graphic makeup of a specific place. As a normative term, backgrounds.77 Yet among the same CCCU seniors, very it refers to ideologies or policies that promote diversity, few reported feeling pressure to exclude students from cultural pluralism, or multiculturalism. other ethnic groups.78 Few, however, reported “racial College and university campuses are microcosms of acceptance” as being an important objective.79 So, while the broader society, and American universities have tried CCCU seniors have tackled some of the diversity-related to address multiculturalism in a number of ways. Many issues, it would appear that more effort may be needed. have hired “diversity officers” to do things like assess the CopyWhile not singling out Christian schools, a recent school’s current representation of minorities and create book on multiculturalism concluded that many “white a plan to increase the number of students or employees campuses” are failing to teach “multicultural literacy” from protected classes. Others have incorporated ethnic effectively.80 They note, “Because of a failure to require diversity into the curriculum through programs such as multicultural courses, the paucity of multicultural fac- multicultural studies, ethnic studies, Native American ulty and administrators, and finally the small repre- studies, Chicano studies, and many others. sentation of multicultural students, thus enabling the Many administrators and higher education leaders, dominant culture to maintain an attitude of intellectual such as former Harvard president Neil Rudenstine, and cultural superiority.”81 have embraced the growing diversity on their campuses, By the year 2020, minority students will account for 45 asserting that a racially diverse student body is neces- percent of the nation’s public high school graduates, up sary for preparing students to be informed citizens in from 38 percent in 2009, according to the latest edition a multicultural society. Rudenstine and others note of Knocking at the College Door, a regular report on de- the “browning of America” and the “flattening” of the mographic changes published by the Western Interstate world’s cultures as other factors that motivate them to enhance diversity efforts on their campuses.71 Critics of university efforts to promote diversity point to reports of 73. Alvin J. Schmidt, The Menace of Multiculturalism: Trojan Horse in increasingly tense racial climates and racial self-segrega- America (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997), 3. 72 tion among students. In addition, some of these critics 74. Ibid. charge that multiculturalism is “a leftist political ideol- 75. Ron Burwell, “Report on the 1996 Senior College Student Survey,” Contributor Research on Christian Higher Education 4 (1997): 40. ogy that sees all cultures, their mores and institutions, as 76. Ibid. 77. Ibid., 41. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid., 42. 80. Michael J. Cuyjet, Mary F. Howard-Hamilton, and Diane L. Coo- 71. Neil L. Rudenstine, “Why a Diverse Student Body Is So Important,” per, eds., Multiculturalism on Campus: Theories, Models and Practices Chronicle of Higher Education 42, no. 32 (1996): 2-B1. for Understanding Diversity and Creating Inclusion (Sterling, VA: Stylus 72. Anthony L. Antonio, “Racial Diversity and Friendship Groups in Publishing, 2011), 11. College: What the Research Tells Us,” Diversity Digest 3, no. 4 (1999): 6–7. 81. Ibid. 482 Euro-Asian Accrediting Association

Commission for Higher Education.82 The report confirms from Russia, 13 from Ukraine, 1 from Moldova, 1 from trends that admissions officers have long anticipated. The Kazakhstan, and 1 from Uzbekistan). Six other Christian supply of white students—including many affluent ap- organizations at that meeting became affiliated members plicants for whom colleges so often compete—will soon of the association. The first conference “Theological dwindle. Meanwhile, the number of Hispanic and Asian Education—1,” was organized in February 1993 in Mos- American high school graduates will increase sharply. cow with the help of the mission Russian Ministries and This shift will present colleges with historic opportuni- gathered about 40 representatives of various evangelical ties—and challenges. Christian educators in America theological educational institutions. At the second con- from preschool to postdoctoral programs will have to ference, “Theological Education—2,” in October 1996 in adjust to “every tribe and every tongue” being reflected Vorzel near Kiev, the representatives of about 35 theo- more and more in their classrooms. logical institutions appointed a committee to deal with Most Christian educators seem to agree that for multi- organizational, legal, financial, and academic issues in cultural education to be most effective, it should present order to found the EAAA in 1997. and examine the values and practices of other cultures Today, the EAAA consists of 54 evangelical theological objectively and critically in a nondoctrinaire manner. institutions (24 Baptist, 22 Pentecostal, and 8 other evan- Similarly, ethnic diversity is a welcomed reality for Amer- gelical schools) and 2 Christian organizations (affiliated ica in the 21st century, and colleges and universities that members), which are located in Russia,Only Ukraine, Belarus, explore the richness and fullness of the Kingdom of God Moldova, Austria, Czech Republic, Armenia, Lithuania, are sure to reap the benefits of a diverse education that and the United States. More than 40 theological pro- values all our neighbors as ourselves. grams in more than 15 schools are either accredited or in the process of accreditation. References and Resources Since 1997, the General Assembly of the EAAA meets Antonio, Anthony L. 1999. “Racial Diversity and Friendship every other year. The association is governed by the Groups in College: What the Research Tells Us.” Diversity board, which consists of 12 representatives from the Digest 3 (4): 6–7. schools. The executive team of the EAAA, which reports Burwell, Ron. 1997. “Report on the 1996 Senior College Student to the board, consists of the president, Dr. Sergey San- Survey.” Research on Christian Higher Education 4: 40–42. nikov;Copy the head of the accreditation department, Dr. Cuyjet, Michael J., Mary F. Howard-Hamilton, and Diane L. Alexander Zigalenko; the head of the EAAA Research Cooper, eds. 2011. Multiculturalism on Campus: Theories, and Resource Center (running about 20 research and Models and Practices for Understanding Diversity and Creat- resource projects), Dr. Roman Soloviy; and the head of ing Inclusion. Sterling: Stylus Publishing. the Educational Development Department (which is “Knocking at the College Door: Projections of High School jointly supported by the EAAA and Overseas Council Graduates.” n.d. Western Interstate Commission for Higher International), Dr. Taras Dyatlik. For more information, Education. Accessed 1 April 2013. http://www.wiche.edu/ see http://e-aaa.info. knocking-8th. —Taras Dyatlik Rudenstine, Neil L. 1996. “Why a Diverse Student Body Is So Important.” Chronicle of Higher Education 42 (32): 2–B1. Schmidt, Alvin J. 1997. The Menace of Multiculturalism: Trojan Europe and Christian Education Horse in America. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. If the confusion, fear, and uncertainty of some segments —Carlos Campo of European society reflect to any degree on the relative effectiveness of Christian education, then its delivery programs and efforts need reviewing, improvement, and Euro-Asian Accrediting Association broader reception. High levels of debt, sluggish economic growth, conflicts over the moral shape of institutions, The Euro-AsianContributor Accrediting Association (EEAA) of and a less-than-robust spirituality call for more educa- Evangelical Schools was officially established at the con- tion in the heart of the Gospel across the continent. Many ference “Theological Education—3” in October 1997 in historical trends in European society continue to prevail Mytishchi near Moscow, by 31 theological schools (15 and beg for inventive, circumspect solutions.

Beginnings and Development of Christian Education 82. Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education, “Knocking at the College Door: Projections of High School Graduates,” http://www Various practices employed in educating Christians in .wiche.edu/knocking-8th (accessed 1 April 2013). the past continue to be used and developed. The incep- Europe and Christian Education 483 tion of nonformal and informal Christian instruction in Contemporary methods employed in Christian educa- the first century AD was closely linked to the missionary tion that reflect many of the instructive models of the activity of the early church in southern Europe. The Holy past are only partially integrated in present-day public Spirit energized a vital process of making disciples in and private institutions. One extreme on the continuum individual and group settings. The center of learning in of religious education in Malta requires religious and Constantinople in the second century practiced apologet- confessional instruction for the vast majority of students ics and catechetics to educate the populace. in public schools, while in Portugal, as in many other Catechetical instruction to prepare people for baptism countries, religion classes are facultative. or confirmation in the millennium following the collapse Formal religious instruction in seminaries and Bible of the Roman Empire was complemented by parish, institutes is holding its own, with fluctuating student monastic, convent, and cathedral schools formulated for numbers. Additional formal and nonformal delivery religious communities in the Catholic Church. Liturgical systems, such as online or extension instruction, are services and ecumenical councils enabled many people in prevalent. Some of these programs arise out of innovative both the Orthodox Church and Catholic Church to learn practices in South, Central, and North America. more about the scriptures. Parts of Central and Eastern Europe experienced this same Christian influence by the Main Denominations and Institutions ninth and 10th centuries. Some monastic schools promi- The denominational and institutionalOnly presence on the nent in the Middle Ages (fifth to 15th centuries) gave way continent varies across a broad spectrum. Affiliation to the development of religious curricula in universities with the Catholic Church is high, for example, in Malta, specially designed for the training of priests, although Croatia, and Spain, while most Russian people identify many institutions gradually became more secular. with the Orthodox Church. In recent years, the percent- The Devotio Moderna, or Brethren of the Common age of nonbelievers has been rising in many countries, in Life, in the Netherlands influenced others in Europe after which the rate of churchgoers has fallen to not more than the 14th century with their blended mysticism, biblical 15 percent. Protestants are more prominent in Norway, instruction, and living in community. The Reformation but they comprise a relatively small minority in most and Counter-Reformation, beginning in the 16th cen- other countries. The comparative influence and strength tury, somewhat revitalized the Christian component in ofCopy religious institutions such as seminaries are generally formal education, which had been seriously weakened reflected in these percentage rates. by some of the Renaissance humanists in secular schools Overall, the major church structures are encumbered with Christian origins. Humanistic Renaissance educa- with a long history of division and separation from each tion (c. 1350–1500) was partially offset by attempts to other, and the task of Christian education to renew and transform church and society through religious curri- stimulate the practice of true unity inherent in the Chris- cula and applied instruction in Christian service. Luther tian faith is as challenging as ever. favored the teaching of Latin and Greek to increase the understanding of scripture. Many in the lay reform State of Religious Freedom movements prominent before and after the Reformation, Many Europeans assume that their governments will such as the Waldensians, Hussites, Lollards, Albigensi- provide religious services much like social services. ans, Anabaptists, Puritans, and Mennonites, accessed the Those who believe that religious education should de- scriptures directly and were persecuted for challenging pend primarily on theological assumptions, such as the the practices of the established churches. divinity of Christ, contend within a milieu of pluralistic The theological impetus of the Reformed, Lutheran, religious and sociological assumptions that lead to little and Anabaptist bodies of the Protestant Reformation more than helping each student develop a personal out- provided a platform for the church to train people for look on life. Many young teachers who feel insecure in both civil and church leadership. The Academy of Ge- their ambivalent stance between school and church feel neva, for example, begun by John Calvin in 1559, was the this same tension, although some of them express the nurseryContributor of Protestant preachers and teachers for France need to grow in their level of theological discernment. and other countries. Medieval monasteries had given way Cultural shifts reflected in relativism and individualism to universities. By the 19th century, many universities cause some to be indifferent concerning issues related to were Christian institutions that taught theology as part religious freedom. of their programmed studies. The typical seminary in Religious freedom is officially declared in the constitu- the same century, arising alongside of university divinity tions of many countries, but in practice the dominant schools, was designed primarily for the training of clergy Christian body in each country occasionally enjoys spe- in particular confessional areas of study. cial favor. Inconsistent interpretations of laws sometimes 484 European Catholic Universities and Faculties subject the minority Christian bodies to unfair condi- law. The next to appear was the University of Paris, in tions, such as the use of their tax payments to partially 1200. Bishop J. Michael Miller (2006, 1), secretary of subsidize the educational programs of the dominant Vatican Congregation for Catholic education, notes: Christian body to the exclusion of their own. Issues such as these can be addressed through open communication All the great European universities—from Oxford, to empowered by the Holy Spirit. In Central and Eastern Paris, to Cologne, to Prague, to Bologna—were estab- Europe, institutional and educational expressions of lished with close ties to the Church. As institutions where the liberal arts were studied, they prepared stu- Christian faith have emerged in recent years out of the dents for service to society and the Church, especially historically repressive effects of communism. in the areas of theology, law, and medicine—the foun- dational professions of emerging medieval society. The Distinctive Methods of Educating Christians animating force in these universities was love for learn- The spiritual need for educating Christians in most reli- ing and love for truth. gious bodies has reached epic proportions. Educational initiatives must truly mark the growth of the church European Catholic universities have a long history and through biblically sound leaders who speak authorita- tradition. Their development was influenced by the tively in both church and society. Some restrictive factors Humboldtian ideal, by the Napoleonic organization of are the paucity of young people being trained in many the state, and by the trend towardOnly professionalism and religious institutions, the ongoing aging of church lead- specialization, which characterized North American ers, and the lack of communication and resultant misun- universities in the late 19th century (Galifa and Gassiot derstanding between church and state in many sectors. 2012, 84). Besides the traditional forms of formal and nonfor- Although in the United States most Catholic universi- mal education, denominations and institutions should ties have been established by religious communities, this consider introducing additional innovative practices has not been the case in Europe. Their funding and rela- that have been positively tested by others. These in- tionship with the state is very different from one Euro- clude the cooperative programs among seminaries on pean country to another, from total state funding in Bel- different continents, nondenominational educational gium and the Netherlands to minimal financial support institutions, forums between Christian educators and in FranceCopy and Italy. Moreover, in France, for example, experts from different walks of society, formal theo- Catholic institutions of higher learning cannot legally be logical programs in English that bind together students called “universities” (hence the “Institut Catholique” of from various nations, national and international Chris- Paris), and for their degrees to be recognized, they must tian education conferences, and integrative curricula strike an agreement with a state university, which takes linking leadership development (and other disciplines) them under its wing (Miller 2006, 5). with theology. Additional measures are intercultural In Europe, there are currently 25 Catholic universities. and missional efforts that combine nationwide church Some are in the process of establishment. This relatively initiatives and relational practices such as mentoring low number can be explained by the fact that many and spiritual formation. theological faculties in Europe are incorporated with Church-based Christian education is biblical and can state universities, as in Germany, for example, which has be both practical and productive. A focus on developing only one Catholic university and 26 theological faculties. programming for youth is growing in some churches. The Catholic universities in Europe are associated in the Training institutions should share some of their resources European Federation of Catholic Universities–FUCE with churches, including course materials, teachers, and (Galifa and Gassiot 2012, 87). seminars. Christian education in Europe is augmented Christian and Catholic universities in Europe possess and ameliorated in tandem with strengthening the bonds certain characteristics and show their qualities in the between churches and theological schools. democratic societies that highly value the freedom of —Gerald C. Ericson human thought. Basic principles, such as free quest for Contributortruth, the respect for different opinions and choices, and the academic freedom of thinking and research, are wel- European Catholic come in these institutions (Galifa and Gassiot 2012, 82). Universities and Faculties Given the church’s institutional investment in both America and Europe, Catholic higher education is of The monasteries in medieval Europe were embryonic enormous importance to the vitality of ecclesial life, both universities. The University of Bologna, founded in 1158, intellectually and pastorally. The dawn of the third mil- was the first full-fledged university for the study of canon lennium has been accompanied by the urgency to sow European Evangelical Accrediting Association 485 the seeds for a new Christian humanism. Europe, even In 2006, the EEAA joined INQAAHE and subsequently more than the United States, is showing signs of disori- gained affiliate membership with European Network for entation, demographic suicide, cultural fatigue, moral Quality Assurance. The EEAA has been incorporated at decadence, and spiritual aridity (Weigl 2005). In order to the District Court at Ludwigsburg, Germany, since 1990. answer reductionist views of the human person, Catholic Its income is generated by membership and accreditation universities need to propose a solid Christian anthro- fees and gifts. pology aimed at unraveling the mystery of the human person. They can establish a common ground for people Goals of good will throughout the academy and beyond and The EEAA wants to help theological schools through can facilitate the discernment and integration of what is external visitation teams appointed by the association to worthwhile in human progress today (John Paul II 1985). achieve more effectively their own objectives in training According to John Paul II, the “truth about the human students for their future responsibilities in various fields person” needs to be enshrined in the curriculum of every of Christian ministry and to provide qualified guidance Catholic university (Miller 2006, 19). to schools on issues of best practice. The EEAA seeks to improve the quality of education by establishing criteria References and Resources in harmony with national and European quality assur- Galifa, J., and M. Gassiot. 2012. “Comparative Legal and Finan- ance standards (the Bologna OnlyProcess). The association cial Situation of the European Catholic Universities.” Journal grants certificates that certify international comparability of Church and State 54: 82–105. of the level of programs at which a school seeking ac- John Paul II. 1985. “Address to the University Rectors of the creditation is operating, thus enabling students to get ad- Society of Jesus.” Insegnamenti 8 (2): 1230. vanced standing when they intend to continue their stud- ———. 1990. “Ex Corde Ecclesiae.” Acta Apostolicae Sedis 82: ies elsewhere in Europe or abroad. The EEAA responds 1475–1509. to the challenges of internationalization by developing Miller, J. M. 2006. “Challenges Facing American and European an effective network of European theological institutions Catholic Universities: A View from the Vatican.” Nanovic and leaders that can serve one another by connecting Institute for European Studies, University of Notre Dame, their resources in a common evangelical educational Lecture papers. Accessed 23 March 2013. http://nanovic enterprise.Copy To better serve its network, the EEAA pub- .nd.edu/assets/8707/michaelmiller2005.pdf. lishes The Theological Educator, a magazine dedicated to Morey, M. M., and J. J. Piderit. 2006. Catholic Higher Educa- specific issues in theological education. tion: A Culture in Crisis. New York: Oxford University Press. Weigl, G. 2005. The Cube and the Cathedral: Europe, America, Benefits and Politics Without God. New York: Basic Books. Accreditation by the EEAA helps to clearly formulate —Tadej Stegu objectives and to evaluate educational programs within the framework of these objectives in order to achieve fitness for purpose. The accreditation process does not European Evangelical contradict, but rather contributes to, schools wishing to Accrediting Association obtain governmental or ecclesiastical recognition, which graduates need for their ministry at home or abroad. To date, more than 75 evangelical, biblically orientated Mission boards and denominations welcome an evan- training institutions of theology from all over Europe gelical seal of quality, especially if schools operate on the have united themselves in the European Evangelical Ac- basis of government or secular university accreditation. crediting Association (EEAA) for the purpose of mutual Through the ICETE, EEAA member schools have access recognition and support in order to better fulfill their to a worldwide network of over 1,000 theological schools. mandate of equipping young people for the ministry of Scholarships are occasionally available for ongoing train- the gospel.Contributor ing of faculty members of EEAA schools. History Bona Fide Accreditation Agency The EEAA was founded in 1979 at St. Chrischona, Swit- In its more than 30 years, the EEAA has gained its status zerland, by delegates from 23 theological seminaries. It as a bona fide accreditation agency by the quality of the is an associate member of the European Evangelical Al- schools it accredits. The Association for Biblical Higher liance (EEA). As a member of the International Council Education, for example, representing approximately 200 for Evangelical Theological Education (ICETE), it is postsecondary institutions, recognizes access qualifica- linked to other regional accrediting agencies. tions of EEAA-accredited graduates for their programs. 486 The Evangelical Theological Seminary in Cairo

References and Resources ment to men and women and welcomes diversity in EEAA. 2012. Manual of the European Evangelical Accrediting personal abilities and skills. All members of the com- Association: A Network for Theological Education. 5th ed. munity, including professors, students, administrative www.eeaa.eu. staff, and other employees, strive to work together with team spirit. The Theological Educator. www.thetheologicaleducator.net To achieve academic excellence, ETSC promotes a —Horst Born spirit of understanding and appreciation for both the Christian heritage and Egyptian Arab culture. It values free inquiry, critical thought, and creative self-expres- The Evangelical Theological sion. Though the medium of instruction is Arabic, the Seminary in Cairo seminary emphasizes the mastery of the English lan- guage. In addition, it incorporates the modern scientific Historical Background worldview and its relationship to theology and life. The The Evangelical Theological Seminary in Cairo (ETSC) education offered by the seminary includes the acquisi- was established in 1863 by the American Presbyterian tion of practical ministry skills such as preaching, public Mission to prepare and equip leaders, pastors, and min- speaking, leadership, management, and the use of mod- isters for the Presbyterian Church in Egypt. It started on ern technology. Only the riverboat Ibis, which cruised up and down the Nile The seminary believes that its graduates, as ministers between Cairo and Luxor in Upper Egypt, evangeliz- of the gospel, should be distinguished by a life of godli- ing, distributing tracts, and training leaders. In 1926, ness and dedicated service. They should be known for its permanent campus was established in Al-Abasiya in their integrity, fair-mindedness, teachable spirit, eager- central Cairo by the Egyptian Presbyterian Church. Over ness for self-development, and servant leadership. Fi- time, the seminary became the largest and most highly nally, they should have a vision and passion to serve God regarded theological seminary in the Middle East, serving and society. all Protestant denominations and churches in the region. During the academic year 2012–2013, the seminary stu- Academic Status dent body was composed of 322 students from various The disciplineCopy of theological education is not offered by nationalities, denominations, genders, and ages. Besides Egyptian universities, and none of the Christian theo- its main campus in Cairo, it has two branches, one in the logical institutes in Egypt is officially accredited by the north, in Alexandria, and one in the south, in Minia. Egyptian government. ETSC, however, is acknowledged by the Ministry of Higher Education of Egypt as a private Objectives educational institution. The seminary is required to sub- The objectives of ETSC include the education and spiri- mit to the Ministry of Higher Education the files for all tual formation of those seeking to work full-time as newly admitted students and the final academic results pastors, educators, evangelists, or theologians for the for those graduating. churches and Christian agencies of Egypt. The seminary program is designed to cultivate in its students a life of Academic Degrees Offered at ETSC authentic faith and to develop and hone their gifts for The seminary offers four academic degrees: an MA in ministry so that they will be faithful and effective minis- theological studies; an MA in organizational leadership ters of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. and management; a bachelor of theology (BTh); and a The seminary also aims to prepare lay leaders who diploma in theology (DiplTh). The admission for all four wish to contribute to the ministry of the church without degrees is limited to university graduates (i.e., at least four pursuing full-time religious service. This includes leaders years of undergraduate study). The applicants also un- of the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in Egypt as well as dergo a very rigorous admission process, which includes Christians from Arab communities abroad. academic, spiritual, and character tests. The seminary has Contributor16 full-time faculty members and employs more than 30 Core Values part-time professors. International visiting professors are To achieve its mission, ETSC abides by the following invited every year to offer intensive courses. fundamental principles and values. The seminary seeks The ETSC academic program includes five depart- to be a distinctive Christian community, governed by ments: Biblical Studies, Systematic Theology, and Church the Christian principles of love, integrity, self-control, History, Missions and Comparative Religions, and Prac- and purity. It emphasizes the acceptance and respect tical Ministry. Student must take classes from all depart- for diversity of race and culture. It applies equal treat- ments during their course of study. Evangelical Training Association 487

Master of Arts in Theological Education in all the papers they present. All professors have at least The MATS is a graduate degree designed to equip theo- a ThM or PhD. logical professors, researchers, and academics seeking —Tharwat Wahba higher academic degrees. The program has three tracks: biblical studies, Middle Eastern Christianity, and system- atic theology. The required 36 credit hours include 27 Evangelical Training Association hours of coursework, all in English by professors with a doctoral degree, and 9 hours of credit for a 15,000- to By 1930, Bible Institutes were multiplying rapidly 17,000-word thesis prepared in consultation with an throughout the United States. Zeal for these institutions assigned advisor and defended before an examination was outrunning their common standard in curriculum. committee. A number of graduates from this program Little unity of fellowship existed. The leading schools, have been accepted into graduate programs of theological long accustomed to independent programs, would need institutions in the West. a formidable organization to consider three proposals:

