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Year: 2020

Sweden – Switzerland: the entangled history of two like-minded countries

Tanner, Jakob

Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-194558 Book Section Published Version

Originally published at: Tanner, Jakob (2020). Sweden – Switzerland: the entangled history of two like-minded countries. In: Schoenenberger, Christian. Sweden and Switzerland: past, present and future. Stockholm: Embassy of Switzerland in Sweden, 4-43. Sweden and Switzer land: past, present and future Sweden and Switzer land: past, present and future 100 Years of Like-mindedness

In 2020 and 2021, we celebrate 100 years of Swiss official headquarters, a harbinger of future Swedish­Swiss military presence in Sweden. There are both historic and pandemic co­operation. reasons for extending the anniversary celebrations over two years. Switzerland took a little longer to establish its diplomatic pre­ sence, as happens from time to time. Our country initially Many historical events have precise dates. This holds true for conducted its diplomatic relations with Sweden through its royal weddings, moon landings and battles. Historical develop­ representation in Berlin. In 1920, the Swiss government pro­ ments, on the other hand, often take years or even decades to posed to Parliament the opening of a diplomatic mission in unfold. As historian Jakob Tanner notes in these pages, both Stockholm. Parliament swiftly approved the proposal, and the Sweden’s and Switzerland’s democracy and social security first Swiss envoy arrived in Stockholm at the beginning of 1921. systems were many years in the making. The establishment of a There is thus sound historic justification for commemorating Swiss diplomatic presence in Sweden may appear less complex the 100th anniversary of Switzerland’s diplomatic presence than these processes. It still took some years. both in 2020 and 2021. Creative historians could find reasons to extend the celebrations even further. Already during the First World War, in 1915, Sweden and Switzer land established diplomatic relations. That year, Sweden The coronavirus is the other reason for extending the anni­ opened a diplomatic mission in Switzerland. It chose the Bel­ versary. The Swiss embassy had made preparations for about levue Grand Hotel in Bern as its first seat, an early sign of good 20 centenary events, most of which were planned for 2020. taste and pragmatism among the Swedish envoys. The hotel was But then came the pandemic. Countless events were cancelled (and still is) located in the immediate neighbourhood of the around the world. The embassy decided to postpone and adapt Swiss government, and offered (as it still does) excellent meet­ events in order to avoid cancellations. It worked. In a sense, ing facilities, food and wines. It also housed the Swiss Army’s the embassy emulated Swedish State Epidemiologist Anders

1 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future

Tegnell’s strategy of flattening the (infection) curve, applying « When it comes to it to the centenary. Much like the infection curve, the event democracy, it would be good curve has been flattened – and stretched out over time. Like the coronavirus, the centennial will thus still be with us in 2021. if we in both Sweden and Switzerland would be more Sweden chose a less restrictive strategy than most other coun­ curious about what others tries to address the COVID­19 pandemic. In its Government Response Stringency Index, Oxford University concludes that do. We are so used Sweden’s policy response to the pandemic corresponded to to living in a around 40% of a full lockdown, compared with around 80% for democracy and Switzerland’s response. The Swedish ‘Sonderweg’ (special path) to address the crisis drew considerable attention in Switzer­ believe that land and worldwide. Sweden offered an alternative response to ours is the best, the pandemic, which seemed worth understanding. There were but there are weak contacts between Sweden and Switzerland at both top political and expert levels. Switzerland had so far considered itself the points in both countries. In champion of the ‘Sonderweg’, a position it now shared with Switzerland, for example, Sweden. many do not have the right

A shared preference for political exceptionalism thus emerges to vote because they do not as a new commonality between Sweden and Switzerland. Even hold a Swiss passport; in before, the two countries displayed many similarities and were Sweden we almost never frequently mistaken one for the other. The confusion is no coincidence – and no problem, either. It is never a problem get the chance to vote. The to be mistaken for a friend. working of democracy can be improved, and both countries In his analysis, Jakob Tanner explains the special relationship between Sweden and Switzerland as a mix of mental affinities can learn from each other and and structural factors. We share the same values. We cherish from others.» our freedoms. We tend to be individualistic and pragmatic. Bruno Kaufmann, We believe in equality and the rule of law. We do not accept Journalist, Political Scientist privileges for the few. We expect our governments to deliver good services for all. We believe in dialogue and have shaped our political systems into mature democracies. We want policy issues to be broadly discussed and coordinated, and accept that

2 this may slow down decision­making. We highly value educa­ power is on the rise; the times of soft power seem gone. Interna­ tion and science and expect our governments to pursue fact­ tional institutions such as the UN Security Council, the World based policies. Trade Organization or the World Health Organization have seen their decision­making blocked and funds withheld. Inter­ Where do such similarities come from? In a long­term relation­ national treaties have been violated or abandoned. ship, two persons eventually come to share similar views. Con­ verging views may also stem from a similar family background. This is a dangerous development. Powerful countries may be In the case of Sweden and Switzerland, similar mechanisms able to impose their will on others, for some time. But it would seem to be at work. We have known each other, diplomati­ be an illusion to believe that they will solve problems that way. cally speaking, for 100 years now. We have worked together Conflicts cannot be solved by force. They will re­emerge once both bilaterally and in international forums. But there are also the pressure is released. There are no simple solutions to com­ similarities in our upbringing. Both Sweden’s and Switzer land’s plex problems. history experienced a period of military overstretch, for which both countries paid a heavy price. The lesson both countries The pressure on the rules­based international order is especially drew from this was to adopt neutral or non­aligned positions. detrimental for countries such as Sweden and Switzerland. Both countries also experienced major labour conflicts, and Ours are innovative nations with successful economies but very both learned to overcome them through effective social part­ limited hard power. We need a functioning world order for our nership. And both countries over­exploited natural resources security and success. and learned the hard lesson that there was no alternative to protecting the environment. It is no easy task to defend the international order against the short­sighted moves of big players. But inaction is not an Today, Sweden and Switzerland pursue converging policies in option. Closer cooperation between like­minded countries a very broad range of areas, from climate and the environment is one way forward. Countries with good credentials such as to research and innovation, economy and trade, migration, de­ Sweden and Switzerland can lead the way. Together with other velopment cooperation and disarmament. Our countries have like­minded countries, we can promote the cause of a just become similar in many respects. We are like­minded – indeed, international order. We feel tempted to exclaim: highly like­minded. ‘Well­intended countries of this world, unite!’

What does the future hold for Sweden and Switzerland? The Christian Schoenenberger international climate has become rougher. The rules­based Ambassador of Switzerland to Sweden international order cannot be taken for granted any longer. Major powers have evidently concluded that they can assert Stockholm, October 2020 their interests more effectively outside international organisa­ tions and multilateral treaties. They try to impose their views unilaterally or bilaterally, pressuring weaker partners. Hard

3 Sweden – Switzer land: the entangled history of two like-minded countries

Jakob Tanner, Historian, Prof. em., University of Zurich

4 1/ Oh, you’re from Sweden!

It is one of the Swiss “urban legends” to under score differentiation.2 Paradox­ « It is enriching that in the USA, after you have intro- ically, these misunderstandings fit the to work with duced yourself from Zurich, Bern or self images of the two countries. Both Geneva, you are greeted with «Oh, are pleased when they are presented as Switzerland, you’re from Sweden!» Such mistakes confusingly similar as they tend to see as our can also be found in politics, for themselves as “like­minded” with con­ countries are example in hearings of the American vergent positions with regard to central Senate, which took place in the late aspects of society and politics. Not only similar and we 1990s concerning dormant assets in do both countries have comparable sizes can learn from each Swiss banks.1 of population (10.3 and 8.6 million in­ other. For example, we habitants respectively), but life expec­ The phenomenon appears on a global tancy and living standards are equally have comparable decision- scale. In China, too, Sweden (“Ruidi­ high and both are small European states making and meeting an”) and Switzerland (“Ruishi”) sound committed to a militarily non­aligned cultures; you arrive on time, remarkably similar and confusion is fre­ foreign policy. These similarities have quent. The two countries have therefore ambi valent effects on power politics. the meetings are structured launched a privately sponsored image Sweden, the “land of friendship”, is not and there is an open- campaign in the “Middle Kingdom”, among the eight prioritized countries in minded atmosphere.» which contrasts the clichés of the Al­ Swiss foreign relations, and this is also pine republic (cows, chocolate, watches, the case in the reverse. To small coun­ Sanne Lennström, banks) with those of the Nordic country tries, similarly small countries are not Chairman of the Swiss-Swedish parliamentary friendship network (Moose, Köttbullar, Ikea, Volvo) in order necessarily the most attractive partners.

5 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future

The Swedish Royal couple at a shooting demonstration of the Swiss Army during their official visit to Switzerland in 1985.

When it comes to global positioning, A “special relationship” between Switzer­ rights, equality, peaceful coexistence, both Swiss and Swedish attention is fo­ land and Sweden, that can be discovered environmental and climate protection, cused on the sphere of the major powers. in structural homologies and mental open world markets, scientific research, At the same time, in times of crisis and affinities beyond the phonetic similarity etc.). 5 Political scientist Markus Frei­ threats, small states are potentially loyal between the “Suici” and the “Sueci”, was tag explains that “the Swiss and Swedes allies who can appropriately understand already conspicuous in the early modern are quite similar in their acceptance of each other’s problems and cooperate on period. These similarities range from individualism and their interest in the an equal footing.3 This is particularly being robust democracies with a state common good”.6 true when these small countries carry far administration close to the citizens, and greater weight in economic rather than in a federalist or de­centrally organized tax In the spring of 1985 on the occasion of political terms. This is evidently the case system4, to foreign policy preferences the first official visit of the Swedish Royal for both the countries compared here. and “largely identical values” (human Couple to the Alpine Republic, the Pre­

6 FOCUS 1: Similarly strong, similarly rich, similar problems.

In terms of population size and economic ranking, Switzerland and Sweden are com- parable. For decades, Sweden has had just over a million more inhabitants than Switzer land; today the ratio is 10.3 to 8.6 million. Both countries are known to be economically successful. In terms of gross domestic product (adjusted for purchasing power), Sweden is in 40th, Switzerland in 38th place (of 193 countries), and the latter is slightly ahead in terms of per capita figures. In addition, both countries occupy top positions in economic competitiveness and inno vation indices (each with a slight advantage for Switzerland). In the survey of social in equality, however, Sweden is somewhat closer to the equity pole.

