FOLK LITERATURE of the NI\AKLE INDIANS

JOHANNES WILBERT and KARIN SIMONEAU Editors

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS Miguel Chase-Sardi Maria Mercedes Costa Celia Olga Mashnshnek Alejandra Siffredi Juan Alfredo Tomasini

UCLA LATIN AMERICAN CENTER PUBLICATIONS University of California, Los Angeles Contents

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS AND NARRATIVES xxiii EDITORS' NOTE xxvii INTRODUCTION Johannes Wilbert 1 THE NARRATIVES Cosmology 1. Sun and Moon, p. 21 Chase-Sardi 2. Sun and Moon, Their Son-in-Law the Woodpecker, and Their Fights As the Cause of Eclipses, p. 26 Tomasini 3. Contest between the Sun and the Moon, p. 31 Mashnshnek 4. Competition between the Sun and the Moon, p. 34 Mashnshnek 5. Rivalry between Sun and Moon, p. 35 Mashnshnek 6. Competition between Sun and Moon, p. 35 Tomasini 7. Sun, p. 36 Chase-Sardi 8. Moon, p. 37 Chase-Sardi 9. The Origin of the Sun and the Moon, p. 39 Siffredi and Costa 10. The Sequence of Day and Night, p. 40 Siffredi and Costa 11. Eclipses, p. 42 Siffredi and Costa viii, Contents

12. The Star-Women, p. 42 Chase-Sardi 13. The Star-Women, p. 51 Mashnshnek 14. Two Star-Women Take a Man to the Sky, p. 55 Tomasini 15. The Man Who Was Carried Off to the Sky by the Eagle and Then by the Star-Women, p. 59 Tomasini 16. The Man Who Married Gemini and Who Made a Trip to the World of the Thunderbirds, p. 65 Tomasini 17. Marriage to the Stars in Orion's Belt, p. 70 Mashnshnek 18. The Two Little Parrots Who Were Looking for Husbands, p. 71 Mashnshnek 19. The Origin of the Constellation Vanxalhax Ihkala, p. 73 Siffredi and Costa 20. The Arrow Ladder and the Door of the Sky, p. 74 Siffredi 21. The Arrow Ladder and the Door of the Sky, p. 76 Siffredi 22. The Arrow Ladder and the Celestial Door, p. 77 Siffredi and Costa 23. How the Rainbow Was Formed by a Snake Spirit, p. 80 Tomasini

Cataclysms 24. The World-Fire, p. 83 Chase-Sardi 25. The Great Fire Caused by Fitzokojic, p. 84 Tomasini 26. The Great Flood, p. 85 Siffredi and Costa Contents ix

27. The Flood, and the Origin of the Nivakle, p. 86 Mashnshnek 28. The Sinking of a Village, p. 88 Siffredi and Costa 29. The Flood, p. 89 Mashnshnek 30. The Origin of Wells and Lakes, p. 90 Mashnshnek 31. The Flood, p. 91 Chase-Sardi 32. The Bottle Tree Which Takes In and Disgorges Water, p. 95 Siffredi 33. Collapse of the Celestial Vault, p. 96 Siffredi and Costa 34. Collapse of the Celestial Vault, p. 97 Siffredi and Costa 35. How the Sky Fell, p. 101 Chase-Sardi 36. Reversal of the Cosmic Levels: Sky and Earth, p. 103 Siffredi and Costa 37. Reversal of the Cosmic Levels: Sky and Earth, p. 103 Siffredi and Costa 38. Reversal of the Cosmic Planes, p. 105 Tomasini 39. Darkening of the World, and the Return of Fitzokojic, p. 108 Tomasini Origins 40. The First Couple, p. 110 Chase-Sardi 41. Origin of the Nivakle Subtribes, p. 115 Siffredi and Costa 42. The Origin of Women, p. 115 Mashnshnek Contents