Master of Arts in Organizational Leadership 1. Should the training of Sunday school teachers be and Management abandoned to those agencies that were then fur- The MAOLM is a practical master’s degree designed for thering it in church and communityOnly classes? working professionals in church, Christian ministries, 2. Should a compromise be effected and a plan of co- business, or nonprofit organizations who seek to apply operation furthered? Christian principles to their jobs. Visiting scholars 3. Should an independent organization be launched? provide supervision for 36 credit hours of coursework through one-week modules, assigned readings, and on- Informally, representatives met in Philadelphia to line coursework prior to the completion and defense of ponder the situation. Agreeing unanimously that a new a final research thesis. Graduates return to their place association would not only bring constituents together of work with enhanced leadership and managerial in- but also place teacher training on a plane higher than sights and skills. As with the MATS degree, all study is ever before, they determined to begin The International in English. BibleCopy Institute Council of Christian Education and chose Dr. Robert C. McQuilken of Columbia Bible College to Bachelor of Theology Degree preside over it. Their small consortium quickly received This degree is designed primarily to equip pastors for favor and requests from other institutions to broaden its the church. It requires 120 credit hours of study over a sphere of activity. four-year period and includes three summers of field Meeting again in Chicago, representatives from five ministry/internship. Admission is limited to university leading institutes chose the more suitable name Evan- graduates or holders of higher university degrees. The gelical Teacher Training Association (ETTA), drafted degree is equivalent to the MDiv offered by American bylaws, and appointed Clarence Herbert Benson (1879– schools of theology. The degree, however, cannot be 1954) to the helm. He was deeply committed to the belief named “master’s” because in the Egyptian education sys- that the Gospel message was of such great importance tem all first degrees within any discipline must be termed that the Christian teacher must be as well qualified as a “bachelor’s” degrees. In the BTh program, Arabic is the secular (then called “normal”) teacher. language of instruction. However, students are required Benson’s criticism of church literature used at that to complete some English readings and consult English time gave him hope that his own Moody Bible Institute sources in all their research papers. Most professors have would tackle an alternative. The institution felt it was PhDs, and a few have ThMs. not the right time to enter publishing, so with the help of his students (in 1933), he prepared the All Bible Graded Diploma in Theology Sunday School Lessons and the Superior Summer Series This degreeContributor is designed primarily to equip lay church based on his developing philosophy of Christian educa- leaders for various areas of ministry: preaching, mis- tion. One of his early students, Lois LeBar, helped refine sion, leadership, counseling, and Christian education. It his concepts to integrate a proper view of the student in requires 60 credit hours spread over a minimum of two educational relationship. years of full-time study. Admission is limited to univer- Benson’s curriculum was departmentally graded, sity graduates or holders of higher degrees. Arabic is the rather than closely graded, and forced teachers and pupils language of instruction, although students are required to to use all scripture, rather than 35 percent as attributed do some English readings and to consult English sources to the “Uniform Lessons” or 65 percent as previously 488 Evangelische Theologische Faculteit required in graded lessons. Equipping lay teachers to another language is possible when the student and pro- administer this curriculum became the focus of ETTA, moter are both fluent. The PhD program is international and publishing the unique curriculum became the keen and primarily non-residential. Being a small university, interest of Benson’s friend Victor E. Cory. By 1934, the ETF has regularly more than 50 PhD students. A double two men had teamed to establish Scripture Press, Cory PhD is offered with the VU University of Amsterdam. In with a vision for publishing and Benson with a struc- recent years a flexible variant of both the full BA and MA tured curriculum. ETTA’s birth is Benson’s best-known (or ThM) programs (ETF Open University) have become achievement. available for students who wish to continue studying The following decade was an explosive era for Chris- while in employment. Online education using e-learning tian education. Benson’s background in curriculum de- (ETF Virtual Campus), in combination with several velopment placed him in position to act more swiftly training days throughout the year and an annual residen- among conservatives with his counteractive strategy of tial summer colloquium, makes ETF Open University a scriptures being preeminent in the preparation of a godly blended learning program. teacher. Continuing with that mission, as ETTA became ETF is located in the Heverlee suburb of Leuven, Bel- an independent publisher, Benson’s structure was for- gium. Leuven is a well-known and historic city and center mulated into certificate programs studied throughout the of education in Europe, where the large Catholic Univer- world. Equipping ministries grew so significantly that sity of Leuven (KU Leuven) is located.Only It is the oldest uni- research in 1987 led the ministry to augment the orga- versity town in the Benelux region. Belgium is primarily a nizational name once again, to Evangelical Training As- Catholic country, so the Protestant constituency that ETF sociation (ETA), in recognition of its worldwide impact serves is a small minority. But being also evangelical, ETF on all lay leadership training. stands as one of only a few such university-level institu- —Yvonne Thigpen tions in Europe. Its origins date back to 1919, with the founding in Brussels of the Belgian Bible Institute or Bij- bel Instituut België (BIB). Since 1975 the school has been Evangelische Theologische Faculteit housed in an impressive former Jesuit monastery. In 2012 the Leuven Center for Christian Studies (LCCS) was built The Evangelical Theological Faculty, Leuven, Belgium (via remodeling)Copy and opened, offering housing, meeting (or ETF, Leuven) is a single-faculty university, meaning facilities, and access to local research resources for re- it offers academic education and performs research in searchers in residence, individual teachers on sabbatical, one main area of study, theology and religious studies. In or groups wishing to meet for academic conferences. its native Flemish language, this school’s official name is Evangelische Theologische Faculteit, Leuven. Education References and Resources and research is arranged in six departments (Old Testa- “ETF Study Guide, Academic Year 2012–2013.” [2012]. vers. ment, New Testament, Historical Theology, Systematic 1.1, 9–13. Leuven: Evangelische Theologische Faculteit. Theology, Practical Theology, and Religious Studies and “Jaarverslaag (Annual Report) 2011.” [2011]. Leuven: Evange- Missiology) plus three research centers (Institute of Lead- lische Theologische Faculteit. ership and Ethics, Institute of Post-Reformation Studies; Nullens, Patrick, (Rector). 2012. “Doctoral Colloquium Report Research Center for Early Christianity). As well as di- 2012.” 120903 ETF Report. Delivered 3 September. plomas in theology, ETF also offers a diploma “Teacher “Ph.D. in Theology and Religious Studies 2011–12.” [2011]. of Religion,” which allows the bearer to teach Protestant ETF PhD Catalog, 3. Leuven: Evangelische Theologische religion in the Flemish public schools. Faculteit. ETF provides education for Christian ministry in —W. Creighton Marlowe and Andreas Beck church and society on three different academic levels: BA (three years), MA (or ThM, two years), and PhD (four full-time years, or equivalent), leading to diplomas is- Evangelism sued in theologyContributor and religious studies. Its programs are recognized in the European Union as fully accredited Gruder claims that there are more than 300 definitions of by the NVAO (Accreditation Organisation of the Neth- evangelism in print (2000, 23). Though it has been given erlands and Flanders). The languages of instruction are a variety of meanings, it is commonly acknowledged to Dutch and English. The former is mostly used for the BA be any “activity in which a person or organization is try- program and the latter for the MA and PhD programs. ing to convert another person or group of people.” The Theses or dissertations are normally written in Dutch type of conversion sought includes a change in beliefs, or English, although German or French (typically) or change in behaviors, change of identity, and resocializing Evangelism Explosion 489 into a new community (Thiessen 2011, 9–10). The act of an evangelistic flare—the person seeking to learn more proselytizing can be overt or covert, intentional or unin- about Christianity is taught a concise history of the Bible tentional. Thus, evangelism has a broad meaning: “[T]he and a summary of core Christian beliefs. Similarly, re- goal of evangelism [is] conceived in the fulfillment of all formers such as Luther and Calvin produced catechisms these functions of preaching and teaching, exhortation, to prepare children to make a public profession of faith. convincing, convicting, example-setting in speech, in Catechesis in their context was intended to bring children conduct, in love, and in faith” (Stewart 1963, 35). to full conversion. And Christians in the modern era have While evangelism may be done in a variety of ways, it seen contexts like Sunday school and other educational necessarily involves a certain amount of verbal procla- programs not only as a means of nurturing young Chris- mation. Christian proselytizing seeks to convert sinners tians, but also as planting and watering seeds of faith that to Jesus Christ, the Word of God, and the Word must ultimately lead to conversion (Towns 1970, 28–35). As be proclaimed in order for lost sinners to come to a Ownbey asserts, “We cannot multiply Christians without saving knowledge of God. As Paul says, “How then will Christian education . . . [and] education cannot be Chris- they call on him in whom they have not believed? And tian without evangelism” (Ownbey 1951, 14). how are they to believe in him of whom they have never heard? And how are they to hear without someone References and Resources preaching?” (Rom. 10:14). Bryan, Dawson C. 1955. “Evangelism.”Only In Twentieth Century Certainly, Christian ministers possess a unique author- Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge: And Extension of The ity to proclaim the Word of God in the pulpit—to convert New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, sinners and nurture Christians. However, all Christians edited by Lefferts A. Loetcher, 238–240. Grand Rapids, MI: share the prerogative to make Christ known in the world, Baker Book House. to the end of converting sinners to God. Paul’s admoni- Everist, Norma Cook, ed. 2007. Christian Education as Evange- tion to Timothy to “do the work of an evangelist” (2 Tim. lism. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. 4:5) suggests that evangelism is what a Christian does Gruder, Darrell L. 2000. The Continuing Conversion of the regardless of office (Stewart 1963, 33). In the context of Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Paul’s letter, Timothy is encouraged to “preach the word; Ownbey, Richard L. 1951. Evangelism in Christian Education. be ready in season and out of season . . . with complete CopyNashville, TN: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press. patience and teaching” (4:2). These responsibilities are Rudnick, Milton L. 1984. Speaking the Gospel through the Ages: expected of all Christians. Thus evangelism is not strictly A History of Evangelism. St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publish- an office. It is a duty for all of Christ’s followers. ing House. Since evangelism can take on many forms and is the Scharpff, Paulus. 1964. History of Evangelism: Three Hundred prerogative of all Christians, education is a primary Years of Evangelism in German, Great Britain, and the United means for evangelizing. Stewart defines Christian educa- States of America. Translated by Helga Bender Henry. Grand tion as “the process of which the individual learns about Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. God as revealed in Jesus Christ and with the aid of the Stewart, Donald Gordon. 1963. Christian Education and Evan- Holy Spirit accepts him as personal Savior and Lord, gelism. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. grows increasingly toward the attainment of complete Thiessen, Elmer John. 2011. The Ethics of Evangelism: A Philo- selfhood in Christ, and casts his lot with those of like faith sophical Defense of Proselytizing and Persuasion. Downers in personal and communal witness in all aspects of life” Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. (1963, 98). Thus, evangelism and Christian education Towns, Elmer L. 1970. Evangelism Thru Christian Education. “do not conflict but are integral parts of a unified spiri- Wheaton, IL: Evangelical Teacher Training Association. tual process” (Ownbey 1951, 57). Both seek to proclaim —Kevin P. Emmert Christ and conform hearers to his image, “reaching into the changing of attitudes and motives and the making of character” (Ownbey 1951, 57). Evangelism Explosion EvangelismContributor necessarily includes a certain level of education, and Christian education is often evangelistic. Evangelism Explosion (EE) is a multidenominational, Evangelism and Christian education are thus two sides nonprofit missions organization that focuses on evan- of one coin (Everist 2007, xi). This has been affirmed— gelism and discipleship training. The organization’s either in writing or in practice—by Christians from the stated purpose is “equipping believers to multiply in and early church to the present day. For instance, in his through local churches worldwide,” and its stated vision Catechismus Rudibus, St. Augustine describes proto-cat- specifies its aim is to see “every nation equipping every echesis (the first stages of Christian education) as having people group and every age group to witness to every 490 Evangelization person.”83 The program to accomplish these goals in- Evangelization volves a four-phased ministry that focuses on friendship, evangelism, discipleship, and healthy growth. Evangelization is the term used for the Roman Catholic A church-based program, EE emphasizes “on the job” understanding of the church’s missionary activity. It training in witnessing. Trainees learn the program’s core was chiefly articulated in Pope Paul VI’s 1975 encyclical material, accompany their trainers on home visits, and Evangelii Nuntiandi (On Evangelization in the Modern ideally become trainers themselves. This discipleship for- World), and it continues to serve as a foundation for mat focuses on multiplication: “not just winning people Catholic religious education, especially catechesis. The to the Lord one-by-one (addition). But training those General Directory for Catechesis (1997) roots the concep- won to the Lord to win, and then train, others.”84 tual foundation for the task of catechesis in the church’s The evangelism approach of EE famously involves two fundamental mission of evangelization. The work of diagnostic questions. The first is, “Have you come to a catechesis depends and builds on evangelization: through place in your spiritual life where you know for certain evangelization, believers first hear the Word and respond that if you were to die today you would go to heaven, or to it in faith. Catechesis then takes this germinal faith is that something you would say you’re still working on?” response and nurtures it toward full conversion of mind The follow-up question is “Suppose that you were to die and heart to Jesus Christ. today and stand before God and He were to say to you, The Roman Catholic understandingOnly of evangelization ‘Why should I let you into my heaven?’ What would you takes a much broader stance than what is implied by the say?”85 The answers to these questions provide the basis intentional missionary-type activities of evangelism. In- from which to share an outline of the Gospel. stead of associating evangelization with a specific set of During the 1990s, EE adjusted its approach to empha- public activities to share the Gospel, it is a concept that size relationship building in response to concerns that finds itself at the very heart of the church’s identity and their approach to witnessing was too confrontational. mission. Evangelization is often described this way: not The organization simplified its training by lessening the something the church does, but something the church is. amount of core material for trainees to master, and it put Evangelization is the church’s fundamental stance of a greater emphasis on interpersonal relationships and proclaiming the good news to the world, giving rise to a discipleship of new believers. myriadCopy of official activities within its teaching, worship, The organization’s international office is in Fort Lau- fellowship, and service. Whereas in evangelism, the task derdale, Florida, where Dr. D. James Kennedy, then of spreading the Gospel message is carried out by specific pastor of Coral Ridge Presbyterian Church, began EE evangelists, the broader concept of evangelization calls all in 1962. In 1967, Coral Ridge hosted the first EE lead- the members of the church to partake in the mission and ership training clinic for 36 pastors, and by 1972, the the task to share the good news, whether through word, organization was incorporated and had its own staff and deed, or witness of life. By baptism, all people who belong board of directors. EE began its international ministry in to the Body of Christ share in that Body’s identity and 1973–1974, and by 1996, it was active in more than 200 mission in the world, and as such, all baptized Christians nations. Today it publishes its materials in more than are called to be evangelizers. This broad work of evangeli- 70 languages. The organization offers training programs zation may take shape in a multitude of ways: sharing the tailored to different demographic groups, including chil- good news in conversation, embodying the good news dren, seniors, the deaf, and prisoners. through acts of charity and service, or demonstrating the good news by one’s overall witness of life. In its broadest References and Resources sense, evangelization is intentional living in the world Evangelism Explosion. n.d. “About EE.” evangelismexplosion so as to share the good news of Jesus Christ with others .org/about-us/. through one’s very life. Kennedy, D. James. 1996. Evangelism Explosion. 4th ed. Whea- Evangelization within the life of the church also takes ton, IL: Tyndale House. on a specific intentionality. All that the church does, in- Lawton, KimContributor A. 1997. “Evangelism Explosion Retools Its Ap- cluding its teaching, worship, fellowship, and service, is proach.” Christianity Today 41 (3 March): 58. rooted in the Gospel message and serves to bring people —Wendy Widder into deeper awareness of that same message through these various forms. Because of this, evangelization is also 83. Evangelism Explosion, “About EE,” evangelismexplosion.org/about at the heart of religious education and catechesis. It keeps -us/. these pastoral ministries rooted in the Gospel message 84. Ibid. 85. D. James Kennedy, Evangelism Explosion, 4th ed. (Wheaton, IL: and motivates teachers and catechists to guide learners Tyndale House, 1996), 31. more deeply into the good news of the Gospel. Existential Philosophy and Theology 491