Overall, the picture of two relatively rich and socially balanced countries that rank high on the Human Development Index and have the highest rates of Internet users emerges. How- ever, this correlates with a disproportionately large “Ecological Footprint”. In terms of the consumption resources, Switzerland and sident of the Swiss Federal Council Kurt President Furgler explicitly mentioned Sweden live beyond their means and export Furgler delivered a speech in which he the formative fact that Sweden and Swit­ environmental pollution, job hazards, toxic evoked precisely these shared features: zerland were the only neutral countries waste and generally common “bads” to poorer “Sober in character, reserved and yet in continental Europe that successfully countries, often along global value chains. Both marked by a sense of community are avoided the military operations and also rely to a similar extent on nuclear power both the Swedes and the Swiss”, he noted de vastation of both world wars. He plants, which account for 40 percent of total electricity output in Sweden and 37 percent in and called upon “our two countries with concluded by emphasizing the ability Switzerland, and which are distributed over the cross in their emblem”, whose “bond of these societies to “learn from their three locations each. And in both countries, is not only a concordance of interests, but history” and “to translate the knowledge the domestic political debates on the risks and 8 arises from the friendly feelings of one gained into reality”. opportunities of this technology are heated, 7 people for another people”. while the problem of the final disposal of radioactive waste remains unsolved.

7 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future 2/ Contrasts, conflicts, tensions

This rhetorical invocation of close- The tendency towards a teleology of As worthy of support as the goal projec­ ness and common ground is part of history is even more misleading. It is tions of the “like­minded countries” are the ritual of official visits. However, often assumed that countries have a kind today, it is equally important to be aware historiography points to the prob- of “national DNA” that drives their de­ of the differences and fault lines in the lem that cross-country comparisons velopment and enables them to unfold an relationship or comparisons between the tend to homogenize, stereotype, inner essence organically over centuries. two countries. Just like the similarities, and unify internally heterogeneous Linear narratives are constructed on the their differences too stand out. First, nation states. Idealization and pejo- basis of such assumptions and make a obvious geographical aspects: Sweden is rative portrayal thus lie close togeth- rapprochement seem almost inevitable almost eleven times larger than Switzer­ er. Hence, Switzerland was, and is, in the case of Switzerland and Sweden. land and – apart from urban agglomera­ repeatedly perceived as an Arcadian An overarching Swedish­Swiss spirit of tions – is one of the most sparsely popu­ paradise, a showcase country, and rough freedom and robust democracy lated countries in the world. More than then again as a magnet for the flight is deduced from medieval myths [See two­thirds of its territory is forested, of international capital and a hypo- "Focus 1" on page 7] for instance. Thus, while in Switzerland, the proportion of critical “special case”. In the late 1960s, the obvious conclusion drawn is that forest is less than one­third. The latter is the Swedes swung into the role of a the connection between the two coun­ more mountainous. The highest moun­ “moral superpower” and the “darlings tries over the centuries lies, as it were, in tain in Sweden (the Kebnekaise) is 2106 of the third world”, “whose good the nature of things. From this skewed meters high, the Doufourspitze in Swit­ works are matched only by their gluti- viewpoint, it is equally compelling today zerland reaches 4634 meters. nous smugness” (as critics sarcastically for the two countries to value each other put it).9 as predestined partners in the shaping of Despite the majesty of the Alps, however, global governance institutions. settlement planners and architects have

8 « It's hard to used in the administration, which is also « The special thing about walk in the the official language of the country; the Switzerland is all the so­called Minorities Act lists five national alps with minority languages (Sami, Meänkäli, languages and cultures. grandpa Finnish, Yiddish, and Romani Chib). Also Switzerland is smaller because Switzer land is a multi­denominational than the Swedish region country which introduced freedom of he's so used to religion with the Constitution of 1874; in Jämtland, and on this walking fast.» Sweden, this was only guaranteed around small surface there are the middle of the 20th century. Until Alyssia, 9 years four languages and at 2000, the Evangelical Lutheran Church remained the official state church. least as many long since re­conceptualized Switzer­ cultures. It's land as a continuous, traffic­condensed A glance at the microstructures of awesome. urban space with the mountains as a everyday life shows that in Sweden the local re creation area or “fallow land”. In relationship to alcohol is somewhat Switzerland Sweden, on the other hand, tourists can tense and tightly regulated as a matter of connects to all easily get lost in a vast landscape. And public health while in Switzerland, the my senses; while the Alpine republic is located “in winemakers are a political factor and the the middle of Europe”, the constitutional moderate drinking of white wine is con­ I can smell, taste, see monarchy in the North has a peripheral sidered appropriate even in government and hear Switzerland.» location, with a lot of sea and countless circles. In terms of average temperatures, Johanna Fridheim, Stockholm and Bern are not that far islands, such as Saltkrokan, the mythical Communication Specialist vacation resort of children’s literature.10 apart, but the north is not only cooler but also seems cooler in cultural terms. There are several differences with regard to social structure. Most notable is the Sweden has handled the policy of position of women. In the so­called gen­ neutrality (which it discovered in the der gap ranking, which ranks the degree Napoleonic Wars and has pursued since of gender inequality in particular coun­ 1855) somewhat differently from Switzer­ tries, Switzerland lags far behind Swe­ land. The Scandinavian country joined den.11 Moreover, Swiss society is pluri­ the United Nations in 1946 and the Euro­ lingual (with the four national languages pean Union in 1995 (after a referendum German, French, Italian, and Romansh); that was narrowly passed in favor). But in Sweden there is a “main language” in another plebiscite in 2003 Sweden

9 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future

rejected the adoption of the Euro. In As far as international visibility in sci­ Sweden’s willingness to embrace sci­ 2009, joining NATO was also discussed ence and culture is concerned, Sweden entific and technological advances but ultimately rejected. Switzerland, on stands out due to the Nobel Prize. In 1895 also applies to the transnational area the other hand, distanced itself from the the dynamite inventor, engineer and of digitization. The Swiss government UN as early as 1946 and, despite a period industrialist Alfred Nobel initiated the adopted the “Digital Switzerland” of rapprochement between 1988 and five prizes named after him. These prizes strategy in 2016 and the canton of Zug 1992, EU membership remains out of the have been awarded since 1901 and are is currently trying to establish itself as a question. regarded as the most prestigious awards “Silicon Valley” for blockchain technol­ worldwide. ogy. Nonetheless the scale of technology brands such as Spotify (founded in 2006 in Stockholm) or Skype (founded in 2003 as a Swedish­Danish co­enterprise in Luxembourg) overshadows Switzer­ land in this area. This phenomenon is also reflected in the rapid development of cashless payment transactions in the Scandinavian countries as a whole.12 Other differences in the national appeal are highlighted by a comparison between the anti­authoritarian energy­girl Pippi Longstocking and the Swiss figure Heidi from the mountains who is a paragon of conservative neatness [See "Focus 4" on page 16]. The Swiss trio “Peter, Sue and Marc” cannot keep up with super­ stars like ABBA in terms of quality and popularity.13

”Switzer land as wannabe Sweden”. At the 2018 World Cup, Switzerland failed in the round of sixteen against Sweden and lost 1–0. The cartoonist Ruedi Widmer believes that Sweden has always been one step ahead of Switzerland.

10 FOCUS 2: Swedes and Schwyzer

During the early modern period, the Wilhelm Tell myth was very present in the old Swiss Confederation; during the Enlightenment, historians pointed out that it had wandered from the Scandinavian north into the liberal heart of Europe. Legends also tell that in the Middle Ages, entire groups of settlers from Sweden migrated to Schwyz and are said to have strengthened the original democratic consciousness in the Alpine valleys. These legends did not bear the light of the Enlightenment well, but they retained their appeal as a tourist incentive even in the age of industrialization. As late as the 1880s, the Swedish writer August Strindberg searched the “Haslidal” for Swedish descendants and their “true democracy”. In terms of political self-determination and natural beauty, Switzerland was for him “but the number one”. [Marchal, Die frommen Schweden; Haas, Die Schweiz und die Schweden; Maissen, Vom Umgang mit Deutschland, 2001, p. 12].

Strindberg in Gersau 1886.

Freudenberger Wilhelm Tell 1760.

