ORPHAN OF THE COLD WAR Also by Margaret Joan Anstee AFRICA AND THE WORLD (co-edited with R.K.A. Gardiner and C. Patterson) GATE OF THE SUN: A Prospect of Bolivia THE ADMINISTRATION OF INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AID Orphan of the Cold War

The Inside Story of the Collapse of the Angolan Peace Process, 1992-93

Margaret Joan Anstee

I ,. © Margaret Joan Anstee 1996 Map of © 1994 Michael S. Miller Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1994 978-0-333-66445-2 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, WIP 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

First published 1996 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG2 I 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world

ISBN 978-0-333-66446-9 ISBN 978-0-230-37673-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230376731

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected lo conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin.

Published in the of America 1996 by ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 For Basil Davidson, who first opened my eyes to the forgotten tragedy ofAngola in October 1966, and against whose advice I went to see for myself a quarter of a century later 'Better is wisdom than weapons of war' (Inscription on a banner embroidered by students of Newnham College . Cambridge. and carried in a procession of the National Union of Women's Suffragtte Societies on 13 June 1908.) Contents

List ofPlates ix Foreword xi Acknowledgements xiii Dramatis Personae xv List ofAbbreviations xxiv Map ofAngola xxvi

PART I THE CONTEXT: PERSONAL, NATIONAL AND INTERNA TIONAL

1 A Late-Night Telephone Call 3 2 The Background 7 3 First Mission to Angola 15 4 A 'Small and Manageable' Operation, or Making Bricks without Straw 30

PART II THEMILITARY AND SECURITY SITUATION- FEBRUARY TO SEPTEMBER 1992 45

5 The Military Conundrum 47 6 The Formation of the New Angolan Armed Forces 64 7 The Police Imbroglio 69 8 Alarms and Excursions 79

PART III THE PREPARATION AND ORGANISATION OF THE ELECTIONS - MARCH TO SEPTEMBER 1992 85

9 The Prelude: March to May 1992 87 10 The Registration of Voters and the Electoral Campaign 99 11 Politics, Pride and Personalities 127

PARTIV DAYTODAYLIVING 159

12 Life in 161 13 Vignettes from the Field 173

PART V THE ELECTIONS AND THEIR AFTERMATH 185

14 The Moment of Truth 187 15 The Aftermath 199 16 The Debacle 239

vii viii Contents PART VI OVER THE BRINK 263

17 The Bloodbath 265 18 The Slide into the Abyss 292 19 Cry Havoc ... 328

PART VII CONFLAGRATION AND MEDIATION 355

20 ...And Let Slip the Dogs of War 357 21 Peace Talks in Ethiopia 380 22 From to Abidjan 415 23 The Abidjan Marathon 447

PART VIII MY FAREWELL TO ARMS 491

24 Going the Last Mile ... and the End of the Road 493 25 Lessons of the Forgotten Tragedy of Angola 527 Epilogue 543

Notes 545 Index 548 List of Plates

1. A 'bairro popular' (shanty town) in Luanda 2. A view of the UNAVEM headquarters in Vila Espa, outside Luanda: 'con­ tainer city' 3. The author inspecting FALA assembled troops with Major-General Unimna of Nigeria, February, 1992 4. Boy soldiers (UNITA) 5. The CCPM, photographed just before the elections in September1992. 6. The author meeting with Jonas Savimbi, Head of UNITA (also in atten­ dance are Gilberto Rizzo and Ebrima Jobarteh) 7. The crucial meeting between President dos Santos and Dr Savimbi on 26 September 1992, three days before the elections 8. A Soviet-made Ilyushin helicopter being unloaded from a giant Antonov cargo plane at Luanda Airport, to join the makeshift airforce hurriedly assembled for the elections. 9. Francisco Domingo, the sole survivor of a UNAVEM II helicopter accident, in which 15 people died, including four Russian aircrew, is carried off a rescue plane at Luanda Airport. 10. Onofre dos Santos, Director-General of the elections, and Dr , Head of FNLA, during electoral registration 11. Angolan youth before the election, Luanda, September 1992 12. Women waiting in line to cast their votes in the Sumbe hinterland on 30 September 1992. 13. A cartoon of the author which appeared in the Jornal de Angola on 26 September 1992. 14. A UN medals' parade in UNAVEM Headquarters 15. Refugees fleeing from the fighting which erupted again after the elections 16. Inauguration of Abidjan negotiations, April 1993 (the author with Foreign Minister Essy ofC6te d'Ivoire).

