Arabization and Berberization in the Region Student Name: Jeremy Ngo Student Number: 36127158

University of British Columbia WRDS 150 02M

Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M

Abstract

Language is important in that it is central to the understanding and propagation of a society’s culture. This paper examines the Berber language family of the Maghreb region and the effect that widespread adoption and use of has on the vitality and status of Berber, contrasting the process of , in which and language is promoted over any other, and the counteracting process of Berberization, where Berber language and culture are resurrected and given new importance. The paper begins with an analysis of the population of each of the 26 as identified in the Ethnologue, paying particular attention to the 8 languages that are experiencing . Next, past research on Arabization and Berberization movements within the Maghreb region were examined to more clearly illustrate the exact situation in each country. The paper finds that Arabic language was most dominant in , , and , but and were almost entirely free of such effects. A clear relationship between

Arabization and Berberization was also identified: wherever the effects of Arabization are the strongest, the Berber counter movement is also the most pronounced. This is exemplified in Libya, where despite the suppression of Berber, Berber movements were the most violent. A comparison of the 5 countries, in terms of Berber activism, yields the following ranking from most prominent to least prominent: Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Mauritania. Finally, it seems as though the suppression of Berber culture has reinforced a sense of Berber togetherness.

Key words: Arabization, Berber, Maghreb, Endangerment

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Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M Introduction

This paper examines the status of the Berber family of languages, which are spoken in the

Maghreb region of North . The term Maghreb refers to 5 countries: Libya, Morocco, Tunisia,

Algeria, and Mauritania. More specifically I will explore the two opposing forces of Arabization and Berberization, movements that have been in conflict for decades. Arabization is the process by which Arabic culture and languages are assimilated into another culture, most commonly characterized by the promotion of Arabic values and beliefs (Brenzinger 2007). Berberization refers to Berber activism, pro-Berber movements undertaken by defenders of Berber culture in the attempt to reinforce Berber especially in terms of language (Classen 2015; Mottale 2013). In more recent years however, Berberization has become an actively anti-Arab process. Through examining these two concepts I will identify where in the Maghreb that Berber is doing the best in terms of influence, vitality, and most importantly the strength of the counter-Arabic movements.

Context

Over the years there has been some investigation into the status of Berber, most commonly within the realm of language endangerment. Research has made clear to ethnolinguistic scholars that the process of Arabization is the largest threat to the continued existence of Berber (Maddy-

Weitzman 2001; Batibo 2005; Brenzinger 2005; Kossmann 2013). The major proponent of

Arabization that has been identified is the government of the North African countries. Due to the adoption of Arabic in the Maghreb region, primarily as a way to distance and distinguish themselves from the French colonial powers, the use of non-Arabic languages are seen to be a threat to the “national and pan-Arabic unity” (Kossmann 2013, p. 130).

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Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M There is also the threat of Arabization that stems from the social realm, for instance the way Arabic is promoted in schools over other languages. As children increasingly learn Arabic rather than Berber, Arabic then becomes the most prevalent language among schoolchildren (El

Hannouche 2008 cited in Kossmann 2013, p. 35), and because of this, language shift from Berber to Arabic occurs.

Certain scholars have suggested that there are places within the Maghreb region where

Berber is doing markedly well in comparison. One such example is Algeria, where, as Brenzinger

(2007) notes, Berber is considered a . However, I feel that he does not consider the whole picture, as although Berber is indeed recognized in an official capacity, languages like

French and Arabic are used far more, with the effect of relegating Berber to the status of a minority language as it is in many other parts of the Maghreb region. On the other hand, as Kossmann

(2013) reports, due to preservation efforts by the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture in Morocco, the Amazigh language is not only protected, but spread throughout the educational system and is also used in the media.

While there is evidence for both Berberization and Arabization in the Maghreb countries, it is clear that such processes manifest themselves in varying forms and with a wide variety of effects to the speakers, owing to differences in culture and . With this in mind, my research paper will attempt to distinguish where in the Maghreb the Berberization movement sees the most success, but also where the process of Arabization has affected Berber the most heavily.

In doing so my research will answer the question: Where in the Maghreb region does Berberization have the most influence?

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Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M Methods and Data

Owing to the fact that North African countries do not take language census data, the population of Berber speakers is difficult to ascertain. While there is existing census data, it dates back to the early colonial era and is therefore outdated. The data that I am using is taken from the

Ethnologue, but they also point out that their own data may not be entirely reliable nor accurate

(Lewis 2015). Nonetheless, as the only adequate source that I was able to find, data from the 2015 edition of the Ethnologue will be my starting point for census data. Furthermore, due to the lack of concrete data, the number of Berber languages in the Berber family is unclear, with some scholars estimating that there may be over 5000 different forms, if one were to take into account the local varieties (Irvine 1994, cited in Brenzinger p.124). As acquiring data for thousands of varieties is unfeasible, I refer to the Ethnologue’s estimate. They state that there are 26 main members of the Berber language family and of these 26, population and location data is provided for all but one, Standard Moroccan Tamazight. Due to similarity I have grouped it together with the more widely spoken Central Atlas Tamazight.