11 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future 3/ Approximations and distancing

It is important to realize that a com- expansion of scientific institutions and rate strategies functioned as cross­ parison of countries such as the pres- reforms in the military sector are all pro­ border agents of change, which sparked ent one does not rely on static entities, cesses that did not take place in the same off cultural conflicts and debates about but rather examines two countries way but can be identified in the history national self­understanding. Criticism of that have had (and continue to have) of both countries. This had a far greater modernity, the “disenchantment of the a diverse exchange and interrelation- impact on their development than direct world”, concerns about degeneration and ship with one another throughout exchange between them. decadence, belief in progress and hopes their long history.14 for the future, the formation of social Switzerland was an early starter as far movements, especially the women’s and All modern societies have been trans­ as industrialization is concerned. Some workers’ movements, the projection of formed through cross­national pro cesses regions such as the Zurich Oberland and collective fears onto scapegoats, and the of imitation and transmission, with state Appenzell were among the most highly expectation that social problems could be institutions and private enterprises pro­ developed regions in the world in the solved with science and technology – all viding equally important impulses [See field of domestic industry as early as the these and many more aspects of the de­ "Focus 5" on page 30]. Thus, the major 18th century. In Sweden, on the other velopment of a modern society impacted trends in European history were equally hand, the industrial revolution began both Switzerland and Sweden, albeit in prevalent in Sweden and Switzerland. later.15 But in both countries, compre­ different guises. The two countries thus Industrialization, urbanization, the hensive social change took place over represent varieties of modernity and vari­ scientific models for social matters, the the long term, combined with a drastic ants within the “varieties of capitalism”. transport and communications revo­ decline in the rural universe and sub­ lution, the rise of national ideology, sistence lifestyles. Commercialization, What was important for the similar­ the bureaucratization of the state, the commodification, and capitalist corpo­ ities in the economic development of

12 both countries was the way the labor the notoriously bad reputation as a haven FOCUS 3: force was specialized to fit into niches of for tax and capital flight by the wealthy A Swedish king in the world market production, with export elites of all the European countries. Swiss Confederation and import mutually supporting each A striking episode in Swiss-Swedish relations other. This outward orientation resulted This difference gave rise to tensions arose from the coup d’état against the Swedish in social convergences over time, which that also clouded the friendly harmony King Gustav IV Adolf in 1809. After his forced were probably more determining than celebrated on the occasion of the royal abdication in 1810, the ex-monarch came to Basel, where he acquired citizenship. After the impulses generated by direct contacts state visit in 1985. By that time, there were restlessly traveling throughout Europe and between the two countries. In terms of audible dissonances and the relationship visiting Western and Central Switzerland, the migration of people and the exchange between the two neutral small states was Gustav IV Adolf settled in a room in hotel of goods and services, relations between strained on a regular basis especially “Weisses Rössli” in St. Gallen for the last Switzerland and Sweden were not par­ with respect to tax matters. In mid­1983, three years of his life, where he died in 1837. ticularly close compared to those of many the Swiss Embassy in Stockholm wrote It is not known to what extent the choice other countries. Once again it is obvious to the Federal Department of Foreign of Switzerland depended on the mythical that complex relationships of exchange Affairs that the Royal Couple’s failure attractiveness of the alpine country in Sweden. [Michael van Orsouw, Blaues Blut, S. 53–70]. cannot be explained bilaterally, but only so far to make an official trip to Switzer­ within a multilateral area of influence. land was “probably” due to the fact that “Switzerland is portrayed very critically With regard to a long­term comparison, in the media in Sweden, which in turn it is striking that the shifts and upheavals has an impact on the pronouncements in social power relations and the political and behavior of the ordinary civil ser­ power structure were more pronounced vant and on the way the average Swede in Sweden where different phases of sees Switzerland.” Because of this image political socialization can be discerned. problem, “a visit to the capitalist country In the 19th century, the country was of Switzer land, where so many Swedish characterized by a powerful proprietary citizens live under the protection of the regime marked by harsh social inequal­ tax laws” is therefore “not considered ity. In the interwar period, however, the innocuous in domestic politics for the system reinvented itself almost proto­ responsible high officials in Stockholm”. typically in the direction of equality. Although “the king (...) regularly traveled Sweden identified itself with its “ideal of to Switzerland with his family”, “he did a society in which everyone is somewhat so privately and for vacation purposes”.17 more equal”.16 During the same period, Switzerland cultivated the status of an outstandingly stable nation and acquired

13 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future

The Swiss representative also shared a only from brief stays in Geneva, although small but significant anecdote about the it is known that for example in 1981, Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme: following a coincidental communication “Just how much Switzerland can be a red from the Honorary President of the Swiss rag to public Swedes was demonstrated Chamber of Commerce, Prime Minister recently by the fact that Prime Minister Palme was in Switzerland, where he was Palme told Federal Councillor Chevallaz enjoying some relaxation in the chalet of that he unfortunately never had had time a Zurich friend.”18 to visit Switzerland and therefore knew it

14 4/ Collectivist social democracy versus a capitalist civic-minded bourgeoisie?

The fact that a visit to Switzerland Democratic Age”, contrasts prevailed.19 For 44 years, from 1932 to 1976 and then could be seen as disreputable for a The “Swedish model” and especially again between 1982 and 1991, the Social Swedish social-democrat Prime the utopian ideal of the “people’s home” Democratic Workers’ Party (SAP) headed Minister can be seen as an indicator (Folkhemmet) appeared almost as a the government and built up a generous for political and societal contrasts. counter­image to bourgeois­capitalist social safety net “from the cradle to the Switzerland.20 Sweden was regarded as grave”. The public sector share in GDP Indeed, in the three decades after 1945, the country in which citizen equality, was considerably higher than it was in which were characterized not only as public spirited politics and social parti­ Switzerland. The dual­earner family “trente glorieuses” but also as the “Social cipation had reached a historic climax. was the norm, and women, who had

15 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future

FOCUS 4: Heidi and Pippi

Heidi and Pippi Longstocking are two girl from the mountains, Sweden for maritime and colored striped stockings embodied the characters from children’s books who have non-conformism. While Astrid Lindgren can witty, self-confident child who does not shy conquered the world. However, they stand easily compete with Johanna Spyri in the level away from any challenge and becomes the for quite different educational styles. At the of popularity. Her children’s books meanwhile horror of authoritarian adults. While Heidi, in beginning of the 1880s, the Swiss author can also be read against the background of the all her aesthetic revivals, remains the thoughtful, Johanna Spyri wrote her Heidi books, creating experience of National Socialism. The stories prudent, even obedient girl, Pippi Longstocking, a romantic picture of a healthy Alpine Switzer- of Pippi Longstocking were written from 1941 as a borderline anti-authoritarian role model, land where rules are observed. Age is respected, onwards; in 1949 the book was published in causes problems. nature is treated with reverence. In children’s Germany and immediately became a bestseller. literature Switzerland stands for conformism The red-haired girl with the perky pigtails

16 already been granted the right to both – comparable to other countries such successful than Sweden in areas such vote and stand for election in 1921, were as Germany, Denmark, etc. The share­ as transit trade and direct investment, also emancipated politically. The costs holders lost influence at the expense of which has resulted in its current account of public safety, generous care facilities the newly established worker’s partici­ surpluses being four times higher than and well­functioning health care were pation­schemes. In Switzerland, the those of the other country. Despite its covered by an efficient and progressive resistance to such economic democrati­ dependences in all directions and dimen­ tax system. zation was as strong as the opposition to sions, Swiss society shielded itself and taxes. drew up a culture of outer threat, which In contrast, Switzerland emerged as the made the armed forces the nation’s champion of tax competition and as a In foreign relations, Sweden has made “sacred cow,” that in turn strengthened European and even a global player in comparatively large financial contri­ national self­centeredness and a mascu­ asset management. Here, since 1943, the butions to developing countries and line understanding of the state. From the social democrats were junior partners in has been involved in peace research 1930s to the 1990s Switzerland then was a so­called “concordance democracy” in through the Stockholm Internation­ perceived from without as far more back­ which all the major national parties were al Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), ward than Sweden. represented in government. State power founded in 1966. As a symbolic figure, was kept short while the male family Dag Hammar skjold, the second Secre­ breadwinner model triumphed; the tary­General of the UN between 1953 father made his mark as pater familias, and 1961, embodied the fairer shaping and gender equality was in its infancy. of the global community and advocated On a national level, women were not even constructive multi lateralism. Switzer­ allowed to vote before 1971 (in the canton land, on the other hand, committed itself of Appenzell Innerrhoden, this state of to a minimal development assistance affairs lasted until 1990), and it was not and, despite catchwords such as “solidar­ until 1988 that equal rights for men and ity” and “disposability”, emphasized the women were achieved under civil law restraints deriving from its neutrality. Its through a new marriage law. banks tucked away the funds of crimi­ nal potentates and acted as a financial The configuration of the “industrial re­ hub for drug trafficking. Swiss Cantons lations” between capital and labor in the offered a home to global raw materials corporations and the legal codification firms and holding companies and served of property rights and stock companies as a back door for offshore business and was also strikingly different between the – particularly with regard to the South countries. After 1945, new forms of work­ African apartheid system – as a blockade force participation were tested in Sweden runner.21 Switzerland has been far more

17 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future 5/ Historical traditions and political turning points

The larger historical picture shows across Thurgau to Lake Constance but rather supplied mercenaries to all that, due to state-building tradi- forcing the Swiss Confederation to solvent parties. Internally, this export tions and the emerging national remain neutral. At the Peace of West- of personnel strengthened federalist self-reresentations, a Swiss-Swedish phalia of 1648, the Swedish king took tendencies. These centrifugal forces, in convergence was unlikely.22 In the part in the German Kaiser’s decision turn, perpetuated the weakness of the 17th century, Sweden evolved into an to grant the 13 Cantons “exemption”, Swiss Diet – the joint, temporary “gov­ absolutist state with a central bureau- which meant that they were no longer ernment committee” of an internally cracy and a powerful army, in which subject to the jurisdiction of the Holy loosely connected state structure. This Swiss mercenaries too performed Roman Empire’s Court of Justice. effectively prevented absolutist central­ military services. This had consequen- ization, although at the expense of a ces for Swiss history. During the Thirty It was in the interest of the major Euro­ sovereign foreign policy. The other way Years’ War (1618–48), Sweden as a pean states that the Confoederatio Hel­ round, regional synergies were achieved protestant Great Power pressed ahead vetica was not annexed by any power between the mercenary business and