IX This page intentionally left blank Foreword

This is the personal story of my experiences as Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the for Angola and Head of the United Nations Angola Verification Mission from February 1992 to June 1993. It is the distillation of a more detailed analysis of my mission, which interested researchers may consult in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The aim of this book is to try to convey some flavour of what it was like to live through that turbulent time while at the same time recording the events as they happened. No one who was there could regard it as other than a traumatic experience. In stark contrast to the ferocity of the conflict that has riven their country for 30 years, individual Angolans are amiable and relaxed, generous in their instincts and endowed with a charm and inveterate gaiety that combine traits both African and Lusitanian. While stoically enduring the most unimaginable sufferings, the Angolan people have long yearned for peace. At no time was that longing more tellingly expressed than on 29 and 30 September 1992. On those two historic days more than four million of them - over 90 per cent of the registered voter population, an unheard of turnout for any Western country of long democratic tradition - waited patiently in line (sometimes overnight) to make their prefer­ ence known in the first democratic elections ever held in Angola, some of them having walked many long miles to the polling station. It was a logistical miracle that it had been possible to organise elections at all in that huge, war-ravaged country, practically devoid of infrastructure. It was a further miracle that the elections passed off peacefully, in an atmosphere of great serenity and civic responsibility. That in itself was testimony to the Angolans' wish for a democra­ tic and peaceful outcome that would allow them to get on with their lives and develop the enormous riches of their beautiful land. The ensuing debacle was all the more shattering, above all for Angolans but also for foreigners committed to seeing the peace process through. And when our desperate efforts to retrieve the situation foundered, the tragedy developed into one of incalculable proportions. Worse still, it was a tragedy that left the world unmoved and unaware. Former Yugoslavia, Somalia and Cambodia were constantly in the headlines and on the television screens. Angola scarcely rated a mention, although the toll of human death and suffering was on a larger scale than in Bosnia. In colonial times the Portuguese dubbed the south-eastern region of Angola, whose inhospitable terrain rebuffed their attempts at conquest over several centuries, as the "Terras do Fim Mundo' - the 'Lands at the end of the world'. Now, in the late twentieth century, that epithet has come to take on a new significance for the country as a whole. That is why, whenever I had a chance to speak to a wider public from distant Luanda, I called it 'the forgotten tragedy', a phrase that caught on as did the later and equally true, expression 'the worst war in the world'. It is also why,

xi xii Foreword even after I ceased to have any official connection with Angola, I could not dis­ engage myself and have felt impelled to seize any opportunity to bring this shocking catastrophe to the attention of anyone willing to listen. It is why I have written this book. And it is why I dedicate it to the Angolan people and their sur­ vival. There is another purpose. The Angolan operation began just before the great burgeoning of peacekeeping efforts in the wake of the Cold War. A new hope was vested in the United Nations and huge demands were made of it, accompa­ nied by great expectations. But all too often, inadequate resources and ambigu­ ous mandates have led to massive disappointment and accusations of ineffectiveness. Such oversimplistic reactions ignored the complexities of the situations the United Nations was called upon to deal with, more often than not with one hand tied behind its back. They also conveniently overlooked the fact that the United Nations is much more than the Secretariat and the UN forces and civilian staff on the ground, whatever their shortcomings. So the short burst of popularity for the UN after the Cold War has deteriorated into a crisis of confidence, still at its height as I write. There are, inevitably, lessons to be learned from the UN's involvement in Angola - lessons for the Secretariat, for the member states, indeed for the inter­ national community as a whole. It is not my intention to attempt to 'whitewash' the United Nations - after 41 years in its service I am all too aware of its fail­ ings, many of them deriving from the very international character of its constitu­ tion and structure. One of its endemic problems has been a failure to analyse and learn from particular experiences - positive and negative - and to apply those lessons to future operations. What I do hope to do is to put the UN's role in Angola, its achievements (for there were some) and failures into some kind of perspective, and suggest the lessons that may be culled. Whether or not those lessons are acted upon will now depend on others.

