3 THE FORMATION AND LOCATION OF STACKS IN LEWIS

3.1 Geological formation of stacks 3.2 Location of stack sites in Lewis

A study of the coastal sites of Lewis must take Chris Burgess undertook a large amount of research into account the geological and geomorphological on promontory enclosures in Lewis throughout the processes of site formation. The topography of the 1990s (Burgess 1999, 2000); a research interest that Lewis coastline is determined in part by the islands’ developed from his work surveying the coastline underlying geology. The physical structure of the of Lewis during the Coastal Erosion Assessment rocks at the shore determines the formation of (Burgess 1999, 93). He admitted that the ‘promon- stacks and inlets. Although in summary the solid tory enclosure’ description of these sites may well be geology of Lewis is relatively uniform, comprising an inaccurate one: many of the sites are not ‘enclosed’ Lewisian gneiss with metasediments and conglom­ but merely ‘barred’ (ibid), and tidal stack sites are erates in more localised areas, in reality, the more also included in the overall term. He does however closely it is studied, the more complex it becomes divide his general terminology into four sub-categor­ (Angus 1997, 8). ies: promontories, headlands (both barred), coastal However, the geology is only the medium from enclosures and stacks (which may be linked to or which the sculptured shoreline is made. The creation separated from the shore; ibid 96). of the stacks, geos (inlets) and reefs of Lewis is also The CEAL survey classified 80 sites as promon- determined by other variables, including the pre- tory enclosures (Burgess 1999, 94). The general Pleistocene landform, climate, marine variability, distribution of these sites covers much of the Lewis sea level rise and the availability of marine and coastline but Burgess divided them into five general organic sediment (Angus 1997, 84). The erosion of areas (ibid, 95–96). the coasts by the sea is the main influence acting on these variables. During severe winters the west Area 1 – , Islivig and Camas Uig (17 sites): coast of Lewis will be subject to breaking waves typified by high eroding sea cliffs with a mixture of exerting a pressure exceeding 24 tonnes/m2 (ibid, high and low promontories and several knife-edge 87). stacks. This continual bombardment of the coastline eventually compromises weak bedding planes and Area 2 – Bernera and the Loch Roag complex (12 soft rocks, leading to the formation of a variety sites): typified by low eroding edges punctuated by of different features depending on the geological shingle beaches. This area includes Bernera and the structure of the bedrock. Where weaker or softer Bhaltos Peninsula. strata lie parallel to the shoreline across a peninsula, sea caves will form and eventually meet, Area 3 – to (13 sites): dominated leading to the creation of an arch, and following the by high Atlantic cliffs with frequent promontories, collapse of the arch, to an isolated stack. If weaker interspersed with small bays of sand and shingle. rocks are perpendicular to the shoreline, geos and inlets will form. Area 4 – North Galson, Ness and (16 sites): The term ‘stack’ is difficult to define, but usually dominated by to the west and high cliffs refers to an isolated pinnacle of rock entirely sur- to the east all backed with flat croft land, this area rounded by the sea at high tide (Mellor 2002, 2). If is the smallest of the five. The coastline has a com- its summit has a larger diameter than its height, bination of extensive, low promontories and large then it is an island. Many of the sites included in eroding stacks on which sites are situated. this project are islands or promontories, despite being described as ‘stacks’ by their place names. Area 5 –Tolsta, Broad Bay and the Eye Peninsula For instance, Stac Domhnuill Chaim (see Section (14 sites): this area is the most dispersed and covers 6), and Stac a’Chaisteal (see Section 7), are both the biggest geographic area, with high eroding sea permanently joined to the mainland. The literal cliffs to the north at Tolsta, and low eroding cliffs translation of the Gaelic stac given by ‘Dwelly’s dic- formed from soft conglomerate rocks in the Broad tionary’ is ‘precipice, steep, high cliff or hill’ (Dwelly Bay area. The Eye Peninsula also has many high 1994), and usually applies to any topographic sea cliffs punctuated by stacks and promontories, feature which has a pinnacle-like or hay-stack-like with a change further south as the terrain becomes shape, including the mountains Stacaiseal, Lewis one of low eroding edges and gentle stacks. (NB 3065 3740) and Stac Pollaidh (NC 108 105) and Beinn Stac (NC 270 422) in the north-west Burgess noted that stacks and promontory enclos­ Highlands. ures are most common in Area 4, forming 25% of the

