International Conference KNOWLEDGE-BASED ORGANIZATION Vol. XXIV No 1 2018

THE DURING THE REGAL PERIOD

Dana DINU

University of Craiova, Romania [email protected]

Abstract: The intention of this article is to give a brief overview of how the military power was organised in during the regal period. There is little information about the military organisation of the Romans between 753 and 509 BC. However, some written historical sources have enabled us to reconstruct some aspects of the military life in early Rome. The Indo-European studies and the comparative mythology of the Indo-European peoples also help to understand how the warrior function was valued in early Roman society. Like the other Indo-European peoples, the Romans structured their society in a system reflecting the ideology of the three functions represented, according to G. Dumézil, by the priests, warriors and herdsmen-cultivators. The same conception can be found at the theological level, within the triad , , , the most important gods of Rome. , the founder of Rome, is the son of the god Mars, thereby consecrating the predominance of the warlike function within the trifunctional system. The army has always been the main instrument that assured the defence of Rome, but especially the expansion and preservation of its power over the conquered territories.

Keywords: Regal Rome, Roman army, military organising, Romulus, .

1. Introduction All the conquests against the formidable There is little known about the military enemies, mostly those against the organisation and combat techniques of the Carthaginians, created the need to introduce Romans before Servius Tullius (578-534 innovations in order to increase the BC) and even less from before the organisation, efficiency, to improve foundation of Rome (754/3 BC). Regarding logistics, strategies, tactics and discipline of the prehistoric times, we can extract some the army, and inspire the fighters to adopt conjectural information from the the winner mentality. A few elements of the historiography or other types of texts that primordia of Roman history, in ’s use sources no longer accessible today, words, are found in the oldest remnant texts well as from various traditions. For this by Roman historians. Q. Fabius Pictor, the period, the archaeology has an important first Latin historian, who wrote in Greek a contribution due to the findings – few from its very foundation, concerning this age, but therefore even more mentions the Trojan as the founder valuable – which complement, confirm or of the Roman people [1]. In other words, the deny the uncertain information. origin of the Roman people is related to an However, looking back over the centuries, it event which took place in the Eastern is not difficult to see that the army created Mediterranean, namely the fall of Troy. The the Roman power, , and that the Trojan migration to the Italian peninsula power, imperium, created the Roman army. might have occurred after 1184 BC, The two mutually strengthened each other. according to Eratosthenes, more than four

DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2018-0011 © 2015. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.

77 hundred years before Rome was founded. 2. Military organisation before the This long period of time saw the gradual . We do not have direct creation of what later, after the founding of information on the military organisation, Rome, was to become, the Roman people. weaponry or fighting technique between the Aeneas’s mission was to find himself a new arrival of Aeneas in until the founding homeland [2]. The natives of these lands or of Rome, which means four hundred years the aborigines were the led by of prehistory. We do not dispose of relevant Latinus. Apart from them, there was the data on the battles that took place during this Sabine people. But on the arrival of the period, but we can assume that in the Bronze Trojans in Italy, there was already the Greek Age battles were of a small scale compared migration of the Arcadians led by king with the great wars of Rome, that they were Evander. The Trojans, the Greeks, the Latins fought at relatively small distances from the and the are Indo-European peoples. cities and that the forces engaged on both Another ethnic element pre-existing the sides were comparable in terms of number arrival of the Trojans are the Etruscans, a and military endorsement but on the gaining people who also came to Italy from Asia side were those with better mobilization, Minor after an earlier migration, but of non- better organisation and more determination. Indo-European origin. The primordial gives us in the Life of Romulus synoikismos of these five tribes, under the (VIII, 5-6) some information about a form of leadership of Aeneas and with the decisive military organisation at the end of the contribution of the Latins, whose ethnonym prehistoric period, very shortly before the prevailed, laid the foundation of the Roman foundation of Rome. He writes about the people. Roman historians generally accepted moment when the twins Romulus and this vulgate, but to many of the modern ones Remus restored their grandfather Numitor to it seemed merely fiction, until the the throne of the city of Alba. On this archaeological excavations of the last occasion, the two brothers organise the decades have come to confirm some of these crowd of disgruntled citizens against the traditions. The process of welding these five usurper in formations of one ethnic elements together was not a peaceful hundred men each, called manipuli. This is or a linear one. Only Latinus, the King of the period when all male citizens , entered into an alliance with Trojans indiscriminately serve in the army. Plutarch by giving his daughter Lavinia into marriage also mentions that his information sources to Aeneas, who succeeded him to the throne are the Greek historian Diocles of thus creating a dynasty of rulers of Latium, Peparethus (IV-III BC) and the Latin which will continue until Romulus and historian Q. Fabius Pictor, who in his turn Remus. The genesis of the Roman people used as a source the same Diocles. Hence the relies strongly on the Indo-European heritage, earliest reference we have is dated about due to the four of the five tribes that shaped it. four hundred years after this event. Because of their warrior spirit, constantly put to the test throughout their early history, the 3. Evolution of the military organisation Romans became in the course of their of Rome. According to Marquardt [3], the existence not only a resilient nation, but in the Roman military organisation went through end a nation of world rulers. The Etruscans three periods, defined by important historical played an important role by adding to the events. The first period begins with the Latin heritage essential elements of their foundation of Rome and ends after the social technology, civilization, and culture. wars, the second period is that of the mercenary wars and the third period is that of the permanent army. The first of these periods is not a homogeneous one, but