References and Resources lization therefore is education, especially internal educa- Avery Dulles, SJ. 2009. Evangelization for the Third Millen- tion to equip people for this common task. Internal to the nium. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. church, the New Evangelization implies education for the Paul IV. 1975. “Evangelii Nuntiandi (On Evangelization in the understanding and practice of one’s own tradition so as to Modern World).” be better able to share it with others. In addition to this is Westerhoff, John H. 1994. “Evangelism, Evangelization, and the honing of one’s capacity to articulate the faith, as well Catechesis: Defining Terms and Making the Case for Evan- as the recognition that it is living an authentic witness of gelization.” Interpretation 48 (2): 156–165. life, personally and communally, that communicates the —Daniella Zsupan-Jerome Gospel message most compellingly. As such, the internal education program of the New Evangelization promotes not only a greater understanding and better articulation Evangelization, New of the faith, but also a faith that is immersed in prayer and the practice of Christian life as a whole. Rooted in the Catholic understanding of the term “evan- gelization,” the New Evangelization is a movement within References and Resources the Roman Catholic Church to repropose the Gospel John Paul II. 1990. Redemptoris Missio [On the Mission of the anew to the world today. While recognizing that Christ Redeemer]. Only and his Gospel message are the same yesterday, today, Wuerl, Donald. 2013. New Evangelization: Passing on the and forever(Heb. 13:8), the New Evangelization urges the Catholic Faith Today. Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor. proclamation of this same Gospel in a way that is “new in —Daniella Zsupan-Jerome ardor, method and expression” (John Paul II 1983). The history of the name “New Evangelization” emerges from the pastoral activity of Pope John Paul II (1978– Existential Philosophy and Theology 2005). Building on the work of his predecessor, Pope Paul VI (1963–1978), who articulated evangelization as central Philosophical and Cultural Movement to the church’s identity and mission, John Paul II began The phrase existential philosophy, or the term existential- to use the expression “the new evangelization” to reen- ismCopy, designates a philosophical movement formalized in ergize the church’s approach to proclaiming the Gospel the 20th century by the French philosopher Jean-Paul message throughout the world, first on a visit to Poland Sartre (1905–1980). Sartre was the first philosopher to in 1979, and then more notably in 1983 when speaking adopt the term existentialism to describe his own phi- to the bishops of Latin America. A more formal articu- losophy of existence and understanding of human life. lation of the term was published in the 1990 encyclical His famous statement that “existence precedes essence” Redemptoris Missio (On the Mission of the Redeemer), summarizes the central argument of his philosophical in which John Paul II notes a distinction among the vari- position: there is no human nature or essence that prede- ous intended recipients of the Gospel message: those to termines what it is to be human; being human depends whom the Gospel is not known (mission ad gentes), those solely on a process by which each individual determines fervent in their faith and Christian living (pastoral care), his or her humanity throughout his or her existence and and those baptized who have lost a living sense of faith (a the choices he or she makes. As a direct consequence of new evangelization) (RM 33). This broad view of the re- his philosophy of existence, Sartre rejected the idea of cipients of the Gospel shifts the general understanding of God or any transcendental power that would give mean- the church’s missionary activity from the church having ing to human destiny. the message and sharing it with those who do not to pro- It is commonly accepted, however, that an existential claiming the message to all, including the church itself, philosophical tradition existed before Sartre. Two names among those needing the evangelizing Word. from the 19th century are associated with existentialism, The task of evangelization and the New Evangeliza- the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), tion remainedContributor at the forefront of John Paul II’s aposto- often mentioned as the father of existentialism, and the late, and it was taken up by his successor, Benedict XVI German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). (2005–2013). Building on this comprehensive view of Contemporary to Sartre, the contribution of the Ger- the intended recipients of the Gospel message, the New man philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) was Evangelization has special concern for those Christians instrumental in the formulation of existential philoso- who have lost a living sense of faith, and it encourages phy and its tenets; in his seminal 1927 essay, Being and the participation of all the faithful to share the good news Time, Heidegger revisited the fundamental philosophical with them anew. Central to the task of the New Evange- notion of “being” and offered a systematic critique of 492 Existential Philosophy and Theology classical ontology. Albert Camus (1913–1960) is another A Theology of Existence contemporary of Sartre who is often associated with Many of the themes of Christian existentialism derive existentialism, even though he distanced himself from from the philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard and can be Sartre and rejected the term existentialist for himself; his read as a direct answer to the atheist version of existential philosophy addressed the tension he saw between the philosophy represented principally by Jean-Paul Sartre. ongoing human quest for meaning and the impossibil- We can classify those themes under two rubrics. ity to ever give a definite answer to existential questions. From this tension arose what is known as his philosophy Paradox of Christian faith of the absurd, which became very influential in the later Christian existentialism is rooted in the fundamental understanding of existentialism. Finally, we can men- paradox of Christianity, the incarnation, and, following tion the French philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty the words of Paul in 1 Corinthians 1:18–25, the scandal (1908–1961) as another contemporary of Sartre whose of the crucified God. According to Christian existential- philosophy espoused some existential ideas, especially in ists, this paradox constitutes the fundamental principle his theory of knowledge developed around phenomeno- of Christian faith and cannot be rationally apprehended. logical principles. Whoever hears the Christian creed of salvation through For the period before the 19th century, a few names the crucified God is placed in front of a radical choice: to are sometimes evoked as forerunners of existential phi- believe or not, against reason andOnly logical understanding, losophy and existential theology: the Bishop of Cartago in the truth of this scandal. The “leap of faith” required by Saint Augustine (354–430), the German reformer Mar- the Christian creed belongs to the secrecy of the internal tin Luther (1483–1546), and the French thinker Blaise self and depends on the experience of a personal encoun- Pascal (1623–1662); all three, along with Kierkegaard ter with God; as a result, it can never be fully expressed after them, lay the foundations of an existential Chris- by words only. tian theology. As Martin Luther coined it, in Christ’s death and cru- In addition to its strong philosophical expression, the cifixion, God is revealed sub contrario, under its opposite, existential philosophical perspective has also influenced and does not correspond to the “natural” representa- the literary tradition represented by authors such as the tions of the divine as powerful and beyond suffering. For Russian Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), the Norwe- ChristianCopy existentialists, this unique paradoxical revela- gian Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906), the Bohemian Franz tion of the divine is constitutive of Christianity. Kafka (1883–1924), the Irish Samuel Beckett (1906– 1989), and the French Eugene Ionesco (1909–1994), to Tension between Faith and Sin name just a few. Similarly, visual arts of the first half The opposition to sin is not virtue or morality or good- of the 20th century have sometimes been interpreted ness, but faith. Here, too, following Paul and his defini- through the lenses of existentialism; for instance, the tion of sin in Romans, sin is understood as the radical movies by the Swedish filmmaker Ingmar Bergman separation between God and human beings; this separa- (1918–2007) or the sculptures and drawings of the Swiss tion can be overcome only by a personal encounter with artist Alberto Giacometti (1901–1966). God’s word. When faith happens, the believer then enters into a never-ending process of self-determination and Christian Existentialism self-discovery illuminated by his or /her own experience Christian existentialism represents an important off- of faith. shoot of the existentialist movement, developing its By extension, faith is not a content or formal knowl- own theology and understanding of Judeo-Christianity. edge that can easily be communicated or transmitted, but After Kierkegaard, the most notable figures of Christian rather a personal experience always renewed and relived existentialism are the German Protestant theologians in each believer’s life. In order to communicate this expe- Paul Tillich (1886–1965), the German New Testament rience, only indirect communication works; the writings scholar Rudolph Bultmann (1884–1976), and the British of the Christian existentialists are thus not composed as Anglican Contributortheologian John Macquarrie (1919–2007). In theological treatises, but often take the form of either a addition, more clearly on the philosophical side, the Eu- sermon (Kierkegaard), a series of thoughts (Pascal), or an ropean philosophers Karl Jaspers (1883–1969), Gabriel autobiography (Augustine). Marcel (1889–1973), Emmanuel Mounier (1905–1950), and Miguel de Unamuno (1864–1936) represent the Reading the Bible most important voices of Christian existentialism. Mar- The relationship to the text and its interpretation is tin Buber (1878–1965) is regarded as the voice of Jewish deeply influenced by the notion of indirect communica- existentialism. tion. Parables and paradoxes found in biblical narratives Experience 493 are regarded as the best illustration of the tenets of Chris- References and Resources tian existentialism. Furthermore, the Gospel as good Buber, Martin. 2000. I and Thou. New York: Scribner Classics. news is reduced to the experience of God’s paradoxical Bultmann, Rudolf. 2012. Faith and Understanding. Norwich, revelation, and the text needs to be stripped of its mytho- England: SCM Press. logical shell (Bultmann’s program of demythologization) Carroll, John. 2007. The Existential Jesus. Berkley, CA: Coun- in order to uncover the radical message of Christian terpoint. revelation. The notion of kerygma becomes central to Crowell, Stephen, ed. 2012. The Cambridge Companion to Ex- existential theology, understood as the very heart of istentialism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Christian beliefs, namely the unsettling and ineffable Flynn, Thomas. 2006. Existentialism: A Very Short Introduc- encounter with the incarnate and crucified God. In the tion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. New Testament, the term kerygma means the preaching Jaspers, Karl. 1971. Philosophy of Existence. Philadelphia: Uni- or proclamation of the Christian message, and it is used versity of Pennsylvania Press. nine times to describe the act of preaching the Gospel (in Kreeft, Peter. 2013. Socrates Meets Kierkegaard: The Father Matt. 12:41; Mark 16:20; Luke 11:32; Rom. 16:25; 1 Col. of Philosophy Meets the Father of Christian Existentialism. 1:21; 1 Cor. 2:4, 15:14; 2 Tim. 4:17; and Titus 1:3). South Bend, IN: St. Augustine’s Press. Livingston, James C., and Francis Schüssler Fiorenza, eds. Education as Life Lessons 2006. Modern Christian ThoughtOnly. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress The tenets of Christian existentialism center around the Press. dynamics of relationships and their transformative power: Luther, Martin. 2013. The Freedom of a Christian. Indianapolis, relationship with Christ as God’s incarnation, with one’s IN: Hackett. self, and with others. At the heart of all of these relation- Marcel, Gabriel. 2002. The Philosophy of Existentialism. New ships, however, is the individual’s relationship with his York: Citadel. or her own existence and the interpretation of his or her Mounier, Emmanuel. 1989. Personalism. Notre Dame, IN: Uni- experience. In his chapter on Christian existentialism in versity of Notre Dame Press. Modern Christian Thought, James Livingston (2006) of- Polish, Daniel F. 2010. Talking about God: Exploring the Mean- fers a thorough overview of Christian existentialism’s key ing of Religious Life with Kierkegaard, Buber, Tillich and themes. Going back to Karl Jaspers’s “limit-situations,” CopyHeschel. Woodstock, VT: Skylight Paths Publishing. Livingston explains how those situations for existentialists Sartre, Jean-Paul. 2007. Existentialism Is a Humanism. New become the ultimate test of an authentic life: Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Tillich, Paul. 2000. The Courage to Be. New Haven, CT: Yale There are situations in human existence that we have not University Press. chosen and that confront us with the radical openness and ———. 2001. Dynamics of Faith. New York: HarperCollins. alienness of being-in-the-world. . . . The most important —Muriel Schmid of these are chance, guilt, and death. They are inescap- able conditions of human life that, nevertheless, resist amelioration. They inject into our life a sickening feeling of danger and insecurity and make us conscious of our Experience fragility and homelessness. Rationalists have always tried to explain away these Aristotle (384–322 BC), a Greek philosopher, postulated situations, but . . . [they] are inevitable realities. . . . It is an intellectual meaning to both human experience and only by meditating on such limit-situations in life that we cognitive development. John Locke’s (AD 1632–1704) can be awakened to decision, to freedom, and, hence, to epistemological theory and John Stuart Mill’s (1806– authentic existence. (137) 1873) utilitarianism, which emphasizes individual free- dom to pursue the experience of happiness, set the foun- There is no rational or set answer to the experience of dation for the experiential learning theory in the 18th life’s limit-situations. The only decisive posture for Chris- and 19th centuries (Knight, 2006). The premise of expe- tian existentialistsContributor is to face those situations and never act riential learning theory is that knowledge is formed and as if they could be avoided, solved, or ignored; the authen- executed subject to individual experience. A well-known ticity of one’s existence is at stake in this confrontation educational reformer in the 20th century, John Dewey, and one’s responses to the challenges and limits of human argued in Experience and Education (1938) that personal existence. In this context, life itself is the only stage that experience should be considered within the framework allows for each individual to learn how to become human of learning. Later in the century, two major theories and ultimately to learn how to become Christian. Life is provoked a paradigm shift to a traditional discourse of thus a unique teacher that has no substitute. learning: Multiple Intelligence Theory by Howard Gard- 494 Experiential Learning ner (1993, 1999, 2000) and Experiential Learning Theory The current generation demands visual and image- by David Kolb (1999). The premise of these two theories driven experiential learning because of technological is that the fusion of knowledge (cognition) and experi- development and the expansion of online learning. The ence (behavior) forms intellectual development. The implication for Christian education is that learning based traditional view of intelligence includes only logic and on Christian faith should connect cognitive and experi- cognition. Robert Sternberg (1985, 1996) also argued that ential learning to provoke the embodiment of knowledge, individual experience and cultural context differentiate encouraging and inspiring students to participate in cre- individual learning style and its outcome. As a social en- ation of communities of justice and diversity. tity, a person carries social practice and experiences into learning and the formation of intelligence; navigation References and Resources of environmental context, personal choices, family and Dewey, John. 1938. Experience and Education. New York: Free cultural experiences, and religious practices influence the Press. blend of complex human intelligence. Gardner, Howard. 2000. Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intel- In a similar way, scripture does not offer either-or ligences for the 21st Century, New York: Basic Books. choices, but includes human experience, reason, and tra- Knight, George. 2006. Philosophy & Education: An Introduc- dition. Experience is a critical source for both Christian tion in Christian Perspective. 4th ed. Berrien Springs, MI: education and theology. The revelation of God through Andrews University Press. Only scripture should be interpreted according to the signs of Kolb, David. 1999. Experiential Learning: Experience as the the times, including human experiences, which can be Source of Learning and Development, Upper Saddle River, explained with reason and expressed through traditions. NJ: Prentice Hall Publishers. This does not mean that we deny the primacy of “canoni- Sternberg, Robert. 1996. Successful Intelligence: How Practical cal heritage” as the normative source of Christian educa- and Creative Intelligence Determines Success in Life. New tion. Incorporation of human experience in the pedagogy York: Plume Publishing. of Christian education enables educators and learners to —HiRho Y. Park avoid a dichotomy between theological assumptions and the practice of faith. Empirical pedagogy allows Christian education to be a living theology, which provokes ac- CopyExperiential Learning tion along with faith development through education. John Wesley (1703–1791), the founder of Methodism, Experiential learning refers broadly to a collection of considered human experience essential for keeping the- practices and perspectives on learning and teaching that ology a practical discipline. Practical theology is based involve active and engaged education. Christian educa- on a new pedagogy that starts with human experience, tors who work with children will be familiar with the im- reflects on a theory, and then suggests a strategic way to portance of learning by doing, but this may be less appar- incorporate the learning in our daily lives, as opposed ent to those working with adults. Experiential approaches to applying human experience to a theoretical theme. can be traced to the seminal work of John Dewey in the Albert C. Outler (1908–1989) integrated empiricism for early 1900s, when he promoted the role of experience contemporary use of interpretation in faith-accentuating and activity in learning. Incidentally, John Dewey was a practice. Human experience shapes Christian practice, founding member of the Religious Education Association and Christian practice forms tradition. in the United States, though his influence in Christian Don S. Browning (1934–2010), a practical theologian, education is not often highlighted. has affirmed the importance of the interrelationship Experiential learning helps us understand that what among theory, experience, and tradition by arguing that children, youth, and adults bring to a learning environ- Christian practices are “theory-laden” forms of practical ment is not incidental. It matters in that learners need to wisdom (pronesis).86 According to this perspective, every be able to connect what they are learning to previous ex- Christian practice already contains (or rather, expresses) periences and to use this experience as a basis for further the practicalContributor reason of a faith community, which is based learning. The educators’ task in experiential learning is on both symbols and convictions formed by experience. not to impart knowledge or to dispense information on Therefore, the integration of social sciences, such as psy- topics such as ritual, sacred texts, or religious teaching, chology, law, and pastoral care, plays a critical role for but to help learners understand how these topics might Christian education. connect to their previous knowledge and to have them actively engage in learning new insights. When experien- 86. Don S. Browning, A Fundamental Practical Theology (Minneapolis, tial learning is honored in an educational setting such as MN: Fortress Press, 1996), 10. a theological seminary, learners are honored as decision Experiential Learning 495 makers, as people who bring a lifetime of experience to site such as the Haj, or participating in events and meet- the classroom, and as those who have a need to learn ings sponsored by a religious group, such as a Christian in various ways, which may include lecture but are not marriage encounter weekend. Though the primary intent limited to it. of the activity is not education or learning, informal Experiential learning can and has been misunderstood. learning is involved because new ideas and practices are A close look at Dewey’s scholarship shows that his basic learned. Informal learning can enhance greatly what peo- idea of learning by doing, and centering on what the per- ple know and understand about their religious traditions, son wanted to learn, was more complicated than having yet its connection to education and its potential in ex- activity in a Christian education class or asking learners periential learning encounters is often unacknowledged. what they needed to learn. Though these are laudable One of the key roles of the teacher in experiential edu- acts, Dewey (1938) had a notion that activity must be ac- cation is as a support or facilitator of reflection in this companied by reflection and analysis and had to be about learning. In the case of informal learning, the educator more than meeting the learner’s needs. In his classic work might be the one who debriefs with a travel or service Experience and Education, he outlined his understanding learning group. In this case, the Christian educator may of the role of experience in learning and presented it as a provide opportunities for journal writing and group complex and intricate system of working from experience discussion, drama or role-play, or art activities. Such to reflection to analysis and action. To plan and organize reflection may have ethical implications,Only such as when such an educational opportunity is a challenging exercise. uncomfortable feelings are acknowledged by learners or Yet it allows for all the dimensions of the person—physi- when there is a conflict of positions with the organizing cal, emotional, spiritual, intellectual—to be engaged in religion. In engaging in experiential education, educators learning (English 2008). can and must be aware of the possible outcomes and be One of the least recognized ways that experiential prepared to negotiate them. learning is practiced in religious settings is through informal learning or learning that occurs apart from a References and Resources teacher or an organized learning event such as a bible Dewey, J. 1938. Experience and Education. New York: Collier study class. Informal learning might take place when one Books. gains insight about liturgical reform while participating English,Copy L. M. 2008. “Revisiting Voice, Subjectivity and Circles: in and observing a liturgical event such as a bar mitzvah. Feminist Pedagogy in the 21st Century.” Journal of Adult Informal learning might also take place while reading a Theological Education 5 (2): 112–125. religious or spiritual text, making a pilgrimage to a holy —Leona M. English

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Contributor F Only Fahs, Sophia dents at the University of Chicago. This enabled Sophia to enroll in life-changing religion courses with Dr. Ernest Sophia Lyon Fahs (1876–1978) was one of the most DeWitt Burton and Dr. William Rainey Harper, the first influential progressive American religious educators of president of the University of Chicago and founder of the the 20th century. Her passionate voice for unimpaired Religious Education Association. religious development of children evolved from events In the summer of 1902, newly wed to Charles “Harvey” in her own life as well as the extraordinary social- Fahs, the son of an itinerate Methodist minister, Sophia religious drama during her lifetime. Her views pro- moved to New York City, where Harvey worked as an foundly impacted the educational efforts of parents and editor of Methodist missionary literature and she taught religious educators in her day and offer vital insight for women’sCopy Bible study. In the early years of their marriage, Christian educators today. their plans for missionary service permanently ended due to Harevy’s health problems. They had five children, two Early Background and Education of whom died at a young age. Harvey served as a research Though born in Hangchow, China, the fourth child of assistant to John R. Mott and curator of the Missionary evangelical Presbyterian missionaries, Sophia Fahs was Research Library from its inception in 1914 until his raised from age four by her mother, along with six sib- death in 1948. lings, in Wooster, Ohio. Her father continued missionary The unexpected and painful events in Sophia’s per- service in China. The distinctive vocations of her parents, sonal life prompted new questions and increased her as well as the creative influence of her mother, a gifted confidence in the scientific world. Teaching children missionary teacher who believed in equality for women, in the experimental Sunday school at Teacher’s College set the stage for Sophia’s lifelong pursuit of learning along with coursework (1902) under professors Edward and the advancement of religious education. Sophia’s L. Thorndike, Nicholas Murray Butler, and Frank Mur- personal religious evolution reflected the social-religious ray transformed Sophia’s understanding of religious drama of widespread historic movements, including the education. This inspired her passionate concern for the missionary movement, the Social Gospel movement, new religious development of children. orthodoxy, death of God theology, liberation theology, A significant shift in ideology is evident in Sophia’s first Darwinism, Marxism, Freudianism, and John Dewey’s publication, “Missionary Biography in the Sunday School” experiential education. (The Biblical World [1906]), a condensed discussion of FollowingContributor her high school graduation as valedictorian her Teacher’s College master’s thesis. While affirming the in 1893, Sophia attended the College of Wooster. Her Bible as the “textbook norm for Sunday School instruc- active involvement in the YWCA during her college tion,” she argued that the Bible “is not a children’s book.” years and personal ambition for missionary service were Her emerging views reflected the beginning of a shift away indicative of her serious spiritual devotion and Christian from evangelical orthodoxy to an in-depth engagement commitment. In 1901, after graduating from college and with modern theories in science, psychology, and educa- teaching high school Latin and English for two years, she tional philosophy. This led to numerous influential publi- took a part-time job as YWCA secretary to women stu- cations that addressed many crucial issues in the religious

— 497 — 498 Faith development of children. Sophia credited her parenting and tradition without intellectual understanding directly experience as a vital and intentional source for her emerg- breeds premature development of life-limiting religious ing theories of religious education. loyalties in childhood. After serving as the director of religious education Despite some controversy, Sophia’s life work influ- in the New Jersey Sunday School of Leonia Methodist enced major advancements in 20th-century Christian Church and spending a few years in Pasadena due to fam- education theory and practice. Key contributions include ily health problems, Sophia, at age 47, returned to New vital attention to the crucial need to take seriously the Jersey and enrolled in the bachelor of divinity program at religious development of children; the multidimensional Union Theological Seminary. In 1927, a year after gradu- nature and complexity of the religious development of ation, Sophia became one of the first two women on the children; the need for developmentally appropriate re- faculty at Union Theological Seminary. During this time ligious education; the spiritual value of all dimensions she also served as principal of the Union School of Reli- of life; the need for vivid storytelling and a multisensory gion experimental Sunday school. approach to learning; the crucial role of attitudes, experi- Throughout her 17-year (1927–1944) tenure as part- ence, questioning, experimentation, and nature in teach- time lecturer of religious education, Sophia taught ing and learning; and the value of social science insight courses in psychology, philosophy of religious educa- for religious education. tion, curriculum planning, and teaching techniques such Sophia Fahs recognized that howOnly children learn is what as storytelling. Her philosophy of education promoted they learn. She believed religious education would never teaching via personal ownership, wonder, exploration, become meaningless if the learning process involved and experience. After the seminary’s experimental Sun- the learners’ life experiences. She held that healthy reli- day school closed in 1933, Sophia joined the Riverside gious growth calls for active exploratory learning rather Church School staff. In 1937, while working at the River- than passive indoctrination, creative engagement of the side Church and teaching part-time at Union Seminary, intuition and imagination, and multidimensional inter- Sophia began serving as editor of children’s materials for disciplinary scholarship. Pedagogy preventing hypocrisy, the Unitarian Church. irrational emotional loyalty, and superficiality requires In the midst of raging theological controversies, So- critical thinking, promotes personal ownership, targets phia maintained her commitment to progressive educa- authenticity,Copy facilitates divergence, and encourages per- tion, liberal theology, and the authority of modern sci- sonal response. Twenty-first-century Christian educa- ence. The emergence of neo-orthodoxy was in Sophia’s tors enthusiastically promote many of these pedagogical perspective another form of fundamentalism. Criticism practices. The foresight and insight of Sophia Fahs have of her Bible teaching views (in the late 1930s) led to cen- forever enriched the field of Christian education. sure, restricting her teaching and threatening her job, by Union Seminary and the Riverside Church. Most Notable Publications In 1950, St. Lawrence University awarded Sophia an Fahs, Sophia Lyon. “How Childish Should a Child’s Religion honorary Doctor of Humane Letters. In 1961, the College Be?” Religious Education 23 (1929): 332–338. of Wooster granted her an honorary Doctor of Letters de- ——— . Today’s Children, Yesterday’s Heritage. Boston: Beacon, gree, and in 1962, Meadville Theological School awarded 1952. her a doctor of divinity degree. Tributes on the occasion ——— . Worshipping Together with Questioning Minds. Boston: of her 80th birthday included a special religious educa- Beacon, 1965. tion publication along with a symposium on teaching religion to children. References and Resources Between 1906 and 1980, Sophia authored or coauthored Hunter, Edith. 1966. Sophia Lyon Fahs. Boston: Beacon. more than 40 books as well as numerous journal articles. Nolan, Lucinda A. n.d. “Sophia B. Fahs.” In Christian Educators Sophia Fahs died at the age of 101, on 17 April 1978. of the 20th Century. Talbot School of Theology. http://www2 .talbot.edu/ce20/educators/view.cfm?n=sophia_fahs. SignificantContributor Contributions to Christian Education —Beverly Johnson-Miller The journey of Sophia Fahs from evangelical Christian devotion in her youth to ordination in the Unitarian Church in old age may trigger questions about the signifi- Faith cance of her scholarship in the field of Christian educa- tion. Some church leaders found her views alarming and Almost 90 years ago, J. Gresham Machen (1925), a re- controversial, such as the use of scripture with children nowned Presbyterian theologian, wrote that American and her belief that experiencing religious language, ritual, preachers speak much about faith, “but they do not tell Faith 499 what faith is.” Undoubtedly, their failure to define faith Seeing faith today as unrelated to any empirical or has greatly contributed to the numerous and erroneous factual evidence is not always confined to liberal theo- concepts of faith that abound in the English language logians. On occasion, one even finds some conservative today. Most present-day references to faith have little or Christians holding this erroneous, subjective view of no resemblance to the concept of faith as it is used in the faith. One conservative Christian pastor recently wrote, New Testament. And most, including many Christians, “Faith means believing something is true without the do not know that “faith,” as used in the New Testament, benefit of the five senses. If the senses (feeling, tasting, was a totally new concept in the Greco-Roman world. seeing, smelling, or hearing) are involved, the belief is no Dieter Lührmann (1992), a German scholar, has longer based on faith, but on a fact.” This understanding shown that although the word pistis (faith) in Greek and of faith is remarkably similar to Tillich’s. Moreover, if fide (faith) in Latin are translated as “faith,” neither pistis this pastor’s definition of faith is correct, then Thomas’s nor fide had a religious or theological meaning in the response was not of faith, for he used two of his five Greco-Roman culture. He also notes, “Faith as a central senses (seeing and feeling). And it is also important to category of Greek religious language did not exist.” And remember that when “the other disciple” (assumed to he further adds, “Faith is a peculiarly Christian concept.” be John) on Easter morning looked into Christ’s empty It was Jesus in the four Gospels and the apostles in the tomb, the text says, “he saw and believed” (John 20:8). New Testament epistles who gave pistis a religious/ Another example of subjectiveOnly faith is sometimes theological meaning. Similarly, Cantwell Smith, in Belief expressed by well-meaning but misguided Christians, and History (1977) has noted, “It is the New Testament who when challenged to defend their faith say, “I know . . . that launched the concept of ‘faith’ in a big way, as Christianity is true, for my faith tells me Jesus lives in my virtually a distinctive Christian category.” In short, the heart.” This is blind faith, theologically known as “fide- concept of religious faith was a Christian innovation. ism.” This was not the faith the apostles expressed when under threat they declared, “We cannot but speak of what Faith Founded on Fact vs. Faith Not Founded on Fact we have seen and heard” (Acts 4:20; emphasis added). Many today see faith as believing something they think or And Peter said that he and many early Christians “were perceive to be true, but for which they have no corrobo- eyewitnesses of his majesty” (2 Pet. 1:16). rative evidence. This idea of faith is similar to what Paul CopyFaith not based on fact also conflicts with what the Tillich (1886–1965), a prominent liberal theologian in the reformers taught during the Reformation era. They as- 1950s and 1960s, taught about faith. He said, “The truth serted that faith consisted of historically reliable knowl- of faith cannot be made dependent on the historical truth edge (notitia) concerning God’s acts and promises. Thus, of the stories and legends in which faith expresses itself.” the Augsburg Confession (1530) of the Lutheran church He further stated that “faith cannot be shaken by histori- states, “faith believes not only the history but also the cal research even if its results are critical of the traditions effect of that history, namely, ‘the forgiveness of sins in which the event is reported” (Tillich 1957, 7). Some through Christ.’” And Calvin stated, “Faith rests upon other liberal theologians also held this view, for example, knowledge, not upon pious ignorance.” Germany’s Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976). Critics of the nonfactual view of faith argue that if Biblically speaking, this is not how faith is portrayed in faith is unrelated to or independent of Christ’s miracles, the New Testament, for it ignores or denies the experi- then why after his resurrection did Christ reveal Himself ence of Christ’s disciples, whose faith was anchored in physically to His disciples and others, too? He even ate their having seen and interacted with Jesus, especially after in their presence (Luke 24:43). And why did St. Paul tell his bodily resurrection. For example, it was the empirical the skeptics of the resurrection in Corinth they could ask evidence of Christ’s resurrection that produced faith in the some 500 people (most of whom were still alive) who had doubting Thomas when he saw and touched the crucified seen the risen Christ? (1 Cor. 15:6). wounds of the risen Christ. This visible, tangible encounter Thus, whether Christ rose from the dead is not a mat- moved Thomas to declare, “My Lord and my God” (John ter of faith but a factual phenomenon that occurred in 20:28), Contributoran expression of faith that resulted from his en- history, similar to other facts or events that happened in countering the empirical evidence of Christ’s resurrection. history, for example, the sinking of the Titanic in 1912 or Faith, not based on fact, as expressed by Tillich and the destruction of the World Trade Center on September other liberal theologians, conflicts with the requirement 11, 2001. To Christ’s disciples, it was not their faith that Jesus’s 11 disciples had set to select a replacement for the made Christ’s resurrection true. Rather, it was their seeing traitor Judas. In order to be chosen, the successor of Judas and interacting with the resurrected Lord that produced had to be someone who had actually seen the risen Christ and fortified their faith. Their faith merely accepted the in person (Acts 1:21–23). promised spiritual benefits of His resurrection. 500 Faith