 sites there, with Area 1 having only slightly fewer. in (modified afterCarter 1988). However, When the areas are combined, stacks and promon- this needs to be added to the figure for isostatic tory enclosures make up 13% of all sites. As noted on submergence to attain the relative sea level. New the table of stacks (table 1), five of the sites chosen research in this field is likely to lead to significant for study by the STAC project fall into Burgess’ Area changes to these figures (J Hansom pers comm). 4, which he found to have a very high frequency of As a working figure pending these changes, Ritchie stack sites. The rest are distributed evenly across (1985) estimates a coastal submergence of between the other areas described above. 3m and 5m since c 5164 bp for the Uists, which he translates as an average relative sea level rise of less than 1mm per year. There is, as yet, no data 3.3 Sea level rise and erosion relating specifically to the north of Lewis (Professor A Dawson, pers comm). The relative sea level has an obvious bearing on The average of the above figures is c 2mm per the interpretation of the types of site being studied, year. From this it is possible to estimate that in the especially as we now know that there was activity in Iron Age the sea was c 2m lower; in the Bronze Age such places as long ago as the Neolithic (see Discus- c 4m and in the Neolithic c 5–7m. Detailed research sion Section 17, and the report on Dunasbroc Part into the seabed in each study area, combined with III Section 18). Were the archaeological structures sea-level changes, could demonstrate the differen- built upon positions similar to what we now see, or ces in coastline plan, for example, at Baile Sear, were the structures built upon sites that were sub- (Barber et al 2003). Unfortunately, high- sequently eroded into their present shape? There definition surveys of the inshore waters around are two forms of evidence available to help answer Lewis are very rare and it was not possible to find this question – the scientific study of sea levels and sufficient data to attempt any kind of reconstruction coastal morphology, and the archaeology remaining coastal modelling which could have been added to on each site itself. Evidence for the latter will be the digital terrain modelling of each stack. However, discussed in the section on each site. in most cases (other than Caisteal a’ Mhorair and Differential isostatic uplift in northern Britain Stac Mor , see Sections 15 and 16) the during the Holocene has combined with the general sea bed appears to fall steeply away immediately eustatic rise in sea level to create varying coastal from the stacks, leading to the working assumption effects. In an area encompassing the central belt that eight of the eleven sites may not have looked and much of the Highlands of , sea level is radically different from their present-day appear­ falling in relation to the land, due to sea level rise ance, but they were a little taller. being outpaced by the isostatic uplift. This uplift Erosion has had a significant effect, as it would grades out to a zero isobase outside which the sea seem likely that the majority of the sites were joined level is rising relative to the land. to the mainland in prehistory, and probably started There is consensus that the Western Isles are their lives as headlands or promontories, and some sinking into the sea. However, the rate at which may even have had arches. Part of the attraction this is happening seems to be a matter of debate. of such sites in prehistory, as it is today, was likely Professor J. Hansom, in Dawson (2003, 10) gives the to have been their height, isolation and liminal figure as 0.7mm per annum for recent sea level rises placement on the boundary between sea and land.