78 happens in three phases: the first one starts divided into ten curiae, formations of one with the foundation of Rome and lasts until hundred warriors, called centuriae (centu- Servius Tullius (758-534 BC), the second viria, viri = warriors) or manipuli, led by an stretches from Servius Tullius to Camillus officer called curio. The subdivision of a (534-365 BC), and the third from Camille to was called decuria (decu-viria) Marius and the end of the social wars, because it consisted of 10 viri and stood for known as bellum sociale, the wars with the tenth part of a centuria, under the , the allies of Rome (365-88 BC). leadership of a decurio. The cavalry corps, 3.1. The Roman army from Romulus to called or celeres, sometimes Servius Tullius. According to Dionysius of flexuntes/flexumines or trossuli, also served Halicarnassus (2, 13) and Plutarch (12, 13, as a personal guard to Romulus. There is a 1-3), Romulus, the founder , confusion arising from the interpretation of a created by recruitment, legio, among the passage of Livy in which he seems to say patricians, the first rigorously organized that there were two categories of knights: army, headed by himself, as their king, rex. three hundred equites plus the king’s This army numbered 3,000 infantry and 300 personal guard, celeres. In reality in this knights. The warriors were equally drafted period of time, he refers to the same battle by affiliation to one of Rome’s three tribes, group by different names. Festus later tribus, based on ethnicity. The first tribe in clarifies the matter: Celeres antiqui dixerunt chronological order and of its importance quos nunc equites dicimus ... qui primitus was that of the Latins, also called Ramnes. electi fuerunt ex singulis curiis deni ideoque They then annexed the Sabines and their omnes trecenti fuere [4]. The Knights were tribe was named Tities, after their king Titus organized in three centuries, centuriae, each Tatius. The Etruscans formed the third tribe, of them with a tribunus celerum in Luceres. The military tribes therefore command. The cavalry had as subdivision corresponded to these ethnic tribes. This 10 squadrons of 30 fighters, called turmae, information can be found in Servius, based in turn divided into three formations of 10 on Varro’s information: tres equitum horsemen called decuriae, headed by a numero turmae: rem Romanae militiae suo decurio. The king appointed a cavalry chief, inscrit carmini. Nam constat, primo tres , but the cavalry was at his partes fuisse populi Romani, unam disposal. According to some interpretations, Titiensium, alteram Ramnetum, tertiam the knights wore a gold ring as a distinctive Lucerum. Sic autem in tres partes divisum sign of their emerging Knights’ class, fuisse populum constat, ut etiam, qui located on the social scale directly under the praeerant singulis partibus, tribuni Patricians’ class and in no relation to the dicerentur (ad Aen. 5, 560). The military plebs. In contrast with the infantry, the tribes were each headed by a tribunus knights were in permanent military service, militum. The term miles - soldier, warrior -, even in times of peace. As for the period in in the plural milites, is seen as a derivative of which the cavalry was created, historical mille, one thousand, created by analogy with information differs. Dionysius of eques - equites, pedes - pedites, the names of Halicarnassus says that Romulus formed this the military divisions of knights and military body right after the Senate was infantry. Varro explains the relationship created (13, 1). According to Livy and between miles and mille in the following Plutarch, on the other hand, this seems to way: Milites, quod trium milium primo legio have happened after the creation of the union fiebat ac singulae tribus Titiensium of the three ethnic tribes and the combined Ramnium Lucerum milia militum mittebant rule of Titus Tatius and Romulus at the head (5, 89). For modern linguists, the etymology of the reign. This structure of the primitive of this term is not very clear. Each tribe was Roman army did not remain unchanged,