In short, the concept of faith in the Bible does not from the faith by following deceitful spirits” (1 Tim. 4:1; mean believing in something that is not true, as Mark emphasis added). Even though these apostates would Twain once said. If his definition of faith were correct, adopt other religious practices, St. Paul did not say they it would be tantamount to saying faith means believing were now of a different “faith.” in fiction. When all religions, including Christianity, are referred to as “faiths,” the essence of Christianity is denied. For it Faith Alone (Sola Fide) implies that Christ’s teachings, His miracles, His bodily One of the Protestant Reformation’s slogans was sola resurrection are just a matter of faith, similar to the be- fide (faith alone), meaning individuals could only attain liefs of other religions, whose founders, unlike Christian- eternal life by faith in Christ and his redemptive work. ity, had no eyewitnesses vouching for the veracity of their “For by grace you have been saved through faith. And religious teachings. To say “faiths” ignores what Thomas this is not your own doing; it is a gift of God, not a result Arnold (once a professor of history at Oxford University) of works” (Eph. 2:8–9; emphasis added). Another passage said regarding Christ’s resurrection: “I know of no one declares, “Therefore we conclude that a man is justified fact in the history of mankind, which is proved by better by faith apart from deeds of the law” (Rom. 3:28; em- and fuller evidence of every sort, to the understanding of phasis added). The reformers also taught that Christians a fair enquirer” ([1849] 1960). received their faith by grace, as indicated in the Ephesians Only reference. Hence, they also used another slogan, sola gra- Faith as Belief In tia (grace alone). In our culture, faith has become a superficial, abstract concept, equated with “believe” or “belief” that no lon- Faith as a Synonym for Christianity ger has an object. It is now seen as an intangible feeling Given that the Greeks and Romans did not use faith as a that cannot be defined, or as something personal. Some religious concept, they also did not use it as a synonym think it is hope, and some see it as positive thinking. for religion or religious teachings, as the New Testa- Thus, we hear the expression “people of faith”; “they ment does in regard to Christianity. For instance, St. have a lot of faith”; or worse, people are told to “have Paul in Galatians 1:23 is referred to as one who preaches faith.” These views of faith are all contrary to the New “the faith.” And similarly, the writer of the Epistle of Testament,Copy where faith is always belief in an object, Jesus Jude urged Christians to contend “for the faith” (Jude Christ or His teachings. St. Paul told the jailer at Philippi: 3). In each instance, “the faith” refers to Christianity “Believe in the Lord Jesus Christ and you will be saved” and its teachings. (Acts 16:31; emphasis added). This understanding of Today, Christianity is no longer seen as “the faith.” faith is also reflected in the ancient creeds (Apostles’ and Faith has now become a synonym for any religious group Nicene). Here Christians confess, “I believe in God the in the English-speaking world. Even the secular media Father . . . And in Jesus Christ . . . And in the Holy Spirit.” use faith as a synonym for religion, and politicians speak Thus, it is important to remember that the word “be- about “faith-based programs,” referring to programs lieve” or “belief” without the preposition “in” no longer operated by any religious group, whether Christian or conveys a firm conviction: “I believe it is going to rain non-Christian. We also hear about “people of faith,” a next week.” This statement is merely an opinion and term that refers to individuals who are members of some not really belief in what the speaker has just stated. And religious organization, regardless of their religious affili- “belief” or “believe” may also indicate uncertainty: “I be- ation. And it is common for the media to speak about the lieve my 10-year-old son will someday be a professional “Islamic faith,” “Buddhist faith,” “Hindu faith,” “Mormon baseball player.” faith,” and so on. Ironically, today even many Christians, including pastors, speak this way, quite unaware that by Faith as Content and Conviction doing so they are departing from the New Testament’s When speaking of faith, the Protestant reformers, using meaning of “the faith.” Forgotten is St. Paul’s proclama- Latin terminology, often spoke of fides quae creditur and tion that thereContributor is only “one Lord, one faith, one baptism” fides qua creditor. The former refers to the New Testa- (Eph. 4:5; emphasis added). And the New Testament also ment’s using “the faith” for Christianity or its teachings, never uses the word “faith” for a non-Christian group. for instance, when St. Paul says, “the word of faith which To apply the word “faith” to a non-Christian religious we preach” (Rom. 10:8). In English, fides quae creditor is group, as well as calling any religion’s adherents “people sometimes referred to as objective faith. of faith,” would have been utterly inconceivable to St. To the reformers, fides quae creditor was closely linked Paul. When he wrote to his coworker Timothy, for in- to fides qua creditur, namely, faith that believes in, ac- stance, he said some Christians “in latter times will depart cepts, and receives the Lord Jesus Christ and His teach- Faith and Culture 501 ings for life and eternal salvation, as stated by St. Paul: “If contexts over time. Such religiously based cultures are you confess with your mouth the Lord Jesus and believe surrounded by cultures built on quite different presup- in your heart that God has raised him from the dead, you positions and practices, leading to constant interaction will be saved” (Rom. 10:9). Thus, fides qua creditur in and reciprocal influence. today’s language is often known as personal faith. Some aspects of a culture will be hospitable to religious faith; some aspects will be hostile; still other aspects will References and Resources be indifferent. Christian educators need discernment to Arnold, Thomas. (1849) 1960. The Christian Life—Its Hopes, Its avoid blanket acceptance or blind rejection of culture of Fears, and Its Close. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian the people with whom they are working. If Christians run Religion. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication. away from the surrounding culture, so as not to be con- Lührmann, Dieter. 1992. “Faith.” In Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed- taminated by it, they risk slipping into a ghetto, abdicate ited by David Noel Freedman, 2: 864. New York: Doubleday. their responsibility to influence the world for the better, Machen, J. Gresham. 1946 [1925]. What Is Faith? Grand Rap- and fail the people God wants them to touch; their purity ids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. becomes irrelevant to the world. On the other hand, if Smith, Cantwell, Belief and History. Charlottesville, VA: Uni- they throw ourselves into the world, they might soon find versity of Virginia Press they have accepted too much of it on its own terms, and Tillich, Paul. 1957. Dynamics of Faith. New York: Harper & Row. without realizing it they couldOnly become assimilated and Wright, N. T. 2003. The Resurrection of the Son of God. Min- swallowed up by it, unable to bring to it the distinctive neapolis, MN: Fortress Press. salt and light of faith. The challenge is to learn how to —Alvin J. Schmidt swim in a culture without drowning in it. In order to be relevant, Christian educators need to be rooted in culture and local needs. But to be adequately Christian, they also Faith and Culture need to be able to transcend culture. They have to be at home, familiar with, and hospitable to a culture, but also, Integral to being human is participation in a culture. Many to some degree, a stranger, unsettled, and disturbing in it. people inhabit several cultures at the same time, although They are called to be in the world, to prompt it lovingly these do not all have the same degree of purchase on their towardCopy God, yet not of the world, fully accepting it as it is. lives. Culture affects a person’s awareness and imagina- In bridging the gap between faith and a particular tion, hopes and fears, expectations of others, and assump- culture, Christian educators need to emphasize both the tions about life. Cultural environments, both of students “foreignness” of Christian faith—its supernatural char- and of church members, are permeated by messages medi- acter—and its connection to, its continuity with, and ated via many different modes of communication beyond its befriending and enhancing of daily life: its natural immediate face-to-face contact—such as television and aspects. They should avoid watering down the challenge the global Internet, advertising and music, magazines and and “foreignness” of faith and the Gospel by domesticat- movies, video games and mobile phones—each of which ing the call to conversion of life and holiness. Yet they exerts a subtle influence on how people think and value. should also avoid causing unnecessary barriers for those Christian educators, whether teaching in schools and on the path to faith by lacking imagination and creativ- colleges or contributing to church activities, must be con- ity in their presentation of the Christian story. St. Paul scious of, informed about, and sensitive to the impact of describes in 1 Corinthians 9: 20–22 his flexible approach culture on themselves and those they hope to address. The in adapting to different audiences and types of people. many types of activity that a Christian educator might be Leading and influential contributions to an under- involved in, including proclamation and witness, worship standing of the relationship between faith and culture and service, nurture and liberation, constantly have to be may be found, from a Protestant perspective, in H. Rich- adjusted; as the surrounding culture changes, these activi- ard Niebuhr ([1951] 2001) and, from a Catholic perspec- ties are inevitably understood and expressed differently in tive, in Michael Paul Gallagher ([1997] 2004). Gerald a new mixtureContributor and set of priorities. Arbuckle (2010) provides a broad analytical overview Any particular culture finds itself constantly in flux, of the field, while Sedmak (2002) and Warren (1999) as it faces new questions, confronts fresh challenges, demonstrate how theory can feed into practice in specific negotiates internal disagreement, and encounters neigh- contexts. Each of these works is a source of useful insights bouring cultures. It may be said that each religious faith from which Christian educators can draw as they reflect constitutes a culture, growing out from its central beliefs on how the faith they strive to communicate and the and practices, and that this culture will usually be plural people they hope to engage can be brought into a mutu- in nature, because it has become embedded in diverse ally enriching encounter. 502 Faith Development

References and Resources and even the pre-seeker to develop a personal trust in Arbuckle, Gerald A. 2012. Culture, Inculturation, & Theolo- God, in His Word, and in His community of believers. gians. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. Various forces and negative experiences collaborate to Gallagher, Michael Paul. (1997) 2004. Clashing Symbols. An In- diminish or even undo that faith and to arrest its devel- troduction to Faith and Culture. London: Darton, Longman opment. This is often the focus of much preaching and & Todd; 2nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. instructional ministry within CE circles: to impede the Niebuhr, H. Richard. (1951) 2001. Christ and Culture. San effects of negative experiences on a person’s faith. Then Francisco, Harper & Row. CE seeks to cultivate positive and documented demon- Sedmak, Clemens. 2002. Doing Local Theology. Maryknoll, NY: strations of God’s faithfulness to His promises and to Orbis. form in the person a basis for believing God about those Warren, Michael. 1999. At This Time in This Place. Harrisburg, promises. This development of faith is assisted by many PA: Trinity Press International. tools and resources that CE in churches, on the mission —John Sullivan field, within communities, and within institutions of higher learning can access and exploit: printed, audio- visual, mission experiences, community living, outreach Faith Development and social justice endeavors, and so forth. Faith devel- opment is seen within CE not onlyOnly for its observable An almost innumerable multiplicity of writers have at- components, but also for its opportunity to engage active tempted to define “faith” in psychological, sociological, instruction and stimulation. and religious-community contexts, but Emory University Synonymous with “faith development” is the newer professor James Fowler ([1981] 1995) has offered a stan- term “spiritual formation,” which is seen as simply the dard definition: faith is “our way of finding coherence in progress of religion in the soul. Within the CE context and giving meaning to the multiple forces and relations and in the macro sense, Christian education is spiritual that make up our lives.” A seminal writer in this field, he formation in every possible aspect, meant to bring the hypothesized seven stages in the development of faith: whole person into subjection to Jesus Christ. infancy (undifferentiated), intuitive-projective, mythic- literal, synthetic-conventional, individuative-reflective, ReferencesCopy and Resources conjective, and universalizing, each stage building on Coyle, Adrian. 2011. “Critical Responses to Faith Development or altering a previous one. Coyle (2011) summarizes the Theory: A Useful Agenda for Change?” University of Sur- critical responses to Fowler’s theory and cites an over- rey. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/224286138 emphasis on cognition, lack of attention to emotional _Critical_responses_to_Faith_Development_Theory_A aspects, gender bias, cultural specificity, and other as- _useful_agenda_for_change. pects. However, many other writers (Powers, Sparkman, Fowler, James W. (1981) 1995. Stages of Faith: The Psychology Wilcox and Stephens) also see faith development as an of Human Development and the Quest for Meaning. New essentially linear progression, beginning in youth or early York: HarperCollins. adulthood and progressing through the various experi- Westerhoff, John H., III. 1976. Will Our Children Have Faith? ences of life, each stage adding maturity, learning, and New York: Seabury Press. adaptation. Westerhoff offers a more simplified outline, —Neil C. Damgaard including “affiliative,” “searching,” and “mature” expres- sions of faith: trustworthiness in others and God, critical judgment and experimentation, and finally a sense of Family personal union with God independent of the seeming contradictions between earlier stages. Dennis Dirks (Tal- Society rests on the institution of the family, a reality that bot) has written extensively in this area from an evangeli- has biological, racial, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural im- cal Christian education perspective. plications. The family supplies an environment in which ChristianContributor education’s application of faith develop- a child can grow and flourish in the presence of his kin, ment begins with the biblical statement “Faith is the against whom he can understand himself, learn, grow, assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things and achieve his true end. not seen” (Heb. 11:1). The development of faith and the A question arises about whether the family is merely a factors contributing to it vary widely depending on the socially constructed institution or biology, race, and kin- specific experiences and culture of the person being ob- ship play an essential role in the identity of the individual served. For Christian education (CE), the goal is to assist and often too in identifying peoples. If we assume that the child, the young adult, the mature adult, the seeker, society is more than a loose congregation of peoples, then Family 503 it will be more than a mere social contract as developed of intergenerational justice, biological connectedness by Hobbes, Rousseau, and others. should be respected.5 Central to traditional conceptions of the Christian Monogamy, as distinct from polygamy, is still deeply family is the concept of monogamy, with unity and indis- entrenched in the Christian tradition. It has long been held solubility of marriage (“What God hath joined together, that polygamy and polyandry undermine the dignity due let no man put asunder”: Matt. 19:6)1 ordered to the pro- to man and woman as parties to the marriage contract. The creation of children as key characteristics. Until recently, command “What God has joined together let no man put it was assumed that marriage was the indissoluble union asunder” (Mark 10:9) is still a central part of the marriage of a man and a woman for the procreation and educa- ceremony of many denominations, notwithstanding wide- tion of children. Traditional Christian teaching regarded spread changes of attitude and practice. marriage as, at least in part, ordered by God toward the Christian educators will find that with the continuing peaceful and secure generation of young. With the emer- fragmentation of the family, Christian teaching on mar- gence of new generations separated from their blood kin, riage and the family is likely to become ever more vital whether by mobility, divorce, or new reproductive tech- to the well-being of societies, particularly in view of the nologies, the natural tendency to see family as a natural as spiraling cost and sorrow for future generations. distinct from a socially constructed institution has come under threat. This notwithstanding, the traditional un- References and Resources Only derstanding of marriage is enjoying a revival of interest, Almond, Brenda. 2006. The Fragmenting Family. Oxford: Ox- particularly among survivors of postmodern interpreta- ford University Press. tions of the family and those concerned about the rising Aquinas, Thomas. 1920. The Summa Theologica of St. Thomas social cost and individual loss and sorrow associated with Aquinas Literally Translated by Fathers of the English Do- postmodern family life. minican Province. London: Burns Oates and Washbourne. Divorce and remarriage is the subject of continuing Archard, David. 1993. Children: Rights & Childhood. London: moral dispute. In ancient times, Tertullian opposed at- Routledge. tempts to regard marriage as dissoluble. He denounced Barnes, T. D. 1985. “Tertullian Revisited: A Postscript.” In second marriages, demanded chastity, and encouraged Tertullian: A Historical and Literary Study, edited by T. D. periodic sexual abstinence within marriage. In his De CopyBarnes, 111–27. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Monogamia, Tertullian described remarriage even more Cornes, A. 1993. Divorce & Remarriage: Biblical Principles & graphically as “adultery-in-series” (Mon. 4.3). For cen- Pastoral Practice. London: Hodder & Stoughton. turies, even after the Reformation, most denominations Harrington, J. F. 1995. Reordering Marriage and Society in Ref- permitted no divorce and only allowed legal separation of ormation Germany. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. spouses, even then only where one spouse had committed John Paul II. 1988. Mulieris Dignitatem. Apostolic Letter, 15 a grave sin, like adultery. Both parties remained legally August. married and therefore could not remarry. In his study of Laing, Jacqueline. 2006a. “Artificial Reproduction, Blood Relat- court records in Reformation Germany, where divorce edness and Human Identity.” Monist: International Journal was permitted, Joel Harrington establishes that “divorce of General Philosophical Enquiry 89: 548–567. was a relatively little exercised option.”2 Importantly, for ———. 2006b. “Law, Liberalism and the Common Good.” In Christians marriage is not the principal purpose of life in Human Values, edited by David S. Oderberg and T. D. J. any case. Traditionally, giving one’s life for the sake of the Chappell, 54–68. London: Macmillan. Kingdom (of God) is regarded as the highest form of life. Laing, Jacqueline A., and Russell Wilcox. 2013. The Natural Thus marriage is regarded as a public good for the rear- Law Reader. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. ing, flourishing, and education of children. Tertullian. 1884a. “De Exhortatione castitatis [trans. A. Cleve- Modern practice, however, appears to have overtaken land Coxe].” In Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 3, Latin Christianity: both history and interdenominational differences, most Its Founder, Tertullian. New York: Christian Literature Co. particularly in the Western world.3 Families are now re- ———. 1884b. “Liber de Monogamia [trans. A. Cleveland garded as socially constructed and shorn from their bio- Coxe].” In Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 3, Latin Christianity: Contributor4 logical roots. There are some who hold that for reasons Its Founder, Tertullian. New York: Christian Literature Co.

1. See also Marriage. 2. J. F. Harrington, Reordering Marriage and Society in Reformation Ger- Blood Relatedness and Human Identity,” Monist: International Journal of many (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 269. General Philosophical Enquiry 89 (2006a): 548–567. 3. Brenda Almond, The Fragmenting Family (Oxford: Oxford Univer- 5. Jacqueline A. Laing, “Law, Liberalism and the Common Good,” in sity Press, 2006). Human Values, ed. David S. Oderberg and T. D. J. Chappell (London Mac- 4. David Archard, Children: Rights & Childhood (London: Routledge, millan, 2006b); also in Jacqueline A. Laing and Russell Wilcox, The Natural 1993), 98–102. Contra see Jacqueline Laing, “Artificial Reproduction, Law Reader (Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2013). 504 Family Ministry

Westminster Confession of Faith. 1646. “Chapter 24, Of Mar- expecting and resourcing each family unit to become the riage and Divorce.” http://www.creeds.net/Westminster/c24 primary source of spiritual formation and education. .htm. An important question to ask when determining how Witte, John, Jr., and Joel A. Nichols. 2005. Covenantal Marriage to do family ministry in the local congregation is, what in Comparative Perspective. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. defines family? or more to the point, what is our theology —Jacqueline Laing of family? Although the historic church has painstakingly developed other categories of theology, such as a theol- ogy of salvation, theology of the church, or theological Family Ministry anthropology, all of which have a deep and rich history of theological reflection, this is not the case when it comes Family ministry may be the most misunderstood minis- to a theology of the family, being a relatively new area of try in the church today, and with good reason. The posi- theological reflection. tion of family minister and the practice of family ministry Ministry with families, or family ministry, in the local are relatively new phenomena that came about in the last church has come to be more associated with the social few decades of the 20th century. Events that contributed sciences than with theology. One reason for this is that to the need for a specific ministry with and to families in our culture traditionally defines family as a noun. In the the congregation occurred primarily due to cultural in- New Testament, family is primarilyOnly a verb rather than fluences and the church’s accommodation to/competition a noun. The infinitive form would be to family one an- with cultural changes. other. The focus is on how we as the people of God relate Family ministry has been defined as the process of to one another, in contrast with who we are when we intentionally and persistently realigning a congregation’s relate. Diana Garland refers to this as structural family proclamation and practices so that parents are acknowl- (noun) vs. functional family (verb).8 edged, trained, and held accountable as the persons pri- Yet another important direction to explore to better marily responsible for the discipleship of their children.6 understand how the church does ministry with, for, and The three primary models used in churches are often to the family is to see the whole of the Christian com- referred to as family-enriching, family-based, or family- munity as the family of God and the church as our first integrated. familyCopy, a term and idea championed by Rodney Clapp in The family-enriching model is designed primarily Families at the Crossroads (1993, IVP). around programs aimed at fixing families and enriching —Trevecca Okholm the nuclear family, such as marriage seminars, parenting classes, divorce recovery workshops, family devotions, and family fun nights. This model has also been referred Fasting as Christian Practice to as a therapeutic-counseling­ approach.7 It includes any services provided by a church or church agency, whether Fasting is a total or partial abstinence from food and by a helping professional or by a nonprofessional volun- drink for an unusual period, for a spiritual purpose. teer, which aim to strengthen the relationships between Prayer and worship usually accompany fasting. There are family members. generally three types of fasts: the normal fast, in which Another model has been referred to as the family-based there is no intake of food for a prescribed period of model, which is also referred to as the family-equipping or time, though the person may take liquids; the partial fast family-empowering model, designed with the expectation (sometimes called the Daniel fast from Daniel 10:2, 3), that every ministry in the church will consistently plan in which the person does eat but lives on a limited diet; learning experiences and activities that draw families and and the absolute fast, in which there is a total abstinence generations together. The family-based model was pio- from food and liquids in all forms. Biblical fasts varied in neered by Mark DeVries in Family-Based Youth Ministry length from one day (1 Sam. 14:24), to three days (Esther (IVP, 2004). 4:16), to seven days (1 Sam. 31:13), to forty days (Exod. The family-integratedContributor model, also known as family- 34:28; Matt. 4:2). driven or family discipleship approach, in its most radi- cal form, eliminates all age-graded classes and events, Fasting in Scripture The only prescribed regular Jewish fast day in the Old Testament law was the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:29– 6. Timothy Paul Jones, Perspectives on Family Ministry (Nashville, TN: B&H, 2009), 40. 7. Chap Clark, Youth Worker’s Handbook to Family Ministry (Nashville, 8. Diana Garland, Family Ministry: A Comprehensive Guide (Downers TN: Zondervan, 1997). Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2012). Fellowship 505

31, 23:26–32; Num. 29:7–11). However, the Jews later God’s guidance, and intervention remain valid for the seemed to observe annual fasts during the Babylonian believer today. Fasting is also practiced as a means of captivity (Zech. 7:1–7; 8:19). Fasting is associated in the gaining mastery over demons (Matt. 17:21; Mark 9:29), scriptures with while others fast in order to give the food that was saved (or its cost) to the poor. • repentance and prayers of confessions (1 Sam. 7:6; Fasting can be misused, however. It can potentially Jon. 3:4–9; Neh. 9:1–2); slide into an asceticism that erroneously (1) views God • mourning (1 Sam. 31:12–13; 2 Sam. 1:12; Neh. 1:4; as one who takes pleasure in our pain and suffering, (2) Esther 4:3); views the act of fasting as a means of earning merit with • seeking God’s protection or intervention (2 Sam. God instead of trusting Him to divinely empower us, and 12:15–17; 2 Chron. 20:2–4; Ezra 8:21; Esther 4:15– (3) views the body as inherently evil instead of recogniz- 16; Ps. 35:13–14); or ing that ours is an embodied spirituality. • seeking God’s leading and guidance (Judg. 20:26– Breaking long fasts is essential to its practice. It is 28; Deut. 9:9; Dan. 9:1–3, 20–23, 10:1–2, 12; Acts advisable to follow the “LLS” protocol when breaking 13:2–3). long fasts: eat less, eat liquids (or masticate thoroughly), and eat slowly. Contemporary fasting has been extended Fasting as an outward show of piety, or as a substitute beyond food and drink to suchOnly things as television, In- for genuine repentance, is condemned in scripture (Isa. ternet use, or social networking, with the understanding 58; Zech. 7:5; Matt. 6:16). Jesus fasted in preparation of fasting as abstinence from anything that is in itself for commencing His public ministry (Matt. 4:1–2), and legitimate, for a spiritual purpose. Fasting is not only a while He did not lay down any prescription or rule about profitable personal Christian practice, but also a useful fasting, He spoke about it in two contexts, according to part of healthy congregational life. the Gospel records: to warn against ostentatious religious fasting (Matt. 6:16–18) and to indicate that His disciples References and Resources would fast (Matt. 9:14–17). The early church also prac- Baab, L. M. 2006. Fasting: Spiritual Freedom Beyond our Ap- ticed fasting as a part of worship and during the commis- petites. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. sioning of leaders (Acts 13:2–3; 14:23). Berghuis,Copy K. D. 2002. “Christian Fasting: A Theological Ap- proach.” PhD diss., Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Fasting in Church History Deerfield. Early Jewish believers fasted twice a week and before Piper, J. 1997. A Hunger for God: Desiring God through Fasting baptisms (Didache 7:4; 8:1). By the second century, the and Prayer. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. church observed two fast days in the week of Easter. The Towns, E. 1996. Fasting for Spiritual Breakthrough. Ventura, church fathers taught about the values of fasting in sub- CA: Regal. duing the flesh, overcoming temptations, and cultivating Wallis, A. 1968. God’s Chosen Fast. Fort Washington, PA: CLC love and desire for God, and by the fourth century, they Publications. codified fasting into the seasonal cycles of the church, —Agametochukwu Iheanyi-Igwe and the 2 fast days before Easter were expanded to the 40 days of Lent. Fellowship Fasting as Christian Practice Fasting is typically approached today as a spiritual dis- The New Testament uses several Greek word groups for cipline, or as a means of securing divine intervention. fellowship. The root word is koinos (“common”) and in- Christian fasting should emphasize Christ, the bride- dicates the subjective sense of fellowship held in common groom who has now been taken away (Matt. 9:14–15); by Christians. The primary word is koinōneō (“to share thus while fasting, the believer should remember Christ, with someone, to take part together”) and its cognates. The imitate ContributorHim, and anticipate His return. This spiritual verbs metechō (“to have together, to partake”) and merizō discipline helps the Christian in the cultivation of virtues (“to share”) stress the concept of spiritual partnership (cf. like self-control, part of the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:23), the parallel usage of koinōnia, metochē, and meris in 2 Cor. and the mortification of sinful vices. Fasting can also 6:14–15). Several words have the syn- (“with”) prefix, since play a role in fighting the attachment to material things, fellowship is always life “to share with” or “to have with” which so characterizes us in this age, while nurturing a (in the sense of a partnership). Fellowship as the children desire for and a delight in God. Furthermore, its bibli- of God is the consequence of regeneration (2 Cor. 5:17; 1 cal associations (listed above) with repentance, seeking John 3:9) and is the practical expression of fellowship “with 506 Fellowship the Father, and with His Son Jesus Christ” (1 John 1:3, 6; cf. ephemeral instance of the early church sharing posses- John 17:3). Christians are “partakers of a heavenly calling” sions for the general good of the community of believers. and “partakers of Christ” (Heb. 3:1, 14); therefore, there Throughout the New Testament, stewardship of one’s is a community relationship that unites believers together possessions is both affirmed and assumed (cf. 1 Tim. in a spiritual partnership. The fellowship that regener- 6:17–19). Dedication to God results in being a wise stew- ated Christians experience is not limited to the present, ard to meet the needs of others (cf. Luke 13:10–17). Any but remains eternal and is consummated in heaven (Eph. community of teachers that is more dedicated to curricu- 2:19–22; Rev. 21:1–4). lum or programs should be regarded with caution. Any common meal (“breaking bread”) shared among The emphasis of Acts 2:41–47 is upon selfless shar- Christians is a form of koinōnia, for each believer then ing as an essential component of godly fellowship, and shares with the nothers in a reality that is external to all. thus this essential sharing together reflects the basic When a meal includes observance of the Lord’s Supper characteristics of the life of the church as a community (Communion), the depth of the koinōnia is strengthened of saints. The importance of godly fellowship cannot be by means of the elements that the ordinance represents. understated, especially within a community of students. Over time the Lord’s Supper became formalized (sacerdo- The majority of parents are apprehensive with regard tal), and New Testament doctrine with regard to priest- to negative peer influence, which is probably why many hood was applied to the Eucharist as a sacrifice; therefore parents decide to enroll their childrenOnly in formal Christian sharing a meal became secondary. The agape (Gk. “love”) schools or determine to homeschool. Nevertheless, the was the common meal of the early church (Acts 2:42–46, church is a body with both unity and diversity. There are 20:11; 1 Cor. 10:16, 11:24; [2 Pet. 2:13 in some MSS]; many ways in which students can work together produc- Jude 12) and was associated with the Lord’s Supper. Dur- tively. The “cooperative learning” approach emphasizes ing the third and fourth centuries of the church, the two the development of communication skills, team building, events became separated culturally, and the love feast was and thinking skills by means of community. often used for fellowship separated from the Lord’s Sup- The essential unity of the church exists in embracing per. The most notable instance of fellowship in the New the “varieties of gifts” and “varieties of ministries” as Testament is that which unites Jew and Greek, slave and belonging universally to “the same Lord” (1 Cor. 12:4–5). free man, and male and female in Christ Jesus to receive The practicalCopy expression of this unity is the foremost re- the same spiritual benefits (Gal. 3:28). sponsibility of the church and demands that the intricacy Although education is an exceptionally personal and of this fellowship be manifested in various forms. The private enterprise, those who teach and learn within elders bear the primary responsibility for determining almost all formal educational settings are a part of a and coordinating the many members and aspects of the community of people. Even in homeschool contexts, that ministry in a manner consistent with scripture. Parents group of people may only consist of family members; also bear responsibility for the propagation of moral and nevertheless, the group is still a community in fellowship spiritual values (Deut. 6:4–9). Not only must parents with one another. When learning occurs in the context of impart such ethics with earnestness and long-suffering, work within a community, people who are a part of that but they are also obligated to model the purpose of such fellowship will learn more effectively because they feel values. Parents are wise to meet together for the purpose comfortable and secure. Consequently, the community of encouragement, and the more they meet and mingle, provides significant fellowship in the quality of education the more the components of the educational responsibili- that a learner receives. Within the context of the educa- ties become a fellowship (cf. Heb. 3:13–19, 10:25). Fear tional setting, one may identify three specific fellowships of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom (Prov. 9:10), and that are essential for learning: (1) the fellowship of teach- then being in true fellowship with God, one’s ethics and ers (mentors); (2) the fellowship of fellow students; and obligations to others are to be continually modeled as es- (3) the fellowship of parents. sential to any fellowship. Acts 2:42–46 provides a fourfold description of edifi- cation (cf.Contributor Eph. 4:16) in the context of the local church: References and Resources teaching, fellowship, communion, and prayer. Fellowship Campbell, John Young. 1965. Three New Testament Studies. was an essential reason for the church to gather locally, Leiden: Brill. and this community would include those with the gift of Getz, Gene A. 1974. Sharpening the Focus of the Church. Chi- teaching, those who were learners, and those who were cago: Moody Press. physical/spiritual parents. A primary component of this Johnson, Luke Timothy. 1999. The Writings of the New Testa- fellowship was sharing together. Acts 2:41–47 reveals the ment: An Interpretation. Rev. ed. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress voluntary allotment among those in Jerusalem; it was an Press, 1999. Field Experiences/Practicums 507