18 proto­industrialization. This stimu­ lation). Moreover, only one­fifth of adult lated the whole economy while at the men could participate in the elections same time, private banks flourished and for the deputies of the second or “low­ Switzerland positioned itself as an im­ er chamber”. The blatant dominance of portant country for the export of capital property was also evident at the muni ci­ and – more pronounced since the First pal and local levels.23 The hyper­census World War – as an international center perpetuated a proprietary regime based for wealth management. on harsh inequality. At the time, Swe­ den’s political system functioned like a One hundred years earlier, in 1814, corporation in which large investors set ”Namninsamlingen 1913”. Elin Wägner, Sweden forced its neighboring country the tone. 1882–1949, one of the leaders of the Swedish women's suffrage movement, stands next Norway, which had just separated from to signatures collected in the campaign for Denmark, into a personal union where This was different in Switzerland, where women's vote. the potential for conflict was above all the disparity in wealth was also pronoun­ expressed symbolically in disputes about ced but the state saw itself as a demo­ the union flag, consular service and cratic republic. In 1874, the total revision foreign policy. The union was peace fully of the 1848 Constitution by referendum dissolved in 1905. During this period introduced the most progressive consti­ and up until the First World War, wealth tutional framework in the world: largely and income were very unequally distrib­ egalitarian male suffrage; a referendum uted in Sweden. This was reflected in the on the law, to which the constitutional hierarchical political structure of power, initiative was added in 1891; the granting which between 1527 and 1865 took the of freedom of settlement and religion; form of a parliamentary (Riksdag) regime a regulatory mandate concerning labor with four estates – nobility, clergy, urban law, from which the first Federal Factory bourgeoisie, and land­owning farmers Act emerged in 1877, and also the first Between 1844 and 1905, the nobility, nature conservation provisions.24 which made up 0.5 percent of the popula­ tion, provided 56 percent of the minis­ However, the tension between demo­ ters, and it was not until 1883 that the first cratic equality and capitalist inequality non­aristocratic head of government was manifested itself in a similar way in both appointed. A parliamentary bicameral countries with the organization of labor system was established in 1866, with the and women’s movements and with indus­ first chamber remaining reserved for the trial conflicts and strike actions, which large landowners (1 percent of the popu­ reached a considerable level in Switzer­

19 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future land compared to neighboring countries. Moreover, since the 1880s the prosperous Swiss economy became a European labor market hub and turned Switzerland into a country of immigration.

While in Switzerland the issue of men’s suffrage seemed to have been resolved and the proposals concentrated on the adoption of proportional representa­ tion in the National Council, decisive breakthroughs occurred in Sweden at that time as well. Between 1909 and 1911, reforms generalized (male) access to political rights and in 1921 women’s suffrage was introduced. From the 1910s In Switzerland, too, fiscal struggles for Women’s movement and the fight for onward, political pressure was built redistribution took place. Progressive equal political rights in Switzerland, 1928. The snail bears the inscription up from below. Socialist, social demo­ income taxes were introduced in the 'women's voting rights’. cratic, and later communist and workers’ cantons as early as the middle of the 19th movements, together with the women’s century. Social mobilization processes movement and civil society organisa­ similar to those in Sweden could be ob­ tions, strove for a progressive tax system served at the fin de siècle and during the to finance new state responsibilities. This years of the First World War in Switzer­ strategy gained majority support during land as well, but these forces of change World War I and paved the way for the were too weak to push the bourgeois “social democratic ideal” described power­structure onto a new course. above in the interwar period which was A break through in the direction of a tax/ condemned as the “road to serfdom” welfare state, such as the Swedish Folk­ (Hayek 1944) from the classical liberal hem of the 1930s, failed to materialize perspective. there. A Swiss­Swedish comparison thus shows the relevance of shifts in political power for the emergence of new societal models.

20 6/ Levels of cooperation until the founding of the League of Nations (1920)

Despite these striking differences, With trading posts in the Caribbean, European states such as Belgium and the two countries were already Africa (“Gold Coast” in Ghana) and the Netherlands. In the last quarter of moving toward each other in foreign India, Sweden participated more actively the 19th century, when the Belgian King policy matters before the First World and formally in Western colonial expan­ Leopold II exercised his direct rule in the War. Their commitment to neutrali- sion than did Switzerland well into the Congo with brutal excesses of violence, ty was also due to the fact that they 19th century and even practiced slavery Sweden and Switzerland did not rely were integrated into colonialism and on the island of St. Barthélemy. But both on military power over overseas terri­ the capitalist world system in a similar countries were less involved in imperi­ tories. They acted rather as free riders way.25 alist conquests overall than comparable of imperialism, exploiting opportuni­

21 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future

countries, there were organizations for peace which, inspired by noble ideals, upheld the so­called “pre­war interna­ tionalism” and tried to prevent belliger­ ent confrontation through moral appeals and deeds. In multilingual Switzerland, with the francophone part sympathising with France and the German­speaking part admiring the Kaiserreich, neutral­ ity was important for domestic reasons because it dampened dangerous centri­ fugal forces. The maxim “free of alliances in peace, neutral in war” was more strongly grounded in international law in Switzerland for this reason as well, whereas in Sweden, it quite pragmatically corresponded to the political will of the country to stay out of wars. Due to its On June 5, 1924, the Swiss national soccer team defeated the Swedish team 2:1 in the Olympic semi-final in geographical location, the country con­ Colombe near Paris, which was considered one of centrated on neighboring countries and Switzerland's greatest football victories. on finding a common line of action with Norway and Denmark. ties through investment and trading. “colonialism without colonies”. As far as Switzerland, however understood far bet­ a racist world view and the arrogance of During the First World War (1914–1918), ter than Sweden how to get involved in a belief in civilizing superiority are con­ the situation of Switzerland and the the global mass trade in goods important cerned, neither Switzerland nor Sweden Scandinavian countries proved to be to industrialization and how to become a differed significantly from the European similar in various respects. Trade block­ leading global merchandising power with great powers with their high­flying colo­ ades were introduced immediately and capital­intensive transit trade companies. nial projections. hit the neutral countries hard. During In India, the Swiss company Volkart in the war years, both countries were drawn Bombay handled Swedish trade transac­ As the imperialist rivalries between into the ongoing economic warfare and tions and its merchants were appointed the major European powers escalated, found themselves at the mercy of the con­ as Swedish­Norwegian consuls. Ruffieux a neutral stance was not only econom­ trolling regimes of the belligerent powers has suggested the term “secondary impe­ ically lucrative but became important – more so in the case of Switzerland. This rialism” for these practices, others talk of in the face of an expected war. In both forced them to make concessions and

22 violate their neutrality. Sweden and Swit­ of crisis from 1915 onwards. Inflation League of Nations when it was founded zerland also became veritable hotspots boosted corporate profits but contrib­ in 1920. Aiming to become a guarantor in the propaganda war and in espionage uted to the increasing impoverishment of collective security in the future, this operations. of a broad strata of the wage­earning international organization chose Geneva population. The widening gap in living as its headquarters, which was due to the At the same time, several neutral coun­ conditions amplified political polariza­ successful canvassing of Federal Coun­ tries took initiatives aimed at putting an tion. This was a pan­European phenom­ cilor Ador. This increased Switzerland’s end to the war. Switzerland, however, was enon. In both countries, the national visibility on the world stage. Unlike rather reluctant to support these efforts “truce” arrived at in August 1914 gave Sweden, however, Switzerland itself was and insisted that the United States join way to a confrontational atmosphere. As not invited to join from the outset, but in, a demand which became obsolete social hardship and material deprivation took this step, albeit as early as 1920, only when the Americans entered the war spread, the Swedish head of government after a contentious referendum and with in April 1917. The publication of secret Hjalmar Hammarskjöld was nicknamed a caveat about neutrality. telegrams by the Swiss Social Demo­ “Hungerskjöld”. Hunger and protest crat, Robert Grimm, who traveled via movements, especially in cities, led to the In the conflict between Finland and Stockholm to St. Petersburg to explore a Swedish Social Democrats’ inclusion in Sweden over the Åland Islands in 1920/21, separate German­Russian peace in May the government in 1917. In Switzerland, the former member of the Swiss govern­ 1917, had far­reaching consequences. in the face of a huge military deployment, ment, Felix Calonder, played a mediating Grimm’s telegram exchange with the lib­ the labor movement was forced to ter­ role. The result of this League of Nations eral Arthur Hoffmann, the strong man in minate a national strike unconditionally intervention, however, turned out in the Swiss federal government, was leaked in November 1918. It would take another favor of the Finnish side. Otherwise, the to the Swedish newspaper “The Social quarter of a century, until 1943, before Scandinavian states coordinated their Democrat”, which made it known to the the labor movement was included in the actions within the League of Nations world public. This triggered an inter­ Swiss government. In both countries, effectively through the so­called “Oslo national scandal and led to Hoffmann’s these political upheavals of the war years Group”. In addition to Sweden, Norway resignation, since he had supported had profound effects on the culture of and Denmark, this group also included Grimm’s plans. This cleared the way remembrance. In Switzerland mention Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands for the Franco­ and Anglophile Geneva of the general strike was tabooed for de­ and, in 1933, Finland. Switzerland, on the native Gustave Ador, who became Hoff­ cades, while in Sweden the strike was to other hand, remained averse to alliances mann’s successor and facilitated a reso­ be turned into a seminal model of collec­ and had to tackle the “undoubtedly exag­ lute rapprochement between Switzerland tive bargaining and social compensation. gerated suspicion” that it was “the fence and the Allies, notably the United States. of illegally fled capital” as historian and Irrespective of this different mode of diplomat William Rappard cautiously Economically and socially, both Switzer­ working mentally through the war expressed himself in 1925.26 land and Sweden went through a period experience, both countries joined the

23 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future 7/ Diplomatic relations, Second World War

