MARINE BIODIVERSITY SURVEY

FINAL REPORT

A CEPA-JICA PROJECT ON BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION THROUGH IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PNG POLICY ON PROTECTED AREAS

APRIL 2018

Prepared by the Centre for Biodiversity and Natural Products, University of Papua New Guinea

Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... 1 CHAPTER 1. MARINE BIODIVERSITY SURVEY OVERVIEW ...... 5 Introduction ...... 5 Sites description ...... 6 Geographical Location ...... 6 Geology ...... 7 Marine Environment ...... 8 Climate...... 8 Vegetation ...... 8 CHAPTER 2. BIODIVERSITY INVENTORY ...... 12 INVENTORY OF BOGORO AND MOTUPORE ...... 12 Introduction ...... 12 Objectives ...... 12 Methods and Material ...... 12 Results and Discussion ...... 13 Floristic Composition and Diversity ...... 14 Mangrove species ...... 15 Seagrass Species ...... 17 Faunal Composition and Diversity ...... 18 Mammals ...... 18 Birds ...... 19 Marine Biodiversity ...... 20 Cnidarians ...... 20 Ascidians ...... 25 Marine Worms ...... 26 Crustaceans ...... 28 Molluscs ...... 32 Echinoderms ...... 36 Sponges ...... 39 Marine Macro-Algae ...... 41 Fishes ...... 42 Marine Mammals ...... 42

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Marine Reptiles ...... 42 Conclusion ...... 43 References ...... 43 Appendix 2-1. Plant species list for Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island...... 47 Appendix 2-2. Fish species recorded at Bootless Bay...... 56 CHAPTER 3. FLORA SURVEY ...... 71 Introduction ...... 71 Objectives ...... 72 Material and Methods ...... 72 Results ...... 74 Floral diversity ...... 74 Lifeforms ...... 74 Vegetation structure ...... 76 Discussion ...... 76 Conclusion ...... 78 References ...... 79 Appendix 3-1. List of Plant species recorded in survey...... 80 CHAPTER 4. TERRESTRIAl FAUNA SURVEY (BIRDS, INSECT, REPTILES) ...... 81 Introduction ...... 81 Material and Methods ...... 81 Point Counts ...... 81 Mist nets for birds and bats ...... 82 Results ...... 82 Discussion ...... 84 References ...... 84 Appendix 4-1. MacKinnon List of birds observed at Motupore Island...... 86 Appendix 4-2. MacKinnon List of birds observed at Bogoro Inlet...... 87 CHAPTER 5. MARINE HABITAT AND DIVERSITY ...... 88 Introduction ...... 88 Objectives ...... 88 Material and Methods ...... 88 Results ...... 91 Cover types ...... 91 Marine Diversity ...... 93

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Species Composition ...... 94 Macroalgae ...... 94 Seagrass ...... 94 Cnidarians ...... 95 Echinoderms ...... 96 Discussion ...... 98 Conclusion ...... 99 References ...... 99 CHAPTER 6. THE FISH DIVERSITY SURVEY...... 101 Introduction ...... 101 Objectives ...... 101 Material and Methods ...... 101 Study Sites ...... 101 Survey Design ...... 102 Data Analysis ...... 103 Results ...... 104 Species Richness and Density Levels ...... 104 Trophic Structure ...... 105 Catch Composition and Efforts ...... 106 Discussion ...... 107 Conclusions ...... 113 References ...... 115 Appendix 6-1: List of fish species observed at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island proposed MPAs. . 116 CHAPTER 7. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT - A PRELIMINARY SURVEY ...... 121 Introduction ...... 121 Objectives ...... 121 Material and Methods ...... 121 Results ...... 122 Fishing Activity ...... 122 Mangrove Forest ...... 125 Discussion ...... 125 References ...... 127 CHAPTER 8. BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT ...... 128 Introduction ...... 128

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Biodiversity Assessment ...... 128 Objectives ...... 129 Methods and Material ...... 129 Biodiversity Conservation Values Analysis ...... 129 Results and Discussion ...... 130 Bootless Bay Ecosystems ...... 130 Biodiversity of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island ...... 131 High Conservation Values ...... 133 Mangrove Forest (Criteria HCV 2-5 ) ...... 133 Bogoro Marine Environment (HCV 3-5) ...... 134 Motupore Island (HCV 1 – 5) ...... 134 Conclusion ...... 135 Recommendations ...... 136 Reference ...... 136 BIODIVERSITY PICTURES ...... 137

List of Figures

Figure 1. Close-up of Bootless Bay, this marine biodiversity suvey area with study sites indicated in the white circle (Bogoro Inlet Mangroves and Motupore Island Marine Habitats)...... 7

Figure 2. Google earth satellite image showing patches of degraded and clearings in mangrove forest at Bogoro Inlet ...... 10

Figure 3. Publications recorded for Motupore and surrounding areas, Bootless Bay...... 13

Figure 4. Location of sampling stations at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Stations 1 and 2 at Bogoro Inlet and stations 3, 4, 5 and 6 on Motupore Island...... 73

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of flora survey at each station. Sampling transects (TR) indicated by shaded orange rectangular...... 73

Figure 6. Lifeform cover of Site 1(Bogoro Inlet) and Site 2 (Motupore Island)...... 75

Figure 7. Diameter class distributions for Bogoro Inlet (Site 1) and Motupore Island (Site 2). Diameter class: 1 = <5cm; 2 = 5-10cm; 3 = 10.1-15cm; 4 = 15.1-20cm and 5 = >20cm...... 76

Figure 8. Observational sites (Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island) and stations within sites. Yellow dots indicate observation stations...... 81

Figure 9. Schematic diagram of a 10-minute Point count described in the text above...... 82

Figure 10. The two study sites (enclosed in white oval shape) and the six sampling stations...... 89

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Figure 11. Schematic layout of sampling method of reef environment. Sampling transects established at every 50m interval. Transect layout with 1m x 1m quadrat also indicated to the right...... 90

Figure 12. Lay out of stations 3, 4, 5, and 6 at Motupore Island. The green dots represent sampling transects that are 50m apart from each other...... 91

Figure 13. Percentage cover types for for stations 1 to 6. Cover data from all transects in each station were pooled and mean percent coverage calculated...... 92

Figure 14. Percentage frequency of major groups of organisms recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island...... 93

Figure 15. Predicted species diversity if sampling effort is increased...... 98

Figure 16. The two study sites (enclosed in white oval-shape) and the six stations...... 102

Figure 17. Illustration of the survey design showing the arrangements of sites, stations, and replicated transects. Source: modified from Pakoa et al., 2014...... 103

Figure 18: Percent fish trophic structure on Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island...... 106

Figure 19. Mean number of fish species per station...... 107

Figure 20. Cover types of stations 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6...... 108

Figure 21. Mean density (Ind.Ha-1) per stations...... 109

Figure 22. Seinenet catch compositions by family...... 110

Figure 23. Mean number of fishes in each trophic level per hectare of reef in Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island...... 111

Figure 24. IUCN Category of the recorded fish species...... 113

Figure 25. Fishing sightings observed during the duration of the survey ...... 123

Figure 26. Percent frequency of methods employed by locals when fishing around Motupore Island and the surroung island...... 123

Figure 27. Fishing methods employed by local fishermen. From local informants, dynamite is commonly used. During the survey, only one explosion was heard near Lion Island, SW of Motupore Island...... 124

Figure 28. Temporal patterns of fishing activities as observed and recorded around Motupore Island. The percentages are derived from counting the total number of fishermen fishing over a 24 hour period. ... 124

Figure 29. Image of mangrove forest indicating clearance (light green shade. Inserted picture was taken from where the arrow is pointing to the larger image...... 125

Figure 30. National Capital District(NCD) Development plan of 2011...... 126

Figure 31. Mangrove zones of Bogoro Inlet...... 133

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Figure 32. Bogoro Inlet marine environment...... 134

Figure 33. Two sampling stations (3 and 5) of HCV status...... 135

List of Tables

Table 1. Mangrove species recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island...... 15

Table 2. Seagrass species of Motupore Island and Bogoro Inlet...... 17

Table 3. List of mammals known to occur in the area and surrounding areas. Information sourced from Bonaccorso [35], and Flannery [36]...... 18

Table 4. List of common birds known to occur in the proposed development area...... 20

Table 5. Checklist of Cnidarians recorded or observed so far at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Almost all cnidarians have not been evaluated by IUCN Redlist criteria...... 21

Table 6. Checklist of Ascidians recorded at Bogoro and Motupore Island...... 26

Table 7. Marine worms recorded within Bootless Bay...... 26

Table 8. Checklist of Crustaceans recorded lat Bogoro and Motupore Island...... 28

Table 9. Checklist of Molluscs recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island ...... 32

Table 10. Checklist of Echinoderms recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island...... 37

Table 11. Checklist of Sponges recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island...... 39

Table 12. Common Algae recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island...... 41

Table 13. Marine mammals recorded within Bootless Bay...... 42

Table 14. Reptile species observed within Bootless Bay...... 42

Table 15. Summary of the two sites and their stations (see text in material and methods above)...... 74

Table 16. Mangrove species occurring with Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island ...... 77

Table 17. Check list of birds recorded at Bogoro Inlet (Site 1) and on Motupore Island (Site 2). [CODE, * = Residents; ***= new record for Motupore Island (red)]...... 83

Table 18. Summary of species recorded in each station...... 93

Table 19. Macroalgae species recorded during the rapid biodiversity survey...... 94

Table 20. List of seagrass species recorded from sampling transects...... 95

Table 21. List of Cnidarians recorded from all transects at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island...... 95

Table 22. Mean number of species and density per hectare of reef and dominant taxa for each station. 104

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Table 23. CPUE for Stations 3-6...... 106

Table 24. IUCN Redlist categories and definitions. Source: adapted from IUCN, 2001...... 111

Table 25. Species diversity of significant taxonomic groups with conparison to PNG (ND = not determine) ...... 132

List of Plates

Plate 1. Scaevola taccada was recorded in the 1970s but was not present in the 1990s. Reappeared againg on Motupore Island ...... 74

Plate 2. The mangrove Aegialites annulata becoming rare in Bootless Bay. Occuring on Motupore Island. Photo by Pius Piskaut, 2018...... 78

Plate 3. Eclectus Parrot, Eclectus roratus, a new resident on Motupore Island...... 84

Plate 4. Examples of seagrass cover percentages relative to a 1m x 1m quadrat (adopted from www.seagrasswatch.org) ...... 89

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction

This report presents the results of a rapid biodiversity inventory of the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island within the Bootless Bay (a large embayment bordering the South-eastern side of the expanding Port Moresby City), Central Province, Papua New Guinea. The biodiversity survey was conducted at Tahira on the eastern coast of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island which is a small island about 1km from the coastline of Tahira (see maps in the main report). Both Tahira and Motupore Island are state lands leased to the University of Papua New Guinea and are proposed marine protected areas as part of the Conservation and Environment Protection Authority (CEPA) pilot initiative for establishing protected areas in line with the PNG policy on protected areas.

This rapid biodiversity inventory was commissioned by the CEPA-JICA Project on biodiversity conservation in PNG with an aim to rapidly generate and desiminate baseline data, which is a requirement for establishing biodiversity protected areas, as well as providing protocols for conducting biodiversity inventory, assessment, and monitoring.

Overview

Of the many publications written about different aspects of Bootless Bay, very few (examples Hopkins & Menzies (1995), Baine & Harasti (2007), and Coleman (1989) have actually documented the full range of species of plants and animals inhabiting the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island.

The Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are part of the Bootless Bay and are composed of Eocene deposits comprising mainly of tightly folded calcareous shale and chert on Motupore Island and calcarenite limestones along Tahira shores. These areas are covered mainly by different habitat types typical of the climatic and oceanic conditions of the Southeast Papuan Coastline of New Guinea. The Bootless Bay is a semi-enclosed and shallow (30m) embayment comprising of reefs, channels, seagrass meadows, and mangroves which receive rainfall during northwest mooson from November to April but generally dry year round.

Typical of many areas in the Coral Triangle region, Bootless Bay is home to an array of marine life that has supported the local people for many years and one that is worth millions in monitory values. Unfortunately, this diverse marine life is undergoing rapid changes due to the different development pathways pursued by the local people as well as the government and its development partners in Port Moresby City.

The University of Papua New Guinea has been using the Tahira and Motupore Island for conducting educational programs while restricting active use of marine biodiversity there.

The CEPA-JICA project team has selected the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island as proposed Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) by promoting Biodiversity Conservation through the implementation of the PNG Policy on Protected areas.

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Summary of Methods

Focusing mainly on sampling the marine biodiversity, the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island biodiversity inventory was conducted using literature searches, visual censuses, transect samplings and various fishing methods while the biodiversity status assessment (using the results) was analysed using High Conservation Value (HCV) methods. This biodiversity inventory focuses mainly on sampling the marine ecosystems which included coastline shore, mangrove, seagrass bed, coral reef, and channel ecosystems in the proposed MPAs. The biodiversity inventory was conducted using visual censuses aided by photographic, quadrat, and belt transect sampling techniques which were used within six sampling stations covering an area of 2.00km2 of marine ecosystems. For each station the sampling transects started at the terrestrial-marine interface usually at the high water mark of the intertidal zones. Within a sampling station the survey transects were placed at 50m intervals, and perpendicular to the coastline, and parallel to each other. For the seagrass beds and coral reefs, the surveys were conducted starting from the land-sea or mangrove-sea interfaces.

For the inventory of the birds, the transects were extended into the forests and modified into a 50m radius circular plot having a marked center where an observer is positioned and conducts a 10 minute count and identification of birds.

The high conservation value (HCV) method was applied on the results of the inventory to assess the conservation status of the biodiversity in the proposed MPAs. The HCV method has six categories that encompassed both the ecological and socio-economic systems of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island.

Summary of Results

The marine ecosystems of the Bootless Bay (including Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island) included coastline shores, saltmarshes, mangroves, seagrass beds, sand and rubble beds, coral reefs, and channel ecosystems.

The Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island comprise ecosystems and species rich marine environment, comparable with many areas in PNG and the region. The species of plants and animals reported in the previous publications and this inventory included 283 terrestrial plants, 23 mangrove species, 10 seagrass species, 81 bird species, 4 species of marine mammals, 1 species of saltwater crocodile, 2 species of sea snakes, 3 species of turtles, 512 species of fishes, 284 species of reef corals, and many macroalgae, crustaceans, echinoderms, and molluscs.

However, the entire marine ecosystems of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are undergoing rapid changes from intact ecosystems to those having features of degraded ecosystems. Mangrove ecosystems for example, were being cleared resulting in loss of species locally and release of mud into the surrounding reefs; coral reefs were losing corals and reef habitat structures as a result of burial by sediments released from the cleared mangroves; and fish stocks decreasing as indicated by small size fishes and low catch rates.

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The Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island constitute high conservation values which are being threatened by the rapid changes taking place in the area. The two proposed MPA sites features a number of important ecosystem values; both have specific nursery grounds for many fish species. Motupore habours the most expensive sea cucumber, the threaten Maori Maori Wrasse (Thalassoma sp.) caught Wrasse, nesting site for green turtle, mating site for shark by handline on Motupore Island. species, home to the Banded sea snake, host to 7 endemic plant species, home to the locally rare mangrove species, Aegialites annulata, support up to 54 residential bird species and habours a wide array of coral species.

Picture of fries (baby fish) foraging in mangrove edge near the sandspit on Motupore Island, Bootless Bay. Photo by Pius Piskaut, 2018.

Summary of Conclusions

Using the high conservation value concept, the two proposed MPAs meet the requirements to be declared Marine Protected Areas. Establishing the MPAs will set in some form of management needed to protect and sustainably manage the ecosystems and resources.

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Biodiversity summary of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Significant Taxonomic Sub groups Bogoro/Motupore (Area = 200ha) PNG [4,5] Groups

Fern 2 2414

Gymnosperm 1 10 Plants Terrestrial angiosperms 280 ~20,000

Mangroves 23 36

Seagrasses 10 14

Birds 81 863

Fish 512 2719

Corals (soft and hard) 90 560

Hydrozoans 5 Unknown Cnidarian Sea Jellies 2 Unknown

Sea Fens 4 Unknown

Echinoderm Sea cucumber 28 Unknown

Recommendations

The proposed MPAs are established to protect the existing biodiversity as well as prevent further degradation of the marine ecosystems and losses of marine resources.

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CHAPTER 1. MARINE BIODIVERSITY SURVEY OVERVIEW

“We declare our fourth Goal………………..that the environment is utilized wisely and preserved for the collective benefit of all and our future generations”.

PNG Constitution…1975.

Introduction The Papua New Guinea Conservation and Environment Protection Authority (CEPA) in partnership with Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), through the Technical Cooperation Scheme, are proposing to declare Bootless Bay as a Marine Protected Area (MPA) as output 3 of the project. The targeted Bootless Bay area is about 15km southeast of the city of Port Moresby within the National Capital District, sharing its eastern-most boundary with Central Province. The CEPA-JICA Biodiversity Conservation Project, herein known as the CEPA-JICA Project, is an initiative of the Japanese and PNG Governments and was initiated purposely to implement the PNG policy on Protected Areas. This CEPA-JICA Project serves marine biodiversity survey in potential protected area in Bootless Bay of Papua New Guinea (PNG).

Based on a series of surveys conducted by the CEPA-JICA Project team on the general Bootless Bay area (Figure 1), it was decided that the marine biodiversity survey will be carried out in State Lease Areas of Bogoro Inlet, Tahira and Motupore Island to serve as an impetus for marine conservation efforts within the entire Bootless Bay and the overall East Hiri Coastline. The title holders of these areas have agreed in principle, to partner with CEPA-JICA’s endeavor to declare their areas as part of the proposed MPAs.

As part of the CEPA-JICA Project’s Conservation efforts, a rapid biodiversity inventory and assessment study was commissioned to assess the marine ecosystems of Bogoro/Tahira and Motupore Island (Figure 1). The study’s aim is to provide baseline data needed to validate the proposed MPAs establishment. Furthermore, protocols utilized in carrying out this study are documented to serve as guides for the establishment of any potential MPAs in PNG.

This report documents the biodiversity inventory and assessment results of the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island MPAs. The report presented herein meets the requirements of Article 1 of the “Contract” signed between UPNG and JICA on the 12th January 2018 and implemented from the 26th day of the same month.

Overall, the study will provide landscape/seascape, ecosystem and biodiversity information, particularly, on coral reefs, fishes, seagrasses, mangroves and birds (including endemic and exotic species). Such information gathered will fill gaps on the biodiversity and the overall conservation values of the area for the management of Bogoro Inlet Mangrove and Motupore Island, components of the MPA under the Bootless Bay Marine Conservation Initiative (BBMCI).

The report is divided into eight chapters. Chapter 1 (this section) provides an overall introductory note on the purpose of the study and the general descriptions of the proposed MPAs. Chapter 2 looks at the biodiversity inventory of the marine flora and fauna already recorded in published and unpublished

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studies within the Bootless Bay. Chapters 3 to 7 present results from individual surveys conducted in the area. It also presents an executive summary.

Sites description

Geographical Location

Bootless Bay is a body of water in south-eastern Papua New Guinea, within the NCD with centroid coordinates of 9.504444°S and 147.262778°E. The coastline of the Bay is very peculiar, comprising small coves to large embayments. The outstanding embayments are Tuna Bay, Bogoro Inlet, and Tubuserea Inlet (Figure 1). There are four islands in the Bay: Motupore Island, Loloata Island, Manunouha Island, and Bunamotu Island. A barrier reef across the mouth of the inlet protects it from rough seas. Several small creeks empty into the Bay, but with no large rivers.

Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are owned by different entities. The University of Papua New Guinea is the title holder for Motupore Island and Tahira Boating Centre (within Bogoro Inlet). The adjacent land areas, outside the UPNG jurisdiction, are owned by different entities, who have agreed to preserve their mangrove forests and marine habitats (Figure 1).

Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are adjacent to each other with similar land and seascapes and are generally subjected to similar conditions.

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Lion Is

SITE 2. Motupore Is.

Figure 1. Close-up of Bootless Bay, this marine biodiversity suvey area with study sites indicated in the white circle (Bogoro Inlet Mangroves and Motupore Island Marine Habitats).

Geology

The Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are part of the Eocene deposits, known as the Port Moresby Beds (Yates and Ferranti, 1967; Hopkins and Menzies, 1995). The deposits are variable in structure and composition but generally composed of bands of calcareous shale and chert laid down as deep marine sediments, and now tightly folded and faulted. At Borogo Inlet the deposits largely comprise rock type of grey calcarenite or detrital limestones which are only confined to this area (Glaessner, 1952) in Yates and Ferranti (1967).

The island of Motupore is formed from a ridge crest when the area subsided and then covered by the sea.

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Marine Environment

Bootless Bay is a semi-enclosed Bay on the southwest coast of Papua New Guinea. The bay is bordered by the great Papuan Barrier Reef, 3-5km offshore and coastline of southeastern New Guinea. The Bay is approximately 9.5 km along its longest axis (northwest-southeast) and 2 km wide. The Bay is shallow with a maximum depth of approximately 30 m (Drew et al., 2012).

The marine environment of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island comprises variety of micro and macrohabitats. There appeared to be some zoning of habitats but the zonations are not too distinct within Bogoro Inlet. From the edges of mangrove forest, is the intertidal zone, comprising large coarse gravels, mixed with muddy sand. In Bogoro Inlet, this zone extends out of the cove to the sea. There is a reef patch that is not often exposed during normal low tides (pers. obser.). The environment is subjected to sedimentation and siltation from developments farther inland which enter the inlet through the Bogoro Creek.

A reef proper occurs at the mouth of the inlet and is similar to the fringing reefs occurring at Motupore Island. There are distinct zonations and include;

• Intertidal – rocky shoreline or patches of sandy beaches. • Seagrass meadow – narrow and very sparse in density at some locations. • Reef flat • Reef Crest • Reef shelves – to a maximum depth of 30m (Drew et al. 2012)

Climate

The annual rainfall for the focus areas of this study is between 1000-2000mm but is highly variable from year to year. The climate is strongly seasonal with most rain usually falling between November and April, and very little during the rest of the year. The SE Trade Winds (Laurabada) blow almost daily from May to October, though they may start early in March and continue till the end of November or even to December, with little or no rain. After a period of doldrums, the NW Mosoon Winds (Lahara) then brings intermittent rain, being heaviest during January to March.

Vegetation

Several vegetation types are prominent in this general area ranging from beach forests to savanna grassland. A brief description of each type is given below.

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1. Mangrove forest

Mangrove community is the most prominent and important vegetation within the Bootless Bay area. It serves as a nursery grounds for fisheries and buffers both marine and terrestrial environment from severe erosion and natural catastrophe.

A good stand of mangrove forests occurs within the Bogoro Inlet and a small fringe occupy the northeastern part of Motupore Island. The forest around Bogoro Inlet has an average canopy height of 10m, rarely 15m. The larger diameter trees include Avicennia marina, Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and B. sexangula. Average tree girth in the area is around 30cm diameter. Forest zonation is distinguishable with Heriteria, Avicennia and Ceriops occupying the landward end, Bruguiera and Rhizophora apiculata in the middle, and R. stylosa at the seaward end. Regeneration is prolific in some areas, but seedling mortality is high due to the relatively closed canopy under the mature stand. The understory is therefore fairly open with very little growth of common ferns like Acrosticum nor that of Acanthus species (student’s data, unpub.).

There appeared to be a lot of encroachment into the mangrove forests recently. Satellite imagery indicates mosaic patches of clearance at Bogoro and Tahira mangrove forest (Figure 2).

On Motupore Island, mangroves form mosaic fringes at the northern and eastern portion of the island. The eastern mangrove is more extensive. Compare to Bogoro Inlet, the mangrove forest is more stunted in its structure. Some species present at Bogoro Inlets are absent on the island. Common species include, Rhizophora stylosa, Bruguiera gymnorhyza, Osbornia octodonta, Sonneratia alba and Avicennia eucalyptifolia (Hopkins and Menzies, 1995).

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Figure 2. Google earth satellite image showing patches of degraded and clearings in mangrove forest at Bogoro Inlet

Beach Strand Vegetation

This vegetation forms a narrow fringe of plants growing just above the high water-mark. Where mangrove fringe occurs along the coastline, there is usually a bare rocky or sandy strip separating it from the strand vegetation at the back.

The beach strand vegetation includes a number of distinctive species which are semi-deciduous and are relatively tolerant to salt. It is a specialized community but geographically widespread due largely to dispersal of fruits and seeds by ocean currents (Hopkins and Menzies, 1995).

The community is characterized by the presence of Pongamia pinnata, Cordia subcordata, Guettarda speciosa, and Thespesia populnea. Less common trees include Excoecaria agallocha and Xylocarpus rumphii, while such as Clerodendron inerme, Premna serratifolia, Maytenus emarginata, Colubrina asiatica and Vitex trifoliate may be locally common.

Eucalyptus savanna

Almost 70% of the area is covered by savanna grassland which extends at the back of the beach strand vegetation. This is an open woodland dominated by Eucalyptus trees over a dense grass layer of Themeda

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novaeguineensis and Imperata cylindrica and other grass species. The vegetation is very open reaching approximately 6m (rarely 10m) in height. The density of trees varies so that in some places there is broken canopy, and elsewhere there is open patches of grasses particularly on hills (Hopkins and Menzies, 1995).

Common Eucalypts in this community are Eucalyptus confertiflora, E. tereticornis, E. alba, and E. papuana. Other associates include Acacia auriculiformis, Timonius timon, and the shrubs Ficus opposite, Canthium suborbiculare, Allophylus cobbe, Alectryon repando-dentata and Flueggea virosa.

Riverine Forest

This forest type forms a narrow band along the upper Bogoro creeks towards Bautama. Hammermaster, and Saunders, (1995) classified this forest type as open forest. The canopy of this forest can reach 30m in height. The canopy is very open and has many, often large, gaps revealing a lower tree stratum.

Floristically, the community is dominated by Alstonia scholaris, Garuga floribunda, Intsia bijuga, Planchonia papuana, Vitex cofasus and Maniltoa.

Monsoonal Scrub and Forest

This vegetation once dominates the hills and valleys but are now reduced to patches. The vegetation is strongly affected by the climate. It occurs as degraded patches in gullies on hill sides and minor valleys. This vegetation occurs on Motupore and remnants can be observed at Gereka, a village on the opposite side of Tahira.

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CHAPTER 2. BIODIVERSITY INVENTORY

To conserve marine biodiversity, marine protected areas must have a solid foundation in biology and include representative and unique marine habitats [1]. In addition, the success of marine protected areas at protecting biodiversity depends on user compliance [2, 3] which highlights the importance of explicitly addressing the needs of stakeholders in the planning process [4]. This is the theme of this rapid biodiversity study for the proposed Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island MPAs. The study aims at determining the biodiversity values composite to the proposed MPAs.

This chapter reports the biodiversity inventory and individual survey studies of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. The chapter is divided into two parts. The first part presents the biodiversity inventory information extracted from literature. The second part presents the results of individual biodiversity survey studies.

INVENTORY OF BOGORO AND MOTUPORE

Introduction

Understanding the magnitude and direction of ecosystem change requires careful documentation of the biodiversity present within that ecosystem. Without quantitative data, large-scale changes in one generation can be overlooked, resulting in a gradual shift towards increasingly degraded natural states being accepted as the baseline for future comparisons [5].

A starting point prior to collecting quantitative data is to examine the body of information already available for the area or the region. But acquiring information is, in itself, a very daunting task, since information on biodiversity are not readily available and must be extracted from the many taxonomic or biological studies on different taxa from the focused area or in the general vicintity of the area.

Despite this formidable task, this chapter compiles biodiversity information already known from the proposed MPAs and are presented in the result section.

Objectives

The main objective of the biodiversity inventory is to collate and consolidate biodiversity information already known in the area. The checklists of species will provide the basis whereby additional species will be added to the list. The second objective is to verify the species status against the IUCN Red List and PNG Red List (if any).

Methods and Material

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A literature search was conducted to retrieved published papers. Most of the academic staff at the University of Papua New Guinea published their research papers in the local Journal “Science in New Guinea” (now inactive). We visited the archive and physically checked the journal for papers related to the Bootless Bay area. We then accessed the on-line museum collections through www.fishnet2.net with the “Search Polygon” feature centered around Bootless Bay.

Other data were also extracted from unpublished researches within and around the project area including data compiled from UPNG students’ field exercises to Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. For verification purposes, information on floral and faunal compositions were sourced from the National Herbarium (PNG Forest Research Institute, Lae), UPNG Natural Science Resource Centre (NSRC) and the PNG National Museum. Other site specific information were extracted from landsat satellite images [6].

Results and Discussion

The marine environment around Motupore Island and Bogoro Inlet within the Bootless Bay is one the most studied sites in Papua New Guinea, largely because of the facilities provided by Motupore Island Research Station. There are 350 publications of Motupore Island and the surrounding areas that deal specifically with or include the terrestrial and marine flora and fauna, the physical environment, or archaeology [7, 8]. Over half of these publications and reports relate to the marine environment, demonstrating the considerable volume of scientific research that has been conducted in this area (Figure 3).

Physical environment

Prehistory/Archaeology

Terrestrial fauna

Terrestrial flora

Marine fauna

Marine flora

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Figure 3. Publications recorded for Motupore and surrounding areas, Bootless Bay.

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However, closer scrutiny of the articles on marine fauna showed that most studies only looked at the biology of single taxons. This is an artifact of the researchers’ specialities. The diversity of countless marine fauna within Bootless Bay was never attempted until the beginning of the 21st century when two books comprising pictorial images were published. The first book, “Discover Loloata Island” by N. Coleman, published in 1998 [9] is designed as a simple introductory photo-guide to some of the flora and fauna living within the Bootless Bay. The book comprises 501 coloured photographs. The second book, “The Marine Life of Bootless Bay” by M. Baine and D. Harasti was published in 2007 [8] with brief narratives on the biology and ecology of all major taxonomic groups, from algae and sponges to fish and reptiles. The book comprises 900 coloured photographs.