Kittel, Gerhard, ed. 1964–1976. Theological Dictionary of the to the experiences of ministry, the arenas for theologi- New Testament. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 10 cal reflection on practice are crucial. There are generally vols. 2:830–832; 3:789–809. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. three opportunities available on a regular basis to the Martin, Ralph Philip. 1979. The Family and the Fellowship: New student, each offering its own support and expertise. Testament Images of the Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerd- Students are assigned a site supervisor, who not only mans Publishing Paternoster. directs the student’s work and skill evaluation, but is in —Ron J. Bigalke some way endorsed by the seminary and denominational body for engagement in formation through theological reflection on the shared practice of ministry. In addition, Field Experiences/Practicums the student also meets with members or participants in the ministry setting who are trained by the seminary as A fundamental and defining piece of the preparation cultural interpreters, for support and encouragement. for ministry shared by seminary and church or ministry The third component is a group of peers who function agency is field education. In the Degree Program Stan- as support and colearners with the student. In the clini- dards of the Association of Theological Schools, the ecol- cal pastoral care setting, these peer groups are generally ogy of the master of divinity and other master’s degrees formed of those engaged in the on-site cohort that is a that focus on specialized ministries such as pastoral care hallmark of the program. Ministry-in-contextOnly students or spiritual formation share this distinguishing and for- meet peer groups as part of the seminary class curricu- mative program: lum, and interns either meet in regional groups or return to the seminary at regular intervals for meetings.11 The program shall provide opportunities for education Although the scheme of field education outlined in through supervised experiences in ministry. These expe- this article is largely a model found in the United States, riences should be of sufficient duration and intensity to the patterns of field education throughout the world have provide opportunity to gain expertise in the tasks of min- similar components. The emphasis on a variety of expe- isterial leadership within both the congregation and the broader public context and to reflect on interrelated theo- riences of a cross-cultural and global nature, which are logical, cultural, and experiential learning. . . . Qualified becoming critical to the formation of pastors and other persons shall be selected as field supervisors and trained specializedCopy ministries to meet the challenges of a global- in supervisory methods and the educational expectations izing world and the church that serves within it in a wide of the institution. . . . The institution shall have estab- variety of ministries. lished procedures for selection, development, evaluation, and termination of supervised ministry settings. . . . In a References and Resources program of study that might lead to licensure or certifica- The Association of Clinical Pastoral Education. n.d. http:// tion by a professional or ecclesiastical authorizing author- acpeacademy.org. Accessed 25 March 2013. www.acpe.edu. ity, practica and other requirements should conform to Association of Theological Schools. 2012. “Educational and generally accepted standards of the area of specialty.9 Degree Program Standards,” sections A & B. www.ats.edu/ Denominational requirements for the location, duration, Accrediting/Documents/DegreeProgramStandards.pdf. type, and number of placements vary in expectation re- Flooding, Matthew, ed. 2011. Welcome to Theological Field garding these immersions, given the vocational direction Education! Herndon, VA: Alban. toward ordination or other specialized ministry. Gener- Jenkins, David O., and P. Alice Rogers, eds. 2010. Equipping the ally, the categories are internships, wherein the student Saints. Cleveland: Pilgrim Press. is away from the seminary for a period of time and fully The Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago. n.d. “Field Ed.” immersed in the field site; ministry-in-context, which en- Accessed 31 March 2013. www.lstc.edu/academics/field-ed. gages the student in a ministry site while attending other Manabat, Christina. 2007. “Theological Field Education: To- classes toward the completion of the degree; and clinical ward a Holistic and Transformative Ministerial Formation pastoral education.10 and Ministry in the Philippines.” PhD diss., Garrett-Evan- FieldContributor education experiences or practica are intended gelical Theological Seminary. to be reflective ministry under supervision. In addition 11. Each seminary or denomination has specific requirements that are 9. Association of Theological Schools, “Educational and Degree Pro- best accessed through its website. A model is The Lutheran School of The- gram Standards,” sections A & B, 2012, www.ats.edu/Accrediting/Docu ology at Chicago, “Field Ed,” www.lstc.edu/academics/field-ed (accessed 31 ments/DegreeProgramStandards.pdf. March 2013). For a denominational example, see The Unitarian-Univer- 10. The Association for Clinical Pastoral Education, Inc., www.acpe.edu salist Association, “The Internship Clearinghouse,” www.uua.org/careers/ (accessed 25 March 2013). ministers/becoming/internships/index.shtml (accessed 31 March 2013). 508 Film as Christian Practice

Mason, George. 2012. Preparing the Pastors We Need: Reclaim- French cinematic short, La Passion (1897), and short ing the Congregation’s Role in Training Clergy. Herndon, VA: films about passion plays in Oberammergau, Bavaria, Alban. and Horitz, Bohemia, feature films addressing the cen- The Unitarian-Universalist Association. n.d. “The Internship tral character of Jesus have populated cinema for gen- Clearinghouse.” Accessed 31 March 2013. www.uua.org/ erations.17 Christian educators will find a rich resource careers/ministers/becoming/internships/index.shtml. of film criticism on the many treatments of Christ —Mark Fowler and other biblical narratives in cinema.18 Historically, Christians tend to approach film primarily like read- ing a “text,” rather than engaging the total art form.19 Film as Christian Practice Often Christianity demonstrates a real concern with the “story” or narrative communicated by the film alongside The advent of the motion picture via film initiated a specific symbols or sayings resident within the story. media form unlike any other of its day, save the more This concern remains a plausible approach, since usu- traditional theater. In other words, film allows for the ally film might be considered more a recording or rep- mixture of multiple mediated forms (sound and sight) resentational art form.20 Some criticisms involve finding to communicate a compelling narrative as either a docu- analogical connections between traditional cinematic mentary or fictional account. Optical illusions such as narratives and scripture or generalOnly theology.21 In similar zoetrope or stereoscope set the stage for the early advent fashion, Christian educators use cinema excerpts either of cinema (c. 1896), which ultimately evolved into a full for teaching or spiritual formation via meditating on economic art form with the advent of feature-length short vignettes.22 Christian educators may also discover films.12 As an art form, the overall dynamics of film critiques of the film industry as a whole, which often include not only the narrative discourse (either in docu- take issue with the portrayal of religious people through mentary or fictional narrative), but also image (texture, the medium or with their exclusion.23 frame, and composition), sound, pacing (editing), effects, Unfortunately, the treatment of film as “text” alone projection, and the participation of the audience.13 Al- does not always serve either critical analysis or appre- though it was originally assumed that film would not last, ciation. Understanding the full range of the art form re- the growth of the industry and its transportation to other quiresCopy a greater knowledge of the other representational media forms like video and television remind Christian forms resident within the medium. Also, the medium educators of its power and ubiquity as a mediated form engenders an experience through audience participation of storytelling. Colin McGinn argues that films prove so powerful because they overlap in the brain with regions 14 17. Lloyd Baugh, Imaging the Divine: Jesus and Christ-Figures in Film at work during sleeping dreams. Beyond psychological (Franklin, WI: Sheed & Ward, 1997), 8–9; and W. Barnes Tatum, Jesus at conditions, Flesher and Torry note that filmmaking also the Movies: A Guide to the First Hundred Years, rev. and exp. (Santa Rosa, CA: Polebridge Press, 2004), 2–3. emerged during a time of American exceptionalism and 18. Barbara Bach, ed., Biblical Glamor and Hollywood Glitz, Simeia, American millennialism, themes that set a socioreligious Society of Biblical Literature 74 (Newberg, OR: Barclay Press, 1996); J. context for the industry during its infancy.15 While later Stephen Lang, The Bible on the Big Screen: A Guide from Silent Films to Today’s Movies (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2007); and Richard C. filmmaking avoided religious, particularly Christian, Stern, Clayton N. Jefford, and Guerric Debona, Savior on the Silver Screen narratives, Christian educators should note that films (New York: Paulist Press, 1999). contain both personal and sociological implications. The 19. Christopher Deacy, “Paradise Lost or Paradise Learned? Sin and Sal- vation in Pleasantville,” in Mediating Religion: Conversations in Media, Re- medium of film, and its industry, combine in any dis- ligion and Culture, ed. Jolyon Mitchell and Sophia Marriage (London: T & cussion of the values of film either through explicit film T Clark, 2003); Grant Horner, Meaning At the Movies: Becoming a Discern- ing Viewer (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2010); Jörg Hermann, “From Popular criticism or critical investigation of film production as to Arthouse: An Analysis of Love and Nature as Religious Motifs in Recent cultural products.16 Cinema,” in Mediating Religion, ed. Mitchell and Marriage, 189–199; John Christian educators should note the rich heritage R. May, ed., Image & Likeness: Religious Vision in American Film Classics (New York: Paulist Press, 1992); and Robert K. Johnston, Reel Spirituality: of the Christian story and cinema. Beginning with the Theology and Film in Dialogue (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2000). 20. Monaco, How to Read Ad Film, 27. Contributor 21. George Aichele and Richard Walsh, eds., Screening Scripture: Inter- 12. James Monaco, How to Read Ad Film: Movies, Media, Multimedia, textual Connections between Scripture and Film (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 228–230, 570–578. International Press, 2002); and Adele Reinhartz, Scripture on the Silver 13. Ibid., 22–228. Screen (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003). 14. Colin McGinn, The Power of Movies: How Screen and Mind Interact 22. Bryan Belknap, Group’s Blockbuster Movie Illustrations (Loveland, (New York: Pantheon Books, 2005), 13–14, 134–138. CO: Group Publishing, 2001); Edward McNulty, Praying the Movies II: 15. Paul V. M. Flesher and Robert Torry, Film & Religion: An Introduc- More Daily Meditations from Classic Films (Louisville, KY: Westminster tion (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2007), 6–10. John Knox Press, 2003). 16. Margaret R. Miles, Seeing and Believing: Religion and Values in the 23. Michael Medved, Hollywood vs. America: Popular Culture and the Movies (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 5–25. War on Traditional Values (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), 37–94. Film as Christian Practice 509 when watching a film. This participation incorporates Bach, Barbara, ed. 1996. Biblical Glamour and Hollywood Glitz. implicit performative practices and reactions, mirroring Society of Biblical Literature, Simeia, 74. Newberg, OR: Bar- similar experiences engaged in worship and devotion.24 clay Press. For instance, Mel Gibson’s highly controversial film, The Baugh, Lloyd. 1997. Imaging the Divine: Jesus and Christ- Passion of the Christ, proved quite successful for Ameri- Figures in Film. Franklin, WI: Sheed & Ward. can evangelicals as well as Roman Catholics.25 One reason Belknap, Bryan. 2001. Group’s Blockbuster Movie Illustrations. for the film’s success was the dominant evangelical theme Loveland, CO: Group. of substitutionary atonement (evident in music and Flesher, Paul V. M., and Robert Torry. 2007. Film & Religion: preaching in that tradition), which existed alongside an An Introduction. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. emphasis on the Catholic practice of the Stations of the Gibson, Mel. 2004. The Passion of the Christ. Definitive ed. Cross.26 Evangelicals and Catholics in viewing audiences DVD. Hollywood: 20th Century Fox. appreciated the film from quite disparate perspectives as Gilmour, Peter. 2005. “Text and Context: The Passion of the they “participated” in the thematic emphases reflective of Christ and Other Jesus Films.” Religious Education 100 (3): their respective worship traditions. 311–325. Christian educators should approach film also as a Horner, Grant. 2010. Meaning at the Movies: Becoming a Dis- practice. For instance, there is a real heritage of film cerning Viewer. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. production and festival promotion within a number of Johnston, Robert K. 2000. Reel Spirituality: Theology and Film 27 Only denominations and traditions. In addition, Christian in Dialogue. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. educators might explore the role of Christians within the Lang, J. Stephen. 2007. The Bible on the Big Screen: A Guide current filmmaking community.28 Often overlooked is from Silent Films to Today’s Movies. Grand Rapids, MI: the power of documentary films both in communicating Baker Books. specific concerns and in illuminating Christian action Lewerenz, Spencer, and Barbara Nicolosi, eds. 2005. Behind the globally. While other media forms have replaced film as Screen: Hollywood Insiders on Faith, Film and Culture. Grand a method of producing local documentaries, the history Rapids, MI: Baker Books. and teaching of documentary film techniques may serve Lindvall, Terry. 2007. Sanctuary Cinema: Origins of the Chris- educational efforts by turning Christians into producers tian Film Industry. New York: New York University Press. as well as consumers of cinema. Lindvall,Copy Terry, and Andrew Quicke. 2008. “Moving from Film to Digital Movies.” In Understanding Evangelical Media: References and Resources The Changing Face of Christian Communication, edited by Aichele, George, and Richard Walsh, eds. 2002. Screening Scrip- Quentin Schultze and Robert H. Woods Jr., 58–79. Downer’s ture: Intertextual Connections between Scripture and Film. Grove, IL: IVP Academic. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity International Press. May John R., ed. 1992. Image & Likeness: Religious Vision in American Film Classics. New York: Paulist Press. McGinn, Colin. 2005. The Power of Movies: How Screen and Mind Interact. New York: Pantheon Books. 24. Steve Nolan, “Towards a New Religious Film Criticism: Using Film McNulty, Edward. 2003. Praying the Movies II: More Daily to Understand Religious Identity Rather Than Locate Cinematic Ana- logue,” in Mediating Religion, ed. Mitchell and Marriage, 169–178. Meditations from Classic Films. Louisville, KY: Westminster 25. Peter Gilmour, “Text and Context: The Passion of the Christ and John Knox Press. Other Jesus Films,” Religious Education 100, no. 3 (Summer 2005): 311– Medved, Michael. 1992. Hollywood vs. America: Popular Culture 325; Lang, Bible on the Big Screen, 22–25. 26. Mel Gibson, prod., The Passion of the Christ, definitive ed. DVD and the War on Traditional Values. New York: HarperCollins. (Hollywood, CA: 20th Century Fox, 2004). Note that this second DVD in- Miles, Margaret R. 1996. Seeing and Believing: Religion and cludes supplementary documentaries on paintings of the passion of Christ as well as a specific documentary describing the stations of the cross and its Values in the Movies. Boston: Beacon Press. procession through Jerusalem. Mitchell, Jolyon, and Sophia Marriage, eds. 2003. Mediating 27. Terry Lindvall, Sanctuary Cinema: Origins of the Christian Film Religion: Conversations in Media, Religion and Culture. Lon- Industry (New York: New York University Press, 2007); Terry Lindvall and Andrew Quicke, “Moving from Film to Digital Movies,” in Understanding don: T & T Clark. Evangelical Media: The Changing Face of Christian Communication, ed. Monaco, James. 2000. How to Read Ad Film: Movies, Media, Quentin SchultzeContributor and Robert H. Woods Jr. (Downer’s Grove, IL: IVP Aca- demic, 2008); Gaye Ortiz, “The Catholic Church and Its Attitude to Film Multimedia. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. as an Arbiter of Cultural Meaning,” in Mediating Religion, ed. Mitchell and Scott, Jamie S. 2008. “Missions and Film.” International Bul- Marriage; Esther P. Wipfler, Martin Luther in Motion Pictures: History of letin of Missionary Research 32 (3): 115–120. a Metamorphosis (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011), 108–117; Jamie S. Scott, “Missions and Film,” International Bulletin of Missionary Stern, Richard C., Clayton N. Jefford, and Guerric Debona. Research 32, no. 3 (July 2008): 115–120. 1999. Savior on the Silver Screen. New York: Paulist Press. 28. Spencer Lewerenz and Barbara Nicolosi, eds., Behind the Screen: Hollywood Insiders on Faith, Film and Culture (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Reinhartz, Adele. 2003. Scripture on the Silver Screen. Louis- Books, 2005). ville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. 510 Finland and Christian Education