Villa Margarita San Pedro de Tiquina Lake Titicaca Bolivia MARGARET JOAN ANSTEE Acknowledgements lowe an inmense debt of gratitude to my aunt Christina Mills. Not only did she bear uncomplainingly the loneliness and worry of my long absence in Angola, always having something cheerful and amusing to say when we did manage to speak and providing the brief haven of Knill whenever I could escape, but without her constant encouragement this book would never have been finished. She read every word of every draft and spurred me on at moments when daily reliving the tragedy of Angola seemed almost too painful to bear. Many others have helped me, not least those who lived and worked with me in Angola. Particular thanks are due to colleagues in UNAVEM who made available their own notes, diaries or personal reminiscences, notably Colonel Roger Mortlock and members of the New Zealand contingent, which he com­ manded so superbly, Tom White, my ever-reliable Chief Administrative Officer, and Gaby Parry, who won the admiration of all for her work as electoral coordi­ nator in the eastern region, based in Luena, . John Flynn, now British Ambassador in Caracas, Venezuela, gave up valuable time to check my recollections of the ceasefire negotiations we conducted from the bowels of the British Embassy during the battle for Luanda, and of other aspects of that dreadful weekend, described in Chapter 17, and provided me with the other half of his historic telephone conversation with Jonas Sawimbi. Ambassador Antonio Monteiro, now Director General of the Portuguese Foreign Ministry in Lisbon, and Dr. Onofre dos Santos, formerly the Director General of the Elections, also filled in gaps in my memory of key events. From further afield Professor Gerald Bender of the University of California and Shawn McCormick of the Centre for Strategic and International Studies in Washington were generous with advice and back-up information, as was Alex Vines of Africa Watch. In the final stages Professor Alan James of Keile University provided invaluable counsel on the reduction of the original text to its published length. Logistical production of the text encompassed several continents and lowe thanks to Malena Pacheco Revilla in Bolivia, Jane Deem in New York, Paula Clay, Margaret Hofman and Katharine Paull in the United Kingdom and, most especially of all, Isabel Berclaz-Lewis in Geneva, without whose herculean efforts and technical expertise a final, edited and homonegeous typescript would not have seen the light of day. Many friends and former colleagues were generous with photographs - more than could be accommodated in the space available. Appropriate acknowledge­ ment is made on each of the plates included. Particular thanks are due to Marco Vercrusse for the photograph on the jacket and for others inside, as well as to Professor Bender for the collages and for his remarkable technical skill in

xiii xiv Acknowledgements making the newspaper cartoon suitable for reproduction. I am also grateful to the United Nations for the use of some of the photographs.

MARGARET JOAN ANSTEE Dramatis Personae*

United Nations Headquarters

Kofi Annan First Assistant Secretary-General (and Deputy to Marrack Goulding), then Under­ Secretary General (from March 1993) in the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. Horacio Boneo In charge of electoral technical assistance. Dr Boutros Boutros-Ghali Secretary -General. Virendra Dayal Under-Secretary-General and Chef de Cabinet to the Secretary-General. Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs. Ambassador Gharekhan Indian Permanent Representative to the UN, later Under-Secretary-General in the Secretary-General's Office. Marrack Goulding Under-Secretary-General (first in the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) then (from March 1993) in the Department of Political Affairs (DPA)). Major Hornsby Field Operations Division. James Jonah Under-Secretary-General. Alvaro de Soto Assistant Secretary-General in the Secretary-General's Office. Dmitry Titov Angolan desk officer in DPKO.