At the terrestrial end, the book, The Flora of Motupore Island by H. F. Hopkins and J. I. Menzies [10], gives detailed botanical descriptions and distributions of the 230 plant species (including mangroves) occurring on Motupore Island and nearby Loloata and Lion islands. Of particular interest in the flora are seven species which are endemic or nearly so to the Port Moresby region (see section below).

Overall, the marine life of the Bootless Bay area is very colourful, as portrayed by the books indicating the quality and a variety of habitat types that range from coral reef, seagrass meadows, mangrove forests to patches of calcareous sandy beaches.

Excluding most fish species, a very conservative estimate of 1,500 marine species (flora and fauna) are known to occur in the Bootless Bay. A brief account of the biodiversity already known in the area is presented below.

Floristic Composition and Diversity

An estimated 300 plant species have been recorded within the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island [10, 11, 12]. On Motupore alone, a total of 230 plant species have been described and published in the book “The Flora of Motupore Island” by Hopkins and Menzies [10]. Appendix 1 list the species recorded so far in the area. Figure 3 gives a general floristic distribution of the species relative to the global distribution.

The MPA areas share 18% of the flora with Figure 3. Phytogeography of plant species. Others included plants genus only or species that are far and Southeast Asia, 10% with Australia, 13% with Indo- wide (Africa and New Guinea). Data generated from Malesia (India, SE Asia, Philippines) and 22% of the Hopkins and Menzies [10]. species are pantropical. The other 21% are species

14

which occur elsewhere. Additionally, 11% are introduced while 5% (11 species) are endemic to the Port Moresby region. The endemic species include Cycas campestris, Bridelia oligantha, Albizia carri, Canthium suborbiculare, Jossinia desmantha, and Harpullia leptococca. In addition Alectryon repando-dentatus is only known from the Port Moresby area and the Murray Island in the Torres Strait.

In savanna grassland Eucalyptus spp. and Grevillea foetida represent the Australian affinity and their occurrences are correlated with low rainfall, fire and the geology of the area.

Mangrove species

Species of mangrove plants occurring within the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are included in Appendix 1. Maniwavie [13] recorded 31 species within the entire Bootless Bay. There are at least 16 species of mangroves; 11 confirmed on Motupore and about 5 additional species at Bogoro Inlet (Table 1). This number is likely to go up to 18 (20) at most.

Table 1. Mangrove species recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Family Scientific name Common name IUCN PNG Status Reference

Status

Combretaceae Lumnitzera racemosa White-flowered Black Least Concern Unvailable 14

Mangrove

Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum Cannonball Mangrove Least concern Unvailable 15

Aegiceras River Mangrove Least concern Unvailable 15, 42

Myrsinaceae corniculatum

Myrtaceae Osbornia octodonta Myrtle Mangrove Least concern Unvailable 15, 42

Plumbaginaceae Aegialitis annulata ** Club Mangrove Not evaluated Unvailable 15, 43

Bruguiera Large-leaf Orange Not evaluated Unvailable 15, 42

Rhizophoraceae gymnorrhiza Mangrove

Rib-fruited Yellow Not evaluated Unvailable 15, 42

Ceripos tagal Mangrove

Rhizophora apiculata Corky Stilt Mangrove Least concern Unvailable 15, 42

Southern Hybrid Stilt Not evaluated Unvailable 42, 43

Rhizophora lamarckii Mangrove

Rhizophora Upstream Stilt Mangrove Least concern Unvailable 15, 42

mucronata

Bruguiera sexangula Upriver Orange Not evaluated Unvailable 15, 42

15

Mangrove

Long-styled Stilt Least concern Unvailable 15, 42

Rhizophora stylosa Mangrove

White-flowered Apple Least concern Unvailable 15, 42

Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia alba Mangrove

Sterculiaceae Heritiera littoralis Looking-glass Mangrove Least concern Unvailable 15, 42

Acanthaceae Avicennia marina Grey/White Mangrove Least concern Unvailable 15, 42

Avicennia Grey/White Mangrove Not evaluated Unvailable 42

eucalyptifolia

**locally becoming rare and threatened.

16

Seagrass Species Seagrass meadows occur within the intertidal zones. Their cover varies from 80% cover to as low as 5%. Ten species had been recorded at Motupore Island and Bogoro Inlet are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Seagrass species of Motupore Island and Bogoro Inlet. Family Scientific name Common name IUCN Status PNG Status Reference

Cymodoceaceae Halodule uninervis Needle seagrass Least concern Unvailable 15, 42

Cymodoceaceae Halodule pinifolia Least concern Unvailable 15, 42, 43

Cymodoceaceae Cymodocea rotundata Ribbon seagrass Least concern Unvailable 15

Cymodoceaceae Cymodocea serrulata Least concern Unvailable 15

Cymodoceaceae Syringodium isoetifolium Least concern Unvailable 15

Cymodoceaceae Thalassodendron ciliatum Least concern Unvailable 15

Hydrocharitaceae Halophila ovalis Paddle grass Least concern Unvailable 15, 42, 43

Hydrocharitaceae Halophila minor Least concern Unvailable 15, 42, 43

Hydrocharitaceae Enhalus acoroides Tape seagrass Least concern Unvailable 15

Hydrocharitaceae Thalassia hemprichii Turtle seagrass Least concern Unvailable 15

17

Faunal Composition and Diversity

Mammals The mammal diversity of the Bootless Bay area is very low compared to adjacent Central Province. So far only 25 species are known to occur in the general area including Bautama and nearby inland areas. This may be an artifact of sampling efforts since only few or no sample at all, had been recorded in the area. A list of mammal species known to occur in area is provided in Table 3.

Table 3. List of mammals known to occur in the area and surrounding areas. Information sourced from Bonaccorso [35], and Flannery [36]. Family Scientific names Common names IUCN Status PNG Status Reference

Dasyuridae Myoictis melas Three-Striped Dasyure Least concern Unavailable 36

Hipposideridae Hipposideros Maggie-Taylor’s Least concern Unavailable 15 maggietaylorae Horseshoe Bat

Macroipodiae Thylogale stigmatica Red-legged Least concern Unavailable 15 Pademelon

Macropodidae Dorcopsis lectuosa Grey Forest Wallaby Not Evaluated Unavailable 15 (lowland)

Macropodidae Macropus agilis Agile Grass Wallaby Least concern Unavailable 15, 36

Macropodidae Thylogale brunii Dusky Pademelon Vulnerable Unavailable 15, 36

Muridae Conillurus penicillatus Brush-Tailed Rabbit Not evaluated Unavailable 36 Rat

Muridae Hydromys Common Water Rat Least concern Unavailable 15, 36 chrysogaster

Muridae Melomys lutillus Grassland Melomys Least concern Unavailable 15, 36

Muridae Melomys refescens Black Tailed Melomys Not evaluated Unavailable 36

Muridae Pseudomys delicatulus Delicate Mouse Not evaluated Unavailable 36

Muridae Rattus rattus Common House Rat Not evaluated Unavailable 36

Muridae Rattus praetor Large spiny Rat Least concern Unavailable 15, 36

Peroryctidae Echymipera rufescens Long-nosed Least concern Unavailable 15 Echymipera

Peroryotidae Echymipera kalabu Common Echymipera Least concern Unavailable 15, 36

Phalangeridae Phalanger inter- Southern Common Not assessed Unavailable 36 castellanus Cuscus

Phalangeridae Spilocuscus maculates Common Spotted Not assessed Unavailable 36 Cuscus

Pseudocheriidae Pseudochirulus forbesi Painted Ringtail Least concern Unavailable 15

18

Pteropodidae Macroglossus minimus Northern Blossom-Bat Least concern Unavailable 15, 36

Pteropodidae Nyctimene albiventer Common Tube-Nosed Least concern Unavailable 15, 36 Bat

Pteropodidae Pteropus Greater Flying Fox Not assessed Unavailable 36 neohibernicus

Pteropodidae Syconypteris australis Not assessed Unavailable 36

Tachyglossidae Tachyglossus Short beaked Echidna Not assessed Unavailable 36 acculeatus

Vespertilionidae Phoniscus papuensis Trumpet-eared Bat Least concern Unavailable 15

Birds The diversity of birds is slightly higher in the Papuan region. A total of 72 bird species had been recorded on Motupore Island (Tarburton, unpubl). The full species list is attached as Appendix 4-1 and 4-2. List of more common birds observed regularly in the area are presented in Table 4.

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Table 4. List of common birds known to occur in the proposed development area.

Family Scientific names Common names IUCN Status PNG Status Reference

Accipitridae Haliastur indus Brahminy kite Least concern unavailable 15

Alcedinidae Syma torotoro Yellow billed kingfisher Least concern Unavailable 15, 44

Columbidae Macropygia Slender-billed Cuckoo- Least concern Unavailable 15

amboinensis dove

Ptilinopus sp. Fruit dove Unavailable 44

Reinwardtoena Great cuckoo-dove Least concern Unavailable 15 reinwardti

Corvidae Corvus tristis Black crow Least concern Unavailable 15

Meliphagidae Philemon buceroides New Guinea Least concern Unavailable 15

(Helmeted)Friar bird

Psittaculidae Lorius sp. Western black lory Unavailable 44

Trichoglossus Rainbow lorikeet Least concern Unavailable 15, 44 haematodus

Sturnidae Myna dumontii Yellow faced myna Not assessed Unavailable 15, 44

Marine Biodiversity

Bootless Bay has one of the richest marine macro-faunas in the Western Pacific region but comparatively lower diversity than other coastal areas of PNG [8, 9].

Cnidarians Cnidarians are a large group of marine animals characterized by having nematocysts or stinging darts. Recorded representatives from Bootless Bay [8, 9] are listed in Table 5 and include;

❖ Hydroids or Sea Fens (Class Hydrozoan) – 4 species

❖ Hydrocorals (Class Hydrozoan) – 5 species

❖ Sea Jellies (Class Scyphozoa) – 2 species

❖ Sea Wasps (Class Cubozoa) – 0 species

❖ Soft Corals (Class Anthozoa) – 32 species

20

❖ Sea Whips, Sea Pens, and Sea Fans (Class Anthozoa) – 16 species

❖ Hard Corals (Class Anthozoa) – 60 species

❖ Sea Anemones (Class Anthozoa) – 14 species

Cnidarians have two main body forms: those having medusa with tentacles facing downwards (example Sea Jellies) and those having polyp with tentacles facing upwards (example corals).

Maniwavie. [16] reported the number of corals in Bootless Bay to be 284. Baine & Harasti [8] and Coleman [9] photographed about 92 soft and hard coral species which is about a third of that reported by Maniwavie [16]. Live coral cover recorded from the fringing reefs of Bootless Bay has been fluctuating overtime. Prachett et al. (2009) reported the percentage live coral cover to be 42.4 in 2005 and 19.1 in 2006 following an outbreak of crown-of-torns star fish in Bootless Bay. Maniwavie [17] recorded a range of percentage live coral cover values from 10-42% on four sites between Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island.

Table 5. Checklist of Cnidarians recorded or observed so far at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Almost all cnidarians have not been evaluated by IUCN Redlist criteria. Family Species Common Name IUCN Status PNG Status Reference

Plumaridae Macrorhynchia Philippine hydroid Not assessed Unvailable 16, 38

philippina

Sertuariidae Idiellana pristis Not evaluated Unvailable 16, 38

Milleporidae Millepora sp. Fire coral Unvailable 8, 9

Stylasteridae Distichopora sp. Lace coral Not evaluated Unvailable 16, 38

Stylasteridae Distichopora violacea Violet hydrocoral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Stylasteridae Stylaster cf. papuensis Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Physaliidae Physalia physalis Portugese man of war Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Cassiopeidae Cassiopea sp. Upside down sea jelly Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Mastigiidae Mastigias papua Papuan sea jelly Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 9, 16, 38,

46

Alcyoniidae Sarcophyton sp. Leather coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Alcyoniidae Lobophytum sp. Lobed leather coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 9, 16

Alcyoniidae Sinularia flexibilis Flexible leather coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Alcyoniidae Sinularia sp. Finger leather coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

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Briareidae Briareum sp. Green star polys Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Nephtheidae Dendronephthya sp. Tree coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 9, 38

Nephtheidae Dendronephthya sp. Carnation coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Nephtheidae Stereonephthea sp. Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Nidaliidae Chironephthya sp. Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Nidaliidae Siphonogorgia sp. Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Xeniidae Anthelia sp. Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Ellisellidae Junceela fragilis Delicate sea whip Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Ellisellidae Ellisella sp. Sea whip Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Anthothelidae Alertigorgia orientalis Bushy gorgonian fan Not evaluated Unvailable 16, 38

Gorgoniidae Rumphella sp. Gorgonian fan Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 9, 16, 38

Plexauridae Astrogorgia sp. Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 9, 38

Pteroeididae Pteroeides sp. Sea pen Not evaluated Unvailable 8

Virgularidae Unidentified sp. Sea pen Not evaluated Unvailable 8

Veretillidae Cavernularia sp. Sea pen Not evaluated Unvailable 8

Acroporidae Acropora c.f Not assessed Unvailable 8, 9, 16, 38

caroliniana

Acroporidae Acropora elseyi Christmas coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 9, 16, 38

Acroporidae Acropora grandis Staghorn coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 9, 16, 38

Acroporidae Acropora intermedia Staghorn coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 9, 16, 38

Acroporidae Acropora loripes Not assessed Unvailable 8, 9, 16, 38

Acroporidae Acropora millepora Bushy staghorn Not assessed Unvailable 8, 9, 16, 38

Acroporidae Acropora muricata Staghorn coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 9,16, 38

Acroporidae Acropora tennalis Purple-tip acropora Not assessed Unvailable 8, 9, 16, 38

Acroporidae Acropora Branching coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 9, 16, 38

valenciennesi

Acroporidae Acropora sp. Bottlebrush coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16, 38

22

Acroporidae Acropora sp. Table coral Unvailable 8

Acroporidae Astreopora sp. moon coral Unvailable 8

Agariciidae Pachyseris speciosa phonograph coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 38

Agariciidae leptoseris explanata Not assessed Unvailable 8, 38

Agariciidae Unidentified sp. 8

Dendronphylliidae Tubastrea faukneri Sun coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Dendronphylliidae Tubastrea micranthus Black sun coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Dendronphylliidae Turbinaria frondens Cup coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Dendronphylliidae Turbinaria reniformis Scroll coral Not assessed Unvailable 8

Dendronphylliidae Turbinaria sp. Vase coral Unvailable 8

Euphyllidae Euphyllia cristata Whire grape coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Euphyllidae Physogyra Pearl coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

lichtensteini

Faviidae Diploastrea heliopora Not assessed Unvailable 8, 14

Faviidae Echinopora horrida Not assessed Unvailable 8, 9, 16, 38

Faviidae Echinopora lamellosa Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Faviidae Favia sp. Moon coral Not assessed Unvailable 8

Faviidae Platygyra lamellina Maze coral Not assessed Unvailable 8

Fungiidae Ctenactis echinata Not assessed Unvailable 8, 38

Fungiidae Fungia sp. Unvailable 8

Fungiidae Heliofungia Not assessed Unvailable 8, 38 actiniformis

Fungiidae Herpolitha limax Tongue coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 38

Fungiidae Herpolitha sp. Mole coral Unvailable 8

Fungiidae Polyphyllia talpina Slipper coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 38

Merulinidae Merulina ampliata Ruffled coral Not asssessed Unvailable 8, 38

Mussidae Lobophyllia Not assessed Unvailable 8, 38

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hemprichii

Mussidae Scolymia sp. Disc coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8

Mussidae Symphyllia agaricea Brian coral Not assessed Unvailable 8, 38

Mussidae Symphyllia c.f recta Brian coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Oculinidae Galaxea fascicularis Crystal coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Pectiniidae Pectinia paeonia Palm lettuce coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Pocilloporidae Pocillopora Cauliflower coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38 damicornis

Pocilloporidae Pocillopora sp. Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Pocilloporidae Seriotopora sp. Brush coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Pocilloporidae Stylophora pistillata Cluster coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Poritidae Alveopora sp. Daisy coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Poritidae Goniopora sp. Daisy coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Poritidae Porites cylindrica Cylinder coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Poritidae Porites sp. Boulder coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Trachyphylliidae Trachyphyllia Crater coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

geoffroyi

Order Corallimorphia Corallimorph sp. 1 Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Discosomatidae Corallimorph sp. 2 Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Actiniidae Entacmea quadricolor Bubble - tip coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Actinodendriidae Actinodendron Abominate sea Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

arboreum anemone

Edwardsiidae Edwardsiantus pudica Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Stichodactylidae Heteractis magnifica Magnificient sea Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38 anemone

Stichodactylidae Heteractis aurora Beaded sea anemone Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Stichodactylidae Stichodactyla Gigantic sea anemone Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

giganteum

24

Stichodactylidae Stichodactyla Merten's carpet Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38 mertensii anemone

Thelassianthidae Cryptodendrum Pizza anemone Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

adhaesivum

Thelassianthidae Unidentified sp. Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Cerianthidae Cerianthus sp. Tube anemone Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Epizoanthidae Epizoanthus sp. Branching zoanthid Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Zoanthidae Palythoa ceasia Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Antipathidae Cirrhipathes c.f Corkscrew black coral Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

contorta

Antipathidae Antipathes sp. 1 Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Antipathidae Antipathes sp. 2 Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Antipathidae Unidentified sp. Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Myriopathidae Myriopathes sp. Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 38

Ascidians Ascidians are commonly known as sea squits and their body consists mainly of a hollow sac with two siphons for inhaling and exhaling water while filtering food [8]). Coleman [9] listed 8 different species while Baine & Harasti [8] listed another 11 species of Ascidians in Bootless Bay. Of the 19 total species photographed from Bootless Bay waters [8, 9], 4 were unidentified, 2 identified to genera level, and 13 were identified to species level (Table 6).

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Table 6. Checklist of Ascidians recorded at Bogoro and Motupore Island.

Family Scientific name Common IUCN list PNG Status Reference Name Clavelinidae Clavelina - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38 moluccensis Clavelinidae Nephtheis - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38 fascicularis Diazonidae Rhopalaea crassa - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38

Didemnidae Didemnum - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38 membranaceum Didemnidae Didemnum molle - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38

Didemnidae Lissoclinum patella - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38

Didemnidae Unidentified sp.1 - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38

Didemnidae Unidentified sp.2 - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38

Didemnidae Unidentified sp.3 - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38

Didemnidae Unidentified sp.4 - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38

Perophoridae Perophora - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38 modificata Perophoridae Perophora namei - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38

Pycnoclavellidae Pycnoclavella - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38 diminuta Styelidae Polycarpa aurata - Not assessed Unavailable 8, 38

Marine Worms

Marine worms are categorized into two distinct groups: Flatworms and Segmented worms. About 30 different species of Flatworms and Segmented worms have been photographed from Bootless Bay waters with many unidentified or identified to genera level [8, 9]. Baine & Harasti [8] suggested that about 130 Flatworm species occur in PNG waters. Species occurring within the Bootless are given below.

Table 7. Marine worms recorded within Bootless Bay. Family Scientific name Common IUCN Status PNG Status Reference name Euryleptidae Prostheceraeus Not Unavailable sp. evaluated 8, 16 Pseudocerotidae Acanthozoon sp. Not Unavailable 8, 16 evaluated

26

Pseudocerotidae Pseudobiceros Bedford's Not Unavailable 8, 18 bedfordi Flatworm evaluated Pseudocerotidae Pseudobiceros Hancock Not Unavailable 8, 16, 18 hancockanus Flatworm evaluated Pseudocerotidae Pseudobiceros Favoured Not Unavailable 8, 16,18 strigosus Flatworm evaluated Pseudocerotidae Pseudoceros Racing stripe Not Unavailable 8, 16, 18 bifurcus Flatworm evaluated Pseudocerotidae Pseudoceros Dimidiate Not Unavailable 8, 9, 18, 19 dimidiatus Flatworm evaluated Pseudocerotidae Pseudoceros Prudhoe's Not Unavailable 18 prudhoei Flatworm evaluated Pseudocerotidae Pseudoceros Sapphire Not Unavailable 8, 18 sapphirinus Flatworm evaluated Pseudocerotidae Pseudoceros sp. Not Unavailable 8, 15 evaluated Polynoidae Asterophilia carlae Seastar worm Not Unavailable 8, 20 evaluated Sabellidae Megalomma sp. Not Unavailable 8, 16 evaluated Sabellidae Sabellastarte sp. 1 Fan worm Not Unavailable 8, 16 evaluated Sabellidae Sabellastarte sp. 2 Paper Tube Not Unavailable 8 worm evaluated Sabellidae Unidentified sp. 1 8 Sabellidae Unidentified sp. 2 8 Serpulidae Serpula c.f Not Unavailable 8, 38 vasifera evaluated Serpulidae Spirobranchus c.f Christmas tree Not Unavailable 8, 38 gaymardi worm evaluated Serpulidae Spirobranchus Christmas tree Not Unavailable 8, 38 giganteus worm evaluated Serpulidae Spirobranchus sp. Christmas tree Not Unavailable 8, 38 worm evaluated Serpulidae Protula bispiralis Not Unavailable 21 evaluated Amphinomidae Pherecardia sp. Not Unavailable 38 evaluated Syllidae Opisthosyllis sp. Not Unavailable 38 evaluated Polynoidae Gastrolepidia Not Unavailable 38 clavigera evaluated

27

Crustaceans Crustaceans are a large group of marine animals with a soft body that is protected by an exoskeleton or hard-shell cover. The main subgroups of Crustaceans include Barnacles, Stomatopods (Mantis Shrimps), and Decapods (Shrimps, Prawns, Lobsters, and Crabs). Three different species of Barnacles and Mantis Shrimps each have been photographed in Bootless Bay ([8,9]). Decapods recorded included 30 species of shrimps, 3 species of lobsters, and 30 species of crabs ([8,9]. Checklist of species is provided (Table 7).

Table 8. Checklist of Crustaceans recorded lat Bogoro and Motupore Island. Family Scientific name Common name IUCN Status PNG Status Reference

Lepadidae Lepas anserifera Goose Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 22,23

barnacle

Tetraclitidae Tetraclita squamosa Common Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 24

barnacle

Odontodactylidae Odontodactylus scyllarus Peacock Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 25 mantis shrimp

Penaeidae Penaeus japonicus Kuruma prawn Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 23, 26

Penaeidae Unidentified sp. Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Callianassidae Neocallichirus sp. Ghost shrimp Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Alpheidae Alpheus ochrostriatus Snapping Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 27

shrimp

Alpheidae Synalpheus sp. Snapping Not evaluated Unavailable 8

shrimp

Hippolytidae Lysmata amboinensis White banded Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 28

cleaner shrimp

Hippolytidae Thor amboinensis Squat Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29 anemone

shrimp

Hymenoceridae Hymenocera picta Harlequin Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

shrimp

Palaemonidae Dasycaris zanzibarica Bumblebee Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

shrimp

Palaemonidae Laomenes sp. Crinoid shrimp Not evaluated Unavailable 8

28

Palaemonidae Manipontonia psamathe Commensal Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29 shrimp

Palaemonidae Periclimenes emboinensis Crinoid shrimp Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Palaemonidae Periclimenes brevicarpalis Snow-capped Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

shrimp

Palaemonidae Periclimenes holthuisi Holthuis’s Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

shrimp

Palaemonidae Periclimenes imperator Imperial Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

shrimp

Palaemonidae Periclimenes inornatus Mirror shrimp Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

Palaemonidae Periclimenes magnificus Magnificent Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

shrimp

Palaemonidae Periclimenes soror Sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

shrimp

Palaemonidae Periclimenes tosaensis Red-eyed Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

shrimp

Palaemonidae Periclimenes tenuipes Glass shrimp Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

Palaemonidae Periclimenes sp.1 Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Palaemonidae Periclimenes sp.2 Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Palaemonidae Stegopontonia commensalis Sea urchin Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

shrimp

Palaemonidae Vir philippinensis Philippine Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

shrimp

Rhynchocinetidae Rhychocinetes durbanensis Durban Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29 shrimp

Stenopodidae Stenopus hispidus Banded coral Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

shrimp

Palinuridae Panulirus ornatus Ornate spiny Least Concern Unavailable 8, 16

lobster

Palinuridae Panulirus versicolor Painted lobster Least concern Unavailable 8, 16

Diogenidae Calcinus minutus Minute hermit Not evaluated Unavailable 8,29

29

crab

Diogenidae Clibanarius sp. Green hermit Not evaluated Unavailable 8

crab

Diogenidae Dardanus lagopodes Red hairy Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

hermit crab

Diogenidae Dardanus megistos White spotted Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

hermit crab

Diogenidae Dardanus pedunculatus Anemone Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 29

hermit crab

Diogenidae Dardanus sp. Hermit crab Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Diogenidae Diogenes sp. Hermit crab Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Galatheidae Allogalathea elegans Elegant squat Not evaluated Unavailable 8, 30

lobster

Galatheidae Galathea sp. Squat lobster Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Porcellanidae Neopetrolisthes oshimai Oshima’s Not evaluated Unavailable 8 porcellanid

crab

Calappidae Calappa hepatica Livid box crab Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Calappidae Calappa sp.1 Box crab Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Calappidae Calappa sp.2 Box crab Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Majidae Achaeus sp. Delicate Not evaluated Unavailable 8 decorator crab

Majidae Hoplophrys oatesii Oate’s soft Not evaluated Unavailable 8

coral crab

Majidae Hyastenus sp. Decorator crab Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Majidae Oncinopus sp. Orangutan Not evaluated Unavailable 8

crab

Majidae Xenocarcinus tuberculatus Black coral Not evaluated Unavailable 8

crab

Matutidae Ashtoret lunaris Speckled surf Not evaluated Unavailable 8 crab

30

Ocypodidae Uca perplexa Fiddler crab Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Ocypodidae Uca sp. Fiddler crab Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Portunidae Lissocarcinus laevis Sea anemone Not evaluated Unavailable 8

crab

Portunidae Lissocarcinus polyboides Sea star crab Not evaluated Unavailable 8

Portunidae Portunus pelagicus Blue swimmer Not evaluated Unavailable 8

crab

Trapexiidae Quadrella boopsis Red trapeze Not evaluated Unavailable 8

crab

Xanthidae Actaeodes tomentosus Velvet reef Not evaluated Unavailable 8

crab

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Molluscs

Molluscs (Phylum Mollusca) is a diverse group of marine animals comprising of Chitons, Gastropods (Shells), Bivalves (Clams), Nudibranchs, Sea Hares, Sea Slugs, and Cephalopods (Octopuses, Squids, Cuttlefishes, and Nautiluses). From the Bootless Bay waters Coleman [9] and Baine & Harasti [8] photographed 116 Molluscs species (Table 8) and consist of these major groups: ❖ Chitons (1 species),

❖ Gastropods (64 species)

❖ Bivalves (32 species)

❖ Nudibranchs (44 species)

❖ Sea Hares (2 species)

❖ Sea Slugs (9 species)

❖ Cephalopods (8 species)

Table 9. Checklist of Molluscs recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island Family Scientific name Common name IUCN Status PNG Status Reference Chitonidae Acanthopleura gemmata Gemmulate chiton Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38 Haliotidae Haliotis ovina Ovate abalone Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Buccinidae Phos senticosus Common Pacific phos Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Cerithiidae Pseudovertagus aluco Aluco creeper Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Columbellidae Euplica turturina Crouching dove snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Conidae Conus eburneus Spotted cone snail Least concern Unvailable 8, 16

Conidae Conus marmoreus Marbled cone snail Least concern Unvailable 8, 16

Conidae Conus virgo Virgin cone snail Least concern Unvailable 8, 16

Costellariidae Vexillium castum Ribbed mitre snail Not assessed Unvailable 8, 38

Costellariidae Vexillium exasperatum Exasperating mitre snail Not assessed Unvailable 38, 8

Costellariidae Vexillium luculentum Banded mitre snail Not assessed Unvailable 38

Cypraeidae Cypraea annulus Gold-ringed money cowry Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Cypraeidae Cypraea arabica Arabian cowry Not evaluated Unvailable 18, 6

Cypraeidae Cypraea argus Eyed cowry Not assessed Unvailable 38

Cypraeidae Cypraea carneola Carnelian cowry Not evaluated Unvailable 16, 38

Cypraeidae Cypraea humphreysii Humphrey’s cowry Not assessed Unvailable 38

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Cypraeidae Cypraea moneta Money cowry Not evaluated Unvailable 16, 38

Cypraeidae Cypraea tigris Tiger cowry Not evaluated Unvailable 16

Cypraeidae Cypraea erosa Eroded cowry Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Harpidae Harpa harpa Articulate harp Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Littorinidae Littoraria articulata Tessellated periwinkle Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Mitridae Mitra mitra Giant mitra Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Mitridae Subcancilla flammea Flamed mitre snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Muricidae Chicoreus microphyllus Short-fronded murex snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Muricidae Mancinella echinata White rock snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Muricidae Morula granulata Oyster borer Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Muricidae Thais tuberosa Tuber-like rock shell Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Nassariidae Nassarius arcularia Box-like dog whelk Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Naticidae Naticarius onca Spotted moon snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Naticidae Naticarius orientalis Oriental moon snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Naticidae Sinum sp. Internal-shelled moon snail Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Naticidae Tanea undulata Wavy moon snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Turbinidae Lunella cinerea Smooth moon turban snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Neritidae Nerita chamaeleon Variable nerite Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Neritidae Nerita polita Polished nerita Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Olividae Oliva miniacea Orange-mouthed olive snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Olividae Oliva reticulata Reticulate olive snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Ovulidae Cymbovula deflexa Canoe spindle cowry Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Ovulidae Phenacovolva coarctata Compressed spindle cowry Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Ovulidae Phenacovolva tokioi Tokio’s spindle cowry Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Ovulidae Phenacovolva sp. Spindle cowry Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Ovulidae Prionovolva sp. Soft coral egg cowry Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Ovulidae Prosimnia sp. Gorgonian cowry Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Ovulidae Pseudosimnia culmen Gold spotted egg cowry Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Ovulidae Pseudosimnia sp. Egg cowry Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Planaxidae Planaxis sulcatus Sulcate periwinkle Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Ranellidae Charonia tritonis Triton’s trumpet shell Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