43. The Origin of Women, p. 118 Mashnshnek 44. The Origin of Women, p. 119 Mashnshnek 45. The Origin of Women and of Weaving, p. 121 Siffredi and Costa 46. The Origin of Women and of Weaving, p. 127 Siffredi and Costa 47. Fitsakajich and Moon: The Origin of Weaving, p. 130 Siffredi and Costa 48. Yinoot Lhavoquei, the Women from the Water, p. 131 Chase-Sardi 49. Fitzokojic and the Water-Women, p. 136 Tomasini 50. Moon, Pigeon, and Kaax Marry Three Water-Women, p. 141 Tomasini 51. The Origin of Women, and Their Transformation into Frogs, p. 146 Siffredi and Costa 52. Fitzokojic and the Origin of Women, p. 147 Tomasini 53. Why the Nivakle Are Poor, p. 148 Chase-Sardi 54. Fitzokojtf, the Bringer of Culture, p. 149 Tomasini 55. Fitzokojic and the Woman, p. 156 Tomasini 56. Fitzokojic and the Woman, p. 159 Tomasini 57. Fitzokojic, the Woman, and the Son of Fitzokojic, p. 161 Tomasini 58. Nasiik and the Magic Planting, p. 163 Siffredi 59. The Girl and the Lignum Vitae Tree, p. 168 Chase-Sardi Contents xi

60. The Origin of the Forest and of the Toad, p. 171 Mashnshnek 61. The Fascination of an Adolescent with Nasuk, p. 174 Siffredi and Costa 62. The Origin of Fitzokojic from a Tree, p. 175 Tomasini 63. Fitzokojic Teaches Planting, p. 177, Tomasini 64. Establishment of the Present Cosmic Order, and the Origin of Culture, p. 178 Tomasini 65. Fitsakajich, the Magic Crop, and the Spread of Tobacco, p. 180 Siffredi and Costa 66. Fitsakajich Brings Tobacco, p. 184 Siffredi and Costa 67. Fitsakajich and the Magic Crop, p. 184 Siffredi and Costa 68. The Origin of Caraguata As Food, p. 188 Siffredi 69. Creation of the Different Chaco Ethnic Groups, and the Origin of Culture, p. 189 Tomasini 70. The Origin of Manufactured Products, p. 192 Siffredi and Costa 71. The Origin of Clothes, p. 192 Mashnshnek 72. Fitzokojic Gives Weapons to the Ancient Nivakle, p. 193 Tomasini 73. The Origin of Fire, p. 194 Siffredi and Costa 74. The Origin of Fire, p. 194 Mashnshnek 75. The Origin of Fire, p. 195 Mashnshnek xii Contents

76. The Origin of Shamanism, p. 195 Tomasini 77. The Old Man Who Was the First Shaman, p. 197 Tomasini 78. The Old Man Who Practiced to Become a Shaman, p. 299 Chase-Sardi 79. The Origin of Illness, Curing, and Death, p. 204 Siffredi and Costa 80. The Origin of Illness, Curing, and Death, p. 205 Siffredi and Costa 81. Origin of the Name Change in the Course of Initiation, p. 207 Siffredi 82. The Transformation of the Shamed Man into a Black Armadillo, and the Origin of the Ritual of the Cessation of Mourning, p. 208 Siffredi 83. The Origin of Tattooing, p. 220 Mashnshnek 84. The Origin of Musical Instruments and Dancing, p. 222 Tomasini 85. Origin of Moieties and of the Benevolent Thunderbirds and the Violent Thunderbirds, p. 223 Siffredi 86. Origin of Moieties and of the Duality of Color, p. 224 Siffredi 87. Origin of Moieties, p. 225 Siffredi 88. The Bird-Men, p. 226 Chase-Sardi 89. Origin of the Thunderbirds, p. 229 Siffredi 90. Nichaklavot, and the Origin of Birds and of the Thunderbirds, p. 220 Siffredi Contents xiii