 NB 31700 50500 NB 50662 41817 NB 41499 11264 NB 20200 45500 NB 17700 42300 NB 00500 30900 NB 53500 65100 NB 45991 30397 NB 39449 23275 NB 38409 09461 NB 48850 62675 NB 50550 40931 NB 39270 21960 NB 50750 66000 NB 11900 42500 NB 08400 37650 NB 11900 42500 NB 47100 62000 NB 53670 49700 NB 15400 40260 NB 13500 41200 NB 54200 51500 NB 42795 24119 NB 54300 63000 NGR # Eastings Northings Norse proper name . Table 1 Gazetteer of all stack sites Table of the red cove of Connal ? proper name. of the battle stac can be a rock or a hill but is usually steep – this one of the castle stac can be a rock Norse eyrar for shore ?/ dalr field / plain could suggest steepness of the bay Norse proper name Orn?/stein for stone rock in the sea Norse sker for rock broad rock Sule Skerry/Sulasgeir (gannet rock) shelf cliff and rock heard it used for reef , have cross and island – leprechaun in Ireland literally pygmy – leprechaun / cliff crag Norse klettr for rock This is one instance of two words meaning rock or hay used for storing crops, cleit is a small drystone hut roofed with living turf, Another definition of fuel as on St Kilda (often beehive bothies) cove of the rock of the foreigner (usually meant Norseman) of the foreigner cove of the rock the channel of the stac with hole the channel . One of as a cairn . or a heap of stones such but is often used for a hillock Norse tun? dùn usually fortress – + cruach/sìg and haystacks use for peatstacks the terms in everyday nobleman’s castle nobleman’s sounds like Norse jarl morair can be Earl which nam Morairean/ House of Lords) (Taigh as above but this will be of the stacs tumult – but here very likely personal name. Lemreway Gearrannan Norse stakkr as above Mangersta as above Knockaird presumably Norse proper name? Holm Crosbost unknown Eilean Luibhaird Bac Cromor Bearasay Clibhe Bearasay Scalpay same as caol – Caolas Scalpaigh/ Kyles Aird Dell North suggests height which word would be stuadh, rock unfamiliar – the closest North TolstaNorth means something like rushing around madly – dictionary also gives which ‘othail’ there is a Gaelic word LocationLeurbost of place-name Translation suggests upper part – sometimes translated as braes bràigh is one of the words which Stac a Geodha Ruaidhe Stac a Chonuil Stac a Chomhraig Stac a Chaisteil Stac a Chaise Dun Eòradail* Stac a Chais Dun Eistean* Stac a Chais Dun Bharclin Stac a Bhaigh Dun Arnistean* Dun Sgeir Leathann Crois Eilean Luchruban* Cleit a Stac Geo Staca na Gall Caolas Stac an Tuill Caolas Stac an Dunasbroc* Caisteal a Mhorair* Dun Stuigh* Braigh nan Stacannan Dun Othail* Braigh an Stac Name

 NA 98200 28200 NA 98150 27900 NA 98050 27450 NB 51861 43550 NB 28300 49800 NB 42216 15671 NB 56407 35252 NB 26900 49400 NB 11900 42500 NB 05080 38150 NB 11500 43500 NB 27400 49700 NB 34900 52700 NB 17200 42700 NB 35800 53900 NB 03060 35970 NB 00190NB 31500 49776 33130 NB 31200 50200 NB 11900 42500 NB 07500 37100 NB 13400 38400 NB 42503 16773 NB 40530 23454 NB 08450 37000 NB 21700 45700 NGR # Eastings Northings Table 1 ( cont .) Table as above of the cormorants Norse skari for young seagull or skarfr cormorant and Mangersta is the word we use for cormorant this one could Stac nan Sgarbh in Gress, a bird connection well have as it is known locally Eilean na Sgarbh (Isle of the Scarts) or Scart Rock e.g. of the goats of the birds of the islands of the crabs balg can be used for a bag or blister of the seagull of the dark-coloured sheep of the dark-coloured cailleach is usually old woman cailleach broad stac Norse berg for a hill ? seems there is a Berry in Orkney of Domhnall Cam as above – caol caol can be adjective meaning narrow and also noun narrows/strait/sound/channel Muile/sound of Mull suggests narrow stac in the cove of factor (the most