79 under the following kings the number of Romulus, although he had reached the gates knight centuriae first increased at six, of the city of , did not have enough eventually to reach 18 during Servius troops and equipment to besiege and destroy Tullius. The army consisting of the two core it, as he intended. The inhabitants of the bodies could be enlarged with three conquered cities were incorporated into the centuriae by admitting minores gentes. tribes and curiae of Rome, thus becoming These troops were made up of the so-called Roman citizens. As a result, they fell under adscripticii. The Patricians’ clients, clientes, the duty of military service. Thus, after the could also be enroled in the army, but only conquest of the cities of and as lightly armed troops, called velites or , the armed power of Rome arquites. Romulus was a warrior king and increased by 3000 soldiers, according to had many battles with neighbouring cities. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (2, 35, 6). The The battles he waged were initially reactions battle for Veii was Romulus’ last. Until to the attacks of neighbouring cities in Servius Tullius, the changes that occurred in Latium and not necessarily expansionary the military organisation under the kings wars, but they led to the expansion of who succeeded Romulus are not known. The Roman power. In the first period after it was recruitment base for military service was founded, Rome’s position was rather formed by the citizenry. There is reason to defensive or reactive. The first battle of this believe that, in Rome’s primitive age, all kind was with Caenina, a city in Latium of citizens fell under military duty. But of yet unknown location in about 749 BC. The course, children, elderly, those unable to outcome of the war was decided by duel or wear weapons for various reasons, and those monomahia between the two rival who declined on religious or moral grounds, commanders Romulus and Acron. Romulus were exempt from service. Roman distinguished himself in this act of military citizenship came with the duty of military bravery inspired by Homer’s epic poems, he service. But during Romulus’ reign, fighting defeated his opponent and took his weapons in the city’s army was considered rather a as a trophy. This victory earned him a hero’s privilege. However, Roman citizens were reputation and was celebrated in triumph, the not only the patricians, but also the first one in the long row to follow. This was, , who had a military potential that in the account of Dionysius of the city could no longer ignore, as wars Halicarnassus, the first triumphal ceremony became more frequent and increasingly in Rome. During the ceremony, Romulus difficult. In time it became necessary to would have paraded in a four-horse-drawn broaden the recruitment base. The chariot, the same Dionysius describes, but city, which restricted the civil and military Plutarch, knowing of the existence of statues rights to only some members of the social in Rome which represented Romulus body, had to give way to the patricio- standing and bearing his trophy, says that the plebeian city by accepting the plebeian first triumphal chariot appears much later contribution to the military effort of the city. and was granted to the first Etruscan king 3.2. Servius Tullius’ Reforms Tarquinius Priscus. , Antemnae From 616 BC, for a little over a hundred and Etruscan city on the left bank of years, three Etruscan kings ruled over Rome. the are more cities of Latium conquered Their contribution to the development of by Romulus. The rising power of Rome Rome can hardly be overlooked, since at that caused concern across the Tiber, in the time the Etruscans mastered the advanced Etruscan city of Veii, with its outpost iron technology and had a superior Fidenae. Therefore, its inhabitants made civilization to that of the Romans in all incursions into territories controlled by respects. The sixth Roman king and the Rome, but were defeated on the battlefield. second of the Etruscan kings was Servius