While the diplomatic relations Council’s protocol notes) “the economic that “In addition to the development of between Sweden and Switzerland and political situation of this country purely commercial relations, to which were established during the First reveals many analogies and points of mutual trade negotiations are absolutely World War, they were consolidated contact”. In the ongoing European crisis necessary, and which would be greatly during and after the Second World “the interests of the two governments are encouraged by a more intimate, generally War. Efforts towards formal ties were the same and we very much hope that the political relationship (sympathies of the also influenced by economic interests. bonds of sympathy and trust between the Swedes for Switzerland), tourist traffic two countries will become ever closer”. by the Nordic states is also a possibility. In 1915, in the middle of the First World The involvement of business associations I have been able to convince myself at all War, Sweden expressed the desire for and “commercial circles” in this process three Nordic consulates that the desire to accreditation of an official representa­ of diplomatic officialization of existing travel to Switzerland is very widespread tive in Switzerland through the Swiss relations is striking. among the broadest strata of society. In envoy in Berlin Alfred de Claparède. particular, the summer months can be After the Federal Council had agreed When the war ended, Switzerland want­ considered, for which Scandinavia could on 16 August 1915, Count Ehrensvärd ed to leave this unilateral solution and provide us with a substitute for the absent submitted his letter of accreditation as also install an emissary in Stockholm. German clientele. A friendly political head of a Swiss mission. This met with a On 20 November 1919, an official of the relationship would be of utmost impor­ positive response, because (as the Federal Federal Political Department wrote tance for this as well”. This obviously

24 « It is a fact that Sweden made sense. In any case, one year later, approach by neutral states had now be­ and Switzerland are on 19 November 1920, Henri Schreiber come even more illusory than it ever had was appointed Swiss representative to been. A German revanchist war loomed sometimes mixed up and Sweden, Norway and Denmark based in on the horizon. While Sweden remained I see it as a compliment Stockholm. The Scandinavian countries, active in the Oslo Group, Switzerland, to be mistaken for however, wanted to avoid being perceived with its neutral foreign policy, prepared as a single bloc, so diplomatic relations itself for the things to come through Switzerland, a fantastic were extended in the early 1920s and ad­ a “spiritual defense” which portrayed country in many ways. ditional Swiss representatives were sent the Alpine massif as a kind of tecton­ to Copenhagen and Oslo. ic survival insurance for a chosen land We are two strong protected by God.27 democracies but have Already in the 1920s, Switzerland, the Netherlands and – most importantly When war broke out on 1 September chosen different in size – Sweden in violation of inter­ 1939, Switzerland and Sweden declared constitutional national law, were the offshore centers of neutrality in a similar manner. But at models, Germany’s secret rearmament program. the same time, as Germany was the most The League of Nations could not prevent important trading partner to both, they partly for this and ran into difficulties in other tried to negotiate comprehensive eco­ historical fields too. With the great world economic nomic agreements. Switzerland accom­ reasons.» crisis and the rise of the National Social­ plished this in August 1940 and Sweden ists in Germany, the crisis in the League in December of that year.28 Over the next Dr Andreas Norlén, of Nations became manifest in the 1930s. few years, both countries tried to make Speaker of the Swedish Parliament In 1938 Switzerland, disappointed and themselves useful in a wide variety of disillusioned by the dwindling opportu­ areas. Private business interests, national nities for the international peace organ­ security arrangements and the pressure ization, applied for a return to “integral exerted by the powerful Nazi regime neutrality”. It remained formally in the intermingled and led to violations of League of Nations but renounced any neutrality. For example, Sweden allowed obligation to support sanctions and soldiers to be transported across its terri­ countermea sures. This was celebrat­ tory after both the occupation of Norway ed at home as the regaining of national and Denmark (Operation Wesermünde sovereignty and the restoration of a pure of April 1940) and the German attack on neutral tradition but was, of course, in the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa the interests of Germany which praised in June 1941). In Switzerland, the federal Switzerland for this step. A coordinated government decided to support Germa­

25 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future ny with a “clearing billion”, which was large number of applications for asylum by the Hungarian “Arrow Cross Party” mainly used to finance arms purchas­ and entry to legations were rejected. on Swedish and Swiss diplomats and the es for the eastern campaign. Equally flight of Swedish personnel to the Swiss problematic were the extensive purchases However, a prominent humanitarian embassy. Since Switzerland and Sweden of stolen gold that the Swiss National Swiss­Swedish cooperation was estab­ each represented the interests of four Bank made from the German Reichs­ lished in Budapest in 1944.30 It was here other countries, the fate of ten nations bank throughout the war – in some cases that the Swiss vice­consul Carl Lutz, who for a time rested on the ambassador also for and on behalf of other central arrived in the Hungarian capital in 1942, Maximilian Jaeger. Switzerland issued banks.29 After an initially restrictive saved over 60,000 Jews by providing pro­ Swedish diplomats and their staff, 5 per­ refugee policy, however, Sweden decided tective passports and letters. These were sons in total, with new passports; since deliberately to reorient itself in 1942 and about half of all the Holocaust survivors Sweden acted as the protective power of engaged in “bureaucratic resistance” to in Hungary. In July 1944, the Swedish the Soviets in Hungary, the Swiss diplo­ the Nazi regime’s policy of persecution diplomat Raoul Wallenberg arrived in mats expected an improvement in securi­ and annihilation. This was in contrast to Budapest. Lutz initiated him into the ty in view of the expected invasion of the Switzerland, where in the summer of the rescue operation and cooperated with Red Army. same year the state border was closed to him during the decisive final phase of the refugees. 24,000 people were refused en­ German occupation. Swiss documents try to the country and an almost equally impressively depict the physical attacks

26 8/ Competition and contacts in the post-war period

In 1945, Swiss neutrality reached a ston Churchill showed understanding much later,) a national idol, while his historic low with regard to its inter- for the small democratic state’s difficult cooperation partner, Carl Lutz, was national reputation. Stalin took a situation. re primanded in Switzerland for his negative stance towards Switzerland. conduct. The Western Allies, especially the Sweden also had to cope with criticism, United States, blocked German assets but was in a better position due to its Apart from these differences, both and forced Switzerland to negotiate more open refugee policy in the last countries tried to reconcile their neutral restitution in Washington. years of the war and its membership stance with the Pax Americana.31 Like in the UN in 1946. The more favorable Switzerland, Sweden rejected NATO The question of so­called “dormant as­ perception is also related to the fact that membership, but came under greater sets” – accounts of Jews murdered in the Sweden deci ded to make Raoul Wallen­ pressure to adapt due to the entry of Holocaust deposited in Swiss banks – was berg (whose death in the Stalinist neighboring Denmark and Norway and also identified as a problem. Only Win­ dun geons in 1947 only became known the 1948 Finnish­Soviet Treaty. And just

27 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future

like Switzerland, Sweden pursued plans strictly sealed off from the Eastern Bloc H. M. King Gustav VI Adolf of Sweden for atomic weapons after 1945. These were repeatedly came into conflict with the and H. M. Queen Louise admire embroidery from St. Gallen during controversial in domestic politics and policy principles of neutrality. At the a private visit in Switzerland. failed in the 1960s due to prohibitively same time, a neutral balance between the Swiss Weeks in Stockholm 1955. After high costs and the non­proliferation ef­ two blocs was undermined by the need to a slump, trade relations between 32 forts of the nuclear powers. At the same acquire technologically advanced arma­ Switzerland and Sweden develop time, both countries made themselves ments and weapons systems unilaterally favorably again. useful to the Western alliance. Sweden from NATO countries. as the main line of defense against the Eastern bloc in the north, Switzerland as Although European security policy a self­overestimating “military strong­ continued to form the core of Swedish hold” in the center of the continent. foreign policy, Scandinavian cooperation However, an arms industry that as an and global engagement became more im­ international exporter of weapons was portant in this phase.33 Switzerland tried

28 « In Verbier I discovered had been very wise to limit itself to work­ ic corps, Max Petitpierre, the Federal Swiss wines and their ing in “non­political”, so­called technical Councilor responsible for foreign policy, international organizations (such as the put forward the Swiss government’s view fantastic qualities. They OEEC and later the OECD and EZU)35, namely “that we must participate in are grown at a high unlike Sweden, which was also a member inter national tasks that are in the service altitudes and with many of the International Monetary Fund even of peace and are not incompatible with providing its director between 1951 and our neutrality”.37 By and large, the Swiss different terroirs. Today, 1963. Switzerland’s rigorous line paid off public supported this position.38 I work to promote Swiss in terms of reputation. When Austria wines in signed the State Treaty of 1955, commit­ As far as the European integration pro­ ting itself to a policy of neutrality based cess was concerned, Switzerland and Sweden, as on the Helvetic model, the memory of Sweden took a similar stance for decades. they only the battered image of a decade earlier They both kept their distance from the export one had vanished. 1950 Schuman Declaration which aimed to create supranational institutions on percent of The year 1953 saw a special encounter the continent. Both sought to strike their wines.» between Switzerland and Sweden in a balance between an active role and the Asian region.36 On 27 July 1953, the national constraints. Joining a “United Daniela Egenäs Lundh, Korean War, a proxy war between the States of Europe,” as visionary politicians Sommelier ideological blocs of the Cold War, which imagined it, was out of the question, but had lasted for over three years and re­ economic cooperation and intergovern­ to upgrade its own “perpetual” neutral­ sulted in enormous losses, was brought mental cooperation were imaginable. ity in contrast to the pragmatic Swedish to an end with an armistice agreement. But in 1960, the establishment of EFTA approach. In 1950, Henry Vallotton, the Two commissions consisting of neu­ in Stockholm meant a modus operandi Swiss ambassador to Stockholm between tral states were established, one for the that would function for quite a long time 1946 and 1951, wrote that during World repatriation of prisoners of war (NNRC) was found. However, this European Free War II, Switzerland had rigorously ad­ and the other for monitoring the cease­ Trade Association – also called the “Out­ hered to its state maxim – unlike Sweden, fire (NNSC). At the suggestion of South er Seven” (Austria, Switzerland, Portu­ which had tolerated German troop trans­ Korea, Switzerland and Sweden joined gal, Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark ports through the country. This did not the latter commission, while North and Norway) – was gradually reduced in match the facts, but it did allow Vallotton Korea launched Poland and Czechoslo­ size when its members one after another to contrast the UN member Sweden neg­ vakia. India played the leading role in the started joining the EC or the European atively with Switzerland, which allegedly NNRC. Switzerland’s involvement was Economic Area. “preserved its freedom”.34 According to not without con troversy, but in Septem­ this narrative, the Swiss Federal Council ber 1953, in an address to the diplomat­