common usage maor but can be any official – coastguard /maor-cladaich ranger – forest – policeman /maor-coille maor-sìthe keeper of something e.g. of the hole taod = rope or halter – of the ? not met it with this ending before but have particularly tomb, tuam is used for mound, the only meaning I know for sgòrnan is throat ; maol in everyday language would suggest of the bald-headed man maol in everyday of the fear ; the other familiar use for adjective maol is blunt as in Mull of Kintyre or it can be a headland, the noun maol can be brow of a rock of the corn ? of the ram is first that springs to mind the most common usage of preas is for shrub – ? Gress Bragar Tong Bragar Bearasay Aird Uig Old Hill Isle Bragar as above Barvas Barvas Islivig Islivig Bearasay Islivig Great Bernera Calbost Clibhe Gearrannan Location of place-name Translation Stac nan Sgarbh Stac nan Sgarbh Stac nan Scargh Stac nan Gabhar Stac nan Eun Stac nan Eilean Stac nan Crubag Stac nam Balg Stac na Faoileig Stac na Faoileig Stac na Caoraich LachduinneStac na Caoraich Carloway Stac na Caillich Stac Leathann Stac mor Garrabost*Stac na Beiridhe* Garrabost unknown Stac Domhnaill Chaim* Mangersta Stac an Tuill Stac an Stac Caol Geodha Mhaoir Arnol Stac an Tuill Stac an Stac an Taoid Stac an TuamachainStac an Clibhe Stac an Sgornain Stac an Fhir Mhaoil Stac an Arbhair Stac an Stac a Ruta Stac a Phris Name

 NANA 98150 99500 28050 19800 NB 00200 31600 NB 99700 29400 NB 05700 38480 NB 05500 38300 NB 17900 42300 NB 21700 45700 NB 99500 29300 NB 24200 47600 NB 06050 38450 NBNB 06670 39800 38200 56500 NB 23400 47300 NB 99150 29100 NB 17200 42700 NB 48910 30221 NB 00060 32000 NB 00380 30900 NGR # Eastings Northings Table 1 ( cont .) Table Norse kross for cross /gja chasm and cross a narrow creek or cove between rocks suggests more than one hill or rock Cliff placename in Uig and nead/nid (nest/nests) – probably has no connection whatsoever black -an ending can be a plural or diminutive – little stac ? this suggests of the green slope Glas Maol is grey-green hill i.e. (creek or cove formed by surrounding rocks) suggests stac and geodha (creek or cove formed of the green cove bodach usually old man bodach pointed or peaked stac I use it for grey hair (Ness) – in Skye is pale blue and used to describe hoar frost ? – ribh spelt this way means ‘to you’ as in ‘speaking to you’, so this is just a ‘speaking to you’, as in ‘to you’ means narrow stac of the upper reef ? – ribh spelt this way guess – riof is the usual spelling biorach suggests pointed or sharp biorach but more likely to be former is also the word for dogfish , biorach suggests jagged of Swordale immediately suggests of the caves be due to incorrect the spelling is more like plural of uamhann meaning terror/dread but may spelling on map Mangersta Aird Uig Aird Uig geo(dha)? Carloway Islivig Aird Uig Islivig LiongamAird Uig liath is certainly a light colour but it varies according to context Islivig Carloway Knock Mangersta as above Location of place-name Translation Stacannan Chuido Stacannan Chrois Geodha Islivig Stacanan Neidacliv Stacanan Fudrigeo Stacanan Dubha Stacan a Leothaid Ghlais Gearrannan Stacageo Staca na Geodha Glaise Staca Mhic CubhaigStaca na Bodaich Borve Staca Corr Staca Liath Staca Mharstaig Staca Coal na Ribh Uarach Shawbost Staca Biorach Staca Bearnach Stac Shuardail Stac nan Uamhannan Mangersta Stac nan Sgarbh Name NB All sites listed from consulting the Ordnance Survey 1st edition and most recent 1:10,000 map sheets, unless otherwise specified. unless otherwise specified. All sites listed from consulting the Ordnance Survey 1st edition and most recent 1:10,000 map sheets, NB Ness. Aggie Murray, All Gaelic translations undertaken by Mrs 1997 in Burgess & Church * Sites included