Vol.1939 56'1J ALLEN',OnNicolas Denys 283

NICOLAS DENYS, A FORGOTTEN OBSERVER OF BIRDS

BY ELSA G. ALLEN

TRE name , thoughfamiliar to all of us, doesnot conveya very clear conceptionof the region'searly vast extent, and while Longfellowhas memorablypictured for us the grand beauty of Nova Scotia,Evangeline's home, few are aware that in the mid-seventeenthcentury Acadiaincluded, besidesNova Scotia, all of New Brunswickand Prince Edward Island, a portionof Quebecand a largepart of the Stateof Maine. It wasin this generalregion that Johnand SebastianCabot werecruising when they discoveredthe rockboundcoast of Newfoundlandand claimed the country for Henry VII of England in 1497. Along the samecoast, in 1524, cameGiovanni da Verranzanno,a Florentinenavigator in the service of , and in 1534 came the famousFrench explorer,Jacques Cartier, tighteningthe hold whichFrance had upon this disputedterritory. There followednearly a hundredyears during which England and France were competingfor supremacy,and in 1621 the Scot, Sir William Alexander, poet and statesmanand author of 'Encouragementto Colonies'(1625), receivedfrom the King of England a grant of Acadia with permissionto colonize,although at this time it actually belongedto France. He estab- lisheda colonyat Port Royal in 1629,and in 1630a secondexpedition with colonists,inchiding the elder La Tour and his English wife, came to Port Royal to take possessionof the baronetcyof Nova Scotiaunder Sir William Alexanderwho was governorof the whole. This marriagepresupposed allegianceto the British crown,and the youngerLa Tour, holdinganother baronetcyalong the coast,also was expected to givehomage and serviceto the British King. This, however,he refusedto do, with the result that Canadaand Acadiawere restored to Franceby the Treaty of St. Germain in 1632. By this time the Companyof New Francehad becomea powerfulorgani- zation in chargeof French affairsin America,and a very able commander, Isaacde Razilly, wasput at the headof the enterpriseof exploring,coloniz- ing and exploitingthe great countryof Acadia. Alexander'scolony at Port Royal surrenderedto him, and he fixedhis own capital at La Have, a strate- gic locationfor the fishingindustry and a suitableone alsofor colonization. Here the first French families of Acadia were planted, and here came in 1632 and eventually made himself a leader in the land. He was born at Tours in 1598, of goodand rather notedparentage, but early in life was apprenticedto the fisherybusiness and in his thirties definitely took up his life in America,engaging in preparingand shippinglumber and fish to France. The vicissitudesof his life duringthe renewedhostilities of 284 ALLEN,On Nicolas Denys [July[Auk the Englishin Acadiaare a longseries of hardshipsand injusticesinvolving the lossof manythqusand francs and unwarranted imprisonment which was renderedmore bitter by the death of his chief and benefactor,, in 1635. For manyyears he lived at Miseouwith hisfamily, includingtwo children, kept severalgardens, and slowlyamassed, through his other businessinter- estsa modestfortune. In December,1653, he went to France and bought from the Companyof "a grant (with) the coastsand islandsin the Gulf of Saint Lawrencefrom Cape Cansoto Cape Rosiersin the Gasp4 Peninsula." This gave him a monopolyof the fur trade, and, in 1654, he was made governorof all this territory, including Newfoundland. He controlledalso the "sedentary or fixed fisheriesas far as Virginia." Thus temporarily securingand having accomplishedthe surrenderof previous commandersin theseparts, he was the ranking man of the easternpart of all Acadiaand was made governorof it at the age of fifty-six. After the death of his friend and patron, Razilly, however, and the accessionof D'Aulnay, to whom Denys was then subservient,his careerwas largely frustrated. His gardensat Miscou were seized,and althoughpay- ment for them was promised,the moneywas never received. Denys then movedto Nepisiguit,but theseproperties were likewise seized by Le Borgue, and altogether,through the lossof his fortuneand his discouragementinel- dent to continualinternal strife, Denys was made to appear an incompetent governorin the eyesof authoritiesin the homeland,and he went