80 Tullius, and at the same time the penultimate the second class, with a of 75,000 king of Rome. He is credited with the reform asses, had 20 centuries, the third one had a named Servian, after his own name. Roman census of 50,000 and 20 centuries, the fourth society and institutions are now founded on had a census of 25,000 asses, and equally 20 a new constitution of Greek inspiration, centuries, and the last infantry class was the emulating the reforms applied in Athens by least wealthy, with a census of 11,000 asses, Solon. Citizens are classified by wealth or and 30 centuries. In total, 188 centuries. census, which gives rise to the censitar Besides them there were 5 more centuries classes in which the ethnic or genetic which fell outside the class division or criterion is replaced by a criterion allowing supernumerarii: 2 were made up of engineer greater social mobility. It was a more troops, 2 of trumpeters, cornicines and objective, more “democratic” criterion that tubicines, and 1 of the capite censi or gave plebeians political rights conditioned proletarii, with a fortune of less than 11,000 by military and fiscal obligations to the state, asses. The total number of centuries was because one of the aims of the reform was to 193. In terms of actual military organisation, create a clear and relatively fair taxation we see the adoption of a mixed model, system. The citizens divided in groups of Etruscan-Roman, which in turn was inspired one hundred, id est in the centuries of each by the Greek or Macedonian class as set up by census, formed the phalanx, as Livy says: et quod antea , comitia centuriata, phalanges similes Macedonicis, hoc postea which had legislative, electoral, or judicial manipulatim structa acies coepit esse (VIII, powers exerted by citizens through voting. 8). The hoplite is the heavily armed The power of the vote of a member of the infantryman. His equipment consisted of assembly was directly proportional to his defense weapons: helmet, greaves, ocreae, position within the economic and social breastplate, lorica, and shield, clipeus, of hierarchy as defined in the Servian circular or square shape, and attack constitution. This system motivates a larger weapons, spear, hasta, and sword, gladium. number of citizens to get involved in the The hoplite phalanx acted in solidarity, the political affairs of the state and in its fighters stood shoulder to shoulder in very defense, thus creating a stronger social tight rows. The number of rows could vary cohesion. The application of the Servian between eight and twelve. According to constitution gave rise to six classes, five in other sources (Livy I, 43), there were three reality because the knights were considered to six rows. Within the phalanx there were outside the classes and above them. The various ranks. The first two rows deployed classes concerned those who were recruited fully equipped first class citizens. They were for infantry, ranked in decreasing order of called principes. In the next two rows came the census, as follows: the knights’ class or the infantrymen belonging to the second the equestrian class included owners of a class. They did not wear a breastplate, but fortune of at least 1 million asses, making up they were protected by a clipeus, and carried 18 centuries, of which 12 included men aged the same kind of equipment. They were between 17 and 45 named iuniores and the called hastati. The fifth and sixth rows were remaining 6 the seniores, those aged filled by the third-class warriors. They did between 46 and 60 years. These age groups not wear greaves. They were called triarii. were applied to the rest of the census classes, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Livy give with the difference that, within each of them contradicting descriptions of the role of the the centuries were equally divided between fourth class, in the sense that first one says iuniores and seniores. The next classes were they were part of the heavy-armed infantry, infantry: the first class, with a census of one and the other that they were carrying only hundred thousand asses, had 80 centuries, the spear, hasta, and the lance, verutum. The

81 explanation might be that they were the position of the knights begins to lose its deployed in either role, as the situation military content and acquires an increasing required. Most likely, they were not part of social and political significance. the phalanx, as neither was the fifth class. They formed the light troops and were called 4. Conclusions. At the beginning of regal rorarii. Their mission was to act at the period, the Romans already had a long beginning of the battle by launching warfare experience. They built themselves as slingshots and spears and hurling stones at a people in constant competition with the the enemy camp and then retreating. The neighbouring nations, which they managed Servian legions were recruited from the to dominate, to integrate into their own regional tribes, which implied their universe, and eventually to assimilate them obligation to supply their assigned until their identity was irreversibly changed. contingents. In the Servian army, the The army was a major part in this process. infantry troops played the most important The reforms attributed to Servius Tullius role. The cavalry is moved to the sides of the followed the transformations that have phalanx and intervenes in certain situations. occurred in Roman society and had a positive Thus, although the number of knights is role in increasing its military capacity. much higher than at the time of Romulus,

References [1] Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta, Hermann Peter (ed), Lipsiae, Teubner, 1883, p. 8. [2] Strechie, M., Oameni politici ai Romei antice (Lideri, institutții si mentalități), Craiova, Editura Universitaria Craiova, 2008, pp. 9-22. [3] Marquardt, Joachim, De l'organisation militaire chez les romains, Traduit de l’allemand par J. Brissaud, Paris, Ernest Thorin Éditeurs, 1891, p. 2-3. [4] Sexti Pompei Festi De verborum significatu, edidit W. M. Lindsay, Stutgardiae et Lispsiae, Teubner, 1997, sub v. celeres, p. 48.

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