UNAVEMII Military Brigadier Hussein Aly Deputy Chief Military Observer (until August 1992). Sergeant Adilson Barboza Costa UNPO killed in Uige. Lt Col. William Egar UNMO, Capanda, then Chief Operations Officer. Captain Essam UNMO in Kuito/Bie (commended for gallantry). Major Stephen Honest Chief Operations Officer. Colonel Jamwal Chief of Staff, then Regional Commander, Lubango.

*Inthe functions which they occupied duringthe period covered by this book.

xv xvi Dramatis Personae Colonel Hank Morris Chief of Air Support Logistics Group (elections). Colonel Roger Mortlock Regional Commander, . Brigadier Michael Nyambuya Liaison Officer with FALA, then Deputy Chief Military Observer and ultimately Acting Chief Military Observer (December 1992- July 1993). Major Ribeiro Chief Police Observer. Captain Waldicir Rosas Medical Officer. Colonel Cameron Ross Chief of Staff. Major Dennis Strilchuk Head of Movement Control. Major General Edward Chief Military Observer (until December Ushie Unimna 1992).

Civilian Joao Albuquerque Author's spokesman. Afonso Almeida Interpreter/translator. Senhor Andrade Gardener at Vila Espa. Hugo Anson Senior Political Adviser Antonio Moreira de Barros Author's personal bodyguard. SammyBuo Chief Electoral Officer (from May 1992). Mr. Driggers Flight engineer (electoral air support unit). Deolinda Leitao Green Secretary Maria Grossi Deputy Chief Electoral Officer. Ebrima Jobarteh Executive Director Elizabeth Pantale6n Personal assistant to the author. Christian Prat-Vincent Interpreter/translator Peter Scott-Bowden Special assistant to the author (from December 1992). Sigurdsson (Sigi) Author's personal bodyguard. Manuel Aranda de Silva Director, Humanitarian Coordination Unit (from April 1993). A. Mpazi Sinjela Legal Adviser. Patricia Stott Personal assistant to the author. (AprillMay 1992) John Truman Chief Electoral Officer (AprillMay 1992). Thomas White Chief Administrative Officer.

Other UN Personnel Lucinda Matos de Almeyda Deputy Head, UNDP electoral technical assistance team. Maitre Alioune Blondin Beye Author's successor as Special Representative of the Secretary-General. Dramatis Personae xvii Philippe Borel Representative of World Food Programme. Miguel da Graca Resident Representative ofUN Development Programme. Sergio Vieira de Melo UNHCR official, proposed successor to the author, rejected by Dr Savimbi. Jose Julio dos Reis Head, UNDP electoral technical assis­ tance team. Layashi Yaker Executive Secretary, UN Economic Commission for Africa.

Joint Political and Military Commission (CCPM)

Colonel, later General, Member of Government Delegation. General Chilingutila Member of UNITA Delegation. Dr Abel Chivukuvuku UNITA 'Foreign Minister' and Deputy Head of UNITA Delegation. General Ciel Da Member ofGovernment Delegation. Concepcao ('Gato') General Antonio dos Head of Government Delegation. Santos Franca (N'dalu) General Ita Member of Government Delegation. Ambassador Edmund de Jarnette Head of US Observer Delegation. (From October 1992.) Ambassador Yuri Kapralov Head of Russian Federation Observer Delegation. (until November 1992.) General 'Mackenzie' Member ofUNITA Delegation. Ambassador Jeffrey Millington Head of US Observer Delegation. (until October 1992) Ambassador Antonio Monteiro Head of Portuguese Observer Delegation. General Armindo Lucas Member of UNITA Delegation . Paulo ('Gato') Eng ineer Elias Salupeto Pena Head of UNITA Delegation (and nephew ofDr Savimbi). Dr Vladimir Petukov Head of Russian Federation Observer. Delegation (until November 1992). General Rasoilo Member of Government Delegation. Interior Vice Minister Fernando Deputy Head of Government Delegation. de Piedade Dias dos Santos ('Nando') General Tadeo Member of UNITA Delegation . General Zacharias Member ofUNITA Delegation. xviii Dramatis Personae 'The Troika' (Senior Representatives of the three Observer Countries)