91. Nichaklavot, and the Origin of the Names, Habitat, and Customs of Birds, p. 224 Siffredi 92. The Transformation by a Shaman of Young People into Birds, p. 227 Tomasini 93. The Origin of Birds, p. 230 Siffredi and Costa 94. What Happened to the Young Men Who Were Turned into Birds, p. 232 Tomasini 95. Stork As Leader of the Birds, p. 243 Tomasini 96. Origin of Animal Flesh and of the Color of Birds, p. 246 Siffredi and Costa 97. The Origin of the Flesh, Smell, and Color of Animals, p. 247 Siffredi and Costa 98. The Origin of Birds and Their Diet, p. 253 Siffredi and Costa 99. The Origin of the Rhea, p. 255 Siffredi and Costa 100. The Origin of the Heron, p. 256 Mashnshnek 101. The Origin of the Stork and of Toads and Frogs, p. 258 Siffredi and Costa 102. Origin of the Thrush, p. 260 Siffredi and Costa 103. Origin of the Sisay Bird, p. 260 Mashnshnek 104. The Origin of the Four-Footed Animals and Their Diet, p. 262 Siffredi and Costa 105. Origin of the Anteater from Several Old Women, p. 264 Tomasini xiv Contents

106. The Origin of the Lipped Peccary, p. 268 Siffredi and Costa 107. Origin of the Anteater and the Deer, p. 268 Siffredi and Costa 108. The Origin of the Puma, p. 270 Siffredi and Costa 109. The Origin of Snakes, p. 270 Mashnshnek 110. The Origin of Snakes and Their Habits, p. 272 Siffredi and Costa 111. The Origin of the Boa Constrictor, p. 273 Mashnshnek 112. Origin of the Yarard, p. 274 Siffredi and Costa 113. Origin of the Vampire Bat, p. 275 Siffredi and Costa Extraordinary Creatures and Events 114. Cufalh and the Honey-Gatherers, p. 276 Chase-Sardi 115. Cufalh Turns into a Girl, p. 280 Chase-Sardi 116. The Man with the Enormous Phallus, p. 281 Mashnshnek 117. The Man Who Turned Himself into a Woman, p. 282 Mashnshnek 118. The Rape of Other Women, p. 283 Chase-Sardi 119. How Cufalh Asked the Bat to Have Intercourse, p. 284 Chase-Sardi 120. How a Jaguar Caught Cufalh, p. 285 Chase-Sardi 121. How Cufalh Followed His Grandsons, p. 286 Chase-Sardi 122. The War against the Toba, p. 287 Chase-Sardi Contents xv

123. The Head That Returned to Its Body, p. 288 Mashnshnek 124. The Real Death of Cufalh, p. 289 Chase-Sardi 125. Cufalh Rejuvenates the Old People, p. 290 Chase-Sardi 126. The K'imxanxds, Helpers of the Makaa Shamans, p. 292 Tomasini 127. The Tsamtds Who Intercept the Rain, p. 292 Siffredi and Costa 128. The Giant Rain-Intercepting Snake with Three Mouths, p. 294 • Siffredi and Costa 129. The Transformation of a Girl into a Boa, p. 295 Siffredi and Costa 130. The Transformation of a Brother- and Sister-in-Law into Boas, p. 296 Siffredi 131. The Transformation of a Girl into a Glass Snake, p. 298 Siffredi 132. The Man Who Was Eaten by a Snake, p. 298 Mashnshnek 133. The Jaguar and the Girl, p. 300 Chase-Sardi 134. The Woman Who Was Married to a Jaguar, p. 305 Mashnshnek 135. The Woman Married to Jaguar-Man, p. 306 Siffredi and Costa 136. The Woman Married to Jaguar-Man, p. 307 Siffredi and Costa 137. Jaguar-Man, p. 320 Siffredi and Costa 138. Jaguar-Man, p. 322 Siffredi and Costa 139. The Tame Jaguar and the Young Man, p. 322 Siffredi and Costa xvi Contents

140. The Stallion and the Married Woman, p. 323 Chase-Sardi 141. The Invaders of Long Ago, p. 325 Chase-Sardi 142. Owl, Chunga, and the Blind Men, p. 320 Tomasini 143. Excessive Laughter and the Great Fire: The Story of the Blind Old Men, p. 323 Siffredi 144. The Blind Men and the Owl, p. 330 Mashnshnek 145. Excessive Laughter and the Great Fire, p. 332 Siffredi and Costa 146. The Ferret As a Good Shaman, p. 333 Tomasini U7. The Honey-Gatherers, p. 335 Chase-Sardi 148. The Boa Constrictor Gives a Man Power, p. 342 Mashnshnek 149. Rivalry between the Tapir and the Antbird, p. 344 Tomasini 150. Competition between K'aa, Antbird, and Tapir, p. 349 Tomasini 151. Itoklinax, His Magic Rope, and the Antbird, p. 352 Tomasini 152. Itoclonaj, the Man with the Rope, p. 362 Chase-Sardi 153. Itoklinax, the Skunks, and the Armadillo, p. 364 Tomasini 154. Hawk and K'aa, Antbird, p. 369 Tomasini 155. The Transformation of a Mistreated Man into a Black Armadillo, p. 372 Siffredi 156. The Chunga's Illness, p. 373 Mashnshnek Contents xvii