29 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future

FOCUS 5: Business ties « Sweden and Companies from Sweden have long since been pharmaceutical companies, there are companies part of Swiss everyday culture and vice versa. To from the mechanical engineering and vehicle Switzerland are the two mention some iconic brands: IKEA has emerged construction sectors. Asea Brown Boveri (ABB), most innovative countries as a popular cipher for modern, democratic, which was created in 1988 from the merger of consumer-living. The furniture company with a traditional Swiss and Swedish companies, is in Europe, but they the internationally known blue carrying bags an example of a transnational merger. While approach the diffusion of combines the pleasures of shopping with a it was initially a dual-listed company (with two gentle do-it-yourself approach. Founded in the independently operating companies), these innovation differently. In middle of World War II by Ingvar Kamprad from were united in 1999 to form ABB Ltd. based Switzerland, it is typical the Elmtaryd farm in the village of Agunnaryd near Zurich, which specializes in the production (hence the acronym IKEA) as a consumer goods of power plants and machinery for the global to develop solutions supplier, the chain shifted to interior design market. A particular case that led to a media very locally and to see in the post-war period. Today, the company scandal in 2019 is Crypto AG. The precursor is based in the Netherlands; Ingvar Kampard company was founded in Stockholm in 1915. In which of the ideas lived in Switzerland for over 40 years – for tax 1932 Boris Hagelin took over A.B. Cryptoteknik. prevail. In Sweden, they reasons. H&M was founded in Sweden in 1947 In 1948 he moved to Zug for the low taxes following the American model. Initially run as and excellent patent rights where he founded rather prefer an overall a ladies‘ clothing store (“Hennes” means „for Crypto A.G. in 1953. Thanks to the Swiss culture coordinated process, her“, „hers“), the chain was expanded to include of discretion, for many years only insiders were men‘s fashion in 1968 with the takeover of the aware that the company had been bought by which may facilitate the hunting clothing retailer Mauritz Widforss and the BND and the CIA and supplied manipulated spread in society.» renamed Hennes & Mauritz. In the meantime, cipher machines to 130 countries between 1970 the company, which sells clothing in the and 1993. When Crypto was split up in 2018, the

Micha Kämpfer, low-price segment (and which is repeatedly international part was taken over by Swedish Change Manager in criticized for bad working conditions in the investors. In 2020, the new company faced an Health Care manufacturing countries), is also well known in investigation by the Swiss Federal Prosecutor Switzerland. Conversely, many traditional Swiss as well as a temporary suspension of its export multinationals and export-oriented SMEs are applications by the authorities. This caused also active in Sweden. In addition to tensions in the bilateral relations of the two countries.

30 9/ The vertigo years after 1965 and the rebellion of 1968

The “Movement of 68” was equally stitutions (houses of correction and pris­ acted with liberal activists, flower power important for Switzerland and Swe- ons), university reform, urban planning, promotors and hippie dreamers. Political den. A “long 1968” can be traced international solidarity and, the Anti­ opposition, social protest, and cultural in both countries beginning in the Vietnam War­movement – as a crystal­ revolution changed the aggregate condi­ mid-1960s with heightened extra- lizing nucleus of social mobilization – all tion of the democratic public sphere. parliamentary movements, protests became the hot topics of debate. In both and demonstrations and continued countries, there were student uprisings In Switzerland as well as in Sweden, the well into the 1970s. at universities. Aesthetic forms, the use youth revolt was supported by the work­ of media, musical genres, body language ers’ unions and women’s organizations. Starting in 1965, issues such as the and clothing styles changed transnation­ In the 1970s this led to the formation of birth control pill, the sexual revolution, ally and in a transatlantic context. In the new social movements that environmen­ women’s liberation, anti­authoritarian late 1960s, art and politics morphed to­ tal concerns. In June 1972, Stockholm education, the criticism of repressive in­ gether and a new left coexisted and inter­ hosted the first United Nations confer­

31 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future ence on the environment. It was and is considered to be the take­off for inter­ national environmental policy.

Since then, “green issues”, such as the nu­ clear phase­out, waste and pollution and – more recently – global warming, have been present in mass media coverage, in social activation and on the agenda of domestic politics. The Swedish climate activist Greta Thunberg, who has become a global icon, initiated the Fridays for Future youth movement and was award­ ed the Alternative Nobel Prize in 2019. Thunberg also enjoyed a strong response in Switzerland and has had an impact on student strikes and eco­demonstrations. FOCUS 6: Magical nature

However, despite all these similarities, The vision of a magically animated nature, forests some striking differences should not be populated by mysterious creatures and animated overlooked. While the Social Democratic mountains, aroused particular resonance in Switzerland Party of Switzerland lost more than ten and Sweden. The fairy tale illustrator and artist John Bauer (1882–1918), who died in a shipping accident on percent of its electoral share between Lake Vättern at the end of the First World War, is today 1963 and 1971 (to 23 percent), the Swedish world-famous for his memorable depictions of gnomes and Social Democratic Labor Party achieved trolls, the latter of which are now at work in the thicket of a sensational election victory in the fall social media. Hans Arnold, who was born in Sursee in 1925 of 1968, winning more than half the and lived in Sweden from 1947, later followed in Bauer’s votes, which had previously only hap­ drawing footsteps. His pictures conveyed a frightening pened in 1940. While in Switzerland the everyday life; they can be found in Swedish fairy tale women’s movement was still fighting books next to Bauer’s troll drawings. In Switzerland, the physician and author Karl Renner (1891–1952), suggestively for the right to vote (finally instituted in described the experience and the ghost world of Berglers 1971), Swedish women achieved equal­ in his ethno graphy “Golden Ring over Uri” in 1941. Both ity goals that were far out of reach in Renner and Bauer equally feed the fascination for the Switzerland. Strike movements were also mysteriously invisible, which can be opened by an eye more widespread in Sweden but led to a tuned to traditional knowledge.

32 Swiss-born Hans Arnold made his career as an illustrator in Sweden. He was appreciated as a "folkkär" (beloved popular) artist.

33 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future relativization of the policy of uncondi­ yellow metal. Thus, this neutral country « I find the diversity of the tional industrial peace in both countries. of Switzerland in the heart of Europe ap­ Swiss regions particularly peared to be a supporter of the apartheid One factor that should have a lasting regime. At the same time, the public was interesting. It really has effect on international perception of both shocked by the so­called Bührle­scandal, an impact on the art scene nation­states is the divergence in foreign which was triggered by the bombardment as well. You can notice policy. This is an area in which the two of Red Cross airplanes in Biafra with flab countries began to develop in opposite guns of Swiss origin. how flexible the artists directions in the 1960s despite increased are, how used they are cooperation in trade policy. Starting in But Sweden’s engagement in the North­ to cooperation, both the middle of this decade, Sweden broke South dimension was not accompanied out of its previous diplomatic “armed by an equally determined commitment across regions isolation” and actively supported the to human rights in Europe. Both Sweden and across process of decolonization, criticizing the and Switzerland had a clear preference borders.» United States over the Vietnam War and for “Realpolitik”, which kept criticism the entire Indochina policy like hardly of repression in communist Eastern Alice Máselniková, any other Western country.39 When Olof Europe in check. Domestically, however, Creative Director, Supermarket Art Fair Palme became head of government in Switzerland cultivated a “psychological 1969, a particularly turbulent phase of national defense” to a greater extent than foreign relations began. Sweden practiced Sweden and practiced anti­communism an ostentatious mode of international as a consensus­building national “tribal solidarity that made the country the ritual” (Friedrich Dürrenmatt).40 between the “N+N”, as the group of neu­ “good conscience of the world”. Even if tral and non­aligned states was called, national self­stylization and willingness A movement towards friendly coopera­ was formed and formalized in the CSCE to change were often intertwined in a tion between the two neutral countries process. In the context of this diplomat­ self­righteous manner, in this phase Swe­ occurred during the negotiations on ic­foreign policy cooperation, Switzer­ den still presented a contrasting scenario Security and Cooperation in Europe land and Sweden maintained “the most to Switzerland. (CSCE), which began in the late 1960s important faithful friendship”.41 and took place in Geneva, Dipoli and During this period, then, the perception Helsinki. After Sweden’s initial reticence, of the two countries’ foreign policy diver­ the country, together with Switzerland, ged considerably. It was in Zurich one grew into the role of a good broker and year earlier (1968) that the international assumed a bridging function between gold pool was established, through which East and West. In the years prior to the South Africa could export this precious Helsinki Final Act of 1975, cooperation