Minister Durao Barroso Secretary for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, later Foreign Minister of . Ambassador Herman Assistant Secretary of State for Africa, ('Hank') Cohen US State Department (up to January 1993). Ambassador Karasin Foreign Ministry, Russian Federation.

Ad hoc Commission of the Security Council (October 1992)

Ambassador Jose Luis Jesus Permanent Representative ofCape Verde to the UN (Head of Mission). Ambassador Valentin Deputy Permanent Representative of the V. Lozinsky Russian Federation to the UN. Ambassador Joseph E. Perkins Permanent Representative of the United States to the UN. Ambassador Ahmed Snoussi Permanent Representative of Morocco to the UN.

Government ofAngola/MPLA

Dr Manuel Baltazar Governor of . Dr Lazaro Dias Minister ofJustice, later Deputy Head of Parliament and columnist. H.E. Fernando J De Franca Prime Minister, later President of Dias van Dunem Congress. Dr Paulo Jurge Governor of Benguela province. Dr Antonio Minister of Territorial Administration (From May 1992). Dr Victor Lima Foreign Affairs adviser to the President. H.E. Pedro de Castro van Foreign Minister. Dunem ('Loy') General Joao de Matos Chief of General Staff, FAA (from December 1992). Ambassador M'binda Permanent Representative to the UN. Dr Joao de Miranda Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs. Dr Secretary General of MPLA, later Prime Minister. H.E. Venancio de Moura Vice Minister for Foreign Affairs, later Foreign Minister. Dr Faustino Muteka Head of Government Delegation at the Addis Ababa and Abidjan negotiations. Dramatis Personae xix Dr Lopo de Nascimento Minister of Territorial Administration until May 1992 General Pedro Neto FAPLA, later head of the FAA Air Force. Dr Minister of Trade. Ambassador Jose Patricio Angolan Ambassador to the OAS in Washington and liaison with US State Department. General Santana Andre Vice-Minister of the Interior in charge of Pitra ('Petroff) the police, later Minister of the Interior. Admiral Gaspar Rufino FAPLA,later head of the FAA Navy. H.E. Jose Eduardo dos Santos . Dr Norberto dos Santos Minister of Social Affairs .

UNITA

General Andrade General taken into Government custody in Luanda after the battle for the city. Brigadier Apollo UNITA Commander in Uige. General 'Ben-Ben' Chief of General Staff (and nephew of Dr Savimbi). General Bock Close military adviser of Dr. Savimbi. Norberto de Castro Spokesman on VORGAN, later member of Parliament. Dr Jeremiah Chitunda Vice-President ofUNITA (until October 1992). General Dembo Vice-President ofUNITA (after Dr. Chitunda's death). 'George' Dr Savimbi's private secretary. Dr Victor Hossi UNITA delegate to NEC, later Dr Savimbi 's nominee for Minister of Culture in central Government (never assumed post). Dr Jaka Jamba UNITA' s 'Minister' of Culture. John Marques Kakumba UNITA representative in Abidjan . Lt. Col. Katu UNITA Commander in Quilenges, Huila province. Alicerces Mango Secretary-General of UNITA (until October 1992). General Eugenio Manuvakola Deputy Secretary-General, later Secretary­ General of UNITA (after Mr Mango's death) and leader of UNITA Delegation at Addis Ababa negotiations. xx Dramatis Personae Dr Carlos Morgado Dr Savimbi's nominee for Vice-Minister of Social Assistance in central Government (never assumed post). Jardo Muekalia UNITA representative in Washington. General Numa Commander at Caxito. Mrs Fatima Roque UNITA's 'Minister' of Finance. Brigadier Paolo Sachiambo Delegate to Addis Ababa and Abidjan negotiations. Brigadier Samakuva UNITA representative in London. Marcos Samondo UNITA representative to the UN. H.E. Dr Jonas Malheiro Savimbi President of UNITA. General Jeronimo Ukeme Delegate to Addis Ababa negotiations. J0800 Vahekeni UNITA representative in Geneva. Dr Jorge Valentim UNITA's 'Minister' ofInformation, leader of UNITA Delegation at Abidjan negotiations. General Wambo General taken into Government custody in Luanda after the battle for the city. Brigadier Wenda UNITA liaison with UNAVEM Regional Command in Huambo

