Arabization and Berberization in the Maghreb Region Student Name: Jeremy Ngo Student Number: 36127158 University of British Columbia WRDS 150 02M Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M Abstract Language is important in that it is central to the understanding and propagation of a society’s culture. This paper examines the Berber language family of the Maghreb region and the effect that widespread adoption and use of Arabic has on the vitality and status of Berber, contrasting the process of Arabization, in which Arab culture and language is promoted over any other, and the counteracting process of Berberization, where Berber language and culture are resurrected and given new importance. The paper begins with an analysis of the population of each of the 26 Berber languages as identified in the Ethnologue, paying particular attention to the 8 languages that are experiencing language shift. Next, past research on Arabization and Berberization movements within the Maghreb region were examined to more clearly illustrate the exact situation in each country. The paper finds that Arabic language was most dominant in Algeria, Libya, and Morocco, but Tunisia and Mauritania were almost entirely free of such effects. A clear relationship between Arabization and Berberization was also identified: wherever the effects of Arabization are the strongest, the Berber counter movement is also the most pronounced. This is exemplified in Libya, where despite the suppression of Berber, Berber movements were the most violent. A comparison of the 5 countries, in terms of Berber activism, yields the following ranking from most prominent to least prominent: Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Mauritania. Finally, it seems as though the suppression of Berber culture has reinforced a sense of Berber togetherness. Key words: Arabization, Berber, Maghreb, Endangerment 2 Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M Introduction This paper examines the status of the Berber family of languages, which are spoken in the Maghreb region of North Africa. The term Maghreb refers to 5 countries: Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, and Mauritania. More specifically I will explore the two opposing forces of Arabization and Berberization, movements that have been in conflict for decades. Arabization is the process by which Arabic culture and languages are assimilated into another culture, most commonly characterized by the promotion of Arabic values and beliefs (Brenzinger 2007). Berberization refers to Berber activism, pro-Berber movements undertaken by defenders of Berber culture in the attempt to reinforce Berber especially in terms of language (Classen 2015; Mottale 2013). In more recent years however, Berberization has become an actively anti-Arab process. Through examining these two concepts I will identify where in the Maghreb that Berber is doing the best in terms of influence, vitality, and most importantly the strength of the counter-Arabic movements. Context Over the years there has been some investigation into the status of Berber, most commonly within the realm of language endangerment. Research has made clear to ethnolinguistic scholars that the process of Arabization is the largest threat to the continued existence of Berber (Maddy- Weitzman 2001; Batibo 2005; Brenzinger 2005; Kossmann 2013). The major proponent of Arabization that has been identified is the government of the North African countries. Due to the adoption of Arabic in the Maghreb region, primarily as a way to distance and distinguish themselves from the French colonial powers, the use of non-Arabic languages are seen to be a threat to the “national and pan-Arabic unity” (Kossmann 2013, p. 130). 3 Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M There is also the threat of Arabization that stems from the social realm, for instance the way Arabic is promoted in schools over other languages. As children increasingly learn Arabic rather than Berber, Arabic then becomes the most prevalent language among schoolchildren (El Hannouche 2008 cited in Kossmann 2013, p. 35), and because of this, language shift from Berber to Arabic occurs. Certain scholars have suggested that there are places within the Maghreb region where Berber is doing markedly well in comparison. One such example is Algeria, where, as Brenzinger (2007) notes, Berber is considered a national language. However, I feel that he does not consider the whole picture, as although Berber is indeed recognized in an official capacity, languages like French and Arabic are used far more, with the effect of relegating Berber to the status of a minority language as it is in many other parts of the Maghreb region. On the other hand, as Kossmann (2013) reports, due to preservation efforts by the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture in Morocco, the Amazigh language is not only protected, but spread throughout the educational system and is also used in the media. While there is evidence for both Berberization and Arabization in the Maghreb countries, it is clear that such processes manifest themselves in varying forms and with a wide variety of effects to the speakers, owing to differences in culture and traditions. With this in mind, my research paper will attempt to distinguish where in the Maghreb the Berberization movement sees the most success, but also where the process of Arabization has affected Berber the most heavily. In doing so my research will answer the question: Where in the Maghreb region does Berberization have the most influence? 