157. The Journey of a Young Man to the Place of the Dead, p. 374 Tomasini 158. The Woman and the Wax Penis, p. 378 Chase-Sardi 159. The Transformation of an Old Husband into a Bird, p. 380 Siffredi and Costa 160. Fitzokojic Obtains Tapir Meat and Goes Away, p. 381 Tomasini 161. Fitsakajich's Ability to Rejuvenate Himself, p. 383 Siffredi and Costa 162. FitzokojiC, Giver of Good Things, Departs to the Sky After Being Pecked by a Hostile Bird, p. 384 Tomasini 163. Fitsakajich Gives Men and Animals New Life, p. 386 Siffredi and Costa Ogres 164. Stavuun, the King Vulture, p. 388 Chase-Sardi 165. The Competition between Axtita and King Vulture, the Death of the Latter, and the Origin of Red Plumage in Birds, p. 393 Tomasini 166. Ahtitah and His Struggle with Tabun, King Vulture, p. 399 Mashnshnek 167. The Struggle of Axtita against Stavunitax, the King Vulture, p. 404 Siffredi and Costa 168. King Buzzard and Axtita, p. 405 Tomasini 169. Fitsakajich's Contest with Stavunitax, King Vulture, p. 420 Siffredi and Costa . xviii Contents

170. Conflict between Fitsakajich and Ita, Red-Headed Vulture, p. 426 Siffredi and Costa 171. Soonjalhai, or the Bird Catcher, p. 422 Chase-Sardi 172. The Nest-Robber and the Cannibal Woman, p. 426 Siffredi and Costa 173. Death of the Man-Eater, p. 428 Mashnshnek 174. Death of the Man Who Ate Raw Birds, p. 432 Mashnshnek 175. Slaughter of the Man Who Turned into Tsamtax, p. 434 Siffredi and Costa 176. Slaughter of the Man Who Turned into Tsamtax, p. 436 Siffredi and Costa 177. Slaughter of the Man Who Turned into Tsamtax, p. 437 Siffredi and Costa 178. The Death of Chamtah, p. 439 Mashnshnek 179. The Man Who Tricked Tsamtax, p. 442 Siffredi and Costa. 180. Ahtitah Kills an Old Man-Eating Woman, p. 442 Mashnshnek 181. Red-Headed Vulture and Flycatcher, p. 443 Siffredi and Costa 182. Conflict between Fitsakajich and Flycatcher: Origin of This Bird, p. 444 Siffredi and Costa 183. Conflict between Fitsakajich and Flycatcher: Origin of This Bird, p. 446 Siffredi and Costa 184. Fitsakajich's Contest with Pointed-Leg: The Origin of the Mockingbird, p. 448 Siffredi and Costa Contents xix

185. Fitsakajich's Contest with Pointed-Leg: The Origin of the Mockingbird, p. 451 Siffredi and Costa 186. The Origin of the Mockingbird, p. 454 Mashnshnek 187. The Old Man-Eaters of the Forest, p. 456 Mashnshnek 188. The Master of the Birds, p. 460 Tomasini 189. The Kutzxatds Steal a Child, p. 462 Tomasini 190. Theft of a Child by the Kutzxatds, p. 462 Tomasini 191. The Bat-Women, p. 464 Tomasini 192. The Son of the Forest Creature, p. 465 Mashnshnek 193. Endocannibalism and Exocannibalism among the Ancient Nivakle, p. 467 Siffredi and Costa 194. The Wolf, Omen of Death, p. 470 Mashnshnek 195. When Fox Was a Woman, p. 471 Siffredi and Costa