back to Franceleaving his sonRichard in chargeof his affairsin Acadia. It wassaid that he lived in actual want for many yearsin Paris, but still cherishedan abiding affectionfor his adoptedcountry in America. He returned to Nepisiguitin 1687and diedat his formerhome in 1688,an old and disap- pointedbut loyal subjectof his King at ninety years. During NicolasDenys's residence in Acadia,he wrote his experiencesin a two-volumework, 'Descriptionand Natural History of the Coastsof North America,'which was publishedin Paris in 1672. This is one of the most thoroughearly accountsof the regionof Acadiaand, althoughthe title in mentioning"Coasts of North America" is far too inclusive,it seems strangeit wasnot givenrecognition sooner. It passedunread in America for over a centuryand receivedits first mentionhere in the 'North American Review' for 1816; but not until 1908 was it renderedinto English and re- printed, throughthe instrumentalityof the ChamplainSociety, by a pro- fessorof botanyat Smith College,Doctor William FrancisGanong. Doctor Ganong'sCanadian background and scientifictraining receivedat the University of New Brunswickand elsewhere,made him appreciativeof Denys'sknowledge of the plant and animallife of his domain,and sincehis bird lore has apparentlybeen largely overlooked by ornithologists,I have Vol.1939 56]J ALLEN,On Nicolas Denys 285

goneover his accountof the birds to try to gain someappreciation of his powersof ornithologicalobservation back in the late seventeenthcentury. His longexperience in the fishery,fur and lumbertrades gave him above all elsea love and understandingof businessand his biographercites the man's chief maxim: "Profit, the chief concernof all men." This doesnot point to a great aestheticsense nor doesit connotethe true scientist. We may thereforeexpect his observationson birdsto be a ratherdry unembel- lishedrecord of what he sawas he practicedhis varioustrades--not literary in quality (and of this the author wasaware) but practical,with attention to the marketvalue and gustatorymerits of the variousspecies. Neverthe- less,his descriptionsin mostcases embody a greatdeal of accurateobserva- tion of the habits,particularly of the seabirds,and his observationson the landbirdscontain much of interestto the naturalistas well as manyquaint folk beliefs. BecauseDenys doesnot appearto have gainedrecognition among ornithologistsit seemsdesirable to quote rather fully from his chapterson birds. p. 266. "It is also worth while to know that upon the Bank, which is twenty [49]• five leaguesfrom the nearestland, there are to be seenso great a quantity of birds as to be almost unbelievable,such as Fulmars (Happefoye), Petrels (Croiseurs), Guillemots (Poniesde mer), Great Auks (Pennegoins),and many other sorts. "I shall speakonly of theseparticular ones. The Fulmars (Happefoye) are very gluttonousbirds. They are thus called becausethey live on the liver of the Cod. If they seea ship engagedin fishingthey assemblein very great numbersaround her to seizethe liverswhich fall into the sea. As soonas oneof theseis thrown in, more than fifty of thesebirds pounceupon it, and fight among themselvesto secureit. They comeclose up to the vessel,and sometimesone is able to kill them [50] with a pole. Their gluttony makes them easily taken by meansof hookswhich are attached at the end of a little line, with which the fishermenare furnishedon purpose. This line is supportedupon the water by a pieceof cork, and a fragment of liver is placedupon the hook. This is thrown as far off as possible. Immediately thesebirds fight as to which onewill capture it. After a smart struggle,tinally one seizesit, and is caught by the beak, [and] is drawn on board. It is necessaryto take great care that it does not seizethe hand. Its upper beak is hooked,and passesmuch over the under. If it bites it piercesthe finger or the hand. When it has beentaken from the hook and allowedto go [51] upon the quarter-deck,it doesnot fly away. It doesnot know how to rise, at leastwhen it is not on the water. This fisheryprovides a great amusement. "The Petrels (Croiseurs)are birds which also come to eat the livers, but they do not approachso near. They are called Croiseursbecause they are ever crossingon the seafrom one sideto the other. Their flight is different from that of other birds in this,that they fly, so to speak,crosswise, having one wing up towards the sky and the othertowards the sea,so that, in orderto turn, they bring the upperwing under- most. It is found always from the time one is at sea a hundred leaguesfrom land as far as New France. [52] A day never passesthat one doesnot see them go crossing from one side to the other. This is in order to find some little fish to eat, of those