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Strombidae Conomurex luhanus Red-mouthed stromb Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Strombidae Lambis lambis Common spider snail Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Strombidae Lambis scorpius Scorpion spider snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Strombidae Strombus aratrum Black mouthed stromb Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Strombidae Strombus gibberulus gibbosus Hump-back conch Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Strombidae Strombus gibbosus Hump-back conch Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Strombidae Strombus vomer Vomer stromb Not evaluater Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Terebridae Hastula albula White auger snail Not evaluatee Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Terebridae Terebra areolata Subulate auger Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Terebridae Terebra cingulifera Girdled auger snail Not evaluatr Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Terebridae Terebra crenulata Crinkled auger snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Terebridae Terebra dimidiata Dimidiate auger snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Terebridae Terebra subulata Spotted auger snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Terebridae Terebra undulata Wavy auger snail Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Hexabranchidae Hexabranchus sanguineus Spanish dancer Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Polyceridae Nembrotha lineolata Lined nembrotha Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16, 38

Aegridae Notodoris minor Minor notodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Discodorididae Discodoris fragilis Fragile nudibranch Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Discodorididae Halgerda aurantiomaculata Gold spoted halgerda Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Discodorididae Jorunna funebris Funeral jorunna Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Discodorididae Kentrodoris rubescens Reddish nudibranch Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Ceratosoma sinuatum Sinuate ceratosoma Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Ceratosoma trilobatum Three horned ceratosoma Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Chromodoris annae Anna’s chromodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Chromodoris fidelis Faithful chromodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Chromodoris geometrica Geometric chromodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Chromodoris kuniei Kunie’s chromodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Chromodoris lochi Loch’s chromodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Chromodoris magnifica Magnificent chromodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Chromodoris strigata Strigate chromodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Glossodoris atromarginata Black-margined glossodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

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Chromodorididae Hypselodoris bullockii Bullock’s hypselodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Hypselodoris maculosa SpoĴed hypselodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Hypselodoris nigrostriata Black-striped hypselodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Hypselodoris infucata Inky hypselodoris Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Mexichromis multituberculata Pustuled mexichromis Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Risbecia godeffroyana Godeffroy’s nudibranch Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chromodorididae Risbecia tryoni Tryon’s nudibranch Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Bornellidae Bornella anguilla Eel-like Bornella Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Facelinidae Phidiana indica Indian phidiana Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Facelinidae Phyllodesmium longicirrum Long cirri phyllodesmium Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Facelinidae Pteraeolidia ianthina Blue dragon Not Evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Flabellinidae Flabellina bilas Spear-point flabellina Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Flabellinidae Flabellina exoptata White-tipped flabellina Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Flabellinidae Flabellina rubrolineata Red-lined flabellina Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Phyllidia coelestis Celestial phyllidia Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Phyllidia elegans Elegant phyllidia Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Phyllidia ocellata Ocellate phyllidia Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Phyllidia varicosa Varicose phyllidia Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Phyllidiella lizae Liz’s phyllidiella Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Phyllidiella nigra Black phyllidiella Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Phyllidiella pustulosa Warty phyllidiella Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Phyllidiella rudmani Rudman’s phyllidiella Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Phyllidiopsis pipeki Pipek’s phyllidiopsis Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Phyllidiopsis shireenae Shireen’s phyllidiopsis Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Reticulidia fugia Mushroom coral phyllidia Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Phyllidiidae Reticulidia halgerda Halgerda-like phyllidia Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Aplysiidae Aplysia occulifera Eyed sea hare Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Aplysiidae Dolabella auricularia Eared sea hare Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Aglajidae Chelidonura electra Electric tailed slug Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Aglajidae Chelidonura inornata Ornate tailed slug Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Aplustridae Micromelo undata Wavy lined bubble shell Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

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Plakobranchidae Thuridilla bayeri Bayer’s sap-sucker Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Plakobranchidae Thuridilla splendens Splendid sap-sucker Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Polybranchidae Cyerce nigricans Black and gold cyerce Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Pleurobranchidae Berthella martensi Martens’ berthella Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Pleurobranchidae Pleurobranchus forskalii Forskal’s side-gilled slug Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Onchidiidae Onchidium sp. Mangrove slug Unvailable 8, 16

Arcidae Barbatia foliata Leafy ark clam Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Chamidae Chama sp. Jewel-box clam Unvailable 8, 16

Gryphaeidae Hyotissa hyotis Giant coxcomb oyster Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Ostreidae Lopha cristagalli Cock’s comb oyster Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Ostreidae Saccostrea mordax Rock oyster Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Pectinidae Pedum spondyloideum Coral scallop Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Pinnidae Atrina vexillum Black razor clam Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Pinnidae Pinna muricata Razor clam Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Spondylidae Spondylus sinensis Asian thorny oyster Not assessed Unvailable 8, 16

Spondylidae Spondylus sp. Thorny oyster Unvailable 8, 16

Pteriidae Pteria cypsellus Winged oyster Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Tridacnidae Tridacna crocea Crocus giant clam Least concern Unvailable 8, 16

Tridacnidae Tridacna maxima Elongate giant clam Least concern Unvailable 8, 16

Tridacnidae Tridacna squamosa Fluted giant clam Least concern Unvailable 8, 16

Loliginidae Sepioteuthis lessoniana Common reef squid Not evaluated Unvailable 8, 16

Octopodidae Octopus sp. Octopus Unvailable 8, 16

Sepiidae Sepia latimanus Broadclub cuttlefish Data deficient Unvailable 8, 16

Sepiidae Sepia sp. Cuttlefish Unvailable 8, 16

Sepiidae Metasepia pfefferi Flamboyant Cuttlefish Data deficient Unvailable 8, 16

Echinoderms Echinoderms are divided into three main groups that include Starfishes (Sea Stars, Feather Stars, and Brittle Stars), Sea Urchins, and Sea Cucumbers. Baine and Harasti [8] recorded 22 species of Sea Stars, 16 Feather Stars, 9 Brittle Stars and 10 species of sea urchins. Ko’ou [39] and Kinch [40] reported a total of 31 commercial sea cucumber species while Baine & Harasti [8] listed two non-commercial species from the reef-flats of Bootless Bay. Table 9 lists the species recorded at Bogoro Inlect and Motupore Island.

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Table 10. Checklist of Echinoderms recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Family Scientific name Common Name IUCN list PNG Status Reference Acanthasteridae Acanthaster planci Crown of thorns Not evaluated Unavailable 16 starfish Archasteridae Archaster typicus Typical sand star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Echinasteridae Echinaster callosus Thick skinned sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Echinasteridae Echinaster luzonicus Luzon sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Luidiidae Luidia c.f savignyi Savigny’s sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Celerina heffernani Heffernan’s sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Fromia hadracatha Hadra star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Fromia indica Indian sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Fromia milleporella Thousand-pores star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Fromia monilis Necklace sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Gomophia egeriae Egeri’s sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Gomophia watsoni Watson’s sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Linckia guildingi Yellow sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Linckia laevigata Blue sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Linckia multifora Multi-pore sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Nardoa novaecaledonia Yellow mesh sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Nardoa tuberculata Tuberculate star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Neoferdina cumingi Cumming’s sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophidiasteridae Ophidiaster granifer Grainy star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Oreasteridae Bothriaster primigenius Pentagonal sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Oreasteridae Choriaster granulatus Pillow sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Oreasteridae Culcita novaeguinea Pin-cushion sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Oreasteridae Protoreaster nodosus Nodose sea star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophiocomidae Ophiarthrum pictum Painted brittle star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophiocomidae Ophiarthrum sp. Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophiocomidae Ophiocoma erinaceus Spiny britle star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophiothrichidae Macrophiothrix sp. Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophiothrichidae Ophiothrix purpurea Purple brittle star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophiothrichidae Ophiothrix sp. 1 Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Ophiothrichidae Ophiothrix sp. 2 Not evaluated Unavailable 16

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Class Ophiuroidea Unidentified sp. Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Colobometridae Cenometra bella Pretty feather star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Colobometridae Colobometra perspinosa Spinose feather star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Colobometridae Oligometra carpenteri Carpenter’s feather Not evaluated Unavailable 16 star Colobometridae Oligometra serripinna Winged feather star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Comasteridae Comanthus alternans Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Comasteridae Comanthus suavia Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Comasteridae Comaster sp. Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Comasteridae Oxycomanthus bennetti Bennett’s feather star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Himerometridae Himerometra rubustipinna Robust feather star Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Himerometridae Himerometra sp. Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Class Crinoidea Unidentified sp. 1 Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Class Crinoidea Unidentified sp. 2 Not evaluated Unavailable 16

Class Crinoidea Unidentified sp. 3 Unavailable 16

Arachnoididae Arachnoides placenta Cake sand dollar not yet assessed Unavailable 16

Astriclypeidae Echinodiscus auritus Pancake urchin not yet assessed Unavailable 16

Laganidae Peronella lesueuri Lesueur’s sand dollar not yet assessed Unavailable 16

Diadematidae Astropyga radiata Radiant sea urchin not yet assessed Unavailable 16

Diadematidae Diadema savignyi Savigny’s sea urchin not yet assessed Unavailable 16

Diadematidae Echinothrix calamaris Stinging sea urchin not yet assessed Unavailable 16

Diadematidae Echinothrix diadema Crowned sea urchin not yet assessed Unavailable 16

Echinometridae Echinometra mathaei Mathae’s sea urchin not yet assessed Unavailable 16

Echinometridae Echinostrephus aciculatus Needle spined sea not yet assessed Unavailable 16 urchin Parasaleniidae Parasalenia pohlii Pohli’s sea urchin not yet assessed Unavailable 16

Temnopleuridae Salmacis sphaeroides Bicolor urchin not yet assessed Unavailable 16 Toxopneustidae Toxopneustes pileolus Flower urchin not yet assessed Unavailable 16 Toxopneustidae Toxopneustes gratilla Cake urchin not yet assessed Unavailable 16 Holothuriidae Actinopyga sp. not yet assessed Unavailable 16 Holothuriidae Bohadschia argus Eyed sea cucumber least concern Unavailable 31 Holothuriidae Bohadschia similis Chalkfish data deficient Unavailable 32 Holothuriidae Bohadschia vitiensis Brown sandfish data deficient Unavailable 32 Holothuriidae Holothuria atra Lolly fish least concern Unavailable 31 Holothuriidae Holothuria coluber Snakefish least concern Unavailable 31

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Holothuriidae Holothuria edulis Pinkfish least concern Unavailable 31 Holothuriidae Holothuria fuscogilva White teatfish vulnerable Unavailable 16 Holothuriidae Holothuria hilla Papillate sea least concern Unavailable 16 cucumber Holothuriidae Holothuria leucospilota Black fringed least concern Unavailable 16 cucumber Holothuriidae Holothuria scabra Sandfish endangered Unavailable 8, 16 Holothuriidae Holothuria (Selenkothuria) not yet assessed not yet assessed Unavailable 8, 16, 40 erinacea Holothuriidae Holothuria sp.1 not yet assessed not yet assessed Unavailable 8, 16, 40 Holothuriidae Holothuria sp.2 not yet assessed Unavailable 8, 16 Holothuriidae Pearsonothuria graeffei Flower fish least concern Unavailable 8, 16 Stichopodidae Stichopus chloronotus Green fish least concern Unavailable 16, 38

Stichopodidae Stichopus herrmanni Curry fish vulnerable Unavailable 16, 38, 40

Stichopodidae Stichopus horrens Dragon fish data deficient Unavailable 16, 38, 40

Stichopodidae Thelenota ananas Prickly red fish endangered Unavailable 16, 38, 40

Stichopodidae Thelenota anax Amber fish data deficient Unavailable 16, 38, 40

Stichopodidae Thelenota rubralineata Red-lined sea cucmber data deficient Unavailable 16, 38, 40

Synaptidae Euapta godeffroyi Godeffroy’s sea not yet assessed Unavailable 16 cucumber

Synaptidae Synapta maculata Spotted sea cucumber not yet assessed Unavailable 16

Sponges

Baine and Harasti [8] recorded 33 sponge species with 17 identified to species level while the other 16 species identified to genus level (Table 11).

Table 11. Checklist of Sponges recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Family Scientific name Common name IUCN Status PNG Status Reference Agelasidae Agelas sp. None Not evaluated Not available 8, 38 Ancorinidae Rhabdastrella globostellata None Not evaluated Not available 8, 38 Callyspongiidae Callyspongia aerizusa None Not evaluated Not available 8, 38 Callyspongiidae. Callyspongia sp. None Not assessed Not available 8, 38 Chalinidae Haliclona nematifera None Not assessed Not available 8, 38 Chalinidae Haliclona velina None Not assessed Not available 8, 38, 41 Chalinidae Heliclona sp. None Not available 8 Clionaidae Spheciospongia vagabunda None Not evaluated Not available 8, 38 Clionaidae Spheciospongia sp. None Not available 8- Crambidae Monanchora ungiculata None Not assessed Not available 8 Crellidae Crella sp. None Not available 8 Darwinellidae Chelonaplysilla violacea None Not evaluated Not available 41 Dictyonellidae Liosina granularis None Not evaluated Not available 41 Dysideidae Dysidea sp. None Not available 8 Leucettidae Leucetta chagosensis None Not evaluated Not available 8, 38 Leucettidae Leucetta sp. None Not available 8

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Leucettidae Pericharax heteroraphis None Not evaluated Not available 8, 38 Microcionidae Clathria mima None Not evaluated Not available 8, 38 Microcionidae Clathria (Thalysias) None Not evaluated Not available 8, 38 reinwardti Niphatidae Gelliodes fibulata None Not evaluated Not available 8, 38, 41 Mycalidae Mycale (Arenochalina) None Not available 38 humilis Niphatidae Geliodes sp. 1 None Not available 41 Niphatidae Geliodes sp.2 None Not available 41 Petrosiidae Petrosia sp. None Not available 8 Petrosiidae Strongylophora sphaeroidea None Not evaluated Not available 38 Petrosiidae Xestospongia testudinaria None Not evaluated Not available 38 Petrosiidae unidentified sp.1 None Not available 8 Phloeodictyidae Aka sp.1 None Not available 8 Phloeodictyidae Aka sp.2 None Not available 8 Phloeodictyidae Aka sp.3 None Not available 8 Soleneiscidae Dendya sp. None Not available 8 Suberitidae Terpios sp. None Not available 8 Tetillidae Cinachyrella schulzei None Not available 8

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Marine Macro-Algae

Marine macro-algae, commonly known as seaweeds, are categorized into three colour groups; the blue- green algae, green algae, and brown algae. Of the many species from the three color groups, 29 marine species have been recorded within Bootless Bay [8; 9]. These are listed in Table 12.

Table 12. Common Algae recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Family Scientific name Common name IUCN Status PNG Status Reference Caulerpaceae Caulerpa racemosa Sea grapes Not evaluated Not available 16 Caulerpaceae Caulerpa taxifolia Feather algae Not evaluated Not available 16 Halimedaceae Halimeda sp. Cactus algae Not evaluated Not available 16 Halimedaceae Halimeda sp. Cactus algae Not evaluated Not available 16 Halimedaceae Halimeda sp. Cactus algae Not evaluated Not available 16 Siphonocladaceae Boergesenia forbesii Green algae Not evaluated Not available 16 Siphonocladaceae Dictyosphaeria Buttonweed Not evaluated Not available 16 versluysii Udoteaceae Avrainvillea sp. Mermaid's fan Not evaluated Not available 16 Udoteaceae Chlorodesmis Turtle weed Not evaluated Not available 16 fastigiata Valoniaceae Valonia ventricosa Sailor's eyeball Not evaluated Not available 16 Galaxauraceae Actinotrichia fragilis Fragile algae Not evaluated Not available 16 Gracilariaceae Gracilaria salicornia Not evaluated Not available 16 Hypneaceae Hypnea pannosa Tattered sea moss Not evaluated Not available 16 Rhodomelaceae Acanthophora Spiny seaweed Not evaluated Not available 16 spicifera Rhodomelaceae Dasya sp. Red algae Not evaluated Not available 16 Peyssonneliaceae Peyssonnelia sp. Red algae Not evaluated Not available 16 Phyllophoraceae Ahnfeltiopsis sp. Ahnfelt's seaweed Not evaluated Not available 16 Dictyotaceae Dictyota magneana Branched algae Not evaluated Not available 16 Dictyotaceae Dictyota sp. 1 Branched algae Not evaluated Not available 8 Dictyotaceae Dictyota sp. 2 Branched algae Not evaluated Not available 8 Dictyotaceae Padina sp. Funnelweed Not evaluated Not available 8 Sargassaceae Sargassum sp. Sargassum weed Not evaluated Not available 8 Sargassaceae Sargassum sp. Sargassum weed Not evaluated Not available 8 Sargassaceae Turbinaria decurrens Triangular sea bell Not evaluated Not available 8, 16 Scytosiphonaceae Hydroclathrus Netweed Not evaluated Not available 8, 16 clathratus Boodleaceae Boodlea sp. Not evaluated Not available 8, 16 Phormidiaceae Microcoleus Mermaid's hair Not evaluated Not available 8, 16 lyngbyaceus (cyanophyta) Unidentified sp. 1 Not evaluated Not available 8 (cyanophyta) Unidentified sp. 2 Not evaluated Not available 8

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Fishes

In their fish diversity assessment, Drew et al. [5] generated a checklist of 488 fish species from 72 families for Bootless Bay while further postulated that up to 940 fish species could be found in the Bay. Drew et al. [5] contained most or all of the fish species recorded in previous publications before 2012. Checklist of the fish species is attached as appendix 2-2.

Marine Mammals

Records from Baine & Harasti [8] and Coleman [9] showed that Bootless Bay has a few marine mammal species which include three species of dolphins and a dugong species (Table 13). The dolphin species (Family Delphinidae) include the Common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), and Bottle-nosed dolphin (Tursiops truncates) have been recorded in several publications [8, 9] but their status is unclear. Contrastingly, the Dugong (Dugong dogon) has been missing from the accounts of recent publications and is rarely seen in Bootless Bay.

Table 13. Marine mammals recorded within Bootless Bay. Family Scientific name Common IUCN Status PNG Status Reference

Delphinidae Delphinus delphis Common dolphin Not evaluated Protected 16, 34

Stenella longirostris Spinner dolphin Not evaluated Protected 16, 34

Tursiops truncates Bottle-nosed dolphin Not evaluated Protected 16, 34

Dugongidae Dugong dugong Dugong * Not evaluated Protected 34

*- not observed in recent years.

Marine Reptiles Reptiles occurring in Bootless Bay include crocodiles, several species of turtles, and a few sea snakes. Reports and sightings by staff of Motupore Island Research Centre indicated that Bogoro Inlet is home to a couple of saltwater crocodile of the species Crocodylus porosus. Of the six extant species of marine turtles found in PNG waters, four were mention as occurring in Bootless Bay but records from Baine & Harasti [8] and Coleman [9] indicated only three are actively inhabiting the Bay. The three turtle species (Family Chelonidae) include the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill Turtle (Eretomochelys imbricatus), and Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta). Baine & Harasti [8] and Coleman [9] also recorded two sea snakes including the Olive sea snake (Aipysurus leavis, Family Hydrophidae) and Banded sea snake (Laticauda sp., Family Laticaudidae) as occurring in the Bay.

Table 14. Reptile species observed within Bootless Bay. Family Scientific name Common name IUCN Status PNG Status Reference

Crocodylus porosus Saltwater crocodile Least concern Protected 33, 34

Chelonidae Chelonia mydas Green Turtle Endangered Protected 8, 16, 33, 34

Eretomochelys Hawksbill Turtle Critically Protected 8, 16, 33, 34 imbricatus endangered

Caretta caretta Loggerhead Turtle Endangered Protected 8, 16, 33, 34,

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Hydrophidae Aipysurus leavis Olive Sea Snake Data deficient Not evaluated 8, 16

Laticaudidae Laticauda sp Banded Sea Snake Not assessed 8, 16

Conclusion The biodiversity inventory of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island shows a wide range of lifeforms. There are differences in the number of species amongst different taxonomic groups – some taxa are poorly represented while others show great diversity. Of significance are seagrasses, mangroves, and invertebrates. Of the 12 species of seagrasses recorded in the waters of Papua New Guinea, 10 species occur on Motupore and nearby islands. At a global scale, the 10 species represent almost 50% of the total seagrass species found worldwide.

Similarly, of the 35 mangrove species found in Papua New Guinea, 20 species are recorded within Bootless Bay, and representing about 50% of the total mangroves recorded globally.

Almost the entire species of sea cucumber (Holothrians) are represented on Motupore and Loloata islands. Sponges on the other hand, represent a gold mine to new discoveries in Science.

Bootless Bay is within NCD, and offers a very luxuriant marine life, for sea lovers.

References 1. Roberts, C. M., et al. 2003a. Ecological criteria for evaluating candidate sites for marine reserves. Ecological Applications 13:S199–S214.

2. Sumaila, U. R., and A. T. Charles. 2002. Economic models of marine protected area: an introduction.Natural Resource Modeling 15:261–272.

3. Moore, J., A. Balmford, T. Allnutt, andN. Burgess. 2004. Integrating costs into conservation planning across Africa. Biological Conservation 117:343–350.

4. Richardson, E. A., M. J. Kaiser, G. Edwards-Jones, and H. P. Possingham. 2006. Sensitivity of marine-reserve design to the spatial resolution of socioeconomic data. Conservation Biology 20:1191–1202.

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43

10. Hopkins F H and Menzies I. 1995. The flora of Motupore Island, Papua New Guinea. University of Papua New Guinea Press, Unisearch PTY Ltd, Papua New Guinea.

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15. Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V. 2010. Lumnitzera racemosa. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010: e.T178846A7625290. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-2.RLTS.T178846A7625290.en. Downloaded on 01 April 2018.

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18. Maniwavie, M. 2010. Sediment levels and its impacts on live coral cover in Bootless Bay, Port Moresby. Research techniques and skills course work report. University of Papua New Guinea.

19. Tyler, S., Artois, T.; Schilling, S.; Hooge, M.; Bush, L.F. (eds) (2006-2018). World List of turbellarian worms: Acoelomorpha, Catenulida, Rhabditophora. Pseudoceros dimidiatus Graff, 1893. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=483959 on 2018-04-01

20. Graff, L. von. (1893). In: W. Saville-Kent. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia; its products and potentialities. W. H. Allen, London. page 362.

21. Hanley, J. Russell 1989. Revision of the scaleworm genera Arctonoe Chamberlin and Gastolepidia Schmarda (Polychaeta: Polynoidae) with the erection of a new subfamily Arctonoinae. The Beagle, Records of the Northern Territory Museum of Arts and Sciences, 6(1): 1-34.

22. Read, G.; Fauchald, K. (Ed.) (2018). World Polychaeta database. Protula bispiralis (Savigny, 1822). Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=209958 on 2018-04-01

23. WoRMS (2018). Lepas (Anatifa) anserifera Linnaeus, 1767. Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=733347 on 2018-04-01

44

24. Spence Bate, C. (1888). Report on the Crustacea Macrura collected by the Challenger during the years 1873-76. eport on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. ”Challenger” during the years 1873-76. 24: i-xc, 1-942, Plates 1-157.

25. WoRMS (2018). Tetraclita squamosa (Bruguière, 1789). Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=208890 on 2018-04-01

26. WoRMS (2018). Odontodactylus scyllarus (Linnaeus, 1758). Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=

27. WoRMS (2018). Penaeus canaliculatus japonicus Spence Bate, 1888. Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=377717 on 2018-04-01

28. WoRMS (2018). Alpheus ochrostriatus Karplus, Szlep & Tsurnamal, 1981. Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=549781 on 2018-04-01

29. WoRMS (2018). Lysmata amboinensis (de Man, 1888). Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=241289 on 2018-04-01

30. Lemaitre, R.; McLaughlin, P. (2018). World Paguroidea & Lomisoidea database. Calcinus minutus Buitendijk, 1937. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=367448 on 2018-04-01

31. WoRMS (2018). Allogalathea elegans (Adams & White, 1848). Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=246208 on 2018-04-01

32. Conand, C., Gamboa, R. & Purcell, S. 2013. Bohadschia argus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T180541A1645352. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013- 1.RLTS.T180541A1645352.en. Downloaded on 26 February 2018.

33. Samyn, Y. 2013. Bohadschia similis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T180386A1623976. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T180386A1623976.en. Downloaded on 26 February 2018.

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38. Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Flannery, T. & Woolley, P. 2016. Myoictis melas. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T14086A21945102. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T14086A21945102.en. Downloaded on 01 April 2018.

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39. WoRMS 2018. http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?

40. Ko’ou, A. Y. 2014. Habitats influence on the variations in the recruitment of overfished sea cucumbers on the fringing reefs of Bootless Bay, Papua New Guinea - MSc Thesis. Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia.

41. Kinch, Jeff. 2007. Socio-economic Assessment of the Beche-de-mer Fisheries in the Western, Central and Manus Provinces, Papua New Guinea. National Fisheries Authority, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.

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46

Appendix 2-1. Plant species list for Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island Family Scientific name Common name IUCN Status PNG Status Reference

Sterculiaceae Abroma angusta Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Abrus precatorius Not assessed 10, 16

Malvaceae Abutilon auritum Not assessed 10, 16

Malvaceae Abutilon indicum Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Acacia auriculiformis Least concern 10, 16

Amaranthaceae Achryanthes aspera Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Adenanthera pavonina Not assessed 10, 16

Plambaginaceae Aegialitis annulata Not assessed 10, 16

Myrsinaceae Aegiceras corniculatum Least concern 10, 16

Rubiaceae Aidia cochinchinensis Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Albizia carrii Not assessed 10, 16

Sapindaceae Alectryon repanododentatus Not assessed 10, 16

Sapindaceae Allophylus cobbe Not assessed 10, 16

Apocynaceae Alstonia spectabilis Not assessed 10, 16

Amaranthaceae Alternanthera pungens Not assessed 10, 16

Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Alysicarpus bupleurifolius Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Alysicarpus vaginalis Not assessed 10, 16

Vitaceae Ampelocissus acetosa Not assessed 10, 16

Lamiaceae Anisomeles malabarica Not assessed 10, 16

Annonaceae Annona squamosa Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Atylosia scarabaeoides Not assessed 10, 16

Avicenniaceae Avicennia eucalyptifolia Not assessed 10, 16

Avicenniaceae Avicennia marina Not assessed 10, 16

Avicenniaceae Avicennia officinalis Not assessed 10, 16

Avicenniaceae Avicennia resinifera Not assessed 10, 16

Acanthaceae Barleria lupulina Not assessed 10, 16

Barringtonia asiatica Not assessed 10, 16

47

Fabaceae Bauhinia binata Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Bauhinia variegata Not assessed 10, 16

Asteraceae Bidens Sp. Not assessed 10, 16

Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa Not assessed 10, 16

Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia erecta Not assessed 10, 16

Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia repens Not assessed 10, 16

Bambacaceae Bombax ceiba Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Breynia cernua Not assessed 10, 16

Eupphorbiaceae Bridelia oligantha Not assessed 10, 16

Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Not assessed 10, 16

Orchidaceae Bulbostylis barbata Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Caesalpinia bonduc Not assessed 10, 16

Clusiaceae Calophyllum inophyllum Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Canavalia papuana Not assessed 10, 16

Rubiaceae Canthium suborbiculare Not assessed 10, 16

Capparaceae Capparis lucida Not assessed 10, 16

Capparaceae Capparis quiniflora Not assessed 10, 16

Capparaceae Capparis sepiaria Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Cassia lechenaultiana Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Cassia tora Not assessed 10, 16

Lauraceae Cassytha filiformis Not assessed 10, 16

Cassuarinaceae Cassuarina equisetifolia Not assessed 10, 16

Acanthaceae Catharanthus roseus Not assessed 10, 16

Vitaceae Cayratia acris Not assessed 10, 16

Vitaceae Cayratia cardiophylla Not assessed 10, 16

Vitaceae Cayratia schumanniana Not assessed 10, 16

Vitaceae Cayratia trifolia Not assessed 10, 16

Amaranthaceae Celosia argentea Not assessed 10, 16

Ulmaceae Celtis philippinensis Not assessed 10, 16

Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Chamaecrista absus Not assessed 10, 16

48

Fabaceae Chamaecrista nictitans Not assessed 10, 16

Oleaceae Chionanthus ramiflorus Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Chloris barbata Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Christia obcordata Not assessed 10, 16

Vitaceae Cissus hastata Not assessed 10, 16

Vitaceae Cissus repens Not assessed 10, 16

Capparaceae Cleome viscosa Not assessed 10, 16

Verbenaceae Clerodendrum floribundum Not assessed 10, 16

Verbenaceae Clerodendrum inerme Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Clitoria ternatea Not assessed 10, 16

Arecaceae Cocos nucifera Not assessed 10, 16

Rhamnaceae Colubrina asiatica Not assessed 10, 16

Commelinaceae Commelina ensifolia Not assessed 10, 16

Tiliaceae Corchorus aestuans Not assessed 10, 16

Boraginaceae Cordia dichotoma Not assessed 10, 16

Boraginaceae Cordia subcordata Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Crotalaria chinensis Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Crotalaria montana Not assessed 10, 16

Cudrania javanensis Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Cupaniopsis curvidens Not assessed 10, 16

Sapindaceae Cupaniopsis napaensis Not assessed 10, 16

Cycadaceae Cycas campestris Near Threaten 10, 16

Amaranthaceae Cyathula prostrata Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Cymbopogon Not assessed 10, 16

Asclepiadaceae Cynachum carnosum Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Cynodon dactylon Not assessed 10, 16

Cyperaceae Cyperus javanicus Not assessed 10, 16

Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Dactyloctenium aegyptium Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Derris trifoliata Not assessed 10, 16

Orchidaceae Dendrobium discolor Not assessed 10, 16

49

Fabaceae Desmodium umbellatum Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Desmodium velutinum Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Digitaria longifolia Not assessed 10, 16

Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea bulbifera Not assessed 10, 16

Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea esculenta Not assessed 10, 16

Ebenaceae Diospyros littorea Not assessed 10, 16

Cucurbitaceae Diplocyclos palmatus Not assessed 10, 16

Ochidaceae Dipodium punctatum Not assessed 10, 16

Acanthaceae Dipteracanthus bracteatus Not assessed 10, 16

Asclepiadaceae Dischidia ovata Not assessed 10, 16

Polypodiaceae Drynaria quercifolia Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Drypetes australasica Not assessed 10, 16

Asteraceae Eclipta prostrata Not assessed 10, 16

Asteraceae Ehretia dichotoma Not assessed 10, 16

Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus arnhemicus Not assessed 10, 16

Sapindaceae Ellatostachys tetraporandra Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Eleusine indica Not assessed 10, 16

Astercaeae Emilia sonchifolia Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Entada sp Not assessed 10, 16

Asteraceae Eragrostis tenella Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Erythrina variegata Not assessed 10, 16

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus confertiflora Not assessed 10, 16

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus papuana Not assessed 10, 16

Myrtaceae Eugenia sp Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia heterophylla Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia plumeroides Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia prostrata Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia vachellii Not assessed 10, 16

Convolvulaceae Evolvulus alsinoides Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria agallocha Not assessed 10, 16

50

Santalaceae Exocarpus latifolius Not assessed 10, 16

Moraceae Fatoua pilosa Not assessed 10, 16

Moraceae Ficus microcarpa Not assessed 10, 16

Moraceae Ficus opposita Not assessed 10, 16

Flagellariaceae Flagellaria indica Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Flemingia strobilifera Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Flueggea virosa Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Galactia tenuiflora Not assessed 10, 16

Sapindaceae Garuga floribunda Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Glochidion disparipes Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Glycine tomentella Not assessed 10, 16

Rutaceae Glycosmis cyanocarpa Not assessed 10, 16

Tiliaceae Grewia acuminata Not assessed 10, 16

Tiliaceae Grewia breviflora Not assessed 10, 16

Tiliaceae Grewia species A Not assessed 10, 16

Tiliaceae Grewia xanthopetala Not assessed 10, 16

Rubiaceae Guettarda speciosa Not assessed 10, 16

Asclepiadaceae Gymnanthera oblonga Not assessed 10, 16

Asclepiadaceae Gymnema geminatum Not assessed 10, 16

Sapindaceae Harpullia leptococca Not assessed 10, 16

Simaroubaceae Harrisonia brownii Not assessed 10, 16

Rubiaceae Hedyotis corymbosa Not assessed 10, 16

Sterculiaceae Heritiera littoralis Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Heteropogon contortus Not assessed 10, 16

Malvaceae Hibiscus schizopetalus Not assessed 10, 16

Malvaceae Hibiscus tiliaceous Not assessed 10, 16

Lamiaceae Hyptis suaveolens Not assessed 10, 16

Asclepiadaceae Ichnocarpus frutescens Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Indigofera colutea Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Indigofera hirsuta Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Indigofera linifolia Not assessed 10, 16

51

Fabaceae Indigofera linnaei Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Intsia bijuga Not assessed 10, 16

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea carnea Not assessed 10, 16

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea macrantha Not assessed 10, 16

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea nil Not assessed 10, 16

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea pes-capri Not assessed 10, 16

Convolvulaceae Jaquemontia paniculate Not assessed 10, 16

Oleaceae Jasminum aemulum Not assessed 10, 16

Oleaceae Jasminum didymum Not assessed 10, 16

Myrtaceae Jossinia desmantha Not assessed 10, 16

Myrtaceae Jossinia reinwardtiana Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Lepturus repens Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Leucaena leucocephala Not assessed 10, 16

Lamiaceae Leucas flaccida Not assessed 10, 16

Lauraceae Litsea glutinosa Not assessed 10, 16

Combretaceae Lumnitzera racemosa Not assessed 10, 15

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga tanarius Not assessed 10, 16

Moraceae Maclura cochinchinensis Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Macroptilium atropurpureum Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Mallotus philippensis Not assessed 10, 16

Malvaceae Malvastrum Not assessed 10, 16 coromandelianum

Euphorbiaceae Manihot esculenta Not assessed 10, 16

Asclepiadaceae Marsdenia velutina Not assessed 10, 16

Verbenaceae Maytenus emarginata Not assessed 10, 16

Convolvulaceae Merremia tridentata Not assessed 10, 16

Rutaceae Micromelum minutum Not assessed 10, 16

Millettia Not assessed 10, 16

Sapotaceae Mimusops elengi Not assessed 10, 16

Curcubitaceae Momordica charantia Not assessed 10, 16

Rubiaceae Morinda citrifolia Not assessed 10, 16

52

Fabaceae Mucuna gigantea Not assessed 10, 16

Curcubitaceae Mukia maderaspatana Not assessed 10, 16

Rutaceae Murraya paniculata Not assessed 10, 16

Myristicaceae Myristica sp Not assessed 10, 16

Arecaceae Nypa fruticans Not assessed 10, 16

Lamiaceae Ocimum tenuiflorum Not assessed 10, 16

Opiliaceae Opilia amentacea Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Oplismenus undulatifolius Not assessed 10, 16

Cactaceae Opuntia stricta Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Ormocarpum orientale Not assessed 10, 16

Myrtaceae Osbornia octodonta Not assessed 10, 16

Pandanaceae Pandanus tectorius Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Panicum sp Not assessed 10, 16

Asclepiadaceae Parsonia quinquebullata Not assessed 10, 16

Passifloraceae Passiflora foetida Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Pedilanthus tithymaloides Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Peltophorum ptercarpum Not assessed 10, 16

Thelypteridaceae Phaleria sp Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus amarus Not assessed 10, 16

Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus niruri Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Pithecellobium dulce Not assessed 10, 16

Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica Not assessed 10, 16

Apocynaceae Plumeria sp Not assessed 10, 16

Capparaceae Polycarpaea sp Not assessed 10, 16

Meliaceae Pongamia pinnata Not assessed 10, 16

Portulacaceae Portulaca pilosa Not assessed 10, 16

Verbenaceae Premna dallachyana Not assessed 10, 16

Verbenaceae Premna serratifolia Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Psoralea badocana Not assessed 10, 16

Rubiaceae Psychotria bracteosa Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Pycnospora lutescens Not assessed 10, 16

53

Polypodiaceae Pyrrosia longifolia Not assessed 10, 16

Rubiaceae Randia cochinchinensis Not assessed 10, 16

Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora apiculata Not assessed 10, 16

Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora lamarckii Not assessed 10, 16

Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora stylosa Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Rhynchelytrum repens Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Rhynchosia minima Not assessed 10, 16

Malpigiaceae Rhyssopteris timoriensis Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Samanea saman Not assessed 10, 16

Goodeniaceae Scaevola sericea Not assessed 10, 16

Cyperaceae Sclerica brownii Not assessed 10, 16

Flacourtiaceae Scolopia novoguineensis Not assessed 10, 16

Rubiaceae Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Not assessed 10, 16

Asclepiadaceae Secamone elliptica Not assessed 10, 16

Securinega melanthesoides Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Senna siamea Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Sesbania cannabina Not assessed 10, 16

Aizoaceae Sesuvium portulacastrum Not assessed 10, 16

Malvaceae Sida cordifolia Not assessed 10, 16

Smilacaceae Smilax zeylanica Not assessed 10, 16

Asteraceae Sonchus oleraceus Not assessed 10, 16

Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia alba Least concern 10, 16

Fabaceae Sophora tomentosa Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Sorghum nitidum Not assessed 10, 16

Rubiaceae Spermacoce assurgens Not assessed 10, 16

Spondias cytherea Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Sporobolus diander Not assessed 10, 16

Sporobolus virginicus Not assessed 10, 16

Verbenaceae Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Not assessed 10, 16

Asteraceae Synedrella nodiflora Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Tephrosia astragaloides Not assessed 10, 16

54

Fabaceae Tephrosia filipes Not assessed 10, 16

Combretaceae Terminalia catappa Not assessed 10, 16

Combretaceae Terminalia microcarpa Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Themeda novoguineensis Not assessed 10, 16

Poaceae Themeda triandra Not assessed 10, 16

Malvaceae Thespesia populnea Not assessed 10, 16

Rubiaceae Timonius timon Not assessed 10, 16

Boraginaceae Tournefortia muelleri Not assessed 10, 16

Tiliaceae Trema cannabina Not assessed 10, 16

Aizoaceae Trianthema portulacastrum Not assessed 10, 16

Zygophyllaceae Tribulus cistoides Not assessed 10, 16

Asteraceae Tridax procumbens Not assessed 10, 16

Moraceae Trophis scandens Not assessed 10, 16

Meliaceae Turraea virens Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Uraria lagopodoides Not assessed 10, 16

Asteraceae Vernonia cinerea Not assessed 10, 16

Fabaceae Vigna radiata Not assessed 10, 16

Verbenaceae Vitex trifolia Not assessed 10, 16

Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum Not assessed 10, 16

Meliaceae Xylocarpus rumphii Not assessed 10, 16

Cucurbitaceae Zehneria japonica Not assessed 10, 16

55

Appendix 2-2. Fish species recorded at Bootless Bay. Family Scientific Name Common Name IUCN Status PNG Status Reference

Acanthuridae Acanthurus auranticavus (Randall, 1956) Least Concerned 15 Acanthuridae Acanthurus fowleri (de Beaufort, 1951) Least Concerned 15

Acanthuridae Acanthurus grammoptilus (Richardson, 1843) Least Concerned 15

Acanthuridae Acanthurus lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Striped Least Concerned 8, 15 surgeonfish Acanthuridae Acanthurus nigrofuscus (Forsskål, 1775) Least Concerned 15

Acanthuridae Acanthurus nigroris (Valenciennes, 1835) Least Concerned 15

Acanthuridae Acanthurus olivaceus (Bloch and Schneider, Least Concerned 15 1801) Acanthuridae Acanthurus pyroferus (Kittlitz, 1834) Mimic Least Concerned 8, 15 surgeonfish Acanthuridae Acanthurus triostegus (Linnaeus, 1758) Least Concerned 15

Acanthuridae Ctenochaetus binotatus (Randall, 1955) Least Concerned 15

Acanthuridae Ctenochaetus striatus (Quoy and Baimard, 1825) Striated Least Concerned 15 surgeonfish Acanthuridae Naso brevirostris (Cuvier, 1829) Spotted Least Concerned 8, 15 unicornfish Acanthuridae Naso lituratus (Forster, 1801) Orange-spine Least Concerned 8, 15 unicornfish Acanthuridae Naso vlamingii (Valenciennes, 1835) Least Concerned 15

Anguilladae Anguilla obscura (Günther, 1872) Data Deficient 15

Antennariidae Antennarius pictus (Shaw, 1794) Painted Angler Least Concerned 15 Fish Antennariidae Histrio histrio (Linnaeus, 1758) Sargassum Least Concerned 15 Frogfish Apogonidae Apogon aureus (Lacépède, 1802) Ringtailed Least Concerned 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Apogon crassiceps (Garman, 1903) Not evaluated 15

Apogonidae Apogon cyanosoma (Bleeker 1853) Yellowstriped Least Concerned 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Apogon exostigma (Jordan and Starks, 1906) Not evaluated 15

Apogonidae Apogon fraenatus (Valenciennes, 1832) Bridled Not evaluated 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Apogon fucata (Cantor, 1849) Orange lined Not evaluated 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Apogon kallopterus (Bleeker, 1856) Iridescent Not evaluated 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Apogon nigrofasciatus (Lachner, 1953) Blackstriped Not evaluated 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Apogon perlitus (Fraser and Lachner, 1985) Peraly Not evaluated 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Apogon rhodopterus (Bleeker, 1852) Not evaluated 15

Apogonidae Apogon sp. 1 8, 15

56

Apogonidae Apogon sp. 2 8, 15

Apogonidae Apogon sp. 3 8, 15

Apogonidae Archamia zosterophora (Bleeker, 1856) Blackbelted Not evaluated 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Cheilodipterus alleni (Gon, 1993) Allen's Not evaluated 8, 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Cheilodipterus isostigmus (Schultz, 1940) Not evaluated 8, 15

Apogonidae Cheilodipterus macrodon (Lacépède, 1802) Large-toothed Not evaluated 8, 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Cheilodipterus parazonatus (Gon, 1993) Mimic Not evaluated 8, 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus (Cuvier, 1828) Five-lined Not evaluated 8, 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Cheilodipterus sp. 8, 15

Apogonidae Fowleria marmorata (Alleyne and MacLeay, Not evaluated 15 1877) Apogonidae Fowleria variegata (Valenciennes, 1832) Not evaluated 15

Apogonidae Pseudamia hayashii (Lachner & Fraser, 1985) Not evaluated 15

Apogonidae Rhabdamia cypselurus (Weber, 1909) Swallowtail Not evaluated 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Siphamia elongata (Lachner, 1953) Not evaluated 15

Apogonidae Siphamia versicolor (Smith & Radcliffe, 1911) Urchin Not evaluated 8, 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Sphaeramia nematoptera (Bleeker, 1856) Pyjama Not evaluated 8, 15 cardinalfish Apogonidae Sphaeramia orbicularis (Cuvier, 1828) Orbiculate Not evaluated 15 cardinalfish Aulostomidae Aulostomus chinensis (Linnaeus, 1766) Trumpetfish Least Concerned 15

Balistidae Abalistes stellatus ([Lacépède, 1798]) Starry Least Concerned 15 triggerfish Balistidae Balistapus undulatus (Park, 1797) Orange-lined Not evaluated 15 triggerfish Balistidae Balistoides conspicillum (Bloch and Schneider, Clown Not evaluated 15 1801) triggerfish Balistidae Balistoides viridescens (Bloch and Schneider, Titan triggerfish Not evaluated 15 1801) Balistidae Melichthys vidua (Richardson, 1845) Not evaluated 15

Balistidae Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus (Rüppell, 1829) Not evaluated 15

Balistidae Rhinecanthus aculeatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Blackbar Not evaluated 15 triggerfish Balistidae Rhinecanthus verrucosus (Linnaeus, 1758) Not evaluated 15

Balistidae Sufflamen bursa (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) Boomerang Not evaluated 15 triggerfish Balistidae Sufflamen chrysopterus (Bloch and Schneider, Flagtail Not evaluated 15 1801) triggerfish Belonidae Tylosurus crocodilus (Péron & Lesueur, 1821) Least Concerned 15

Belonidae Zenarchopterus gilli (Smith 1945) Least Concerned 15

Blenniidae Aspidontus taeniatus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1834) Least Concerned 15

57

Blenniidae Blenniella cf. gibbifrons (Quoy and Baimard, Least Concerned 15 1824) Blenniidae Crossosalarias macrospilus (Smith-Vaniz and Least Concerned 8, 15 Springer, 1971) Blenniidae Ctenogobiops sp. 15

Blenniidae Ecsenius namiyei (Jordan and Evermann, 1902) Black comb- Least Concerned 8, 15 tooth blenny Blenniidae Ecsenius yaeyamaensis (Ayoagi, 1954) Yaeyama blenny Least Concerned 8, 15

Blenniidae Meiacanthus grammistes (Valenciennes, 1836) Striped Least Concerned 8, 15 fangblenny Blenniidae Meiacanthus vittatus (Smith-Vaniz, 1976) One-striped Least Concerned 8, 15 fangblenny Blenniidae Plagiotremus laudandus (Whitley, 1961) Bicolor Least Concerned 8, 15 fangblenny Blenniidae Plagiotremus rhinorhynchos (Bleeker, 1852) Bluestriped Least Concerned 8, 15 fangblenny Bothidae Bothus mancus (Broussonet, 1782) Least Concerned 15

Caesionidae Caesio caerulaurea (Lacépède, 1801) Blue and gold Least Concerned 15 fusilier Caesionidae Caesio cuning (Bloch, 1791) Yellowtail Least Concerned 15 fusilier Caesionidae Caesio teres (Seale, 1906) Least Concerned 15

Caesionidae Pterocaesio digramma (Bleeker, 1864) Least Concerned 15

Caesionidae Pterocaesio pisang (Bleeker,1853) Least Concerned 15

Callionymidae Callionymus enneactis (Bleeker, 1879) Not evaluated 15

Callionymidae Dactylopus dactylopus (Valenciennes, 1837) Fingered Not evaluated 8, 15 dragonet Callionymidae Synchiropus stellatus (Smith, 1963) Starry dragonet Not evaluated 15

Carangidae Carangoides plagiotaenia (Bleeker, 1857) Barcheek Not evaluated 15 trevally Carangidae Caranx melampygus (Cuvier, 1833) Bluefin trevally Not evaluated 8,15

Carangidae Caranx sexfasciatus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1825) Least Concerned 15

Carcharhinidae Carcharinus melanopterus (Quoy and Baimard, Black-tip reef Near Threatened 15 1824) shark Carcharhinidae Triaenodon obesus (Rüppell 1837) White-tip reef Near Threatened 15 shark Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon auriga (Forsskål, 1775) Least Concerned 15

Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon baronessa (Cuvier, 1829) Least Concerned 15

Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon bennetti (Cuvier, 1831) Bluelashed Data Deficient 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon citrinellus (Cuvier, 1831) Least Concerned 15

Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon ephippium (Cuvier, 1831) Saddle Least Concerned 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon kleinii (Bloch, 1790) Brown Least Concerned 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon lunulatus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1825) Least Concerned 15

Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon melannotus (Bloch and Schneider, Least Concerned 15 1801)

58

Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon ornatissimus (Cuvier, 1831) Ornate Least Concerned 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon pelewensis (Kner, 1868) Sunset Least Concerned 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon plebeius (Cuvier, 1831) Blue-dash Least Concerned 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon rafflesi (Bennett, 1830) Latticed Least Concerned 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon speculum (Cuvier, 1831) Least Concerned 15

Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon trifascialis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1825) Melon Near Threatened 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon ulietensis (Cuvier, 1831) Double-saddled Least Concerned 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon unimaculatus (Bloch, 1787) Least Concerned 15

Chaetodonitdae Chaetodon vagabundus (Linnaeus, 1758) Vagabond Least Concerned 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Chelmon rostratus (Linnaeus, 1758) Copperband Least Concerned 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Forcipiger flavissimus (Jordan and McGregor, Longnosed Least Concerned 15 1898) butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Forcipiger longirostris (Broussonet, 1782) Big longnosed Least Concerned 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Hemitaurichthys polylepis (Bleeker, 1857) Pyramid Least Concerned 15 butterflyfish Chaetodonitdae Heniochus acuminatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Reef bannerfish Least Concerned 15

Chaetodonitdae Heniochus chrysostomus (Cuvier, 1831) Pennant Least Concerned 15 bannerfish Chaetodonitdae Heniochus singularis (Smith and Radcliffe, 1911) Least Concerned 15

Chaetodonitdae Heniochus varius (Cuvier, 1829) Humphead Least Concerned 15 bannerfish Cirrhitidae Cirrhitichthys aprinus (Cuvier, 1829) Spotted Least Concerned 15 hawkfish Cirrhitidae Cirrhitichthys falco (Randall, 1963) Dwarf hawkfish Least Concerned 15

Cirrhitidae Cirrhitichthys oxycephalus (Bleeker, 1855) Coral hawkfish Least Concerned 15

Cirrhitidae Oxycirrhites typus (Bleeker, 1857) Longnose Least Concerned 15 hawkfish Cirrhitidae Paracirrhites arcatus (Cuvier, 1829) Ring-eyed Least Concerned 15 hawkfish Cirrhitidae Paracirrhites forsteri (Schneider, 1801) Forster Least Concerned 15 hawkfish Congridae Heteroconger hassi (Klausewitz & Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Spotted Garden Not evaluated 15 1959) Eel Congridae Congridae sp. 15

Dasyatidae Dasyatis kuhlii (Muller and Henle, 1841) Blue-Spotted Data Deficient 15 Stingray Dasyatidae Taeniura lymma (Bennett, 1830) Blue-spotted Near Threatened 15 Fantail Stingray Diodontidae Diodon hystrix (Linnaeus, 1758) Least Concerned 15

Ephippidae Platax orbicularis (Forsskål, 1775) Orbicular Not evaluated 15 batfish Ephippidae Platax pinnatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Dusky batfish Not evaluated 15

Ephippidae Platax teira (Forsskål, 1775) Tail-fin batfish Not evaluated 15

59

Fistulariidae Fistularia commersonii (Rüppell, 1838) Least Concerned 15

Gobiesocidae Diademichthys lineatus (Sauvage, 1883) Urchin Clingfish Least Concerned 15

Gobiesocidae Discotrema crinophila (Briggs, 1976) Crinoid Clingfish Least Concerned 15

Gobiidae Amblyeleotris arcupinna (Mohlmann and Red-banded Not evaluated 15 Munday, 1999) shriimpgoby Gobiidae Amblyeleotris guttata (Fowler, 1938) Spotted Not evaluated 15 shrimpgoby Gobiidae Amblyeleotris randalli (Hoese and Steene, 1978) Randall's Not evaluated 15 shrimpgoby Gobiidae Amblygobius decussatus (Bleeker, 1855) Orange-striped Not evaluated 8, 15 goby Gobiidae Amblygobius phaelena (Valenciennes, 1837) Banded goby Not evaluated 8, 15

Gobiidae Amblygobius rainfordi (Whitley, 1940) Old glory Least Concerned 8, 15

Gobiidae Bryaninops amplus (Larson, 1985) Large whip goby Least Concerned 15

Gobiidae Bryaninops loki (Larson, 1985) Loki whip goby Least Concerned 8, 15

Gobiidae Calumia sp. 1 8, 15

Gobiidae Calumia sp. 2 8, 15

Gobiidae Cryptocerus sp. 8, 15

Gobiidae Eviota sp. 8, 15

Gobiidae Exyrias belissimus (Smith, 1959) Beautiful goby Least Concerned 8, 15

Gobiidae Fusigobius inframaculatus (Randall, 1994) Blotched goby Least Concerned 8, 15

Gobiidae Fusigobius signipinnis (Hoese & Obika 1988) Not evaluated 8, 15

Gobiidae Fusigobius sp. 8, 15

Gobiidae Gobidae sp. 1 8, 15

Gobiidae Gobidae sp. 2 8, 15

Gobiidae Gobidae sp. 3 8, 15

Gobiidae Gobiodon okinawae (Sawada, Arai & Abe, 1972) Yellow Not evaluated 8, 15 coralgoby Gobiidae Istigobius goldmanni (Bleeker, 1852) Not evaluated 15

Gobiidae Istigobius ornatus (Rüppell, 1830) Ornate goby Least Concerned 8, 15

Gobiidae Istigobius rigilius (Herre, 1953) Least Concerned 15

Gobiidae Oplopomus oplopomus (Valenciennes, 1837) Not evaluated 8, 15

Gobiidae Paragobiodon xanthosomus (Bleeker, 1852) Least Concerned 15

Gobiidae Periophthalmus argentilineatus (Valenciennes, Not evaluated 15 1837) Gobiidae Pleurosicya bilobata (Koumans, 1941) Least Concerned 15

60

Gobiidae Pleurosicya micheli (Fourmanoir, 1971) Stiny coral Least Concerned 8, 15 ghostgoby Gobiidae Pleurosicya mossambica (Smith, 1959) Common Least Concerned 8, 15 ghostgoby Gobiidae Priolepis sp. 15

Gobiidae Signigobius biocellatus (Hoese & Allen 1977) Signal gobyfish Not evaluated 8, 15

Gobiidae Trimma sp. 1 15

Gobiidae Trimma sp. 2 15

Gobiidae Trimma sp. 3 15

Gobiidae Trimma caesiura (Jordan & Seale 1906) Dwarf goby Least Concerned 15

Gobiidae Trimma macrophthalma (Tomiyama, 1936) Least Concerned 15

Gobiidae Trimma okinawae (Aoyagi, 1949) Least Concerned 15

Gobiidae Trimma striatum (Herre 1945) Least Concerned 15

Gobiidae Valenciennea helsdingenii (Bleeker 1858) Two stripe goby Least Concerned 8, 15

Gobiidae Valenciennea puellaris (Tomiyama 1956) Maiden goby Least Concerned 8, 15

Gobiidae Valenciennea strigata (Broussonet, 1782) Bluestreak goby Least Concerned 8, 15

Haemulidae Plectorhinchus chaetodontoides (Lacépède 1801) Harlequin Not evaluated 15 sweetlips Haemulidae Plectorhinchus chrysotaenia (Bleeker, 1855) Yellow-striped Not evaluated 15 sweetlips Haemulidae Plectorhinchus lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Yellow-banded Not evaluated 15 sweetlips Haemulidae Plectorhinchus vittatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Oriental Not evaluated 15 sweetlips Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus archipelagicus (Collette & Parin Not evaluated 15 1978) Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus far (Forsskål, 1775) Not evaluated 15

Hemiramphidae Hyporhamphus quoyi (Valenciennes, 1847) Not evaluated 15

Hemiscyllidae Hemiscyllium hallstromi (Whitley, 1967) Epaulette shark Vulnerable 15

Holocentridae Myripristis berndti (Jordan and Evermann, 1903) Blotcheye Least Concerned 15 soldierfish Holocentridae Myripristis kuntee (Valenciennes, 1831) Least Concerned 15

Holocentridae Myripristis murdjan (Forsskål, 1775) Pinecone Least Concerned 15 soldierfish Holocentridae Myripristis violacea (Bleeker, 1851) Violet Least Concerned 15 Soldierfish Holocentridae Myripristis vittata (Valenciennes, 1831) Whitetip Least Concerned 15 Soldierfish Holocentridae Neoniphon argenteus (Valenciennes, 1831) Least Concerned 15

Holocentridae Neoniphon sammara (Forsskål, 1775) Sammara Least Concerned 15 Squirrelfish Holocentridae Plectrypops lima (Valenciennes, 1831) Least Concerned 15

Holocentridae Sargocentron caudimaculatum (Rüppell 1838) Silverspot Least Concerned 15 squirrelfish

61

Holocentridae Sargocentron cf. iota (Randall 1998) Least Concerned 15

Holocentridae Sargocentron cornutum (Bleeker 1853) Least Concerned 15

Holocentridae Sargocentron ensifer (Jordan & Evermann 1903) Yellow-striped Least Concerned 15 soldierfish Holocentridae Sargocentron rubrum (Forsskål, 1775) Least Concerned 15

Holocentridae Sargocentron spiniferum (Forsskål 1775) Sabre suirrelfish Least Concerned 15

Holocentridae Sargocentron tiereoides (Bleeker, 1853) Least Concerned 15

Holocentridae Sargocentron violaceum (Bleeker, 1853) Least Concerned 15

Kyphosidae Kyphosus cinerascens (Forsskål 1775) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Anampses neoguinaicus (Bleeker, 1878) New Guinea Least Concerned 8, 15 wrasse Labridae Bodianus anthioides (Bennet, 1832) Lyretail hogfish Least Concerned 8, 15

Labridae Bodianus axillaris (Bennet, 1832) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Bodianus bimaculatus (Allen, 1973) Two-spot Least Concerned 8, 15 slender hogfish Labridae Bodianus diana (Lacépède, 1801) Diana's hogfish Least Concerned 8, 15

Labridae Bodianus mesothorax (Bloch and Schneider, Least Concerned 15 1801) Labridae Cheilinus chlorourus (Bloch, 1791) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Cheilinus digrammus (Lacépède, 1801) Cheeklined Least Concerned 8, 15 wrasse Labridae Cheilinus fasciatus (Bloch, 1791) Redbreast Least Concerned 8, 15 wrasse Labridae Cheilinus oxycephalus (Bleeker 1853) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Cheilinus trilobatus (Lacépède, 1801) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Cheilinus undulatus (Rüppell, 1835) Napoleon Endangered 8, 15 wrasse Labridae Choerodon anchorago (Bloch, 1791) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Cirrhilabrus punctatus (Randall and Kuiter, 1989) Dotted wrasse Least Concerned 15

Labridae Coris batuensis (Bleeker, 1856–57) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Coris gaimard (Quoy and Baimard, 1824) Yellowtail coris Least Concerned 8, 15

Labridae Epibulus insidiator (Pallas, 1770) Slingjaw wrasse Least Concerned 8, 15

Labridae Gomphosus varius (Lacépède, 1801) Bird wrasse Least Concerned 8, 15

Labridae Halichoeres argus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Halichoeres biocellatus (Schutlz, 1960) Red-lined Least Concerned 8, 15 wrasse Labridae Halichoeres chloropterus (Bloch, 1791) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Halichoeres hortulanus (Lacépède, 1801) Checkerboard Least Concerned 15 wrasse Labridae Halichoeres leucurus (Walbaum, 1792) Greyhead Least Concerned 15 wrasse

62

Labridae Halichoeres melanurus (Bleeker, 1851) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Halichoeres prosopeion (Bleeker, 1853) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Halichoeres richmondi (Fowler and Bean, 1928) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Halichoeres trimaculatus (Quoy and Gaimard, Threespot Least Concerned 15 1834) wrasse Labridae Hemigymnus fasciatus (Bloch, 1792) Barred thicklip Least Concerned 15 wrasse Labridae Hemigymnus melapterus (Bloch, 1791) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Hologymmnosus annulatus (Lacépède, 1801) Ring wrasse Least Concerned 15

Labridae Labrichthys unilineatus (Guichenot, 1847) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Labroides dimidiatus (Valenciennes, 1839) Blue streak Least Concerned 15 cleaner wrasse Labridae Labropsis micronesica (Randall, 1981) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Macropharyngodon meleagris (Valenciennes, Leopard wrasse Least Concerned 15 1839) Labridae Novaculichthys taeniourus (Lacépède, 1801) Rockmover Least Concerned 15 wrasse Labridae Oxycheilinus bimaculatus (Valenciennes 1840) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Oxycheilinus digramma (Lacépède, 1801) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Pseudocheilinus evanidus (Jordan and Evermann, Least Concerned 15 1903) Labridae Pseudocheilinus octotaenia (Jenkins, 1901) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Pseudocheilinus sp. 15

Labridae Stethojulis bandanensis (Bleeker, 1851) Least Concerned 15

Labridae Thalassoma hardwicke (Bennett, 1830) Six bar wrasse Least Concerned 15

Labridae Thalassoma lunare (Linnaeus, 1758) Moon wrasse Least Concerned 15

Labridae Thalassoma lutescens (Lay and Bennett, 1839) Sunset wrasse Least Concerned 15

Labridae Wetmorella nigropinnata (Seale, 1901) Least Concerned 15

Lethrinidae Lethrinus erythracanthus (Valenciennes, 1830) Longfin Least Concerned 15 emperor Lethrinidae Lethrinus harak (Forsskål, 1775) Least Concerned 15

Lethrinidae Lethrinus variegatus (Valeciennes, 1830) Least Concerned 15

Lethrinidae Monotaxis grandoculis (Forsskål, 1775) Humpnose Least Concerned 15 bigeye bream Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskål, 1775) Mangrove jack Least Concerned 15

Lutjanidae Lutjanus biguttatus (Valenciennes, 1830) Two-spot Least Concerned 15 banded snapper Lutjanidae Lutjanus gibbus (Forsskål, 1775) Least Concerned 15

Lutjanidae Lutjanus semicinctus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) Least Concerned 15

Lutjanidae Macolor macularis (Fowler, 1931) Midnight Least Concerned 15 snapper

63

Lutjanidae Symphorichthys spilurus (Günther, 1874) Sailfin snapper Least Concerned 15

Megalopidae Anguilliformes Megalops cyprinoides Data Deficient 15 (Broussonet, 1782) Mobulidae Manta birostris (Walbaum, 1792) Manta Ray Vulnerable 15

Monacanthidae Aluterus scriptus (Osbeck 1765) Srawled filefish Least Concerned 15

Monacanthidae Cantherhines dumerilii (Hollard 1854) Least Concerned 15

Monacanthidae Cantherhines pardalis (Rüppell 1837) Least Concerned 15

Monacanthidae Monacanthus chinensis (Osbeck, 1765) Least Concerned 15

Monacanthidae Oxymonacanthus longirostris (Bloch & Schneider, Harlequin Vulnerable 15 1801) filefish Monacanthidae Pervagor cf. melanocephalus (Bleeker, 1853) Least Concerned 15

Monacanthidae Pervagor janthinosoma (Bleeker, 1854) Least Concerned 15

Monacanthidae Rudarius minutus (Tyler, 1970) Least Concerned 15

Mugilidae Moolgarda seheli (Forsskål, 1775) Not evaluated 15

Mullidae Parupeneus barberinoides (Bleeker, 1852) Least Concerned 15

Mullidae Parupeneus crassilabris (Valenciennes, 1831) Least Concerned 15

Mullidae Parupeneus indicus (Shaw, 1803) Least Concerned 15

Mullidae Parupeneus multifasciatus (Quoy and Gaimard, Manybar Least Concerned 15 1852) goatfish Mullidae Upeneus tragula (Richardson, 1846) Freckled Least Concerned 15 goatfish Muraenidae Echidna nebulosa (Ahl, 1789) Snowflake Not evaluated 15 moray Muraenidae Gymnothorax cf. chilospilus (Bleeker, 1864) Least Concerned 15

Muraenidae Gymnothorax elegans (Bliss, 1883) Not evaluated 15

Muraenidae Gymnothorax favagineus (Bloch & Schneider, Blackspotted Not evaluated 15 1801) Moray Muraenidae Gymnothorax fimbriatus (Bennett, 1832) Not evaluated 15

Muraenidae Gymnothorax flavimarginatus (Rüppell, 1830) Yellow edged Not evaluated 15 Moray Muraenidae Gymnothorax herrei (Beebe & Tee-Van, 1933) Not evaluated 15

Muraenidae Gymnothorax javanicus (Bleeker, 1859) Giant Moray Eel Not evaluated 15

Muraenidae Gymnothorax richardsoni (Bleeker, 1852) Not evaluated 15

Muraenidae Gymnothorax thyrsoidea (Richardson, 1845) Not evaluated 15

Muraenidae Gymnothorax undulatus (Lacépède, 1803) Not evaluated 15

Muraenidae Gymnothorax zonipectis (Seale, 1906) Not evaluated 15

Muraenidae Moringua sp. 15

Muraenidae Pseudoechidna brummeri (Bleeker, 1859) Not evaluated 15

64

Muraenidae Rhinomuraena quaesita (Garman, 1888) Ribbon Moray Least Concerned 15

Myliobatidae Aetobatis narinari (Euphrasen 1790) Near Threatened 15

Nemipteridae Pentapodus trivittatus (Bloch, 1791) Three-striped Least Concerned 15 whiptail Nemipteridae Scolopsis bilineata (Bloch 1793) Two-lined Least Concerned 15 monocle bream Nemipteridae Scolopsis ciliatus (Lacépède, 1802) Whitestreak Least Concerned 15 monocle bream Nemipteridae Scolopsis lineata (Quoy & Gaimard 1824) Least Concerned 15

Nemipteridae Scolopsis margaritifera (Cuvier 1830) Pearly monocle Least Concerned 15 bream Nemipteridae Scolopsis monogramma (Cuvier, 1830) Monocle bream Least Concerned 15

Ophichthidae Callechelys marmorata (Bleeker, 1853) Marbled Snake Not evaluated 15 Eel Ophichthidae Kaupichthys sp. 15

Ophichthidae Ophichthus bonaparti (Kaup, 1856) Napolean Snake Not evaluated 15 Eel Orectolobidae Eucrossorhinus dasypogon (Bleeker 1867) Tasselled Least Concerned 15 Wobbegong Ostraciidae Lactoria cornuta (Linnaeus, 1758) Longhorned Not evaluated 15 cowfish Ostraciidae Ostracion cf. cubicus (Linnaeus, 1758) Not evaluated 15

Ostraciidae Ostracion meleagris (Shaw, 1796) white-spotted Not evaluated 15 boxfish Ostraciidae Ostracion solorensis (Bleeker, 1853) Reticulate Not evaluated 15 boxfish Pegasidae Eurypegasus draconis (Linnaeus 1766) Short Least Concerned 15 dragonfish Pempheridae Parapriacanthus ransonneti (Steindachner, 1870) Yellow sweeper Not evaluated 15

Pinguipedidae Parapercis clathrata (Ogilby, 1910) Latticed Not evaluated 15 grubfish Pinguipedidae Parapercis hexophtalma (Cuvier 1829) Not evaluated 15

Pinguipedidae Parapercis lineopunctata (Randall, 2003) Nose stripe Not evaluated 15 grubfish Pinguipedidae Parapercis millepunctata (Günther, 1860) Blackdotted Not evaluated 15 grubfish Pinguipedidae Parapercis xanthozona (Bleeker, 1849) Java grubfish Least Concerned 15

Platycephalidae Cymbacephalus beauforti (Knapp 1973) Crocodile Fish Least Concerned 15

Plesiopidae Calloplesiops altivelis (Steindachner 1903) Comet Not evaluated 15

Plesiopidae Plesiops caeruleolineatus (Rüppell, 1835) Not evaluated 15

Plotosidae Plotosus lineatus (Thunberg, 1787) Striped Catfish Not evaluated 15

Pomacanthidae Apolemichthys trimaculatus (Cuvier 1831) Three spot Least Concerned 15 angelfish Pomacanthidae Centropyge bicolor (Cuvier 1831) Bicolor Least Concerned 15 angelfish Pomacanthidae Centropyge bispinosa (Günther 1860) Twospined Least Concerned 15 angelfish Pomacanthidae Centropyge vrolikii (Bleeker 1853) Least Concerned 15

65

Pomacanthidae Genicanthus melanospilos (Bleeker 1857) Blackspot Least Concerned 15 angelfish Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus imperator (Bloch 1787) Emperor Least Concerned 15 angelfish Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus sexstriatus (Cuvier 1831) Sixbar angelfish Least Concerned 15

Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus xanthometopon (Bleeker 1853) Yellowface Least Concerned 15 angelfish Pomacanthidae Pygoplites diacanthus (Boddaert 1772) Royal angelfish Least Concerned 15

Pomacentridae Abudefduf lorenzi (Hensley & Allen 1977) Least Concerned 15

Pomacentridae Abudefduf sexfasciatus (Lacépède 1801) Least Concerned 15

Pomacentridae Abudefduf vaigiensis (Quoy & Gaimard 1825) Least Concerned 15

Pomacentridae Amblyglyphidodon aureus (Cuvier 1830) Golden Least Concerned 8, 15 damselfish Pomacentridae Amblyglyphidodon curacao (Bloch 1787) Staghorn Least Concerned 8, 15 damselfish Pomacentridae Amblyglyphidodon leucogaster (Bleeker 1847) Yellowbelly Least Concerned 8, 15 damselfish Pomacentridae Amphiprion clarkii (Bennett 1830) Clark's Not evaluated 8, 15 anemonefish Pomacentridae Amphiprion melanopus (Bleeker 1852) Fire Least Concerned 8, 15 anemonefish Pomacentridae Amphiprion percula (Lacépède 1802) Clown Least Concerned 8, 15 anemonefish Pomacentridae Amphiprion perideraion (Bleeker 1855) Pink Least Concerned 8, 15 anemonefish Pomacentridae Amphiprion polymnus (Linnaeus 1758) Saddleback Least Concerned 8, 15 anemonefish Pomacentridae Chromis amboinensis (Bleeker 1871) Ambon chromis Not evaluated 8, 15

Pomacentridae Chromis atripectoralis (Welander & Schultz Not evaluated 15 1951) Pomacentridae Chromis atripes (Fowler & Bean 1928) Darkfin chromis Least Concerned 8, 15

Pomacentridae Chromis margaritifer (Fowler 1946) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Chromis retrofasciata (Weber 1913) Blackbar Not evaluated 8, 15 chromis Pomacentridae Chromis ternatensis (Bleeker 1856) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Chromis viridis (Cuvier 1830) Blue green Not evaluated 8, 15 damselfish Pomacentridae Chromis weberi (Fowler & Bean 1928) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Chrysiptera rollandi (Whitley 1961) Rolland's Not evaluated 8, 15 demoiselle Pomacentridae Chrysiptera talboti (Allen 1975) Talbot's Not evaluated 8, 15 demoiselle Pomacentridae Dascyllus aruanus (Linnaeus 1758) Humbug Not evaluated 8, 15 dascyllus Pomacentridae Dascyllus melanurus (Bleeker 1854) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Dascyllus reticulatus (Richardson 1846) Not evaluated 8, 15

Pomacentridae Dascyllus trimaculatus (Rüppell 1829) Not evaluated 8, 15

Pomacentridae Dischistodus chrysopoecilus (Schlegel & Müller Not evaluated 15 1839)

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Pomacentridae Dischistodus prosopotaenia (Bleeker 1852) Honey-head Not evaluated 8, 15 damsel Pomacentridae Neoglyphidodon melas (Cuvier 1830) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Neoglyphidodon nigroris (Cuvier 1830) Black and gold Not evaluated 8, 15 chromis Pomacentridae Neoglyphidodon oxyodon (Bleeker 1858) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus azysron (Bleeker 1877) Yellowtail Not evaluated 8, 15 demoiselle Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus taeniurus (Bleeker 1856) Data Deficient 15

Pomacentridae Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus (Quoy & Gaimard Jewel damsel Not evaluated 8, 15 1825) Pomacentridae Pomacentrus amboinensis (Bleeker 1868) Ambon damsel Not evaluated 8, 15

Pomacentridae Pomacentrus armillatus (Allen 1993) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Pomacentrus bankanensis (Bleeker 1854) Speckled Not evaluated 8, 15 damselfish Pomacentridae Pomacentrus cf. amboinensis (Bleeker, 1868) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Pomacentrus cf. wardi (Whitley 1927) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Pomacentrus colini (Allen 1991) Colin's Not evaluated 8, 15 damselfish Pomacentridae Pomacentrus grammorhynchus (Fowler 1918) Bluespot Not evaluated 8, 15 damsel Pomacentridae Pomacentrus moluccensis (Bleeker 1853) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Pomacentrus nagasakiensis (Tanaka 1917) Nagasaki Not evaluated 8, 15 damsel Pomacentridae Pomacentrus nigromanus (Weber 1913) Goldback Not evaluated 8, 15 damsel Pomacentridae Pomacentrus pavo (Bloch 1787) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Pomacentrus reidi (Fowler & Bean 1928) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Premnas biaculeatus (Bloch 1790) Spinecheek Not evaluated 15 anemonefish Pomacentridae Stegastes albifasciatus (Schlegel & Müller 1839) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Stegastes fasciolatus (Ogilby 1889) Not evaluated 15

Pomacentridae Stegastes nigricans (Lacépède 1802) Dusky gregory Not evaluated 15

Priacanthidae Priacanthus hamrur (Forsskål 1775) Crescent tail Least Concerned 15 bigeye Pseudogrammidae Pseudogramma polyacantha (Bleeker 1856) Least Concerned 15

Pseudogrammidae Suttonia lineata (Gosline 1960) Least Concerned 15

Psuedochromidae Pictichromis aurifrons (Lubbock 1980) Yellow-headed Not evaluated 15 dottyback Psuedochromidae Pseudochromis fuscus (Müller & Troschel 1849) Least Concerned 15

Psuedochromidae Pseudochromis marshallensis (Schultz 1953) Least Concerned 15

Psuedochromidae Pseudochromis sp. 15

Pterelotridae Nemateleotris decora (Randall & Allen 1973) Purple fire goby Least Concerned 15

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Pterelotridae Nemateleotris magnifica (Fowler 1938) Fire goby Least Concerned 15

Pterelotridae Ptereleotris evides (Jordan & Hubbs 1925) Arrow goby Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Calotomus carolinus (Valenciennes 1840) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Calotomus spinidens (Quoy & Gaimard 1824) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Cetoscarus bicolor (Rüppell 1829) Bicolor Least Concerned 15 parrotfish Scaridae Chlorurus bleekeri (de Beaufort 1940) Bleeker's Least Concerned 15 parrotfish Scaridae Chlorurus microrhinos (Bleeker 1854) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Chlorurus sordidus (Forsskål 1775) Bullethead Least Concerned 15 parrotfish Scaridae Hipposcarus longiceps (Valenciennes 1840) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Leptoscarus vaigiensis (Quoy & Gaimard 1824) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Scarus chameleon (Choat & Randall 1986) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Scarus flavipectoralis (Schultz 1958) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Scarus frenatus (Lacépède 1802) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Scarus ghobban (Forsskål 1775) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Scarus niger (Forsskål 1775) Swarthy Least Concerned 15 parrotfish Scaridae Scarus quoyi (Valenciennes 1840) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Scarus rivulatus (Valenciennes 1840) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Scarus schlegeli (Bleeker 1861) Least Concerned 15

Scaridae Scarus spinus (Kner 1868) Least Concerned 15

Sciaenidae Sciaenops sp. 15

Scombridae Euthynnus affinis (Cantor 1849) Least Concerned 15

Scombridae Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus 1758) Least Concerned 15

Scombridae Rastrelliger kanagurta (Cuvier 1816) Data Deficient 15

Scombridae Scomberoides lysan (Forsskål 1775) Least Concerned 15

Scombridae Scomberoides tol (Cuvier 1832) Least Concerned 15

Scorpaenidae Ablabys taenianotus (Cuvier 1829) Not evaluated 15

Scorpaenidae Dendrochirus brachypterus (Cuvier 1829) Shortfin Least Concerned 15 Lionfish Scorpaenidae Dendrochirus zebra (Cuvier 1829) Zebra lionfish Least Concerned 15

Scorpaenidae Pterois antennata (Bloch 1787) Spotfin lionfish Least Concerned 15

Scorpaenidae Pterois volitans (Linnaeus 1758) Common Least Concerned 15 Lionfish Scorpaenidae Rhinopias aphanes (Eschmeyer 1973) Lacy Least Concerned 15 Scorpionfish

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Scorpaenidae Scorpaenodes albaiensis (Evermann & Seale Least Concerned 15 1907) Scorpaenidae Scorpaenodes guamensis (Quoy and Gaimard Least Concerned 15 1824) Scorpaenidae Scorpaenodes hirsutus (Smith 1957) Least Concerned 15

Scorpaenidae Scorpaenodes parvipinnis (Garrett 1864) Least Concerned 15

Scorpaenidae Scorpaenodes sp. 1 15

Scorpaenidae Scorpaenodes sp. 2 15

Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis diabolus (Cuvier 1829) Devil Least Concerned 8, 15 scorpionfish Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis macrochir (Ogilby 1910) Flasher Least Concerned 8, 15 scorpionfish Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis oxycephala (Bleeker 1849) Tasselled Least Concerned 8, 15 scorpionfish Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis possi (Randall & Eschmeyer 2001) Poss's Least Concerned 8, 15 scorpionfish Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis venosa (Cuvier 1829) Raggy Least Concerned 8, 15 scorpionfish Scorpaenidae Sebastapistes sp. 15

Scorpaenidae Sunagocia sp. Fringe lip 15 flathead Scorpaenidae Taenianotus triacanthus (Lacépède 1802) Leaf Least Concerned 15 Scorpionfish Serranidae Anyperodon leucogrammicus (Valenciennes White-lined Least Concerned 15 1828) rockcod Serranidae Cephalopholis argus (Schneider 1801) Least Concerned 8, 15

Serranidae Cephalopholis boenak (Bloch 1790) Least Concerned 15

Serranidae Cephalopholis leopardus (Lacépède 1801) Least Concerned 15

Serranidae Cephalopholis miniata (Forsskål 1775) Coral rockcod Least Concerned 8, 15

Serranidae Cephalopholis urodeta (Forster 1801) Flagtail rockcod Least Concerned 8, 15

Serranidae Cromileptes altivelis (Valenciennes 1828) Barramundi cod Vulnerable 15

Serranidae Diploprion bifasciatum (Cuvier 1828) Barred soapfish Least Concerned 15

Serranidae Epinephelus fasciatus (Forsskål 1775) Black-tip Least Concerned 8, 15 rockcod Serranidae Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskål 1775) Flowery cod Near Threatened 8, 15

Serranidae Epinephelus maculatus (Bloch 1790) Marbeled Least Concerned 8, 15 rockcod Serranidae Epinephelus merra (Bloch 1793) Honeycomb cod Least Concerned 8, 15

Serranidae Epinephelus polyphekadion (Bleeker 1849) Camouflage cod Near Threatened 8, 15

Serranidae Grammistes sexlineatus (Thunberg 1792) Lined soapfish Least Concerned 15

Serranidae Plectropomus laevis (Lacépède 1801) Blacksaddle Vulnerable 15 coral trout Serranidae Plectropomus leopardus (Lacépède 1802) Near Threatened 15

Serranidae Pseudanthias fasciatus (Kamohara 1954) One-stripe Not evaluated 8, 15 anthias

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Serranidae Pseudanthias hypselosoma (Bleeker 1878) Stocky anthias Least Concerned 8, 15

Serranidae Pseudanthias luzonensis (Katayama & Masuda Least Concerned 8, 15 1983) Serranidae Pseudanthias pleurotaenia (Bleeker 1857) Square-spot Least Concerned 8, 15 anthias Serranidae Pseudanthias squamipinnis (Peters 1855) Scalefin anthias Least Concerned 8, 15

Serranidae Pseudanthias tuka (Herre & Montalban 1927) Purple anthias Least Concerned 8, 15

Siganidae Siganus argenteus (Quoy & Gaimard 1825) Least Concerned 15

Siganidae Siganus javus (Linnaeus 1766) Java rabbitfish Least Concerned 15

Siganidae Siganus puellus (Schlegel 1852) Least Concerned 15

Siganidae Siganus spinus (Linnaeus 1758) Least Concerned 15

Siganidae Siganus vulpinus (Schlegel & Müller 1845) Least Concerned 15

Soleidae Pardachirus pavoninus (Lacépède 1802) Least Concerned 15

Soleidae Pardachirus sp. 15

Solenostomidae Solenostomus cyanopterus (Bleeker 1854) Robust ghost Least Concerned 15 pipefish Solenostomidae Solenostomus halimeda (Orr, Fritzsche & Randall Halimeda ghost Data Deficient 15 2002) pipefish Solenostomidae Solenostomus paegnius (Jordan & Thompson Rough snout Not evaluated 15 1914) ghost pipefish Solenostomidae Solenostomus paradoxus (Pallas 1770) Ornate ghost Least Concerned 15 pipefish Sphyraenidae Sphyraena flavicauda (Rüppell 1838) Yellowtail Not evaluated 15 barracuda Sphyraenidae Sphyraena qenie (Klunzinger 1870) Blackfin Not evaluated 15 barracuda Stegostomatidae Stegostoma fasciatum (Hermann 1783) Leopard Shark Endangered 15

Synanceia Synanceia verrucosa (Bloch & Schneider 1801) Not evaluated 15

Syngnathidae Corythoichthys amplexus (Dawson & Randall Brown-banded Least Concerned 15 1975) pipefish Syngnathidae Corythoichthys haematopterus (Bleeker 1851) Messmate Least Concerned 15 pipefish Syngnathidae Corythoichthys intestinalis (Ramsay 1881) Scribbled Least Concerned 15 pipefish Syngnathidae Corythoichthys ocellatus (Herald 1953) Ocellated Least Concerned 15 pipefish Syngnathidae Corythoichthys polynotatus (Dawson 1977) Many spotted Least Concerned 15 pipefish Syngnathidae Corythoichthys schultzi (Herald 1953) Schultz's Least Concerned 15 pipefish Syngnathidae Doryrhamphus dactyliophorus (Bleeker 1853) Ringed pipefish Data Deficient 15

Syngnathidae Hippocampus sp. Seahorse 8

Syngnathidae Syngnathoides biaculeatus (Bloch 1785) Alligator Least Concerned 15 pipehorse Syngnathidae Trachyrhamphus bicoarctatus (Bleeker 1857) Bend stick Least Concerned 15 pipefish Synodontidae Saurida gracilis (Quoy & Gaimard 1824) Gracile Least Concerned 15 Lizardfish

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Synodontidae Synodus dermatogenys (Fowler 1912) Least Concerned 15

Synodontidae Synodus rubromarmoratus (Russell & Cressey Redmarbled Least Concerned 15 1979) lizardfish Synodontidae Synodus variegatus (Lacépède 1803) Variegated Least Concerned 15 lizardfish Tetradontidae Arothron caeruleopunctatus (Matsuura 1994) Least Concerned 15

Tetradontidae Arothron hispidus (Linnaeus 1758) White spotted Least Concerned 15 pufferfish Tetradontidae Arothron manilensis (Marion de Procé 1822) Norrow-lined Least Concerned 15 pufferfish Tetradontidae Arothron mappa (Lesson 1831) Map pufferfish Least Concerned 15

Tetradontidae Arothron nigropunctatus (Bloch & Schneider Blaack-spotted Least Concerned 15 1801) pufferfish Tetradontidae Arothron stellatus (Anonymous 1798) Starry pufferfish Least Concerned 15

Tetradontidae Canthigaster compressa (Marion de Procé 1822) Compressed Least Concerned 15 Toby Tetradontidae Canthigaster janthinoptera (Bleeker 1855) Honeycomb Least Concerned 15 toby Tetradontidae Canthigaster papua (Bleeker 1848) Papuan toby Least Concerned 15

Tetradontidae Canthigaster valentini (Bleeker 1853) Valentini's Least Concerned 15 sharpnose toby Tetradontidae Tetradontidae sp. 15

Trichonotidae Trichonotus setiger (Bloch & Schneider 1801) Spotted sand Least Concerned 15 diver Tripterygiidae Enneapterygius sp. 15

Tripterygiidae Helcogramma sp. 1 15

Tripterygiidae Helcogramma sp. 2 15

Tripterygiidae Helcogramma striatum (Hansen 1986) Striped triplefin Least Concerned 15

Xenisthmidae Xenisthmus cf. polyzonatus (Klunzinger 1871) Least Concerned 15

Zanclidae Zanclus cornutus (Linnaeus 1758) Moorish idol Least Concerned 15

CHAPTER 3. FLORA SURVEY

Introduction

The floral compositions along the margin of the seashores play very significant roles in protecting the marine diversity. It is now known that the coral reef, seagrass meadow and the mangrove-beach forests play complimentary roles in protecting the marine and coastal ecosystems. The mangrove forest protect the marine ecosystems from land based pollution while coral reefs and seagrass meadows protect the coastline communities from catastrophic events such as tsunami and king tides.

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This section reports the floral surveys conducted on the mangrove forests at Bogoro Inlet and on Motupore Island.

Objectives The objective of the survey is two-fold;

i. to determine the species composition of the mangrove forest ii. to determine the distribution patterns of plant species.

Material and Methods

Two sites were pre-selected; the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island (Figure 1). In both sites, 6 sampling stations were randomly selected from satellite images; 2 at Bogoro Inlet and 4 at Motupore Island (Figure 4). In each station a straight line of travel was established, traversing perpendicular to the coastline with the starting point (0m) at the mangrove–seaward edge or the intertidal zone. The mangrove-sea interphase forms the reference point for marine and terrestrial biodiversity surveys (see Figure 5). Along the line of travel, transects of dimension 2 x 40m, were established at every 50m interval towards the back of the mangrove forest (eg. 0, 50, 100, 150m etc.). In each transect all plants were identified, enumerated and categorized into the following lifeform categories;

➢ Seedling – plants less than 1m tall. ➢ Sapling – plants greater than 1m tall but less than 5m, diameter generally less than 5cm. ➢ Shrub – plant branching at almost ground level, very bushy reaching heights of 3m to 5m. ➢ Climber – Creeping or crawling or climbing plant. ➢ Treelet or tree. – plant general with sympodial branching and greater than 5 m tall.

Stem diameters of shrub, treelets and trees were measured using calibrated diameter tape while saplings and seedlings were all categorized under the ≤5cm diameter dbh.

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Figure 4. Location of sampling stations at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Stations 1 and 2 at Bogoro Inlet and stations 3, 4, 5 and 6 on Motupore Island.

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of flora survey at each station. Sampling transects (TR) indicated by shaded orange rectangular.

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Results

Floral diversity

A total of 443 individuals, representing 54 species were recorded in both sites. Within Bogoro Inlet, only 9 species were recorded while 49 species were recorded on Motupore Island. Of the 54 species, 16 were mangrove species. A summary of the sites and stations is presented in Table 15 below. A list of the species recorded is attached as appendix to this section.

The species enumerated in all transects effectively represent only 20% of the total foral diversity. This is an artifact of sampling intensity. Our samplings were concentrated more at the mangrove edges. Nonetheless, opportunistic survey of the flora Plate 1. Scaevola taccada was recorded in the 1970s but was not present in the 1990s. Reappeared againg on confirms the 300+ species recorded in the area. On Motupore Island Motupore Island, two additional species, Scaevola taccada, and Intsia bijuga, were included to the list.

Table 15. Summary of the two sites and their stations (see text in material and methods above).

Characteristics Site 1- Bogoro Inlet Site 2 – Motupore Island

Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 Station 6 Forest type Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove/ Mangrove Mangrove Strand Strand No. of transects 10 3 3 1 1 1 Total area sampled (m2) 800 120 120 40 40 40 No. Species recorded (no. 6(103) 7 (123) 25 (67) 9 (51) 25 (66) 5 (31) stems) Mean Diameter (cm) 7.48 ± 0.72 3.70 ± 0.47 6.56± 0.83 7.60± 0.70 4.83 ± 0.69 6.63 ± 1.23 Common species C. tagal, R. stylosa, R. apiculata R. stylosa R. stylosa Mix species R. apiculata Bruguera R. stylosa R. stylosa gymnorrhyza

Lifeforms

A diversity of lifeforms was recorded on Motupore Island due to some transects traversing through different habitats. At Bogoro Inlet only trees and their seedlings or saplings were recorded. No other plant

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lifeforms were recorded. Note the abundance of seedlings/saplings at the Bogoro Inlet (Stations 1 and 2 of Site 1) signifying wanton clearance of mangroves taking place.

Figure 6. Lifeform cover of Site 1(Bogoro Inlet) and Site 2 (Motupore Island).

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Vegetation structure

The structure of the vegetation, particularly the mangrove follows a typical J-shape curve typical of natural forest. Under close canopy, mangrove forests tended to have less sapplings, let alone seedling establishment. Overal analysis of the diameter indicates a higher seedling and sapling counts at Bogoro Inlet (45%) indicating a highly disturbed vegetation.

Figure 7. Diameter class distributions for Bogoro Inlet (Site 1) and Motupore Island (Site 2). Diameter class: 1 = <5cm; 2 = 5-10cm; 3 = 10.1-15cm; 4 = 15.1-20cm and 5 = >20cm.

Discussion An estimated 300 plant species have been recorded within the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island [2, 3, 4]. On Motupore alone, a total of 231 plant species have been recorded, described and published in the book “The Flora of Motupore Island” by Hopkins and Menzies [4]. Appendix 3-1 list the species recorded so far in the area.

According to the Papua New Guinea Conservation Needs Assessment published in 1993 [9], the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island area lies within the ‘Central Province Dry Zone’, an area of important terrestrial biodiversity comprising savanna and monsoon forest complex with wetlands. Thus the floral diversity of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island is typical of the coastal lowlands of Port Moresby.

Heyligers in 1972 reported 292 correctly identified plant species in the coastal lowland of Port Moresby [8]. This Figure has not changed thus placing Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island as very speciose, representing almost all the floral elements occurring in the Port Moresby area. Moreover, all the endemic species recorded in the coastal lowland of Port Moresby are all present on Motupore Island. These include Cycas campestris, Bridelia oligantha, Albizia carri, Canthium suborbiculare, and Jossinia desmantha. Given the looming pressure on plant resources and land areas for settlement within NCD (eg. expanding settlement at Gereka), Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island become ideal refugia and heritage area for NCD and Central Province.

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For the mangroves, Maniwavie [5] recorded 31 species within the entire Bootless Bay. There were 17 species of mangroves, previously recorded in Bogoro and Motupore Island; 11 confirmed on Motupore and 6 additional species at Bogoro Inlet (Table 2). Bruguiera cylindrica and Avicennia officinalis were recorded in this survey. All mangrove species are listed under the IUCN Redlist as “least concern”. However, the mangrove ecosystem itself is under threat as advocated throughout the world [6] and as such all organisms present should be included as vulnerable to anthropogenic interference.

Table 16. Mangrove species occurring with Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island Family Scientific name Common name IUCN Redlist

Combretaceae Lumnitzera racemosa White-flowered Black Mangrove Least Concern Cannonball Mangrove Least Concern Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum River Mangrove Least Concern Myrsinaceae Aegiceras corniculatum Myrtle Mangrove Least Concern Myrtaceae Osbornia octodonta Club Mangrove Least Concern Plumbaginaceae Aegialitis annulata** Large-leaf Orange Mangrove Least Concern Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Orange Mangrove Least Concern Bruguiera cylindrica* Rib-fruited Yellow Mangrove Least Concern Ceripos taga var. tagal Corky Stilt Mangrove Least Concern Rhizophora apiculata Southern Hybrid Stilt Mangrove Least Concern Rhizophora lamarckii Upstream Stilt Mangrove Least Concern Rhizophora mucronata Upriver Orange Mangrove Least Concern Bruguiera sexangula Long-styled Stilt Mangrove Least Concern Rhizophora stylosa White-flowered Apple Mangrove Least Concern Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia alba Looking-glass Mangrove Least Concern Sterculiaceae Heritiera littoralis Grey/White Mangrove Least Concern Verbenaceae Avicennia marina Grey/White Mangrove Least Concern Avicennia eucalyptifolia Grey mangrove Least Concern Avicennia officinalis* *Recorded this survey **Becoming rare locally

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Plate 2. The mangrove Aegialites annulata becoming rare in Bootless Bay. Occuring on Motupore Island. Photo by Pius Piskaut, 2018.

Conclusion The floral diversity of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island represent the dry coastal lowlands of the Port Moresby area. Most of the native, naturalized and endemic plant species occur in the area, particularly on Motupore Island. Motupore Island is a research sanctuary and the whole island is under protection.

Distruction of mangrove forests appeared uncontrolled at Bogoro Inlet as indicated by the seedling abundance. The Inlet mangrove forest is important to fisheries and the entire marine ecosystem thus requires some management to regulate the clearance of trees.

Nevertheless, Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are very speciose thus are ideal for conservation as refugia of significant heritage to NCD and Central Provinve.

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References 1. SAS. 2012. JMP Statistical Package. California, USA. 2. Frodin D G. 1983. The vegetation okf Motupore Island. 1. MIRD workshop. 3. Frodin & Johnstone unpubl. manucript 4. Hopkins F, H and I. Menzies, 1995. Flora of Motupore Island. UPNG Press. University of Papua New Guinea Press, NCD, Papua New Guinea. 5. Maniwavie T. 2009. Pictorial guide to mangrove of Papua New Guinea. Unpublished manuscript. University of Papua New Guinea 6. Piskaut P and R. Samuel, 2007. Mangroves of the Madang Lagoon. Technical Report. WWF, Papua New Guinea. 7. Frodin D. & Leach G. 1982. The mangrove of the Port Moresby Region. Occassional Paper No. 3, Biology Department. 8. Heyligers P C. 1972. Analysis of the Plant Geography of the Semideciduous Scrub and Forest and the Eucalypt Savannah near Port Moresby. Pacific Science 26: 229-241. 9. Swartzendruber J. F. (1993) Papua New Guinea Conservation Needs Assessment Synopsis Report. Government of Papua New Guinea Department of Conservation and Environment. Boroko, Papua New Guinea.

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Appendix 3-1. List of Plant species recorded in survey. Frequency of Frequency of Species Occurence Species Occurrence Aegialitis annulata 6 Flaggellaria indica 1 Aegiceras corniculatum 1 Garuga floribunda 1 Albizia carii 1 Grewia sp. 2 Alectryon repandodentatus 3 Gymnanthera oblonga 1 Alstonia spectabilis 1 Harrisonia brownii 1 Asclepiadaceae 1 Ichnocarpus frutescens 1 Avicennia eucalyptifolia 2 Jacquemontia paniculata 2 Avicennia officinalis 4 Jasminum didymum 6 Bombax ceiba 1 Jossinia desmantha 1 Bridelia oligantha 2 Maclura cochinchinensis 1 Bruguiera cylindrica 2 Maytenus emarginata 4 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 37 Micromelum minutum 16 Bruguiera sexangula 1 Mimusops elengii 3 Canthium suborbiculare 1 Nypa fruticans 2 Celtis philippinensis 2 Osbornia octodonta 27 Ceriops tagal 144 Premna serratifolia 1 Clerodendrum inerme 3 Psychotria bracteosa 1 Commelina ensifolia 2 Rhizophora apiculata 33 Cordia subcordata 1 Rhizophora lamarckii 1 Cupaniopsis curvidens 1 Rhizophora mucronata 21 Cycas campestris 7 Rhizophora stylosa 39 Cyperus rotundus 4 Secamone elliptica 2 Dioscorea esculenta 2 Sonneratia alba 3 Drypetes australasica 14 Themeda australis 12 Elaeocarpus arnhemicus 5 Trophis scandens 5 Exocarpus latifolius 1 Turraea virens 2 Fatoua pilosa 4 Xylocarpus granatum 1

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CHAPTER 4. TERRESTRIAl FAUNA SURVEY (BIRDS, INSECT, REPTILES)

Introduction

Avian assessment was conducted at two sites within the Bootless Bay; site 1 at Bogoro Inlet and site 2 at Motupore Island (see Figure 8 below). The sites are adjacent to each other therefore the birds forage between the sites. The survey covered the whole island with observations conducted at stations 3, 4 and 6. At Bogoro Inlet, observations were conducted is stations 1 and 2.

Figure 8. Observational sites (Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island) and stations within sites. Yellow dots indicate observation stations.

Material and Methods Two (2) methods or techniques of data collection were employed during this survey; 1. Point counts (bird species) and 2. Mist Nets for flying mammals and bird species.

Point Counts A 10 minutes point count method was deployed to record the bird species within a 50m radius. This technique involved pre-determining observation points or stations usually on a straight line, approximately 50m apart. Using the “Distance App” for android phone (Potatotree Soft), a 50m radius station was determined using natural pegs or markers such as trees, and boulders. Within the larger 50m radius, distance proxies of 10m, 20m, 30m, 40m and >50m were quickly established.

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At each station, a 10 minutes observation of birds was conducted. Birds sighted or identified from unique calls were categorized into distance proxies of 10m radius, 20m, 30m, 50m and >50m radius. This technique was used to determine the population size of bird species within a defined area (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Schematic diagram of a 10-minute Point count described in the text above.

Mist nets for birds and bats Mist nets were used for capturing flying vertebrates such as bats, flying foxes and birds. A narrow lane of approximately 20 - 30 meters was minimally cleared of vegetation and mist nets were erected on poles of 2.5 – 3.0m high. Nets were left opened all through each day of the survey for birds and left open all through the nights for bats. The nets were set up randomly in beach strand forest and at mangrove edges.The setup were checked every day in the mornings from 6:00am to 8:30am and again in the afternoons starting at 4:30pm to 7:30pm for two days.

Results A total of 52 species of birds were recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island over an eight day period. These are listed below (Table 17). On Motupore Island, a 10-minutes point counts covering 6 sites and starting at 6.30am and ending at 8.15am recorded 99 individuals, representing 33 species. Of this total, 44 individuals were recorded from calls while 54 were sighted.

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Table 17. Check list of birds recorded at Bogoro Inlet (Site 1) and on Motupore Island (Site 2). [CODE, * = Residents; ***= new record for Motupore Island (red)]. Scientific Name Common Name IUCN Status References

Geopelia humeralis* Bar-shouldered Dove Least Concern 1, 2, 3

Cracticus mentalis* Black-backed Butcherbird Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Coracina novaehollandiae* Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike Least Concern 2, 3, 4.

Dacelo leachii* Blue-winged Kookaburra Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Haliastur indus* Brahminy Kite Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Onychoprion anaethetus* Bridled Tern Least Concern 5, 2, 3.

Accipiter fasciatus* Brown Goshawk Least Concern 6, 2, 3.

Ardea ibis Cattle Egret Least Concern 5, 2, 3.

Scythrops novaehollandiae* Channel-billed Cuckoo Least Concern 4, 2, 3.

Todirhamphus chloris* (collaris) Collared Kingfisher Least Concern 1, 2, 3. Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper Least Concern 5, 2, 3.

Sterna hirundo Common Tern Least Concern 5, 2, 3.

Egretta sacra* Eastern Reef-Egret Least Concern 4, 2, 3.

Eclectus roratus*** Eclectus Parrot Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Passer montanus*** Eurasian Tree Sparrow Least Concern 5, 2, 3.

Chlamydera cerviniventris* Fawn-breasted Bowerbird Least Concern 1, 2, 3. Meliphaga gracilis* Graceful Meliphaga Least Concern 8, 2, 3.

Lonchura caniceps Grey -headed Mannikin Least Concern 7, 2, 3. Colluricincla harmonica*** Grey Shrikethrush Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Philemon buceroides* Helmeted Friarbird Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Passer domesticus*** House Sparrow Least Concern 7, 2, 3.

Fregata ariel* Lesser Frigatebird Least Concern 4, 2, 3.

Ceyx pusillus Little Kingfisher Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Colluricincla megarhyncha*** Little shrikethrush Least Concern 9, 2, 3.

Microcarbo melanoleucos Little Pied Cormorant Least Concern 4, 2, 3.

Gerygone levigaster* Mangrove Gerygone Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Pachycephala melanura* Mangrove Golden Whistler Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Meliphaga analoga Mimic Meliphaga Least Concern 7, 2, 3.

Cinnyris jugularis*** Olive-backed Sunbird Least Concern 7, 2, 3.

Megapodius reinwardt* Orange-footed Scrubfowl Least Concern 10, 3, 2. Ptilinopus aurantiifrons* Orange-fronted Fruit-Dove Least Concern 6, 2, 3.

Cuculus optatus*** Oriental Cuckoo Least Concern 6, 2, 3.

Anas superciliosa Pacific Black Duck Least Concern 4, 2,3.

Chalcophaps longirostris* Pacific Emerald Dove Least Concern 6, 2, 3.

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Hirundo tahitica* Pacific Swallow Least Concern 7, 2, 3.

Podargus papuensis Papuan Frogmouth Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Geopelia placida*** Peaceful Dove Least Concern 6, 2, 3.

Meliphaga aruensis* Puff-backed Meliphaga Least Concern 7, 2, 3.

Trichoglossus haematodus Rainbow Lorikeet Least Concern 6, 2, 3.

Conopophila albogularis* Rufous-banded Honeyeater Least Concern 1, 2, 3

Myiagra alecto* Shining Flycatcher Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Xanthotis flaviventer Tawny-breasted Honeyeater Least Concern 1, 2, 3..

Corvus orru* Torresian Crow Least Concern 7, 2, 3.

Ducula spilorrhoa*** Torresian Imperial Pigeon Least Concern 6, 2, 3

Numenius phaeopus (sum mig) Whimbrel Least Concern 5, 2, 3. Haliastur sphenurus* Whistling Kite Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Coracina papuensis* White-bellied Cuckoo-shrike Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Haliaeetus leucogaster* White-bellied Sea-eagle Least Concern 1, 2, 3 Artamus leucorhynchus* White-breasted Woodswallow Least Concern 1, 2, 3

Rhipidura leucophrys* Willie Wagtail Least Concern 1, 2, 3.

Mino dumontii ** Yellow-faced Myna Least Concern 7, 2, 3. Ptilotula flavescens** Yellow-tinted honeyeater Least Concern 1, 2, 3

Discussion Bell [13] in his 1982 bird survey of the Port Moresby area, reported on average, 55 bird species per 10ha. Piskaut and Kei [14] recorded 29 species per 3 ha at the Port Moresby International Airport during the El Nino period of 2016. On Motupore Island, 72 bird species have been recorded [12] over a long period since the late 70s. This study recorded 54 species of which 9 species are new records. Most of the birds recorded were residents. Migratory birds were absent, indicating that they moved out just before the onset of the study.

Amongst the 9 new records, the sparrows were well Plate 3. Eclectus Parrot, Eclectus roratus, a new established, inhabiting the building within the station area. resident on Motupore Island.

Overall, 81 bird species are now known to inhabit Bogoro and Motupore Island. Most are residence and common.

References 1. Christidis, L. and Boles, W.E. 2008. Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian Birds. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Australia. 2. Pratt, Thane K. & Beehler, Bruce M. 2015. Birds of New Guinea, 2nd edn, Princeton, New Jersey.

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3. Coates, Brian J., and William S. Peckover. 2001. Birds of New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago. Dove Publications, Alderley, Australia. 4. Turbott, E.G. 1990. Checklist of the Birds of New Zealand. Ornithological Society of New Zealand, Wellington. 5. Cramp, S. and Simmons, K.E.L. (eds). 1977-1994. Handbook of the birds of Europe, the Middle East and Africa. The birds of the western Palearctic. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 6. del Hoyo, J., Collar, N.J., Christie, D.A., Elliott, A. and Fishpool, L.D.C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Volume 1: Non-passerines. Lynx Edicions BirdLife International, Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge, UK. 7. del Hoyo, J., Collar, N.J., Christie, D.A., Elliott, A., Fishpool, L.D.C., Boesman, P. and Kirwan, G.M. 2016. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Volume 2: Passerines. Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge, UK. 8. Pratt, T.K. & Beehler, B.M. 2015. Birds of New Guinea, 2nd edn, Princeton, New Jersey. 9. Norman, J. A.; Rheindt, F. E.; Rowe, D. L.; Christidis, L. 2007. Speciation dynamics in the Australo- Papuan Meliphaga honeyeaters. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 42: 80-91. 10. Rozendaal, F. G., and Lambert, F. R. 1999. The taxomonic and conservation status of Pinarolestes sanghirensis Oustalet 1881. Forktail 15: 1-13. 11. Jones, D.N., Dekker, R.W.RJ. and Roselaar, C.S. 1995. The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. 12. Tarburton, M., nd. Checklist of birds of Motupore Island. Pacific Adventist University, Papua New Guinea. 13. Bell, H. L.,1982. Abundance and seasonality of the savanna avifauna at Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Ibis, 124: 252–274. Doi:10.1111/j.1474-919x.1982.tb03772.x 14. Piskaut P and Kei P. 2016. Biological assessment of the Port Moresby International Airport. Technical report submitted to National Airport Commission (NAC).

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Appendix 4-1. MacKinnon List of birds observed at Motupore Island. Site ID Around Mot. Is. Date 1-02-18 Surveyor E. Sohun Start Time 10:20 am Weather After rain, windy on west side. Comments Started at east side mangrove and went around island 3 hours Time 10:20am Time 1:30pm No Species Species 1 Papuan Frogmouth 1 Shining Flycatcher 2 Olive-backed Sunbird 2 Helmeted Friarbird 3 Willy Wagtail 3 Yellow-faced Myna 4 Orange-footed Scrubfowl 4 Eurasian Tree Sparrow 5 Helmeted Friarbird 5 Torresian Crow 6 Blue-winged Kookaburra 6 Blue-winged Kookaburra 7 Eclectus Parrot 7 Lesser Frigatebird 8 Yellow-faced Myna 8 Little Shrikethrush 9 Torresian imperial Pigeon 9 Olive-backed Sunbird 10 Orange-fronted Fruit-Dove 10 Pacific Swallow Time 11:13am Time 2:15pm No Species Species 1 Torresian Crow 1 Brahminy Kite 2 Whimbrel 2 Whistling Kite 3 Peaceful Dove 3 White-bellied Sea Eagle 4 Whistling Kite 4 Black-faced Cuckooshrike 5 Shinning flycatcher 5 Eastern Reef Egret 6 Olive-backed Sunbird 6 Bar-shouldered Dove 7 Torresian Imperial Pigeon 7 Eclectus Parrot 8 Orange-fronted Fruit-Dove 8 Common Tern 9 Graceful Meliphaga 9 Pacific Emerald Dove 10 Oriental Cuckoo 10 Bridled Tern Time 12:22 pm Time No Species Species 1 Common Sandpiper 1 2 White-breasted Woodswallow 2 3 Lesser Frigatebird 3 4 Torresian Imperial Pigeon 4 5 Graceful Meliphaga 5 6 Rufous-banded Honeyeater 6 7 Eastern Osprey 7 8 Willy Wagtail 8 9 Common Sandpiper 9 10 Olive-backed Sunbird 10

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Appendix 4-2. MacKinnon List of birds observed at Bogoro Inlet. Site ID Tahira Area Date 7 Feb 2018 Surveyor E. Sohun Start Time Weather Windy Comments Time 9:50 am Time 12:48 pm No Species Species 1 Graceful Meliphaga 1 Pacific Emerald Dove 2 Brown Goshawk 2 Helmetted Friarbird 3 White-bellied Cuckooshrike 3 White-bellied Cuckooshrike 4 Whimbrel 4 Yellow-faced Myna 5 Torresian Crow 5 Cattle Egret 6 Black-backed Butcherbird 6 Mimic Meliphaga 7 Helmetted Friarbird 7 Bar-shouldered Dove 8 Blue-winged Kookaburra 8 Shinning Flycatcher 9 Mimic Meliphaga 9 Brahminy Kite 10 Black-faced Cuckooshrike 10 Grey Shrikethrush Time 10:40am Time 1:00 pm (Finished) No Species Species 1 Little Kingfisher 1 2 Mimic Meliphaga 2 3 Helmetted Friarbird 3 4 Fawn-breasted Bowerbird 4 5 Mangrove Gerygone 5 6 Yellow-tinted Honeyeater 6 7 Shinning Flycatcher 7 8 Channel-billed Cuckoo 8 9 Olive-backed Sunbird 9 10 Grey-headed Mannikin 10 Time 11:44 No Species 1 Mimic Meliphaga 2 Rainbow Lorikeet 3 Brown Goshawk 4 Bar-shouldered Dove 5 Toressian Crow 6 Shining Flycatcher 7 Willy Wagtail 8 Mangrove Golden Whistler 9 Tawny-breasted Honeyeater 10 Pacific Swallow

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CHAPTER 5. MARINE HABITAT AND DIVERSITY

“The sea, once it casts its spell, holds one in its net of wonder forever”

-Jacques Cousteau-

Introduction

Coral reefs are regarded as oligothrophic marine ecosystems, with very low concentrations of dissolved inorganic nutrients [1]. Yet they are considered to be highly productive ecosystems. This is partly because of their efficiency to recycle nutrients. The benthic organisms that make up the coral reefs, all play pivotal roles in nutrient recycling and energy flow, making coral reefs no different from tropical rainforests. Maintaining the biodiversity is very critical to sustaining this marine ecosystem [2]. Understanding the relative contribution of the many factors influencing the distribution of biodiversity in coral reefs is one of the major goals of ecology [3].

The coral reef of Bootless Bay faces a suite of stressors resulting from increased human population along the coast. To sustain the health of the coral reef, such that it continually provides goods and services, CEPA is proposing to declare the Bootless Bay a Marine Protected Area under the PA Bill.

This section reports the biodiversity survey results on the macrohabitat cover of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island within the Bootless Bay.

Objectives The objectives of this section include:

• determine the cover types of reefs at two sites • determine the overall diversity compositions of the sites

Material and Methods Cover types were assessed from 6 stations representing the two pre-selected sites; Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island (Figure 10).

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Figure 10. The two study sites (enclosed in white oval shape) and the six sampling stations.

The method deployed is as described under the Terrestrial Biodiversity Survey, however, with slight 5% 25% modification to accommodate cover assessment. Figure 11 below shows a schematic layout of each stations and sampling plots (green dots). Figure 12 presents the actual stations and sampling points on a straight line out to the sea. 40% 55%

Cover types were assessed in 1m x 1m quadrats. Fourty (40) such quadrats were placed along the entire length (40m) of each transect. In each quadrat the percentage cover, relative to the quadrat, was scored for the following cover categories; seagrass, coral, macroalgae, 65% 80% sand, mud, rubble, and rocks. The cover categories present the microhabtats common within the two Plate 4. Examples of seagrass cover percentages sites. relative to a 1m x 1m quadrat (adopted from www.seagrasswatch.org) The rest of the organisms (sea cucumbers, sea stars, molluscs etc.) were enumerated in the 2m x 40m transect.

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All cover data were entered into excel spreadsheet [4] and average cover calculated for each station. Similarly, records of other organisms were inputted into excel spreadsheet. In excel spreadsheet all data were subjected to quality check to verify correct identification, spelling and correct site of collection.

Descriptive statistics of mean cover types and species frequency/occurrence were performed in JMP Statistical package [5].

Figure 11. Schematic layout of sampling method of reef environment. Sampling transects established at every 50m interval. Transect layout with 1m x 1m quadrat also indicated to the right.

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Figure 12. Lay out of stations 3, 4, 5, and 6 at Motupore Island. The green dots represent sampling transects that are 50m apart from each other.

Results

Cover types Seagrass cover appeared common in all stations indicating its significance as a microhabitat within the study area (Figure 13). Seagrasses grow well on sandy substrate therefore, sand is also a common microhabitat in the area. Mud is dominant at Bogoro Inlet and is a result of sedimentation from overland flow through the mangrove and into the inlet. Macroalgae, are scattered but appeared to be colonizing rubbles. Corals on the other hand, are well established at stations 5 and 6 on Motupore Island.

Other cover types are site specific and reflect the site location relative to current and wave actions and to landuse. For example, mud scored higher percentages at Bogoro Inlet than at Motupore Island, due to human activities upstream.

91 Seagrass 10%

Rocks 20%

Station 1 Station Mud 70%

Hard coral Soft Coral 1% Macroalgae 0% 14%

Mud Seagrass 11%

Station 2 Station 40% Rubble 7% 2

Sand 27%

Seagrass 28%

Station 3 Station Sand 72%

Hard Coral 3% Macroalgae 7% Seagrass 18% Soft Coral Hard Coral Rocks 1% 11% Macroalgae 12% 4% Rubble Station 4 Station 9%

1 Rubble Sand Seagrass 13% 51%

44% Station 6 Station Sand Soft Coral 27% 1% Hard Coral 21% Seagrass 5 22% Macroalgae 8%

Station 5 Station Sand 18% Rubble Rocks 26% 4%

Figure 13. Percentage cover types for for stations 1 to 6. Cover data from all transects in each station were pooled and mean percent coverage calculated.

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Marine Diversity

A total of 1681 organisms representing 212 species in 11 major groups were observed and recorded in all stations. Station 1 at Bogoro Inlet is species poor, while Motupore Island is species rich (Table 18). While station 5 on Motupore scored the highest species number, species density appeared similar around the island.

Table 18. Summary of species recorded in each station. Parameters Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 Station 6

No. Inviduals 10 83 88 197 1090 228

No. Species 1 19 53 55 136 39

Area sampled (m2) Visual 400 240 240 720 560

Species density - 0.05 0.22 0.23 0.19 0.07 Dominant cover Mud Mud Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Seagrass rocks Seagrass Seagrass Seagrass Coral Coral

In terms of species assemblages, cnidarians (corals, sea anemones, hydrozoans, zoanthids) were the dominant group attributing up to 75% of all organisms encountered. While macroalge (seaweed, green algae, red algae) were present throughout all stations, their abundance are patchy hence contributing only 18% of the total organisms observed and recorded (Figure 14). Other organisms such as the echinoderms (sea cucumbers, sea urchins), molluscs (bivalves, nudibranchs) and sponges were present in low numbers.

Worms Porifera Molluscs Foraminifera Echinoderms Crustaceans Cnidarians Ascidians Macroalgae

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Percentage Frequency

Figure 14. Percentage frequency of major groups of organisms recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island.

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Species Composition Pooled list of common organisms are tabulated below. These are organisms recorded from the transects in all stations.

Macroalgae Twenty species of macroalgae were recorded from all transects (Table 19). Halimeda, the cactus algae, and the seaweeds (Padina, Sargassum and Turbinaria) were common throughout the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island.

Table 19. Macroalgae species recorded during the rapid biodiversity survey.

Scientific name Common name IUCN Status Reference Boergesenia forbesii Green algae Not yet assessed 5 Boodlea sp. Not yet assessed 5 Chlorodesmis fastigiate Turtle weed Not yet assessed 5 Dictyota sp. Branched algae Not yet assessed 5 Gracilaria Salicornia Green algae Not yet assessed 5 Gracilaria sp. Green algae Not yet assessed 5 Halimeda cf. macroloba Cactus algae Not yet assessed 5 Halimeda sp. Cactus algae Not yet assessed 5 Halymenia sp. Not yet assessed 5 Hydroclathrus clathratus Netweed Not yet assessed 5 Neomeris anulata Not evaluated 5, 7 Padina sp. Funnelweed Not yet assessed 5 Peyssonnelia sp. Red algae Not yet assessed 5 Sargassum sp. (broad) Sargassum weed Not yet assessed 5 Sargassum sp. (linear) Sargassum weed Not yet assessed - Turbinaria decurrens Triangular sea bell Not yet assessed 5 Turbinaria sp. Triangular sea bell Not yet assessed 5 Valonia ventricosa Sailor’s eyeballs Not yet assessed 5, 6

Seagrass Seven species of seagrasses were recorded in sampling transects out of the 10 species known to occur in the area (Table 20). However, not all 7 are present in any one station. Thalassia hemprichii and Cymodocea rotundata are widely distributed from Bogoro inlet to Motupore Island. Note, all seagrass species are not included in the IUCN RedList due to their pantropical distribution.

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Table 20. List of seagrass species recorded from sampling transects. Family Scientific name Common name IUCN Reference Cymodoceaceae Halodule uninervis Needle seagrass Not evaluated 13 Cymodoceaceae Cymodocea rotundata Ribbon seagrass Not evaluated 13

Cymodoceaceae Cymodocea serrulata Not evaluated 13

Cymodoceaceae Syringodium isoetifolium Not evaluated 13

Hydrocharitaceae Halophila minor Not evaluated 13

Hydrocharitaceae Enhalus acoroides Tape seagrass Not evaluated 13

Hydrocharitaceae Thalassia hemprichii Turtle seagrass Not evaluated 13

Cnidarians Cnidarians were the most common organisms recorded during the rapid biodiversity survey. Juvenile jelly fish (Mastigias ) were particularly common during high seas. Up to 90 species were identified and 44 most dominant forms are listed below (Table 21).

Table 21. List of Cnidarians recorded from all transects at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Family Species Common Name IUCN Status Reference Acroporidae Acropora cf digitifera Not evaluated 9, 10, 5 Acroporidae Acropora elseyi Christmas coral Not evaluated 10, 11,5 Acroporidae Acropora grandis Staghorn coral Not evaluated 10 Acroporidae Acropora intermedia Staghorn coral Not evaluated 10 Acroporidae Acropora loripes Not evaluated 10 Acroporidae Acropora millepora Bushy staghorn Not evaluated 10 Acroporidae Acropora muricata Staghorn coral Not evaluated 10 Acroporidae Acropora sp. Bottlebrush coral Not evaluated 10 Acroporidae Acropora sp. Table coral Not evaluated 10 Acroporidae Acropora tennalis Purple-tip acropora Not evaluated 10 Poritidae Alveopora sp. Daisy coral Not evaluated 10 Acroporidae Astreopora sp. moon coral Not evaluated 10 Fungiidae Ctenactis echinata Not evaluated 10 Nephtheidae Dendronephthya sp. Tree coral Not evaluated 10 Nephtheidae Dendronephthya sp. Carnation coral Not evaluated 10 Faviidae Diploastrea heliopora Not evaluated 12,10 Stylasteridae Distichopora sp. Lace coral Not evaluated 10 Stylasteridae Distichopora violacea Violet hydrocoral Not evaluated 10 Faviidae Echinopora horrida Not evaluated 10 Faviidae Echinopora lamellosa Not evaluated 10 Faviidae Favia sp. Moon coral Not evaluated Fungiidae Fungia sp. Not evaluated

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Mussidae Lobophyllia hemprichii Not evaluated 10 Mastigiidae Mastigias papua Papuan sea jelly Not evaluated 8, 5 Milleporidae Millepora sp. Fire coral Not evaluated Pectiniidae Pectinia paeonia Palm lettuce coral Not evaluated 10 Pocilloporidae Pocillopora damicornis Cauliflower coral Not evaluated 10 Pocilloporidae Pocillopora sp. Not evaluated 10 Poritidae Porites cylindrica Cylinder coral Not evaluated 10 Poritidae Porites sp. Boulder coral Not evaluated 10 Alcyoniidae Sarcophyton sp. Leather coral Not evaluated 10 Mussidae Scolymia sp. Disc coral Not evaluated Pocilloporidae Seriotopora sp. Brush coral Not evaluated Alcyoniidae Sinularia flexibilis Flexible leather coral Not evaluated 10 Alcyoniidae Sinularia sp. Finger leather coral Not evaluated 10 Nephtheidae Stereonephthea sp. Not evaluated 10 Stichodactylidae Stichodactyla giganteum Gigantic sea anemone Not evaluated 10 Stichodactylidae Stichodactyla mertensii Merten's carpet anemone Not evaluated 10 Pocilloporidae Stylophora pistillata Cluster coral Not evaluated 10 Mussidae Symphyllia agaricea Brian coral Not evaluated 10 Mussidae Symphyllia cf recta Brian coral Not evaluated 10 Dendronphylliidae Turbinaria frondens Cup coral Not evaluated 10 Dendronphylliidae Turbinaria reniformis Scroll coral Not evaluated 10 Dendronphylliidae Turbinaria sp. Vase coral Not evaluated 10 Melithaeidae Unidentified sp. Plexauridae Unidentified sp. Subergorgiidae Unidentified sp. Subergorgiidae Unidentified sp. Subergorgiidae Unidentified sp. Virgularidae Unidentified sp. Sea pen Agariciidae Unidentified sp. Thelassianthidae Unidentified sp. Antipathidae Unidentified sp.

Echinoderms Species list of the echinoderms recorded (this survey) is provided in Table 8. Assemblages of echinoderms appear patchy in distribution. A total of 28 species were recorded. Most members were recorded as singleton. The lollyfish (Holothuria atra) is a frequent singleton in all stations, except in station 1.

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Table 8. Species composition of Echinoderms recorded at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Family Scientific name Common Name IUCN list Reference Ophidiasteridae Linckia laevigata Blue sea star Not evaluated 13 Oreasteridae Choriaster granulatus Pillow sea star Not evaluated 13 Oreasteridae Culcita novaeguinea Pin-cushion sea star Not evaluated 13 Oreasteridae Protoreaster nodosus Nodose sea star Not evaluated 13 Ophiothrichidae Ophiothrix purpurea Purple brittle star Not evaluated 13 Ophiothrichidae Ophiothrix sp. 1 Ophiothrichidae Ophiothrix sp. 2 Colobometridae Cenometra bella Pretty feather star Not evaluated 13 Comasteridae Comanthus alternans Comasteridae Comanthus suavia Comasteridae Oxycomanthus bennetti Bennett’s feather star Not evaluated 13 Himerometridae Himerometra rubustipinna Robust feather star Not evaluated 13 Himerometridae Himerometra sp. Not evaluated 13 Class Crinoidea Unidentified sp. 1 Class Crinoidea Unidentified sp. 2 Class Crinoidea Unidentified sp. 3 Diadematidae Astropyga radiata Radiant sea urchin Not evaluated 13 Diadematidae Diadema savignyi Savigny’s sea urchin Not evaluated 13 Diadematidae Echinothrix calamaris Stinging sea urchin Not evaluated 13 Diadematidae Echinothrix diadema Crowned sea urchin Not evaluated 13 Echinometridae Echinostrephus aciculatus Needle spined sea urchin Not evaluated 13 Toxopneustidae Toxopneustes gratilla Cake urchin Not evaluated 13 Holothuriidae Actinopyga sp. Holothuriidae Holothuria atra Lolly fish Least concern 13, 14 Holothuriidae Holothuria coluber Snakefish Least concern 13, 14 Holothuriidae Holothuria edulis Pinkfish Least concern 13, 14 Holothuriidae Holothuria hilla Papillate sea cucumber Least concern 13, 15 Holothuriidae Holothuria leucospilota Black fringed cucumber Least concern 13, 15 Holothuriidae Holothuria scabra Sandfish Endangered 16 Holothuriidae Holothuria sp.1 Not evaluated Holothuriidae Holothuria sp.2 Not evaluated Stichopodidae Stichopus herrmanni Curry fish Vulnerable 17, 18 Stichopodidae Stichopus horrens Dragon fish Data deficient 15 Synaptidae Synapta maculata Spotted sea cucumber Not evaluated

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Discussion There are some distinct differences between the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. However, this could be an artifact of our sampling efforts. Generally, the physical location of Bogoro Inlet did have some influences on the biodiversity. The siltation that proliferate at the edge of the mangrove and extending some 100 to 200m out into the sea were derived from land-used activities. The mangrove ecosystem is partially deteriorated and do not have the full capacity to retain sediment input into the inlet. Consequently, the macrohabitats are fewer compare to Motupore Island (see Figure 13).

In terms of the overall diversity, the cnidarian assemblages comprise almost 70% of the total species recorded at all stations. While most members tended to concentrate toward the reef crest and shelves, they were present in all microhabitats as singletons or doubletons and free swimming as well.

From the five sampling stations (stations 2 – 6) 200 species of marine organism were recorded exluding fish species. Increasing the sampling stations to 20 would reach an asymptote at 600 species (Figure 14).

700

600

500

400

300 Number ofSpeciesNumber 200

100

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Pooled Sampling Stations

Figure 15. Predicted species diversity if sampling effort is increased.

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Conclusion The marine environment of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island is very speciose. For example, of the 10 species of seagrass known in the Port Moresby area, 7 species occur at Motupore Island. Similarly, of the 33 species of sea cucumbers occurring in the PNG waters (Alfred Ko’ou, per. com.), 28 species occur at the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. The area is therefore rich in marine life, therefore making it an ideal refugia location for marine life in the the waters of Bootless Bay and surrounding seas.

References 1. Gottschalk S., Uthicke S and Heiman K. 2007. Benthic diatom community composition inn three regions of the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Coral Reefs 26: 345-357. Doi 10.1007/s00338-007- 0204-3. 2. Berzunza-Sanchez M. M., del Carmen Gomez Cabrera M and Pandolfi J. M. 2013. Historical patterns of resource exploitation and status of Papua New Guinea coral reefs. Pacific Science 67(3): 425-440. 3. Drew J A, Amatangelo K L, Hufbauer R A. (2015) Quantifying the Human Impacts on Papua New Guinea Reef Fish Communities across Space and Time. PLoS ONE 10(10): e0140682. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0140682 4. Microsoft Office Excel 10. Microft Soft Office. 5. Baine M and Haresti D. (2007). Marine life of Bootless Bay. Motupore Island Reseach Centre, University of Papua New Guinea. 6. "Valonia ventricosa J.Agardh", Algaebase. 7. Guiry, M.D. and G.M. Guiry (2009). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. http://www.algaebase.org; searched on 25 March 2018. 8. Jarms G. and Morandini A.C. (2018). World List of Scyphozoa. Aurelia coerulea von Lendenfeld, 1884. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=292506 on 2018-03-25. 9. Dana, J.D. (1846). United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838-1842. Zoophytes 7: 1- 740. Lea and Blanchard, Philadelphia., available online at http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/usexex/navigation/ScientificText/USExEx19_08select.cfm 10. WoRMS (2018). Acropora digitifera (Dana, 1846). Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=207045 on 2018-03-25 11. Brook G (1892) Preliminary descriptions of new species of Madrepora in the collections of the British Museum. Part II. Annals and Magazine of Natural History 10: 451-465. 12. Lamarck, J.-B. M. de. (1816). Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres. Tome second. Paris: Verdière, 568 pp., available online at http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/47698 13. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2017-3. 14. Conand, C., Gamboa, R. & Purcell, S. 2013. Holothuria atra. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T180421A1628832. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013- 1.RLTS.T180421A1628832.en. Downloaded on 26 February 2018. 15. Conand, C., Purcell, S. & Gamboa, R. 2013. Holothuria fuscogilva. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T200715A2681354. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013- 1.RLTS.T200715A2681354.en. Downloaded on 26 February 2018.

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16. Hamel, J.-F.; Mercier, A.; Conand, C.; Purcell, S.; Toral-Granda, T.-G. & Gamboa, R. (2013). "Holothuria scabra". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2013: e.T180257A1606648. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T180257A1606648.en. Retrieved 14 January 2018. 17. Ismail, H., et al. (2004). The structure of calcareous rings in Stichopus hermanni Semper and Holothuria atra Jaeger. Jurnal Sains Kesihatan Malaysia 2(2) 47-52. 18. Poh-Sze, C. (2004). Fisheries, trade and utilization of sea cucumbers in Malaysia. In: Lovatelli, A., et al. Advances in Sea Cucumber Aquaculture and Management. FAO. Rome.

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CHAPTER 6. THE FISH DIVERSITY SURVEY

Introduction Fishes are a very important and integrated living component of any aquatic ecosystem in which they provide services that maintain ecological integrity as well as sustain human livelihood. Protecting fishes and sustainably managing the services they provide has become a major task for the increased human population in many coastal areas of the world and Papua New Guinea is no exception. Papua New Guinea is within a region of the highest marine biological diversity called “Coral Triangle” and has more than a thousand fish species in many of its regional seas. For Bootless Bay, previous records showed that 488 fishes inhabit the marine ecosystems of Bootless Bay (Drew et al., 2012). However, estimates from Drew et al. (2012) indicated that at least a thousand fish species could be expected to inhabit Bootless Bay.

Threats, such as overexploitation and sedimentation, to fish and other marine resources in Bootless Bay are obvious and increasing but not investigated and documented. There are limited fisheries assessment (e.g Kinch, 2007) and monitoring done to advice on appropriate management of these marine resources within Bootless Bay. The fishing activities by fishermen in Bootless Bay are a recipe for the “Tragedy of the Common” where everyone is fishing their share and no one is responsible for sustainably managing the marine resources.

The results of the fish surveys conducted at Bogoro Inlet and on Motupore Island are reported herein this section.

Objectives The objectives of the fish survey are to determine;

i. the species composition, and

ii. the distribution patterns of fish species.

iii. Assess the fishing efforts

Material and Methods

Study Sites The proposed MPAs included Bogoro Inlet area and Motupore Island. These two areas became the two survey sites for this biodiversity inventory project (Figure 16). Six (6) stations (Figure 16) were selected based on aerial observations during the scouting before actual surveys. The criteria for selecting survey stations within the two sites are (1) to maximize encounter of the different microhabitats and therefore species and (2) survey as many stations as practically possible. Complex reef systems with many microhabitats contained more or higher assembleges of marine organisms which the current project is targeting to achieve. As such, potential stations containing heterogeneous microhabitats were favorable and homogeneous microhabitats such as mudflats or sand areas were assumed to contain less diversity and were to be sampled if given the time.

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Figure 16. The two study sites (enclosed in white oval-shape) and the six stations.

Survey Design The biodiversity inventory for this project was designed to sample species within different habitat strata, from dry land through mangroves and coral reefs, using visual census, underwater visual census (UVC), and capture by neting and handline fishing techniques. The survey areas were nested into sites, stations (within each site), and replicated transects (within each station) as shown in Figure 17. Within each site, stations were demarcated which run perpendicular to the coastline, starting from the land-sea or mangrove-sea interface depending on the location of the station. Along the station, sampling transects were established at every 50m interval. The number of stations and transects is dependant on the length or size of the survey site. A transect covers an area of 80m2 and sampling was conducted using a 40m X 2m Belt Transect. The survey transects were placed parallel to the coastline. The substrates and life forms within each transect were recorded and enumerated. To measure the substrate cover; a 1m2 Quadrat was used to quantify percent cover within each transect. Fourty (40) Quadrats were placed side-by-side within each transect and photographs of substrates and life forms (Figure 17) were taken and analysed soon after the surveys were completed. Fish survey transects were placed in the opposite direction to the invertebrates survey transects.

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Figure 17. Illustration of the survey design showing the arrangements of sites, stations, and replicated transects. Source: modified from Pakoa et al., 2014.

Additionally, fishes were captured using fish nets and handline fishing techniques. Fishing efforts (man- hour of seine and gill netting in station 3 and handline fishing on all stations) were conducted in each station on Motupore Island. A 4inch 5m x 50m Gillnet was set at the edge of Station 3 for 12 hours per night for three nights. A 50m Seinenet was dragged three times over the seagrass bed on Station 3 between transects 3, 2, and 1. Handline fishing was conducted on all the four stations on Motupore Island.

Data Analysis Fishes caught and photographed from each transect or station were identified to species level and assessed in terms of species composition, density level, trophic structure, and catch composition and catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE). Fish species abundance for each transect were standardized to density levels by conversion to individual per hectare (Ind.Ha-1) of reef.

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For the catch composition and CPUE; total length (TL) of fishes caught were converted to weights in grams using the formula W = a x Lb; where, W = Fish Weight in grams; L = Fish Length i.e. Total Length in centimeters; and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants (King, 1995). Specific species constants were obtained from FishBase (www.Fishbase.org).

Microsoft Excel 2010 was utilized to conduct basic descriptive statistics and graphical analyses of the data.

Results

Species Richness and Density Levels

A total of 1635 individual fishes representing 127 fish species and 36 families were recorded from the six stations in Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island (Appendix 6-1). This inventory has recorded additional two families and 20 species to the list (488 fish species in 73 families) provided by Drew et al. (2012). Thus, 75 fish families and 512 fish species are now known to inhabit Bootless Bay.

Table 22. Mean number of species and density per hectare of reef and dominant taxa for each station. Characteristic Site 1- Bogoro Inlet Site 2 – Motupore Island

St 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 Station 6

Mean Species Richness (Ind.Ha-1 of reef ) 11 ± 2.96 8 ± 1.86 9 ± 1.44 35 ± 5.51 22 ± 9.92

Mean Density 451.7 ± 1387.4 ± 277.78 ± 588.41 ± 710.72 ± (Ind.Ha-1 of reef) 185.76 531.96 18.80 77.74 190.42

Dominant Family Siganidae Siganidae - Pomacentrid Pomacentridae ae

Dominant Species Siganus Siganus - Chromis Amblyglyphido canalicula canaliculatus viridis don curacao tus

Station 1 was not surveyed thoroughly due to high turbidity, which increases the level of risk from crocodile attack, during the time of survey. However, while conducting mangrove survey, about 6 individuals of Mugil cephalus (Mullet - Mugilidae) and a Tylosurus sp. (Longtom - Belonidae) were observed on station 1.

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Other fish species observed outside of the six stations include one individual each of several individuals of Hemiscyllium hallstromi (Epaulette shark – Hemiscyllidae) around Station 3, one Triaenodon obesus (Whitetip reef shark – Carcharhinidae) on Station 5, Pterois volitans (Lionfish – Scorpanidae), Scorpaenopsis diabolis (Scorpionfish – Scorpaenidae).

Trophic Structure

Ecosystems are better described using the energy and nutrients pathways in which different species can be grouped using the food chains and web concepts. In an ecosystem, such as a coral reef, the different species have a feeding relationship that connects all of them in the ecosystem. This feeding relationship enables the flow of energy and nutrients from one species to another and thereby forming a structure with many levels. This feeding relationship structure is refered to as “trophic structure” and many species can be grouped into its different feeding levels.

The sun is the source of energy for most life forms and can enter the trophic structure through a process called photosynthesis which is mainly performed by plants. Thus, the plants are refered to as primary producers of energy and form the first level in the trophic structure.

Those animals that feed on plants are known as herbivores and those feeding on herbivores are known as carnivores. The omnivores are both herbivores and carnivores and all are Predators. The top predators are those animals at the end of a food chain or web. The predators feed on different food items and thereby have names reflecting such relationship. For examples fishes that feed on planktons are refereed to as Planktivores and those feeding on invertebrates, Invertivores. The carnivores can form many levels which are separated into groups and the first group which feed on herbivores is called primary consumers, those feeding on primary consumers are secondary consumers and so on.

The feeding relationship that showed only one path linking several species is known as food chain and one that showed many paths linking together many different species is known as food web. Disruption of the food chains or webs will lead to collapse of the trophic structure and consequently ecosystem together with its ecosystem goods and services. Thus, it is important to maintain a balance ecosystem that has well established trophic structures. Also a balance ecosystem is one that can support many or a high propotion of top predators.

The fishes on the reefs play an important role (mainly as predators) in maintaining a balance ecosystem and their removal has potential consequences on the reef trophic structure. The parrot and Sergeant fishes are key herbivores keeping macro-algae underchecks on the reefs such that macro-algae do not out-compete corals for settlement spaces.

From the six stations this survey recorded 10 top predators, 200 carnivores, 45 planktivores, 40 omnivores, and 89 herbivores. Carnivore is the dominant trophic structure in all the stations (Figure 18).

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Percent Trophic Structure Top Predator 3%

Herbivore 26%

Omnivore 1% Planktivore Carnivore 13% 57%

Figure 18: Percent fish trophic structure on Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island.

The top predators such as sharks, snapers, and groupers consisted of a small portion (3%) of the survey and catch data; an indication of an unbalanced ecosystem and reflective of fishing pressure in the area.

Catch Composition and Efforts

A total of 10.12kg of fish was caught using a 4-inch Gillnet over three nights. The CPUE for Gillnet-night was 0.28kg of fish per man-hour of fishing.

A total of 0.87kg of fish was caught during three Seinenet-hauls using a 50m Seinenet. The CPUE for Seinenet-haul was 0.29kg of fish per haul.

A total of 5.17kg of fishes was caught for Stations 3-6 on Motupore Island using handline fishing technique (Table 23).

Table 23. CPUE for Stations 3-6. Station Total Biomass (g) CPUE Dominant Family (Handline/Person/Hour)

3 1931.91g 643.97g/Man-hour Nemipteridae

4 399.24 g 299.62g/Man-hour Nemipteridae

5 1365.17 g 682.59g/Man-hour Nemipteridae

6 1471.09 g 735.55g/Man-hour Lethrinidae

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Discussion

The sampling stations 5 and 6 have higher mean number of fish species than stations 2, 3, and 4 which are species poor (Figure 19). Station 6 has higher within station (differences in the number of species from the transects) variation due to differences in the number of species for each transects. Transects 2 – 4 of station 6 were within the seagrass bed and contained fewer species than transects 5 and 6 which were on the coral reef crests. Interestingly, station 6 appeared to be an intermediate zone that showed affinities (cover types) of stations 2 – 4 on one hand and station 5 on the other (Figure 20). This can be explained by continuum of seagrass cover from stations 4 and 3 reaching 44% cover at station 6 (Figure 20) and peak coral cover (22%) at station 5 , declining to 11% at station 6 and <2% in the other stations. Thus, fish species variation is indicative of habitat type and compexity.

Mean Species Richness

45

) 1 - 40 35 30 25 20 15 10

5 Mean No. of Species (Ind.Ha Species of No. Mean 0 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 Station 6 Stations

Figure 19. Mean number of fish species per station.

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Seagrass 28% Seagrass 10% Soft Coral Sand 1% 72% Rocks Macroalgae 20% 4% Hard Coral Mud 11% 3 70% 1 6 Sponge Rubble 0% Hard Macroalg Seagrass Coral ae 13% Soft Coral 44% 3% 7% 0% Mollusca 4Seagrass 0% Sand 18% Soft Coral Hard coral Rocks 27% 0% 1% Macroalgae 12%

14% Rubble 9%

Mud Sand Seagrass 11% Soft Coral Sponge 51% 40% 1% 0% Rubble 7% 2 Seagrass Hard Coral 5 22% 21%

Sand Macroalgae 27% 8% Sand Rocks 18% 4% Rubble 26%

Figure 20. Cover types of stations 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.

Species richness generally increases as distance away from Bogoro Inlet increases toward the Papuan Barier Reef (Table 22; Figure 19). Given this trend, it is assumed that current species list will increase ocean-ward and probably higher diversity expected along the Papuan Barrier Reef.

Based on the species richness and abundance data, an average (calculated from the means in Table 22) of 17 different fish species with a mean density of 683.20 (Ind.Ha-1) inhabit a one hectare of reef on Bogoro Inlet (Station 2) and Motupore Island (Figures 19 and 21). The wave-exposed reefs (Stations 5 and 6) generally exhibit higher number of species than wave-sheltered channel reefs (Stations 2, 3, and 4) closer to the main land coast. Stations 5 and 6 also exhibit more microhabitats with higher live coral cover (Figure 20).

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Mean Density (Ind.Ha-1)

2500

)

1 - 2000

1500

1000

500 Mean Density (Ind.Ha Density Mean 0 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 Station 6 Stations

Figure 21. Mean density (Ind.Ha-1) per stations.

Station 3 has higher number of individuals (Figure 21) but is species poor (Figure 19) compared to other stations. Examination of the data revealed that high mean density in Station 3 is a result of large schools of new recruits or juvenile fishes. Station 3 comprised of 28% seagrass cover (Figure 20) and this large seagrass bed plays a significant role as nursery and feeding ground for many young fishes.

Generally, the more complex a reef system is, the higher its fish diversity. A complex reef system has many microhabitats and high percentage live covers (corals, seagrass, macroalgae) as indicated by the survey data. This observation is supported by commercial seacucumber recruitment patterns in Bootless Bay where more complex reef systems exhibit higher abundance of newly recruited seacucumbers (Ko’ou, 2014). Hence in conservation and management of these marine diversity and resources, more complex reef systems should be targeted and given high priority.

The CPUE for gillnet-night and seinenet-haul are very low for Station 3 on Motupore Island. Only one fish species (Caranx ignobilis - Carangidae) contributed to the CPUE for gillnet-night. Fish species from the fish families Monacanthidae and Nemipteridae dominated the Seinenet-haul catch composition (Figure 22) probably due to their larger sizes. Despite their low biomass, Siganidae and Mullidae were the dominant families in terms of abundance. As indicated by Figure 21, juveniles of Siganidae and Mullidae contributed a lot to the high mean density observed on Station 3.

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Seinenet Fish Catch Biomass by Family 250.00

200.00

150.00

100.00

Biomass (g) Biomass 50.00

0.00

Fish Family

Figure 22. Seinenet catch compositions by family.

A higher biomass and CPUE for handline fishing was observed for Stations 6 and 5 on the wave-exposed side of Motupore Island (Table 23). However, most of the fishes caught were of small sizes relative to known maximum size for those fishes.

The mean for carnivore is significantly higher than all the other trophic levels (Figure 23). Given the mean of 17 fish species per hectare of reef recorded above, carnivores would be represented by about 10 of the 17 species, herbivore 4 of the 17 species, planktivore 2 species, and at least a species of top predators or Omnivores (Figure 23). Large numbers of top predators (sharks and snapers) foraging on a reef system reflects abuncance of prey species. Although the current survey sites can provide a mean of about 600 individual fishes (potential preys) per hectare of reef, the low mean number (Figure 23) of top predators indicate their absence from the reefs surveyed. This observation may require further investigations to determine the cause of lack of predatory fishes in Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island reefs. This observation also applies to large herbivores. It is adviserable to monitor fishing pressure on the reefs in the two sites as soon as is practically possible because of unregulated intensive night-dive fishing at least 3 times a week (as observed during survey period) on these reefs.

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Mean Trophic Structure per Hectare of Reef

14

) 1 - 12

10

8

6

4

2 Mean No. of Species (Ind.TL Species of No. Mean

0 Top Carnivore Planktivore Omnivore Herbivore Predator Trophic Level (TL)

Figure 23. Mean number of fishes in each trophic level per hectare of reef in Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island.

Observations of fishermen (during the survey period) fishing at least 3-4 nights per week are intensive and pose greater risk of overharvesting of fish and other marine resources. It is therefore important to assess the current fishes’ status in terms of their risk of extinction, especially local extinction. The Internation Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has established criteria for assessing the risk of extinction for many species whereby they are categorised base on their status as shown in Table 24.

Table 24. IUCN Redlist categories and definitions. Source: adapted from IUCN, 2001. IUCN Category Definition

EXTINCT (EX) A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon's life cycle and life form.

EXTINCT IN THE A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a WILD (EW) naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon's life cycle and life form.

CRITICALLY A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of ENDANGERED the criteria A to E for Critically Endangered (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be (CR) facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.

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ENDANGERED A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the (EN) criteria A to E for Endangered (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

VULNERABLE (VU) A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.

NEAR A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify THREATENED (NT) for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future.

LEAST CONCERN A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify (LC) for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.

DATA DEFICIENT A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, (DD) assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may be well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category indicates that more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened classification is appropriate. It is important to make positive use of whatever data are available. In many cases great care should be exercised in choosing between DD and a threatened status. If the range of a taxon is suspected to be relatively circumscribed, and a considerable period of time has elapsed since the last record of the taxon, threatened status may well be justified.

NOT EVALUATED A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. (NE)

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IUCN Category of observed fishes

Near Vulnerable Threatened 1% 2%

Not Evaluated 23% Data Deficient 1% Least Concerned 73%

Figure 24. IUCN Category of the recorded fish species.

IUCN Redlist of the fishes observed at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island (Figure 24) showed that the majority of the fish species are either of least concerned (73%) or not evaluated (23%). However, sporadic occurrence of top predatory fishes (example sharks, snapers, and groupers) and lack of large size fishes observed in all the stations during the survey period (2 weeks) indicated a significant fishing pressure (3-4 night-dives per week observed) on the fish resources of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Given this trend, and if it goes on unchecked, the fish diversity in Bootless Bay may suffer recruitment as overfishing diminished fishes’ population and may not have the ability to replenish their populations. This would also mean a disaster for the people who are dependent on fishing to support their livelihoods. Unfortunately, the vulnerable and near threatened fish species (3%) also face the same threats. It is adviserable to monitor their populations and mitigate any threats they are subjected to.

Conclusions An updated fish species checklist for Bootless Bay includes 512 species from 77 familiesBogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are fish species rich marine ecosystems and more species are yet to be documented. Increase and repeated sampling will determine the full range of species and their distribution in Bootless Bay.

More fish species inhabit complex reef systems with high live cover types (corals, seagrass, and algae) than homogeneous or simple reef systems. However, large homogeneous seagrass, mangrove, and coral beds provide important nursery and feeding grounds for many juvenile fishes.

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The dominant fish trophic structure of the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are carnivores and herbivores. The lack of top Predators from the surveyed reefs is probably an indication of the current fishing pressure which is not being monitored.

The majority of the fish species in Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are of least concerned or not evaluated in regards to their IUCN risk of extinction status. However, the excessive harvesting of these species can lead to local extinction and pose a threat to coastal livelihoods that depends on these fish and other marine resources in Bootless Bay.

Addressing marine resources sustainability issues is paramount to conserving marine biodiversity in Bootless Bay. The causes and impacts of current fishing pressure must be understood and necessary steps taken to prevent potential overfishing trend and its consequences.

The dominant fish trophic structure of the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are Carnivores and Herbivores. The lack of Top Predators from the surveyed reefs is probably an indication of the current fishing pressure which is not being monitored.

The majority of the fish species in Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island are of least concerned or not evaluated in regards to their IUCN risk of extinction status. However, the excessive exploitation of the resource(s) (see chapter 7) can lead to local extinction and pose threats to coastal livelihoods that depend on these fish and other marine resources within Bootless Bay.

Addressing marine resources sustainability issues is paramount to conserving marine biodiversity in Bootless Bay. The causes and impacts of current fishing pressure must be understood and necessary steps taken to prevent potential overfishing trend and its consequences.

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References

1) Mark Baine & David Harasti. 2007. The marine life of Bootless Bay Papua New Guinea. Motupore Island Research Centre, School of Natural and Physical Sciences, University of Papua New Guinea.

2) Neville Coleman. 1998. Discover Loloata Island – Marine life guide to Papua New Guinea. Neville Coleman’s Underwater Geographic Pty Ltd, Australia.

3) Drew, J. A., Buxman, C. L., Holmes, D. D., Mandecki, J. L., Mungkaje, A. J., Richardson, A. C. and Westneat, M. W. 2012. Biodiversity inventories and conservation of the marine fishes of Bootless Bay, Papua New Guinea. BMC Ecology, 12:15. Doi: 10.1186/1472-6785-12-15.

4) Allen, Gerry. 1991. Reef fishes of New Guinea.

5) Allen, Gerry. 1999. Marine fishes of South-east Asia. Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd. Singapore.

6) King, Michael. 1995. Fisheries biology, assessment and management. Fishing News Books Ltd, London, UK.

7) Kuiter, Rudie H & Debelius, Helmut. 2006. World atlas of marine fishes.

8) Ko’ou, A. Y. 2014. Habitats influence on the variations in the recruitment of overfished sea cucumbers on the fringing reefs of Bootless Bay, Papua New Guinea - MSc Thesis. Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia.

9) Maniwavie, M. 2010. Sediment levels and its impacts on live coral cover in Bootless Bay, Port Moresby. Research techniques and skills course-work report. University of Papua New Guinea.

