START MICROFILM COLLECTION OF MANUSCRIPTS ON CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

FORMERLY: MICROFILM COLLECTION OF MANUSCRIPTS ON AMERICAN INDIAN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND MICROFILM COLLECTIONS OF MANUSCRIPTS ON THE MIDDLE AMERICAN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Series: LIU

No: 282 i-

Photographed by: Department of Photoduplication - The Joseph Regenstein Library University of Chicago - Chicago, III. 60637

REDUCTION RATIO: 12 Report on "An Exploratory Study of Linguistic Usages The Mapping-of Linguistic Patterns on the Domain of Social Roles"

(carried out with the Tzeltal Indians of Aguacatenango, Chiapas)

by Duane Gerald Metzger and Terrence S. Kaufman with Mariano Juárez Aguilar

(1961)

MICROFILM COLLECTION OF MANUSCRIPTS ON CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

No. 282

Series LIII

University of Chicago Library Chicago, Illinois October 1, 1977 Index pp. Table of Contents 1 Abstract of Project „ 2 Tzeltal Phonemes o Jk Vocabulario Tenejapa de palabras no bien conocidas ° . . 38 Tzeltal Dictionary: Aguacatenango Dialect „ 69 Tzeltal Numerals (and Numeral Classifiers) 113 A Sketch of Tzeltal Syntax 130 Tzeltal Phonemes and Morphophonemes and Rand-IBM Symbols 162 Master Glossary Card Format l6k The Tzeltal Grammar Code 166 Stages in the Computer Analysis of the Tzeltal Textual Material 178 Codes for the Plant Classification 186 The Mapping of Single Perceptual Dimensions on Plant Parts 202 Informants Participating in Conversations 217 The Relation between the Social Characteristic Scales and the Texts 220 Notes on the Use of Wells and Washing Spots by Women in Aguacatenango 226 Map of Aguacatenango 229 Personnel for the Project 230 Tzeltal Derivation 231 Tzeltal Proper Names (Towns, Barrios,. Parajes, Festivals, Months) 2h6 Tzeltal Kinship Terms 250 Tenehapa Dictionary (by Content Category) 251 Preliminary List of Tzeltal Plants 28U Mammals 291 Birds 29I4- Color Terms . 297 X

TABLE OF CONTENTS Q 1 • Abstract Z« Basic Assumptions 3. Organization of the Research 4' The Coding Problem: Form 5i The Coding Problem: Meaning 6» Correlating Message Structure with Message Environment 7< Plans for the Continuation of the Research 8» Acknowledgments

APPENDICES:

1 • Tzeltai Phonemes 2. Tzeltai Dictionary 3. Taeltal Numeral Classifiers 4 o Tzeltai. Syntax 5' IBM Equivalent of Tzeltai Phonemes: For Gomputer Analysis 6o Master Glossary Card Format: For Computer Analysis 7. Grammar Code for Form Glossary: For Computer Analysis 1Gb 3* Simulated Computer Processing of Textual Materials 9« Codes for the Plant Classification 10 • Exemplification of the Plant Classification 11 • Tzeltai Speakers Who Participated in the Conversations SUV 12 » Social Characteristic Codes for Tzeltai Informants A$0 13 • Map of Aguacatenango Showing Wells and Washing Spots 14 < Persons Who Participated in the Research a3o 1, Abstract &> This is a report of work done on NSF" Grant G10931 entitled "An Exploratory Study of Linguistic Usages: The Mapping of Linguistic Patterns on the Domain of Social Roles." The work was carried out in Aguacatenango, a village of about 1200 Tzeltal Indians in the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico. The main bulk of data consists of 83 two-person interviews about illness carried on in Tzeltal by a trained Tzeltal informant • These interviews were tape-recorded and then transcribed. Additional data collected includes: 1. Information about social structural variables and other variables on each of the 83 informants; 2. Systematic infor- mation about plant characteristics from each of six informants; 3» Recordings of informants playing a 20-question game collected to reveal information about cognitive categories. The interview data Í3 being subjected to linguistic analysis by computer. The following results have been realized and are included in this report: 1. Coding procedures have been developed to code the material for analysis by an IBM 7090. 2» The phonemic system of Aguacatenango has been analyzed and stated» 3. A preliminary dictionary of Tzeltal ha3 been prepared as a basis for further analysis of the materials. 4. A preliminary formulation of the grammar and syntax has been made. 5. A first run has been made on 25, 000 running words of interview material using a machine translation program developed at the RAND Corporation under the direction of D« G« Hays* A second corpus of data is ready for processing» The first four items above are available for use by others» We plan further work on the application of computers to the analysis of anthropological and linguistic materials • During the preparation of the remainder of the texts for the computer,, we have begun a portion of the sociocultural analysis manually with interesting results. We have found a positive relationship betv/een the length of the conversation and 1) amount of similarity between the two participants in degree of bilinguality and in dress; 2) degree of acquaintance; 3) degree of liking of one participant for the other; 4) membership in different aub-committees; and 5) absolute age of one participant, the other being constant. We have elicited some informant-judgments of degree of bilingualness of informants and have found control of Spanish to be least among women of the oldest age grades and greatest among men and women in the fourth through eighth • age grades (of a total of nine). Bilinguality of the second of five degrees is modal for the sample and is evenly distributed by age and sex. Good control of Spanish is associated with acculturation in style of dress among men in the middle and younger age grad© s, but older bilinguals dress relatively conservatively, as do equally bilingual women at any age level» Supplementing the conversations asa source of information on the segmentation of the world by Tzeltal speakers is a framework (elicited from a native speaker of Tzeltal) for classifying several dozen locally known plants» The scheme uses plant parts, perceptual dimen- sions, attributive values of these dimensions and the environments in which the plant occurs as criteria for grouping items» It is interesting not only in the manner of grouping of the plants, but also in the nature of the criteria themselves»

2. Basic Assumptions We have attempted to ascertain the manner and degree to which messages or, more generally, speech events show patterning in specified structural segments which are associated with specifiable events outside the medium of vocal gesture. In particular, our hypothesis Ü-J was that a series of selected two-person conversations would display 1) the degree and kind of participation of the speakers in a common social structure; 2) the absolute and relative positions o£ the speakers in this social structure; and 3} the modes in which speakers of a Mayan language segment their 'life space' (at least as reflected in the language). The underlying assumption about the nature of mes sages which makes the investigation interesting is that speech events (or messages) fulfil a series of functions which (among other things) continually clarify and certify those aspects of the relationships between speakers which endure beyond the length of the interaction itself. We suppose, following Jakobson (Sebeck I960), that the message functions which are available for this process include (among others) the emotive, Conative, metalingual, poetic, phatic, and referential. We suppose that the structural analysis of messages in terms of levels of patterning in the speech act (i.e., phonemics, morphemics, and syntax), each level containing units whose functional properties and interrelationships are those of contrast, complementation, free variation, pattern congruence, and elegance (cf« McQuown 1954), provide appropriate stable and formally defined segments in which the communication of positions in the ¿ocial structure -- absolute and relative -- take place. We have chosen these structural segments, revealed by linguistic analysis, to sort out the message functions and thence the speakers' positions in the social structure» We suppose that the linguistic inventory of segments is suf- ficiently responsive to selection and combination that speakers in making such selections say something about themselves, the situations, and the persons with whom they are conversing. We suppose that there are structural segments of the speech event which are not included in the segments used at present (cf. Trager 1958), but we believe that this in no way vitiates the attempt to perform the analysis in terms of the segments for which research routines are now available» fb.