Tatum, W. Barnes. (1997) 2004. Jesus at the Movies: A Guide to public education in terms of teacher training, syllabus, the First Hundred Years, Revised and Expanded. Santa Rosa, supervision, or textbooks. CA: Polebridge Press. Freedom of religion and conscience is guaranteed Wipfler, Esther P. 2011. Martin Luther in Motion Pictures: His- under the Finnish Constitution. It prohibits discrimi- tory of a Metamorphosis. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck nation based on religion and guarantees the rights to & Ruprecht. profess and practice a religion, to express a conviction, —Dean Blevins and to belong or not to belong to a religious community. The Religious Freedom Act (6.6.2003/453) supports and emphasizes the positive right and duty to receive reli- Finland and Christian Education gious instruction in comprehensive and upper secondary schools. One cannot be forced to attend religious-based Christian influences reached the Finnish area from both activities or worship against one’s conscience. the West and the East in the 11th century. Orthodox Among the general pedagogical principles, RE em- Christianity spread to Karelia and Southeast Finland phasizes narrative methods, discussions, and use of the from the Novgorod principality during the 11th century. senses, combined with experience-based learning. Since The first document referring to Christianity in Finland 2000 technology and the Internet have been used for RE is a papal bull from Pope Alexander III in 1171. Accord- as well, to a limited extent (e.g., www.ortoweb.fi).Only ing to some accounts, Christianity was known in the —Risto Aikonen southwest parts of Finland (along the coast) as early as the sixth–seventh centuries. As a part of Sweden, Finland was a Roman Catholic country until the acceptance of Fordham University Lutheranism in 1593. Finland is a Protestant country. In 2012 most of the History population of 5.4 million people belonged to the Evan- Called St. John’s College until 1907, Fordham University gelical Lutheran Church (76 percent). The Orthodox was founded in 1841 by John Hughes (later archbishop) Church has about 60,000 members (1 percent of the of New York. Initially intended to teach underserved population). At the end of 2012 there were about 50,000 CatholicCopy youth and to train future priests, Fordham Muslims and 12,000 Catholics. There are also represen- (Anglo-Saxon derivation: a wading place by a settlement) tatives of various Protestant denominations, sects, and soon distinguished itself as the first Catholic institution of movements inside the Lutheran Church. Overall there higher learning in the northeast United States. Fordham are 45 religious communities recognized as churches by University is a vibrant example of Catholic Jesuit identity, the government. About 20 percent of the population does rigorous academics, commitment to the complementar- not have any religious affiliation. ity of faith and reason, and the promotion of education The main way to receive religious instruction is for service and justice. With its distinctive Jesuit mission through the compulsory education in public schools. In of cura personalis (educating the whole person) in body, addition, there are Sunday schools, confirmation schools, mind, and spirit, Fordham University’s motto sapientia and summer camps organized by churches. Adult edu- et doctrina (wisdom and teaching) points to its charge to cation is available in catechetical meetings, seminars, transform young women and men by exploring questions lectures, and pilgrimages organized by Christian-based of intellectual, ethical, spiritual, and civic responsibility in organizations. a nearly 500-year Jesuit tradition of excellence. Religious education (RE) at schools is organized ac- Fordham’s chapel bells are said to have inspired cording to the major denomination of the pupils. It is Edgar Allan Poe’s poem “The Bells.” Members of called “school’s general RE” and is based on Lutheranism. Fordham’s faculty have included professor and psycho- If in the area of a municipality or other unit of education analyst Carl Jung and Nobel Prize–winning physicist there is a minimum of three Orthodox children, instruc- Victor Hess. Its notable alumni/ae include actor Alan tion must Contributorbe provided for them. It is not necessary for Alda, CIA director John Brennan, author Mary Higgins the parents to request this instruction, as it is for other Clark, politician Geraldine Ferraro, television’s Bob minorities. Curricula have been accepted by the National Keeshan (“Captain Kangaroo”), football legend Vince Board of Education for 13 religions, including Christian Lombardi, Hall of Fame announcer Vince Scully, and and “none.” The instruction applies the principles of actor Denzel Washington. Home to one of the nation’s teaching from a religion and is connected to the tradition oldest radio stations on the FM dial, WFUV 90.7 (“The of that religion. The churches are not involved in RE in Voice of Fordham”), Fordham University has more Forgiveness 511 than 125,000 living alumni/ae worldwide representing Forgiveness many occupational fields. As one of the inherent themes of the Gospels, forgive- Academics ness is foundational to the Christian path of formation. Fordham University is comprised of 10 schools: four In Luke and Matthew, when Jesus teaches His disciples undergraduate (Fordham College at Rose Hill, Gabelli to pray the original form of what many Christians now School of Business, Fordham College at Lincoln Center, know as the Lord’s Prayer, forgiveness is at the heart of School of Professional and Continuing Studies); five the prayer along with pleas for God’s future to fall upon graduate (Arts and Sciences, Business, Education, Reli- us quickly and daily sustenance (Luke 11:1–4; Matt. gion and Religious Education, Social Service); and one 6:9–13). In addition, the call to love extends not only to professional (Law). It has three main campuses (Rose God and one’s neighbors, but to one’s enemies as well Hill, Lincoln Center, Westchester), as well as a biological (Matt. 4:43–47; Luke 6:27–28, 35). That God would make field station in Armonk. Fordham now educates roughly such a request of us suggests that this act is not something 15,000 students per year, mandates a comprehensive core that we can accomplish with a cursory nod in the direc- curriculum of studies, has a male:female ratio of 46:54, is tion of an offender, or something we ourselves might ask Carnegie Classified as a “High Research Activity Univer- from another with little thought given to the offense or sity,” and offers undergraduate and graduate degrees and the consequences of the offense,Only but an action that, when certificates in more than 100 specialized areas. done with prayerful intention, offers a defining opportu- nity in our Christian life of faith. Jesuit Philosophy of Education Ultimately, forgiveness comes from God, to us, through Fordham University is one of the 28 Jesuit universities God’s grace. This grace is freely given, flowing from a and colleges in the United States whose educational radically incarnational God who seeks to connect with us philosophy stems from St. Ignatius of Loyola, founder in a way that removes all shame and guilt, as these would of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) in 1540. Renowned for only obstruct the communion of love that God seeks to its strong commitment to rigorous academic study and experience with us. In the Gospels Jesus invites us to critical faith formation, Jesuit education is ultimately continue in this grace, and God’s forgiveness for us is about transformation. It proceeds by way of an unapolo- extendedCopy to forgiveness for others. This is what it means getic Christian critical realism: to be meaningfully in the to follow Jesus, to be a forgiven people who then forgive. world, but not of the world. Jesuit education challenges However, for this process to continue in the same its students intellectually, ethically, and spiritually to un- spirit, for us to forgive as God forgives us, the forgiveness derstand and transform the world. Practically speaking, must be given freely in a spirit of love. Unfortunately, in this is accomplished by reading, thinking, and writing the course of Christian history, the importance of this oneself into greater clarity of mind and heart. Jesuit edu- teaching has contributed to situations in which indi- cation is ethical education, not simply data dissemina- viduals and groups have experienced both explicit and tion. It teaches one to conceptualize and abstract, not to implicit coercion to forgive before healing has occurred. remain in the realm of metaphysics alone, but in order to In these situations, a false forgiveness only increases the return to the concrete self more clarified. power imbalance between the person or people causing the offense and those who have been harmed. As an act References and Resources from and of God, forgiveness should not contribute to Byron, W. J., SJ. 2000. Jesuit Saturdays: Sharing the Ignatian injustice in the world, but in every step should illuminate Spirit with Lay Colleagues and Friends. Chicago: Loyola God’s presence that offers healing, and ultimately resur- Press. rection, through love. Gannon, R. I ., SJ. 1967. Up to the Present: The Story of Ford- Forgiveness in the spirit of Jesus’s teaching in the Gos- ham. New York: Doubleday & Co. Inc. pels, then, is one in which a process occurs that respects Hennessy, T. C., SJ, ed. 1998. Fordham: The Early years. New the need to articulate the wounding that has happened York:Contributor Fordham University Press. and offers these broken spaces to God for healing. It is Schroth, R. A., SJ. 2008. Fordham: A History and Memoir. rev. from this space of healing and new life that true forgive- ed. New York: Fordham University Press. ness arises, without coercion, as a gift of wholeness to the Traub, G. W., SJ. 2008. A Jesuit Education Reader. Chicago: wounded that is then passed on in the form of forgiveness Loyola Press. to those who have offended. While there are many ways to engage in this spiritual http://www.fordham.edu/discover_fordham/facts_26604.asp practice of forgiveness, compassion-based contemplative —Robert J. Parmach practices offer a gentle and respectful way to enter into 512 Foster, Richard J. this process. It is in prayer that we can hold these broken Malcolm, Lois, and Janet Ramsey. 2006. “Teaching and Learn- spaces with gentleness and compassion, honestly tending ing Forgiveness: A Multidimensional Approach.” Teaching to the emotions that arise when considering the wound- Theology & Religion 9: 175–185. edness within, and then invite God to also tend to these Rogers, Frank. Forthcoming. The Compassion Practice: Cali- places with healing and love. Only after we have offered brating Our Lives to the Heartbeat of Love. Nashville, TN: this compassionate space to ourselves, knowing God is Upper Room. with us, can we begin to open this space to those we wish Wahking, Harold. 1992. “Spiritual Growth Through Grace to forgive. It is here that we can allow God’s grace to and Forgiveness.” Journal of Psychology and Christianity 11: flow in forgiveness to another, and it is also here that we 198–206. can revisit when we have a sense that we need to return —Karri Backer to prayer for further healing. Patience and practice are fundamental to this process, as they are with all spiritual practices, and over time our souls become a place from Foster, Richard J. which forgiveness arises authentically. These same compassion-based contemplative practices Richard Foster was born on 3 May 1942 in Albuquerque, can also provide a path for those of us that seek forgive- New Mexico. He lived in several other states as he grew ness, as we sit in prayer with these broken spaces within up, which no doubt contributedOnly to his later ability to us, spaces from which offenses are born. In our regret, speak to the spiritual hungers of a variety of people and guilt and shame are often the only responses that seem cultures, including the Native American race and cul- appropriate when we have harmed another, but a re- tures, with which he shares blood relations and a great sponse that allows us to sit in the shower of God’s grace is interest in their heritage and spirituality. He accepted one we are called to as Christians, and this response is one Christ as a teenager, in what he refers to as his “trans- that leads to a path of healing that is ultimately necessary forming commitment.” That foundation moved him to to truly accept this grace, forgive ourselves, and request respond to God’s call to ministry and to earn his BA in forgiveness from another. Within this framework, one religion and philosophy from George Fox College in 1964 can sit in prayer and bring the offense to God, seeking to and his doctor of pastoral theology in 1970 from Fuller understand not only the pain it may have caused another, TheologicalCopy Seminary. He married Carolynn in 1967, and but also the dynamics of why we committed the offense, they are the parents of two sons. During these years, he within a compassionate space. It is from this place that served variously as a youth minister, associate pastor, and we can seek God’s forgiveness, as we forgive ourselves. pastor in the Friends Church, and then as a professor at In time we may ask forgiveness from the person we have Friends University in Wichita, Kansas. offended, while also remembering that authentic forgive- Foster became one of the best-known writers on the ness does not progress along a linear timeline that is Christian spiritual life when his book, Celebration of Dis- comfortable for everyone involved, and that our offers at cipline, was published in 1978. For the next 10 years, he reconciliation may not be accepted. taught courses related to Christian spirituality at Friends As one of the main components of Christianity, the University and also short-term courses at other institu- spiritual practice of forgiveness originates from a deep tions. He was, and still is, a widely sought after speaker place within our souls. Growth into this practice can, and at conferences and retreats. Many of his writings are ar- should, take time and cultivation, and is not something chived on the Renovare website (www.renovare.org) and that can be entered into or offered lightly. When we also on his personal website (www.richardjfoster.com). accept this invitation, however, we are offered a place In 1988, Richard made the decision to begin a spiri- within God’s own self, as we learn to pass on what has tual formation ministry called Renovare. From the be- been given to us by God, and as we engage in the heart of ginning, it was a team effort, drawing on the expertise of what it means to be followers of Jesus. men and women like Dallas Willard, Emilie Griffin, and James Bryan Smith. Through major conferences and a ReferencesContributor and Resources variety of published resources, Renovare quickly be- Countryman, William L. 2005. “Forgiveness.” In The New came, and has remained, one of the primary sources for Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, edited by biblical, theological, and practical perspectives on the Philip Sheldrake, 308–309. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Christian spiritual life. A visit to the Renovare website Knox Press. reveals the depth and breadth of the ministry and the Linn, Dennis, Sheila Fabricant Linn, and Matthew Linn, SJ. materials that are available to assist individuals, groups, 1997. Don’t Forgive Too Soon: Extending the Two Hands That and congregations in the formation of the “with-God Heal. New York: Paulist Press. life” (Immanuel Principle), which has become the core Fowler, James 513 concept for all that Renovare does. Foster further inter- ———, et al. 2005. The Renovare Spiritual Formation Bible. San prets this as the life that Jesus lived, commended, and Francisco: Harper Bibles. (Renamed The Life with God Bible.) commissioned His followers to live through six identifi- ———, with Kathryn Helmers. 2008. Life with God. San Fran- able expressions: the Prayer-Filled Life (Contemplative cisco: HarperOne. Tradition), the Virtuous Life (Holiness Tradition), —Steve Harper the Spirit-Empowered Life (Charismatic Tradition), the Compassionate Life (Social Justice Tradition), the Word-Centered Life (Evangelical Tradition), and the Foundation University Sacramental Life (the Incarnational Tradition). All of this is designed to illustrate the abundant life that Jesus Foundation University, established in 2006, is a small said He came to give (John 10:10). Christian, nongovernmental university based in Amster- Richard’s most ambitious project to date has been dam, The Netherlands. Its vision is to realize justice in overseeing the development and publication of the Ren- higher education by distributing knowledge equally and ovare Spiritual Formation Bible. Engaging the expertise affordably to all peoples. It offers Christian education, and contributions of approximately 50 scholars, this especially for those who cannot access higher education edition of the scriptures bears page-after-page witness for economic or political reasons. This vision is being to the formative dimensions of the Bible. Alongside it, achieved through hybrid education:Only distance education the Devotional Classics and Spiritual Classics workbooks and classical education in extension centers such as take the biblical principles and show how they have been churches and schools. The mission of Foundation Uni- expressed by men and women across the centuries of versity is to provide education for the full development Christianity. When scripture and tradition are combined of the human personality and to strengthen respect for with the contemporary writings and resources of the human rights and fundamental freedoms. It promotes Renovare team, it’s easy to see the holistic and classical understanding, tolerance, and friendship among racial or (orthodox) nature of Richard’s life and ministry, which religious/denominational groups. has now become global and ecumenical. The university offers tuition free education for mi- Richard recently retired from being the point person grants with low income, refugees, missionaries with lim- for Renovare, although his influence as the founder will itedCopy resources, as well as the citizens of countries where last as long as he lives. His son, Nathan, is becoming Christianity is restricted or persecuted. The staff and increasingly involved, moving the influence of Renovare faculty of Foundation University are all volunteers. into a new and younger generation. Other new faces and voices are joining the team and both carrying on and ex- Membership panding the vision and mission of Renovare. Foundation University is a member of Global Universities Richard Foster’s influence on Christian education in Distance Education (Italy) and the European Evangeli- is incalculable, largely due to the impact of his writing cal Accrediting Association (Italy), and through the latter and to the related ministry resources that Renovare has membership it is affiliated with the International Council produced for use in local churches. The curriculum in- for Evangelical Theological Education (USA). Founda- cludes both foundational resources and elective studies tion University is accredited by the International Council that can ignite and mature personal faith, as well as foster for Higher Education (Switzerland and India). the development of an intentional ministry of Christian formation in the congregation. These ministries and re- Schools and Programs sources are clearly educational in terms of both personal The university has three schools: School of Divinity, and social holiness, rooted in the development of Christ- School of Global Studies, and School of Integrated like disciples who live their faith in the kingdom, church, Human Rights. Programs offered include diploma, cer- and world. tificate, and bachelor’s and master’s degrees, through both distance education and classical education. ReferencesContributor and Resources —Samuel Lee Foster, Richard. 1978. Celebration of Discipline. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. (Several revisions have been issued since the original edition was published.) Fowler, James ———. 1992. Prayer: Finding the Heart’s True Home. San Fran- cisco: HarperSanFrancisco. Early Background and Education ———. 1998. Streams of Living Water. San Francisco: Harper- James Wiley Fowler III is an American sociologist of re- SanFrancisco. ligion and ethicist born into a Methodist pastor’s family 514 Fowler, James in Reidsville, North Carolina, in 1940. Fowler completed pastoral counselors, as well as many outside the church, degrees at Duke University (1962), Drew Theological think about human religious development and how they Seminary (1965), and Harvard University (1971).29 Fol- practice their respective vocations. Working from theo- lowing a short stint as associate director of Interpreters logical premises drawn from Paul Tillich, H. Richard House (1968–1969), he taught at Boston College and Niebuhr, and William Cantrell Smith, Fowler posited an Harvard University Divinity School. During his time at understanding of faith as “a human universal.”31 Even for Harvard, Fowler was introduced to Lawrence Kohlberg those who cannot explicitly embrace Fowler’s theological and his theory and research on moral development. He vision, his work has propelled questions about the inter- pursued postdoctoral studies at the Center for Moral relationship of human growth, psychological develop- Development at the Harvard Graduate School of Educa- ment, and social experience with Christian formation to tion (1971–1972), taught applied theology, and directed the forefront of discussion and publication. a research project on faith and moral development at While Fowler is widely credited with bringing a help- Harvard Divinity School (1969–1975). He moved on ful perspective on faith as universal, more than belief, to Boston College (1975–1976) before beginning his experiential, and varying in conceptions of its maturity, long teaching and research career at Emory University’s there has certainly also been much critical dialogue about Candler School of Theology (1977). Fowler was named his faith development theory. No fewer than four vol- the Charles Howard Candler Professor of Theology and umes addressing criticisms and implicationsOnly of his work Human Development in 1987 and was for many years have been published. As often occurs, the conversation director of the Center for Research in Faith and Moral generated by Fowler’s work has brought the questions Development at Emory University. He served as the at issue into broader and needed attention. Obviously, founding director of the Center for Ethics from 1994 many evangelicals find his generic understanding of faith until his retirement in 2005. reassuring—“Christians need not feel inferior because we A minister in the United Methodist Church, Fowler has are people of faith”32—but find his “universalizing faith” described himself as a “classical liberal Protestant.”30 He theologically troublesome and have been stimulated was significantly influenced by the theology of Paul Til- to work more intentionally at the integration of their lich and Richard Niebuhr as well as by the developmental theology with their conception of Christian education. psychology of Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, and Lawrence Still othersCopy have criticized the Kohlberg-like reliance on Kohlberg. He has a brilliant ability to integrate insights abstract reasoning for achieving the highest stages of faith from various disciplinary perspectives in his theorizing in Fowler’s scheme as overly rationalistic, if not elitist.33 and can converse easily across various fields of academic Even Fowler himself, along with others, has raised ques- study. Fowler’s scholarly work has continued to represent tions about the cultural transportability of his theory. an interdisciplinary approach involving theology, psychol- Overall, however, his creative and integrative work on ogy, ethics, and the sociology of religion, as demonstrated how faith functions and develops has been generative by his receiving the Oskar Pfister Award from the Ameri- of much fresh consideration of the process and goal of can Psychiatric Association and the William James Award Christian formation. from the American Psychological Association, both in 1994. He was awarded an honorary doctor of divinity de- Most Important Publications gree by the University of Edinburgh in 1999. Fowler has authored 10 books and more than 60 articles in the field of practical theology and ethics. His seminal Significant Contributions to Christian Education work on faith development, Stages of Faith, has been his Since 1980, few people have had a greater impact on most important publication. To date, the book is in its Christian education, ministry studies, and pastoral 38th printing and has been translated into several lan- care than James Fowler, owing to the publication of guages. Other related works include Life Maps: Conversa- his groundbreaking Stages of Faith: The Psychology of tions on the Journey of Faith (1978), Trajectories in Faith Human Development and the Quest for Meaning (1981). (1980), Becoming Adult, Becoming Christian (2000), and Fowler’s theoryContributor of “faith development” has reshaped Faith Development and Pastoral Care (1987). the manner in which Christian educators, pastors, and 31. James W. Fowler, Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human Develop- 29. James E. Reed and Ronnie Prevost, A History of Christian Education ment and the Quest for Meaning (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1981), xiii. (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1993), 359. 32. Downs, “Power of Fowler,” 85. 30. Perry G. Downs, “The Power of Fowler,” in Nurture That Is Chris- 33. See Craig Dykstra, “What Is Faith? An Experiment in the Hypotheti- tian: Developmental Perspectives on Christian Education, ed. James C. cal Mode,” in Faith Development and Fowler, ed. Craig Dykstra and Sharon Wilhoit and John M. Dettoni (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1995), p. 76. Parks (Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press, 1986), 62. Francis, Leslie J. 515