Animals 196. The Marriage of the Parrot Sisters, p. 472 Chase-Sardi 197. Marriage and Separation of the Parrots and the Thrush, p. 479 Tomasini 198. The Parrots and the Thrush, p. 482 Mashnshnek 199. The Transformation of Two Sisters into Parrots, p. 484 Siffredi and Costa xx Contents

200. The K&w Bird Shaman, and the Game of the Red- Headed Buzzard, p. 485 Tomasini 201. The Vulture and the Hawk, p. 492 Tomasini 202. The Master of the Poitad, p. 492 Tomasini 203. The Master of the Rheas, p. 494 Tomasini 204. The Sivaklaktdx, Chief of the Rheas, p. 495 Tomasini 205. The Master of the Hens, p. 498 Tomasini 206. A Race between the Rhea and the Tick, p. 499 Mashnshnek 207. The Man Who Was Transformed into an Armadillo by the Turtle Shamaness, p. 499 Tomasini 208. The Jaguar and the Armadillo, p. 502 Chase-Sardi 209. The Jaguar and the Armadillo, p. 507 Mashnshnek 210. The Rabbit, the Armadillo, and the Jaguar, p. 520 Tomasini 211. Jaguar Competes with Other Animals and Is Made Fun Of by Armadillo, p. 523 Tomasini 212. Jaguar and Armadillo, p. 526 Siffredi and Costa 213. Jaguar, Armadillo, and Other Animals, p. 527 Tomasini 214. Competition between Deer and Jaguar, p. 529 Tomasini 215. The Jaguar and the Deer, p. 521 Mashnshnek Contents xxi

216. Jaguar, Deer, Vulture, and Ovenbird, p. 522 Tomasini 217. The Jaguar and the Snow-White Bird, p. 525 Mashnshnek 218. The Anteaters and the Jaguar, p. 526 Tomasini 219. Jaguar Attempts to Devour the Female Great Anteater, and Is Killed by Her, p. 528 Tomasini 220. The Jaguar and the Boa Constrictor, p. 528 Mashnshnek 221. Master of the Jaguars, p. 529 Tomasini 222. The Man, the Jaguar, and the Master of the Jaguars, p. 530 Tomasini 223. The Fox and the Hummingbird, p. 530 Chase-Sardi 224. The Fox and the Armadillo, p. 535 Mashnshnek 225. The Young South American Fox Married to the Savanna Fox, p. 536 Tomasini 226. The Brocket Deer As Shaman and Master of Anthills, and His Contest with the Marsh Deer, p. 539 Tomasini 227. The Rat and the Thieving Mice, p. 542 Tomasini 228. The Man and the Master of the Viscachas, p. 544 Tomasini 229. The Master of the Fish, p. 545 Tomasini 230. Zaxecitax and Taolatax, Masters of Fish, p. 546 Tomasini 231. The Master of the Bees, p. 548 Tomasini xxii Contents Unclassified Narratives 232. The Lying Elders Foment Discord, p. 552 Siffredi and Costa 233. The Lying Elders, p. 552 Siffredi and Costa 234. The Lying Elders, p. 552 Siffredi and Costa 235. The Grandfather Who Deflowered His Granddaughter, p. 552 Chase-Sardi 236. The Old Man Who Wanted to Have Sex with Women, p. 556 Mashnshnek 237. The Old Man Who Pretended to Be Young, p. 557 Mashnshnek 238. Fitsakaich Transforms an Ugly Man, p. 560 Mashnshnek 239. The Man Who Killed a Chief, p. 562 Mashnshnek 240. Monkey-Woman Is Desired by Moon-Man, p. 563 Tomasini 241. The Honey Collectors, the Owl, and the Shaman Woman Tsijapop, p. 565 Tomasini 242. Tsijapop, the Old Woman Who Gathered Gourds, p. 568 Tomasini 243. Calaliin, p. 569 Chase-Sardi THE MOTIF INDICES MOTIF DISTRIBUTION BY NARRATIVE 577 TOPICAL MOTIF INDEX 585 ALPHABETICAL MOTIF INDEX 649 MOTIF DISTRIBUTION BY MOTIF GROUP 751

BIBLIOGRAPHY 757