34 10/ Post-Cold War convergence

In the late 1970s, in the wake of the The implosion of the Eastern Bloc and critical. Recently, historian and author oil crisis of 1973 and the subsequent the end of the Cold War in 1989/91 Peter Englund focused on the “down­ economic slump, which was particular- brought about a new global constellation to­earth utopianism” and “modernity”43 ly severe in Switzerland, the political in which the welfare state of Scandinavi­ of the social democratic era in Sweden. party system and the internal balance an, especially Swedish, character seemed In “Murder in the Sunday Street” (2020) of power between interest groups historically outdated. The future now – an eye­opening, socio­historically came under pressure to change. In appeared to belong to private initiatives grounded “true” detective novel set in a Sweden, the Social Democrats lost and dynamic market forces. Eastern Eu­ southern district of Stockholm in 1965 – their government majority in 1976 rope became a gigantic experimental site he traces the “caricature of Sweden “ as after decades, and a debate about for neoliberalism, which was committed “a country – to quote Graham Greene – “Swedish equitable society”42 be- to the triad of privatization, deregulation with beautiful architecture, good food, gan. In Switzerland, too, criticism of and liberalization. artistically designed furniture, textiles the state and a belief in the market and tableware; one does not worry about increased. With the onset of glo- During the 1990s this new internation­ the future, there are neither beggars balization in the 1980s, competition al situation created a fresh climate for nor prostitutes, one has a good life, but between nations and the resulting discussion throughout Europe, and in in which sexual permissiveness, moral claims for the withdrawal of the state Sweden in particular, which affected the decay, free health care and other state so­ from the economy became a European retrospective evaluation of the develop­ cialism had made people soulless, empty, phenomenon. ment of the nationally constituted soci­ conformist, into a kind of glossy polished ety. The view of the achievements of the but basically unhappy automaton whose welfare state, which were proudly praised only way out of misery was to commit in the post­war period, became more suicide.» 44

35 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future

Such dystopian reinterpretations of a so­ the Sweden Democrats, with historical quite effectively in both countries. But cial system that strove for human happi­ roots in right­wing extremist milieus, in larger Swedish cities and densely pop­ ness also found resonance in Switzerland. made it into the parliament (Riksdag) ulated areas, a gap is opening up between Even though the state and fiscal quotas for the first time in 2010 and scored 18 social segregation and the long­held of the two countries are still significantly percent in the national elections in 2018 image of an “immigrant paradise”. There different (the latter rose in Switzerland and 15 percent in the European elections is a potential for discontent that mani­ from 24 to 28 percent between 1990 and one year later. This shift to the right is an fests itself in tensions and violence on 2016, while it fell from 50 to 44 percent expression of a social­normative polar­ the ground, and that has developed into in Sweden), the comfortable misery of ization that was even more pronounced a polarized public debate. While some what has been achieved and a welfare in Switzerland than in Sweden. This also evoke the image of an inexorable spread state mentality of contrived comprehen­ has had an impact on the ideologically of “Chicago conditions”, others empha­ sive coverage were also lamented in Swiss charged debates that have been ongoing size that there is little statistical evidence circles. Here as in Sweden, a discussion in both countries since the 1990s con­ to support such an overall view. High took place about the reasons for relatively cerning a new, more active understand­ youth unemployment rates are rather high suicide rates and about the paradox ing of neutrality and non­alignment. a question of professional qualification that when security increases the feeling Moving between fundamental criticism and the state provides social security of insecurity may increase as well. and claims of continuity, both countries benefits also to financially disadvan­ made concessions – especially to NATO taged migrant families. But apparently, This self­criticism was accompanied by a – and adapted to new global realities and this policy fails to address a number of wrangling for new national self­images. power relations without, however, con­ problems. Although Switzerland seems On the right side of the political spec­ sidering a fundamental revision of their to cope better than Sweden with the chal­ trum, a return to one’s own historical foreign policy. lenges of integration and intercultural traditions became very popular. The rise communication in urban areas, in both of anti­European and xenophobic popu­ Even though both countries can be countries the migration issue is bound lists is a Europe­wide and international described as “immigrant societies” that up with conflicting entitlements and ex­ trend that also manifests itself in Sweden now work effectively on a plurilingual pectations and a populist dramatization and Switzerland. In the latter, support for and multicultural basis, Sweden has a of the “foreign” (in Switzerland called Christoph Blocher’s SVP (Swiss People’s much smaller proportion of official for­ “overforeignization”). Party) began to soar after the extreme­ eign residents, partly due to the liberal ly narrow rejection of entry into the nationality law of 2001. This stands in On the other side, in both countries European Economic Area in December contrast to Switzerland, which relies we can witness a self­critical national 1992. Until then only a 10 percent party, it heavily on foreign labor to achieve its introspection which, since the 1990s, has reached a Swiss party all­time high of al­ economic growth strategy but sets higher sharpened the sensitivity to discrimi­ most 30 percent in the National Council hurdles for naturalization. Socio­cultur­ natory treatment of minority groups as elections in 2015. In the north of Europe, al integration strategies generally work well as compulsory interventions that, in

36 the past, violated fundamental rights.45 and others affected by coercive measures passage to the 21st century, the trade In Sweden, 62,000 eugenic sterilizations followed, combined with an apology unions made their approval of the free were documented between 1935 and 1976, by the Federal Council and the Farm­ movement of persons conditional on 90 percent of them involving women. In ers’ Union. In Sweden, the government the imposition of so­called “flanking almost all cases, pressure and coercion apologized for the repression against the mea sures” (FlaM), which effectively were involved. The personal rights of Sami people in 2000 and ratified a Coun­ prevented dumping strategies in the these people were sacrificed to a welfare­ cil of Europe convention on the protec­ labor market and weakened the trend state health prevention and cost­cutting tion of national minorities and minority toward social inequality. In the same approach. In Switzerland, the number languages. In response, courts increas­ period (from 1994 to 2006), Sweden was of such interventions was lower, but ingly enforced the rights of groups that governed by the SAP again, and, after a there were particularly harsh coercive had been marginalized and oppressed for conservative­liberal interlude, by a red­ administrative measures, which disen­ a long time. green coalition (2014–2018 and again franchised at least 60,000 people up to since early 2019). Attempts to place the 1981. And the state­subsidized program This interaction between civil society strong and socially inclusive state in op­ “Children of the Road”, carried out by and political institutions also meant that position to an autonomous, vibrant civil the charitable foundation Pro Juventute, the fight against “collectivism” and “the society have not been successful. Today, from 1926 onwards separated more than common good” did not become predomi­ the “Swedish model” stands more for the 600 children from their itinerant parents nant either in Switzerland or in Sweden. strengthening of social capital, for the by force. Following a wave of protests This contrasts with Eastern Europe and rights of citizens and for empowerment, this forced removal of children from the Anglosphere, where such tendencies not against but with the help of a welfare their Yenish families (who were exposed have gained massive momentum. This is state funded by a redistributive tax sys­ to racist prejudices towards their “vag­ not to say that the Swedish and Swiss so­ tem.46 rant” way of life) was banned in 1972; in cieties are not confronted with forces that 1976 the Swedish sterilization law was undermine the rule of law and a culture repealed. of tolerance. However, welfare state in­ surance, minimum labor standards and Since the 1970s, the historical reappraisal public service remain intact. Individual of past injustices and the policy of repa­ freedom, self­responsibility and state ration in both countries were originally safeguards were not seen to be antagonis­ initiated by individual victims and civil tic but rather complementary. action groups and finally taken up by the government. In Switzerland, the Federal At the same time, it became clear that Council apologized for the injustice done Switzerland’s economic prosperity could to the Yenish people in 1986. In 2013, a only be sustained through integration memorial day for former Verdingkinder into the single European market. In the

37 Sweden – Switzerland: past, present and future 11/ Patterns of response to the corona crisis

Switzerland and Sweden have res- if Switzerland, with its liberal­capitalist well­functioning public service. From ponded very differently to the corona mentality, was more in favor of uniform this vantage point, we realize that trust crisis that spread throughout Europe measures than Sweden, which is said to in state institutions and commitment to in March 2020. This is at least the im- have a penchant for state collectivism. a diverse civil society is the yardstick for pression that can be gained from the individual and social well­being in equal media coverage. Swedish historian Lars Trägardh de­ measure. It is then easy to understand scribed Sweden as “the most individ­ why the Swiss Federal Council, in its In Switzerland a nationwide “extra­ ualistic society in the world” in 2012, anti­corona policy, emphasized from the ordinary situation” was proclaimed on referring to the World Values Survey.48 outset that a curfew was not necessary; it 17 March and a far­reaching lockdown Such individualism can also be found was because responsible citizens would was imposed on catering and small busi­ in Switzerland, and it is not achieved by behave in an appropriate manner based nesses, the entire cultural sector includ­ distancing oneself from social security on insight and concern for others. ing elementary school. In comparison, systems and egalitarian structures in in Sweden there was no total lockdown order to be free from peer pressure and With regard to Sweden, it is evident that instead and an appeal was made to the forge one’s own luck. Rather, it is rec­ despite the absence of government coer­ citizens’ sense of self­responsibility.47 ognized that each personality is formed cion, the recommended measures were This resulted in a strange contrast seen in fair dealings with other people and is largely followed voluntarily. This resulted in a historical perspective. It seemed as dependent on the common good and a in quite similar patterns of behavior, and

38 « The biggest difference: there is always a larger mountain in Switzerland that obscures the view. Striving up – is it a longing that is situated in the body, the soul, the DNA, that has dug itself in? Upwards, new heights, always this striving up. Again and again it occurs, like a cold. Is everything originating from a longing? In Sweden mountains, soft rounded, do not stand out, blend in. In Switzerland, on the this in turn may explain why the eco­ everyday life and in the personal assess­ nomic downturn was comparable in both ment of risks and opportunities. In both other hand countries. countries, however, this robust grasp of – Alpine reality must constantly struggle against peaks, sharp Even though there are statistically carelessness, skepticism about science, significant differences in the curves of and even against bizarre conspiracy edges, Covid­19 infections and also in the num­ theories. It is therefore advantageous that precipices.» ber of deaths, Sweden is by no means the Sweden and Switzerland not only remain Theres K. Agdler, counter model it has often been portra­ connected and exchange information, artist and author of yed as in the Swiss press and elsewhere. as they have done in the past, but also “bärge/fjäll” Rather, the like­mindedness that the observe each other with interested yet two governments emphasize today can critical eyes founded on a sense of soli­ also be seen in the microstructures of darity.