References and Resources established in Angres, Lyon, Lille, and Toulouse. In Paris Downs, Perry G. 1995. “The Power of Fowler.” In Nurture That one can find the Jesuit Sevres Centre, the Notre-Dame’s Is Christian: Developmental Perspectives on Christian Educa- Department of Theology, and the private Higher Institute tion, edited by James C. Wilhoit and John Dettoni, 75–90. of Pastoral Catechesis. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books. Dykstra, Craig. 1986. “What Is Faith? An Experiment in the References and Resources Hypothetical Mode.” In Faith Development and Fowler, Binz, A. 2001. “Frankreich.” In Lexikon der Religionspädagogik, edited by Craig Dykstra and Sharon Parks, 45–64. Birming- edited by N. Mette and F. Rickers, I:594–596. Neukirchen, ham, AL: Religious Education Press. Germany: Vluyn. Fowler, James W. 1981. Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Kielian A. 2010. Modele nauczania religii rzymskokatolickiej w Human Development and the Quest for Meaning. San Fran- krajach europejskich. Kraków, Poland: UNUM. cisco: Harper & Row. —Marian Zając Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Christian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers. —James P. Bowers Francis, Leslie J. Leslie J. Francis (1947– ) has madeOnly a significant interna- France and Christian Education tional contribution to research, theory, and practice in Christian education, rooted in experience in England and France is the first country established on the ruins of Wales. He read theology at Pembroke College Oxford the Roman Empire by the ruler called Clovis, who was (1967–1970), trained as a teacher of religious education baptized in AD 496. The development of Christianity in at Queen’s College Cambridge (1970–1971), and trained France dates back to that time. for ordination in the Anglican Church at Westcott House In the 20th century, France earned its name as a secu- Cambridge (1970–1972). He completed his PhD in the lar state. Roman Catholics make up 76.4 percent of the psychology of religious development at Cambridge in population, other Christian denominations 3.7 percent, 1976. His publications have been recognized by higher Muslims 3 percent, and nondenominational and other doctoratesCopy from the Universities of Cambridge (ScD, religions 16.9 percent (Kielian 2010). In France there is 1997), Oxford (DD, 2001), and Wales (DLitt, 2007). a model of extracurricular religious education and a total Francis has held chairs in pastoral theology (Lampeter, ban on teaching religion in schools. The Education Act 1992–1999) and practical theology (Bangor, 1999–2007), of 1883 excluded religion from public schools, a conse- and currently holds the chair of religions and education quence of the tradition of religious liberty understood at the University of Warwick (2007– ). He holds visit- as the lack of religious dimension in the public space of ing positions in York St. John University (England) and the state. French law (1905) and the constitution (1958) Glyndŵr University (Wales), as well as in the United provide only a basic level of religious freedom, treating all States and South Africa. He serves as vice president of religions equally. Religious education is provided only in the International Seminar on Religious Education and three departments of France (Lower Rhine, Upper Rhine, Values and president of the Rural Theology Association. and Moselle). Teaching religion is not obligatory in the In the Anglican Church he serves as associate priest in a remaining territory of France and does not constitute an rural group of churches on Anglesey and as canon trea- element of the school curriculum. Wednesday is a day surer and canon theologian at Bangor Cathedral (Wales). off from school in the educational system in order to en- Francis has pioneered a distinctive strand of empiri- able willing pupils to participate in the parish catechesis. cal research in Christian education that combines per- However, since 1960 the law has allowed for teaching spectives shaped by the psychology of religion and by religion at schools where parents expressly wish their empirical theology. Of particular significance are studies children to learn it. At some public secondary schools concerned with the distinctiveness and effectiveness there areContributor so-called chaplains (aumóneries), where pupils of church schools (see Partnership in Rural Education participate in lessons of religion at school and pastors are [1986] and Religion in the Primary School [1987]); reli- paid by the parents and the local diocese. Currently, ap- gion and values during adolescence (see Teenagers and proximately 20 percent of pupils attend Catholic private the Church [1984], Teenage Religion and Values [1995], schools, where they take confessional religious education. The Values Debate [2001], and Urban Hope and Spiritual The Catholic education system in France has a cen- Health [2005]); rural life and rural church (see Rural An- turies-old tradition; theological universities have been glicanism [1985], Church Watch [1996], and Rural Life 516 Francke, August Hermann and Rural Church [2012]); church leaving (see Gone but five- to seven-year-olds through a series of small books Not Forgotten [1998] and Gone for Good? [2007]); and for young children. The first two books were published clergy as Christian educators (see The Naked Parish Priest in 1983: in The Windy Day, Teddy Horsley experiences [2003], British Methodism Today [2006], and The Mind of the wind and learns about God the Holy Spirit and the the Anglican Clergy [2009]). feast of Pentecost; in The Picnic, Teddy Horsley experi- As well as writing or editing more than 60 books, Fran- ences the family picnic and learns about the Communion cis has published approximately 100 chapters in edited service in his local church. During Advent in 1985, Teddy collections and 700 articles in peer-reviewed journals, as Horsley took part in a major festival for schools in South- well as supervising more than 80 research dissertations wark Cathedral to launch his two books on Christmas (MPhil, PhD, and DMin). (Lights) and Epiphany (The Present). The Teddy Horsley In the area of theory in Christian education, Francis approach to Christian education was developed in Ready, has pioneered the integration of the insights of empirical Teddy, God (1999). psychology within the framework of systematic theol- Education for Discipleship and Training for Ministry ogy, developing a theology of individual differences plays a key part in Francis’s understanding of the strat- (grounded in a strong doctrine of creation). In particular, egy required by the Christian Church within societies he has drawn on the operationalization of psychological and cultures that are becoming increasingly secular. His type theory (within the psychology of individual differ- perspective is rooted in a readingOnly of Mark’s Gospel and ences) to develop and test the SIFT approach to biblical in the responsibility of the church to nurture those who hermeneutics and liturgical preaching. These ideas were have responded to Christ’s call. The BA in theology for developed in Faith and Psychology (2005) and Preach- discipleship and ministry, offered initially by University ing with All Our Soul (2008) and exemplified in three of Wales, Bangor, and now by Glyndŵr University, pro- volumes commenting on the Sunday Gospel readings vides a program that takes seriously principles in adult proposed by the Revised Common Lectionary in 2000, pedagogy, integrates Christian experience with Christian 2001, and 2002. learning, and utilizes a mode of delivery at a distance The SIFT approach (Sensing, Intuition, Feeling, and through local church-based learning groups. Francis has Thinking) recognizes that the conversation between the designed and coedited two series of books to serve as Word of God and the People of God is shaped by the resourcesCopy for Education for Discipleship: the Exploring psychological preferences of readers and is best enriched Faith series (initiated in 1999) and the Learning Church when the four distinctive readings of the sensing prefer- series (initiated in 2013). ence, the intuitive preference, the feeling preference, and —William K. Kay the thinking preference are all heard and respected. Regarding practice in Christian education, Francis has pioneered three main initiatives: Project Approach Francke, August Hermann to Christian Nurture, Teddy Horsley as Catechist and Christian Educator, and Education for Discipleship in August Hermann Francke (1663–1727) was a German the Learning Church. Pietist pastor and educational innovator. Pietism in Ger- Project Approach to Christian Nurture was developed many was a response to what its followers considered the initially by His Spirit Is with Us (1981) as a catechetic dead orthodoxy of the Lutheran Church, which empha- program accompanying the illustrated children’s com- sized intellectual correctness and right doctrine over ex- munion books published variously as The Lord Is Here or perience and matters of the heart. Francke was educated At the Lord’s Table for the Anglican Church in England, at various German universities in the typical subjects Ireland, Australia, and the United States. The theory for ministry, theology, church history, philosophy, and behind this program identified 31 concrete images un- rhetoric, though he soon specialized in biblical languages. derpinning the components of the Eucharistic rite and His lengthy spiritual struggle for repentance (Busskampf) linked each of these concrete images to a picture in the reached a climax in 1687, when he preached his first ser- children’s Contributorcommunion book and to a program of project mon. His study of John 20:31 clarified the nature of a true activities designed to enrich the child’s appreciation of and vital faith as he experienced his long-desired spiritual these images. Subsequently Francis extended these prin- rebirth. Following his conversion, Francke met Philipp ciples to the 171 Sunday Gospel readings proposed by Jakob Spener (1635–1705), who became his mentor. the Revised Common Lectionary, published in the series Francke was deeply indebted to Johann Arndt’s (1555– Learning with the Sunday Gospels (2000). 1621) True Christianity for shaping his piety; the French Teddy Horsley was developed (with Nicola Slee) as Quietist Miguel Molinos’s (1628–1697) Spiritual Guide; a vehicle for catechesis and Christian education among and John Amos Comenius (1592–1670), the great Czech Free Exercise Clause 517 pastor and educational reformer, for his explorations in or the good of one’s neighbor. Francke’s writings also education. Due to Francke’s passion for heart experience reveal age-appropriate strategies for the development and his increasing criticism of the Orthodox Lutheran of children. His impressive innovations, which included clergy, his early years were filled with controversy and both girls and the poor, influenced education in North short-term pastorates. His ministry took a radical shift German schools and beyond well into the 18th century. when he was appointed professor of biblical languages He created the first pediatric hospital in Germany and and theology at the newly formed Halle University as demonstrated the value of educating the minds and char- well as pastor of Glaucha, a suburb of Halle. He became acters of all students. Francke rejected corporeal pun- vice chancellor at the university in 1716. Glaucha not ishment, common during his time, except for the most only had an immoral reputation, it was equally demoral- defiant students. His innovations were well ahead of his ized by poverty, which contributed to children’s lack of time, and he remains a significant figure in the history of education. Francke’s concern for the poor and various education in the West. needs of the town inspired his organizational genius as he developed multiple institutions (Stiftungen) covering References and Resources the spectrum from education for poor children, to an Adamson, John W. 1921. Pioneers of Modern Education. Cam- orphanage, to a medical dispensary, to a publishing house bridge: Cambridge University Press, 237–257. for printing Bibles, to various mission efforts. Bunge, Marcia J. 2001. “EducationOnly and the Child in Eighteenth- Since Francke believed education was the best means Century German Pietism: Perspectives from the Work of A. to alleviate poverty, his first-level school included both H. Francke.” In The Child in Christian Thought, edited by girls and the poor, who were typically ignored by other Marcia J. Bunge, 247–278. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. educators, including the progressive John Locke (1632­­ Gawthrop, Richard L. 1993. Pietism and the Making of Eigh- –1704). However, unlike Count Ludwig von Zinzendorf teenth-Century Prussia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer- (1700–1760), Francke did not appreciate the importance sity Press, 121–222. of play in the development of children. His expanding Sattler, Gary R. 1982. God’s Glory Neighbor’s Good. Chicago: system of education created opportunities for children to Covenant Press. learn trades and domestic skills; a more advanced Latin —Tom Schwanda school that prepared middle-class boys for university Copy education; and finally the Pädagogium Regium, which educated the sons of nobility and the upper-class for ca- Free Exercise Clause reers in the government and military. Francke employed the students from his advanced schools as the teachers The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution contains for those in his elementary school in exchange for meals. two clauses relating to religion. The first is referred to as One of his most important writings on education, A Short the establishment clause and states, “Congress shall make and Simple Guide on How Children Can Be Led to Genu- no law respecting an establishment of religion. . .”; the ine Piety and Christian Wisdom (1702), is available only free exercise clause continues, “or prohibiting the free ex- in German except for brief excerpts in English. The title is ercise thereof.” The primary purpose of the latter clause descriptive of Francke’s philosophy of education, which is to allow American citizens to espouse any religious centered on sound piety for the glory of God. The Bible, beliefs and engage in religious rituals. However, there Luther’s Catechism, and the disciplined use of prayer are limits to the exercise of religion. To illustrate, a court were central to his philosophy of education, and the Holy would not hold that the First Amendment would allow Spirit was essential for creating the proper attitude and for human sacrifice if this were part of a religious ritual. space for learning. His curriculum also contained the At times, Supreme Court opinions have indicated that standard courses of reading, writing, arithmetic, music, the establishment clause and free exercise clause are in and the sciences. Francke understood that education conflict. Moreover, the Supreme Court has interpreted required the joint cooperation of the home, church, and the free exercise clause to protect the rights of citizens school Contributorand continually stressed the value of providing to adhere to any religious beliefs but not necessarily the healthy examples for children. ability to act on those beliefs. Generally, the free exercise Some have criticized Francke for stressing the impor- clause must be interpreted in a given context when a law tance of “breaking the will” and conversion. However, might interfere with a religious belief or practice. In 1878, this is consistent with the then-prevalent view of the the Supreme Court first distinguished between religious person and his desire to turn the hearts and minds of belief and religious actions in Reynolds v. U.S.34 The all learners to God, and it recognizes that the self that has been affected by sin is not sensitive to God’s glory 34. Reynolds v. U.S., 98 U.S. 145 (1878). 518 Freedom government could not punish citizens because of their versions of RFRA to clarify the free exercise clause.42 The religious beliefs, but it could regulate religiously moti- tension between the establishment clause and the free ex- vated conduct if the courts deemed the government had ercise clause remains a significant issue for the Supreme a rational basis for doing so. Court’s interpretations, religious institutions, people of Originally the free exercise clause only applied to faith, and the United States. the U.S. Congress; however, in Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940),35 it became enforceable at the state and local References and Resources levels, based on the due process clause of the Four- Mullaly, C. 2011. “Free-Exercise Clause Overview.” The teenth Amendment. This had significant ramifications First Amendment Center. 16 September. http://www.first for schools and people of faith. In Minersville School amendmentcenter.org/free-exercise-clause. District v. Gobitis (1940),36 the Supreme Court held that students who were members of the Jehovah’s Witnesses Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296 (1940). in a school could be required to salute the flag, but the City of Boerne v. Flores, 95 U.S. 2074 (1997). Court soon reversed that decision, in 1943 in West Vir- Employment Division v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872 (1990). ginia State School Board of Education v. Barnette.37 Minersville School District v. Gobitis, 310 U.S. 586 (1940). In Sherbert v. Verner (1963),38 the Supreme Court Reynolds v. U.S., 98 U.S. 145 (1878). established a “compelling interest” standard that gov- Sherbert v. Verner, 374 U.S. 398 (1963).Only ernment must meet when a law impinges on citizens’ West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 319 U.S. religious beliefs and practices. In Sherbert, the Supreme 624 (1943). Court held that the state could not demonstrate a com- Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972). pelling interest in requiring a Seventh-day Adventist to —Jon Eckert work on Saturdays as necessary to avoid spurious claims or that the law was the “least restrictive” means to enact legislation with regard to religious practices. Freedom In the subsequent landmark case Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972),39 the Supreme Court upheld the right of Amish According to most value systems, freedom is a great good. parents to keep their children from attending school BiblicallyCopy and theologically, Christian freedom is under- through age 16 based on the free exercise clause. The stood as a present possession that anticipates a future, Court held that the purpose of compulsory school at- fuller realization. Like all freedoms, it is both freedom tendance was to develop a productive and responsible from (the law; sin and other species of spiritual bondage; citizenry, and the Amish had a tradition of preparing evil and death; and the fear of God’s condemnation) and children to be productive members of their community. freedom for (a life of obedient following of Christ, bound The Court stated, “Only those interests of the highest to righteousness in response to the gift of God’s grace). order and those not otherwise served can overbalance This freedom is not to be understood as untrammeled legitimate claims to the free exercise of religion.” license to behave in any way we wish, but specifically as The Court began to interpret the compelling inter- the freedom to “choose life” (Deut. 30:19) and the “glori- est standard in an increasingly narrow way, however, ous liberty of the children of God” (Rom. 8:21). culminating in Employment Division v. Smith (1990).40 More generally and publicly, a strong case is made for The Court ruled that it would no longer give heightened the right of all human beings to the liberty to pursue their scrutiny to the government’s refusal to grant exemptions own self-realization through social and political free- to laws that unintentionally burden religious groups. doms, including freedom from discrimination, freedom of This led Congress to pass the 1993 Religious Freedom speech and worship, and freedom to receive an education. Restoration Act (RFRA) to attempt to reinstitute the Realistically, however, these are not unlimited freedoms. compelling-interest standard and ensure its application. Human and Christian freedom are brought together in However, in 1997 the Court struck down RFRA in City many accounts of Christian education. Thomas Groome of Boerne Contributorv. Flores (1997).41 Eleven states have passed writes that we need to adopt these twin “immediate pur- poses” within “the ultimate purpose of the Kingdom of 35. Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296 (1940). God” and maintains that his description of freedom is 36. Minersville School District v. Gobitis, 310 U.S. 586 (1940). sufficiently comprehensive “to include all the values of 37. West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624 (1943). 38. Sherbert v. Verner, 374 U.S. 398 (1963). 39. Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972). 42. C. Mullaly, “Free-Exercise Clause Overview,” The First Amendment 40. Employment Division v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872 (1990). Center, 16 September 2011, http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/free 41. City of Boerne v. Flores, 95 U.S. 2074 (1997). -exercise-clause. Freire, Paulo 519 the Kingdom (justice, peace, reconciliation, joy, hope, the evidence and arguments we uncover. “The freedom and so on).” Groome insists that we must concern that the learner can exercise is not a freedom to adopt ourselves with all three dimensions of freedom in Jesus one belief and reject another, but a freedom to engage Christ, not only the (“first and ultimate”) spiritual and in actions that have much more indirect, and sometimes (“interior” and “psychological”) personal aspects, but unpredictable, consequences on her beliefs.”45 also “freedom within our social and political contexts.”43 References and Resources Freedom in Education Groome, Thomas H. 1980. Christian Religious Education: Shar- Both liberal and liberation education (and theology) uti- ing Our Story and Vision. San Francisco: Harper & Row, ch. 5. lize the language of freedom (from Latin liber, “free”). Kinghorn, Kevin. 2005. The Decision of Faith: Can Christian Liberal education reflects the classical understanding of Beliefs be Freely Chosen? London and New York: T. & T. the proper content and method for the education of the Clark International. learner as a “free man” and particularly seeks the edu- Parker, Stephen, Rob Freathy, and Leslie J. Francis, eds. 2012. cation of the learner’s mind for its own sake. This type Religious Education and Freedom of Religion and Belief. Bern: of education increasingly came to involve learning the Peter Lang. skills of autonomous, cognitive evaluation (criticism) of —Jeff Astley received views. Liberation education is founded more Only on moral criticism. It focuses on the other in the person of the poor and whoever suffers sociopolitical subjec- Freire, Paulo tion and seeks to educate their consciousness of their condition, as well as providing the skills and knowledge Early Background and Education to escape it. Both approaches tend to oppose more tradi- Born in Recife, Brazil, into a middle-class family, Paulo tional, transmissive, and authoritarian understandings Freire (1921–1997) would later influence education of education. worldwide through his educational philosophy and so- Many types of Protestantism have historically em- cial and political advocacy. His father’s death when braced some sort of religious liberty. The Second Vatican Freire was 11 compounded the family’s economic woes. Council also celebrated the gospel’s “sacred reverence for TheCopy resultant poverty prompted a quest for survival and the dignity of conscience and its freedom of choice” and precluded educational opportunity. These experiences required that Catholics engaged in spreading religious shaped Freire’s sensitivities to the poor and commitment faith refrain from actions that carry even “a hint of coer- to education through alleviating the social and economic cion” or dishonorable forms of persuasion. divide between classes. Freire did manage to earn a law However, the educational rhetoric about freedom degree from the University of Recife, but chose to teach in of choice within religion, and more widely, is often secondary schools instead of practicing law. Understand- overblown. Human freedom is never unlimited. Elmer ing that poverty, reinforced by the educational system, Thiessen has argued for a properly qualified notion of perpetrated a “culture of silence,” Freire observed that the autonomy, dismissing the idea of an absolute indepen- dispossessed were victims of social, economic, and politi- dence of mind and unrestricted critical competence cal domination. This notion led to Freire’s efforts in adult within the learner as romanticized and unrealistic. literacy and training disempowered workers. He also supports “a more moderate assessment of the Serving as the first director of the Department of Cul- place of the will in religious commitment.” 44 An out- tural Extension at the University of Recife from 1961 to ward freedom to express religious belief is one thing, 1964, Freire was briefly imprisoned after a military coup. and must be encouraged; an inner freedom of belief His subsequent 15-year exile took him to Chile, Nicara- is something very different. The latter is more limited gua, and Africa, in addition to Harvard University in the than many assume, because our beliefs are not our United States as a visiting scholar and to Geneva, Swit- direct creations. In the end, our beliefs are (or should zerland, as an educational advisor to the World Council be) forcedContributor on us by our perception of the strength of of Churches.46 In 1979, Freire returned to Brazil, where he continued his adult literacy initiatives. In 1988, he was appointed as secretary of education in São Paulo. 43. Thomas H. Groome, Christian Religious Education: Sharing Our Story and Vision (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980), 82, 96. 44. Elmer John Thiessen, Teaching for Commitment: Liberal Education, 45. Jeff Astley, The Philosophy of Christian Religious Education (Bir- Indoctrination and Christian Nurture (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Univer- mingham, AL: Religious Education Press, 1994), 200. sity Press; Leominster, UK: Fowler Wright, 1993), ch. 5; and The Ethics of 46. For an overview of Freire’s life, see Maocir Gadotti, Reading Paulo Evangelism: A Philosophical Defence of Ethical Proselytizing and Persuasion Freire: His Life and Work, trans. John Milton (Albany: State University of (Milton Keynes, UK: Paternoster, 2011), 96. New York Press, 1994), 1–48. 520 Freud, Sigmund

Significant Contributions to Christian Education Most Notable Publications The Portuguese term conscientização, meaning critical Freire wrote more than 20 books and numerous ar- consciousness, captures Freire’s philosophy, whereby ticles, with the best known being Pedagogy of the Op- victims in educational, social, economic, and political pressed, followed by the sequel, Pedagogy of Hope, which realms contend against injustice through self-affirmation chronicles the struggles of Latin Americans and others rather than destructiveness.47 Freire argued that the op- in the Third World, advancing a liberationist pedagogy. pressed, who internalize the image of the oppressor, must His other works include Pedagogy of the City, examining identify the causes of oppression in order to overcome daily struggles of those in urban schools in São Paulo; resignation and the internalization of oppressors’ opin- Pedagogy of the Heart, offering personal recollections of ions, which lead to the pedagogy of the oppressed.48 Freire’s younger years, and Letters to Cristina, compris- Freire challenged the “banking” approach to educa- ing 20 reflective letters to his niece. tion, with the teacher as the “subject” of lifeless narrative —Diane J. Chandler and students as patient containers waiting to be filled.49 According to Freire, this mechanistic transfer of infor- mation minimizes student engagement, creativity, and Freud, Sigmund dialogue and inhibits true freedom. He therefore called for a relevant, active, and problem-based approach to Family of Origin 50 Only education, dealing with real-world applications. This Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is known as the founder humanistic approach targets critical thinking and fosters of psychoanalysis. He was born in Freiberg, Moravia. real transformation, moving the main focus from teacher In 1859, his family moved to Leipzig. A year later, they to students. moved to Vienna, where Freud lived for almost 80 years What makes Freire’s approach of critical pedagogy (with the exception of the period when the Nazis took so compelling is his appeal to a philosophy of love. over the country). It was in Vienna that Freud founded Although not overtly Judeo-Christian, he claimed that what became known as the first Viennese school of psy- only through love is true dialogue possible as the source choanalysis, where the psychoanalysis movement and its of all true liberation and humanization: “Dialogue can- subsequent developments originated. not exist, however, in the absence of a profound love Copy for the world and for people.”51 By its very nature, dia- Early Schooling, Influences, and Family Life logue invites humility. One of Freire’s closest collabo- Freud was the eldest of eight children born to Jewish rators observed, “[T]he balance between Christian and parents Jakob and Amalie Freud. Freud’s parents rec- Marxist themes has been broken,” with more emphasis ognized his intelligence when he was young. In fact, his on social themes.52 siblings were denied the opportunity to play musical Freire’s educational contributions relate to viewing instruments in the house, as the music had the potential the learning process as interactive, dialogical, and stu- to disturb Freud’s studies. He was also declared a fam- dent-centered. Experiential and problem-based learning ily favorite, as his sister, Anna, testified that Freud was advanced by Freire are currently upheld as preferred always provided his own room no matter the circum- educational methodologies. Further, Freire’s work con- stances of his family (Gay 1988). tinues through institutes named after him and aimed at At the age of 17, Freud entered medical school at the social justice in educational, social, and political spheres University of Vienna. His four-year medical program in Brazil, Finland, Malta, South Africa, Spain, and the took him eight years to complete due to his numerous United States. interests outside of the field. Freud chose medical school because it was one of the few professions that was ac- ceptable and available for Jews at that time in Vienna. 47. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, trans. Myra Bergman Ramos, 30th ann. ed. (New York: Continuum, 2000), 35. He saw it as a vehicle to reach his ultimate goal to be 48. Paulo Freire criticized Brazilian society, which inhibited critical a scientific researcher and professor of neurology. First consciousness as the foundation of freedom. Freire supported transforma- and foremost, Freud viewed himself as a scientist who tive education,Contributor which informs viable democracies, in Education for Critical Consciousness, trans. Center for the Study of Development and Social aimed to expand knowledge. Under the mentorship of Change/Cambridge, MA (New York: Continuum, 1973), 36. the German scientist Ernst Brücke, Freud studied biol- 49. Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 71–86. 50. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of Freedom: Ethics, Democracy, and Civic ogy and conducted research in the field of physiology Courage, trans. Patrick Clarke (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), for six years. During his final years at the university, he 49–84. 51. Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 89. specialized in neurology. He received his medical degree 52. Gadotti, Reading Paulo Freire, 96–97. in 1881. Recognizing that for a Jew climbing the ranks in Freud, Sigmund 521 academia would be slow, and needing to make money to developmental theory and treatment (psychoanalysis) live, he took a job as a doctor at Vienna General Hospi- of abnormal behavior. tal. In April 1886, he entered private practice as a clinical neurologist. It was in this practice that Freud treated Psychoanalysis and Later Work numerous disorders, which provided the clinical basis Freud’s publications provide insight into his theories for his theories and techniques. Also during 1886, Freud and clinical work. He considered his “most significant married Martha Bernays (1858–1955), to whom he had work” (Gay 1988, 23) to be Die Traumdeutung (The In- been engaged for a few years (1882–1886). They had six terpretation of Dreams) published in 1899. In this work, children and remained married until Freud’s death. His Freud proposed that dreams were the “most depend- youngest child, Anna (1895–1992), followed in his foot- able and most abundant source for buried information” steps and became a well-known psychoanalyst, extending (Gay 1988, 23) and found a connection between dreams her father’s work. and the life events of the dreamer. This established a In school and practice, Freud interacted with numer- positive relationship between a person’s sleep state and ous individuals who were influential in the development waking state and discounted the notion that dreams of psychoanalysis and theory. In 1885, Freud stud- were nonsensical (Freud 1920, 6). With this established, ied under the French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot Freud took to analyzing patient dreams with the goal of (1825–1893), who at the time was experimenting with uncovering for the patient theOnly unresolved conflict the hypnotism and demonstrated that various forms of pa- dream was illuminating in the unconscious. To Freud, ralysis and hysteria could be manifested and diminished dreams were the “royal road to the knowledge of the with the procedure. In studying with Charcot, Freud unconscious in mental life” (Gay 1988, 139), and dream became aware that physical symptoms could have both analysis is known as one of the primary therapeutic organic and psychological origins, and that hysteria was techniques in psychoanalysis. Three Essays on the The- treatable. He also became interested in hypnotism and ory of Sexuality, published in 1905, was second only to began using it in his practice. In an effort to improve The Interpretation of Dreams in importance, according his skills, in 1889 Freud went to France to study under to Freud. In the first essay, “The Sexual Aberrations,” Hippolyte Bernheim (1840–1919). There he developed Freud writes in a clinical tone about the aberrations of the notion that individuals have memories of which they sexualityCopy and suggests that they can be integrated “into are completely unaware and, given the right conditions, the spectrum of acceptable human conduct” (Gay 1988, those unconscious ideas can be brought into conscious 187). In this publication, he also proposed his psycho- awareness. Although Freud eventually abandoned hyp- sexual stages of development, highlighting the impor- notism in favor of free association to undo the repression tance of early development in neurosis. of the unconscious mind, many of the assumptions un- In 1901, Freud wrote Psychopathology of Everyday Life, derlying psychoanalysis were derived from his work with which is considered the key text laying the foundation Charcot and Bernheim. of his theory of psychoanalysis. In this text, Freud states Joseph Breuer (1842–1925), whom Freud studied that deviations from normal, everyday behavior, or seem- with during medical school, was also influential in ingly random errors, indicate the underlying issues of the Freud’s development. Vital aspects of psychoanalytical psyche. These various deviations (e.g., forgetting words, techniques, such as catharsis, transference, and coun- random movements or acts) are unconscious thoughts tertransference, came from Freud’s work with Breuer. and impulses being manifested in the waking state. He Through their work, Freud formulated the notion that believed that every act of forgetfulness was really an act of neuroses originated in traumatic experiences, which are resistance (Gay 1988, 184). With the help of psychoanaly- often unconscious. In the “Studies in Hysteria,” Freud sis and with techniques such as dream analysis, free asso- and Breuer outlined a treatment to help clients recall ciation, and analysis of transference, these deviations can unconscious material, thus removing the psychologi- be used to assist in accurate diagnosis and therapy, since cal causes of neuroses. Freud also initially collaborated the boundary between the normal and abnormal is tenta- with BreuerContributor on the theory that the mind is a complex, tive. Freud suggested that humans are all a bit neurotic. energy-based system. After Breuer and Freud parted Freud’s work was not well received when first re- ways, Freud refined the ideas of the unconscious and leased; his rise to importance did not begin until the repression that the two of them had developed together first International Psychoanalytic Congress, in 1908 and proposed a tripartite model of the mind (e.g., in Salzburg, Austria. At this meeting, Freud gave an Freud’s The Ego and the Id). The later became central to address on his patient, referred to as the Rat Man. Freud’s conceptual and therapeutic framework for his Those in attendance were enthralled by this case. This 522 Freud, Sigmund included Ernest Jones, who soon campaigned on behalf as Freud would describe them, are different from the of Freud’s theories throughout the United States and in personified God and rebellion Christians would identify, Canada, thus extending Freud’s reach (Jones 1953). In there are two warring factions within scripture, making addition, out of this meeting was born the periodical the psychoanalytic view of motivation not completely Jahrbuch für Psychoanalytische und Psychopathologische incompatible with Christianity. Although Freud’s work Forschungen (Yearbook for Psychoanalysis and Psycho- has been criticized by Christian and non-Christian pathological Research), which began publication in 1909 academics alike, many reservations being legitimate, his with Freud and Paul Bleuler as publishers and Carl Jung psychoanalysis and theories gave birth to and influenced as the editor. In 1909, Freud was invited to Clark Uni- the ideas, theories, and techniques that many Christians versity in Worcester, Massachusetts, to receive an hon- in the mental health and education professions today use orary doctor of laws degree. Here he gave five lectures, and deem effective (e.g., Browning 1987; Crabb 1988; in which he discussed his many ideas and techniques, Hurding 1985; Narramore 1988). which were published in 1916 in a book aptly titled Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis. Selected Publications by Sigmund Freud From the time he published his first work in 1900, 1895. Studies in Hysteria. Freud was constantly involved in reworking and rewrit- 1900. The Interpretation of Dreams. ing his theoretical framework, and all of his published 1901. The Psychopathology of EverydayOnly Life. writings were edited numerous times. His theory was a 1905. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. work in progress as he obtained input from other promi- 1905. Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria. nent psychologists and researchers. 1923. The Ego and the Id. 1927. The Future of an Illusion. Significant Contributions 1930. Civilization and Its Discontents. Few individuals have influenced the field of education 1936. The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense. and other social sciences as Freud has done. His work and 1939. Moses and Monotheism. theories have shaped the 21st-century understanding of development and therapeutic treatment of psychological References and Resources disorders. Significant contributions that have been at- Balmary,Copy Rebecca. 1979. Psychoanalyzing Psychoanalysis: Freud tributed to him include (1) identifying instinct as a driv- and the Hidden Fault of the Father. Baltimore: Johns Hop- ing force in personality development; (2) recognizing kins University Press. that there is a conscious and unconscious mind and that Breger, Louis. 2000. Freud: Darkness in the Midst of Vision—An the unconscious is important in understanding human Analytical Biography. Indianapolis: John Wiley and Sons. behavior; and (3) explaining development in terms of Browning, D. S. 1987. Religious Thought and the Modern Psy- psychosexual stages, thus recognizing that development chologies. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. is stage based and based on the interaction of biology Crabb, L. 1988. Inside Out. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress. and the environment. Freud also introduced the idea that Ferris, Paul. 1999. Dr. Freud: A Life. Berkeley, CA: Counter- early life experiences influence development. point Publishing} Although many of Freud’s theories and ideas are not Freud, Sigmund. A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis. found in scripture, and some are in direct opposition to New York: Boni and Liveright. scripture, they are not all outside the realm of Christian Gay, Peter. 1988. Freud: A Life for Our Time. New York: W.W. thought. In Freud’s theory of motivation, humans are Norton. motivated by drives. The id is the repository for the Hurding, R. 1985. Roots and Shoots: A Guide to Counseling and most basic of human urges. These drives, which come Psychotherapy. London: Hodder and Stoughton. from the id, are eros/libido and death/aggression. Pres- Jones, Ernest. 1953. The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud. Ann ent at birth, these drives are primal and unconscious. Arbor, MI: Basic Books. Within Christian thought, the eros could be seen in the Jones, Stanton L., and Richard E. Butman. 2011. Modern Psy- garden, whereContributor Adam desires companionship in Genesis chotherapies: A Comprehensive Christian Appraisal. Down- 2. Humans are positively motivated for sexual union ers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. for the purpose of procreation. Contrasting the sexual Narramore, B. 1988. A Guide to Child Rearing. Grand Rapids, drive, we see in chapter 4 the drive of aggression of Cain MI: Zondervan. toward Abel. Scriptures assert that sinful humanity is Roazen, Paul 1992. Freud and His Followers. Boston: Da Capo destined for death and destruction (Jones and Butman, Press. 2011). Freud made clear that within humans there are —Amanda Szapkiw and two opposing core motivations. Although the characters, Lorene Heuvelman-Hutchinson Friends/Quaker Church Christian Education 523