3. Organisation of the Research In our approach to the research, we undertook to specify a series of related goals which, when chained together, would produce the desired results. We divided our effort into the following tasks; 1) the eliciting of unstructured textual material, presupposing the recruiting of informants; 2) tape recording technology; 3) the training of a corps of Tzeltal-speákers to perform restricted parts of the analytic procedures, principally the phonemic transcription and translation into Spanish of textual material (either recorded materials or accounts v/hich they composed; 4) the linguistic analysis of the transcribed material; 5} the development of grammar and 'function' codes which would be suitable for computer analysis of the material; 6) the preparation of segmented textual material for punch card operation; 7) the revision of the grammar and function codes as the material was machine-processed and returned to us for post editing. (See flow chart which appears on following page)

4. The Coding Problem: Form Since we proposed to develop an analytic frame which would sort classes of people in terms of message structure (keeping in mind our limited definition of 'structure'), we began a 'class1 grammar of the dialect of Tzeltal spoken in Aguacatenango. Three resources were brought to bear on the construction of this paradigmatic grammar: 1) a linguist trained in the routines for recognizing and eliciting the paradigmatic structure of any language; 2) an informant trained in responding to paradigmatic probing and in producing written phonemic transcriptions of messages recorded on magnetic tape; and 3) a set ' of Tzeltal conversations recorded on magnetic tape and transcribed by the informant. Further taped conversations were secured (in relatively unstructured situations) as the linguist proceeded with the analysis, STAGE 1 . STAGE 2 Field Community, Aguacatenango, Chiapas Recruit informants Collect Texts - Conversations Gather New Data on Tape Collect Message Environment Data

Field Station, San Cristobal Las Casas,, Chiapas Train Taeltal-speaking Transcribers Transcribe and Translate Texts Post-edit Form Dictionary Analyze Texts: Grammar and Function, R.squest Analytic Reports Prepare Text for Computer Processing

The RAND Corporation» Automatic Language Data Processing Group, Santa Monica, California Construct Form Dictionary on Cards-Tape Analyse Text in Terms of Request poat-editing of Form Dictionary analyzed texts Gene«.te Analytic Reports

Flow Chart of Activities During Field Season, March 1 - September 1, I960 R,

increasing the depth and the extent of the knowledge of the grammatical properties of the language. Idiolects were compared within the com- munity, and dialects of three other communities (Tenejapa, Oxchuc, and Chamula) were compared with that of Aguacatenango. One side product of the initial linguistic analysis was a library of texts which consists of about 500, 000 running words. The establishment of the formal entities, i. e. , the grammar, has been completed on the phonemic and morphological levels of the dialect, and the grammar is now being written. (See appendices 1-4) The syntactic analysis is underway.

The application of computer analysis to the definition of formal entities. At the initiation of the investigation, we recognized that the order of magnitude of the units of message structure would be such as to recommend the use of mechanical data analysis where appropriate. Liaison wa8 established with the RAND Corporation (Automatic Language Data Processing Group). Dr. David G. Hays, the director of this pro- ject, proposed that our sub-goal of codification of messages could be advanced by imbedding the structural analysis in a machine program ostensibly designed to translate Tzeltal into Spanish or English. The RAND group had developed computer programs which could economically sort, analyze, and retrieve the linguistic material we planned to gather. Kaufman and Metsger spent ten days at RAND learning about the methods by which text could be prepared! for machine processing. The initial plan was to do the analysis in a series of stages: 1) a set of texts would be prepared for computer, analysis; 2} the run ning text would be punched onto IBM cards} 3} a deck would be generated with each separate form on a cardj 4) a form dictionary would be printed; 5} the form dictionary would be sent back to the field and a grammatical analysis done for each of the forms¿ 6} the form dictionary with the known grammatical information would be returned to RAND for machine storage. It was thought that syntactical analysis could begin at the same • & - 7 time. Syntactic, morphemic, and phonemic information for each form would be stored in such a manner that new texts could be compared with it and stored forms identified. At the same time, a 'function' code would be developed to gloss the forms according to the various types of meaning each form carried. This information would also be stored for use in analysing new texts. The results of these procedures, which were designed to lead to a computer-programmed analysis of new text material, include: 1. a phonemic code for the computer (see appendix 5) 2. a grammar code for the computer, revised twice (see appendix 7) f 3. a glossary (or function dictionary), partial, for 20, 000 ,•',,..-- af A^f^f word3 of text (see appendix 2 and 6) 4. an analysis* partial, of 20, 000 words of text (a simulation of which appears in appendix 8)