Name Population Name Population Kabyle 5500000 Siwi 20000 Tachelhit 3900000 Tagargrent 20000 Central Atlas Tamazight 2500000 Ghadames 12000 1470000 Taznatit 11000 Tachawit 1400000 Ghomara 10000 Tawallammat Tamajeq 640000 Temacine Tamazight 6000 Tamasheq 281000 Awjilah 3000 Tayart Tamajeq 250000 Zenaga 2100 Nafusi 234000 Judeo-Berber 2000 Tumzabt 150000 Tidikelt Tamazight 1000 Tahaggart Tamahaq 77000 Sawknah 0 Chenoua 76000 Sened 0 Senhaja 50000

Figure 1. Major Berber languages and the number of speakers of each (Ethnologue 2015).

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Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M Name Population Ghomara 10000 Temacine Tamazight 6000 Awjilah 3000 Zenaga 2100 Judeo-Berber 2000 Tidikelt Tamazight 1000 Sawknah 0 Sened 0

Figure 2. Berber languages that are the most at risk (Ethnologue 2015).

Name Population Tawallammat Tamajeq 640000

Tumzabt 150000 Chenoua 76000 Senhaja 50000 Tagargrent 20000 Ghomara 10000 Temacine Tamazight 6000 Awjilah 3000 Figure 3. Berber languages at risk of shifting to Arabic (Ethnologue 2015).

Country Algeria Morocco Name Population Name Population Chenoua 76000 Tachelhit 3890000 Kabyle 5000000 Central Atlas Tamazight 2340000 Tagargrent 20000 Standard Moroccan Tamazight Tamacine Tamazight 6000 Ghomara 10000 Taznatit 11000 Senhaja 50000 Tumzabt 150000 Tarifit 1270000 Tachawit 1400000 Tidikelt Tamazight 1000 Tahaggart Tamahaq 40000 Total 6704000 Total 7560000

Figure 4. Berber languages spoken in Algeria and Morocco (Ethnologue 2015).

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Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M Discussion of data

Figure 1 shows the 25 major members of the Berber language family, arranged in order of total population. The 8 Berber languages in Figure 2 are the ones that are in the most danger. The

Ethnologue considers the bottom 5 languages (Sened, Sawknah, Tidikelt Tamazight, Judeo-

Berber, and Zenaga) to be the most at risk. Sawknah and Sened1 are already extinct, and the other

3 languages are in very serious risk of extinction (Lewis 2015). Other scholars such as Batibo

(2005) also put Ghomara and Awjilah in the same group, and from population estimates we can infer that Tamacine Tamazight is at the very least severely endangered as well. Batibo also states that Ghomara, as of 2005, is considered nearly extinct, and this is supported by data from the

Ethnologue. Figure 3 represents the 8 languages that are considered to be at risk of shifting to

Arabic, major causes of this being bilingualism and the educational system, as was discussed previously (Maddy-Weitzman 2001; Kossmann 2013).

As mentioned before, lack of census data means that it is difficult to make general statements about the status of Berber. Nonetheless, whilst there is no concrete evidence that shows the decline of Berber over the years, the numbers and the state of each language presented in

Figures 1 through 3 all paint a negative picture of Berber. In his 2007 study Kossmann points out that “only the usage in the family ensures the survival of a language” (Kossmann 2007 p. 129-

130), but with 8 of the 25 major Berber languages beginning to shift to Arabic, the usage of Berber within the family seems less and less likely, and the survival of Berber becomes increasingly tenuous.

1 Paradisi (1963) reported that Sawknah was only spoken by a small handful of elderly . This is corroborated by Sarnelli (1924) research which suggested a similar scenario. Thus Sawknah can be said to have been in critical condition since even before the 1930s. Sened also faced similar conditions, and while a concrete date of death cannot be nailed down, Penchoen (1968) reports that at the time Sened was spoken only by the elderly. Both languages went extinct due to the lack of intergenerational transmission, clearly showing the importance of passing on the language to the younger generations.

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Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M Examining Existing Research

As data provides us with only a very general overview of the status of the Berber language on a whole, it is inadequate if we want to investigate and assess the status of the Berber languages within each country. Therefore, I will first look at the severity of Arabization within each of the

Maghreb countries. In his article Arabic Influence on Northern Berber, Kossmann identified that neither Mauritania nor Tunisia were at any major risk from Arabization. In both of these countries

Berber is not considered by the government to be of any major importance, and therefore it is neither recognized in any official sense, nor is it suppressed (Kossmann 2013). In contrast, in Libya

Berber is suppressed and even banned from use, as a result of the Gaddafi regime, which does not

Berber as a culture that is distinct from Arabic (Brenzinger 2007; Kossmann 2013).

In Morocco, scholars have identified that the process of Arabization in this region is a result of the fact that Berber is becoming increasingly a language of the rural regions, in comparison to

Arabic, which is in contrast becoming the language of the cities. Due to this, Arabic is seen as having a higher social status, which means that people that are Arabic-Berber bilingual typically choose to speak Arabic rather than Berber (Kossmann 2013). This process of language shift is occurring even in communities that are more isolated and rural, for instance in the Beni Iznassen, a group located in the mountainous regions of northeastern Morocco – because Arabic is being used in the cities, learning Berber would not benefit the children in any way (El Kirat 2001 cited in Ennaji 2005 p. 182). We can say that, in general, the process of Arabization in Morocco is most evident in the education system.

Algeria can be considered the country where Arabization is the harshest. After its independence from the European colonial powers, state policies were introduced with the goal of homogenizing languages. The end result of this was that all of the Maghreb countries would use

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Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M Arabic instead. It could be said that Arabization campaigns are the most widespread in Algeria compared to any other Maghreb country (Maddy-Weitzman 2011). Echoing the situation presented in Libya, certain Berber languages are suppressed – in the military for instance, the is banned from use. The homogenization policies also meant that certain Berber words and names were changed from their original spelling and pronunciation to more closely resemble the Arabic phonetic equivalent. For instance, place names such as “Ilmaten” and “Imcheddalen” were changed to “El-Maten” and “Mchedellah” (Maddy-Weitzman 2011, p. 70) and this, perhaps unintentionally, destroys Berber culture.

To return to the question posed at the beginning of this paper I think it is clear that

Arabization is the most widespread in Algeria. The situation in both Libya and Morocco are also quite negative, but on the other hand neither Tunisia nor Mauritania seem affected at all. However, wherever there are language that are suppressed, it seems almost inevitable that there are activism movements that try to resist. This is perhaps most evident in the movement of 1980 which took place in Algeria following decades of Arabization and harsh treatment of Berber culture. Sparked by the banning of a conference that was to be led by a Kabyle speaker, Berber activists took to the streets, protesting and rioting (Jacobs 2014). Despite its short lived existence, this event would eventually be violently and quickly suppressed, but created a lasting legacy for not only the by also for Berbers all across . Two decades later, Kabyle demonstrations would once again take place, this time spurred on by the government’s handling of an incident in which a young Kabyle student, Guermah Massinissa, was arrested by the Algerian police forces, his treatment during this resulting in his death soon after. Amidst a backdrop of continual marginalization of the Berber people and culture in Algeria, Massinissa’s death triggered riots and protests (Silverstein & Crawford 2015). During this period of riot and protest, Kabyle

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Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M activists demanded that Berber be recognized in an official sense. In the end, there was some visible progress, as Berber was made a national language, albeit not an on par with Arabic.

Berber activism is not present only in Algeria – this is perhaps best exemplified in the 2011

Arab Spring, sometimes also called the Berber-Arab Spring. During this period of civil unrest,

Berber activism was most apparent in Libya, where Berber rebels participated in the overthrowing of Gaddafi. Not only were they part of the protests, some Berber were even fighting alongside the revolutionary forces, taking up arms against the Gaddafi regime (Abdul-Ahad 2011). At the same time a referendum was passed in Morocco, following demands made during the protests held earlier that year, and as a result of this Berber was made an official language in Morocco (Ajbaili

2011).

Conclusion

It seems that where there the Arabization movement is the strongest, anti-Arabic sentiment is also equally as strong. In Tunisia and Mauritania, Berber is spoken by such small populations that it is largely ignored, and because the presence of Arabization is the weakest, Berber activism is also the least present (Raymond & Ali 2014). In Morocco, where Arabic is not as heavily promoted, protests are also more peaceful. To the east, in Libya, where the use of Berber was suppressed and Berber cultural identity was not acknowledged, Berber activism took on a more violent bent. Lastly, in Algeria, where Berber was also suppressed and faced harsh treatment at the hands of the pro-Arab government, protests were perhaps the most widespread and Berber activism was clearly the fiercest. Berber suppression, rather than resulting in the destruction of Berber

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Jeremy Ngo 36127158 Dr. Susan Blake WRDS 150 02M throughout North Africa, has instead resulted in a renewed sense of Berber solidarity and togetherness.

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