The reader may disregard these rumbers in brackets which refer to the original French pagination. 286 ALLEN,On Nicolaz Denys [July[Auk which exist between wind and water, such as the Flying Fish, the Herring, the Sardine, and others on which it lives. "The Guillemot (Poule de mer) is thus called for its resemblance to this land animal. It lives also on little fish and livers. It is not gluttonous,but tamer than the others. It is always flying around the ship, and if it perceivesany entrails, it throws itseft upon them." Denys'sremarks on the Great Auk are of particularinterest since there is no mentionof his descriptionof this extinct speciesin Alfred Newton's 'Abstractof Mr. John Wolley'sresearches' (Ibis, 1861,p. 374-399) nor in the review of the paper, 'The Gare-fowland its historians,'by Professor J. J. Steenstrup(Natural History Review, 1865,p. 467-468) nor yet in Hardy'sarticle (Auk, 5: 380-384,1888). Denyswrites of the Great Auk as follows: "The Great Auk (Pennegoin)is another bird, variegatedin white and black. It doesnot fly. It has only two stumpsof wingswith which [53]it beatsupon the water to aid in fleeingor diving. It is claimedthat it dives even to the bottom to seekits prey upon the Bank. It is found more than a hundredleagues from land, where, nevertheless,it comesto lay its eggs,like the others. When they have had their young, they plunge into the water; and their young place themselvesupon their backs, and are carried like this as far as the Bank. There one seessome no larger than chickens,although they growas largeas geese. All thosebirds are [considered] goodto eat by the fishermen. As for myselfI do not find them agreeable. They taste of oil becauseof the quantity of fish and of livers they eat; and they serveto make fish oil. [54] The fishermencollect them for this purpose. There are vessels which have made as much as ten or twelve puncheons[a measureof 72 to 120 gallons] of it. This is nearly everythingwhich is practicedin the fisheryfor greenCod upon the Grand Bank." Chapter XIX of the secondvolume is given over to a further discussion of seabirds,or at least the principal ones,for he says" the num- ber is too great for me to rememberthem all." It is an interestingaccount but, withal, containsseveral errors and many or•ssions,which the editor, Doctor Ganong,has briefly dealt with by meansof footnotes. Like most othertravellers of this time Denysfell into the commonmistake of thinking the Americanforms like thoseof Europe,and was primarily concernedwith the value of the variouskinds of birds as food, althoughother pertinent facts of interestare includedand indicatethat he was a goodobserver. A paragraphon the Brant bearsout this statement. p. 372. "The Brant (Cravan) is scarcelysmaller than the small Goose. Its taste is also very pleasant, [303] roasted and boiled, but not salted. It is browner in plumage,the neck is shorter,and there is no white under the throat. It is a bird of passage;it only comesinto the country in summer,and it goesaway in winter. It is not knownwhence it comesnor whither it goes. No onehas ever seenit producing its young. If it were not for the taste, which is infinitely better than that of the Widgeon (Macreuse)•I would say they were the samething. The plumageis very

• This speCies was permitted as a Lenten dish because of the supposed rese•nblance of its off to fish-off. Vol.1939 56]J ALLEN,On Nicolas Denys 287 much alike, but to eat it in Lent would be too delightful They live also on grass, with some little shell-fish or worms which are found in the sand. "The Ducks are all like those of France, as to plumage and goodness. Those which have the wing blue and the feet red are the [304]best. Those with grey feet, whichhave alsothe wing blue, hardly differ in goodness.There is anotherkind of them which has not the blue wing, but they are not so good. There is seenalso other specieswhich has the plumagebright brown; of this speciesthe male is white, with black at the end of the wing. The male and the female are never together,and only assemblein springwhen they mate. When the femalesbegin to make their neststhey separate. The malesgo in flocksby themselves,and the femalesthe same. If one firesupon the females,unless he kills them entirely dead,they are lost; for so soonas they are woundedthey dive, and they seizewith their beak any, even the smallest,grass they find, [305] and die there, and do not comeagain to the surface. They are not goodin other respects;they taste of oil like the Widgeon. "As for the Teal (Sarcelle),it is familiar in France. One knows its value as well as that of the Great Northern Diver (Plong•on), and the Mud-hen, or Coot (Poule d'eau), and this is why I shall not speakfurther of them. There are seenalso quan- tities of other birdsof the big-nessof Ducks,such as the Spoonbill(Palonne), which has the beak about a foot long and round at the end like an oven shovel;the Night Heron (Egret), whichhas three little feathersstraight up on its head;the Sheldrake (Bec de scie),which has the beak formedlike a saw;the Long-tailedDuck (Cacaouy), becauseit pronouncesthis word for its note; the Buffie-headDucks (Marionet~[306] tes), becausethey run leapingupon the water; the Razor-billed Auk (Gode), a bird which flies as swiftly as an arrow, black and white in its plumage;the Cormorant (Cormoran) which devotesitself to the catchingof fish. Their neck is tied near the stomach,which prevents them from swallowing,and beingthus prevented,they carry their fish ashore. "There are Plovers (Allouettes)of three sorts. The largestare of the bignessof large Robin (Merle) of greyishcolour, and they have long feet. Others, which are scarcelyless large, have the beak longer. Othersare like Sparrowsand little Chaf- finches. All that gamegoes in flockstogether, always along the edgeof the sea,where there is any beach. The Sandpipers(Chevalliers) are a kind of Snipe (Beccasse) which have the beak very long. They live [307]on small wormsand other things whichthey find in the sandon the borderof the sea. They are of the samesize, have legsas long,and the plumageredder than the Small Snipe(Beccassine). "The Terns or Mackerel Gulls (Esterlais) are other birds, large as a Pigeon, which live on Fish. Flying alwaysin the air, if they perceivetheir prey they fall upon it like a stone,seize it with their beak and swallowit. The Herring Gull (Goislan) is much larger, lives upon fish and livers or entrails of Cod, but only capturesthat which is floatingupon the sea. There are also a numberof otherswhich I do not remember. All thosekinds of birds are good to eat, as are also all their eggs,aside from those of the Cormorant. Throughout the country, there [308] are found num- bersof Herons(H•rons), whichare alwaysupon the bordersof the seaor of the ponds, and live on little fish which occur in the holes where the water remains when the tide falls, or (else)on the borderof the water in the ponds. They make their nestsin the thick woodswhich occur on islands. They are goodto eat and have sevengalls and are alwaysthin. As for the youngthey are better and alwaysfat." Continuingwith the landbirds,Denys writes in ChapterXXI, p. 390: "The Duck-hawk (Faucon), the Goshawk (Autour), and the Pigeon-hawk (Tierce- 288 A•.•.EN,OnNicolas Denys [JlllyAuk

let) have the plumagelike thosewhich are seenin France. The claw and the beak are the same. They prey on [337]the Partridge, the Pigeon,and other birds of that strength. The Pigeon-hawkhas not a goodclaw for seizingthe Partridge,though it is goodfor the Pigeon, and for other little birds. There occursthere another kind of Hawk. This capturesonly fish. It is alwaysflying overwater; if it catchessight of somefish it dropsupon it moreswiftly than a stonecan fa•l. It takesits prey in its claw and carries it off to a tree to devour it. "There are three kinds of Partridges (Perdrix), the red, the grey, and the black. The red is the best, equal to that of France for fleshand taste. The grey has a differ- ent taste from that of France; it suggestsvenison. Somepersons find its taste better [338]than that of the red. As for the black it hasthe head and the eyesof a Pheasant (Faisan); the flesh is brown, and the taste of venison so strong that ! find it less goodthan the others. They taste of Juniperberries, with a flavour of Fir. They eat of theseseeds which the othersdo not. All thesekinds of Partridgeshave long tails. They openthem, like a Turkey, into a fan. They are very beautiful. The red hasa medley of red, brown, and grey--the grey of two shades,one bright and the other brown, the black of grey and black. They have beenbrought into France and given to sundry persons,who have had fans made of them, which have been considered beautiful. They all perch,and are so silly that if you meet with [339]a flock of them upon a tree, you may shootthem all one after the other without their flying away. And indeed if they are somewhatlow, so that you can touch them with a pole, it is (only) necessaryto cut one, and to attach to its end a cord or a little tape with a running knot, then to passit over their necksand pull them down. You may take them aJl alive one after another, carry them home, place them on the ground in a room, and feed them with grain. They eat it promptly, but they must not be able to get out or they will fly away. I have twice tried to bring someof them to France. They standwell all the lengthof the voyage,but whenapproaching France [340] they die, which has made me believethat our air must be contrary to their good." It is interestingto seethat Denystook cognizanceof threekinds of grouse in his territory. J.L. Peters,in his'Check List of Birdsof the World,' 1934, lists the Spruce Grouse, Canewhitescanadensis canace, and the Canada Ruffed Grouse,Bonasa umbellus togata, as characteristicof New Brunswick, and with regardto a third grouse,Bonasa umbellus thayeri, he saysthat it is found in the "Nova ScotJanPeninsula, possibly also eastern New Bruns- wick." ApparentlyDenys, likewise, recognized this variety as occurringin the Gasp•Peninsula where he lived sometwo hundredand sixty yearsago. It is a regrettableomission that Denyshas not madeany referenceto the grouse drummlng--a feature which usually impressedlater travellers. However, so far as I am aware, his accountgives the earliestrecord of the grousebeing transported to Europe,and it wouldseem that this fine species was no more amenablethen to artificial environmentthan it is today. "There are a•seWoodcock (Becasses de bois), but they are not common. They are foundoccasionally at the sourcesof springbrooks. "All the Crows (Corbeaux)of this countryare wholly black. The note is not the same(as ours). They are alsoas good to eat as chicken. "Also Night-hawks(Orfrayes) are met there, not so large as thoseof France. In summerthey are heard crying in the evening. Their cry is not so disagreeableas in Vol.1939 J ALLEN,O• NicolasDenys 289

France. They cry mountingin the air very high; then they let themselvesfall like a stone to within a good fathom of the ground, when they rise again; and this is a sign of goodweather. [341] The Barred Owl (Chat-huant) is of the plumageand size of that of France, and has a little white ruff. Its cry is not similar but there is little difference. All the birds make war upon it. Is better and more delicate eating than the chicken. It is alwaysfat. It feedsupon little Field-micewhich are in the woods. It makesprovision of them for the winter. It capturessome of them, whichit places in hollow trees. With its beak it breaks their fore legs in order that they may not escapeor crawl out. It collectshay in another tree to nourishthem, and brings them every day their provision,whilst it makesits own mealson theselittle animalsin proportion as they grow fat. "[342] There is also a bird which is called the Robin (Merle). It is related to the Starling (Etourneau) being less black than the [our] Merle, and less grey than the [our] Etourneau. It is not bad to eat. "One also meets there the Woodpeckers(Piquebols). They have plumage more beautiful than those of France, and are of the same size. There are otherswhich are calledRed-headed Woodpeckers (Gays), which are of a beautifulplumage; the head is all red, and the neck of real flame-colour. "The Humming Bird (OiseauMouche) is a little bird no larger than a cockchafer. The female has plumage of a golden green, the male the same, exceptingthe throat, whichis of a red brown. When it is seenin a certainlight it emits [343]a fire brighter than the ruby. They live only upon the honey which they collect from flowers. Their beak is long and of the thicknessof a little pin. Their tongue passesa little out of the beak, and is very slender. Their flight is swift, and they make a great noisein flying. They make their nestsin trees, and theseare of the sizeof a fifteen- sou piece. Their eggsare the size of peas;they lay three of them, or four or five or more. The attempt has been made to rear them, but it has not beenpossible to bring it about. "As for the Swallow (Hyrondelle) it is the sameas in France. It comesin spring, and returns at the end of autumn. They make their nests in houses,or against certain rockswhere they do not get wet. "[342] The Bat• (Chauve-souris)is also of the same sort as that of this country, but is muchlarger. It retiresin winter into the hollowsof trees,or amongthe rocks, and only appearsin summer." It is related by the editor of Nicolas Denys's 'Natural History' that Denys'sname is mirroredin a certainornithological tradition of the Meliseet Indians of the St. John'sRiver who were under the governorshipof Denys. According to Mr. Tappan Adney the Indians say that the Veery or Wilson'sThrush, one of the most beautiful songstersof this region, says "Ta-ne'-]i-ain ni-ko-la Den'-i, Den'-i?" which is to say, "Where are you goingNicolas Denys?" Adney believesthis is an echoof Denys'sresidence there. His name is probablyalso perpetuated in the River Denys of Cape Bre•n Island,but this is not proven,according to Dr. Ganong. A statuehas been suggested to commemoratein 1954the three-hundredth anniversaryof his governorship;this to be placedeither at Saint Petersor

• The bat is not mentioned in Denys's discussion of beasts, hence it would seem that, like many other early writers, he assumed that it was a bird. 290 AI.I.I•N,On Nicolas Denys [July[Auk at Nipisiguit(Bathhurst) where his bookwas written and wherehis grave is (R. R. MacLeod,Markland or Nova Scotia,Berwick, N. S., 1903,p. 187). Nicolas Denys, accordingto Tanguay's 'Dictiormaire G4n4alogique,' xnarriedMarguerite de la Faye, who bore him one son, Richard, and by a later marriagehe had a daughter,Marie. Tradition says that near the great willow on Denys'sold establishment somepriests and a French admiral lie buried. The editor of his 'Journals,' Dr. Ganong,says: "This Admiral, I believe,is Nicolas Denys. It is a satisfactionto think that here besidethis pleasantbasin where the least troubledof his days in Acadiawere spent,in the last embraceof the land he loved so well, reststhe mortal part of the proprietorand governorof all the gulf coastof Acadia, the first great citizen of that noble domain--a goodlyman who fought the goodfight and kept the faith--NicolasDenys." His biographerhas graphicallylikened Denys's book to a photograph slightlyout of focus,and this appearsto be true of Denys'sbird lore, as well as of his generaldescriptions. While in the main his observationson birds are good,and bespeaka criticaleye, they are damagedby an admixtureof inaccuracyand in someof hisdescriptions, for example,that of the wolverine and its methodof killing moose,and the Barred Owl and its habit of harbor- ing and caringfor live mice, we feel that he was not entirely abovethe weaknessof writing to pleasehis public. Likewisethe erroneousdistribu- tion of some birds, as the Sl:oonbill,indicated by Denys is proof that his writing was not entirelya recordof his ownobservations, but it contained alsoa considerableamount of hearsayand folk belief. Folklore is one of the most picturesqueelements of a national literature but onethat naturally is but slenderlyrepresented in Americanliterature. Let us thereforeappreciate Denys's bird lore for its firsthandobservation of many of our northern birds, and let us enjoy it more becauseof his colorful blendingof fact and fancy. Laboratoryof Ornithology CornellUniversity, Ithaca, New York