Friends/Quaker Church do certainly know, and so testify to the world, that the Christian Education spirit of Christ, which leads us into all Truth, will never move us to fight and war against any man with outward George Fox and the Beginnings weapons, neither for the kingdom of Christ, nor for the kingdoms of this world. The Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, sprang from the teachings of the Englishmen George Fox (1624–1691), who started his preaching career in Eng- The Peace Testimony is regarded as one of the corner- land in 1647. A crowd of followers soon formed around stones of Quaker principles. This principle is not limited Fox, calling themselves first “Children of the Light” and to refusing to bear arms and participate in warlike ac- “Friends of Truth.” Fox’s ambition was to restore what tivities, but encompasses a very broad vision of pacifism: he understood to be the pure and genuine principles of nonviolent practices, peacemaking activities, social jus- Christianity, thus attacking the established Church of tice, positive peace efforts, peace education, relief work, England, in particular the imposition of paying tithes and so forth. The Quaker Peace Testimony is one of four and the misuse of the church’s money. Due to his vocal fundamental testimonies; each represents a key element criticism of the church, Fox was arrested and imprisoned of Quaker beliefs: peace, simplicity, integrity, and equal- several times over the course of his life. Despite his mul- ity. The formulation of the four basic testimonies, as well tiple attempts at demonstrating to the government the as the overall number of testimonies, is not definitive or dogmatic. The exact content ofOnly the testimonies evolves peaceful intentions of the Society (to Oliver Cromwell first and, after the Restoration, to Charles II), the perse- according to social changes; for example, today they cution of the Friends was widespread in Great Britain by include testimony about stewardship and the human the mid-17th century. The persecution did not stop the responsibility vis-à-vis the earth and the environment. growth of the movement; by the end of the 1660s, the To translate these testimonies into actions, the Quak- Society of Friends had its first organizational structure, ers have developed a series of programs and organiza- which later became Britain Yearly Meeting. tions that correspond to the core of each testimony and In 1669, Fox married Margaret Fell, and between 1671 help them promote social and political changes in accor- and 1673 he traveled to the British colonies in America dance with their beliefs. As soon as the United Nations and helped establish the Society there. Later, with the wasCopy founded in 1945, the Quakers opened their Quaker conversion of William Penn (1644–1718)53 and the foun- UN Offices (currently there are two of them, located dation of Pennsylvania, the presence of the Society in the near each UN headquarters, one in Geneva and one in colonies grew significantly. New York City). They also founded the first religious and ecumenical lobby in Washington, DC, in 1943, the Fundamental Quaker Principles and the Importance Friends Committee on National Legislation. Founded in of Peace Education 1917, during World War I, the American Friends Service The Society of Friends is a prominent member of the Committee received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1947 for its historic peace churches along with the Mennonites and relief work during both wars. More recently, the Quaker the Brethren.54 Although the designation “historic peace Earthcare Witness was founded in 1987 out of a growing churches” is relatively recent, the peace tradition of each concern among Friends regarding the environment. of these denominations dates back to the 16th, 17th, and Based on the principles of peace education, the Quak- 18th centuries. Written as a collective statement, the ers developed several projects to fight against violence Quaker Peace Testimony found its canonical version in and offer training in nonviolent resistance and practices 1660 in a letter addressed to Charles II: in various settings. Pursuing the work of notable 18th- and 19th-century Quakers who contributed to the im- We utterly deny all outward wars and strife and fight- portant penal reforms of that period (e.g., Elisabeth Fry, ings with outward weapons, for any end or under any 1780–1845), Quakers are very active in prison systems pretence whatsoever. And this is our testimony to the through the Quaker Prison Chaplains and the Quaker whole world. The spirit of Christ, by which we are Prison Ministry in the United States and Great-Britain. guided,Contributor is not changeable, so as once to command us In addition, the workshops organized by the Alternatives from a thing as evil and again to move unto it; and we to Violence Program have been instrumental in many contexts in reducing violence at the grassroots level. 53. William Penn espoused the Quaker faith at age 22 and was impris- oned for his faith. As part of his negotiation with Charles II, he received the Quaker initiatives cover all forms of education, formal territory of what is now known as Pennsylvania in 1681 and encouraged the and informal; peace education represents the central mass exile of Quakers. purpose of their educational work, and they have put into 54. The term “historic peace churches” was coined in 1935 during the conference of historic peace churches held at North Newton, Kansas. place structures that touch all layers of society: politicians, 524 Fruit of the Spirit diplomats, gang leaders, grassroots communities, families, Skidmore, Gil, ed. 2003. Strength in Weakness: Writings by refugees, children in conflict zones, prisoners and crimi- Eighteenth-Century Quaker Women. New York, Toronto, nals, and so forth. Their network of schools is an essential and London: AltaMira Press. element of the Quaker vision of peace education. In 1931, the Friends Council on Education was founded in the Internet Resources United States; in his opening address, “The Place of the Friends Council on Education. Includes documents and bibli- Quaker School in Contemporary Education,” John Lester, ography. http://www.friendscouncil.org/. one of the founding volunteers, declared: —Muriel Schmid

Now amid discussions of the educational sociologists about what kind of civilization it is desirable to aim Fruit of the Spirit at, how the atmosphere is clarified, how the problems defined, when the church can say to the schools it has founded, here are some of our traditional doctrines and The “fruit of the Spirit” is a Pauline phrase used in attitudes, testified to over hundreds of years, which need Galatians 5:22 to describe the character the Spirit of emphasizing and interpreting now as they have never God forms in those who yield to his influence. Paul’s needed it in the whole history of the race: For standing use of the word fruit stresses the sovereignty of God out clearly for solution in the lifetime of our boys and girls in sanctification. In striking contrast to the “works of now in school are three problems. Only the flesh” (referred to in the preceding passage) or the First, the abolition of war. “works of the Law” (2:16; 3:2, 5), Paul characterizes the Second, the problem of social justice. character of a mature Christian believer as fruit, capable Third, the problem of social international and interracial of being cultivated by human beings as they submit to understanding. the Spirit’s leading but rooted ultimately in the work of The persons to influence are our youth: the place for em- God alone. While nine attributes are mentioned (love, phasis is the school. joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, self-control), karpos (fruit) in the Greek text Prominent in certain parts of the United States and is singular, an indication that these attributes are not in Great Britain, the birthplace of the Society of Friends, separateCopy graces, but different facets of a single gracious Quaker colleges and schools are now spread across the work of God. entire world: in Central and South America (e.g., Costa The contrast between “works” and “fruit” (and be- Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Belize, and Bolivia), in the tween “Spirit” and “flesh”) in Galatians 5:16–24 points Middle East (Lebanon and Palestine), and on the African to the larger theme of Paul in Galatians: the contrast continent (Kenya and Zimbabwe). between legalism and Spirit-filled living. He wrote this letter to a congregation he had evangelized himself, but References and Resources which had since been strongly influenced by Judaizers Bacon, Margaret H. 1969. The Quiet Rebels: The Story of the preaching a Gospel modified by strict adherence to the Quakers in America. New York and London: Basic Books. Law of Moses. This was “a different Gospel . . . really Bill, J. Brent 2005. Holy Silence: The Gift of Quaker Spirituality. no Gospel at all” (1:6–7) in the view of Paul, who be- Brewster, MA: Paraclete Press. lieved the law to have been a temporary measure added Chance, J., and M. Franck. 2009. Philadelphia Friends Schools. 430 years after God’s promise to Abraham (whom he Chicago: Arcadia Publishing. justified solely by faith in that promise), to restrain and Coll. 2005. Quaker Spirituality: Selected Writings. New York: expose sin until the promise could be fulfilled. The law HarperCollins. could never fully justify, because human beings were Fox, George. 2006. The Journal. Richmond, IN: Friends United sinful, incapable of keeping its commands perfectly (a Press. fact always tacitly acknowledged by the provisions in the Jorns, Auguste. 1969. The Quakers as Pioneers in Social Work Mosaic Law code for a sacrificial system). Paul believed (1931). Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press. that Christ had been the true fulfillment of both law and Peck, GeorgeContributor T. 2000. What Is Quakerism? Pendle Hill, PA: promise—Christ, who had been “born under the Law so Pendle Hill Publications. that He might redeem those who were under the Law” Pink Dandelion, Daniel. 2007. An Introduction to Quakerism. (4:4–5), fulfilled its requirements perfectly so that believ- Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ers might be adopted in as sons and daughters, receiving ———. 2008. The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: the indwelling Spirit through whom they were now able Oxford University Press. to cry, “Abba! Father!” (4:6). The promise to Abraham Fuller Theological Seminary 525 being fulfilled, the Law of Moses was now obsolete. To Harold John Ockenga, pastor of the Park Street Church continue to live under it now that Christ had come was in Boston, Fuller Theological Seminary had as its initial to deny Christ had kept it on our behalf—in Paul’s lan- mission to reform fundamentalism after the model of guage, to “fall away from grace” (5:4). the “Old Princeton Seminary.” The seminary began in That Paul believed the Law of Moses was obsolete, 1947 with 39 students and for the first six years met in however, is not to say he no longer believed God desired the nearby Lake Avenue Congregational Church. The to sanctify His people by conforming them to His holy, original teaching faculty consisted of Wilbur Smith, Carl loving nature. On the contrary, the giving of the Spirit F. H. Henry, Everett F. Harrison, and Harold Lindsell. had been the very event that had enabled believers to By the time the seminary moved to its present location, fulfill the central purpose of the law (“Love your neigh- it enrolled 250 students taught by 15 faculty members. bor as yourself”) in ways previously rendered impos- During its growth in the late 1950s, Fuller Seminary tran- sible by the weakness of the flesh. Salvation to Paul was sitioned itself from the premillennial and separatist right not simply a matter of the forgiveness of sins through wing of fundamentalism of its early origin into a “new Christ’s sacrificial death and emancipation from the Evangelicalism” that was more ecumenical and broadly Law of Moses, but of empowerment by the Spirit of God evangelical in nature. Tensions grew with the decline of to obey the “law of Christ,” the law of love (6:2), the the original strict biblical inerrancy statement. virtue given preeminence in Paul’s “fruit” list. A life of Five presidents have led FullerOnly during its history: love was the opposite of a “fleshly” life, characterized in Harold John Ockenga (1947–1954 and 1960–1963), Ed- Paul’s vice list by 15 terms falling loosely into the three ward John Carnell (1954–1959), David Allan Hubbard general categories of sexual immorality, idolatry, and (1963–1993), Richard J. Mouw (1993–2013), and Mark pride. For such a life, the believer was crucified—this Labberton (2013–present). Paul treats as a settled fact, using the aorist tense of According to the Fuller Statement of Purpose: “Fuller stauro (5:24). The breaking of this spiritual reality into Theological Seminary, embracing the School of Theol- the believer’s experience, however, required “walking ogy, School of Psychology, and School of Intercultural by the Spirit,” being led by and keeping in step with the Studies, is an evangelical, multidenominational, inter- Spirit, and learning to desire with the Spirit rather than national, and multiethnic community dedicated to the with the flesh as they war with one another. equippingCopy of men and women for the manifold minis- Cultivating the fruit of the spirit has been a promi- tries of Christ and his Church. Under the authority of nent goal in the church’s educational ministry. With the Scripture we seek to fulfill our commitment to ministry Spirit’s power, through participation in the church com- through graduate education, professional development, munity, means of grace, traditional Christian practices, and spiritual formation. In all of our activities, includ- and the teaching of the Bible, believers are gradually ing instruction, nurture, worship, service, research, and transformed into the image and character of Christ. The publication, Fuller Theological Seminary strives for ex- process of growing in the life of faith is essentially the cellence in the service of Jesus Christ, under the guidance process of desiring with God desires. In the desiring of and power of the Holy Spirit, to the glory of the Father.” what God desires, the flesh is overcome and the law kept The School of Theology, formed in 1947, has always had not as a duty, but as a delight, as Paul emphasized. the largest enrollment and plays a vital role in training educators and teachers for the local church and global References and Resources community. The School of Psychology originated in 1965 Bruce, F. F. 1982. The Epistle to the Galatians: A Commentary with an emphasis on the integration of psychology and on the Greek Text. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Christianity. The School of Intercultural Studies, initially Longenecker, Richard N. 1990. Galatians. Dallas, TX: Word named the School of World Missions, was started in 1965 Books. under the leadership of Donald McGavran. Schreiner, Thomas R. 2010. Galatians. Grand Rapids, MI: Fuller Seminary has been alert to recognizing the pre- Zondervan. vailing needs of the church in a changing world and to Contributor—Benjamin D. Espinoza and John A. Adams taking the necessary risks in exploring and developing new efforts in ministry, including the church growth movement, the emphasis on Christian formation and dis- Fuller Theological Seminary cipleship, missiology and missional leadership, and the emerging church. Fuller’s close proximity to Hollywood Founded in Pasadena, California, by Charles E. Fuller, and the entertainment industry has encouraged critical radio evangelist of the Old Fashioned Revival Hour, and dialogue with Hollywood in relation to the arts, film, and 526 Fund for Theological Education music. The Brehm Center for Worship, Theology, and Pope, dean of Yale Divinity School, described a “criti- the Arts and Fuller Youth Institute are two pioneering cal shortage” of ministers for Protestants in America in centers that equip men and women for ministry in the 1953.55 One year later, clergy, philanthropists, and edu- contemporary world. Fuller has also been at the forefront cators joined together to form the Fund for Theological of nurturing significant conversations in the fields of eth- Education (FTE) out of common concern that young ics and ecumenical dialogue. men were no longer entering into ministry and were Fuller has consistently affirmed the task of forming choosing other career paths. Initial funding was provided students with the best of academic scholarship combined by John D. Rockefeller Jr. with Christ-centered discipleship. Today Fuller is one Beginning as a mainline Protestant organization, the of the largest seminaries in the world; in addition to the FTE sought to attract gifted young men, most of whom main campus in Pasadena, it has six regional campuses attended elite non- or interdenominational theological in the West and Texas. The seminary offers 18 degree schools in the Northeast. It soon diversified, focusing on concentrations leading to various master’s and doctoral underrepresented racial/ethnic groups in the 1960s and degrees, with rapidly expanding Korean-language and women in the 1970s. Spanish-language programs. While students come from more than 70 countries and over 100 denominations, they Funding are predominantly from Protestant mainline traditions, Major funders, the Sealantic andOnly Rockefeller Brothers with Presbyterians constituting the single largest denomi- funds, discontinued their support in the 1990s, leaving nation. Fuller faculty display a similar broad cross-section the FTE facing a financial crisis. Following a hiatus in of mainline, Pentecostal, and Charismatic traditions, but offering fellowships and with a restructuring in 1997, again the largest number are Presbyterians. the FTE received a major grant from the Lilly Endow- While much has changed since its birth, Fuller Semi- ment as well as other foundations, enabling its pro- nary has become a leader in global theological education, grams to launch again with a renewed focus on quality cultivating broad evangelical and ecumenical partner- and diversity. ships while remaining faithful to proclaiming the good news of Jesus Christ to transform contemporary culture. Present Today,Copy the FTE is dedicated to finding and supporting to- References and Resources morrow’s Christian leaders, pastors, and theological edu- Marsden, George. Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller Seminary cators who will make a difference in the world through and the New Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987. the church. The fund offers gatherings, fellowships, “What Is Evangelicalism?” 1993. Special theme issue, Christian grants, and a community of support to young adults Scholar’s Review 23 (1). under the age of 35 who are exploring a call to ministry and to students of color pursuing a PhD in religion, Fuller Theological Seminary. n.d. “About Fuller.” http://www theology, or biblical studies. Although still heavily Prot- .fuller.edu/about/history-and-facts/our-history/. estant, the fund’s fellows now represent a much wider —Tom Schwanda range of theological institutions, including evangelical, Orthodox, and Roman Catholic. In its trial academic year (1961–1962), the FTE ad- Fund for Theological Education ministered three major fellowship programs. To date, the fund has awarded more than 6,000 fellowships to talented The Fund for Theological Education (FTE) is the only leaders who today serve congregations, campuses, and national, ecumenical nonprofit organization devoted to communities. More than 90 percent of FTE ministry cultivating the next generation of diverse leaders for the program fellows since 1998 now serve congregations or church and the academy. It is also the only national orga- church-related organizations; 79 percent of FTE doctoral nization that gathers diverse partners across denomina- program fellows now teach in the theological academy. tions to createContributor “communities of call,” sharing in practices The FTE states its mission today thus: “We believe that and conversations that help congregations and faith com- diverse, young Christian leaders will affect the church’s munities awaken young lives to God’s call. future, vitality and social relevance. These leaders in ministry make a difference in the lives of individuals and History communities. Every community needs capable, compas- In 1951, the National Council of Churches released a study in which it was estimated that more than 15,000 55. Jonathan Strom, A Half-Century of Strengthening Christian Ministry: pulpits among its member churches were unfilled. Liston The Fund for Theological Education (Atlanta: Emory University, 2012), 5. Furman University 527 sionate Christian leaders who serve the common good, in the Republican Party) who support their views on the strive for justice, build up the community, share the Gos- construction of the larger society. This political commit- pel and ultimately do the church’s work in the world.”56 ment is on the wane among younger persons, however. —Sharon Ely Pearson Fundamentalist churches often employ the educational strategies used in other Christian traditions, from Sunday schools and small group studies to seminaries and divin- Fundamentalism ity schools. Publishing houses and websites disseminate scholarly material often at odds with (or simply ignor- Fundamentalism is an approach to a religious tradition ing) the work of mainstream scholarship. Fundamental- that seeks to distinguish itself from both secular mo- ist education thus takes the external shape embraced by dernity and religious accommodations to it (often ex- other parts of the church, though with markedly different perienced as laxity) by emphasizing rigorous adherence content and emphases. to what are held to be central features of the traditional religion, literally understood. In Protestant Christianity, References and Resources where the term originated around 1910, fundamentalism Barr, J. (1978). Fundamentalism. Philadelphia: Westminster. was a movement in the early 20th century that rejected Malthy, P. 2013. Christian Fundamentalism and the Culture ecumenism, liberal theology, the Social Gospel, and other of Disenchantment. Charlottesville:Only University of Virginia efforts at “modernizing” the church. However, today fun- Press. damentalist leaders in the West and elsewhere often em- Marsden, G. M. 2006. Fundamentalism and American Culture. ploy the latest techniques of media communication and 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. social and political organization to advance their views. Marty, M., and R. S. Appleby. 1991. Introduction to Fundamen- Leading fundamentalist thinkers a century ago drew talisms Comprehended. Edited by M. Marty and R. S. Appleby, from older forms of Protestant orthodoxy an emphasis on 1–7. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. the inerrancy of scripture, reinforced by biblical literalism —Samjung Kang-Hamilton and patternism (according to which the Bible provided a blueprint for all times and places) and such central ideas as the virgin birth of Jesus Christ, the doctrine of substitu- CopyFurman University tionary atonement, and Jesus’s bodily resurrection. Often, though with notable exceptions (such as J. Gresham Ma- Historical Introduction and Christian Tradition chen), fundamentalists opposed the Darwinian theory of Furman University is a liberal arts institution located in biological evolution and political ideas allegedly deriving Greenville, South Carolina, and named for pastor and ed- from it. Some fundamentalists withdrew, or were expelled, ucator Richard Furman (1755–1825), who was president from established denominations, often forming new ones of the first national convention of Baptists. The school that were exclusivist to some degree. Modern ecumenism was founded in 1826 in Edgefield, South Carolina, as became a bugbear for many as well. the Furman Academy and Theological Institution by the While the rise of modern American Evangelicalism Baptist State Convention of South Carolina, as part of an in the mid-20th century tempered the more extreme effort to promote missions and education. In 1850, Fur- versions of earlier fundamentalism, particularly with man University found a permanent home in Greenville, regard to relationships with other Christians, the basic South Carolina; then, in 1858, the school’s theological intellectual tenets enunciated in the early 20th century department became The Southern Baptist Theological remain alive. For example, fundamentalist Protestants Seminary and ultimately moved to Louisville, Kentucky. often lobby textbook selection committees and state and In 1933, Furman University and Greenville Women’s local governments with a view toward influencing school College, long close associates in education, merged and curricula regarding theories of origin (often advocating became governed by the same leadership. In 1953, the intelligent design as an alternative approach to evolution) school moved to its present site, which is known for and theContributor presentation of religion in history textbooks. both its size and aesthetics. In 1992, Furman separated They often also join activists from other traditions in op- from the South Carolina Baptist Convention; however, posing abortion, euthanasia, and gay marriage. Since the the school strives to maintain values consistent with its rise of the Moral Majority in the late 1970s, American Judeo-Christian history. fundamentalists have joined conservative evangelicals and others in supporting political candidates (primarily Notable Academic Programs Furman offers more than 40 areas of study in its highly 56. http://www.fteleaders.org (accessed 1 March 2013). regarded undergraduate program and a graduate pro- 528 Furman University gram in education. Of particularly note are programs in students to completion of either a bachelor of music (in chemistry, psychology, and music. performance disciplines as well as education, church music, theory, and composition) or bachelor of arts. Chemistry The curriculum includes academic courses, master Furman’s chemistry program has three tracks of study classes, and private instruction. Small class size provides (chemistry, environmental chemistry, and biochemis- ample opportunity for one-on-one study with profes- try) and is noted by the American Chemical Society as sors. Alumni are among the top scholars and perform- a model for other undergraduate chemistry programs ers in the world of music. in the United States. It leads the nation in majors who pursue PhD studies, with an average of 30 students each Christian Philosophy and Mission of Education year. Students and faculty are regularly represented in As an institution that was chartered as a Baptist college, scholarly and peer-reviewed journals, and the depart- Furman continues to value its Judeo-Christian heritage ment attracts wide grant support from a number of and summarizes its Christian philosophy in the following sources. For half a century, undergraduates on stipends way: “The imperative to love our neighbors as ourselves have worked alongside international scholars at all levels is expressed in the Furman community through an ap- during the summer research institute, engaging in inde- preciation for its diversity, a concern for the physical, pendent research. emotional, intellectual and spiritualOnly needs of each person, a continuing effort to strengthen community ties through Psychology open communication and mutual respect, the appropri- In addition to foundational courses in psychology, the ate involvement of all members of the community in Furman psychology curriculum is tiered to provide ma- decision-making, the commitment to excellence at every jors with optimal opportunities to expand on those fun- level of our life together, and an appreciation for the damentals. Students engage in research and seminars that university’s heritage and the contributions of those who promote the reading of primary literature, independent have shaped the institution.” Its mission is “to provide a learning, free and open sharing of ideas, and creativity. distinctive undergraduate education encompassing hu- Students engage in internships and paid fellowships that manities, fine arts, social sciences, mathematics and the allow for specialized study and often lead to publication. naturalCopy sciences, and selected professional disciplines.” Music Reference Furman’s music program is known for attracting musi- Tollison, Courtney L. 2004. Furman University. Mount Pleas- cians who desire a conservatory-style education in the ant, SC: Arcadia Publishing. performing arts. The comprehensive program leads —R. Kevin Johnson

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