Problems in developing procedures. We went into the research with no understanding of the kinds of analysis machines could perform. As a result, much of the linguistic analysis which might have been done by the computer was done by hand. Similarly,, the machine might have saved data-handling in the develop- ment of the function glossary, although here we suffered also from a lack of a clear-cut set of code categories for types of meaning (the principal one we recognized being the 'referential' function of forms). A further problem has been that the use of computers requires the separation of storing, sorting, and ordering from analysis. Such separation involves considerable re-training of the investigators, inasmuch as the several processes must be scheduled. Briefly, time lag in the several phases of processing gives the initial feeling that the material could better be hand processed. We see this as a practical limitation to the use of computers while making an analysis. We are at present developing a research plan which will eliminate this problem, allowing maximal use of computer characteristics at every stage of anthropological research. The period from March 1 to September 1, then, allowed us to complete only part of one cycle in the machine analysis of the material. Between September 1 and December 31 „ the programs for our material have been changed due to the fact that the RAND group is switching from IBM cards to magnetic tape as the basic storage medium, and'they are transferring our data to the tape in order to continue working with it.

5. The Coding Problem: Meaning Two overlapping research strategies were adopted to assign values to forms in terms of the six categories of function (me talingual, emotive, phatic, conative, poetic, and referential). We limited our research in this area to exploration in the referential function of forms. We further limited our study of referential function to a) an attempt to reveal taxonomic ordering of domains of referential meaning; and b) an attempt to elucidate clusters of attributes in terms of which the domains of referential meaning were defined. These two sub-goals would combine, we thought, to give us some of the preliminary dimensions in terms of which values could be assigned to the referential function of forms. Here an underlying assumption is that people's perceptions of the real world are partitioned into sets which have (at least) the (idealized) characteristics of contrast and relevance, contrast and non-relevance, overlap, inclusion, com- plementation and identity. The first set of procedures we developed involved establishing an eliciting frame such that recognition paths were established for the identification of referential meaning on the part of the informants. The - 9 setup was as follows. One informant was instructed to respond to a second informant's questions in terms of yes or no answers (in Tzeltal), the questions being asked to discover a particular coded form (restricted to a.djectivals and nomináis) previously given by the investigator to the informant. The popular version of this method is known as "twenty questions" (cf. Bendig, 1953). The sessions were tape recorded and are in the process of being transcribed. The domain-guessing routine, viewed schematically, is as follows: 1. Does (x) have characteristic (y) and/or is (x) characteristic (y), 2. If no, does (x) have characteristic (z) and/or is (x) characteristic (a). 3. If yes, (x) is (y), identification complete. 4. If no, (x) is not (y) but has characteristic (y), formulate question such that characteristic (y) is questioned, e.g., "Is it (a) type o£ (y)?" 5. Ii; it is not (a) type of (y), is it (b) type of (y). 6. Etc. This process is analogous to the Bruner et ai. description of concept attainment (1956). Bruner describes the process of concept attainment as one in which the subject makes a decision about the proba- bility of occurrence of certain attributes and attribute values in the con- cept, forms a decision to test this hypothesis, and on the basis of the test makes a successful discovery of the concept or a not successful discover; then he tests further hypotheses until the correct identification is made, or until he abandons the possibility of making a correct discovery. As Bruner points out, "each decision-and-test may be regarded as providing potential information by limiting the number of attributes and attribute values that can be considered as predictive .;. " (1956:233) U 10 -