4 Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M Methods and Data Owing to the fact that North African countries do not take language census data, the population of Berber speakers is difficult to ascertain. While there is existing census data, it dates back to the early colonial era and is therefore outdated. The data that I am using is taken from the Ethnologue, but they also point out that their own data may not be entirely reliable nor accurate (Lewis 2015). Nonetheless, as the only adequate source that I was able to find, data from the 2015 edition of the Ethnologue will be my starting point for census data. Furthermore, due to the lack of concrete data, the number of Berber languages in the Berber family is unclear, with some scholars estimating that there may be over 5000 different forms, if one were to take into account the local varieties (Irvine 1994, cited in Brenzinger p.124). As acquiring data for thousands of varieties is unfeasible, I refer to the Ethnologue’s estimate. They state that there are 26 main members of the Berber language family and of these 26, population and location data is provided for all but one, Standard Moroccan Tamazight. Due to similarity I have grouped it together with the more widely spoken Central Atlas Tamazight. Name Population Name Population Kabyle 5500000 Siwi 20000 Tachelhit 3900000 Tagargrent 20000 Central Atlas Tamazight 2500000 Ghadames 12000 Tarifit 1470000 Taznatit 11000 Tachawit 1400000 Ghomara 10000 Tawallammat Tamajeq 640000 Temacine Tamazight 6000 Tamasheq 281000 Awjilah 3000 Tayart Tamajeq 250000 Zenaga 2100 Nafusi 234000 Judeo-Berber 2000 Tumzabt 150000 Tidikelt Tamazight 1000 Tahaggart Tamahaq 77000 Sawknah 0 Chenoua 76000 Sened 0 Senhaja 50000 Figure 1. Major Berber languages and the number of speakers of each (Ethnologue 2015). 5 Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M Name Population Ghomara 10000 Temacine Tamazight 6000 Awjilah 3000 Zenaga 2100 Judeo-Berber 2000 Tidikelt Tamazight 1000 Sawknah 0 Sened 0 Figure 2. Berber languages that are the most at risk (Ethnologue 2015). Name Population Tawallammat Tamajeq 640000 Tumzabt 150000 Chenoua 76000 Senhaja 50000 Tagargrent 20000 Ghomara 10000 Temacine Tamazight 6000 Awjilah 3000 Figure 3. Berber languages at risk of shifting to Arabic (Ethnologue 2015). Country Algeria Morocco Name Population Name Population Chenoua 76000 Tachelhit 3890000 Kabyle 5000000 Central Atlas Tamazight 2340000 Tagargrent 20000 Standard Moroccan Tamazight Tamacine Tamazight 6000 Ghomara 10000 Taznatit 11000 Senhaja 50000 Tumzabt 150000 Tarifit 1270000 Tachawit 1400000 Tidikelt Tamazight 1000 Tahaggart Tamahaq 40000 Total 6704000 Total 7560000 Figure 4. Berber languages spoken in Algeria and Morocco (Ethnologue 2015). 6 Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M Discussion of data Figure 1 shows the 25 major members of the Berber language family, arranged in order of total population. The 8 Berber languages in Figure 2 are the ones that are in the most danger. The Ethnologue considers the bottom 5 languages (Sened, Sawknah, Tidikelt Tamazight, Judeo- Berber, and Zenaga) to be the most at risk. Sawknah and Sened1 are already extinct, and the other 3 languages are in very serious risk of extinction (Lewis 2015). Other scholars such as Batibo (2005) also put Ghomara and Awjilah in the same group, and from population estimates we can infer that Tamacine Tamazight is at the very least severely endangered as well. Batibo also states that Ghomara, as of 2005, is considered nearly extinct, and this is supported by data from the Ethnologue. Figure 3 represents the 8 languages that are considered to be at risk of shifting to Arabic, major causes of this being bilingualism and the educational system, as was discussed previously (Maddy-Weitzman 2001; Kossmann 2013). As mentioned before, lack of census data means that it is difficult to make general statements about the status of Berber. Nonetheless, whilst there is no concrete evidence that shows the decline of Berber over the years, the numbers and the state of each language presented in Figures 1 through 3 all paint a negative picture of Berber. In his 2007 study Kossmann points out that “only the usage in the family ensures the survival of a language” (Kossmann 2007 p. 129- 130), but with 8 of the 25 major Berber languages beginning to shift to Arabic, the usage of Berber within the family seems less and less likely, and the survival of Berber becomes increasingly tenuous. 1 Paradisi (1963) reported that Sawknah was only spoken by a small handful of elderly Berbers.