Other Angolan Personalities

Ambassador Almeida Spokesman of National Electoral Council and Ambassador to Ethiopia. Afonso Catumbo FAPLA prisoner who escaped from UNITA Dr Jorge Chicoty FDA leader (later Deputy Foreign Minister). Tito Chingunji prominent UNITA member who was killed in late 1991. Dr Daniel Chipenda senior MPLA member, later presidential candidate for PNDA. Francisco Domingo electoral official, only survivor of the third helicopter crash. Dr Tony da Costa Fernandes UNITA's 'Foreign Minister' who defected in March 1992 with General Puna to form their own party. Dr Paulo Pinto Joao CNDA leader. Dr Andre Kilandamoko PSDA leader. Jose Manuel Miguel CSD leader. Dr Sebastian Miguel PAJOCA. Monsenhor Alexandre Cardinal Archbishop of Luanda. do Nascimento Dramatis Personae xxi Dr Founder of MPLA and first President of Angola (died 1979). Dr Alberto Neto PDA leader. Dr Adriano Parrena PAl leader. Dr Luis dos Passos PRD leader. General Miguel N'Zau Puna UNITA's Interior 'Minister' who defected in March 1992 with Dr da Costa Fernandes to form their own party. Dr Holden Roberto President FNLA. Dr Onofre dos Santos Director-General of the Elections. Wilson dos Santos Prominent UNITA member who was killed in the late 1991. Sra Analia Marfa Caldeira The only woman presidential candidate de Vitoria P. Simeao (for PLD). Dr Antonio Caetano de Sousa President, National Electoral Council. N'Zita Tiago Leader ofFLECIFAC. Eng. Mfulupinga N'Landa Victor PDP/ANA leader.

United States

Ambassador Madeleine Albright US Permanent Representative to the UN. Professor Gerald Bender University ofCalifornia. Doug Bereuter Member of Permanent Select Committee of Intelligence of the House of Representatives. Robert Cabelly Director, Department of Southern African Affairs, State Department. Chester Crocker Former Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs and Co-Chair of the CSIS Study Group on Angola. Ambassador Jeffrey Davidow Deputy Assistant Secretary for Africa. Major Fritz Military adviser in Luanda. Senator Nancy Kassebaum Co-Chair of the CSIS Study Group of Angola. Shawn McCormick Assistant Director ofStudies, CSIS. Dave MeCurdy Member of Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence of the House of Representatives. Mr Metelits U.S. liaison officer, Luanda. Ambassador George Moose Assistant Secretary of State for Africa (from early 1993). Tony Newton US liaison officer, Luanda. Richard Roth Deputy Director, of Southern African Affairs, State Department. xxii Dramatis Personae Martin Olav Sabo Member of Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence of the House of Representatives. Bud Schuster Member of Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence of the House of Representatives. Nancy Soderberg National Security Council. Maurice Tempelsman Co-Chair of the CSIS Study Group on Angola. Ambassador Walker US Deputy Permanent Representative to the UN. Ambassador Jennifer Ward NationalSecurity Council. James Woods U.S . Department of Defence (Pentagon).