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Appendix 6-1: List of fish species observed at Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island proposed MPAs. Family Scientific Name Common Name IUCN Redlist Reference

Acanthuridae Acanthurus lineatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Acanthuridae Ctenochaetus striatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Acanthuridae Naso lituratus Least Concerned 4, 5

Acanthuridae Naso unicornis Least Concerned 4, 5

Acanthuridae Zebrasoma scopas Least Concerned 4, 5

Acanthuridae Zebrasoma veliferum Least Concerned 4, 5

Apogonidae Apogon kallopterus Least Concerned 4, 5

Apogonidae Sphaeramia orbicularis Not evaluated 4, 5

Appogonidae Apogon cyanosoma Least Concerned 4, 5

Balistidae Balistapus undulatus Not evaluated 4, 5

Balistidae Rhinecanthus aculeatus Not evaluated 4, 5

Balistidae Rhinecanthus verrucosus Not evaluated 4, 5

Balistidae Sufflamen chrysopterus Not evaluated 4, 5

Belonidae Tylosurus crocodylus Least Concerned 4, 5

Blenniidae Meiacanthus grammistes Least Concerned 4, 5

Caesionidae Caesio caerulaurea Least Concerned 1,4, 5

Carangidae Caranx ignobilis Giant Trevalley Least Concerned 4, 5

Carcharhinidae Triaenodon obesus Whitetip reef shark Least Concerned 1

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon baronessa Least Concerned 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon citrinellus Least Concerned 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon ephippium Least Concerned 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon kleinii Least Concerned 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon plebeius Least Concerned 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon rafflesi Least Concerned 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon speculum Least Concerned 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon trifascialis Near Threatened 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon trifasciatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon vagabundus Least Concerned 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Chelmon rostratus Least Concerned 4, 5

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Chaetodontidae Heniochus chrysostomus Least Concerned 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Heniochus singularis Least Concerned 4, 5

Chaetodontidae Heniochus varius Least Concerned 4, 5

Dasyatidae Dasyatis kuhlii Blue-spotted Stingray Data Deficient 4, 5

Dasyatidae Taeniura lymma Fantail Stingray Near Threatened 4, 5

Fistulariidae Fistularia commersoni Least Concerned 4, 5

Gobiidae Amblygobius cf phalaena Gobifish Not evaluated 4, 5

Haemulidae Plectorhinchus chrysotaenia Not evaluated 1, 4, 5

Haemulidae Plectorhinchus orientalis Oriental Sweetlips Least Concerned 4, 5

Harpodontidae Saurida gracilis Gracile lizardfish Least Concerned 4, 5

Hemirhamphidae Hemirhamphus dussumieri Dussumier's Garfish Least Concerned 4, 5

Hemirhamphidae Hemirhamphus far Not evaluated 4, 5

Hemiscyllidae Hemiscyllium hallstromi Epaulette shark Vulnerable 1, 7

Holocentridae Sargocentron caudimaculatum Least Concerned 1

Labridae Cheilinus chlorurus Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Cheilinus undulatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Cheilio inermis Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Choerodon anchorago Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Halichoeres argus Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Halichoeres chloropterus Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Halichoeres hortulanus Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Hemigymnus melapterus Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Labroides dimidiatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Macropharyngodon meleagris Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Stethojulis bandanensis Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Thalassoma hardwickei Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Thalassoma jansenii Least Concerned 4, 5

Labridae Thalassoma lunare Least Concerned 4, 5

Lethrinidae Monotaxis grandoculis Least Concerned 4, 5

Lethrinidae Lethrinus lentjan Least Concerned 4, 5

Lethrinidae Lethrinus nebulosus Least Concerned 4, 5

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Lethrinidae Lethrinus harak Least Concerned 4, 5

Lethrinidae Lethrinus ornatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Lethrinidae Lethrinus variegatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Lutjanidae Lutjanus bohar Least Concerned 4, 5

Lutjanidae Lutjanus carponotatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Lutjanidae Lutjanus semicinctus Least Concerned 4, 5

Lutjanidae Macolor niger Least Concerned 1, 4, 5

Monacanthidae Oxymonacanthus longirostris Least Concerned 1

Monacanthidae Pervagor nigrolineatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Mugilidae Mugil cephalus Least Concerned 4, 5

Mullidae Parupeneus barberinoides Goatfish Least Concerned 4, 5

Mullidae Parupeneus barberinus Goatfish Least Concerned 4, 5

Mullidae Parupeneus bifasciatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Mullidae Parupeneus indicus Goatfish Least Concerned 4, 5

Mullidae Parupeneus multifasciatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Nemipteridae Pentapodus trivittatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Nemipteridae Scolopsis bilineatus Bridled Monocole-bream Least Concerned 4, 5

Nemipteridae Scolopsis ciliatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Pinguipedidae Parapercis diplospila Least Concerned 7

Pomacanthidae Centropyge bicolor Least Concerned 4, 5

Pomacanthidae Centropyge vrolikii Least Concerned 4, 5

Pomacentridae Abudefduf sexfaciatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Pomacentridae Abudefduf whitleyi Whitley's sergeant Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Amblyglyphidodon curacao Staghorn damsel Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Amphiprion clarkii Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Amphiprion melanopus Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Amphiprion polymnus Anemone fish Least Concerned 4, 5

Pomacentridae Chromis amboinensis Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Chromis cinerascens Green Chromis Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Chromis margaritifer Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Chromis viridis Blue-green Chromis Not evaluated 4, 5

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Pomacentridae Dascyllus aruanus Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Dascyllus melanurus Black-tailed dacyllus Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Dascyllus reticulatus Reticulated dascyllus Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Dascyllus trimaculatus Three-spot dacyllus Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Dischistodus chrysopoecilus Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Dischistodus prosopotaenia Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Neoglyphidodon melas Black Damsel Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Neoglyphidodon nigroris Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus azysron Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus Jewel Damsel Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Pomacentrus grammorhynchus Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Pomacentrus nagasakiensis Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Pomacentrus reidi Not evaluated 4, 5

Pomacentridae Stegastes nigricans Not evaluated 4, 5

Scaridae Chlorurus sordidus Least Concerned 4, 5

Scaridae Leptoscarus vaigiensis Least Concerned 4, 5

Scaridae Scarus bleekeri Least Concerned 4, 5

Scaridae Scarus dimidiatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Scaridae Scarus oviceps Blue Parrotfish Least Concerned 4, 5

Scaridae Scarus rivulatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Scaridae Scarus schlegeli Least Concerned 4, 5

Scorpaenidae Pterois volitans Lionfish Least Concerned 1

Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis diabolis Scorpionfish Least Concerned 1

Serranidae Epinephelus merra Honeycomb Cod Least Concerned 4, 5

Serranidae Cephalopholis boenak Least Concerned 4, 5

Siganidae Siganus canaliculatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Siganidae Siganus doliatus Least Concerned 4, 5

Siganidae Siganus spinus Least Concerned 4, 5

Siganidae Siganus vulpinus Least Concerned 4, 5

Sphyraenidae Sphyraena barracuda Great Barracuda Least Concerned 4, 5

Syngnathidae Corythoichthys haematopterus Messmate pipefish Least Concerned 4, 5

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Synodontidae Synodus variegatus Least Concerned 1, 4, 5

Teraodontidae Arothron hispidus Pufferfish (juv) Least Concerned 4, 5

Teraodontidae Arothron stellatus Pufferfish (juv) Least Concerned 4, 5

Tetraodontidae Canthigaster compressa Least Concerned 4, 5

Tetraodontidae Canthigaster valentini Least Concerned 4, 5

Zanclidae Zanclus cornutus Least Concerned 4, 5

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CHAPTER 7. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT - A PRELIMINARY SURVEY

Introduction

The tropical coastal and marine zones are important marine ecosystems for human that provide a variety of goods and services, highly beneficial to humans in terms of food supplies, amenities and protection from land erosion [1, 2, 3]. Yet, the tropical seascape suffers from different types of severe threats due to abiotic and anthropogenic disturbances, where important ecosystem functions might be lost [4, 5, 6]. Of any significance are the flow of energy and nutrients within an ecosystem and the export of the energy to the surrounding ecosystems.

Coastal people in many developing countries are dependent on fisheries as their main income and food security. Empirical evidence indicates that they are already affected by the declining fish catches and other seafood sources [6, 8]. The loss of ecosystem functions from overfishing also affects habitat resilience, making these habitats more vulnerable to other stressors such as global warming [6, 9, 10]. Overexploitation might lead to a regime shift in an ecosystem [11]. Overfishing of herbivorous fish (e.g. parrotfishes, sweetlips) on coral reefs, for instance, has shown to alter the ecosystem to a more algae- dominated system, where corals are overgrown by algae in absence of herbivores which in turn may lead to an ecosystem collapse [12, 13]. Since connectivity between different habitats within ecosystems is high in the tropical seascape, such threats might not only affect individual habitats but also the whole coastal seascapes [6].

Mangrove forests on the other hand, are repeatedly being stressed as one of the world’s most threatened tropical ecosystems [14]. The mangrove forests habour a multitude of organisms, some serve as income sources, including mud crabs, mussels, oysters, etc. for many coastal communities. Mangrove trees are used for firewood, construction wood, wood chip and pulp production, and animal fodder [14]. Clearance, overharvesting, and overfishing threatens mangrove forests and in turn, the entire marine ecosystems.

A common way to preserve and manage ecosystem functions is to establish marine protected areas (MPAs) in areas where mangroves are found. However, to develop an important management strategy for the protection of such ecosystems will require a strong understanding of the background issues relating to the anthropogenic activities happening within and around such an ecosystem.

This report outlines a preliminary survey of the anthropogenic activities and their impacts on the coastal zone and marine ecosystems of Bogoro and Motupore Island within the Bootless Bay area.

Objectives This survey is part of the biodiversity study conducted for Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. The objectives were to conduct preliminary surveys of any activities and utilization pertaining to the marine ecosystem. The results will be used as a guide for drawing recommendations for the establishment of MPAs in Bootless Bay area.

Material and Methods

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Anthropogenic impacts were purely based on sightings and maping. Fishing activities by locals were monitored during the duration of this study both at Motupore Island and Borogo Inlet. The monitoring includes recordings of number of fishermen, their canoes and outboard motors catching fish by various fishing methods (e.g., diving, using nets, trawling and/or doing bottom fishing) around Motupore Island and Bogoro Inlet. Much of the recordings involved observations focused on fishing. It includes the time of fishing (morning, afternoon or night) and the location of fishing activities around the Motupore Island and at Bogoro Inlet. Locations were ploted on a paper map and later translated to GPS coordinates. All records were kept in a log sheet in Microsoft Office Excel 2010 Spread sheet. All sightings were mapped and shown in Figure 25.

Impacts on mangroves were assessed during the transect surveys of mangrove forests at Bogoro Inlet and confirmed from satellite imageries @googleearth.com and ground truthing. Maps were produced using ArcMap 10.1.

Results

Fishing Activity The frequency of fishing activities by the local villages was observed to be very high as indicated by the number of fishermen and their canoes and boats doing fishing by day and night. Over the duration of the biodiversity survey, 22 fishing sightings of locals were recorded in our log book (Figure 22).

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Figure 25. Fishing sightings observed during the duration of the survey

Fishing at Bogoro Inlet were infrequent than on the island. On Motupore Island, line fishing and night diving were common methods employed by the locals (Figures 26 and 27).

n=22

50.0 45.0 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0

20.0 % Frequency % 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 Diving Line Net Others Figure 26. Percent frequency of methods employed by locals when fishing around Motupore Island and

the surroung island.

At Motupore Island the locals conduct their fishing activities mostly on reef edges at the western and eastern parts of the island as indicated in Figure 27. Most of the catch comprises reef fishes (e.g., rock cods, halfbeaks, snappers, mullets, damselfish) and some pelagic fishes (e.g., long toms, tunas, skipjacks, trevallies). Apart from fishing at the eastern section of the island, locals also dive to harvest edible bivalves and univalves. Most of what they caught and harvest are for sale at the markets in the urban markets and whatever is not sold are consumed.

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Figure 27. Fishing methods employed by local fishermen. From local informants, dynamite is commonly used. During the survey, only one explosion was heard near Lion Island, SW of Motupore Island.

More line fishing and diving were perfomed during afternoons and nights (Figure 27). While at the Bogoro Inlet, the only site of fishing was observed at the Tahira jetty, especially in the afternoons where the fishermen usually do their fishing.

Figure 28. Temporal patterns of fishing activities as observed and recorded around Motupore Island. The percentages are derived from counting the total number of fishermen fishing over a 24 hour period.

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Mangrove Forest

The line of survey established for biodiversity assessments at site 1 and site 2, intercepted large clearance in the middle zone of the forest at Bogoro (Figure 22).

Figure 29. Image of mangrove forest indicating clearance (light green shade. Inserted picture was taken from where the arrow is pointing to the larger image.

Discussion Overexploitation in terms of overfishing or mangrove harvesting is one of the major anthropogenic threats to marine ecosystems. Overfishing for example, have adversely affects biodiversity, not only directly from overfishing and harvesting of target species, but also indirectly through the use of destructive fishing methods, where important habitats are destroyed [6, 7].

Our preliminary results indicate that there is an increasing pressure on the marine resources, especially by overfishing and harvesting by the local fishermen and villagers. Such a pressure will further increase as the population around the Bootless Bay area as well as from the city increase. Note that already, the settlements around the Bay area, especially around Taurama, Gereka and Tuna Bay area are increasing, apart from Tubusera and other coastal Motu villages to the east of the study area. Increased population within the areas surround the proposed MPA will inevitably require more land clearances for roads, housing and gardening for food crops. Further, such increase in population will also result in high production of additional domestic wastes which will eventually enter the the MPA and its environment.

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Further, land-based disturbances around the Bootless Bay area, as noted, are also excerting additional impacts into the marine ecosystem. This is particulary obvious from the increasing infrastructural developments, such as land clearence for roads, aviation fuel pipeline and houses. Farming activities inland of the Bogoro Inlet as well as the surrounding areas, couples with continual burning of savanna shrub-grassland will add more pressure on to the mangroves and the marine systems in the area.

Such activities will continue to increase as the city continues to expand into the surrounding areas, including the Bootless Bay area. In fact, the urban development plan by the National Capital District (NCD) has included the land surrounding the Bootless Bay in its overall plan (Figure 30). With all these planned development activities, it can be predicted that there will be an increase in sedimentation loads from eroding inland cleared surfaces going into the Bay. In fact, there is already ample evidence on this matter, especially around the Bogoro Inlet as shown in Figure 29.

Figure 30. National Capital District(NCD) Development plan of 2011.

Thus, there is an urgent call for action to protect the whole of the Bootless Bay area and its surroundings and the current proposal for the establishment of an MPA for the Bay is timely, but this needs an urgent action to be implemented now rather than later.

In addition, appropriate management strategies are now required to be put in place to better manage the proposed MPA and all other developments that have been planned for the area.

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References 1. Moberg, F. and Folke, C. (1999) Ecological goods and services of coral reef ecosystems. Ecological Economics, 29, 215-233. 2. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (2009). Ecosystem Services: Key Concepts and Applications, Occasional Paper No 1, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra. 3. Donato, D. C., Kauffman J. B., Murdiyarso, D., Kurnianto, S., Stidham, M. and Kanninen M. (2011) Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. Nature, 4, 293-297. 4. Halpern, B. S., Selkoe, K. A., Micheli, F. and Kappel, C. V. (2007) Evaluating and ranking the vulnerability of global marine ecosystems to anthropogenic threats. Conservation Biology, 21, 1301-1315. 5. Cheung, W. W. L., Watson, R. and Pauly, D. (2013) Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch. Nature, 497, 365 6. Skoglund , S. (2014) Effects of different marine protection levels on fish communities in tropical seagrass beds and coral reefs. MSc Thesis, Master’s programme in Biology, Department of Ecology, Environment and Botany, Stockholms universitet. 7. Dayton, P. K., Thrush, S. F., Agardy, M. T. and Hofman, R. J. (1995) Environmental-effects of 24 marine fishing. Aquatic Conservation-Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 5, 205-232. 8. Cruz-Trinidad, A., Alino, P. M., Geronimo, R. C. and Cabral, R. B. (2014) Linking Food Security with Coral Reefs and Fisheries in the Coral Triangle. Coastal Management, 42, 160-182. 9. Drew, J. A., Buxman, C. L., Holmes, D. D., Mandecki, J. L., Mungkaje, A. J., Richardson, A. C. and Westneat, M. W. 2012. Biodiversity inventories and conservation of the marine fishes of Bootless Bay, Papua New Guinea. BMC Ecology, 12:15. Doi: 10.1186/1472-6785-12-15. 10. Johansen, J. L., Messmer, V., Coker, D. J., Hoey, A. S. and Pratchett, M. S. (2014) Increasing ocean temperatures reduce activity patterns of a large commercially important coral reef fish. Global Change Biology, 20, 1067-1074. 11. Ko’ou, A. Y. 2014. Habitats influence on the variations in the recruitment of overfished sea cucumbers on the fringing reefs of Bootless Bay, Papua New Guinea - MSc Thesis. Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia. 12. Elmhirst, T., Connolly, S. R. and Hughes, T. P. (2009) Connectivity, regime shifts and the resilience of coral reefs. Coral Reefs, 28, 949-957. 13. Fox, R. J. and Bellwood, D. R. (2014) Herbivores in a small world: network theory highlights vulnerability in function of herbivory on coral reefs. Functional Ecology, 28, 642-651. 14. http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/coasts/mangroves/mangrove_threats/ 15. Cardno 2015. Study into the Port Moresby urban development plan. Port Moresby.

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CHAPTER 8. BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT

Introduction

Biodiversity Assessment The assessment of biodiversity of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island in light of their conservation values is presented in this section. The assessment includes presentation of data on the proposed Boot Bay MPA (BBMPA) biodiversity and ecological processes. The term ‘conservation value’ is defined as an element of environment identified as a key ecological feature. The key ecological feature is identified in this assessment using systems approach whereby each system identified is examine in the context of its biodiversity (species, habitats, functional groups), ecological processes (energy and biogeochemical cycle), and changes to the feature due to impacts from natural and anthropogenic induced stressors.

A key ecological feature is further defined as a feature of biodiversity (species or ecosystems) that meet one or more of the following assessment criteria:

1. A species, group of species, or community with important ecological role (for example as a predator (parrotfishes i.e. remove algae) or a prey species that affects a large biomass or number of other species); or

2. A species, group of species, or community that is locally or regionally important for maintaining high concentration of biodiversity (example mangroves or keystone species); or

3. An area or habitat that is locally or regionally important for:

a. maintaining high concentration of biodiversity values (endemism, rare, endangered or threatened species; refugia);

b. maintaining large aggregations of life forms (such as feeding, breeding or nursery areas),

c. maintaining high biological productivity (for example upwelling), or

4. A unique feature (for example barrier reef) with known or presumed ecological properties of local or regional significance.

Local scale importance includes significance at ecosystems, and landscapes or seascapes while regional scale importance includes significance at seas and oceans. For examples Bootless Bay ecosystem is within the Papuan Basin Seascape which is within Coral Sea in the Western Pacific Ocean.

These assessment criteria determine the biodiversity and conservation values of a proposed protected area and also add values to the design of the management plans.

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Therefore, as a conclusion of this report, this chapter will dwell on the identification of sites within the two study sites which appear to have high conservation values (HCVs) as defined above. Such values include sites that have high species occurrence, endemics, and uniqueness in terms of cultural and/or aesthetic values. Additionally, and supplementary to this report is the collation and distribution of the Mangrove and Bird guides and a Monitoring manual to monitor the MPAs.

Objectives The objective of this assessment is to provide a summary of the available and relevant information, including maps, about the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island biodiversity (species and habitats) status, ecological processes and physical environments (i.e. oceanography, geomorphology, substrate type, geological history), threats to the biodiversity status, and threats to management approaches. It also highlights the diversity localities and high conservation values as determined by the findings of this study.

Methods and Material

Biodiversity Conservation Values Analysis Prioritizing and designating protected areas will be based on the principles of comprehensiveness, adequacy, representation, and resilience [1] where key areas and values are identified and prioritized.

The high conservation values (HCV) method is employed to assess the proposed Bootless Bay MPA, and its habitats and species of significance in terms of their conservation values. The HCV method involved assessing biodiversity for their conservation values using six (6) criteria [2, 3]. The six criteria are;

1. HCV 1. Areas containing globally, regionally or nationally significant concentrations of biodiversity values (e.g. endemism, rare, endangered or threatened species, refugia). 2. HCV 2. Globally, regionally or nationally significant large landscape/seascape-level areas where viable populations of most if not all naturally occurring species exist in natural patterns of distribution and abundance. 3. HCV 3. Areas that are in or contain rare, threatened or endangered ecosystems. 4. HCV 4. Areas that provide basic ecosystem services in critical situations (e.g. watershed, erosive coast or hilly slopes). 5. HCV 5. Areas fundamental to meeting basic needs of Barakau, Tubusereia, Gereka, and Pari communities (e.g. subsistence, health). 6. HCV 6. Areas critical to Barakau, Tubusereia, Gereka, and Pari communities traditional cultural identity (areas of cultural, ecological, economic or religious significance identified in cooperation with such local communities).

Additionally, the biodiversity and habitat aspects will be evaluated under the following sub-criteria under HCV 1-4;

✓ HCV 1.1 Protected Areas as per UPNG research category

✓ HCV 1.2 Threatened and endangered species

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✓ HCV 1.3 Endemic and rare species

✓ HCV 1.4 Critical temporal use sites by migratory animals (e.g. birds and turtles)

✓ HCV 2.0 Nationally significant large landscape level mangrove forests or large seascape level coral reefs

✓ HCV 3.0 Forest or marine areas that are threatened as well as whether the species contain in them are rare, threatened or endangered

✓ HCV 4.0 Forest or marine areas that provide basic services of nature in critical situations

✓ HCV 4.1 Forests critical to water catchments

✓ HCV 4.2 Mangrove forests critical to coastal erosion control

✓ HCV 4.3 Mangrove forests providing barriers to destructive wave action (e.g. king tide)

Results and Discussion

Bootless Bay Ecosystems The Bootless Bay ecosystem, as represented by Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island, generally comprised of three distinctive zones which include mud, sand, and rocks. The land-sea interface can be any of the three zones or all in existence concurrently. These three zones have influences over the distributions of different life forms as observed during the inventory. For examples, the crocodile was associated with mud and mangroves, seagrass with sand, and corals with rocks.

The mud zone exists along the land-sea interface areas which are relatively sheltered from sea currents and waves. This zone is mainly covered by mangroves except where it becomes too deep or where human settlements or saltmarshes exist. In the study area the mud zone extent from Bautama through Tahira and most probably overlaying the channel seafloor throughout Bogoro Inlet especially between Tahira and Gereka. This area is also covered mainly by mangroves.

The sand zone is extensive and occurs mainly in open and wave-exposed areas. The zone is covered mainly by the seagrass beds especially close to shores and to a depth of about 10m. The bottom of channels between the islands, patch reefs, and mainland of Bootless Bay is mainly sand.

The rocks and rubbles along the coastline and also of the coral reefs form the third zone. The rocks and rubbles along the coastlines of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island composed mainly of limestone.

Table 1: Representation of habitat types in Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island.

Habitat % Total Area Critical for Comments Mangrove 26 Crocodile Mangrove birds

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Fish nursery Fish avoidance of predators Sand 23 Seagrass meadows Fish nursery Algal species Several species of sea cucumbers Coral, 51 Foraging by fishes rocks/rubble Coral species Seaweeds (macroalgae)

The coral reef zone can be further divided into different types of reefs (Fringing and Barrier) and according to different depths as well. The fringing reefs extent from the land and terminate at about 30m depth which is the distribution depth of most reef corals that derived their food through the relationship with photosynthetic zooxanthalle algae.

Biodiversity of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island

The biodiversity of Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island proposed MPAis very diverse, considering that the sites only cover 200 ha (both mangroves and fringing reefs). Some taxa are highly diverse while others are poorly represented. For example, the number of mangrove species and seagrasses are exceptionally high. Out of the 36 true mangrove species recorded so far in Papua New Guinea, this study recorded 20 species (56%) of all true mangroves. Similarly, of the 14 species of seagrasses recorded in the waters of PNG, 11 species (79%) occur in the two sites within the proposed MPAs (Table 24).

In regard to fish diversity about 3000 species are known to dwell in the waters of PNG. Within Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island, Drew and colleagues recorded 488 fish species in 2012 [4]. This study recorded an extra 20 species, increasing the total to 512 species thus representing 17% of the known PNG fishes within such a small area.

The coral reef of Motupore Island and Bogoro Inlet covers a total area of 64 ha (excluding seagrass meadows) and include a total of 90 species of corals (soft and hard) which were recorded or known to occur within these sites. Whilest corals are major components of the reef ecosystem, their identification is problematic due to variations in morphology and coloration [5]. This Figure of 90 species will eventually increase once the corals are properly indentified to species level. Nonetheless, 90 species represent 17% of the 600 species known in PNG. This is about half the species found at the Red Sea (200 spp.) and 50% more species than that found in the entire Carribeans (90 spp.) [6, 7].

Within these sites of the proposed MPAs it was observed that they have high diversity of sea cucumbers. A total of 28 holothurian species out of the 31 species were observed and recorded [8]. Most members were recorded as singleton indicating very low populations (Table 24)

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Table 25. Species diversity of significant taxonomic groups with comparison to PNG (ND = not determine) Number of species recorded or estimated

Significant Sub groups Bogoro/Motupore (Area = PNG [4,5] Taxonomic 200ha) Groups

Fern 2 2414

Gymnosperm 1 10 Plants Terrestrial 283 ~20,000 angiosperms

Mangroves 23 36

Seagrasses 10 14

Birds 81 864

Fish 512 2719

Corals (soft and hard) 90 560

Hydrozoans 5 Unknown Cnidarian Sea Jellies 2 Unknown

Sea Fens 4 Unknown

Echinoderm Sea cucumber 28 Unknown

On the whole, although the Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island sites of the proposed MPAs only represent a small portion of the entire Bootless Bay area, they appeared to represent the marine ecosystem of the Bay and the east Hiri Coastline. The high species diversity observed is reflective of Motupore Island being a sanctuary/refuge for marine life since its ownership was transferred to the University in 1967. Note, Motupore Island is a University Property, devoted to research and as such, has been under protection since.

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High Conservation Values

Mangrove Forest (Criteria HCV 2-5 )

The mangrove forest of Bogoro Inlet is categorized as a high conservation valued ecosystem. The forest ecosystem fulfills HCV assessment criteria 2, 3, 4, and 5. The different communities present within the proposed MPAs are influenced by the connectiveness of various ecosystems in terms of energy and nutrient flow as well as its diversity. Mangrove forest forms the transition between terrestrial and marine ecosystems. On one extreme, it buffers the marine environment from natural land based events such as flood, and storm water runoffs including soil erosion. On the other extreme, mangrove forests also protect terrestrial system from sea-based events such as king tide and even tsunami.

Generally, mangrove forests are well-known for the countless goods and services that they provide to coastal communities.

The largest stand of mangrove forest found on these two sites was at Bogoro Inlet which showed three very distinct zones as indicated in Figure 31. However, the results from this study revealed that the mangrove forest here is a very degraded one. The Rhizophora-Bruguera zone has been targeted for clearance due to good pole-sized trees occurring in this zone.

Figure 31. Mangrove zones of Bogoro Inlet.

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Bogoro Marine Environment (HCV 3-5) The reef ecosystem of Bogoro Inlet is very degraded due to accretion of sediment over time. The entire reef from Tahira to Gereka settlement is buried under mud (Figure 32). Nonetheless, the area is categorized as HCV in criteria 3, 4, an 5, because the area supports a small population of saltwater crocodile - a protected species, under the PNG Fauna Act and Crocodyle Trade Act. The reptile is locally under threat from hunting and habitat destruction due to harvesting and sedimentation resulting from mangrove clearance. The locals also forage and gather bivalves for consumption

However, the sampling station two features some important HCVs which include high density of fish juveniles indicating that the area is an important nursery ground for many fish species (see Figure 32). In addition, a very rare scene of sea cucumber with feeding tentacles was observed within this station (Figure 32).

Sea cucumber with tentacles

Station 2 • Home to few stands of Bruguera cylindrical • Nursery area for many reef fishes • One species of Sting Ray dwells here • Good monitoring site for seditiment accretion

Figure 32. Bogoro Inlet marine environment.

There were other interesting features found in this station including a home of a few Bruguiera cylindrical, one species of sting ray and a site where sediment accretion was obvious.

Motupore Island (HCV 1 – 5) The whole Motupore Island is classified as an area of high conservation values, fulling HVC assessment criteria 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The island has always acted as a sanctuary and refugia for marine organisms. The diverse habitats support several plant endemics and several highly threatened fish species including a turtle and a sea banded snake. From observation and site specific results, stations 3 and 5 on Motupore Island are very significant (see Figure 33).

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Station 3. • Nursery ground for the threaten Maori Wrasse (caught juvenile here). • Home to most expensive sea cucumber species (Holothuria atra). • Mating site for shark and home to 2 species of Sting Ray • Turtle (green turtle) nesting site • Home to banded sea snake • Home to locally rare mangrove • species Aegilites annulata • Home to 7 endemic plants

Station 5 • Highest diversity of corals found here • Highest fish diversity

Figure 33. Two sampling stations (3 and 5) of HCV status.

Conclusion

The biodiversity status of the proposed MPA sites is overwhelming for such a small area. However, there are evidences of extensive fishing that posed a potential threat to the marine lives of the proposed MPA areas.

The percentage coral cover was reduced from 42% to 19% between 2005 and 2006 (Pratchett et al., 2009). It has remained low and reduced further to 10% as recorded by this survey. Unfortunately, the algal cover has not increased as a result of the decreased in coral cover. This indicated that the coral reefs in the proposed MPA areas have lost their ability (resilience) to recover after the crown-of-torn starfish (Acathansta planci) infestation of corals in 2005 [10].

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Recommendations

Based on the inventory results and discussions the study strongly recommends the MPA establishment for Bogoro Inlet and Motupore Island. Given the expansion of the city (see chapter 7), Bootless Bay must be managed such that the provision goods and services from ecosystems are maintained into the future.

References 1. Swartzendruber, J. F. 1993. Papua New Guinea conservation needs assessment, synopsis report. Department of Environment and Conservation, Government of Papua New Guinea.

2. Neugarten, R., and C.E. Savy. 2012. A global review of national guidance for High Conservation Value. Washington, DC: Conservation International & Africa Biodiversity Collaborative Group (ABCG).

3. ProForest, 2008. Good practice guidelines for High Conservation Value assessments. A practical guide for practitioners and auditors. Oxford OX1 3HZ, United Kingdom.

4. Drew, J. A., Buxman, C. L., Holmes, D. D., Mandecki, J. L., Mungkaje, A. J., Richardson, A. C. and Westneat, M. W. 2012. Biodiversity inventories and conservation of the marine fishes of Bootless Bay, Papua New Guinea. BMC Ecology, 12:15. Doi: 10.1186/1472-6785-12-15.

http://indopacificimages.com/papua-new-guinea/papua-new-guinea/biodiversity

5. IUCN (2012). Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional and National levels: Ver 4.0. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN. Iii +41pp.

6. Miloslavich P, Klein E, Dı´az JM, Herna´ndez CE, Bigatti G, et al. 2011. Marine Biodiversity in the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts of South America: Knowledge and Gaps. PLoS ONE 6(1): e14631. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014631.

7. indopacificimages.com/papua-new-guinea.

8. Ko’ou, A. Y. 2014. Habitats influence on the variations in the recruitment of overfished sea cucumbers on the fringing reefs of Bootless Bay, Papua New Guinea - MSc Thesis. Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia.

9. http://www.birdsofmelanesia.net/pau8.pdf. Accessed 04/06/2018

10. Pratchett MS, Schenk TJ, Baine M, Syms C, Baird AH (2009) Selective coral mortality associated with outbreaks of Acanthaster planci L. in Bootless Bay, Papua New Guinea. Mar Environ Res 67: 230−236

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BIODIVERSITY PICTURES

Graceful Maliphaga (Meliphaga igracillis) Eastern Osprey (Pandion cristatus)

Grey Shrikethrush (Colluricincla harmonica) New Guinea Helmetted Friarbird (Philemon sp.)

Torresian Imperial Pigeon (Ducula spilorrhoa) Shinning Flycatcher (Myiagra alecto, male)

Sabellidae Ophiothrix sp. Didemnum molle (Ascidian)

Gracilaria salicornia (Green algae) Tripneustes gratilla (sea urchin)

Coral diversity (Acropora, Sinularia etc.) Sabellidae, Ophiothrix sp.

Coral diversity Coral diversity

Coral diversity Soft coral, Sinularia sp.

Scorpaenidae - Scorpion fish Leuceana leucophylla

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Tridax procumbens Aegialites annulata (Mangrove)

Guttarda speciosa (beach plant) Osbornia octodonta (Mangrove)

Sonneratia alba (Mangrove) Alectryon repando-dentata (Strand vegetation)

Papilionid species of butterfly Papillionid species

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