39 End notes

1 In 1997, the news that California Senator Barbara Boxer 9 Cited after: Simons/ Maniolo: Sweden’s self-perceived had mistaken Switzerland and Sweden for each other global role. p. 1. several times at a hearing found its way into the Swiss 10 Astrid Lindgren, Ferien auf Saltkrokan, Hamburg: press. Cf. Maissen, Vom Umgang mit Deutschland, p. 11. Oetinger 1966. 2 https://www.20min.ch/story/chinesen-verwechseln- 11 In 2018, Switzerland was in 20th place, Sweden in 3rd die-schweiz-und-schweden-489255653408 place. The GG Index was 0.7550 for Switzerland and 3 For basic information: Findeisen, Schweden; 0.8220 for Sweden. Cf. https://countryeconomy.com/ Tuchtenhagen, Kleine Geschichte Schwedens; Maissen, countries/compare/switzerland/sweden Geschichte der Schweiz; Lang, Demokratie in der 12 In the meantime, the Swedish payment provider Klarna Schweiz; Tanner, Geschichte der Schweiz. The author has also become active in Switzerland. lives in Switzerland. He knows Sweden from travels, scientific contacts and research literature. He is 13 Peter, Sue & Marc was a popular pop group in interested in a transnational history of entanglements Switzerland. Founded in 1968 in Bern, it was an active and transformative exchanges. The author would like until 1981. The Swedish pop group ABBA formed in to thank Aryo Makko for many additional suggestions Stockholm in 1972 and was active until 1982. and for reviewing the manuscript. Thanks also go to Catherine Dahlström who has looked through the text 14 Speich-Chassé, Der Staatsvergleich in historischer linguistically. Any mistakes are entirely my fault. Perspektive.

4 In the fiscal policy literature, Switzerland and Sweden 15 Findeisen, Schweden, pp. 196–198. are subsumed under the term „fiscal federalism“, 16 Interview with Regula Bähler (part II): Was ist so although it is clear that there is no equivalent in Sweden spannend am schwedischen Königshaus?, in: Die to Swiss-style state policy federalism. https://www.nzz. Wochenzeitung Nr. 33/2013, 15. August 2013. ch/wirtschaft/erfolgreicher-steuerfoederalismus-dank- leitplanken-1.18639765 17 Swiss Federal Archives: Schreiben der Schweizerischen Vertretung in Stockholm an EDA betr. Schweden: 5 The concept of «like-minded countries» is developed in: Monarchie und Staatsbesuche vom 30. Juni 1983. Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Policy Strategy 2020–2023, Berne 2020 and «Switzerland in the 18 Do. world 2028, Report by the working group «Switzerland’s 19 Vgl. Buci-Glucksmann/ Therborn: Der 2028 Foreign Policy Vision (= AVIS 28), Bern 2 July 2019; sozialdemokratische Staat. from the Swedish viewpoint: Stefan Löfven, Ann Linde, Die Mitgliedschaft Schwedens im UN-Sicherheitsrat 20 Lehnert, Gemeinschaftsdenken in Europa. 2017–2018. Bericht der Regierung 2018/19:104, 21 As far as trade relations as a whole are concerned, Stockholm, 11. April 2019, p. 27. Switzerland kept to the so-called Courant normal, 6 Interview with Markus Freitag, «Vertrauen macht Politik but the gold business and credit activity reached new effizienter», in: NZZ 13. Mai 2020, p. 11. dimensions, especially after 1968.

7 Swiss Federal Archives, Programme de la visite d’état en 22 For the following descriptions see: Bengtsson, et al., Suisse, 22–24 avril 1985, Ansprache von Bundespräsident “Aristocratic Wealth and Inequality; Bengtsson, The Kurt Furgler. Swedish Sonderweg.

8 Do.

40 23 While cities slightly limited the influence of large owners, 38 However, some of the Swiss army personnel and they exercised control in the countryside. In 1871, for diplomats who pioneered military peace-building example, there were 54 municipalities in which a single abroad in Korea on the 38th parallel criticized their owner held more than half the voting power. In 414 communist cooperation partners so harshly that they municipalities, empires had more than a quarter of the had to be reprimanded by their own government, votes. with an abandonment of the entire exercise also being considered. Since a peace treaty between North and 24 Lang, Demokratie in der Schweiz. South Korea has not yet been concluded, the activities 25 For the following see: Makko, European Small States. of Switzerland and Sweden within the NNSC continue to this day; however, the number of personnel in the 26 Rappard, Die Politik der Schweiz im Völkerbund. delegations has been significantly reduced.

27 van Roon, Small states. At that time there was a fight for 39 Scott, Swedish Vietnam criticism reconsidered. a „Swiss position“ in Sweden: Wickman, Schweden und der Völkerbund. 40 Fischer, Neutral Powers in the CSCE.

28 Vgl. Durrer, Marco: Die Beziehungen zwischen Schweden 41 Makko, Ambassadors, p. 235. und der Schweiz im Zweiten Weltkrieg. 42 Findeisen, Schweden, p. 257. 29 Setzen, Neutralität im Zweiten Weltkrieg; more 43 Englund, Mord in der Sonntagsstrasse, p. 9. appropriate in the legal evaluation: Lindgren et al. (Hg.) Schweden, die Schweiz; UEK-Schlussbericht 2002. 44 Do. p. 198.

30 Karner, Auf den Spuren Wallenbergs; Tschuy, Carl Lutz 45 Wecker, „Vom Verbot Kinder zu haben; Porter, und die Juden von Budapest. „Eugenics; Björkman, et al.: „Selling eugenics”; Broberg/ Roll-Hansen (Hg.): Eugenics and the Welfare State. 31 Flury-Dasen, Die Schweiz und Schweden vor den In February 2002, the Interdisciplinary Conference Herausforderungen des Kalten Krieges; „Psychiatry and Eugenics in the 19th and 20th Centuries, 32 Sweden allocated more funds for this and pursued these Switzerland in the European-American Context“ took plans until 1972, Switzerland until 1988. Fischer, Eine place at the Centro Stefano Franscini on Monte Verità Geschichte der Atomenergie in der Schweiz; Jonter, The near Ascona, with the participation of Swiss and Swedish Key to Nuclear Restraint. historians.

33 Makko, Sweden, Europe, and the Cold War; above all: 46 Trägardh (Hg.) State and Civil Society in Northern Fig. 1.Sweden’s Cold War Foreign Policy p. 71. Europe.

34 Swiss Federal Archives (dodis.ch/8273). 47 Cf. the working paper: Coronavirus-Pandemie: der schwedische Sonderweg irritiert, Stockholm, 5. June 35 Do. 2020.

36 Cf. the list of sources in the Dodis: https://www.dodis.ch/ 48 Lars Tragardh, The Swedish model is the opposite of the de/thematic-dossiers/e-dossier-60-jahre-koreamission big society, David Cameron, in: The Guardian, February 37 Swiss Federal Archives: Dodis (dodis.ch/9557, Original 10, 2012. französisch)

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43 Photo Credits We are grateful to our centennial partners

The Swedish royal couple at a shooting demonstration of the Swiss Army 1985. Photo by Bruno Torricelli RDB/ullstein bild via Getty Images

Swe-Sui 1–0 illustration by Ruedi Widmer in the Tagesanzeiger. 05.07,2018

1928 Swiss Women’s suffrage demonstration in Bern ©Gosteli Archive

Namninsamlingen 1913. Collection of names for female suffrage. Elin Wägner, 1882–1949, by the names collected. Reproduction: KvinnSam, Göteborgs universitetsbibliotek

Swiss Weeks in Stockholm. Schweizer Textilien, German edition 1955/4 / Swiss Textiles Swiss textile federation ©Switzerland Global Enterprise

Swedish panorama by Steen Jepsen/Pixabay

Swiss panorama by Claudia Fontana Tobiassen

Freudenberger Wilhelm Tell 1760. Zentralbibliothek Zürich (Signatur 36.1105)

Strindberg in Gersau 1886. Strindbergsmuseet, Stockholm

The Swedish king Gustav IV Adolf by Per Krafft the Younger. Public domain/Wikimedia Commons

Abba Greatest Hits by Hans Arnold ©Hans Arnolds Estate/ Arnold Family

John Bauer: St. Martin och de tre trollen. Nationalmuseum/ Creative Commons

Spyri, Johanna, cover ill. by Kieselbach, F. M.: Heidi: Göttingen: W. Fischer – Verlag, 1950. Schweizerisches Institut für Kinder- und Jugendmedien, SIKJM, Zürich

Astrid Lindgren, Boken om Pippi Långstrump (Femte upplagan, Oslo 1991) Raben&Sjögren/Astrid Lindgren AB

Olympia Paris 1924 Football Sweden-Switzerland 219343703 KEYSTONE/PHOTOPRESS-ARCHIV

Still from the film «bärge/fjäll» by Theres. K. Agdler

44 « I do not think the differences between our countries are the most interesting, rather the similarities – we have many common values, we stand up for democracy, for freedom of speech, the rule of law, free and fair elections. We need to stand up for these values in a world where democratic values are being challenged.»

Dr Andreas Norlén, Speaker of the Swedish Parliament Sweden – Switzer land: past, present and future

© Embassy of Switzerland in Sweden, 2020 Publisher: Christian Schoenenberger Contact: [email protected] Text: Jacob Tanner, Historian, Prof. em., University of Zurich Layout: Shutrick illustration Printed at: YT Tryck, Stockholm, 2020

Embassy of Switzer land Valhallavägen 64 / Box 26143 SE-100 41 Stockholm Tel: +46 8 676 79 00 www.eda.admin.ch/stockholm https://www.facebook.com/SwissEmbassySweden/