Other Personalities

Pik Botha Foreign Minister of South Africa. Mr and Mrs Chambers UK hostages taken by UNITA during the battle of Luanda. Minister Amara Essy Foreign Minister of Cote d'Ivoire. Ambassador John Flynn British Ambassador to Angola. Dr Hage Geingob Prime Minister of Namibia. Colonel Bob Griffiths Military Attache, British Embassy. Ambassador Gert J. Grobler Chief of the Directorate for Southern Africa, South African Department of External Affairs. Sir David Hannay UK Permanent Representative to the UN. King Hassan II King of Morocco. Elizabeth (Sissy) Hejny Author's housekeeper. President Felix President ofCote d'Ivoire. Houphoiiet-Boigny Mr Kruger Acting Head of the South African Liaison Office in Luanda. Karl Maier Independent correspondent. Ambassador Marker Permanent Representative of Pakistan to the UN. Ambassador Aziz Mekouan Moroccan Ambassador to Angola. Christina Mills Author's aunt. Dr Robert Mugabe President of . M. Nicaud ICRC representative in Luanda. H.E. Sam Nujoma President of Namibia. Julian Ozanne Financial Times correspondent. Ambassador Rocha Paris Portuguese Ambassador to Angola.

xxii Dramatis Personae xxiii Colonel Fred Rindel Senior Staff Officer of the South African Defence Force (SADF). Ambassador Margaret Rothwell British Ambassador to Cote d'Ivoire. Ambassador Salim-Salim Secretary General, OAU. Ambassador Stewart Permanent Ambassador of South Africa to the UN. Ambassador Vorontsov Permanent Representative to the UN of the Russian Federation. List of Abbreviations

ACMO Acting Chief Military Observer CAO Chief Administrative Officer CASO Chief ofStaff for Air Operations CCFA Joint Commission for the Formation of the Angolan Armed Forces CCPM Comisao Conjunta Politica Militar (Joint Political Military Commission) CEO Chief Electoral Officer CMO Chief Military Observer CMVF Joint Ceasefire Verification and Monitoring Commission CNDA Convencao Nacional Democratica de Angola COO Chief Operations Officer CSIS Centre ofInternational and Strategic Studies, Washington DCMO Deputy Chief Military Observer DHA Department of Humanitarian Affairs (UN) DPA Department of Political Affairs (UN) DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations (UN) ECA UN Economic Commission for Africa EC European Community FAA Porcas Armadas Angolanas (Angolan Armed Forces) FALA UNITA forces FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FAPLA MPLAlGovernment forces FDA Foro Democratico Angolano FLEC Frente de Libertacao del Enclave de Cabinda (Front for the Liberation of the Cabinda enclave) FLECIFAC Radical arm of FLEC FNLA Frente Nacional de Libertacao de Angola (National Front for the Liberation of Angola) GPS Global Positioning Systems ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross MOVCON Movement Control MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola) NEC National Electoral Council NGO Non-Governmental Organization OAS Organization of American States OAU Organization of African Unity PAl Partido Angolano Independiente

xxiv List ofAbbreviations xxv PAJOCA Partido da Alianca da Juventude Operaria e Camponesa de Angola PC Political Commission of CCPM PDA Partido Democratico Angolano PDP-ANA Partido Democratico para 0 Progreso da Alianza Nacional Angolana PEC Provincial Electoral Council PLD Partido Liberal Democratico PRD Partido Renovador Democratico PSD Partido Social Democratico SAAF South African Air Force SADF South African Defence Force SC Security Council SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary-General UN United Nations UNAVEM United Nations Angola Verification Mission UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNDTCD United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development UNFPA United Nations Fund for Population Activities UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees U~ICEF United Nations Childrens Fund UNITA Uniao Nacional para a Independencia Total de Angola (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola). UNMO United Nations Military Observer UNOV United Nations Office at Vienna UNPO United Nations Police Observer US United States VORGAN Voice of the Black Cockerel (UNITA radio) WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization