Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

State of the Coast Report: Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya.

Item Type Report

Publisher National Environment Management Authority

Download date 07/10/2021 11:04:13

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/7215 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

State of the Coast Report

Published in 2009 by the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), Kenya

This publication may be reproduced in whole or part in any form for educational or non-proﬁt purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided that acknowledgement of the source is made. NEMA would appreciate a copy of any publication that uses this material, or part thereof, as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purposes whatsoever, without prior permission in writing from NEMA.

Disclaimer: The designations employed and the presentation of the materials in this document are those of the authors and do not reﬂect the views of NEMA, NEPAD, ReCoMaP or UNEP.

The designations employed and the presentation of the materials in this document do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP concerning the legal status of any State, Territory, city or area, or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of their frontiers or boundaries. The document contains the views expressed by the author(s) acting in their individual capacity and may not necessarily reﬂect the views of UNEP. The Nairobi Convention Secretariat/Regional Seas Programme does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequences of their use.

For bibliographic purpose, this document should be cited as follows: Government of Kenya (2009) State of the Coast Report: Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya. National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), Nairobi. 88 pp.

Participating institutions Lead institution: National Environment Management Authority

Main Sponsor: United Nations Environment Program UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat

Co-sponsors • National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) • New Partnership for Africa’s Development—Coastal and Marine (NEPAD-COSMAR) • Regional Programme for the Sustainable Management of the Coastal Zone of the Countries of the Indian Ocean (ReCoMaP)

Institutions and sources of information • National Environment Management Authority, P. O. Box 67839-00200, Nairobi, Kenya • Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), P. O. Box 81651-80100 Mombasa, Kenya • Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean programme (CORDIO) East Africa, 9 Kibaki Flats, Kenyatta Public Beach, P.O. Box 10135-80101 Mombasa, Kenya • Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing, P.O. Box 47146-00100, Nairobi, Kenya • New Partnership for Africa’s Development–Coastal Marine Division (NEPAD–COSMAR) Secretariat, P. O. Box 46270-00100, Nairobi, Kenya • Kenya Wildlife Service, P.O. Box 86797, Mombasa, Kenya • University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya

Manuscript/Production Editor: Daisy Ouya, MS, ELS

Design and layout: Irene A. Ogendo and Daisy Ouya Cover photo of traditional ﬁshing boats in Pate Island, Kenya: Jacob Ochiewo, KMFRI.

For further information please contact The Director General National Environment Management Authority Popo Road, off Mombasa Road, P. O. Box 67839-00200, Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254 (20) 605522/2101370; Fax: +254 (20) 608997; Mobile: +254 (0)7350102 7 or +254 (0)724253398; E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.nema.go.ke Contents

Foreword ...... vii Acknowledgements ...... viii Executive Summary ...... ix Background to the publication ...... xi Acronyms and abbreviations ...... xii

1. The Coastal Environment of Kenya 1.1 Biophysical setting ...... 1 1.2 Climate ...... 2 1.3 Geology and geomorphology ...... 2 1.4 Drainage and hydrology ...... 3 1.5 Oceanography ...... 4 1.6 Ecosystem connectivity and human wellbeing ...... 6

2. Coastal Ecosystems 2.1 Introduction ...... 7 2.2 Coastal terrestrial habitats ...... 8 2.2.1 Coastal Forests ...... 8 2.2.2 Sandy beaches and sand dunes ...... 8 2.3 Mangrove forests and coastal wetlands ...... 9 2.4 Seagrass beds ...... 10 2.5 Sediment- and soft-bottom habitats ...... 10 2.6 Rocky shores, hard-bottom habitats and coral reefs ...... 10 2.7 Coastal pelagic habitats ...... 12

3. Coastal and Marine Species of Special Concern, and Flagship Species 3.1 Marine mammals ...... 13 3.1.1 Dolphins ...... 13 3.1.2 Whales ...... 13 3.1.3 Dugong ...... 14 3.1.4 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts...... 15 3.2 Sea turtles ...... 16 3.2.1 Species composition ...... 16 3.2.2 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts...... 16 3.3 Shoreline birds ...... 17 3.3.1 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts...... 18 3.4 Other coastal and marine threatened and/or ﬂagship species ...... 18 3.4.1 Angola black-and-white colobus ...... 19 3.4.2 Tana mangabey ...... 19

4. Coastal Communities 4.1 Population ...... 21 4.1.1 Population size and distribution ...... 21 4.1.2 Population growth rate ...... 21 4.1.3 Ethnic and cultural diversity ...... 22 4.1.4 Migration trends ...... 22 4.1.5 Population impacts on the environment ...... 23 4.2 Access to social services ...... 23 4.2.1 Education ...... 23 4.2.2 Health care ...... 24 4.2.3 Water resources and sanitation ...... 24 4.2.4 Infrastructure and communication ...... 25 4.2.5 Housing ...... 26

iii State of the Coast Report

4.3 Historical and cultural heritage ...... 26 4.4 Kaya forests ...... 27 4.5 Gender equity ...... 28 4.6 Land tenure and use ...... 28 4.6.1 Land tenure ...... 28 4.6.2 Land use ...... 29 4.7 Economic status and resource use ...... 29 4.7.1 Wealth and poverty levels ...... 29 4.7.2 Access to natural resources ...... 30 4.7.3 Socio-economic dynamics ...... 30

5. EconomicActivities at the Kenyan Coast 5.1 Introduction ...... 31 5.2 Coastal tourism ...... 31 5.2.1 Tourism-related activities ...... 32 5.2.2 Socio-economic impacts of tourism ...... 33 5.3 Agriculture ...... 33 5.3.1 Crop production ...... 33 5.3.2 Irrigation agriculture in the Tana, Umba and Athi-Sabaki floodplains ...... 35 5.3.3 Livestock production ...... 35 5.4 Ports and shipping ...... 36 5.5 Mariculture and aquaculture ...... 37 5.6 Fisheries ...... 38 5.6.1 Types of marine fish ...... 39 5.6.2 Aquarium fisheries ...... 40 5.7 Coastal mining ...... 41 5.8 Salt production ...... 42 5.9 Oil and gas exploration ...... 42 5.10 Exploitation of mangrove forests ...... 43 5.11 Industrial development ...... 43 5.12 Occupational/employment structure ...... 44 5.12.1 Economic diversification ...... 44 5.13 Supportive services ...... 44 5.13.1 Road transport ...... 45 5.13.2 Rail transport ...... 45 5.13.3 Air transport ...... 45 5.13.4 Energy ...... 45 5.13.5 Water supply and sewerage ...... 45

6. Major Threats and Impacts on Coastal and Marine Ecosystems 6.1 Introduction ...... 47 6.2 Fisheries ...... 47 6.2.1 Destructive ﬁshing practices ...... 48 6.2.2 Overﬁshing ...... 48 6.3 Marine pollution ...... 49 6.4 Shoreline change and erosion ...... 50 6.5 Physical alteration and destruction of habitats ...... 51 6.6 Root causes of degradation and loss of habitats at the coast ...... 53 6.7 Climate change ...... 53 6.8 Invasive species ...... 55

7. Governance of the Coastal and Marine Environment 7.1 Review of National Laws and Regulations ...... 57 7.1.1 Introduction ...... 57 7.1.2 Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act...... 57 iv Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

7.1.3 The Coast Development Authority (CDA) Act ...... 58 7.1.4 Sector-based laws ...... 58 7.1.5 Regional and international instruments ...... 61 7.2 Review of institutional frameworks ...... 63 7.3 Management of key coastal and marine resources ...... 64 7.3.1 Fisheries management ...... 64 7.3.2 Tourism development ...... 65 7.3.3 Forest management ...... 66 7.3.4 Management of river deltas ...... 66 7.3.5 Management of coral reefs and seagrass beds ...... 66 7.3.6 Protection of ﬂagship species ...... 66 7.3.7 Management of open-sea ﬁsheries ...... 67 7.4 Resource management tools ...... 67 7.4.1 Environmental impact assessment (EIA) ...... 67 7.4.2 Environmental audit (EA) ...... 68 7.4.3 Marine protected areas ...... 69 7.5 Constraints and limitations to management ...... 69 7.6 Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) ...... 70 7.7 Need for Integrated Coastal Zone Management legislation ...... 71

8. Conclusions and Recommendations 8.1 Introduction ...... 73 8.2 Recommendations for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) ...... 74 8.2.1 Political goodwill and public education ...... 74 8.2.2 Specific Legislation ...... 74 8.2.3 Ecosystem restoration ...... 74 8.2.4 Mitigation of threats from land-based activities ...... 75 8.2.5 Mitigation of threats from unsustainable fisheries ...... 75 8.2.6 Capacity building and financing ...... 76 8.2.7 River basin management ...... 76 8.2.8 Integration of traditional knowledge into resource management...... 76 8.2.9 Gender Equity ...... 77 8.2.10 Housing and infrastructure ...... 77 8.2.11 Groundwater resources ...... 77 8.2.12 Aquaculture ...... 77 8.2.13 Land use planning ...... 77 8.2.14 Agriculture...... 77 8.2.15 Salt production ...... 78 8.2.16 Oil and gas exploration ...... 78 8.2.17 Shiploading ...... 78 8.2.18 Climate change ...... 78 8.2.19 Marine protected areas ...... 78 8.3 Monitoring and evaluation ...... 79 8.4 Conclusion ...... 79

References ...... 81 Further reading ...... 86

List of Figures Figure 1.1 Map of Kenya showing the coastline ...... 1 Figure 1.2 Precipitation distribution in Kenya ...... 2 Figure 1.3 Permanent and seasonal rivers draining into the Kenyan coast ...... 3 Figure 2.1 Major coastal ecosystems ...... 7 Figure 3.1 Dugong and dolphin sites, turtle breeding sites as well as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) along the Kenya coast ...... 15 Figure 4.2 Predicted population density (2015) ...... 22 Figure 4.1 Population growth for six districts in coast province between 1979 and 1999 ...... 22

v State of the Coast Report

Figure 4.3 Primary school enrolment in the coastal districts, 2002–2004 ...... 23 Figure 4.4 Spatial distribution of the Mijikenda Kaya forests ...... 27 Figure 5.1 Principal economic activities and their contribution to livelihood and income for coastal populations ...... 31 Figure 5.2. Trend in ships docking at the Port of Mombasa ...... 36 Figure 5.3. Trends in ﬁsh landings at the Kenyan Coast (1996-2003)...... 39 Figure 5.4 Prawn and ﬁsh catches by trawlers in Kenya ...... 39 Figure 5.5 Trends in production of mangrove poles in Lamu, Kenya ...... 43 Figure 6.1 Monthly variations in catch effort of prawn trawlers in Malindi-Ungwana Bay ...... 49

List of Tables Table 3.1 Numbers of Globally Threatened species in Kenya’s coastal forests ...... 13 Table 3.2 Some endemic bird species at the Kenya coast ...... 17 Table 3.3 Coastal and marine Threatened and/or Flagship species in Kenya ...... 18 Table 4.1 Population data for the seven districts in Coast Province in 2002 ...... 21 Table 4.2 Indicators of health services in Coast province ...... 24 Table 4.3 Water and sanitation indicators for the seven districts in coast province in 2002 ...... 24 Table 4.4 Post-independence settlement schemes in Kwale, Kilifi and Malindi districts ...... 29 Table 5.1 Hotel bed-nights by zone, 1998–2004 (‘000) ...... 32 Table 5.2 Tourism-related activities ...... 33 Table 5.3 Common food and cash crops at the Coast province ...... 34 Table 5.4 Livestock population at the Coast province ...... 35 Table 5.4 The top 20 aquarium fish species harvested from Shimoni (March 2004–April 2005) ...... 40 Table 5.5 Area of salt works in Kenya ...... 42 Table 5.6 Number of registered firms by industry at the Coast Province ...... 44 Table 5.7 Employment by sector in urban centres of the Coast province ...... 44 Table 6.1 Causes, impacts, and consequences of degradation and loss of habitats ...... 53 Table 7.1 Summary of Kenya legislation relevant to the management of the coastal and marine environment and resources ...... 59 Table 7.2 Major multilateral environmental agreements signed by Kenya ...... 62 Table 7.3 Marine Protected Areas in Kenya ...... 69

List of Photos Quarrying for building stone from fossil coral formation in the North Coast ...... 3 Major currents influencing the Western Indian Ocean region ...... 5 Mangrove boardwalk in Mida Creek built by the local community ...... 9 A seagrass bed in Kanamai, Kilifi ...... 10 The rare coral Siderastrea savignyana in Kiunga ...... 11 A starfish in Kanamai, Kilifi ...... 11 School of dolphins in Kiunga Marine Reserve ...... 13 A whale with a calf ...... 14 Fishermen rescue a baby dugong accidentally caught in a fishing net at Kiungamwini, off Kiunga village in Lamu District ...... 14 Coastal erosion negatively affects turtle breeding sites ...... 16 Black-and-White colobus ...... 19 Tana mangabey ...... 19 Siyu Fort in Siyu Old Town, built in the 1860s by the Sultan of Zanzibar in Pate Island ...... 26 Giriama grave markers and ancestral figures, ‘Vigango’ that are typical features of Kaya burial sites ...... 26 Earthen fish pond at Majaoni-Mtwapa Creek ...... 37 Traditional fishing boats in Pate island ...... 38 Basket trap, a type of traditional fishing gear ...... 39 A ringnet, one of the destructive fishing gears used at the coast ...... 48 Sewage discharge into a mangrove forest at Tudor Creek ...... 49 An eroding shoreline at Gazi after fringing mangroves were removed ...... 50 Mangrove death due to an oil spill at Makupa...... 50 Excavation of beach sand to pave way for house construction...... 51 Tree felling (left) and charcoal burning in Shimoni forests in South Coast ...... 52 Salt works at Ngomeni in Malindi ...... 52 Flooding displaces people, destroys crops and property, and (above) causes severe mangrove die-back due to massive sedimentation ...... 54 Maps of the Kenya coast showing population density in 2005, and a digital elevation model showing potential vulnerabilities of coastal communities to sea-level rise ...... 55 vi Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Foreword

I am delighted to present this pioneering State of the Coast (SOC) report for Kenya. The report describes the coastal environment and its natural resources, the demographics and rich culture of Kenya’s coastal communities, as well as the pressures and threats to environmental health being experienced in the coastal zone. It proposes measures to mitigate or reverse environmental degradation, in order to secure the livelihood-supporting and income-generating functions of the coastal and marine environment, for the current and future generations.

Hitherto, information on the country’s coastal and marine environment and related resources has been scattered in diverse documents, making quick reference difficult. By serving as a one- stop resource, this publication provides the first baseline information to fill this gap.

Kenya’s coastline, extending from the border with Somalia in the north to the border with Tanzania in the south, is about 600 km long. The coastal zone is endowed with rich natural resources, which are of immense economic and cultural value to coastal inhabitants people and the nation at large. These resources, in addition, provide critical ecological services, whose real value has tended to be underestimated. The coastal environment supports many industries that contribute signiﬁcantly to the country’s gross domestic product. Due to the real and potential employment opportunities created by shipping and tourism—the two main industries at the coast—the coastal urban population has increased steadily over the years, leading to immense demographic pressure on the natural resource base.

The management of Kenya’s coastal and marine resources has for a long time been undertaken through uncoordinated sectoral approaches by various institutions, often operating under conﬂicting legislations. This situation has contributed to weak control, overexploitation of resources and environmental degradation.

Under the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) of 1999, the government of Kenya envisioned the formulation, through NEMA, of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) plan to guide sustainable coastal development. This publication will inform the formulation of an ICZM Policy and National Programme of Action. Furthermore, the production of this volume serves to deliver part of Kenya’s obligations to the Nairobi Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region.

The SOC report identiﬁes various root causes of resource overexploitation and environmental degradation, including population pressure, poverty, lack of community involvement in resource management, lack of enforcement of relevant legislations, and sectoral approaches to management, and proposes mitigative measures under an ICZM framework. We hope that this report will go a long way towards creating awareness on the status of Kenya’s coastal and marine resources, and improving coastal zone management.

NEMA would like to thank the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)–Nairobi Convention Secretariat; the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) through its Coastal and Marine Resources sub-program; and the Regional Programme for the Sustainable Management of the Coastal Zone of the Countries of the Indian Ocean (ReCoMaP), for supporting the process of the report’s development. The leadership role of NEMA as the focal institution in this process is commended. The technical expertise and time availed by the National Task Force in the entire process are also highly appreciated.

Dr. Dorcas Otieno Chair, NEMA Board of Management vii State of the Coast Report

Acknowledgements

The National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) gratefully acknowledges the ﬁnancial contribution of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)/Nairobi Convention Secretariat; Regional Programme for the Sustainable Management of the Coastal Zone of the Countries of the Indian Ocean (ReCoMaP) and New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) for supporting the production of the State of the Coast Report for Kenya.

We thank Anthony Githitho, David Mirera, Jacqueline Uku, James Mwaluma, David Kirugara, Sam Weru, Nyawira Muthiga, Steve Trott, Gerald Mwatha, Colin Jackson, Oliver Nasirwa, Melita Samoilys, Mary Njonjo and Ibrahim Namunaba for their contribution to the various sections of this report.

The technical support received from Dixon Waruinge and Ulrika Gunnartz of UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat towards the completion of this report is appreciated. Dr. Johnson U. Kitheka of UNEP-GEF WIO-LaB Project reviewed the report and provided comments that were used to prepare an updated version.

We thank Daisy Ouya for her professional editing of the report and for handling the book’s entire production process.

Lastly, NEMA wishes to thank the following members of the State of the Coast Task Force for compiling relevant data and information, and also preparing various sections of the report: Dr. James Kairo (Chairman), KMFRI Dr. Jared Bosire, KMFRI Julie Church, Unique Eco-Designs Patrick Gang, DRSRS James Kamula, NEMA Ali Mohammed, NEMA Akunga Momanyi, University of Nairobi Dr. David Obura, CORDIO East Africa Jacob Ochiewo, KMFRI Dr. Mohammed Omar, Kenya Wildlife Service John Ondari, Kenya Water and Sanitation Program

Dr. Muusya A. Mwinzi Director General, National Environment Management Authority (NEMA)

viii Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Executive Summary

This inaugural State of the Coast Report describes the status of Kenya’s coastal and marine environment, demographic and resource-use trends, current impacts and threats to sustainability, and management measures to mitigate and prevent continued resource overexploitation and environmental degradation. The document will serve as the foundation for the development of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Plan for Kenya.

Chapter 1 describes the biophysical settings of the Kenya coast, including coastal geomorphology, oceanography, hydrology and climatic inﬂuences on the various biophysical settings. The geology of the Kenya coast is mainly sedimentary, with a well developed fossil reef complex that is extensively exploited by the building industry. The coastal climate in Kenya is inﬂuenced by the monsoon winds and characterized by two distinct rainy seasons. The long rains occur between March and May, coinciding with South-East monsoons, and the short rains from October to December, corresponding with the North-East monsoons. Annual average rainfall along the coast varies from about 500–900 mm/year on the northern coast to 1000–1600 mm/year on the southern coast. Average temperatures range between 24 and 30 °C.

The various marine and coastal ecosystems at the Kenyan coast, including coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, sandy beaches, sand dunes and terrestrial forests, are discussed in Chapter 2. These ecosystems provide livelihoods to local communities as well as important goods and services, which include cultural services. Mangroves, for instance, provide spawning grounds to many commercially important groups of ﬁsh and yield an array of direct products such as timber, fuelwood and medicines.

Kenya’s coast is also home to numerous Threatened species—38% of the 159 tree and shrub species; 27% of the 71 birds species, and 5 of 9 mammalian species classiﬁed as Threatened occur here. These species include marine mammals (e.g. whales, dolphins and dugongs), sea turtles, shoreline birds, ﬁsh, and terrestrial species such as Colobus monkeys and Tana mangabeys. Chapter 3 is devoted to these species of special concern, highlighting their composition, habitats and status.

Chapter 4 gives a socio-economic assessment of coastal communities and how they interact with the environment and its associated ecological services. The coastal population is estimated to be 2.5 million, which is 9.0% of the total country’s population. The largest indigenous ethnic group along the coast is Mijikenda, composed of nine sub-tribes. The Kenyan coast has over the centuries attracted diverse ethnic and racial groups, with the highest increase in population densities occurring in urban centres such as Mombasa and Malindi. Poverty is widespread in rural areas of the coastal region, ranging from 30% in Bura to 84% in Ganze. Land tenure has historically remained a contentious issue, with huge tracts of land being owned by absentee landlords and many households in rural constituencies living as squatters on the land. This issue hinders sustainable development, since the poor are more likely to engage in unsustainable resource-use practices in an effort to meet immediate survival needs.

In Chapter 5 the various economic activities taking place at the Kenyan coast are discussed. Tourism and shipping are the highest contributors to the coastal economy, contributing 45% and 15% respectively. Artisanal fishery lands 95% of the total marine catch, contributes 6% to the coastal economy, and is the main source of livelihood for more than 60,000 households. However, there is growing concern about over-exploitation and the associated declining catch within inshore marine fisheries, while the offshore deep sea fisheries have remained largely unexploited by Kenya. The contribution of mining has remained low, but is likely to increase once a new titanium mining project in the South Coast starts active production for export. Most rural farmers at the coast still practice traditional farming methods, and rarely apply appropriate soil- and water-conservation measures. This has led to land degradation and perennially low crop yields. Consequently, the coastal population depends heavily on agricultural produce from outside the region. Due to unresolved land tenure issues, many of the local people do not have title deeds which they can use as collateral to secure credit for agricultural development.

ix State of the Coast Report

The challenges facing the sustainable utilization and management of coastal and marine resources are discussed in Chapter 6. Destructive practices (e.g. dynamite fishing, forest clearing, housing construction on the shoreline and land reclamation), pollution from industrial and domestic wastes, inappropriate land-use practices and unregulated development have individually and cumulatively led to resource overexploitation and environmental degradation. In addition, global climate change has led to altered rainfall patterns, droughts, floods and sea level changes. The impacts of these factors are manifested as significant physical alterations and degradation of habitats, leading to loss of livelihoods, changes in social structures, loss of cultural heritage and resource-use conflicts. The main drivers of these threats and impacts to coastal resources range from social (e.g. human population pressure), institutional and macro- and micro-economic issues; natural phenomena related to climate change; and institutional, e.g. limited knowledge, lack of technologies for cleaner production, and inadequate natural-resource-management capacity.

A number of institutions are legally mandated to oversee the sustainable management of coastal resources. Section 55 of Environmental Management and Conservation Act (EMCA, 1999) speciﬁcally mandates NEMA to assess, plan and coordinate sustainable management of resources. The legal and institutional frameworks governing the management of Kenya’s coastal and marine resources, as well as international instruments to which Kenya is signatory, are discussed in Chapter 7. This chapter also reviews the roles of the various institutions currently engaged in this work.

Chapter 8 of the report provides recommendations for possible interventions that would promote a healthy environment and sustainable management of coastal and marine resources. Some of the interventions proposed include: greater community involvement in resource management; adherence to the physical planning regulations for shoreline development; adoption of appropriate land-use practices to ensure soil and water conservation and improved crop yields; increased government support to coastal and marine conservation programmes; and application of an ecosystem approach in resource management. All these proposed interventions will be captured in the ICZM Plan currently under formulation.

x Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Background to the publication

Consensus is emerging on the need to manage Kenya’s coastal and marine resources through an integrated, rather than a sectoral approach. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) brings all those involved in the development, management and use of the coastal zone within a framework that facilitates the integration of their interests and responsibilities.

This report was compiled by a National Task Force constituted by the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), when the Authority initiated steps towards the development of an ICZM policy for Kenya.

The Task Force consultatively worked through a series of workshops, literature searches and personal contacts with key individuals and agencies. Overall, seven consultative meetings and workshops were held. The initiation workshop involved different stakeholders interested in coastal and marine resources in Kenya. This was followed by two full Task Force meetings, where the first draft of the publication was developed. A Task Force sub-committee was established to fine-tune the draft document before it was circulated to reviewers. The reviewers’ comments were addressed by the sub-committee, and the report finalized at a full Task Force meeting. A final stakeholders’ workshop in Mombasa brought together government departments, civil society representatives, community leaders and policy makers to deliberate on the report and decide on a way forward.

This report is the country’s first “one-stop” document detailing the status of coastal and marine resources in Kenya, and their link to human welfare. It reviews the diversity and abundance of natural resources and critical habitats along the Kenyan coast, including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds and marine fisheries, and identifies the major natural and human-induced stresses facing them. In addition, the report brings out long-standing problems and emerging issues concerning the management of the coastal areas in Kenya, and recommends possible interventions to address these.

The publication is based on the best available scientiﬁc information and local knowledge, and is expected to form a major foundation for the development of an ICZM Policy and National Programme for Action for Kenya. It will also serve as resource and reference document for government agencies, non-governmental organizations, development partners and practitioners involved or interested in the conservation and management of Kenya’s coastal and marine resources.

The adoption of the ICZM approach will enable the government of Kenya to balance environmental conservation and development interests in the coastal zone. It will also improve decision-making processes, enhance community participation, promote local coastal management programmes, and meet the country’s commitments to regional and international instruments such as the Nairobi Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.

xi State of the Coast Report

Acronyms and abbreviations

CBD ...... Convention on Biological Diversity CDA ...... Coast Development Authority CORDIO ...... Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean programme EA ...... Environmental Audit EACC ...... East African Coastal Current EAME ...... East Africa Marine Eco-region ECC ...... Equatorial Counter Current EIA ...... Environmental Impact Assessment EMCA ...... Environmental Management and Coordination Act FAO ...... United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization GCRMN ...... Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network GOOS ...... Global Ocean Observing Systems GEF ...... Global Environment Facility GISP ...... Global Invasive Species Programme GOK ...... Government of Kenya ICAM ...... Integrated Coastal Area Management ICZM ...... Integrated Coastal Zone Management IOD ...... Indian Ocean Dipole IPCC ...... International Panel on Climate Change IUCN ...... International Union for Conservation of Nature KESCOM ...... Kenya Sea Turtle Conservation Committee KFS ...... Kenya Forests Service KMFRI ...... Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute KMNPR ...... Kisite-Mpunguti National Park and Reserve KPA ...... Kenya Ports Authority KWS ...... Kenya Wildlife Service LOTC ...... Lamu Old Town Conservation MOTCO ...... Mombasa Old Town Conservation MPA ...... Marine Protected Area MTSP ...... Marine Turtle Specialist Group NEMA ...... National Environment Management Authority NEPAD-COSMAR...... New Partnership for Africa’s Development- Coastal Marine Division NMK...... National Museums of Kenya SIDA ...... Swedish International Development Agency TARDA ...... Tana and Athi River Development Authority UNDP ...... United Nations Development Program UNEP ...... United Nations Environment Program USAID ...... United States Agency for International Development WIO ...... Western Indian Ocean WIOMSA ...... Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association WWF ...... World Wildlife Fund for Nature

xii The Coastal Environment of Kenya 1

1.1 Biophysical setting

Kenya’s coastline extends about 600 km along the seafront, from Somalia’s border at Ishakani in the north (Longitude 1° 41’ S), to Tanzania’s border at Vanga in the south (Longitude 4° 40’ S) (Figure 1.1)

The definition of the Kenya coast as used in this document includes several administrative districts: Kilifi, Kwale, Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, Taita Taveta and Tana River. For the purposes of this report, the coastal region extends 150 km inland from the seafront, covering an area of 67,500 km2. This is about 11.5% of the total area of the Republic of Kenya. Kenya’s coastal zone is often classified with reference to the city of Mombasa—the North Coast from Mombasa to Kiunga, and the South Coast from Mombasa to Vanga.

A distinctive feature of Kenya’s coastline is a fringing coral reef running parallel to the coastline, from Vanga to Malindi Bay (UNEP, 1998). Other unique features are the Lamu archipelago with its extensive mangrove forests; Mombasa Island; the southern complex of Gazi Bay; Chale Island; Funzi Bay and Wasini Island (UNEP, 1998). Rivers Tana and Sabaki are the two major rivers draining into the Indian Ocean along the coastline (Figure 1.3).

Kenya’s continental shelf is relatively narrow—about 5- to 10-km wide— with depths dropping to below 200 m in under 4 km of the shoreline. At the mouths of rivers Tana and Sabaki, however, the shelf is significantly wider, exceeding 15 km off the northern end of Ungwana Bay. Beyond the continental shelf, the seabed slopes away to depths in excess of 4,000 m. The shelf is sedimentary, dominated by fine sands, silt and mud derived from terrigenous sources (Obura, 2001). It has an area of about 19,120 km2, of which 10,994 km2 is considered trawlable (UNEP, 1998). Although narrow, the continental shelf serves as fishing grounds for thousands Figure 1.1 Map of Kenya showing the coastline (Source: KMFRI of local artisanal fishermen. database)

1 State of the Coast Report

1.2 Climate

The coastal climate of Kenya is inﬂuenced mainly by large-scale pressure systems of the Western Indian Ocean and Monsoon winds. The Monsoons blow from the northeast between December and March (kaskazi) and from the southeast from May to October (kusi), with the 1- to 2-month transition periods characterized by variable and weaker winds (see also Section 1.5).

In addition, there is the East African Coastal Current, formed by the northward deﬂection of the Southern Equatorial Current, which ﬂows northwards throughout the year, at higher speeds during the South-East monsoon, and slower during the North-East Monsoon (UNEP, 1998).

Mean annual rainfall along the Kenyan coast ranges from 500–900 mm at the North Coast to 1000–1600 mm in the wetter areas south of Mombasa (UNEP, 1998). Rainfall occurs during two distinct periods; the long rains (kusi) between March and May and the short rains (kaskazi) usually between October and December (Mutai and Ward, 2000; Camberlin and Philippon, 2002).

Mean minimum and maximum temperatures at the Kenyan coast range between 24 °C and 30 °C. Mean monthly evaporation ranges from 1650 to 2300 mm/year in the north to 1300 to 2200 mm/year in the south (Figure 1.2). Relative humidity is consistently high throughout the year, peaking at 90% during the wet months between April and July. There is a marked diurnal change in humidity, particularly in Mombasa, where the moisture content of the air increases from around 60– 70% in the afternoon to 92–94% during the night and early morning (UNEP, Figure 1.2 Precipitation distribution in Kenya (Source: Hijmans et 1998). al., 2005)

1.3 Geology and geomorphology

The coastal environment of Kenya is set in a passive continental margin, whose evolution was initiated by the breakup of mega continent Gondwanaland in the Lower Mesozoic era. The initial opening of the Indian Ocean was preceded by extensive faulting and downwarping, similar to that observed in the Modern Great Rift Valley of East Africa. These tectonic movements formed a North–South trending depositional basin. During the Mesozoic era, this marine basin was exposed to numerous marine incursions and by the Jurassic period, purely marine conditions are thought to have existed. The coastal ranges such as Shimba and Taita hills that run parallel to the coastal zone appear to have been uplifted through faulting during this period (UNEP, 1998).

Throughout the Tertiary era, the coastal area experienced further faulting and extensive continental erosion. In many areas the older Cretaceous deposits were totally removed. The present coastal conﬁguration, however, evolved during the Pleistocene era to Recent times, a period marked by numerous ﬂuctuations in sea level.

2 Towards Integrated Management of Kenya Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

According to the WWF, most of the coastal area of Kenya from river Tana to the northern parts of Tanzania falls under the Coral Coast sub-region. The area is characterized by a fringing reef running parallel to the shoreline. The area north of the river Tana falls under the Northern Monsoon sub-region, with characteristic upwellings (WWF, 2001).

Because of its evolutionary history, the principal rocks observed along the coastal area are sedimentary in origin, and range in age from Quarrying for building stone from fossil coral formation in the North Triassic to Recent (UNEP, 1998). Coast The Duruma sandstone series, the oldest formation, is represented by the Mariakani and the Mazeras sandstones, which were deposited under sub-aqueous, deltaic, lacustrine or possibly neritic conditions that prevailed before the opening of the Indian Ocean. The upper Mesozoic is represented by marine limestone and shales, with occasional horizons of sandstones and Early limestone. Recent rocks comprise mostly marls and limestone, and are represented by sandstones, clays, conglomerates and gravels, such as those found in the Marafa beds. This well developed reef complex, consisting of coral reefs, coral rubble and sandstone, is extensively exploited by the building industry (see Chapter 5, Section 5.7 for details).

1.4 Drainage and hydrology

Two major rivers drain into the Indian Ocean in Kenya: River Tana and River Sabaki (Figure 1.3.). River Tana is the longer, originating from Mt Kenya, a distance of about 850 km. It has a catchment area of 127,000 km2 and discharges an average of 4,000 million cubic meters of freshwater and 6.8 million tonnes of sediment annually, with peak ﬂows occurring between April and June and during November/December (Kitheka et al., 2003a-c, 2005). The river enters the ocean at Kipini in Ungwana Bay. About 30 km from its mouth, River Tana branches with its tributaries forming the Tana Delta. Figure 1.3 Permanent and seasonal rivers draining into the Kenyan coast (Source: KMFRI database)

3 State of the Coast Report

The Athi-Sabaki River has its origin in the central highlands around Nairobi. When joined by River Tsavo in its lower basin it is known as Galana River. The river enters the ocean north of Malindi Town.

The Athi-Galana-Sabaki system extends 390 km and drains a catchment area of 70,000 km2. The sediment load of the Athi-Sabaki has increased tremendously from 50,000 tonnes/year in the 1950s to the current rates, which range from 5 to 13 million tonnes/year. This increase has been attributed to catchment degradation as well as an increase in the capacity of the river to transport sediments to the coast (Kitheka et al., 2003a-c; 2005). Current data indicate that the of the annual freshwater discharge of the Athi-Sabaki River is 6 million m3/year (Kitheka et al. 2003a-c, 2005)

The high sediment loads in these rivers, caused largely by poor land-use practices upstream, threaten the sustainability of coastal habitats (mangroves, seagrass beds and corals) and the aesthetic quality of beaches, which are a major tourist attraction (cf. Kitheka et al., 2002c; 2003d). An integrated river basin management approach, as proposed in an integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) framework, is needed to address this issue.

Other semi-permanent rivers at the coast include Mwachi, Kombeni, Tsalu, Nzovuni, Mwachema and Voi, which drain into the coastal region from arid and semi-arid catchments. In the South Coast the major rivers are Ramisi and Umba, discharging about 6.3 million m3 and 16 million m3 of fresh water into Funzi and Shirazi Bays respectively (UNEP, 1998). The Umba is a transboundary river emanating from Usambara Mountains in Tanzania. Smaller rivers at the South Coast include Mkurumuji and Kidogoweni, both entering the sea at Gazi Bay.

There are several lakes at the coast, especially in the Tana Delta. Most are oxbow lakes that are recharged either through ground water seepage or by periodic ﬂooding of the Tana River. Examples are Lakes Shakabobo and Bilisa. Apart from providing water for humans and livestock, the lakes are also important for freshwater ﬁsheries.

Due to its geological structure which enhances inﬁltration, percolation and subsequent recharge, Kenya’s coastal region has immense potential for groundwater resources. Most of the rock formations have a shallow water table (between 20 and 30 m), with erratic yields of varying salinity. The highest water quality is found in areas covered with Kibiongoni beds and Magarini and Kilindini sands, e.g. the Tiwi area of the South Coast. Areas covered with Jurassic shales and Pleistocene limestones tend to have low volumes of poor-quality water (Munga et al., 2006).

1.5 Oceanography

There are four oceanic currents influencing Kenya’s coastal waters, namely the East African Coastal Current (EACC), the Somali Current (SC), the Southern Equatorial Current (SEC) and the Equatorial Counter Current (ECC) (UNEP, 1998). When it reaches the African coast at Cape Delgado, the SEC diverges into two currents—the Mozambique Current, which flows southwards, and EACC, which flows northward (UNEP, 1998; Obura, 2001).

The Somali Current and Monsoon winds both influence the distance the EACC travels up the East African coast. During the South-East Monsoon, the EACC joins the Somali Current beyond Malindi and flows northwards to the Horn of Africa. However, during the North-East Monsoon, the EACC reaches only as far north as Malindi or Lamu, where it meets the opposing Somali Current, the only current off the coast of Kenya that seasonally reverses its flow. The meeting of the two currents causes upwelling, which is thought to be responsible for the high productivity in the northern Kenyan coast (UNEP, 1998).

Sea surface temperatures are highest during the North-East Monsoon, averaging 28.4 °C (maximum 29 °C) and lowest during the South-East Monsoon, averaging 26 °C (minimum 24 °C) (UNEP, 1998; Obura, 2001). Seasonal temperature variations decrease with increasing water 4 Towards Integrated Management of Kenya Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya depth, with temperatures stabilizing at 6–7 °C and 2.5 °C at 1,000 and 2,000 m depth respectively (Duineveld et al., 1997).

Salinity variation of the EACC waters is low, ranging between 34.5 and 35.4 ppt (UNEP, 1998). This variation is primarily due to heavy rainfall between March and May and the associated terrestrial freshwater runoff, as well as input from rivers. In estuaries and tidal creek systems such as Gazi Bay, Mtwapa, Mwache/Port Reitz and Tudor, there are signiﬁcant seasonal salinity variations, particularly in the inshore waters. During the dry season, salinity can rise to 38 ppt while in the rainy season, it can be as low as 19 ppt (Kitheka, 1996 a&b).

The Kenya coast experiences mixed semi-diurnal tides, with approximately two tidal cycles every 24 hours. The reference port for tidal observations in Kenya is Kilindini (Port of Mombasa), where the maximum tidal range generally does not exceed 3.8 m.

Major currents inﬂuencing the Western Indian Ocean region (Source: Richmond, 1997)

5 State of the Coast Report

1.6 Ecosystem connectivity and human wellbeing

Coastal and marine ecosystems, which include tropical rainforests, estuarine and near-shore areas and the open ocean, are among the most productive, yet most highly threatened ecosystems in the world. These ecosystems provide essential ecological services, support production, and provide livelihood and income-generation opportunities for coastal and inland populations.

For instance, mangrove forests trap sediments from inland areas, reducing siltation of seagrasses and coral reefs. In addition, they serve as buffer zones between land and the sea, as they regulate fresh water output by evapotranspirition systems, protecting corals and coastal forests from high variations in salinity. Coral reefs act as a barrier against strong waves, thereby protecting seagrasses and mangroves, while reef erosion creates sediment for the growth of seagrass colonies in lagoons.

Coastal ecosystems are intrinsically interconnected among themselves and even with more distant ones. The ecological integrity of each ecosystem thus directly and indirectly depends on the status of other ecosystems. These linkages ensure ecological exchanges among the different coastal and marine ecosystems through various biotic and abiotic ﬂuxes. A wide variety of ﬁsh and other marine organisms migrate from one ecosystem to another during their life cycle.

Anthropogenic pressures have led to the degradation of marine and coastal resources, putting the very livelihoods of coastal communities in jeopardy. For instance, deforestation and poor land- use practices upstream lead to massive sedimentation downstream, impacting on mangrove, coral and other ecosystems (Kitheka et al., 2002 c&d; Bosire et al., 2006). Chapters 4, 5 and 6 of this publication elaborate on these threats.

Coastal ecosystems need to be managed in an integrated fashion if they are to continue providing goods and services to support life and human welfare. By providing an updated picture of the status and conditions of coastal and marine ecosystems, and their close link to human wellbeing, it is hoped that this publication will contribute towards the design of more holistic and rational approaches to environmental management in Kenya.

6 Coastal Ecosystems 2

2.1 Introduction

Kenya’s coastal ecosystems occupy the western extremity of the tropical Indo-Pacific biogeographic region, and have also recently been classified as part of the Coral Coast of the East African Marine Ecoregion by WWF. The ecosystems include mangrove swamps, coral reefs, seagrass beds, rocky shores, estuaries, beaches, mudflats, sand dunes and terrestrial habitats, and they are closely interlinked (Figure 2.1).

The distribution of ecosystems along the coastline is influenced by coastal geology, hydrology, oceanography, and the characteristics of the continental shelf. Sandy soils and a relatively dry climate have produced a mosaic of coastal-forest and bushland vegetation at the coast. The hills from south of the Shimba Hills to Malindi block the flow of major rivers to the South Coast (Mombasa to Vanga), allowing the development of a continuous fringing coral reef, rocky cliffs, white sandy beaches and small mangrove creeks and estuaries. The coast north of Malindi is a wide, flat sandy plain carrying Kenya’s two largest rivers to the sea. The sediment plumes from these rivers provide predominantly soft-substrate habitats, open sandy beaches and river deltas. Figure 2.1 Major coastal ecosystems (Source: KMFRI database)

7 State of the Coast Report

The interactions between the north-ﬂowing East African Coastal Current (EACC) and seasonally south-ﬂowing Somali Current (SC) create a warm-to-cool temperature gradient from south to north. This affects the productivity of pelagic ecosystems, resulting in less well developed coral reefs in the cooler, nutrient-rich waters of the north, and extensive mangrove, seagrass and suspension-feeding communities towards the south.

These richly biodiverse coastal habitats provide critical socio-economic and ecological services, (such as protection from storm surges) and food, wood, fuel and livelihoods for local communities. Economic activities along the coast range from manufacturing (e.g. salt industries), service provision (e.g. tourism), transportation, ﬁshing (both artisanal and commercial), agriculture and a range of cottage industries. All of these are based on the coastal region’s rich natural resources.

2.2 Coastal terrestrial habitats

2.2.1 Coastal Forests

Kenya’s coastal forests fall within the northern range of the Zanzibar-Iñhambane coastal forest mosaic, an extensive biogeographical unit stretching from the southern tip of Somalia to the southern coast of Mozambique (White, 1983) and deﬁned by certain ecological, vegetational and climatic characteristics. Owing to its exceptional level of plant endemism, the northern area of the mosaic has recently been reclassiﬁed as the Swahilian Regional Centre of Endemism (SRCE) (Burgess et al., 2004).

As a characteristic of the SRCE, the coastal forests of Kenya are found on a system of low ridges between 100 and 300 m in altitude and with complex, mostly infertile soils. They occur where humidity is high throughout the dry season. They may have a canopy height of up to 7 m, which is lower than the minimum of 10 m generally accepted for typical forest (Burgess and Clarke, 2000). Composed mostly of semi-evergreen or evergreen undifferentiated dry forest, the vegetation zone covers about 139,000 ha and forms a mosaic of lowland forest patches, woodlands, bushlands and thickets (Githitho, 2004).

There are a few large blocks of closed forest such as the Arabuko Sokoke (41,000 ha) and the Shimba Hills system (19,260 ha) but most are smaller forest remnants, ranging in size from 10 to 2000 ha. Many of these smaller patches are the ‘Kaya,’ sacred forests of the Mijikenda communities (see Chapter 4, Section 4.4). Associated woodlands tend to be more extensive, especially towards the north in the Boni and Dodori reserves. Dominant forest tree species are Afzelia quanzensis, Julbernardia magnistipulata, Brachystegia spiciformis, Scorodophleus ﬁscheriii, Dialum holtzii, Hymenea verrucosa, Cynometra spp., and Mimusops spp. Kenya’s coastal forests exhibit high levels of diversity and endemism; Arabuko Sokoke forest, for example, is home to 6 rare and endemic bird species.

2.2.2 Sandy beaches and sand dunes

Sandy beaches are found throughout Kenya’s coast, most notably along the parts of the coastline dominated by terrigenous sediment and without fringing reefs, near the Tana and Sabaki rivers and northwards towards Lamu. Some of these areas have high dunes generated by wind-blown sand from the beach. The largest dunes occur along the Tana River Delta, reaching 50 m above sea level, with an area of up to 1300 km2. Their sand is generally of terrestrial origin, deposited by the river. Sand dunes support a rich diversity of wildlife and other natural resources.

Smaller sandy beaches are found along shorelines dominated by coral reefs, ranging from broad ﬂat beaches bordering the reef lagoons, to small sand pockets in indentations in the intertidal cliff face. On these beaches the sand is generally of marine origin, derived from broken down calcium carbonate coral skeletons, algae and shells. The faunal diversity of sandy beaches is

8 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya generally low, with productivity varying greatly. The accumulation of washed up seagrass and algae on the beaches varies with season, as well as direction and degree of exposure of the beach to waves.

Beaches are important habitats for species such as sea turtles, which lay their eggs in upper- beach environments, as well as shorebirds and migratory birds. However, because they are at the fringe of land and sea and offer easy access to the sea, beaches have become areas of intense economic activity, habitat modiﬁcation and user conﬂicts. This has negative impacts on vulnerable species and people’s livelihoods.

2.3 Mangrove forests and coastal wetlands

Mangrove forests occur along the coast in the intertidal area between the land and the sea. Landward, mangroves are found adjacent to coastal terrestrial forests, while seaward, they co- exist with seagrass beds and coral reefs.

Kenya’s mangrove forests and coastal wetlands are concentrated on the northern coast around the Lamu archipelago and the permanent Tana/Sabaki River estuaries, with smaller wetlands occurring in the mouths of semi-perennial and seasonal coastal rivers on the South Coast, at Shimoni-Vanga, Funzi and Gazi Bays, and Port-Reitz, Tudor, Mtwapa, Kiliﬁ and Mida Creeks. The total area of mangroves in Kenya has been estimated to be between 53,000 and 61,000 ha, with 67% occurring in Mangrove boardwalk in Mida Creek built by the local community (Source: Lamu District, and 10% each in Kiliﬁ J. Kamula) and Kwale Districts. It is estimated that 10,310 ha of mangrove forest cover has been lost either due to conversion pressure, over-exploitation or pollution (Abuodha and Kairo, 2001). All the 9 mangrove species found in East Africa occur in Kenya, with Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal being dominant and represented in almost all the mangrove formations. Rarer species are Heritiera littoralis and Xylocarpus moluccensis (MacNae, 1968; Kokwaro, 1985; Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2000).

A strong zonation of species occurs, controlled by the large tidal regime, with a typical pattern from the sea to land being Sonneratia alba, R. mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, C. tagal, Avicennia marina, X. granatum, Lumnitzera racemosa and H. littoralis (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2004).

Mangrove forests are nutrient-rich environments which support a variety of food chains and function as nursery and feeding grounds for ﬁsh and invertebrates. Many of these species spend part of their life cycle in coral reefs, seagrasses and open waters. Mangrove trees are also important for shoreline stabilization, and provide resources for both rural and urban coastal populations. Mangrove logs are used for building, and as fuel for domestic cooking, charcoal- making, lime production and some industrial uses (Wass, 1995). Often, one will ﬁnd degraded mangrove areas recolonized by the giant mangrove fern, Acrostichum aureum, as well as by Sueda monoica. Depending on the degree of alteration to the physical environment, recovery of degraded mangrove areas can take a long time, or never occur (Kairo et al., 2001).

9 State of the Coast Report

The riverine forests of Tana river, which depend on its ﬂooding, are a unique forest type in the coastal zone, providing habitat for rare species of primates such as Colobus monkeys. Their extent, however, has been reduced by extensive damming and encroachment of the Tana River’s waters for farming, which has reduced ﬂooding. This is threatening both the forests and the species they harbour.

2.4 Seagrass beds

Seagrasses occur in extensive beds that cover the largest proportion of shallow reef slopes, and form an important habitat for many species living in them and adjacent systems. Twelve seagrass species are found in Kenya, with Thallasondendron ciliatum, which forms monospeciﬁc stands, being the dominant one. Its canopy structure provides habitat for small and juvenile ﬁsh and invertebrates. Other common seagrass species found in Kenya are Halophila ovalis, Halophila minor, Halophila stipulacea, Halodule uninervis, Halodule wrightii, Syringodium isoetifolium, Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Thalassia hemprichii, Zostera capensis and Enhalus acoroides.

Seagrasses show clear zonation patterns with water depth, sediment structure and exposure to air and sunlight during low tide. Species that are tolerant to exposure are found higher up on the intertidal, while those that cannot withstand exposure occur submerged in pools A seagrass bed in Kanamai, Kiliﬁ (Source: J. Kamula) of water.

Seagrass beds are important foraging grounds for endangered species such as dugongs and marine turtles, as well as important habitats for fish species like rabbitfish, surgeonfish and parrotfish. Various species of shellfish and sea cucumbers are also found in seagrass beds.

2.5 Sediment- and soft-bottom habitats

Sandy sub-tidal habitats dominate the shoreline from Malindi to Lamu, supplied with sediment from the Tana and Sabaki Rivers to the south, and extensive creek systems to the north. Kenya’s soft-substrate communities are not well known, but support signiﬁcant shrimp and bottom ﬁsh populations. There is an an active trawling industry exploiting these habitats, particularly from Malindi northwards to Ungwana Bay, at the mouth of the Tana river.

2.6 Rocky shores, hard-bottom habitats and coral reefs

The Kenya coastline from Ngomeni southwards, and the islands from Lamu northwards is made up of fossil Pleistocene reef rock formations, resulting in large areas of intertidal reef platform below cliffs of 4–6 m in height. The cliffs are in the upper intertidal and exposed to the air for most of the tidal cycle, and thus have sparse biological communities, including resistant algae and lichens, and mobile fauna such as limpets, chitons and crustaceans (Ruwa, 1984; 1996). The rocky platforms below the cliffs are inundated by the tides twice a day, resulting in a strong zonation of fauna and ﬂora. Because of their accessibility at low tide, rocky shores and intertidal platforms have been the focus of numerous ecological and taxonomic studies, as well as exploitation and extraction.

10 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Kenya’s coral reefs are part of the northern end of the East African Fringing Reef System, decreasing in extent, size and diversity northwards towards and into Somalia. Warm water conditions along the South Coast reflect the predominant influence of the South Equatorial Current and East African Coastal Current, with cooler, more nutrient-rich conditions in the north influenced by the Somali Current upwelling system. In addition, inflows from Kenya’s two largest rivers, the Athi/Galana/Sabaki and Tana Rivers supress the growth of The rare coral Siderastrea savignyana in Kiunga (Source: WWF/ coral reefs between Malindi and EARPO) Lamu. From Malindi southwards, the fringing reef system is broken at creeks and river mouths, where fresh water suppresses reef growth.

Coral reef communities in Kenya extend from shallow inshore waters to about 20–25 m depths, limited by water clarity (visibility of 15–25 m) and a change from rocky to sandy substrates on the continental slope. Where present, however, deeper rocky knolls and relict reefs support corals down to 35 m. Kenyan reefs have around 220 species of scleractinian corals, compared to over 250 species farther south in Tanzania and Mozambique.

Dominant coral species include the massive reef-building coral Porites lutea and other Porites spp., regionally dominant species such as Galaxea astreata, and a broad diversity of species in the genera Acropora, Pocillopora, Favia, Favites and others (Hamilton and Brakel, 1984). Primary reef fish families include the herbivorous parrotfish (Scaridae) and surgeonfish (Acanthuridae), as well as predators such as snappers (Lutjanidae), sweetlips (Haemulidae) and groupers (Serranidae). North of Lamu, a mixing of species from the Red Sea/Gulf of Aden is evidenced by the changing patterns of coral abundance, and the presence of some fish species not seen farther south, such as the coral species Porites nodifera, P. columnaris, a Coscinaraea species and the angelfish Apolemichthys xanthotus (Hamilton and Brakel, 1984).

Coral reefs are among the most productive of all marine ecosystems, providing a habitat for numerous species, including turtles, dugong, whale sharks and others. Their essential ecosystem services, such as protecting the coastline from ocean waves, and high biodiversity and productivity make them the target of many uses, but also numerous threats.

Coral reefs support the coastal artisanal fishery, dominated by local and migrant fishers using hand- or wind-powered boats (such as dhows and dugout canoes) A starfish in Kanamai, Kilifi (Source: J. Kamula) and fishing gear adapted from 11 State of the Coast Report

traditional gears, including basket traps, spears (both hand and powered), nets and handlines. As a result of extensive exploitation with little regulation, and the use of destructive ﬁshing techniques, the reefs in Kenya have been generally over-ﬁshed and are suffering degradation (see Chapter 5, Section 5.6).

2.7 Coastal pelagic habitats

Beyond the continental shelf, at depths ranging from 200 m and deeper, is the pelagic zone, where productivity is limited by light and nutrients. Primary and secondary productivity in this zone is heavily inﬂuenced by the monsoons, being lower during the rough SE Monsoon and higher during the calmer NE Monsoon.

Primary and secondary plankton productivity is higher in the continental shelf than offshore, as a result of nutrient enrichment of shelf waters by heavy surface runoff from the rivers Tana and Sabaki during the SE Monsoon, and the southward ﬂow of upwelled water from the Somali Current system to parts of northern Kenya. During the NE monsoon lower current speeds and higher salinities provide a comparatively stable environment for enhanced production at the shelf.

Large schools of migratory pelagic stocks abound in the offshore waters of Kenya during the SE monsoon period. These include tuna, skipjack, travelly, sardinella, mackerel, marlin, sailfish and swordfish. Reproduction in pelagic and demersal (bottom-dwelling) fish is highest during the SE Monsoon period. Distinct seasonal changes in finfish catches in Kenya have been observed, with the calm NE monsoon allowing more effective operation of the pelagic fishery, particularly for non-powered vessels. However, only about 18% of the total marine production in Kenya is from the pelagic fishery, while just 6% comes from deep sea game fishing.

Both Kenyan and foreign-owned vessels carry out offshore fishing in Kenyan waters, the latter under license. However, surveillance of the pelagic fishery is a major problem, and it is difficult to get accurate information on catches by foreign-owned licensed vessels. It is also likely that unlicensed fishing vessels poach within Kenya’s territorial waters and exclusive economic zone.

12 Coastal and Marine Species of Special Concern, and Flagship Species 3

Kenya’s rich coastal biodiversity encompas- Table 3.1 Numbers of Globally Threatened species ses locally, regionally and globally important in Kenya’s coastal forests (source: CEPF, 2003) species, including Threatened or Vulnerable Number of Species listed by species. The coastal zone habours 38% of the Taxonomic Group IUCN Red Data Book status Total 159 species of trees and shrubs, 27% of the CR EN VU 71 species of birds, and 55% of the 9 species Mammals 1 4 4 9 of mammal classiﬁed as Threatened. At least Birds 2 6 2 10 105 species listed in the IUCN Red Data Book are found in Kenya’s coastal forests Amphibians 1 2 3 (Table 3.1). Gastropods 3 3 Plants 5 11 64 80

3.1 Marine mammals Total 8 25 72 105

Approximately 34 of the estimated 76 species CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable of cetaceans (dolphins and whales) and 4 species of serenians (dugongs) worldwide are known to occur in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region (Carwardine, 1995; Richmond, 1997). Few systematic studies on these marine mammals have been carried out along the Kenyan coast (KWS, 1996), but whales, dolphins and dugongs have been recorded.

3.1.1 Dolphins

According to the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS, 1996), 3,036 dolphins individuals from 5 species have been positively identiﬁed off the Kenyan coast. These include the Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), the Common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), the Indo-Paciﬁc Humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis), the Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), and the Spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata). Distribution is even along the coast, but the Common, Bottlenose and Spinner dolphins are the main species in the Diani-Shimoni area. Groups of dolphins in deeper waters off the reef edge are a major tourist attraction.

3.1.2 Whales

Eight species of Baleen whales, 2 of Sperm whales and 13 of Toothed whales occur in the WIO region (Richmond, 1997). School of dolphins in Kiunga Marine Reserve (Source: Sam Weru WWF/EARPO)

13 State of the Coast Report

In Kenya 3 Baleen whale species have been sighted: Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera edeni) (one beached individual), Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) and Minke whale (B. acutorostrata). The Humpback whale is the most common; local ﬁshermen have reported this whale (known as Chongoe in Kiswahili) destroying their gill nets.

Kenya is thought to be part of the migration route for the Humpback whale, but apart A whale with a calf (Source: WWF/Canon) from rapid surveys done by the KWS in 1994, 1996 and 2001, the movements, breeding and feeding habits of whales have not been fully researched. However, it has been established that Humpback whales visit Kenya’s northern coast from their southern wintering grounds with very young calves, where they feed for a period in waters off the Kenyan coast, mainly in Lamu, before returning to their feeding grounds in the South Antarctic. It is also thought that a northern population enters Kenya from the Gulf of Oman, and after breeding, returns to the Gulf.

3.1.3 Dugong

Dugongs live in warm, shallow (less than 5-m deep) waters and sheltered bays and lagoons. They feed primarily on seagrasses. Their distribution is thus dependent on that of seagrass beds, particularly from the family Hydrocharitaceae (Husar, 1978; WWF, 2004). In Kenya large dugong herds were commonly reported before the 1960s, and a herd of 500 dugong was seen in 1967 off the South Coast. The exact number of dugong in Kenya currently is not known (WWF, 2004). Ten and 6 dugongs were counted in the Lamu Archipelago in northern Kenya in 1994 and 1996, respectively (KWS, 1996).

The most important dugong habitats in Kenya are considered to be the Kiunga Marine National Reserve (KMNR); Dodori and Mkokoni Creeks and Siyu Channel of the Lamu Archipelago; the Tana River Delta in northern Kenya; and Gazi-Msambweni-Shimoni in the South Coast (Figure 3.1). The spatial separation between sightings in the north and south suggests the presence of two small, discrete populations in Kenya. Dugongs are targeted for their meat and oil, and sometimes caught as by-catch or for illegal trade, which Fishermen rescue a baby dugong accidentally caught in a ﬁshing net at threatens their population. Kiungamwini, off Kiunga village in Lamu District (Source: M. Olendo WWF/ EARPO)

14 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Figure 3.1 Dugong and dolphin sites, turtle breeding sites as well as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) along the Kenya coast (Source: KMFRI database)

3.1.4 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts

Not much research has been conducted in Kenya on marine mammals. The surveys done so far have been sporadic, due to lack of adequate funding and follow up.

The few dugong monitoring and conservation efforts in Kenya include activities by • Eden Wildlife Trust in the South Coast, since 1992 (www.edentrust.org); • WWF/KWS conservation and development efforts in and adjacent to the Kiunga Marine National Reserve, since 1997 (www.panda.org); • KWS-led aerial surveys, questionnaires and Environment Days, since 1994.

Public awareness efforts on marine mammals, particularly the dugong, have been led by the KWS with support from regional and international conservation agencies.

15 State of the Coast Report

3.2 Sea turtles

Sea turtles have a complex lifecycle: eggs are laid and hatched on beaches, post-hatchlings are pelagic, sub-adults reside in developmental habitats, while adults live in adult foraging grounds. At different times in their life cycle, most turtle species will migrate between different foraging grounds, which are often hundreds of kilometres apart, and also migrate from these foraging grounds to onshore nesting beaches during their reproductive season.

Sea turtles are known to live for up to 70 years or more, and their pre- reproductive period is between 25– 35 years. Females nest every 2 to 3 years and lay eggs once to six times in a nesting season, depending on Coastal erosion negatively affects turtle breeding sites their maturity. Each nesting site is species-speciﬁc, and 60–180 eggs are laid at each nesting, yet only one out of a thousand of these survive to become adults and reproduce. Interestingly, sea turtles return to nest at the site they hatched.

Due to their complex lifecycle, migratory habits and physiology, sea turtles and their habitats have long been under threat from humans (Mortimer, 2001). They are threatened by direct harvesting/ﬁshing, trapping as by-catch in various ﬁshing gear and by the destruction of their foraging and nesting grounds due to poor shoreline management.

3.2.1 Species composition

Five of the world’s 7 species of sea turtles are found in Kenyan ocean waters. These include the Green (Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), Loggerhead (Caretta caretta), Olive Ridley (Ledpidochelys olivacea), and Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) turtles. All 5 species are on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals, with the Hawksbill and Leatherback listed as Critically Endangered and the Green, Loggerhead and Olive Ridley as Endangered. All three of the Endangered sea turtle species forage and breed on Kenya’s beaches.

3.2.2 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts

Kenya is signatory to the Marine Turtle Strategy and Action Plan for the Western Indian Ocean (WIO), which outlines key issues in marine turtle conservation at national and regional levels, and sets out actions for the conservation, appreciation and sustainable utilization of marine turtles. In Kenya, sea turtle conservation efforts are site-speciﬁc, as well as national and regional (Wamukoya, 1997). Approximately 200 km of Kenya’s 600-km coastline is beach, and potential turtle rookery area.

Sea turtle research, monitoring and conservation efforts in Kenya are led by 6 sea turtle conservation groups. These groups comprise sea turtle conservationists in different capacities, including individuals, hoteliers, local community groups, NGOs and government institutions. They work under the umbrella of the Kenyan Sea Turtle Conservation Committee (KESCOM), a membership organization founded in 1993 to promote community participation in the conservation of sea turtles. KESCOM operates under the patronage of Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), the Fisheries Department, Coast Development Authority (CDA), National Museums of Kenya (NMK) and the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI).

16 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Key activities to improve research, Table 3.2 Some endemic bird species at the Kenya coast monitoring and conservation of sea Species Description turtles in Kenya include: A rare and elusive bird known only from the lower Tana Tana River Cisticola • Addressing research and River. Only 6 or 7 specimens have ever been found, (Cisticola restrictus) monitoring needs for sea and it has not been detected for around 30 years turtle conservation and Forest or Sokoke A fairly common bird from the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest management; Batis (Batis mixta south to Shimba Hills. • Building capacity for sea turtle ultima) conservation, research and Known only from the Kilifi-Sabaki area of the Kenyan management; coast, mostly in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. Regularly observed in the Sokoke, but never between January • Strengthening community Clarke’s Weaver and March. There are no breeding records. Its annual (Ploceus golandi) participation in sea turtle disappearance for 3 months may indicate that it research, management and breeds away from the Sokoke Forest. It is classified as conservation; and Endangered because of its restricted range. • Integrating sea turtle Fischer’s Turaco Found in coastal areas of southern Somalia, Kenya research and management (Tauraco fischeri) and northern Tanzania. In Kenya present all along the with sustainable ﬁsheries Other names: Black- coast where suitable forest is present and inland along management. crested Turaco the Tana River as far as Garsen. Endangered because of its very restricted range, As a result of these efforts— Sokoke Scops-Owl this small owl was discovered in 1966. It inhabits the conducted under the auspices of (Otus ireneae) Arabuko-Sokoke Forest near the Kenyan coast and Other names: possibly the lowlands of the Usambara Mountains of the KWS, sea turtle conservation Morden’s Scops-Owl Tanzania. It may also be present in the Mundane range groups and KESCOM—between north of Sokoke.

1995 and 2006, approximately 70,000 Forbes-Watson’s nests were successfully protected Swift (Apus berliozi) Only known from Yemen, Somalia and Kenya. A or relocated and 800,000 hatchlings Other names: scarce, non-breeding visitor in Kenya, near forests on successfully released. In addition Berlioz’s Swift, the southern half of the coast. Watson’s Swift some 1,736 nesting females and releases from gill nets have been A coastal lark of dry, open country, found in Somalia tagged. Malindi Pipit and Kenya. In Kenya it is restricted to the northern (Anthus melindae) coast from Malindi North and inland along the Tana River Delta in areas of short grass subject to flooding. 3.3 Shoreline birds Restricted to the coastal forests of Kenya and Tanzania, in Kenya it is found in the Arabuko-Sokoke Sokoke Pipit There are numerous families of birds forest and possibly in the nearby Shimba hills. It may (Anthus sokokensis) from a great diversity of species all already be extinct in Tanzania and is endangered in along the coastline of mainland Kenya because of its very restricted range. Eastern Africa, the WIO Island States East Coast Akalat A lowland bird of Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and (Sheppardia and the open ocean. These may Malawi. Quite common in the Arabuko-Sokoke forest gunningi) and also found at Rabai, Shimoni, the Shimba Hills and be grouped into three descriptive Other names: the lower Tana River in Kenya. Classed as Vulnerable categories: shoreline predators (such Gunning’s Robin, because of its small range and threats to its forest Gunnings Akalat, as the grey herons, black headed habitat. heron, great white-egret, yellow- Eastern Akalat billed egret, little egret, sacred ibis The Amani Sunbird is unique to coastal woodland in Kenya and Tanzania. Its main location is in Kenya’s and hadada ibis), true seabirds Amani Sunbird Arabuko-Sokoke forest and even there it is scarce. Its (Anthreptes (such as gulls, terns, bobbies and only other location in Kenya is the Marafa forest near pallidigaster) gannets) and wading birds (such Malindi. Classified as Endangered due to its restricted as plovers and sandpipers). Among range. these are birds that are endemic to Source: UNEP WCMC fact sheet Kenya’s coastal area, many of them endangered (Table 3.2).

Of the 1,100 bird species recorded in Kenya, 41% are found along the coastal strip. Nearly all these species breed in the north temperate, boreal or arctic zones and migrate southwards in great numbers during the European winter from October to March (Dowsett, 1980).

17 State of the Coast Report

Table 3.3 Coastal and marine Threatened and/ Shorebirds are coastal resident or or Flagship species in Kenya migratory waterbirds and waders. Conservation Genus-species/ Many species occur along key Name status Where found Family in Kenya stopover areas of Africa, depending on these specific coastal areas Juveniles born in for their survival. They frequent shallow, mangrove Sharks Carcharhinidae None areas; adults in mudflats, tidal creeks lined with offshore reefs and mangroves, narrow recesses, deep oceanic waters estuaries, saltpans and rocky cliffs. Rhinocodon Entire coastline Whale shark None Common groups in Kenya include typus beyond the reef slope terns, herons, egrets, storks, ibises, Humphead Cheilinus None Off-shore reef areas spoonbills, flamingos, plovers wrasse undulatus and larger waders. They tend to Deep waters – below Ceolocanth congregate in estuaries, creeks, 1000 m saltpans, mangroves and beaches, Hippocampus Inner shore seagrass Seahorses None kuda areas particularly along the mainland coast. Some species use these areas Coconut crabs Birgus latro None Mpunguti Island as breeding and feeding grounds; Inner shore and off Spiny lobsters Palinuridae None for others they are wintering bases shore reefs and essential stopovers on journeys Inner shore and off Groupers Serranidae None shore reefs from the northern Tundra to the Southern Cape. However, their Reef flats and sandy Triton Shell Charonia tritonis None areas migratory patterns are not yet fully understood.

The major threat to both resident and migrant bird species in Kenya is the degradation and loss of habitats on which the birds depend, as a result of habitat conversion, changing land-use practices and pollution.

3.3.1 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts

Because of their high position in certain food chains, ease of identiﬁcation, stable taxonomy, longevity, ecological versatility, and relatively well-known ecology and behaviour, birds serve as useful biological indicators for monitoring environmental stresses globally.

In this regard, several environmental research projects on shoreline birds have been undertaken along the Kenyan coast, led by ornithological experts from the National Museums of Kenya and Birdlife International. In addition, annual monitoring is undertaken throughout Kenya during the month of November, when the birds are migrating south.

3.4 Other coastal and marine threatened and/or ﬂagship species

Kenya’s coastal forests are part of the Eastern Africa Coastal Forests system, within a stretch between southern Somalia and Mozambique that is listed as a Global Biodiversity Hotspot. This is one of the smallest of the 25 Global Biodiversity Hotspots recognized by Conservation International, and ranks top among the areas with high density of endemic plant and vertebrate species (Myers et al., 2000). It is also considered to be the hotspot most likely to suffer the greatest plant and vertebrate extinction for a given loss of habitat, and one of 11 ‘hyperhot’ priorities for conservation investment (Brooks et al., 2002). Within this hotspot, Kenya’s forests host at least 105 Globally Threatened species (Table 3.3), of which 64 are found in the Kwale forests (CEPF, 2003). Shimba Forest is overwhelmingly the most important, with 56 Threatened species. Ten of the 18 target forests are Important Bird Areas.

18 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

3.4.1 Angola black-and-white colobus

The Angola black-and-white colobus (Colobus angolensis) is one of four species of black-and- white colobus monkeys found in sub-Saharan Africa. These primates have a discontinuous distribution through the southern highland (Eastern Arc Mountains), coastal and gallery forests of southern and eastern Tanzania, into south-eastern Kenya.

A survey done in 2001 at the Shimba Hills National Reserve counted 73 Colobus apalliatus groups. The total population size in the reserve was estimated then at 2,436 individuals (Anderson et al., 2005).

3.4.2 Tana mangabey

Forests along 60 kilometers of the lower Tana Black-and-White colobus (Source: L. C. Marigo) River provide habitats for one of the world’s top 25 most highly endangered primates—the Tana mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus). The number of mangabeys currently in Kenya is not known, but a 1994 census estimated a population of 1,000– 1,200. Mangabeys exhibit ecological ﬂexibility, but behavioral data come from only a few groups. Their forest habitat has been severely degraded since the 1990s, with estimates indicating that 30% of it has been cleared. The mean number of mangabey groups per forest is positively correlated with forest area and density of trees, thus the loss of forest habitat is directly threatening to mangabey populations. Mangabey–human conﬂict has increased over time, with mangabeys raiding crops, getting trapped or being chased by dogs. Tana mangabey (Source: J. Wieczkowski)

Coastal Communities 4

4.1 Population

4.1.1 Population size and distribution

Human population in Kenya’s coastal region is relatively large compared to other regions in the country, with much of the population concentrated around urban centres. According to the 1999 population and housing census (GOK, 1999), the population of Coast province was 2,491,000, equivalent to about 8% of the national population. This represented an increase of 54% from the 1989 census, when coastal population stood at 1,621,918. Some 25% of the residents in the region live in the city of Mombasa, another 7% live in other urban centres, while the remaining 68% reside in rural areas.

Population distribution at the coast is largely influenced by rainfall, altitude and agro-ecological area. Administrative policy, through which a number of settlement schemes have been created (Hoorweg et al., 2000), also influences population patterns. Most of the coastal urban centres are located in the vicinity of estuaries, mangrove swamps and coral lagoons. The rapid growth in urban population thus places significant pressure on the coastal environment and its resources.

4.1.2 Population growth rate

The Coast province’s annual population growth rate in 1999 was 3.5%, compared to 3.1% during the 1989 population and housing census (GOK, 1999). According to the 1989 census, Tana River District had the highest population growth rate (4%), followed by Mombasa District (3.9%). Taita-Taveta district had the lowest (2%). In 2002 the population of the Coast province was estimated to be around 2.7 million (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1 Population data for the seven districts in Coast Province in 2002 Demographic Taita Mombasa Malindi Lamu Kwale Kilifi Tana River Total profiles Taveta

Population size 741,086 305,143 72,686 536,114 597,354 259,889 200,326 2,712,598 Total # of males 405,374 154,304 37,553 260,029 283,702 129,937 100,343 1,371,242

Total # of females 335,712 150,839 35,133 276,085 313,652 129,952 99,983 1,341,356

Female/Male ratio 82.82 97.75 93.56 106.17 110.56 100.01 99.64 97.82 Youthful population 186,386 71,489 15,512 119,017 118,304 54,998 45,498 611,204 (15–25) Population growth 3.60% 3.90% 3.05% 1.70% 3.40% Rate - - - Population density 2,896 36 332 65 125 40 5.5 3,499.50 (persons per sq km)

Urban population 585,543 136,826 17,130 78,035 189,227 96,658 17,086 1,120,505 Source: GOK, 2002: Coast Province Profile (Unpublished data); -, missing value

21 State of the Coast Report

By international standards, a population growth rate of more than 3% is considered high, as such a rate results in a rapid demand for resources to meet basic needs. The high population growth rate in Mombasa district (Figure 4.1) is attributed in part to migration of people from other parts of the country in search of employment or business Figure 4.1 Population growth for six districts in coast province between opportunities (GOK, 1999). 1979 and 1999 (Data source: GOK, 2005)

4.1.3 Ethnic and cultural diversity

The coastal population in Kenya is culturally heterogeneous, with the largest indigenous ethnic group being the Mijikenda, composed of nine sub-tribes: Giriama, Digo, Rabai, Duruma, Kauma, Chonyi, Kambe, Ribe and Jibana. Other indigenous coastal ethnic groups are the Taita, Pokomo, Bajuni, Orma, Sagala and Swahili. Due to its accessibility and socio-economic dynamics, which offer ample opportunities for livelihoods and leisure, the Kenyan coast has over the centuries attracted many different ethnic and racial groups (UNEP, 1998).

4.1.4 Migration trends

Over the last century, the Coast province received a signiﬁcant number of migrants from other parts of the country, which accounts in part for the observed long-term population trends. Labour migration into the province can be traced as far back as 1909, when large numbers of people from Central and Nyanza provinces moved to Mombasa and coastal plantations. The number of migrants into the coastal region increased from about 222,000 between 1969 and 1979 to 275,000 during the following decade. The main recipient districts for migrants have been Mombasa and Kiliﬁ (GOK, 1999).

Most of those who have migrated into the Coast province in the last 20 years have been from Eastern, Nyanza, Western and Central provinces. In 1989 Eastern province was a leading origin, Figure 4.2 Predicted population density (2015) (Source: KMFRI database) with 86,739 migrants, followed

22 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya by Nyanza Province with 62,404 migrants to the coast. That year alone, Mombasa and Kiliﬁ received 266,131 and 42,164 migrants respectively. Out of a total of 421,935 migrants into the Coast province in 1989, 16,441 came from outside Kenya. About 1,252 of the migrants were not registered. Mombasa district has also received the highest number of foreign immigrants (GOK, 1999) in the province.

Present-day migration to the coastal region is mainly spurred by employment opportunities, the growth of the tourism industry and access to social facilities, among other factors. Figure 4.2. shows the predicted population density along the Kenyan coastline by the year 2015.

4.1.5 Population impacts on the environment

Most of the coastal urban centres in Kenya are situated in the vicinity of estuaries, mangrove swamps and coral lagoons. The rapid human population growth rates recorded, combined with existing poor resource management has led to rapid degradation of the coastal environment. Impacts include over-exploitation of nearshore ﬁsheries, degradation of mangrove areas, shorelines change and cultural erosion. The high population growth rate also places signiﬁcant direct pressure on services like housing, healthcare and education.

4.2 Access to social services

The Kenya Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper of 2001–2004 identiﬁes poor delivery of social services as one of the key causes of poverty in Kenya. A survey conducted in 2005 by the Ministry of Planning and National Development on poverty prevalence in various parts of the country (GOK, 2005) showed that 56% of the country’s population lived on less than a dollar a day. The level of per capita income, health, access to education, safe water and basic infrastructure was found to be very low, especially in rural areas. Up to 57.1% of coastal residents were classiﬁed as “very poor” (living on less than a dollar a day). The interaction between the poor and the environment has resulted in undesirable consequences that have accelerated not only poverty levels but also the rate of environmental degradation throughout the country.

4.2.1 Education

The Coast province remains one of the lowest-literacy regions in the country. According to government statistics, both Kwale and Kiliﬁ districts had the highest primary school enrolment rate between 2002 and 2004 in the province (Figure 4.3). In the same period, Lamu and Taita Taveta districts’ enrolment rates continued to lag behind the other districts, although there was a slight improvement in the latter. The low enrolment rate is attributed mainly to poor facilities and infrastructure, lack of trained teachers, and early marriage of girls, particularly in the rural areas.

A signiﬁcant disparity in literacy levels is found between men and women, and between urban and rural areas. Kiliﬁ, Tana River and Kwale districts have the highest disparities, with literacy levels of men being much higher than of Figure 4.3 Primary school enrolment in the coastal districts, 2002–2004 women (Hoorweg et al., 2000). (Source: GOK, 2005)

23 State of the Coast Report

4.2.2 Health care

Poor health and diseases at the Kenya coast are inﬂuenced by a number of factors associated with poverty, infrastructure and the environment. Low levels of adult literacy, and adherence to traditional health care compound the situation (UNEP, 1998).

Table 4.2 shows the status of the health infrastructure at the Coast province. High medical costs hamper the use of modern health services in most of the province. In Kwale district, for instance, high costs hamper the use of modern health facilities for 10–30% of the population (GOK, 1994). As a result, more than 40% of coastal dwellers visit traditional healers as a ﬁrst option. Utilization of traditional medical practitioners has been found to be higher in families where the mother has no formal education. The impact of traditional herbal medicine on the environment has not been studied. This should be established, with a view to promoting sustainable resource-use strategies.

Table 4.2 Indicators of health services in Coast province Taita Tana Health indicator Mombasa Malindi Lamu Kwale Kilifi Taveta River Doctor:patient ratio 1:3,000 1:19,502 1:36,343 1:82,690 1:100,000 1:41,000 1:95,500

No. of health facilities 211 83 5 57 73 44 57 No. of hospitals 9 3 1 - 2 3 2 No. of nursing homes and h/centres 19 2 - 5 5 7 5 No. of dispensaries 183 24 - - 21 22 36 Average distance to health centre 0.5 km 1.5 km 5 km 30 km 5 km 10 km 50 km

Source: GOK, 2002a; - missing value

4.2.3 Water resources and sanitation

The main sources of fresh water in rural areas at the coast are ground water, surface water and roof catchments. Mombasa island and district has the highest number of households with access to piped water supply, while Lamu has the lowest. Table 4.3 gives a summary of access to water and sanitation in the 7 districts of the Coast province.

Table 4.3 Water and sanitation indicators for the seven districts in coast province in 2002 Taita Tana Water and Sanitation Mombasa Malindi Lamu Kwale Kilifi Taveta River Total no. of households 183,540 52,164 15,006 92,594 90,311 57,635 36,177 No. of households with access 163,913 26,822 1,500 23,026 7000 24,000 1,717 to piped water No. of households with access 19,627 25,303 1,050 62,286 65,000 26,000 9,717 to potable piped water No. of wells 152 595 380 524 700 131 103

No. of protected springs 1 49 0 67 39 85 0 No of boreholes 61 33 19 - 160 115 27 No. of dams 0 35 19 6 70 13 8 No. of households with roof 409 78 500 641 165 13,400 203 catchments Average distance to nearest 1 3 1 1 7 1 1.22 potable water point (in km) Source: Republic of Kenya, 2001, GOK, 2002; -, missing value

24 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Water demand in the coastal region has been growing rapidly over the years. The demand estimated for 1995, for instance, was about 200,000 m3 /day and was projected to rise to 280,000 m3 /day by 2010 and 380,000 m3/day by 2020 (World Bank, 1996). The water supply system has been overtaken by demand, which has increased rapidly in concert with the growth of the tourism industry and irrigation schemes. The main uses of water are domestic (which accounts for 35% of the total water demand), livestock, irrigation and industry. To address the water shortage, complementary water sources such as communal boreholes, roof catchments, dams and wells are common. There is need, however, for the quantity of groundwater at the coast to be assessed, and for this information to be used for its sustainable management.

Increasing pollution from domestic sewage and solid waste is a severe challenge in coastal Kenya, particularly at hotspots located in and around the main urban centers such as Mombasa. Over 65% of the Coast Province has no sewerage system and is served by septic tanks, soak pits and pit latrines. In Mombasa district, for instance, wastewater management is not adequate and only 10% of the population is connected to the sewage system. Individual houses have pit latrines while most institutions dispose their wastewater in soak pits, which contributes to groundwater pollution. Areas served by sewerage systems, however, also contribute to environmental degradation because treatment works are not operational and the sewage is disposed directly into the sea, threatening public health and marine life.

The situation is compounded by the fact that Kenya does not yet have efﬂuent standards for discharge into the sea, and most water projects have been implemented without due consideration of sanitation and other complementary infrastructure. The main causes of the poor urban water systems in coastal regions include poor planning, mismanagement and lack of technical expertise (World Bank, 1996).

4.2.4 Infrastructure and communication

Despite the government having undertaken a number of policy measures to develop infrastructure and services for human settlement since the 1970s, very little progress has been made in their implementation. Among these policy measures are the Growth Centre Policy; Rural Trade and Production Centre Strategy; District Focus for Rural Development; and Slum Upgrading policy.

Even in areas where infrastructure has been built applying the above policies, the expected result has not occurred. For instance, the Growth Centre Policy failed to redirect human settlement away from Nairobi and Mombasa cities. A result of the ineffective implementation of these policies has been the continued poor state of infrastructure in many areas, including coastal rural areas (NEMA, 2004).

Most rural areas at the coast are served by a dilapidated and narrow road network, in contrast with urban centres of Mombasa, Kilifi and Kwale, which are well covered by both classified and non-classified roads. The road networks, however, are generally concentrated around important industrial and commercial centres. Kwale District has the longest road network of 1129.6 km, followed by Mombasa, which has 109.6 km. The bulk of the road network in Kilifi, Lamu, Tana River and Taita Taveta districts is unclassified and seasonal. Inadequate repair and maintenance, and uncoordinated and unplanned development on road reserves have worsened the road networks in the region.

The Coast province is served by a railway line from Mombasa to Nairobi, branching at Voi to Taita Taveta township. The railway ferries passengers and cargo from the port of Mombasa.

Moi International Airport in Mombasa, the main airport in the coastal region, handles both international and domestic air trafﬁc. Other smaller airports are in Malindi, Lamu and Ukunda, while some smaller towns in the province have airstrips.

25 State of the Coast Report

4.2.5 Housing

Most communities in the Coast province build houses using mangrove poles, coral rubble, palm thatch and clay. Due to high poverty levels and poor development of infrastructure, most rural houses are not connected to modern amenities such as piped water, electricity and a sewer system (GOK, 2002). In most urban centres, the demand for housing has outstripped supply, leading to the spread of slum and squatter settlements without clean water supply or sewerage. While rapid urbanisation and poverty are the main causes of this scenario, the situation is aggravated by inappropriate and ineffective regulatory frameworks, limited access to affordable ﬁnance, high construction costs and inaccessibility of affordable serviced land.

As the demand for low-cost housing increases in the coastal region, especially in the urban centres, new ways of providing housing need to be sought. Better methods need to be devised to utilise the scarce amount of land available for housing optimally, while improvements to informal settlements need to include provision of clean running water, solid waste management systems and sewer services, as a means to avoid ground water pollution.

4.3 Historical and cultural heritage

The Coast province has numerous historical and archaeological sites, including old mosques, tombs, mounds and walls of ancient city houses, many of them linked with the development of the Swahili culture in East Africa.

A number of these historical sites, such as Mombasa Old Town Conservation (MOTCO) and Lamu Old Town Conservation (LOTCO) areas, have been designated Conservation Areas and are managed by the National Museums of Kenya. Siyu Fort in Siyu Old Town, built in the 1860s by the Sultan of Zanzibar in Pate Island (Source: NMK) Several historical and archaeological sites, e.g. the Siyu Fort, have been declared National Monuments under the National Museums and Heritage Act (2006) of the Laws of Kenya.

These cultural and historical sites serve as important tourist attractions. However, only a few of them, such as the Fort Jesus in Mombasa, have been well marketed.

Today, some of the early trading settlements, including Mombasa, Lamu, Kiliﬁ and Malindi, have become important modern business Giriama grave markers and ancestral ﬁgures, ‘Vigango’ that are typical features of Kaya burial sites (Source: NMK) centres.

26 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

4.4 Kaya forests

Among the natural resources found along the entire coastal province are unique indigenous forests known as Kaya (Fig. 4.4). The Kaya forests are highly biodiverse and have high cultural signiﬁcance to the Mijikenda people, who consider them sacred and have used them for traditional religious and spiritual ceremonies for centuries (Blackett, 1994). This cultural and spiritual value of the forests has contributed to their conservation over millennia. Furthermore, the Kaya have recently spurred the growth of forest tourism in the coastal region.

Surprisingly, however, the nine Mijikenda sub-tribes and the Kaya forests have received little attention from anthropologists and naturalists. While its fascinating history has recently started to be documented, many aspects of Mijikenda culture are still unknown, and only a few major botanical studies been conducted in the Kaya forests (Lehmann and Kioko, 2005).

Figure 4.4 Spatial distribution of the Mijikenda Kaya forests (Source: KMFRI database)

27 State of the Coast Report

Traditional knowledge has been crucial to the conservation of the Kaya forests, with their treasure trove of plant, animal and fisheries resources. But with the conversion of many coastal people to Christianity and Islam, the cultural and spiritual significance of the forests is being eroded, threatening their very survival. If the continued existence of Kaya forests is to be achieved, it is important to integrate traditional knowledge into resource management, planning and scientific research.

4.5 Gender equity

Gender equity at the Kenyan coast hinges heavily on the religious, cultural and economic dynamics of the different communities that inhabit the region. Deep-rooted religious, traditional and cultural values militate against gender equity with regard to opportunities for equitable sharing of household and societal responsibilities, inheritance, employment, etc. For instance, 48.6% and 42% of men work in the formal and informal sectors respectively. The corresponding ﬁgures for women are 34.8 and 55.1% respectively (Hoorweg et al., 2000), indicating that men have greater access to formal work than women.

Because of the gender disparities that exist at the coast, women have not been fully integrated into the environmental management process. For example, women are generally under-represented in coastal community-based organisations (CBO) established to deal with environmental issues. This is signiﬁcant, as the two main occupations of women at the coast—farming and cooking— rely completely on natural resources. Cooking requires fuelwood or charcoal, which are already scarce, yet women lack the environmental awareness and decision-making power to make changes in their energy-use patterns. Traditional farming techniques, which can be degrading to the environment, continue to be used even as farmland becomes increasingly scarce and depleted. Women’s involvement in environmental CBOs and NGOs, as well as their involvement in decision-making in these and at the household level, is critical for improved natural resource management at the coast.

4.6 Land tenure and use

4.6.1 Land tenure

By the end of the 18th century there were three main population groups at the Kenya coast, namely the Arabs, Swahili and Mijikenda. The ﬁrst two were mainly concentrated in towns and areas adjacent to the coastal strip. The Mijikenda majority were living more inland or working as labourers on the Arab–Swahili plantations. This meant the Mijikenda were disadvantaged in terms of land ownership (Kanyinga, 2000).

At independence in 1963, the protectorate status of the coastal strip was separately negotiated, and the government agreed to uphold all titles. There was no action by the government to resettle the locals who had settled on these lands but were regarded as squatters, even though some had lived there for more than a generation (Kanyinga, 2000).

In the years following independence, however, the policy objective of the government has been to resettle the landless through settlement schemes, to cope with the problem of squatters and bring unused tracts of land into use. The necessary steps towards land distribution including registration and adjudication, are still in progress. By 1985, 13 settlement schemes had been created in Kwale and Kiliﬁ districts (Table 4.4), and similar efforts had started in Lamu district. Despite these efforts, however, today most of the land along the coastal strip is owned by absentee landlords, and many of the indigenous people continue to live as squatters (Kanyinga, 2000).

28 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

The land tenure system in the coastal region Table 4.4 Post-independence settlement has had a bearing on the conservation of schemes in Kwale, Kiliﬁ and Malindi districts Plot Settlement Starting No. the environment and its resources. Without Size (ha) size scheme date plots ownership documents, many households (ha) show little concern for the application of Mtondia 1962 3,000 235 4.8 appropriate farming technologies or long-term Tezo/Roka 1962 6,500 1,357 4.8 sustainability. They often apply slash-and- Ngerenyi 1968 5,236 950 4.8 burn farming, since it is cheaper and easier. This type of farming makes even the remaining Sabharwal 1968 120 20 4.8 Tembo 1968 202 26 4.8 pieces of coastal forest vulnerable. Springs Ukunda 1968 607 123 4.8

4.6.2 Land use Mtwapa 1969 3,986 607 4.8

Land use in the coastal region falls into four main Vipingo 1974 1,052 260 4.0 categories: livestock ranches in the hinterland, Magarini 1978 60,000 4,000 6.0/12.0 agricultural settlement schemes, private Diani 1978 728 446 2.0 land along the coastline, and undelineated Mbuguni 1978 2,400 787 2.4 government land. Livestock ranches cover 50% of the total available rural land, while Kijipwa 1982 350 350 1.0 agriculture occupies 25%. Tana River district Golini 1985 290 102 2.0 has the most agricultural land (8,550 km2) Source: Various reports from the Department of Settlement followed by Kwale district with 7,313 km2. Mombasa has just 140 km2 of agricultural land, the lowest in the province (Kanyinga, 2000).

Conservation areas as a form of land use constitute a large portion of government land in the hinterlands of the coast province. These areas include national parks and reserves (e.g. Shimba Hills National Reserve and Tana River Primate Reserve), which support a high diversity of ﬂora and fauna. They constitute important components of the coastal ecosystems and are major tourist destinations. The threats and challenges facing these areas are discussed in Chapters 2 and 6 of this publication.

4.7 Economic status and resource use

4.7.1 Wealth and poverty levels

A government survey carried out in 2002 found that poverty levels range from 30% in Bura in Tana River District to 84% in Ganze in Kilifi district (GOK, 2002). This high level of poverty does not augur well for the coastal environment, since the poor are more likely to resort to unsustainable resource-use practices in an effort to meet immediate survival needs. For instance, the increase in the number of artisanal fishermen in the near-shore fishery has led to overexploitation, as evidenced by decreases in daily catch size (McClanahan & Mangi, 2001). Because many artisanal fishermen in the coastal region cannot afford fishing gears with which to fish offshore, some have resorted to more destructive fishing techniques that produce a higher short-term yields but have disastrous effects on long-term productivity and biodiversity (Fisheries Department, 2005).

It is noteworthy that as a general trend, poverty leads to over-use and destruction of natural resources, where short-term livelihood goals are pursued at the expense of long-term environmental sustainability. There is need to ensure that environmental concerns are integrated into development planning and that development plans lead to the empowerment of local communities to engage in sustainable livelihood activities.

29 State of the Coast Report

4.7.2 Access to natural resources

Access to marine living and non-living resources has historically been open to the local coastal communities. However, due to the prevailing land tenure system, private shorefront developers and hotels have in many areas displaced or blocked local people’s access to the sea (Kanyinga, 2000). This has created conflicts between developers and local fishermen. There is, therefore an urgent need to map out all beach access points, and to put in place measures to secure unhampered access to the sea and fish landing sites for fishermen and the public.

The development of unplanned urban settlements in marginal lands, and poor enforcement of the Land Planning Act at major tourist development centres along the shoreline, have caused loss of vegetation cover in many areas. Numerous sea walls have been erected at major tourist development centres to control shoreline erosion. This impact is most severe in Mombasa inshore water areas and Diani (UNEP/GPA and WIOMSA, 2004). These challenges to coastal zone management need to be addressed through forward-planning and strict enforcement of the relevant legislation.

As the demand for coastal resources continues to increase, there is need to adopt an integrated management plan for the coastal region. Communities living adjacent to natural resources have an important role to play in the management of these resources, and they should therefore be involved fully in decision-making.

4.7.3 Socio-economic dynamics

In the coastal region, the main livelihood activities are ﬁshing, mangrove harvesting, and tourism along the coast, while in the hinterland subsistence farming and livestock rearing (pastoralism) are the major occupations.

The economy in the urban centres derives mainly from maritime and harbour activities, tourism and commerce. Tourism, in particular, depends heavily on the rich biological diversity and health of the environment. Increasing human pressure and associated unsustainable practices threaten natural resources. Degradation of coral reefs and mangrove forests, for instance, has reduced nearshore ﬁsheries productivity and accelerated coastal erosion (see Chapter 6). This in turn impoverishes and threatens the livelihoods of local people in the affected areas (GOK, 2002 a&b).

Industrial development, which was for many years conﬁned to Mombasa district and its environs, is now expanding towards the rural coastline and hinterland in other coastal districts (GOK, 2002 a&b). It is hoped that this trend, together with the development of eco-tourism, improvements to coastal and upcountry agricultural practices, intensiﬁed mining activities, and enhanced access to social services in rural areas will work in concert to curb the high rate of migration from rural to urban areas. Slower migration would serve to ease the pressure on service delivery in the few developed urban centres, and make coastal environmental management easier.

30 Economic Activities at the Kenyan Coast 5

5.1 Introduction

Kenya’s economy is heavily dependent on natural resources, and in the coastal region this is especially true. Natural resources drive agriculture, shipping, tourism, ﬁshing and mining, among other industries which form the backbone of the Coast province’s economy.

The principal economic activities at the coast are: tourism (45%), ports and shipping (15%), agricultural industry (8%), ﬁsheries (6%), agriculture (5%), forestry (4%), and mining (2%) (UNEP/FAO/PAP/CDA, 2000; McClanahan et al., 2005). The formal economy of the Coast province is thus anchored on the service and industrial sectors (Figure 5.1). The informal sector, with vehicle repair shops, second-hand clothing stalls, fruit and vegetable vending, shoe-shine and repair, hair and beauty palours etc., also provides Figure 5.1 Principal economic activities and their contribution livelihood to a signiﬁcant proportion of the to livelihood and income for coastal populations coastal population.

5.2 Coastal tourism

Tourism has been growing steadily in Kenya since independence from British rule in 1963, and over time has become one of the country’s leading sectors, employing tens of thousands of people. Foreign exchange earnings from tourism increased rapidly from 1989, to KShs 28.1 billion in 1994. However, from 1995 the sector declined, recording earnings of KShs 17.5 billion in 1998. The major slump that occurred in 1998 was attributed to several factors, including civil clashes in Likoni, Mombasa in 1997, which elicited adverse coverage by the international media; damage to infrastructure caused by the El Niño rains of 1997/1998; terrorist acts (bombings of the American Embassy in 1998 and Kikambala in 2001), and competition from countries with a similar product, especially countries in southern Africa, the Caribbean and South East Asia (Government of Kenya, 1999).

The main tourist attractions at the coast are its warm weather; friendly people; magniﬁcent sandy beaches; marine parks and reserves; terrestrial game parks and reserves and an intriguing cultural and historical setting which blends unique old Arab towns and ruins of 16th-century Portuguese settlements with a rich traditional culture and modern developments (Government of Kenya, 1999; UNEP-GPA and WIOMSA, 2004; Government of Kenya, 2005).

31 State of the Coast Report

Tourism is a leading foreign exchange earner in Kenya. In 1998, the sector contributed 9.2% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), supported 560,000 people in both the formal and informal sectors and accounted for 18% of all of Kenya’s export and foreign currency earnings (UNEP/ GPA and WIOMSA, 2004). Income from tourism-related economic and business activities is an important and reliable source of revenue to the central government and local authorities.

Between 1998 and 2004, coastal tourism contributed between 52% and 68% of the total tourism earnings in Kenya (Government of Kenya, 2005).

The government is in the process of developing a policy for the tourism sector. In addition, several strategies have been implemented to boost tourism in the recent past, including: • forming the Kenya Tourism Board (KTB) to champion the development of the tourism industry; • opening tourism ofﬁces in foreign countries to market the country as a tourist destination; • successfully sourcing for funds from the European Union to effectively market the industry; • establishing a Tourist Police Unit, to improve security for tourists; • strengthening the capacity of resource managers in the management of coastal wildlife and marine resources; • rehabilitating roads leading to and within parks; and • continuing to improve and diversify the products on offer to tourists.

These strategies have resulted in increased tourist arrival and earnings both nationally and in the Coast province in particular. The province has appoximately 306-registered star-rated facilities with 34,903 beds. Hotel bed-nights increased rapidly between 1998 and 2004; for instance, 2004 recorded a 43.8% increase in bed nights from 2003 (Table 5.1). Local tourism has also increased greatly in recent years.

Table 5.1 Hotel bed-nights by zone, 1998–2004 (‘000) Zone 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Coastal-Beach 1,505.3 1,625.2 2,065.2 1,438.2 2,171.8 1,269.6 1,883.5 Other 109.1 73.9 85.8 136.1 108.2 36.5 29.4

Coastal Hinterland 43.9 48.7 76.3 56.6 44.9 60.9 52.9

Total Occupied in Kenya 2,813.0 2,951.0 3,687.8 2,764.10 3,479.4 2,605.9 3,791.5

Coast Province Contribution (%) 58.9% 59.2% 60.4% 59% 67.6% 52.4.0% 52% Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2005

5.2.1 Tourism-related activities

The tourism industry at the coast has spurred other economic activities through forward and backward linkages. Safari tour companies, curio vendors, boat operators, entertainment spots, salons and boutiques, sport ﬁshing, snorkelling and diving all depend primarily on the tourism industry (Table 5.2).

Tourism-related activities offer employment opportunities for coastal dwellers and generate revenue for the local authority and central government. The tourism sector is an important buyer of produce and products from the agricultural and livestock sectors. It also supports income-generating community initiatives such as the René Haller Park in Mombasa, and the Mwaluganje Elephant Sanctuary in Kwale.

32 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

5.2.2 Socio-economic Table 5.2 Tourism-related activities impacts of tourism Type of business Activity

Ferry tourists to and from airports, hotels, national Safari Tour Companies The development of coastal parks and tourist attraction sites. tourism has resulted in clusters of beach hotels within one kilometre Guide the tourists during their tours in coastal of the shoreline which are served towns such as Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu, as with access roads, electricity, water Tour guides well as national parks. This is usually done by freelance tour guides or employees of the tour and other basic infrastructure. companies. However, local people’s settle- Sell carvings, shells and other ornaments mainly Curio vendors ments have generally remained along the beach and at tourist shopping centres. without these services. In addition, the indigenous coastal Own boats, which are hired by tourists for people (especially the Waswahili) Boat operators transport to the Coral Reefs/Gardens, in the marine parks to view marine life. are not significantly involved in ownership or employment within Include discotheques, casinos, water parks, and the tourism industry (Sindiga, Entertainment venues amusement centers located near or within beach 1996, 2000). This lack of significant hotels. benefits from a thriving tourism Located within hotels and shopping centres, industry at their doorstep has Beauty salons and offer hairdressing and beauty services and sell often resulted in disaffection boutiques local wrappers (leso and vitenge) and various among local people. Tourism has decorative cultural items. also had profound socio-economic Mainly undertaken by tourists in deep sea, with Sport fishing impacts in the predominantly the catch being sold to the tourist hotels. Muslim coastal towns, especially Mombasa and Malindi. The Snorkelling Undertaken by tourists in coral reef areas. increase in social problems such as school drop-outs, drug use Diving Undertaken by tourists to view aquatic life. and peddling, petty crime, family disputes and prostitution is often linked to tourism (Sindiga, 2000).

5.3 Agriculture

Agricultural activities within the coastal zone produce food and non-food products at subsistence and commercial levels. Depending on environmental and rainfall conditions, food-crop, cash- crop and livestock farming is practised.

5.3.1 Crop production

The average farm size at the Kenyan coast is 6–8 ha. Most farms are characterized by low- intensity cropping dominated by maize. Tree crops (cashewnuts, coconuts, citrus and mangoes) occupy about 50% of the arable land. Sugarcane farming in South Coast collapsed in 1988, but research has revealed that the crop can do well in the Tana Delta.

Cassava, sweet potatoes, maize, coconut, cowpeas and rice are grown widely in the Coast province, mainly on irrigated areas, marshes, and ﬂoodplains. Vegetables and tropical fruits such as citrus, mangoes, bananas, pineapples and watermelons are grown for both subsistence and export. Cashew nuts, bixa and sisal are grown mainly for export. Coffee is increasingly becoming popular among small-scale growers in the higher-altitude areas of Kwale and Taita Taveta districts.

Maize, cassava and rice are the main food crops in Kwale District, while tree crops like coconut, cashew nuts, bixa, citrus and mangoes are the main cash crops. Maize is the staple food crop and is grown throughout the district at subsistence level. Cassava, being more drought-tolerant, is produced on a small-scale by almost every household in Kwale district (Republic of Kenya, 1997c). 33 State of the Coast Report

Table 5.3 Common food and cash crops at the Coast province Mombasa District, on the other

Food crops Cash crops hand, is heavily urbanized with very little agricultural activity. Coconut, cashew nuts, bixa, Most of the farming in Mombasa Kwale Maize, cassava and rice citrus and mangoes District takes place in Kisauni and Mombasa (mostly Coconut, cashew nut, Likoni Divisions, mostly in small Maize, cowpeas, fruits Kisauni and Likoni simsim (sesame) and and vegetables land holdings. Maize, cowpea, divisions) sunflower fruits and vegetables are grown Maize, cowpeas and Coconut, cashew nuts, Kilifi for food. Coconut, cashew nuts, cassava mangoes and citrus fruits simsim (sesame) and sunﬂower Maize, cowpeas and Coconut, cashew nuts, are also cultivated as cash crops, Malindi cassava mangoes and citrus fruits but on a limited scale. The Maize, cowpeas, simsim, Cotton, bixa, cashew nuts, continued rise in the population Lamu cassava, greengrams, coconut, mangoes and citrus of Mombasa reduces the amount pegion peas and bananas fruits of land available for farming (Government of Kenya, 1997).

In Kiliﬁ and Malindi Districts, about 90% of the population depends heavily on agriculture. The main food crops there are maize, cowpeas and cassava. Since cassava is more tolerant to drought, it has proved to be an important food crop in most of the drier areas of the districts. Coconut and cashew nuts are the principal cash crops, and are grown widely. Other cash crops grown in Kiliﬁ District include mangoes, citrus, pineapples and bananas. Mangoes and pineapples are grown mainly in Malindi district. In Lamu district, approximately 60% of the population depends on agriculture. Farming is done mainly on small land holdings with an average farm size of 4 ha per household. The main food crops include maize, cowpeas, simsim, cassava, greengrams, pigeon peas and bananas. The major cash crops are cotton, bixa, cashew nut, and coconut. Mangoes and citrus fruits are also grown, but on a smaller scale (Government of Kenya, 1997).

Agroforestry, involving the intercropping of coconut and cashew nut trees with maize, beans, simsim and cassava, is also practiced, especially during the early stages of tree establishment (UNEP, 1998). During the dry season when the inter-crops have been harvested, cattle are brought in to graze among the trees. With this system, the income from cashew nuts and dairy is higher than that from cashew nut trees alone.

The relatively higher-agricultural-potential areas, which constitute only 30% of the total coastal area, are intensively farmed. High rates of population growth have driven farmers to encroach into more marginal lands. Traditional shifting cultivation and slash-and-burn farming are widespread, causing adverse impacts on some fragile ecosystems and biodiversity. The challenges posed by these farming practices have not been adequately countered with better soil conservation and water-use methods, among other mitigation measures.

The coastal zone has the potential to be self-sufﬁcient in food production, but this has not been realized due to over-reliance on rain-fed agriculture. Furthermore, farmers have continued to use traditional farming techniques and rarely apply agricultural inputs like fertilizers. Poor tillage and non-application of appropriate soil and water conservation measures compound the situation, resulting in poor yields.

Land tenure is also a serious issue for the farmers at the coast, since most of the land has not been adjudicated. Most farmers lack title deeds that they could use as collateral to obtain credit to develop their farms. Poor infrastructure also makes it difﬁcult for farmers to take their produce to the market at the right time. In general, producer prices for agricultural produce are also very low, which serves as a disincentive for farmers who would modernise or expand their scale of operation if prices were better.

34 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

5.3.2 Irrigation agriculture in the Tana, Umba and Athi-Sabaki ﬂoodplains

Irrigation agriculture is practiced in the Tana, Umba and Athi-Sabaki River floodplains. Rice is the main crop in the Tana and Umba River floodplains. Irrigation in the Umba floodplain is done and controlled by the local community while in the Tana floodplain it is managed by the Tana and Athi River Development Authority (TARDA), a state corporation. The Tana and Athi- Sabaki floodplain is highly prone to salinity, and because important food crops such as bananas, rice and maize do not do well in saline soils, yields fall rapidly in areas where seawater intrudes into the soil.

There has been an insigniﬁcant abstraction of water for irrigation in the last 14 years in the Bura, Hola and Tana Delta Irrigation Schemes, following their collapse. However, there are plans to re-commission these schemes (GOK, 2003). If they are re-launched, it is expected that the Tana Delta irrigation scheme will be one of the major abstractors of waters from the Tana River (GOK-TARDA, 1982a-c), in addition to the Mwea-Tebere, Bura and Hola irrigation schemes. However, the costs of re-launching the collapsed schemes are expected to be extremely high, as the construction of irrigation facilities would have to start afresh. The Athi-Sabaki River does not undergo signiﬁcant water abstraction for irrigation (GOK, 1992).

5.3.3 Livestock production

Livestock production is a signiﬁcant contributor to the coastal economy. Of the 85 major ranches within the Coast Province, about 25 are currently operational. Livestock rearing is mainly concentrated on the marginal lands of the coastal region, which make up 69% of the total area. Overall, Tana River district has the highest livestock population in the province, followed by Kwale and Kiliﬁ/Malindi districts, which also have large herds of cattle, sheep and poultry (Table 5.3).

The main challenges faced by livestock farmers are frequent droughts, poor management, wildlife invasions, pests and diseases, inadequate infrastructure, poor marketing of ranch products, and insecurity.

The pastoral communities in Tana River district graze large herds of cattle in the lower ridges of the Tana River basin. During droughts, the pastoralists graze right inside the Tana Delta’s wetlands. Furthermore, cattle from around the country, some from as far as the North-Eastern Province, are brought to the delta during the dry season. This seasonal increase in the number of cattle grazed in the Tana Delta wetlands points to the need for an assessment of the carrying capacity of the wetland.

Table 5.4 Livestock population at the Coast province Population Area in District Cattle Sheep Goats Camels Poultry Pigs Density sq kms Mombasa 2,896 230 6,734 2,321 9,442 - 246,500 - Kwale 60 8,295 243,285 71,192 138,735 - 1,664,318 1152 Kilifi/Malindi 125 12,530 223,380 62,718 158,052 - 1,014,300 244 Taita/Taveta 40 17,128 81,000 45,000 180,000 - 210,000 600 Tana River 5.5 38,466 450,000 260,000 390,000 25,000 120,000 - Lamu 12 6,167 35,000 9,000 42,000 - 105,000 - Total 82,816 1,039,399 450,731 918,229 25,000 3,360,118 1,996 Source: CDA 2003, Republic of Kenya, 2001 ; - no data

35 State of the Coast Report

Variations in rainfall patterns and vegetation types in the district have resulted in different areas sustaining different types of livestock. In general, cattle, goats and poultry are kept in all the divisions. Marginal areas also have bee-keeping activities (Government of Kenya, 1997b). For example, in Samburu, Kinango and the low-potential areas of Msambweni Divisions, the rearing of beef cattle, sheep and goats is common, as is bee-keeping. Other parts of the district support poultry, dairy, sheep, and beef cattle (Government of Kenya, 1997). In Lamu District, traditional pastoralists keep large herds of cattle, sheep and goats, while smallholders rear mainly poultry and rabbits, and maintain beehives. In Kiliﬁ district, livestock is reared in the low-potential semi-arid areas of Ganze, Marafa, and Magarini.

Currently, exotic and cross-breed cattle are reared mainly in high- and medium-potential areas. Small-scale farmers are also increasingly practising zero-grazing of dairy cattle. The two major firms that undertake large-scale dairy farming in the Kilifi district are Kilifi Plantation and Hussein Dairy Farming, with cattle populations of more than 600 and 300 respectively. Kilifi Plantation is found within 3 kilometers of the shoreline while Hussein Dairy is located within 5 kilometers of the shoreline.

In Mombasa District, poultry farming is dominant, since it requires minimal land area (Government of Kenya, 1997).

5.4 Ports and shipping

Maritime transport of goods and passengers accounts for 15% of the economy of the Kenya coast. Mombasa Port at Kilindini is not only the largest sea port in Kenya, but also one of the largest and most important ports along the entire East African coast. It is an integral component of the entire country’s economy (Hoyle, 2000). The Port serves Kenya and landlocked neighbouring countries such as Uganda, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo and Southern Sudan. It is connected to the world’s major ports, with over 200 sailings per week to Europe, North and South America, Asia, the Middle East, Australia and the rest of Africa. The total number of ships docked and cargo trafﬁc handled at the Mombasa Port increased steadily between 2001–2004, a trend that is likely to continue (Figure 5.2).

In addition to the Port of Mombasa, the much smaller Old Port, located at Tudor Creek, also in Mombasa, has remained active and is important for handling smaller vessels. Other small ports are located at Shimoni, Kiliﬁ, Mtwapa, Kipini, Vanga-Funzi area, Lamu and Malindi. Lamu port has been used for dhow trade for over 2000 years (UNEP/GPA and WIOMSA, 2004). All these ports are managed by the Kenya Ports Authority.

Of the ships docking at Mombasa Port, an average of 40% are container-specialized, 22% general dry cargo, 18% bulk oil tankers, 3% passenger ships and the remaining 12% other ships.

Total import of cargo also has been on increase over the years, with 2004 recording an increase of 19.8% over the 2003 levels. Exports increased by 14.2% during the same period. Container trafﬁc went up by 24.5% to stand at 380,353 in 2004 compared to 305,427 in 2003 (GOK, 2005). The capacity of the current container terminal at the port of Mombasa has remained ﬁxed over a long period of time, and as a result, the volume of containers being received has increased beyond the port’s capacity. The Kenya Ports Authority has embarked on a plan to expand and modernize Figure 5.2. Trend in ships docking at the Port of Mombasa its container terminal.

36 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Kenya’s coastal area is bordered offshore by a busy tanker route from the Middle East to various global destinations. It is estimated that 50 ships of various types are in major shipping lanes off the coast of Kenya at any given time. Up to 9 of these are likely to be oil tankers with capacities ranging from 50,000 to 250,000 tonnes. Although most of this trafﬁc passes more than 250 nautical miles offshore, tar balls originating from bilge discharges and tank washings do occasionally reach the Kenyan coast.

5.5 Mariculture and aquaculture

Because of the falling productivity of near-shore fisheries along the Kenyan coast, mariculture is being considered as the best alternative source of income for coastal artisanal fishing communities, who are not able to exploit the deep water fisheries due to limited fishing equipment. In view of the existing opportunities for aquaculture development and the increasing demand for fish in local, national and international markets, there is need to promote sustainable farming of both freshwater and marine species.

There are three types of mariculture which could be undertaken on the Kenyan coastal environment, namely pond culture on land behind mangroves, suspension culture (cage and raft) in sheltered waterways that are of sufﬁcient depth, and rack culture in the shallow intertidal areas (Tychsen, 2006). However, hydrologic conditions and other factors make large areas of mangroves in Kenya unsuitable for pond culture; for instance, only 7.3% of the total mangrove area in Kenya (i.e. 3,950 ha out of 54,000 ha) is suitable for the development of brackish-water shrimp farming (Kairo and Dahdouh-Guebas, in press), for instance.

The ﬁrst mariculture project at the coast of Kenya was a 60-ha shrimp farm that was constructed at Ngomeni, using funding from FAO (UNEP, 1998). The shrimp culture was established in 1987 with a production potential of 525 kg per hectare per year. The area under mariculture has increased by 12.2 ha since late 2005 (Mirera, 2006; 2007).

Mud crab culture has been attempted by Kwetu in Mtwapa, Wasini Women’s Group in the South Coast and Tsunza Conservation and Management Group in Mombasa (Mwaluma, 2002). Studies on mud crab farming indicate that low-cost pens that are integrated in mangroves do not require any capital inputs and can exist as long as labour is available.

The current mariculture systems used in Kenya are small earthen ponds and drive-in mud crab cages. Pen culture has also been used (Mwaluma, 2002; Mirera, 2008). Acadja Net Enclosures utilizing mangrove pools (Rasowo, 2004), and down ponds emulating mangrove pools, are preferred for community projects, because they are cheap and easy to manage.

Aquaculture was introduced in Kenya after the First World War, and by 1992, freshwater species, especially tilapia, were being farmed in more than 250 ha of pond area (Rasowo, 1992). Since that time a large crocodile farm (Mamba Village) has been established in Nyali, Mombasa, and another one at Kikambala.

Earthen ﬁsh pond at Majaoni-Mtwapa Creek

37 State of the Coast Report

Aquaculture development has also focused on finfish (milkfish and mullet), and in some cases the polyculture of fish and shrimps (Mirera, 2008 a&b). The Shirazi Oyster Group, with the support of Japanese Overseas Cooperation, attempted oyster culture. However, the project experienced a setback from lack of market caused by a decline in the tourism industry in the late 1990s.

Tilapia and catﬁsh are suitable for aquaculture in freshwater bodies, and milkﬁsh in marine or brackish waters. Other suitable species include shrimp, oysters and mud crabs. Seaweed farming is another option.

While pursuing the development of mariculture and aquaculture in Kenya, it is worth noting that large-scale shrimp culture results in signiﬁcant environmental problems, as has been demonstrated by experiences from South East Asia and Latin America (Naylor et al., 2000a, 2000b; Paez-Osuna, 2001; Erftemeijer, 2002).

5.6 Fisheries

Traditionally, Kenyan coastal communities have depended on fisheries and mangrove exploitation. Kenya is endowed with a rich inshore marine fishery, with the most productive fishing areas being the North Kenya Banks (including Lamu, Kiunga, Kizingitini and Faza), Malindi-Ungwana Bay, which covers the Sabaki Estuary and Tana River Delta, and the Funzi- Vanga complex (Ruwa et al., 2003). Most fishing takes place along the reef, with mainly reef- and seagrass-associated fish species being exploited, while a few prawn trawlers harvest shrimp in the shallow waters of Ungwana Bay (UNEP, 2006).

Artisanal fishermen, using simple fishing vessels and gears such as gillnets, shark nets, hook and line, beach seines, spear gun and traditional traps (especially basket traps), exploit the inshore fishing grounds (Ochiewo, 2004; McClanahan et al., 2005). Artisanal fishing in inshore waters is labour-intensive, providing employment and livelihood to thousands of households. Currently it is estimated that over 10,000 fishermen are directly engaged in artisanal fishing along the Kenya coastline (Ochiewo, 2004 a&b). Artisanal fishermen land at least 95% of the marine catch and over 60,000 coastal people depend on these fisheries (UNEP, 2006); the remaining 5% is caught by the commercial trawlers. Since marine fishery is a common-property resource, fishing effort has increased with the increase in the number of artisanal fishermen over the years.

Fish catches from inshore waters are determined by the level and quality of effort that is applied in the fishery and the abundance of fish stocks, among other factors (Ochiewo, 2004 a& b). In Kenya, deep sea fishing is constrained by a number of factors, including inadequacy of information on the fishery’s potential, little institutional support for fisheries development, lack of investment in the fisheries sector (due to the perceived poor returns from fisheries), malpractices in the fish market, and the use of inefficient traditional canoes. In addition, fishing is difficult during the South- East Monsoon (April–August) due to strong winds. Furthermore, infrastructure for the marine fisheries sector is inadequately developed.

Traditional ﬁshing boats in Pate island (Source: J. Ochiewo)

38 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

As with other common-property resources, fisherfolk may lack a sense of ownership in the marine environment or its sustainability. As a result, the Kenyan reef fishery is showing signs of over-exploitation (Ochiewo, 2004b), and yields from the lagoonal reef fisheries have been on the decline (McClanahan & Mangi, 2001). The decline has been attributed to an increase in fishing effort and competition for dwindling stocks (Glaesel, 1997). The fishing techniques introduced in the past Basket trap, a type of traditional fishing gear (Source: J. Ochiewo) few decades, such as trawling, the use of seine nets and spear guns, may have also contributed to the decline (McClanahan & Mangi, 2004). Traditional elders disapprove of these fishing methods, and their use has been a source of conflicts.

Overall, annual catch landings from the marine sector (Figure 5.3) declined between 1998 and 2000. There was a gradual increase between 2000 and 2003 but the levels never reached those of 1998 (Fisheries Department, 2004). Nonetheless, actual fish catches may be much higher than those recorded, because many fish landing sites are not accessible to data collectors. Furthermore, fish landing times vary, making data Figure 5.3. Trends in fish landings at the Kenyan Coast (1996-2003) collection difficult even in the (Source: Fisheries Department, 2004) accessible sites.

On the other hand, fish landings from trawlers increased between 1997 and 2004 (Figure 5.4), while prawn catches fluctuated, with peaks recorded in 1998 and 2001. The peak in 1998 was associated with the El-Niño phenomenon while the 2001 peak may have been due to increased fishing effort. Figure 5.4 Prawn and fish catches by trawlers in Kenya

5.6.1 Types of marine ﬁsh

Various categories of marine fish are landed in Kenya, including demersal and pelagic species, sharks and rays, crustaceans, molluscs and deep sea/big-game fish. Demersal coral-reef- and seagrass-associated fish species are more dominant in inshore waters (McClanahan & Mangi, 2004). Of the demersal fish families, scavengers (Lethrinidae) and rabbit fish (Signidae) each make up about 20% of the catch. Parrotfish (Scaridae) and snapper (Lutjanidae) form between 6% and 8%. Sharks and rays make up around 21% of the landings, while pelagic species account for less than 15%. Crustaceans, which account for less than 10% of the total catch, are mostly prawns. Molluscs (squid, octopus and oysters) and bèche-de-mer account for only 2.5% of the total catch.

39 State of the Coast Report

Prawn trawling in the Malindi-Ungwana Bay has been going on since the 1970s, bringing in foreign currency. However, it has resulted in habitat and community modification with loss of income for subsistence fishermen. Prawn trawling has also resulted in serious conflicts between the trawler operators and artisanal fishermen (KMFRI, 2003).

Little domestic fishing is conducted outside the reef area. Some foreign vessels from Europe have instead been licensed by the Kenya government to fish for tuna with purse-seine gear. For example, 38 foreign purse seines were licensed in 2002 and 36 in 2003 to fish for tuna in offshore waters. Although there is inadequate information on fish stocks, it is known that there are underexploited fisheries resources in the waters outside the reef.

Since the marine fisheries sector in Kenya has remained underdeveloped, its output accounted for only 3.2% of the 179,106 tonnes landed in the country in 2002 and 5.3% of the 147,665 tonnes landed in 2003 (Government of Kenya, 2005). About 95% of the catch was produced from freshwater sources, mostly Lake Victoria. Swamps and freshwater lakes in Lamu district and the floodplains of River Tana also support freshwater fisheries.

5.6.2 Aquarium ﬁsheries

The aquarium fishery in Kenya is controlled by conditions in the export market. Kenya ranks among the top exporters of marine aquarium fish in the Western Indian Ocean region (Okemwa et al., 2006). Kenya’s aquarium fishery has involved the collection of 50,000–200,000 fishes (Wood, 2001; Okemwa et al., 2006). The business is highly competitive, with conflicts arising among aquarium fish exporters over both clients (markets) and fish collectors. Between 2004 Table 5.4 The top 20 aquarium fish species and 2005, there were 145 licensed marine harvested from Shimoni (March 2004–April 2005) aquarium fish collectors working full time. % of total These collectors were either employed Species collected or contracted by 8 companies licensed to fish export marine aquarium fish. Most of the 1. Allard’s anemonefish, Amphiprion allardi 10.4 aquarium fish caught in Kenya is exported 2. African pygmy angelfish, Centropyge acanthops 9.0 to 15 countries: the UK, USA, South Africa, 3. Rainbow wrasse, Halichoeres iridis 7.4 Hong Kong, Germany, France, Japan, 4. Palette surgeonfish, Paracanthurus hepatus 6.1 Netherlands, Austria, Israel, Denmark, Poland, Hungary, Italy, and Romania. 5. Lyretail anthias, Pseudanthias squampinnis 5.3 Generally, aquarium fish collectors target 6. Striped sailfin tang, Zebrassoma veliferum 4.9 juveniles because they are more colourful 7. Beautiful prawn goby, Cryptocentrus aurora 4.2 and easier to handle and airfreight (Wood, 8. Fire dartfish, Nameteleortris magnifica 4.0 2001). 9. Skunk anemonefish, Amphiprion akallopisos 3.7 10. Vermiculate wrasse, Macropharyngodon bipartitus 3.2 Approximately 192 aquarium fish species belonging to 35 families are harvested and 11. Pink flasher, Paracheilinus carpenterri 3 exported from Kenya; the most commonly 12. Two-stripe goby, Valencienna helsdingenni 2.5 exported species include anemonefish, 13. Midas blenny, Ecsenias midas 2.3 angelfish, wrasses, surgeonfish, gobies, 14. Exquisite wrasse, Cirrhilabrus exquisitus 2.2 and blennies (Table 5.4). The key species 15. Vanderbilt’s chromis, Chromis vanderbilti 2.1 targeted by aquarium fish collectors are not targeted for food fisheries, except 16. Twotone chromis, Chromis dimidiate 1.5 two species from the Lutjanidae family 17. Bluestreak cleaner wrasses, Labroides dimidiate 1.4 (Lutjanus kasmira and L. sabae), one species 18. Volitans lionfish, Pterois volitans 1.3 from the Signidae family (Siganus stellatus) 19. Emperor angelfish, Pomacanthus imperator 1.3 and one species from the Serranidae 20. Indian Dascyllus, Dascyllus carneus 1.3 family (Cephalopholis sp.). A variety of marine invertebrates are also harvested Total Number of fish individuals: 12,355 77 for export. Source: Okemwa et al., 2006.

40 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

The supply chain in the aquarium fishery is simple, with fish collectors selling their catch directly to exporters without going through middlemen. The volume of exported aquarium fish fluctuates seasonally, with higher exports during the North-East Monsoon.

5.7 Coastal mining

Various types of minerals are found at the Kenyan coast. Some of these occur in signiﬁcant quantities, but only a few are being exploited. Mineral deposits that occur in economic quantities include salt, coral rock, titanium, pyrochlore, barites, gypsum, iron ore and clay. Lesser minerals are apetite, galena, and manganese.

Extensive limestone deposits occur along the coastal area from the Tanzanian border in the south to Malindi in the north. A 70-m-thick and 4–8-km-wide band of limestone runs parallel to the coast. Older limestone units occur further inland in the north of Malindi but only a few isolated exposures of limestone are found between Malindi and Lamu. The limestone deposits in the area north of Lamu have not been mapped. Exploitation of limestone is already widespread and depends on local variation in the limestone’s texture, composition and market demand.

Since the early 1950s, limestone has been used for cement manufacture in the Bamburi area of Mombasa. Cement production is now one of the major industries on the Kenyan coast, employing over 700 workers directly and many more people indirectly; e.g. those employed by input and hardware shops that sell cement. Coral limestone, the basic raw material for cement production, is excavated in shallow, heavily mechanized, opencast mines adjacent to the factories. Weathered shale and iron ore are also required as secondary raw materials for the production of cement. Shale is available in large quantities in the Mombasa area, and is mined in open pits near Nguu Tatu, west of Bamburi (Republic of Kenya, 1997d). Iron ore is obtained from Kiliﬁ. Small quantities of pozzolana and gypsum, which are also needed in the cement production process, are mined in small quantities in Kiliﬁ, with the rest being imported. In Tiwi, limestone is used to manufacture lime (Republic of Kenya, 1997c; UNEP, 1998).

Coral rocks that are excavated and shaped into coral blocks for building are available in large quantities in Manda Island of Lamu district. The production of coral blocks currently meets local demand in Lamu District, providing a livelihood to many people employed as excavators of building blocks and in the construction industry (Republic of Kenya, 1997a). Coral blocks are also mined at Roka, Bofa and Mtondia in Kiliﬁ District. Coral blocks are in great demand in Malindi and Mombasa (Republic of Kenya, 1997b).

Sand, an important building material, is mined in many areas along the Kenyan coast, including Tiwi in Kwale District, Mazeras and Junda on the Kisauni side of Tudor creek and Ngomeni. Silica sands used for glass manufacture are mined in Arabuko Sokoke in Kiliﬁ District and in the Msambweni area of Kwale District. Clay, which is used for brick manufacture, is mined in the Port Reitz area of Mombasa (Government of Kenya, 1997c&d; UNEP, 1998). Ballast is mined at Kokotoni along the Mombasa–Nairobi road in Kiliﬁ District. It is used for construction works in Mombasa and other towns in the Coast Province. The rare-earths, niobium and iron ore resources exist in the Mrima Hills of Kwale District. These are not being exploited, however, since the area is a nature reserve (Government of Kenya, 1997c).

Sand and limestone are currently being mined without supporting legislation. Both are non– renewable resources, and if their mining continues unabated, environmental degradation of a wide area is likely to occur. Already, sand exploitation has had detrimental effects, including endangering indigenous forests and degrading ecosystems (Government of Kenya, 1997b).

41 State of the Coast Report

A new coastal development project in Kenya has identified mineral sands as a source of titanium ore (UNEP, 2006). The Titanium Mining Project in South Coast is set to raise the profile of mining in the coastal region, to become one of the most important activities. It is projected to elevate the contribution of the mining sector to the GDP from 1% to 3%. The Canadian-registered company Tiomin plans to mine heavy mineral sands in Kwale starting 2008. Other titanium mining companies have expressed their interest in exploring the heavy mineral deposits in the North Coast, Malindi and Kilifi. There is also increasing interest in other mineral occurrences like lead, copper and zinc around Mkangombe in Kwale District.

5.8 Salt production

Salt production takes place adjacent to the mangrove areas north of Malindi at Gongoni and Fundissa. There are extensive salt pans at the Gongoni-Kurawa area. It has been estimated that these pans produce over 170,000 tonnes of salt annually (UNEP, 1998). Extensive clearing of the mangroves in the Ngomeni swamps has occurred to pave way for the construction of salt pans (See Chapter 6, Section 6.5). Presently, there are eight operational salt works in Kenya, occupying more than 7,922 ha of tidal swamps between Ngomeni and Kurawa (Table 5.5). To date, solar salt production is expanding to other areas such as Lamu, and Table 5.5 Area of the impact is expected to be more severe. Large-scale salt production has salt works in Kenya contributed to land use changes in mangrove areas, with corresponding Area loss of mangroves and creation of discontinuous patches of forest in Company (ha) Kenya. Conversion of mangroves into salt pans has also resulted in the Tana 380 contamination of freshwater tables through increased salinity.

Kurawa 1 800 There is high potential for increased salt production in Lamu district, e.g. Kurawa 2 1300 in the Mkunumbi area of Mpeketoni Division (Government of Kenya, Kristalline 1200 1997). If this is to be pursued, however, it will be necessary to adopt Malindi 664 environmentally friendly approaches. In this regard, pond construction should, where possible, be located behind the mangroves, to ensure Kensalt 2264 that the mangroves are left intact. Such a setup would beneﬁt the salt Source: Yap and Landoy, 1986; Abuodha and Kairo, producers, since the mangroves would serve as windbreakers for the 2001; Kairo and Dahdouh- salt ponds. Furthermore, treated efﬂuents from the salt ponds should be Guebas (in press) directed to the sea to safeguard mangroves from excessive salinity.

5.9 Oil and gas exploration

Oil and gas exploration is continuing along the Kenyan coast (UNEP, 2006). Analysis of hydrocarbon potential, however, is difﬁcult from the limited data available. However, the most promising areas along the Kenya coast are the Lamu Basin and the Malindi area. Good source rocks and reservoir rocks for hydrocarbon deposits have been observed along the Kenya coast, with conditions becoming more favourable offshore. There are interests in the offshore Lamu Basin and initial exploratory wells have been sunk about 70 km off the Lamu coast (Tychsen, 2006). The exploration ﬁrm has committed to using environmentally friendly oil-production technology, and if the initial explorations are successful, Kenya could soon be drilling oil.

The National Oil Corporation (NOC) supervises oil and gas exploration activities at the Kenya coast. It will be important that sound environmental management procedures are observed, as provided for in the Environmental Management and Coordination Act and other professional regulations, to mitigate any likely pollution from oil exploration or eventual drilling. The government should also ensure that bilateral agreements made with prospecting companies beneﬁt the local people and the country at large.

42 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

5.10 Exploitation of mangrove forests

Mangroves have been exploited in Kenya for generations, but are currently threatened by over- harvesting (UNEP, 1998; Abuodha and Kairo, 2001). Coastal residents have traditionally exploited the products of mangrove forests as well as various parts of mangrove trees. Poles and timber for building boats and houses, Figure 5.5 Trends in production of mangrove poles in Lamu, Kenya ﬁrewood, tannin, dyes, charcoal, food (Source: Kairo and Dahdouh-Guebas, 2005) as well as medicinal herbs (Rawlins, 1957; Kokwaro, 1985) are all obtained from mangrove forests.

Historical records show that as early as 200 BC mangrove poles were an important item of commerce between East Africa and the desert countries of Arabia (Rawlins, 1957). By the 1970s, Kenya was exporting some 34,000 scores of mangrove poles to Somalia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia (FAO, 1991; Kairo & Dahdouh-Guebas, 2005), until this export was stopped in 1982 by a presidential ban aimed at stemming overexploitation. As a result, mangrove pole production fell signiﬁcantly from 1990. The export ban has not been lifted, but potential exists for the sustainable exploitation and commercialisation of mangrove produts. This would, however, need to be preceded by a national mangrove management plan, which is currently lacking.

5.11 Industrial development

Kenya’s coastal region has experienced rapid industrial development in the last 6 years, as a result of the emphasis placed on industrial development at the national policy level. Industrial development has also been accelerated by incentives for African countries to trade with the US, under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) initiative. Consequently, many textile industries have been established in export processing zones (EPZs) at the coast, especially in Mombasa and Kiliﬁ districts. Many industries in the region are engaged in primary production and agro-processing for export, as well as local consumption. These include cashew husking works, pineapple canneries, rice mills, and processing facilities for coconut and other crops such as coffee, groundnuts and sisal. Other industries include cement manufacturing, steel rolling mills, iron smelting and oil reﬁnery.

The categories of industries in the Coast province and the number of registered ﬁrms in each category are presented in Table 5.6. Despite overall increased industrial development, some ﬁrms have closed down or relocated to other parts of the country in response to high costs of production and the impacts of market liberization under the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) implemented in the country during the early 1990s.

Very few industries in the province have facilities for efﬂuent treatment before disposal. Many use septic tanks/soakage pits, vertical drains or discharge their untreated efﬂuents directly into the sea. The negative environmental impact of rapid industrialization being witnessed in the Coast province is a cause for concern.

43 State of the Coast Report

Table 5.6 Number of registered ﬁrms by industry at the Coast Province Registered Firms Number

Bakery products 12 Table 5.7 Employment by sector in Cement lime and quarrying 11 urban centres of the Coast province Chemicals, paints, plastics and rubber 22 Total Sector Percentage Number Food, malt and soft drink 18 Agriculture/forestry 2,134 0.6 % Generation of electricity 4 Mining/quarrying 2,491 0.7% Grain mill products 10 Manufacturing 67,232 18.9% Metal products 20 Construction 13,873 3.9% Petroleum and cooking oil refining 4 Wholesale/restaurants and hotels 57,983 16.3% Printing and publishing 11 Transport/communication 66,876 18.8% Pulp, paper and board 6 Finance, insurance/real estate 29,525 8.3% Sawmills and timber products 6 Community, service/personal services* 111,698 31.4% Ship-building and repairs 2 Electricity/water 3,913 1.1% Soap, perfume and cosmetics 6 Total 355,725 100% Textiles, knitting and weaving 31 *Employment in the community, service industry and personal services Vegetable and animal oil 15 includes employment in the public service and domestic help. Source: Other 7 Central Bureau of Statistics, 2004

Total 185 Source: Coast Development Authority, 2004

5.12 Occupational/employment structure

According to the 1999 Population and Housing Census, the economically active population (people aged 15–64 years) in the Coast province rose from 744,246 to 1,100,080 (a 48% increase). Some 928,170 people were engaged in various economic activities in both rural and urban areas. Of these, 281,646 were in rural areas, employed mainly in the primary production sectors of the economy, including agriculture, ﬁsheries, forestry and mining, while 355,725 people were in urban areas, of which only a third were women. Table 5.7 shows the distribution of employment by sector in the urban areas of the province.

5.12.1 Economic diversiﬁcation

Many households are engaged in more than one economic activity, in an effort to diversify their sources of income. For instance, many small- and medium-scale businesses are owned by people who are employed elsewhere but have invested and then employed other people to work for them. Several such small- and medium-scale enterprises have received support from the government and some NGOs currently promoting small enterprise development.

5.13 Supportive services

Road, air and railway transport, energy, freshwater supply and sanitation are essential for the development of economic activities. Within the Coast province infrastructure has remained largely inadequate, but there are efforts to improve it.

44 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

5.13.1 Road transport

Road transport plays a central role in the development of all sectors of the economy. It is estimated that over 70% of all container trafﬁc into and out of the port of Mombasa is conveyed by road. Similarly, the majority of Kenyans travel by road. The road transport sector also employs thousands of people, working in various capacities.

5.13.2 Rail transport

Rail transport is the second-most-important transport mode after roads. It is particularly important for transporting bulky goods from the Mombasa port to the hinterland. The railway network in Mombasa is concentrated in the industrial areas, railway depots and port warehouses.

5.13.3 Air transport

Air transport supports the development of tourism, transportation of high-value exports and perishable goods and promotion of regional integration. Moi International Airport in Mombasa, with a capacity of 30 light aircraft at a time, handles both domestic and international ﬂights.

5.13.4 Energy

The development of the industrial, commercial and agricultural sectors depends on the availability of energy. The main sources of energy in Kenya are petroleum fuels, electricity, wood fuel, charcoal, and, to a lesser extent, solar, wind, ethanol, coal and biogas. Petroleum fuels and hydro-electricity are currently the major sources of energy for industrial and commercial establishments. The distribution of electricity at the Coast province is still concentrated in urban centres.

5.13.5 Water supply and sewerage

The main sources of freshwater at the Kenyan coast are the Tiwi boreholes, Mzima springs in Taita-Taveta, Marere Springs and Baricho Treatment Works at Sabaki River. About 80% of the households in Mombasa, 50% in Kiliﬁ, 52% in Malindi, and 57% in Taita Taveta have access to piped water. Efforts have been made to meet the freshwater deﬁcit through boreholes, dams, wells, and ponds. Of the entire Coast province’s population, 11% has access to well water, 10.7% to stream/river water, 9.2% to pond water; 6.4% to borehole water and 5.8% to dam water (Government of Kenya, 2000).

Wastewater treatment at the coast of Kenya is presently inadequate. Only 30% of the population of Mombasa Island and 15% of the population of the Mombasa Mainland West is connected to sewerage services; the rest is either served by septic tanks or cesspits, including pit latrines. Over 65% of the coastal population is served by pit latrines, around 6% has a water closet and just 2% has a ﬂush toilet. More than 25% of the population has no sewerage facilities. These proportions are lower than national averages, where 6% of the population has a ﬂush toilet and 16% has no provision for sewerage services whatsoever (Government of Kenya, 2001).

Major Threats and Impacts on Coastal and Marine Ecosystems 6

6.1 Introduction

In recent decades, most of Kenya’s coastal ecosystems have come under intensive overexploitation, and the environment is showing clear signs of damage and degradation. Anthropogenic pressures such as physical alterations and land-use changes have led to erosion, siltation and hydrologic modiﬁcations, resulting in damage to or loss of coastal and marine habitats. Events related to climate change, such as droughts, ﬂooding, massive sedimentation and elevated sea- surface temperatures, have also contributed to habitat degradation, especially of coral reefs (Wilkinson, 2000; Obura, 2005) and mangroves (Kitheka et al., 2002; Bosire et al., 2006).

Continuous assessment and monitoring of the marine and coastal environment is required, in order to generate data that will inform rational management. Understanding coastal ecological processes, ocean dynamics and the impacts of natural and human-induced changes is fundamental to the management and restoration of coastal ecosystems and habitats. Without data, accurate estimates of human and natural impacts to coastal habitats cannot be made, which poses a major challenge to planning and management.

The institutional and ﬁnancial capacity necessary for sustained ecosystem monitoring remains low in Kenya (Okemwa and Odido, 2000). This has hampered the realization of national commitments to monitor and assess the condition of ﬁsheries, forests, marine protected areas (MPAs) and other natural resources in the country. However, regional and global science networks such as the Global Ocean Observing Systems (GOOS) (Okemwa and Odido, 2000), the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) and the Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO) Programme (Salm et al., 1998; Obura, 2005) are improving the monitoring capacity of Kenya and the Eastern Africa region. The monitoring is implemented through institutional user partnerships with diverse funding sources and responsibilities.

This chapter highlights the various threats exerting pressure on the coastal environment and resources, and their impacts. The root causes and consequences of these threats and impacts are also discussed.

6.2 Fisheries

Both artisanal and commercial fishery takes place along the coast of Kenya. Artisanal fishery is spread throughout the entire coastline, while commercial fishery is concentrated at specific sites, such as Malindi and Ungwana Bays (see Chapters 2 and 5). Fisheries productivity is dependent on the health of the various ecosystems, key among these mangrove forests, coral reefs, estuaries, seagrass beds and beaches, which provide breeding/nursery grounds and food resources for marine life. However, continuing habitat degradation, destructive fishing practices and the ever-increasing extractive pressure threaten these fisheries, and thereby the livelihoods of local communities and the national economy. Some of the threats facing marine fisheries in Kenya are discussed below.

47 State of the Coast Report

6.2.1 Destructive ﬁshing practices

These include dynamite fishing, the use of small-mesh-size nets and seine nets, prawn trawling and other destructive practices. Although the use of beach seines (local name ‘juiya’), spear guns (bunduki) and plant poisons (sumu) has been banned, they are still in use (Ochiewo, 2004). The use of spear guns in coral reefs and ring-nets in shallow inshore/lagoonal waters is spreading rapidly, particularly in Gazi, Msambweni and Vanga, where these methods are predominantly used by migrant fishermen. In the Frame survey of 2006, 560 beach seines were recorded along the Kenyan coast, compared to 294 in 2004, representing an increase of 91% over a period of just 2 years (Fisheries Department, 2006). These destructive fishing practices have led to conflicts between the older, indigenous fishermen, who are more cognizant of the destruction caused by these methods to the fishing environment, and the youthful majority that is mostly concerned with immediate short-term gains.

Gill nets used in deeper waters frequently result in large quantities of by-catch of non-target species. Endangered marine species such as dugongs, dolphins and turtles are also caught and killed in gill nets. The indiscriminate use of small-mesh-size nets catches juveniles and unwanted ﬁsh. The use of recommended mesh sizes, and turtle exclusion devices (TEDs) can mitigate these effects, but effective enforcement is required for success.

A ringnet, one of the destructive ﬁshing gears used at the coast (Source: J. Kamula)

Prawn trawling in the Ungwana Bay, which has been going on since the 1970s, has brought in vital foreign currency, but has also resulted in habitat and community modification, with the destruction of other fisheries and loss of income for subsistence fishermen (KMFRI, 2002). Prawn trawling has also resulted in conflicts between trawl operators and artisanal fishermen, leading to concerns on issues of inter- and intra-generational equity (GEF, 2002). By-catch is also a big problem in the prawn fishery—it has been observed that for every kilogram of prawns landed, 7.6 kg of by-catch and 5.8 kg of discards are produced (Figure 6.1; KMFRI, 2002). The development of appropriate by-catch reducer devices has been proposed to address the problem of incidental capture of juvenile fish and reduce the quantity of bycatch.

6.2.2 Overﬁshing

There is inadequate capacity to regulate the activities of commercial ﬁshing vessels operating within Kenya’s exclusive economic zone. Much Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported (IUU) ﬁshing is therefore taking place in the area, with far-reaching effects on stock sustainability (EAME, 2003), and unchecked destruction of marine habitats. The inadequate capacity to carry out surveillance and monitoring contributes greatly to the current status.

48 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Figure 6.1 Monthly variations in catch effort of prawn trawlers in Malindi-Ungwana Bay (Source: KMFRI, 2002)

The population of artisanal fishermen in marine waters has grown steadily from an estimated 7,500 in the mid-1990s to 9,017 in May 2004 and 10,276 in May 2006. These fishermen operate within 2–5 nautical miles of the shoreline, due to lack of suitable vessels to venture into deeper waters, leading to overfishing of the inshore waters (Fisheries Department, 2005). Low returns from fishing and lack of financial credit have been major hindrances to the fishermen’s acquiring crafts suitable for deeper waters.

6.3 Marine pollution

Land-based pollutants arising from agricultural activities in the hinterland, domestic and industrial waste from urban settlements, and storm water run-off are major sources of pollution to the marine environment (Munga, 1993). The emerging economic processing zone (EPZ) at the coast is another likely source of pollutants to the environment. The mushrooming of many informal settlements in urban centres (especially Mombasa) and dysfunctional sewerage systems have exacerbated the problem of sewage pollution. Direct discharge of domestic sewage from many point sources into mangrove forests or the open sea is not uncommon, especially at Tudor and Mtwapa Creeks. The underlying root causes of marine pollution in Kenya are population pressure, poverty and inequality, inappropriate governance, inadequate knowledge and awareness, and inadequate ﬁnancial resources for infrastructure development and upgrading. The major sectors contributing to marine pollution in Kenya include urban and coastal developments, coastal agriculture, processing industries, mining, transportation and energy.

Oil spills originating from oil tanker accidents, and hazardous waste from petroleum reﬁneries and shipping activities also pose considerable threats to the coastal and marine environment. These diverse pollutants impact various habitats, including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, beaches and ground water aquifers along the coast. An oil spill at Makupa in 1988 caused the death of 10 ha of mangrove forests; by 2001 no recovery had been observed (Abuodha and Kairo, 2001). More recently, an oil spill at Sewage discharge into a mangrove forest at Tudor Creek

49 State of the Coast Report

Kipevu Oil Terminal affected 234 ha of the mangroves at Port Reitz (Kairo et al., 2005). With a large number of tankers passing 250 nautical miles offshore, maritime transportation, in particular, represents a major pollution risk to Kenya’s marine environment. Pollutants originating from ship discharges and tank washings are common on the shore, but the full impacts of these activities remain unknown.

Many industries along the coast do not treat their efﬂuents and as a result, some toxic chemicals, including Mangrove death due to an oil spill at Makupa (Source: J. Kamau) heavy metals, are discharged into the marine environment. The sisal-processing factories in Vipingo area of the North Coast likely discharge both solid and liquid waste into the sea through run-off. These pollutants increase the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the water, with negative impacts to marine habitats.

6.4 Shoreline change and erosion

As human activities along the coastal strip increase, they exert distinct pressure on the shoreline. The loss of coastal land and associated infrastructure through coastal erosion is a recurrent and widely reported problem in the Western Indian Ocean region (UNEP, 1998; UNEP-GPA, 2004). Shoreline erosion poses a continuous threat to infrastructure, necessitating expensive engineered coastal protection measures and sometimes even the abandonment of hotel developments (Kairu and Nyandwi, 2000).

Shoreline change causes destruction to ﬁshing grounds, ﬁsh landing sites, beaches, turtle nesting areas, and properties adjacent to the shoreline. Ground water quality in wells and boreholes also declines due to increased intrusion of salt water into underground aquifers.

Studies of erosion “hotspots” in Kenya have identiﬁed a range of causal causative factors of shoreline change along the coast. These include increased storm surges related to sea-level rise (UNEP, 2005); damming and land-use changes in the hinterland (Kitheka et al., 2004; Snoussi et al., 2007); sand-mining in streams discharging to the shore, resulting in declines in the natural replenishment of beach sand (Grifﬁths, 1987; Shaghude et al., 1994; Masalu, 2002); and inappropriate adjoining coastal protection structures (Kairu, 1997). In Diani, hoteliers and residents have observed shoreline change of up to 10 m in the last 10 years (Ballot et al., 2006). Between 1976 and 2003, due to sedimentation processes, the shoreline in Malindi receded by about 500 m (Kairu, An eroding shoreline at Gazi after fringing mangroves were removed (Source: Dahdough-Guebas et al., 2004)

50 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

2003). The increased discharge of terrigenous sediments into the coast has also caused shoreline changes and habitat modiﬁcation in the Athi- Sabaki estuary in Malindi (Kitheka et al., 2003c, 2005; Arthurton, 1992).

Construction of sea walls for coastal protection has aggravated the problem of shoreline change, as evidenced by continued erosion and accretion. Additionally, sea walls obstruct turtles from reaching their nesting grounds, thus threatening their populations (GEF, 2002).

Excavation of beach sand to pave way for house construction (Source: D. In violation of set-back guidelines Munga) laid down in physical planning regulations, coastal infrastructure is increasingly being sited on low-lying areas vulnerable to shoreline change, leading to sediment erosion and accretion. Removal of natural barriers like mangroves also exacerbates shoreline change. A lack of clear legal deﬁnition of the area and extent that should be considered as a beach in Kenya, and the lack of or ambiguous guidelines to govern and control the erection of structures along the shoreline has compounded the situation, with many tourist facilities being built very close to or encroaching on beaches. Appropriate coastal planning and development under an enforced Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) plan would help remedy this situation.

6.5 Physical alteration and destruction of habitats

The transformation and destruction of marine and coastal habitats is a major problem affecting the coastal region of Kenya. These transformations range from dredging of waterways, deforestation, over-exploitation of living resources, diversion of freshwater flows, and construction of ports and jetties, tourist resorts and housing developments. Global climate change, which is a cross- cutting concern attributed to human activities, has led to abnormal rainfall patterns, droughts, floods and sea level changes. Some of the socio-economic impacts of these transformations include reduced fish catches, increased coastal erosion, loss of aesthetic value, and reduced income from tourism. These impacts have led to loss of employment opportunities for local communities, changes in social structures, loss of cultural heritage and resource-use conflicts.

Land-use changes along the coast and the hinterland have had major impacts on the environment. Poor land use practices, for instance, have caused the sediment load from the Sabaki river to increase to 2.0 million tonnes annually, with far-reaching ecological and economic consequences. This massive sedimentation at the river mouth prevents mangrove growth, and coral reefs and seagrass beds in the adjacent areas have also been smothered by sediments. Some beach hotels have lost their beach frontage due to continued beach accretion. The aesthetic value of the beach along the Malindi Bay has been reduced, making it less attractive for the development of tourist hotels; this represents a loss of revenue to the country (GEF, 2002).

New settlements have increased the demand for natural resources and consequently led to the encroachment and overexploitation of resources in coastal areas. Buffer vegetation in environmentally vulnerable areas, e.g. close to shorelines and steep topographies, has been cleared to make way for unplanned and unregulated human settlements, thus degrading the natural environment. Major terrestrial forest areas affected by such settlements include Arabuko Sokoke,

51 State of the Coast Report

Tree felling (left) and charcoal burning in Shimoni forests in South Coast (Source: Global Vision International, Kenya, 2007)

the Shimba Hills, Boni Dodori and Lamu forests. Timber extraction and charcoal production are among the greatest threats to habitats in this region. Weak management capacity by government and communities is another serious issue (CEPF, 2003).

The dredging of the Lamu channel to provide additional port and harbour facilities, initially interfered with the hydrology of the area, leading to defoliation of affected mangroves. However, most of the mangroves along the channel are Salt works at Ngomeni in Malindi now recovering. Salt extraction and resource overexploitation have also contributed to mangrove degradation in Ngomeni area. These activities threaten the indigenous ﬂora and endemic fauna found in these forests.

Estuaries have also been modiﬁed, resulting in reduced ecosystem goods and services from these biotopes. Several immediate causes have been identiﬁed as having direct pressure on Kenyan estuaries. These include poor agricultural practices in the river basin and marginal areas, keeping of large herds of livestock and forest degradation upstream. These unsustainable practices have resulted in the loss of vegetation, exposing the soils to erosion. As a consequence, increased turbidity in the Tana and Sabaki estuaries is being recorded. Increased sediment loads have resulted in siltation, which has led to a decline in water quality and accretion of the shoreline, as seen in Malindi Bay (GEF, 2002).

Emerging economic opportunities like mining are expected to cause profound reductions in faunal diversity, as well as habitat degradation and transformation in the coastal region. The proposed titanium mining project, for instance, is expected to have a high impact on indigenous plant diversity and ethnobotanical resources, since vegetation will need to be removed before mining can commence.

The planned shiploading facility at Shimoni will also lead to habitat loss, and this forest fragmentation will likely result in great loss of biodiversity (Coastal and Environmental Services, 2000). Accidental oil spills and siltation from dredging activities will also likely cause habitat loss. It will therefore be critical that the facility’s Environmental Management Plan is adhered to in terms of rehabilitation and remedial measures, to mitigate habitat and biodiversity loss.

52 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

6.6 Root causes of degradation and loss of habitats at the coast

The root causes of the loss and modiﬁcation of habitats are related to population pressure, poverty and inequality, low levels of education, cultural attitudes, and poor governance (Table 6.1). Poor governance manifests itself in a range of management problems and deﬁciencies, and generates threats from forest encroachment, overexploitation of resources, unplanned and unregulated tourism, haphazard coastal development and illegal mining, among other activities.

Table 6.1 Causes, impacts, and consequences of degradation and loss of habitats Root causes Impacts Consequences

Social drivers •Increase in population •Poor regeneration capacity •Loss of cultural heritage •Lack of alternative livelihood •Loss of biomass •Loss of revenue •Cultural attitudes •Increased resource conflict •Loss of livelihood •Increase in commodity prices •Loss of system productivity •Increased poverty •Lack of education and awareness •Habitat fragmentation •Community alienation/marginalization

Economic drivers •Loss of biotic integrity and •Habitat fragmentation •Land transformation for agriculture; salt works, etc. threat to biodiversity •Increased erosion and sedimentation, •Water abstraction •Invasive species •Deterioration of water quantity/quality •Increased market demand •Disease outbreaks •Decline in harvestable resources •Foreign markets and international trade •Loss of revenue •Loss of aesthetic value •Tourism development •Increased poverty

•Increase rainfall and flooding •Loss of biotic integrity and •More frequent droughts Climate change and natural phenomena threat to biodiversity •Drying of rivers •Increased greenhouse gases •Reduced biomass •Diseases •Increased sea surface temperature •Loss of revenue •Coral bleaching •Increased poverty •Loss of tourism opportunities

Governance •Little understanding of the values of ecosystem services •Inadequate financial mechanisms and support at all •Unsuitable exploitation of living •Decline in harvestable levels resources resources •Inappropriate/outdated legislation •Undervaluation of ecosystem services •Decreased revenue •Insufficient public involvement •Limited ability to think beyond •Increased conflict •Poor enforcement of legislation immediate needs •Increased poverty •Inadequate data to support sustainable utilization •Diminishing livelihood opportunities •Inadequate implementation of available regulatory instruments

Source: GEF, 2002; King, 2004

6.7 Climate change

Climate change worldwide threatens the very survival of species and integrity of ecosystems, on which all life on earth depends (King, 2004). Elevated emission of greenhouse gases from industries, combined with rapid deforestation (which compromises the inherent role of forests as carbon sinks) continues to aggravate the phenomenon. According to the International Panel of Climate Change (IPCC), the global annual carbon dioxide concentration growth rate was larger during the last 10 years (1995–2005 average: 1.9 ppm per year) than it has been since the beginning of continuous direct atmospheric measurements (e.g., the 1960–2005 average was 1.4 ppm per year) (IPCC, 2007). The use of fossil fuels and unsustainable land-use practices, particularly deforestation of tropical habitats, have been major drivers of this unprecedented rise in greenhouse gases, suggesting an unequivocal link between human activities and climate change (IPCC, 2007). This has consequently led to increased precipitation in some areas, with other regions experiencing severe droughts.

Emerging scientiﬁc information indicates that the heavy rains witnessed in Kenya in 1997/98 and 2006, previously thought to have been caused by the El-Niño phenomenon (Kitheka et al.,

53 State of the Coast Report

2002, Bosire et al., 2006), were actually caused by a global climate change phenomenon known as the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) (Saji et al., 1999, Overpeck and Cole, 2007). This IOD is a coupled oscillation in ocean–atmosphere conditions, as a result of cool sea surface temperatures (SST) off Sumatra, the most westerly of Indonesia’s principal islands, and warm SST in the Western Indian Ocean, which led to heavy rains in the latter and drought in the former.

During this IOD phenomenon in 1997/98 as well as in 2006, ﬂooding and massive sedimentation caused extensive damage to infrastructure off the Kenyan Coast and inland, and impacted diverse natural resources. There was extensive mangrove die-back in a number of areas along the Kenyan coast. Mwache Creek, a peri-urban mangrove forest in Mombasa, experienced mangrove death covering about 500 ha, while in the Lamu archipelago extensive die-back of mangroves due to siltation was reported in Dodori Creek (Kairo et al., 2001). In addition, the 1997/98 phenomenon caused 50 to 80% mortality of coral reefs due to bleaching, following an abrupt rise in sea water temperature (Obura, 2001).

Whereas the response of coral reefs to this natural catastrophic phenomenon in the Western Indian Ocean has been well documented (Wilkinson et al., 1999, Wilkinson, 2000, Obura, 2005), not much has been done to document the resilience to climate change of mangrove and other related ecosystems. The socio-economic impacts of climate change on local communities have not been assessed either, and it is likely that livelihoods have been affected by the decline in harvestable resources from marine and coastal ecosystems. For instance, die-back of mangroves along Mwache creek led to massive siltation of the channel serving the port of Mombasa. To deal with this sedimentation, the Kenya Ports Authority (KPA) incurred huge expenses for dredging, leading to high operational costs, and a reduction in the port’s proﬁtability.

Land-use practices like shifting cultivation, over-grazing, deforestation upstream and poor tillage, which promote soil erosion and Flooding displaces people, destroys crops and property, and (above) causes sedimentation downstream, have severe mangrove die-back due to massive sedimentation (Source: J.Bosire) compounded climate-change- related impacts on coastal ecosystems. Additional research is thus urgently needed to provide information on the relationship between climate change and habitat degradation, in order to facilitate planning and mitigation.

Climate change will place coastal populations and infrastructure at risk from sea-level rise and coastal storms. Low-lying areas, particularly the Tana Delta, will be the most affected by sea- level rise (Figure 6.2). Food security, rural livelihoods, human health, physical infrastructure and water resources rank high among vulnerability concerns related to climate change along the coast and the country in general. These are already becoming perennial problems in many parts of the country. Much of the research suggests that climate change will exacerbate vulnerabilities in these areas, adding to the substantial challenges of poverty reduction and sustainable development.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change entered into force in 1994, with a major objective being to achieve the stabilization of greenhouse gas emissions and to identity national adaptation strategies. Among other recommendations, Article 4 of the Convention commits nations to develop integrated plans for coastal zone management as part of their

54 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Maps of the Kenya coast showing (a) population density in 2005 (Source: Balk and Yetman, 2004), and (b) a digital elevation model showing potential vulnerabilities of coastal communities to sea-level rise (Source: J. Maina, unpublished data) adaptation strategies. To prevent climate change from eroding the beneﬁts of development, there is need for a strategy that incorporates management of risks associated with climate change into broader development programs.

By putting into perspective the areas likely to suffer the most from the impacts of climate change, and recommending the required actions, it is hoped that this publication will contribute towards Kenya’s National Climate Change Action Plan.

6.8 Invasive species

Invasive species, also called alien, exotic, or non-indigenous species, are native to a particular area or region but have been introduced elsewhere either by accident or on purpose, signiﬁcantly colonising their new home. Invasive species are found in all taxonomic groups, including viruses, fungi, lower and higher plants, invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Introduced species often ﬁnd no natural enemies in their new habitat and therefore spread easily and quickly. While some species have invaded habitats on their own, human movements have dramatically increased the diversity and scale of invasions by exotic species (MacDougall & Turkington, 2005)

Some examples of invasive species along the coastal area of Kenya include Prosopis juliﬂora, a plant that grows mostly in the drier parts of the North Coast, and the Indian house crow (Corvus splendens), now found in most urban areas. These two species have become a menace, and efforts to eradicate them are proving difﬁcult.

55 State of the Coast Report

As a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Kenya is collaborating with the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) to actualise Article 8 (h) of the CBD, which emphasizes the prevention of the introduction, and control or eradication of those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species. A survey and sampling of ballast water has been done at Mombasa port and taxonomic analysis is currently being undertaken in South Africa for species identification, determination and classification. The process is initially covering only the lower taxa (e.g. diatoms) and does not include higher taxa (e.g. fish and crustaceans).

56 Governance of the Coastal and Marine Environment 7

7.1 Review of National Laws and Regulations

7.1.1 Introduction

There exists in Kenya a Framework Environmental Law—the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act (EMCA)—as well as several other sector-based laws that are relevant to the coastal and marine environment. Kenya is also signatory to various international and regional instruments related to the coastal and marine environment. This chapter describes these, and their application to coastal and marine environmental management in Kenya.

Until 1999, the rules and regulations governing Kenya’s coastal and marine environment were scattered in numerous sector-based statutes. The institutions mandated to deal with the sector had overlapping roles, and many had limited competencies. However, in 1999 Kenya enacted the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act (No. 8 of 1999), which came into effect on 14 January 2000. The Act makes direct reference to the coastal and marine environment (s.55) and inland waters and wetlands (s. 42). The Act established key environmental institutions, including the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA).

7.1.2 Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act

The Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act (EMCA) provides for the protection and conservation of the marine environment (s. 54) and the coastal zone (s. 55). The concept of marine protected areas (MPAs) is captured under ss. 54 and 55(1). The MPA management tool, therefore, is legally grounded in the EMCA. Moreover, section 55, inter alia, institutionalises integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) as a tool for the protection and preservation of the coastal and marine environment. This section empowers the minister responsible for the environment to declare a particular area a Protected Coastal Zone. It also obliges NEMA, “in consultation with relevant lead agencies,” to carry out a survey of the coastal zone and based on this, to prepare an Integrated National Coastal Zone Management Plan (s. 55 [2]). This Plan is to be reviewed from time to time, “not exceeding every two years” (s. 55[3]).

The minister responsible for the environment is empowered by the Act, “in consultation with relevant lead agencies,” to issue “appropriate regulations to prevent, reduce and control pollution or other forms of environmental damage in the coastal zone (s. 55 [6] of EMCA).” These environmental regulations include Impact Assessment and Audit Regulations (2003); Waste Management Regulations (2006); and Water Quality Regulations (2006).

Although the EMCA is relatively recent and therefore largely untested, it provides an important model of framework legislation and institutional arrangements.

57 State of the Coast Report

7.1.3 The Coast Development Authority (CDA) Act

The Coast Development Authority Act (Cap 449) provides for the establishment of an Authority to plan and coordinate the implementation of development projects in [the] whole of the Coast province and the EEZ and for connected purposes. The Coast Development Authority (CDA) was created through this Act, mandated with coastal zone development and governance, including coastal planning and co-ordination of developments. Part I of the CDA Act, inter alia, deﬁnes the CDA’s jurisdictional area as the whole of the Coast Province and the “development area” as “that part of the Coast Province within Lamu, Mombasa, Kiliﬁ, Tana River, Kwale and Taita Taveta districts, including the southern half of Garissa District, and the EEZ.”

7.1.4 Sector-based laws

Kenya’s socio-economic activities and processes, and its policy statements, legislations and corresponding institutions, continue to be largely sector-based. These deal with, among other issues relevant to the coastal and marine environment, land-use planning; building and conservation regulations; marine transport regulations and licensing of various activities such as tourist establishments, aquaculture projects, and port facilities and services.

7.1.4.1 Land use planning

There are several legislations dealing with land tenure, land use and planning. These govern important coastal-zone sectors such as tourism, ports and harbours, mining, agriculture, mangrove exploitation, and land reclamation. A set of laws exists which vest title or ownership of land in the state/government or other public entities such as local authorities, while others vest title in private owners or developers. Kenya’s land tenure legislation, however, remains very complex.

The Land Planning Act (Cap 303) specifies the use and development of land in the country. According to the Act and its detailed subsidiary legislation, no developments are permitted without appropriate application being made to and consent given by the relevant planning authority. This law applies to coastal and marine activities such as the development of tourist establishments, ports, mines, river flows and harvesting of mangroves. Most of the authority for consent is delegated to local authorities in their areas of jurisdiction. There is an established system for controlled developments, and penalties for non-compliance, and the law specifies conditions for the grant of consent (Rule 16 of the Subsidiary Rules). There is also an elaborate mechanism for enforcement of planning control (Part V). The land use and planning requirements also apply to government institutions and other public entities, except where there are specified exemptions.

The Land Acquisition Act (Cap 295) deals with the compulsory acquisition of land for the beneﬁt of the public (subject to compensation), while the Land Control Act (Cap 302) controls transactions in agricultural land; the Act establishes Land Control Boards, whose consent is required for transactions in such land. The Local Government Act (Cap 265) protects trust land vested in local authorities, and the Agriculture Act (Cap 318) deals with soil conservation and agricultural land use.

7.1.4.2 Tourism

The laws regulating of the tourism sector include the Tourist Industry Act (Cap 385), Tourism Industry Licensing Act (Cap 381), Tourist Development Cooperation Act (Cap 382) and Wildlife Conservation and Management Act (Cap 376). These regulate tourism-related activities in Kenya, with a view to mitigating tourism-related pressure on ecosystems, preserving community structure, sustaining productivity and conserving biodiversity.

58 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Because of its high economic value to the Table 7.1 Summary of Kenya legislation relevant country’s GDP, legal, institutional and to the management of the coastal and marine policy instruments in Kenya encourage environment and resources the development and expansion of Year Cap Enacted/ Title tourism in Kenya’s coastal and marine Revised areas. However, there is no legislation as yet which addresses or regulates the 347 1967 Irrigation Act aesthetic and social aspects of tourism 312 1977 Continental Shelf Act developments and the impact these 391 1979 Kenya Ports Authority Act might have on the coastal and marine 295 1983 Land Acquisition Act environment (FAO/UNEP, 1984). 409 1983 Lakes and Rivers Act 7.1.4.3 Forest resources 389 1983 Merchant Shipping Act 376 1985 Wildlife Conservation and Management Act

Until recently, the legislation dealing 303 1986 Physical Planning Act with coastal forest resources was the Forests Act (Cap. 385), in addition to 318 1986 Agriculture Act the laws on land tenure and land use 308 1986 Petroleum (Exploration and Production Act elaborated above, and the relevant 306 1987 Mining Act provisions of the EMCA. In 2005 a 382 1988 Kenya Tourist development Corporation Act revised Forests Act was the enacted, 302 1989 Land Control Act repealing the previous one. The Forests Act of 2005 makes general provisions 371 1989 Maritime Zones Act for the establishment, creation, and 381 1990 Tourist Industry Licensing Act management of all forests in Kenya. It 378 1991 Fisheries Act directly controls forest activities and 443 1991 Tana and Athi Rivers Development Authority Act transactions, with the minister and the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) being vested 449 1992 Coast Development Authority Act with wide-ranging powers. 265 1998 Local Government Act 1999 Environmental Management and Coordination Act

The new Forests Act provides for an 371 2002 Water Act orderly system of protection of forests as well as rational exploitation of timber 385 2005 Forests Act and other forest products, including coastal forest resources.

The ﬁrst legislation of mangroves as Forest Reserves was made in 1895. Under the new Forest Act, mangrove forests are gazetted as forest reserves, and placed under the protection of the KFS.

Under Kenya’s framework environmental law, the minister in charge of the environment may declare mangrove areas “protected coastal zones” (s. 55). Alternatively, or in addition, under s. 48 of the EMCA, the director-general of NEMA, following consultation with forests authorities, may enter into contractual arrangements with a private owner of any land for the purpose of registering such land as forestland.

It is estimated that less than 50% of all coastal forests in Kenya have been granted some form of protection. These protected areas are mostly those categorised as ‘closed forest’ rather than ‘woodland’ or other classes. Under the 2005 Forest Policy, there were 14 Forest Reserves in Kenya, which included the larger forest areas managed by the KFS. There were 4 National Reserves under the Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS) and 40 National Monuments (including Kaya forest patches, which are classiﬁed as national monuments) under the mandate of the National Museums of Kenya (NMK). Numerous forest patches and woodland areas covering an area of over 65,000 ha have no legal protection, and most are on local authority trust lands.

59 State of the Coast Report

Another relevant legislation for mangroves is the Wildlife (Conservation and Management) Act (Cap 376), in as much as the protection of wildlife is tied to that of their natural habitats and ecosystems, and the conservation and protection of wild fauna and ﬂora is often concurrent and mutually beneﬁcial.

7.1.4.4 Fisheries

The Fisheries Act vests authority in the Director of Fisheries and accords a minimal role to communities. The limited reference made to fisherfolk in the Act relates especially to regulations associated with harvesting and trading fish, with no mention for the role of the fisherfolk in resource management. However, some informal arrangements carried over from past traditional practices, although weakened over time, still persist and are promoted by the Fisheries Department. For example, community leaders have in many instances retained traditional authority over the use of landing sites by fishermen. A draft Fisheries Policy is awaiting cabinet approval (see Section 7.3.1).

7.1.4.5 Ports and harbours

The Kenya Ports Authority Act (Cap. 391) vests the responsibility of operation and management of Kenya’s ports in the Kenya Ports Authority (KPA), a statutory corporation. The Authority has powers to (a) construct any wharf, pier, landing areas or any other work deemed necessary; (b) control the erection and use of wharves in any port or approaches to such ports; and (c) construct new ports. This is an important mandate, considering that Mombasa Port is one of the biggest and busiest in the eastern coast of the Indian Ocean, with a very large hinterland reach.

Maritime-zone legislations include the Maritime Zones Act No. 6 of 1989 (Cap 371), which designates Kenya’s maritime boundaries and vests ownership and control in the Republic of Kenya in accordance with relevant international law; and the new Water Act, 2002 (Cap 371).

Recently, additional new legislations and institutions for the regulation of the maritime sector have been drafted and proposed. The new legislative proposals include a revised Merchant Shipping Bill (2004); a Marine Pollution Control Bill (2004); and the recently enacted Kenya Maritime Authority Act. The latter replaced the Executive Order of June 2004, through which the Kenya Maritime Authority (KMA) was established.

7.1.4.6 Lakes and rivers

The Water Act of 2002 deals with the conservation and controlled use of water resources (mainly inland waters), while the Lakes and Rivers Act (Cap 409) regulates dredging and the use of steam vessels on certain lakes and the rivers (including Tana and Athi) that drain into the Indian Ocean along Kenya’s coast. The Tana and Athi Rivers Development Authority Act (Cap 443) is also relevant to river and river-basin management. It provided for the establishment of the Tana and Athi Rivers Development Authority (TARDA) to advise on the institution and coordination of development projects in the Tana and Athi River basins and related matters. This includes the planning and development of the two rivers’ basins and resources.

The legal status of estuaries and deltas, however, remains controversial, as they cut across several jurisdictions (riparian, forest, marine, and coastal zone) and harbor abundant resources. There is little effective legal protection of these biotopes, except under protected-area or forest-reserve regulations. The 1971 Ramsar Convention could be a primary instrument for the conservation of these ecosystems at the national level. An application for appropriate Ramsar designation of the Tana Delta is under preparation.

60 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

On the other hand, all intertidal zones are public, meaning that no beaches in Kenya are privately owned. However there is no single or speciﬁc legal instrument that relates to beaches, representing a weakness in the law.

7.1.4.7 Agriculture

The Agriculture Act (Cap 318) of the Laws of Kenya was enacted in 1963 and has undergone successive amendments over the years. The Act is relevant to issues related to land-based sources of coastal and marine pollution and degradation. It deals with soil conservation and agricultural land use in general. It does not expressly provide for the use of agricultural fertilizers and chemicals, and thus these are not effectively regulated by any government department. Given that chemicals and fertilizers are used on large-scale farms in Mombasa, Kiliﬁ and Lamu, and that the Coast province is an important horticultural producer in the country, this lack of regulation of chemicals and fertilizers under the Agriculture Act represents a gap in the law.

The Irrigation Act (Cap 347) deals with the use of rivers for irrigation. The Act establishes the National Irrigation Board as a corporate body and deﬁnes its functions and powers. The Board is a statutory corporation directly controlled by the line ministry. The Irrigation Act is currently under review, within the framework of the national irrigation policy development. The EMCA (1999), however, is explicit (s. 42) that damming or interference with rivers, unless properly authorized by the Director General of NEMA following an environmental impact assessment, is prohibited.

7.1.4.8 Mining

The Mining Act (Cap 306) provides the legal and institutional framework for mining operations in Kenya.

7.1.4.9 Marine resources

There are two Acts that protect marine resources within the country’s geographical jurisdiction: the Maritime Zones Act and The Continental Shelf Act. The former gives the government control over marine resources situated within Kenya’s territorial waters and exclusive economic zone (EEZ), which extend 12 nautical miles and 200 nautical miles respectively. In these zones the government has rights similar to those applicable on terrestrial environments, including the rights to exploit and develop marine resources and conduct research. The Continental Shelf Act and accords the government rights in respect of the management and exploitation of natural resources of the continental shelf situated within Kenya’s territorial waters. Such rights include the exploitation of ﬁsheries resources and the conduct of scientiﬁc research.

7.1.5 Regional and international instruments

The increasing complexity and interconnectedness of global environmental issues has necessitated closer cooperation in resolving environmental problems at the international and regional levels. The global environment agenda has expanded rapidly since the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, resulting in many Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) that cover diverse aspect of the environment, including the atmosphere, chemicals, waste, biodiversity, oceans, seas and water. MEAs are the main method available under international law for countries to work together on global environmental issues. Kenya has remained an active participant in most of the post-Stockholm initiatives, many of which have relevance to the marine environment. To date, Kenya has signed and/or ratiﬁed a number of international Conventions, Protocols and Agreements relevant to the coastal and marine environment (Table 7.2).

61 State of the Coast Report

Table 7.2 Major multilateral environmental agreements signed by Kenya National Focal Name of Convention Focus Area Institution African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Natural Resource Kenya Wildlife Service Resources, 1968 (as revised in 2003) Conservation Convention On Wetlands (Ramsar Convention), 1971 Wetlands Kenya Wildlife Service UNESCO Convention Concerning The Protection Of The World National Museums of Culture and Heritage Cultural And Natural Heritage (1972) Kenya Washington Convention On International Trade In Endangered Trade Kenya Wildlife Service Species (CITES, 1973) Bonn Convention On The Conservation Of Migratory Species Of Wildlife Kenya Wildlife Service Wild Animals (CMS, 1979) UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, 1982) Oceans Governance Attorney General’s Office London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (1972) Dumping at Sea Ministry of Transport Protocol to the Convention on Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Waste and Other Matter (1996) International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, Ship-based Pollution Ministry of Transport as amended in 1978 (MARPOL, 1973/78) International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response Oil Pollution at Sea Ministry of Transport and Cooperation (1990)

Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of National Environment Coastal and Marine the Marine and Coastal Environment of the East African Region Management Authority Conservation with its Protocols (Nairobi Convention, 1985) (NEMA)

Vienna Convention For The Protection Of The Ozone Layer Ozone Layer Ministry of Environment Supplemented By The 1987 Montreal Protocol On Substances That Protection and Natural Resources Deplete The Ozone Layer (1985)

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Ministry of Environment Hazardous Waste Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989) and Natural Resources

Bamako Convention on the Ban of the import into Africa and Ministry of Environment the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Waste and Natural Resources Hazardous Wastes within Africa (1991)

Ministry of Environment Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) Biodiversity and Natural Resources United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Ministry of Environment Climate Change (UNFCCC, 1992) and Natural Resources United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD, Ministry of Environment Desertification 1994) and Natural Resources Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS, Ministry of Environment Chemicals 2001) and Natural Resources

Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure Ministry of Environment for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Chemicals and Natural Resources Trade (1998)

Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Marine Environment NEMA Environment from Land Based Activities (1995)

International agreements and programmes help to galvanise focus and political attention on the environment, while providing the basis for international and regional cooperation. One of the most important international processes was the 1992 Rio Summit, which culminated in Agenda 21: The Global Agenda for Sustainable Development in the 21st Century.

Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 contains extensive and far-reaching recommendations for the management of the marine and coastal environment. The Chapter provides frameworks for rational and long-term sustainable use and protection of ocean and coastal-zone resources, as

62 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya well as principles of food security, maritime safety, environmental security, and investment safety. The Calls for Action in Agenda 21 were reinforced 10 years later in the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, adopted in 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development.

Many of the maritime agreements, such as the International Convention for Prevention of Pollution at Sea (MARPOL 73/78) and the London Convention, are yet to be domesticated. The current Merchant Shipping Act (Cap 389) has been in existence for over 30 years and is therefore outdated and does not make provision for the implementation of international conventions such the International Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS).

Unfortunately, international processes have not been sufﬁcient to reverse the trend of serious environmental and resource degradation problems of the world. There is a need for domestication and actual implementation of the international instruments at the national and local levels. The EMCA (1999) has to a large extent attempted to localise the provisions of international agreements, though implementation remains slow. Greater effort will be required to ensure consistency between global commitments and actual national-level implementation to realize poverty reduction and sustainable development goals.

7.2 Review of institutional frameworks

Prior to the enactment of the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act (EMCA) in 1999, the National Environment Secretariat (NES) co-ordinated environmental activities under the auspices of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. Established in 1974 by a presidential directive (Act No. 5 of 1969), the NES was under the Ofﬁce of the President, until it was transferred to the Ministry of Environment in 1979. The Secretariat chaired the Inter-Ministerial Committee on Environment (IMCE), a government discussion forum on environment-related matters. Other relevant institutions included the Presidential Commission on Soil Conservation and Afforestation (1981), with a focus on soil and water conservation and review of related legislation; and the Provincial Administration within the Ofﬁce of the President.

Among the key institutions created under the EMCA is the National Environment Council (NEC), a policy organ chaired by the minister in charge of the environment, with a wide variety of stakeholders. The NEC is responsible for policy formulation; setting of national goals, objectives and priorities for the protection of the environment; and promotion of co-operation among public agencies, local authorities and other stakeholders (s. 5).

The EMCA (s. 7) also established the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), mandated to exercise general supervision and coordination on all matters relating to the environment, and to be the principal instrument of government in the implementation of polices relating to the environment.

In addition, Provincial and District Environment Committees appointed by the Minister (s. 29), are large and representative of both public and private stakeholders’ interests. They are mandated with overseeing the proper management of the environment within their respective provincial or district domains (s. 30).

The institutional arrangements for the ports sector are deﬁned in the Kenya Ports Authority (KPA) Act. There is minimal, if any, non-State intervention in the administration or regulation of the ports sector. The Ministry of Transport and Communications exercises general oversight of the KPA. However, the Kenya Maritime Authority (KMA) has been recently established to monitor, regulate and coordinate activities in the maritime industry. In this regard, KMA handles the administration and enforcement of the Merchant Shipping Act and other legislation relevant to the maritime sector.

63 State of the Coast Report

The Tana and Athi River Development Authority (TARDA) was established under Cap 443 of the Laws of Kenya, as an authority to advice on the institution and co-ordination of development projects in the Tana and Athi River basins and related matters. The National Irrigation Board (NIB) was established as a corporate body, with functions and powers deﬁned under the Irrigation Act (Cap 347).

Over time, additional institutions capable of cutting across administrative jurisdictions have been created. These include the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) in 1989 and various Regional Development Authorities. The Coast Development Authority (CDA) was created in 1990, with the mandate to, inter alia, carry out surveys and studies, and co-ordinate and plan coastal development activities to ensure sustainable utilization of coastal resources, including those within the exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The deﬁned functions of the CDA include planning for the development of the coastal area, initiating project activities identiﬁed from such planning, and developing an up-to-date long-range development plan for the area. It is noteworthy that technically, NEMA is not included in the composition or mandate of the CDA.

7.3 Management of key coastal and marine resources

7.3.1 Fisheries management

The Fisheries Department is the primary agency responsible for fisheries management and development in Kenya. The principal legal instrument applied by the Department is the Fisheries Act (Cap 378) and its various subsidiaries. The Kenya Marine Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) was established as a parastatal, through the Science and Technology Amendment Act (Cap 250), to undertake research in marine and freshwater fisheries, aquaculture, environmental and ecological studies, and marine research, including chemical and physical oceanography. This research is aimed at generating information and data to guide the country in undertaking sustainable exploitation, management and conservation of its fisheries and aquatic resources, as a means to achieving food security, poverty reduction, and creation of employment. The Fisheries Department and KMFRI have sometimes fallen under different ministries, resulting in an uncoordinated agenda for the two closely related bodies.

The Fisheries Act provides for measures aimed at ensuring stock sustainability, trade-related issues and environmental conservation, including the restriction of destructive practices and protection of breeding areas. Illegal practices prohibited by the Act include use of under-size- mesh nets, beach seining, the use of spear guns and dynamite fishing, among others. The Fisheries Department is also the Competent Authority (CA) in fish and fishery matters in Kenya. It is responsible for the development and enforcement of fish handling standards that minimize post-harvest losses. The lack of enforcement capacity within the Fisheries Department, however, limits the effectiveness of these interventions. The large-scale export-oriented private sector is organized under the Kenya Fish Processors & Exporters Association (AFIPEK). The association has helped in self-regulation, marketing and interfacing with the government. However, there are no national organizations for local artisanal fishermen and/or small- and medium-scale traders, and as such, their voices remain unheard.

Other public institutions involved with ﬁsheries activities are: regional development authorities under the Ministry of Regional Development, the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, universities and public laboratories. There are also several civil and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working in the sector, especially on stock access and conservation issues. It would be beneﬁcial for these organizations to coordinate their activities.

The lack of supervision of ﬁshing areas is a major problem. Inadequate resources (e.g. patrol boats and trained personnel); limited understanding of coastal and marine resources, processes and opportunities; inadequate legislation; lack of or poor enforcement; fragmented institutional arrangements and overlapping jurisdictions are major challenges.

64 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

The fisheries sector has operated without a fisheries policy since independence, a factor that has limited management and research effectiveness, and discouraged investment in the sector. A draft Fisheries Policy (2005) awaiting cabinet approval seeks to redress the situation and provide an effective and coordinated approach to fisheries activities.

The overall objective of the draft Policy is to “create an enabling environment for a vibrant fishing industry providing optimal and sustainable benefits, alleviating poverty, and creating wealth, taking into consideration gender issues”. The draft Policy addresses most aspects of fisheries management and development, including environmental conservation, regional cooperation, research, surveillance and monitoring, social responsibility and governance.

The draft Policy recognises the role of local communities, the private sector, and the civil society in the management of fisheries. It encourages community participation in resource management and aims at institutionalizing co-management in the utilization and management of fisheries resources through, inter alia, the establishment of Beach Management Units. The Fisheries Department will be required to prepare specific fishery management plans for various fisheries, involving stakeholders. The draft Policy further promotes the use of indigenous knowledge alongside accurate scientific information, to improve management.

A robust and well-regulated ﬁsheries sector could contribute signiﬁcantly to the country’s development, and its poverty-alleviation and wealth-creation strategies.

7.3.2 Tourism development

Tourism planning and development, which encompasses coastal zone planning and development, falls under the Ministry of Tourism. The strategic direction for Kenya’s tourism has generally been geared heavily towards tourism development, with more emphasis placed on the number of visitors than on the sustainability of the industry.

A National Tourism Master Plan developed in 1996 laid out the general strategy for tourism development, providing for objective approaches to the realization of the targets for tourism development, including conservation of tourism resources. However, the Plan has largely remained unimplemented, due to inadequate coordination among the many sectors impacting on tourism.

The Master Plan gives special recognition to the coastal environment, with one out of its three volumes dedicated to coastal tourism. Of the 8 principal tourism regions identiﬁed in the Plan, 2 are coastal—the Coast Region and Tana Basin.

A draft Tourism Policy Framework developed in 2003 provides the most recent guiding principles for tourism development in the country. The overall aim of the Policy is to ensure that tourism becomes a key vehicle for job creation, poverty reduction and wealth generation in line with the country’s economic development agenda. The policy promotes tourism development based on environmentally, socially and economically sustainable practices, while taking into account the values and beliefs of the people of Kenya. A core principle is the recognition that government, communities and the commercial sector must work together to ensure a sound future for Kenya’s tourism industry.

Private-sector involvement and voluntary initiatives have been a common feature of Kenya’s tourism for a long time. There exists a number of umbrella tourism-related organizations that play key roles in the decisions affecting the industry. The Eco-tourism Society of Kenya (ESOK) is a voluntary organization that creates awareness among the hotel industry and local people on the concept of ecotourism, and develops the capacity of local people to participate in ecotourism. The society has an eco-rating scheme for rewarding best practices in sustainable tourism. Other umbrella organisations include the Kenya Hotel and Caterers Association, Kenya Association of Tour Operators, and the Mombasa and Coast Tours Association.

65 State of the Coast Report

7.3.3 Forest management

Mangrove forests at the Kenyan coast have been managed by both the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) and Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) under different laws, regulations and jurisdictions, leading to confusion in enforcement and management. The situation is further exacerbated by interests from ﬁsheries and tourism. As the Act’s implementing agency, NEMA attempts to rationalize the responsibilities and interests of different government stakeholders in the implementation of the Environmental Management and Conservation Act (EMCA). Local communities are involved in one way or other in managing mangrove forests. The draft Forests Policy (2005) attempts to link all these aspects and give effective direction in the management of mangroves. Co-management of mangroves has been strengthened, with a greater role for local communities, their immediate beneﬁciaries.

Mangroves are the first marine ecosystem in Kenya in which active restoration is being attempted. In Gazi, a research–community partnership has established restoration plots over 10 years, with research into benefits that can be obtained during restoration, such as promoting ecotourism and thinning trees and using these for fuel and/or construction. An economic analysis of replanted mangroves has estimated the net income from a 12-year-old plantation to be approximately US$ 3000/ha/yr (Kairo and Caroline, 2007). Such information can be used to persuade the government to invest in mangrove reforestation. Currently there is approximately 100 ha of replanted mangroves at Gazi Bay, but the activity’s scaling up is needed if it is to have a significant impact countrywide.

7.3.4 Management of river deltas

The Tana Delta is the only estuary that comes under a consistent management umbrella, as it falls under the KWS. It has high conservation and biodiversity value. Nevertheless, it is not a protected area and is not actively managed as such. Other estuarine areas at the Kenya coast are essentially unmanaged.

7.3.5 Management of coral reefs and seagrass beds

Coral reefs in Kenya are managed as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) under the Wildlife Act. Six marine reserves and parks have been designated and are managed by the Kenya Wildlife Service. Malindi and Watamu MPAs were the first MPAs to be established in Africa, in 1968. Generally, MPAs have been successful in excluding fishermen and shell collectors, but less so at curbing late-night poaching. Coral reef fisheries outside of protected areas are under the jurisdictions of the Fisheries Department, while Marine Reserves are also restricted to traditional fishing methods. The proposed Fisheries Policy will contain significant improvements for regulating coral reef fisheries.

Seagrass beds are not cited directly under any legal instrument. Like coral reefs, seagrass beds in MPAs are protected by the KWS. As the dominant habitat of shallow-reef systems, seagrass beds provide the main habitat for many ﬁsheries species, and their management is therefore determined by ﬁsheries legislation.

7.3.6 Protection of ﬂagship species

Whales are among the ﬂagship species in need of protection worldwide. Kenya supports the moratorium on whaling in the Indian Ocean, and efforts to promote improved management of the Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary.

The sea turtle is another ﬂagship species in Kenya, and the maritime zones of Kenya are a Sea Turtle and Marine Mammal Sanctuary. Legislations that protects sea turtles and marine

66 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya mammals include the Fisheries Act and the Wildlife Act. Turtles are protected from hunting and harassment under the revised Fisheries Act, which prohibits any person or vessel in Kenyan waters to ﬁsh sea turtles. In 2001, a number of restrictions were declared, including seasonal restrictions on trawling, the need for an approved turtle excluder device (TED) on trawlers, and a ban on the use of monoﬁlament nets, seine nets, harpoons and spear guns (Kenya Gazette notice no. 7565).

Under the Wildlife Act, only two species of sea turtles, Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), are mentioned as protected animals and categorised as a national trophies. The Act prohibits dealing in or being in possession of a “live or dead turtle, its ﬂesh or tissue, bone, claw, egg, skin or tooth, whether processed or changed by an act of man, unless with special permission from an authorizing agency”.

The dugong is also mentioned in the Wildlife (Conservation and Management) Act, Cap 376 (revised edition 1985) as a protected species.

7.3.7 Management of open-sea ﬁsheries

The major threats to marine life in Kenya’s pelagic waters include poaching and overfishing by foreign-owned vessels, oil pollution from transiting tankers, piracy from neighboring countries, dumping, discharge from ships (as a result of pumping out ballast and bilge water), insufficient data relating to offshore fisheries, and lack of clear legislation specifically directed towards coastal resource management. The management of Kenya’s pelagic zone needs to be strengthened by empowering the institutions that are mandated to carry out patrols and research. Facilitation is needed in the form of financial resources and training of personnel. There is also need to review and update existing legislation and policy to better secure the pelagic resources.

7.4 Resource management tools

7.4.1 Environmental impact assessment (EIA)

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) was ﬁrst made a requirement in the Kenyan statutes under the Physical Planning Act, but since environmental management was not the core mandate of the Physical Planning Department, there was limited enforcement of the requirement. Indeed, until the enactment of the EMCA, EIA remained largely an optional practice undertaken by a few large-scale donor-funded projects. Since the enactment of the EMCA in 1999, however, EIA has become a powerful decision-making tool in environmental management.

The EMCA requires the submission of EIA reports to help determine whether or not a proposed project will have adverse impacts on the environment. In general, all projects that are “out of character” of a scale “not in keeping with the surrounding”, or involving major changes in land use, are required to undergo EIA before their commencement.

Environmental impact assessment review is one of the core activities of NEMA and a key tool employed by the Authority for environmental management. A Department of Compliance and Enforcement has been set up to oversee compliance with all the provisions of the Act, including EIA.

Importantly, the EIA process has also provided a direct avenue for interested and affected members of the public to participate in the management of the environment. The Act requires the Authority to publicise EIA reports in order to allow the public to make written or oral comments on EIA reports. To facilitate the process and to ease public access, copies of EIA reports are made available at the ofﬁces of the Provincial Director of Environment, the District Commissioner, and the District Environment Ofﬁcer. It was in this spirit of public participation that several

67 State of the Coast Report

large-scale coastal projects, such as the titanium mining project and offshore oil exploration, received signiﬁcant public review.

NEMA gazetted additional EIA Regulations in 2003. The regulations clarify the EIA process, and carry guidelines on the content, structure and presentation of EIA reports. In 2006, NEMA published regulations speciﬁc to Water Quality (Legal Notice No. 120) and Solid Waste (Legal Notice No. 121).

Proper application and enforcement of EIA provisions and related regulations could help address many of the coastal and marine environmental degradation issues highlighted in this publication. For instance, more stringent enforcement of Section 42 of the EMCA would be necessary to minimise the physical alteration and destruction of habitats, pollution, and other destructive practices. The Section prohibits drainage, excavation, deposition or introduction of living species into a wetland (including the coastal zone) as well as the erection, reconstruction, placement, alteration, removal or demolition of “any structure or part of any structure” without an approved EIA.

It is expected that as EIA gains greater public awareness and acceptance, the country will realise more controlled and sustainable development of the coastal and marine environment.

7.4.2 Environmental audit (EA)

While EIA is a management tool for new projects, the EMCA (1999) also provides for environmental audit (EA), a compliance monitoring and evaluation tool to gauge how well existing projects/facilities perform with respect to compliance with environmental standards and regulations. The Act requires existing facilities that may have negative environmental impacts to undertake an EA every 12 months.

The EA involves an appraisal of production systems, environmental regulatory frameworks, environmental health and safety measures, and use of natural resources. In addition, an EA examines internal control mechanisms to mitigate negative impacts, and any sensitization policies adopted to create environmental awareness among workers and users of a facility. The EA enables NEMA to determine how well operators conform to statements made in their EIA study reports, and identify measures put in place to mitigate any effects not contemplated in the EIA.

NEMA began to enforce EA requirements in 2004 after the Authority publicised relevant provisions of the Act and demanded submission of EA reports by the end of that year. There was a good response, with upwards of 5,000 EA reports submitted. Most of the tourism establishments at the coast complied and presented detailed assessments of their operations. In subsequent years, compliance has continued to improve, with more projects submitting EA reports.

The EA has enormous potential to assist in good environmental governance. It is expected that NEMA carefully studies submissions and veriﬁes them, through physical inspections of facilities by gazetted environmental inspectors. In such instances, the Authority would, wherever necessary, institute corrective measures to be reviewed again in the subsequent year. However, due to capacity limitations, few reviews or validation exercises take place, except in crisis situations when an issue has generated widespread concern from the public. Moreover, public input to the EA process is limited, as the Act does not require the Authority to publish the EA reports it receives.

Over time, the application of the EA tool is expected to help address the many environmental challenges being experienced within Kenya’s coastal and marine zone.

68 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

7.4.3 Marine protected areas

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are areas that are designated to protect and conserve marine resources, as a means to addressing the declining global state of marine biodiversity and ﬁsheries. Throughout the world, MPAs have come to be regarded as effective tools for the management of marine biodiversity, populations of exploited species and the overall health of oceans. With the establishment of the Malindi/Watamu Marine Park and Reserve in 1968, Kenya became the ﬁrst African country to establish an MPA. Today, Kenya has 9 MPAs (Table 7.3).

Table 7.3 Marine Protected MPAs are provided for in the Wildlife Conservation Areas in Kenya and Management Act (1989). The actual level of Size Year of protection within MPAs varies with whether the MPA Name of MPA (km2) establishment is a reserve or a park. Malindi MNP 6.3 1968 The Wildlife Act allows some extractive activities, Watamu MNP 32 1968 such as ﬁshing using traditional methods, in marine Malindi MNR 177 1968 reserves, while it prohibits others, such as drilling Kisite MNP 28 1978 for oil or gas. Marine parks, on the other hand, are Mpunguti MNR 11 1978 completely protected from all extractive activities. Under the Act, all biological resources within a park Kiunga MNR 600 1980 are protected, and no removal or disturbance of any Mombasa MNP 10 1986 living or non-living marine resource is permitted, Mombasa MNR 200 1986 except as necessary for monitoring or research to Diani MNR 75 1993 evaluate management effectiveness. Marine parks are thus sometimes called ‘ecological reserves’ or ‘no- MNP: Marine National Park; MNR: Marine National Reserve take areas’.

Due to decreased human disturbance within MPAs, increases in the abundance, diversity and productivity of marine organisms have been recorded. Several studies in Kenya have also indicated spillover effects, with size and abundance of exploited species increasing in areas adjacent to MPAs.

Within Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), no construction is allowed within 30 m from the high water mark, to protect critical habitats such as turtle nesting sites. However, enforcement of restrictions on the development of land adjacent to beaches has been very poor, with many examples of construction below the high tide mark, especially in urban areas and within MPAs.

MPAs in Kenya have remained relatively small, in the face of increasing pressure from a growing population. This might require reconsideration in the future. Another aspect of concern in MPA management is the fact that in most cases, the boundaries of the MPAs begin from the water mark, leaving out adjacent and interlinked ecosystems such as mangroves. New approaches elsewhere in the world promote the establishment of a network of MPAs that encompasses the diversity of marine habitats, in order to afford greater resilience to the ecosystem and provide greater protection for marine communities.

7.5 Constraints and limitations to management

The lack of or inadequate ﬁnancial and technical resources is one of the main limitations to the effective functioning of national institutional arrangements dealing with the coastal and marine environment. Low funding affects the capacity of these institutions to create and sustain technical and other capacities necessary for carrying out their mandates.

Another key constraint relates to overlapping and uncoordinated jurisdictions. Most of the institutions with a stake in coastal zone management fall under different ministerial or sectoral

69 State of the Coast Report

disciplines, such as water, agriculture, transportation, regional development, local government, energy and others. This multiplicity, in the absence of adequate coordination mechanisms, makes it difﬁcult to give focused attention to the coastal and marine environment. The fact that there is no single ministry or agency with dedicated or core competency to deal with coastal and marine issues is clearly an important limitation.

Moreover, by virtue of largely government control, the institutions lack adequate participation from the private sector, civil society, donors and others. This means that they may be working in parallel or at cross-purposes with other key stakeholders, thus undermining any efforts to have a more consolidated and consultative approach towards the development, protection and conservation of the coastal and marine environment in Kenya.

7.6 Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

Since its inception in the USA in the early 1970s, Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), also referred to as integrated coastal area management (ICAM), has grown conceptually and operationally, as a management system and vehicle for rational and sustainable utilization of coastal zone resources.

In Kenya, the genesis of ICZM can be traced to 1993/94, following a Regional Workshop and Policy Conference on ICAM for Eastern Africa held in 1993 in Arusha, Tanzania. Kenya participated in this ministerial-level conference, whose key recommendation was the establishment and development of ICZM as a vehicle for guiding the diverse uses and sustainable development of the coastal zones of the region.

Kenya’s ICAM agenda was spearheaded by the then newly established Coast Development Authority, which formed an ICAM Secretariat to coordinate coastal zone development issues. An interministerial ICAM Steering Committee was also formed, initially under the chairmanship of the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI).

The initial phase of ICAM, including the operations of the Secretariat, was supported by donors, particularly the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through the Coastal Resources Centre of the University of Rhode Island (CRC-URI). Other donors were the Swedish International Development Agency (Sida), UNEP and FAO. The initial phase entailed an interactive learning and participatory process at a pilot site, the Nyali–Bamburi–Shanzu Area of Mombasa. The major outcome of this ﬁrst phase was a guiding policy document entitled “Towards Integrated Management and Sustainable Development of Kenya’s Coast: Findings and Recommendations for an Action Strategy in the Nyali–Bamburi–Shanzu Area”. The document was presented at the First National ICZM Workshop held in Mombasa, in November 1995.

This was followed by a second planning and implementation phase, which extended the proﬁling to other parts of the coast and included the development of project proposals to address some of the concerns identiﬁed in the previous phase. The activities of the second phase culminated in the 2nd National ICAM workshop held in Mombasa in August 1999. Integrated Coastal Zone Management was subsequently piloted in 2000 in the Diani–Chale area of South Coast through the support of IUCN, the World Conservation Union.

ICZM is now institutionalized in Kenya through the EMCA (1999), which provides for the preparation of “an Integrated National Coastal Zone Management Plan” based on detailed survey of coastal resources and uses.

This State of the Coast Report has been prepared in compliance with the provisions of the EMCA (Sec 55), which mandates NEMA to prepare an ICZM plan, and review such a plan every 2 years.

70 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

A Committee has been constituted by NEMA to oversee the preparation of the ﬁrst ICZM Plan, with a draft ICZM policy expected to be completed soon.

The goal of the draft ICZM Plan is “to guide the sustainable management and equitable use of coastal and marine resources of Kenya” with the following speciﬁc objectives: 1. To ensure that ecological values of the coastal zone are fully integrated into coastal resource use planning and management; 2. To conserve and manage critical coastal ecosystems, habitats and species; 3. To improve the knowledge base on sustainable coastal zone management; and 4. To develop and support education and information programmes to promote coastal zone conservation, protection and management.

It is expected that the implementation of the ICZM Plan will minimise resource-use conﬂicts, and greatly improve coastal zone management.

7.7 Need for Integrated Coastal Zone Management legislation

The large number of statutes reviewed above leads in certain cases to duplications, overlaps, inconsistencies, and a system of weak penalties. It is, for example, not clear whether the framework legislation supersedes the sectoral laws in certain respects.

In addition, the country lacks sufficient technical and financial capacity to implement the relevant framework and sectoral laws. Training and recruitment of personnel, acquisition of equipment and facilities, and more budgetary and other resources are required, if the implementation of the various legislations is to be achieved. Other constraints hampering the effective and timely implementation of existing laws include relatively low political goodwill, manifested by a general apathy towards coastal and marine issues; low public awareness and education concerning coastal and marine issues; and multiplicity and overlaps in the many sectoral laws, without a proper coordinating mechanisms. The absence of a specific law on the coastal and marine environment and resources compounds the issue.

It is necessary to work towards a speciﬁc coastal and marine legislation, incorporating many the issues already addressed in the many sectoral laws, the EMCA and relevant international and regional conventions. Such a law would serve to consolidate existing laws relevant to the coastal and marine environment and resources, create a better coordinating mechanism, and establish new rules, standards and institutions.

Conclusions and Recommendations 8

8.1 Introduction

Kenya’s coastal region has a wealth of both living and non-living resources that support livelihoods and economic development, in addition to providing ecosystem goods and services within the region and beyond. These resources include mangrove and terrestrial forests, coral reefs, seaweeds, seagrass beds, lagoons, coastal dunes, ﬂoodplains, freshwater and saltwater marshes, sandy beaches, sand dunes, rocky shores and the open ocean. They support human life, rich and diverse ﬁsheries, bird life, marine and terrestrial mammals, sea turtles and myriad other living species. The coastal region is also rich in minerals such as salt, coral rock, titanium, pyrochlore, gypsum, barites, iron ore and clay.

The region’s natural resources drive maritime trade, tourism, ﬁsheries, agriculture, mining and other industries that form the economic backbone of the Coast Province and the country in general. Owing to this heavy dependence on natural resources, the rapid growth in population and expansion of various economic sectors at the coast and countrywide have led to overexploitation, and environmental degradation.

Among the most commonly encountered pressures on coastal and marine resources in Kenya are • Over-exploitation; • Loss and modification of habitats; • Destructive fishing practices; • Encroachment from human settlement, including urban and tourism development; • Uncontrolled developments on beach fronts, blocking the access of fisherfolk to the sea; and • The effects of climate change.

These factors cumulatively impact negatively on coastal communities and country at large, as evidenced by increased coastal erosion, reduced ﬁsheries production, shortages of timber for building and other uses, loss of biodiversity and aesthetic quality of the environment, and resource-use conﬂicts.

The root causes for the resource over-exploitation and environmental degradation being witnessed include the following: • Poverty and inequality in resource allocation and distribution; • Lack of alternative livelihoods for coastal inhabitants; • Low levels of education and awareness of environmental issues; • Gender disparity, with women having little participation in environmental management decisions; • Declining respect for traditional resource-management systems; • Inadequate legislative and policy frameworks and macro-economic policies; • Inappropriate land tenure systems; • Inadequate institutional and ﬁnancial capacities for surveillance and law enforcement; and • Limited private-sector and civil-society commitment to environmental issues; and • Climate change.

73 State of the Coast Report

Moreover, knowledge gaps exist on key aspects of coastal ecosystems, their goods and services and interaction with human activities along the coast. Reports and databases on coastal and marine resources are often scattered across different sources, which makes them unusable for management. A key challenge is to systematically harmonize and monitor key indicators (including socio-economic and environmental indicators), as a means of ensuring that standards set in policies and development strategies are adhered to. Monitoring provides a basis for informed decision-making in line with national vision and goals, as well as international obligations. The spatial distribution of the identiﬁed issues, which often spans several ecosystems, should also be elucidated through systematic analyses of resource-utilisation patterns and related threats and impacts thereof.

8.2 Recommendations for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

Sectoral approaches to addressing issues related to the coastal and marine environment have not yielded the desired results. Notable examples include measures aimed at stopping destructive ﬁshing practices and mangrove degradation, and attempts to promote conservation in protected areas. There is need to link these various approaches with each other and with other development activities, through an effective Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) programme. Key recommendations for such a holistic approach are presented below.

8.2.1 Political goodwill and public education

Strong political goodwill with an active interest in coastal and marine environmental issues, and broad public awareness and education concerning these issues would bring about signiﬁcant gains.

8.2.2 Speciﬁc Legislation

It is necessary to work towards a speciﬁc coastal and marine legislation, incorporating many components already covered in various sectoral laws, the Environmental Management and Co- ordination Act (EMCA, 1999), and relevant international and regional conventions to which Kenya is signatory. Such a law would serve to consolidate existing laws with a bearing on the coastal and marine environment and its resources; create a more functional coordinating mechanism; establish new rules and standards, and establish or strengthen appropriate institutions. There is also a need to domesticate and implement international instruments at the national and local levels.

A single agency with dedicated or core competency to deal with coastal and marine issues would be preferable to the current situation, in which overlapping and uncoordinated jurisdictions among various institutions and ministries hinder implementation.

8.2.3 Ecosystem restoration

In order to restore degraded ecosystems along the coast, the following actions are required: • Review coastal and marine ecosystem restoration work already underway, to identify areas that require and are suitable for restoration and those more suitable for natural regeneration; • Identify national and local expertise, and build the capacity for rehabilitation through the development and/or dissemination (in local languages where necessary) of best-practice guidelines and training; and • Monitor the impacts of restoration at the species and ecosystem levels, as well as on the socio-economic wellbeing of local communities.

74 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

8.2.4 Mitigation of threats from land-based activities

In order to address the threats from land-based activities to marine and coastal ecosystems, the following actions are proposed: • Enhance awareness of land-use management approaches among planners, resource managers and policy makers; • Analyse existing land-based activities that impact negatively on coastal ecosystems and livelihoods, and design mitigative measures; • Promote partnerships with stakeholders on existing and planned coastal developments; and • Work with the mass media to build journalists’ capacity to report on environmental concerns on radio, TV and the print media, with a special emphasis on local-language presentation.

8.2.5 Mitigation of threats from unsustainable ﬁsheries

8.2.5.1 Address unsustainable exploitation of ﬁsheries and other living resources

It is important to look into the underlying causes of unsustainable exploitation of resources, such as poverty, vulnerability and livelihood insecurity, and to identify and promote livelihood activities that are acceptable, sustainable and have genuine development potential. Such activities might include: • Development and replication of community-based ecotourism models related to coastal ecosystems; • Development of integrated and environmentally sustainable aquaculture; • Support for value-addition to ﬁsheries and agricultural produce in order to limit post- harvest losses; and • Improvement of access to markets and support to marketing.

Fisheries interventions should promote sustainable fishing practices in seagrass and coral reef habitats, e.g. by regulating trawling activities and controlling destructive fishing practices. Other recommended interventions for fisheries include: • Strengthening fisheries regulations and empowering implementing institutions to enforce laws; • Increasing private-sector involvement in addressing environmental issues associated with their activities; • Enacting macro-economic policies that promote the export of prawns; • Raising awareness on the value of ecosystem services to fisheries at both local and national levels; • Empowering community conservation groups to help control habitat degradation; • Stopping destructive tourist activities in coral reef areas; and • Researching the impact of bottom trawling on the community structure and the socio- economic wellbeing of fishing communities.

8.2.5.2 Secure beach access routes for ﬁsherfolk

Access routes to a number of fish landing sites have been blocked by private developers, resulting in resource-use conflicts. There is need to map out all beach access points along the coastline, and put in place measures to secure their open access to the public and fishermen, to guard against potentially serious social conflicts in the future.

8.2.5.3 Halt destructive ﬁshing practices

The use of dynamite ﬁshing, small-mesh-size nets, seine nets (local name ‘juiya’), ring-nets, prawn trawlers, spear guns (bunduki) and plant poisons (sumu), as well as reef trampling, have been banned, but unfortunately, continue along the Kenya coast. Gill nets used in deeper waters

75 State of the Coast Report

frequently result in large quantities of by-catch, sometimes with endangered species such as dugongs, dolphins and turtles being caught. The ban on destructive ﬁshing practices, and the use of recommended ﬁshing gear, mesh sizes and turtle exclusion devices needs to be enforced more rigorously.

Prawn trawling in the Malindi-Ungwana Bay has resulted in habitat and community modification and loss of livelihoods and income for subsistence fishermen. Trawling has also resulted in serious conflicts between trawler operators and artisanal fishermen, as reported in Chapter 6 of this publication. The incidental capture of juvenile fish and by-catch is another serious problem associated with prawn fishery. The use of appropriate by-catch reducer devices could help address these problems.

8.2.5.4 Regulate commercial ﬁsheries

There is inadequate capacity to regulate the activities of commercial ﬁshing vessels operating within Kenya’s exclusive economic zone. Much Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported (IUU) ﬁshing is therefore taking place in the area, with far-reaching effects on stock sustainability and destruction of marine habitats. The capacity to carry out surveillance and monitoring needs to be urgently stepped up.

8.2.6 Capacity building and ﬁnancing

Capacity building is fundamental to Kenya’s embracing the principles of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). Some universities and training centres have training programmes in topics related to coastal management. In order to enhance national capacity in ICZM the following actions are needed: • Training needs assessments of different stakeholders in order to identify gaps, weakness, strengths and opportunities for building capacity in ICZM; • Support to existing national centres for training and research in ICZM; • Support to tertiary education and research in ICZM through grants, partnership and leadership development programs; • Development of targeted training modules for the continuing education of business people and managers at the coast, including enforcement agencies; and • Acquisition of relevant equipment and facilities.

Inadequate government budget constrains effective coastal zone management in Kenya. It is therefore important to identify sustainable ﬁnancing mechanisms for coastal ecosystem conservation. An innovative mechanism in this regard would be “payment for ecosystem services (PES)” schemes for selected coastal ecosystems. Such a programme could be piloted through private–public–community partnerships.

8.2.7 River basin management

The high and growing sediment loads from the two major rivers that drain into the Indian Ocean at the Kenya coast—Tana and Sabaki—are largely the result of poor land-use practices upstream. These sediments threaten the sustainability of important coastal habitats such as mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs, and the aesthetic quality of beaches, as reported in Chapter 6. An integrated river basin management approach, as proposed in the ICZM framework, is key to addressing this issue.

8.2.8 Integration of traditional knowledge into resource management

Traditional knowledge has been crucial for the conservation of Kaya forests by the Mijikenda community as well as the conservation of medicinal plants and ﬁsheries resources. The continued existence of the Kaya forests and other important ecosystems will require the integration of traditional knowledge into resource management, planning and scientiﬁc research. In addition,

76 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya the impact of the use of traditional medicine on the environment should be studied, with a view to promoting sustainable resource-use strategies.

8.2.9 Gender Equity

Because of the gender disparities that exist at the coast, women have not been fully integrated in the environmental management process. For example, women are generally under-represented in community-based organisations (CBOs) dealing with environmental issues. Women’s involvement in environmental CBOs and NGOs, as well as their involvement in decision-making in these and at the household level, is critical for improved natural resource management at the coast.

8.2.10 Housing and infrastructure

As the demand for low-cost housing increases in the coastal region, especially in urban centres, new ways of providing housing need to be sought, including better methods to optimise the use of the scarce amount of land available for housing. Furthermore, improvements need to be made to informal settlements, to include the provision of clean running water, solid waste management systems and sewer services. Proper waste management will also serve to reduce ground water pollution.

8.2.11 Groundwater resources

Kenya’s coastal region has immense potential for groundwater resources. There is need to assess the quantity and quality of the region’s groundwater, and to use this information for the rational exploitation and management of this important resource.

8.2.12 Aquaculture

Sustainable aquaculture development focusing on both freshwater and marine species could succeed at the Kenyan coast. However such developments should incorporate measures to mitigate against environmental problems, such as those recorded in large-scale shrimp culture in South-East Asia and Latin America.

8.2.13 Land use planning

The lack of clear legal deﬁnition of the area and extent of beaches in Kenya, together with the lack of clear legislation governing the development of structures along the shoreline, have led to many facilities being built very close to or encroaching on the beach. Appropriate coastal planning and development under an enforced ICZM plan would help remedy this situation.

8.2.14 Agriculture

Agricultural chemicals and fertilizers are used on large-scale farms in Mombasa, Kiliﬁ and Lamu, as well as on the well-established horticultural industry in the Coast province. There is need for the Agriculture Act to include the regulation of chemical and fertilizer usage at the coast and other parts of the country, which, as a result of runoff, has a direct impact on the health of the coastal and marine environment.

Furthermore, traditional shifting cultivation and slash-and-burn farming are widespread at the coast, with adverse impacts on fragile ecosystems and biodiversity. These farming practices should be replaced with better soil conservation and water-use methods, among other measures.

Value-addition through the promotion of agro-processing could support income generation and lead to economic development. However, processing industries that ﬂourished in the past at the

77 State of the Coast Report

coast, including bixa, sugar, cashewnut and coconut industries, collapsed due to a combination of factors, mainly poor management and corruption. The revival of agro-processing industries must therefore put in place management systems that incorporate resilience and sustainability to their operations.

8.2.15 Salt production

It is necessary to adopt environmentally friendly approaches for salt manufacturing in the coastal area. For instance, ponds should be constructed behind mangroves, and treated efﬂuents from salt ponds directed to the sea, to safeguard mangroves from excessive salinity.

8.2.16 Oil and gas exploration

Oil and gas exploration at the Kenya coast will require the observation of sound environmental management procedures, as provided for in the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) and other regulations, to guard against pollution from exploration and any eventual drilling. The government should also ensure that bilateral agreements made with prospecting companies beneﬁt local people and the country at large.

8.2.17 Shiploading

The planned shiploading facility at Shimoni will lead to habitat and biodiversity loss. Accidental oil spills and siltation from dredging activities during the facility’s operation will also likely result in environmental degradation. It will be critical, therefore, that the Environmental Management Plan is adhered to in terms of rehabilitation and remedial measures, in order to mitigate against widespread environmental harm.

8.2.18 Climate change

Article 4 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change commits nations, as part of their adaptation strategies, to developing integrated plans for coastal zone management. To prevent climate change effects from eroding the beneﬁts of development, there is need for a strategy that incorporates the management of risks associated with climate change—such as sea level rise, erratic weather patterns, weather extremes and storms—into broader development programmes.

8.2.19 Marine protected areas

Marine protected areas (MPAs) in Kenya have remained relatively small in the face of increasing pressure from a growing population. Furthermore, in most cases the boundaries of MPAs begin at the water mark, leaving out adjacent and interlinked ecosystems such as mangroves. New approaches elsewhere in the world promote the establishment of a network of MPAs that encompasses the diversity of marine habitats, in order to afford greater resilience to the ecosystem and provide greater protection for marine communities. This approach deserves to be pursued in Kenya.

In the wake of climate change, transboundary MPAs should be seriously considered. In addition to being larger and thereby more effective in their function as conservation areas, they offer additional advantages, such as: • Conservation of integral ecosystems that span national borders; • Facilitation of more effective research; • Facilitation of better cross-border control of problems such as pests, poaching and marine pollution; • Promotion of peace, since through cooperation between governments, border conﬂicts are reduced; and • Preservation of the cultures of indigenous people living on either side of the border.

78 Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

8.3 Monitoring and evaluation

A long-term monitoring and evaluation (M&E) scheme is needed to detect changes in coastal areas, identify the likely causes of these changes, and recommend adaptive and management responses. Actions needed for the effective implementation of an M&E scheme are: • Site-level baseline assessments of coastal biodiversity, ecosystems and livelihoods, including assessment of risk and vulnerability; • Support to existing national and geographic information systems (GIS) centres in accessing and sharing relevant data regarding coastal ecosystems; and • Development and associated training in the use of common protocols for community-based and scientiﬁc monitoring of coastal ecosystem health and socio-economic indicators.

8.4 Conclusion

The development path of the Kenyan coast, and its impact on the resource base, will depend on the development strategy adopted, together with the amount of investments, political support, and administrative commitment it receives. Socio-economic, cultural and physical obstacles to sustainable development, including factors outside the country, have also to be considered.

It is noteworthy that, as a general trend, poverty leads to over-use and destruction of natural resources, as short-term livelihood concerns are pursued at the expense of long-term environmental sustainability. Environmental concerns should therefore be integrated into development planning, and development activities should be designed in a way that leads to the empowerment of local communities to engage in sustainable livelihood activities.

A properly constituted Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) framework will allow all stakeholders, including government, NGOs, the private sector and local communities, to participate in environmental care and protection at the coast. The framework will go towards ensuring that coastal and marine resources and ecosystems are exploited sustainably and equitably. This will enable current and future generations to support their livelihoods and economic activities and continue to enjoy a healthy natural environment.

Towards Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

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