Our work, as compared with that of the experimental psycholo- gists, is relatively uncontrolled; but at the present stage we have different ends in mind. We aim to discover chains of items and their linked sets of attributes which stand in the relation of class-inclusion rather than to discover the probabilities that particular individuals solve particular problems with one of a variety of sub-optional strategies. If the form to be identified is A, e. g. , collie, a large number of incorrect identifi- cations are eliminated by asking the question, "Is the form (collie} a dog or a non-dog (a 5 or a non-B)? " The relation of B to A ia one of class inclusion. (All collies are dogs. Some dogs are collies.) It is this type of relation which interested us in the twenty question routine. Our second effort at gaining some insight into the taxonomic structure of referential meaning proceeded along the following lines. We used an informant to elicit an inventory of plant parts in Tzeltal (i.e., roots, major and minor; bark, limbs, leaves, fruit, etc.) We elicited from the informant some of the perceptual dimensions in terms of which he judged these plant parts (these including shape, size, color, taste, "hot" or "cold, " locale, and the like). We then built a table in which the plant parts were in the row headings and the perceptual dimen- sions in the column headings. We then entered a plant name into the table and asked the informant to report a) the plant parts this particular plant had; b) the perceptual dimensions the relevant plant parts showed; and c) the attribute values of the relevant dimensions. A schematic display of the method follows, and a part of the resulting analysis appears in Tables 1 and 2. 11 - B

The Mapping of Plant Parts, Perceptual Dimensions, and Their Attribute "Values on Plants (Schematic)

•root" etc. 'color" "red1 Characteristics Perceptual Dimension Attribute* Values

Procedure. Does plant (Pj) have characteristic (1)? If no, reject characteristic (1) and repeat question for charac- teristic (2). If yes, does characteristic (1) have perceptual dimension (a). If no, reject perceptual dimension (a) and repeat question for perceptual dimension (b). If yes, does perceptual dimension (a) have attribute value (i). If perceptual dimension (a) does not have attribute value (i), reject attribute value (i) and ask if perceptual dimension (a) has attribute value (j). Exhaust all characteristics, perceptual dimensions and their attributes. Proceed to next plant.

*We suppose that attributes are "primitive, " in relation to the concepts they define. TABlEl- THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT PARTS

Plant Pa.r'ts

1•o 1 1 "i 2 It tí s a Q é Q o Ou Plants d 1 Ü O «2 ¿ Q o o 0 c o s- c 0 o o 4» E G •v o o «i -i '3 o t e •te? i. i 'tí 1 t I OS > i2 z "1 3 3 ^r£>usfo o o +• +• -3- 4 4- 4 + •ir •i- + o o o o + 4- +• + o o o /tf

tña.íz. o + •ir +• o 4 +• 4- 4 *r •4- + o O o o o o o Ó 4 4 4- /3 O o Sha.uco o + o +• + o 4 t + + •ir •*• + + + * 4- +• o 4 4" n Timbre o •f- +• *- o o o o t •s- o O o + t •f •f 4 •f 4- o o O IZ Tf».«* 0 0 o o Mftnxano 0 4- t * + 4 + t + •f •»• +• + + 1- 4 4- + o n tapate ne$r¿> 0 0 o +* 0 4- +• 4- J. t t + + + •í- +• 4- 4 t 4 0 o o it> "Pufa.ario 0 0 0 f- o + t- t t t f +• -I- ^ f + t t t t• o o o /6 Ata rani

Interpretation: The fcaxonomic value of Table 1 (The Distribution of Plant Parts)

This table lists the presence and absence of plant parts across the plants listed in the sample. (See.appendix 9 for clarification of coding.) In terms of the productiveness of the part-grid, one may observe that there are plant parts which do not discriminate any of the plants in the sample; that is» parts 2, 8, 12, and 20 (roots, wood, bark, and leaves) are reported to be present for all of the plants. In turn, no plant is reported to have parts 5, 6, or 26 (tuber, creeper, or seed pod). The second distributional characteristic suggests that the plant part grid is in fact differentiating a larger set of ail possible plants -- which we know to be the case. Simple inspection of the table suggests the following partial classification of the plants in this sample. 1. Plants 13, 11, 10, and 8 form a class with no differences reported for presence of plant parts, (anona, matazano, mango, and chico zapote) 2. Plants 25, 22, and 23 form a class Which uniquely shares plant part 22. (manzanillo, orange, and lemon trees uniquely share spines) 3. Plants 21, 20, 14, 15, 2, 5, and 6 for a class for which plant part 29 is uniquely absent (roble, encino, madron, camfor, fresno, taray, and ¡¿mbre share the absence of seeds) 4. Plants 4 and 16 are set off from all other plants by uniquely possessing features 10 and 14. 5. Plant 16 is set off from plant 4 and all other plants by uniquely lacking features 11, 15, 16, 17, and 19» and uniquely possessing feature 18. 6. Plants 5 and 6 are set off from all other plants by uniquely lacking feature 21. - 14

7. Plant 5 is set off from plant 6 and all other plants by uniquely lacking features 23 and 24. Other groupings can equally well be derived from the table. The ordering of plants in the table is such as to maximize similarity between the adjacent plants.

Discussion: The application of further procedures is required before this operation becomes maximally effective in determining how the informants in fact taxonomize their flora. A grid such as this one must be the subject of intensive interviewing with informants in order to determine the relative order of the different features in serving as criterial attributes. The general question may be phrased as follows: In what cultural contexts do which plant parts serve to discriminate plants for which segments in the population ? The formal side of this analysis will be improved considerably when we have some mechanical way to compute similarity (perhaps on the model of Rogers and Tanimoto's (I960) work on plants). - 15 - Table 2. The Distribution of Perceptual Dimensions and Attributes Across Fruit. NAME COLOR SHAPE SIZE SMELL TASTE HOT or COLD cedro green spherical small bad none* none fresno green spherical small bad none none amate green spherical small bad none none shauco young- green spherical small bad none none mature -black timbre none pod-shaped long none none none zapote negro green spherical big aromatic sweet hot chicozapote coffee spherical small aromatic none hot arbusto young- red spherical small none sweet none mature s-black mango green, yellow cone shaped big aromatic none hot matazano green spherical big aromatic sweet hot zapote white cone-shaped big none none none anona green spherical big bad none none madron yellow spherical; small slightly sweet none grape-like bad camfor green round and flat small strong none hot maíz white cylindrical big none none none cerezo young-green spherical small bad sweet hot mature -blackish-red tzitze black cone-shaped small bad none none manzana green, yellow Bpherical small aromatic sweet hot encino green spherical, small none none none gourdlike roble green spherical, small none none none gourdlike lima green» yellow spherical big aromatic none none naranja green. yellow spherical big aromatic none hot durazno yellow , red spherical email none none cold manzanillo yellow , red spherical small aromatic sweet hot

*none= cells are empty. 16

Interpretation of Table 2 (The Distribution of Color» Shape,, Size, Smell, Taste» and Categorical 'Hot' or 'Cold'-ness Across Fruit)

Of the 25 plants in the sample,, the category fruit is reported for 24 of them. 1. In the category of color» green predominates» followed by yellow,, red» black» and white. 2. In the category of shape» most of the fruits are reported to be spherical» although pod-shaped» cone-shaped, and cylindrical charac- teristics are also mentioned. The gourdlike quality of 'fruit' of the encino and roble are mentioned. 3. Under size» the major contrast is between big and small, although the pod-shaped fruit of the timbre is reported to be long. 4. Use of the smell set is limited to bad, strong, and aromatic. 5. Fruit either tastes sweet or no taste is reported. More generally, the taste categories include the following contrasts: sour, sweet (including salty), bitter, and hot (like chile). 6. Most of the fruits are reported to be 'hot. ' Only the peach is reported to fall under the category 'cold. ' .7.. All 'sweet' tasting fruit is spherical in shape. 8. All but one of the aweet tasting fruits (zapote negro) are yellow- red-black in color.

Further illustration and discussion of the plant classification may be found in appendix 10. In some ways, the array of characteristics, dimensions, and attributes has the form of a truth table for sentential connectives. Essentially, what is discovered is the set of characteristics (now used in a general sense) under which an unidentified object or process or state will be reported to be unequivocally present. 17

A computer program has been designed to search for the charac- teristics, dimensions, and attributes which are criterial in any system such as this (Rogers and Tanimoto I960). In brief,, the computer program computes the distance on a semimetric apace of the classified objects {on the basis of characteristics, dimensions, and attributes) each from the other; it defines the typical case which, in information theory terms, is the case which is the most redundant with all other cases; and it defines "clumps of cases" which represent relatively homogeneous cases as contrasted with all cases which are to be taxonomised. We propose to apply this computer program to this problem in our material the next time around. The above efforts represent special attempts to gloss salient dimensions of the meanings of forms. We have, of course, on all of our material, instructed our informants to gloss the forms in Spanish, requiring as literal a translation as they can conveniently produce.

6. Correlating Message Structure with Message Environment. The principal effort in correlating message structure and environ- ment began in August of the project year. The plan involved making a survey of natural conversations in Aguacatenango, these conversations being carried on between our principal informant, Mariano Juarez, and a large number of other individuals ranging in sex, age, relationship to Mariano, degree of bilinguality, barrio residence, and so on. We chose this kind of design rather than the design anticipated in the proposal due to the fact that we could not create situations in which informants could be encouraged to talk among themselves. Our inventiveness failed us at this point. In order to render somewhat comparable the conversational material, we chose as a stimulus the subject of 'recent illness in the 18 - m. family. • Our informants Mariano Juarez,, was instructed to converse with each of the alters on this subject, starting the interview with the question,. "Have you had any recent illness in the family? " The conver- sation was taped. The survey procedure was to interview any person in each house in any block, taking as interviewee the person who responded to our knock. We then chose any other block and repeated the operation. In all, 83 interviews were secured on tape. These 83 conversations are at present being transcribed and translated and prepared for the computer analysis. We report some preliminary results on the transcribed sample of these conversations on the basis of some simple word counts, the supposition being that these give some first approximations to the more detailed structural analysis which will follow in the present year's work. We asked our principal informant to rate each of the 83 informants on a series of scales measuring certain social characteristics. These characteristics were all viable Tseltal categories. The scales are more or less relational to the informant, Mariano. The most highly relational is his judgment of acquaintanceship with the alter involved, next, his judgment of their character, then dress, Spanish, age, barrio, and sex, in that order. The relationality is evident in the fact that of the 40 persons with whom he judges himself to be best acquainted, 21 of them speak the best Spanish, whereas only eight of the 43 people with whom he judges himself to be less acquainted speak equally good Spanish in his view. This finding has dual possibilities: 1) that he judges the people with whom he is acquainted to speak better Spanish than those with whom he is not acquainted on the basis of psychologic (namely, that to speak Spanish -- that is, to be bilingual -- is a good character trait, and he requires of his acquaintances good character; hence, a certain greater degree of bilingualness is required of his acquaintances), or 2) that he in fact selects for acquaintances on the basis of their control 19 of Spanish -- and they for him. We suspect that the second hypothesis is the more likely» since we specifically asked him to make judgments about all the individuals on the basis of their character » and a considerable number of his acquaintances have character of less than the best sort {26 out of the 40 persons whom he judges his best acquaintances). So we conclude that one of the bases for differential interaction; as perceived by Mariano* is ability of the individuals with whom he interacts to speak Spanish. A second type of evidence that supports this hypothesis is the fact that of the people with whom he interacts in the barrio in which he does not live» all those whom he counts as acquaintances Bpeak better Spanish. (We cannot be sure whether ability to speak Spanish is a criterial or an entailed attributes however.) We have examined texts of people who are judged to be good Spanish speakers by Mariano and other texts of people who were judged to be poor Spanish speakers. The intrusion in the Tzeltal texts of Spanish phonological and lexical items does not appear to vary by the degree of bilingualness as judged by Mariano. This reflects; among other things» a common stratum of Spanish loans in Tseital which all speakers have available to them. The crucial Spanish forms» for the purposes of detecting contamination of bilingualism are those for which Tzeltal alternates exist on phonological» grammatical» and lexical levels. We have not yet analyzed our texts from this point of view. The distribution of control of Spanish across the population in the survey has the following characteristics. There is shown on the following page a table sorting control of Spanish against age and sex. - 20 - Male Female Age 123456789 123456789 Spanish • 1 1 -41 3.1 - -2- 2 116-3132 1--352554 3 ' - 1 - 2 5 - - 1 -11-2342- 4 1 - - - 3 1 - - 1 - 5 1

The poore3t Spanish speakers seem to be relatively older and female (1 being the poorest degree of Spanish spoken). The nesct degree is modal for the sample and seems evenly distributed over the several age groups and across both sexes. The third degree of control of Spanish is modal for the age group (in both sesees) slightly older than our principal infor- mant!, as is the fourth degree of control. Mariano, our informante judges himself to speak better Spanish than any of the people in the sample» which again reflects the highly relational characteristic of these, his judgments. Further characteristics of the distribution of Spanish against age and sex that are interesting support the interpretation that Spanish is not 'school learned1 in Aguacatenango, although for the past thirty years most children,, but more boys than girlSg have attended school intermittently for a period of three to four years. A more important source of Spanish learning is the time individuals live and work in settings in which Spanish is the primary means of communication. For the women in the community» this is the period after puberty but before marriage when they may optionally take jobs as servants in

the neighboring ladino communities such ae San Cristobal and TuxfclaD or alternatively work as prostitutes in these centers. In turn, the men seek wage labor in the coffee and sugar cane areas in Chiapas where considerable pressure is put on them to learn some modicum of - 21 s?su

Spanish. Recently the federal government through the National Indian Institute, lias been interested in increaaing the bilinguality of Indian communities in the Chiapas highlands» Their immediate strategy has been 4o select young bilinguals and give them further training in Spanish,, then leadership positions in their own communities. Our principal informant had this background experience, as did the other male (informant number 78) who was judged by Mariano to have greatest control of Spanish, next to himself. The four women informants judged to have greatest control of Spanish (informants numbered 25, 32, 35, and 82) all have spent several years working as servants for ladinos in San Cristobal and Mexico. As can be seen in the master table of informants and their characteristics, our informant associates the most acculturated dress style with the best control of Spanish (informants 49, 37, 24, 25, and 78). In turn, those persons who dress progressively (from the point of view of an acculturation axis) are in the age range of younger than Mariano to slightly older than he. Persons considerably older than Mariano who control Spanish reasonably well tend to dress conserva- tively -- that is, in the traditional dres3 of the community which is distinctive in some features (sash color for the men and rebozo color for the women) from the other Indian and Ladino populations in the area. For the same degree of control of Spanish, women tend to dress more conservatively than men, and both men and women in the barrio in which Mariano does not reside tend to dress more conservatively than those in the barrio in which he does reside. While these correlations are more or less strongly represented in the material we have, they represent good hunches to check with the informants as we continue our field work in the summer of 1961. In general we may observe that the relevance of the distributions and their levels of significance are primarily useful as leads for continuing the cultural analysis. 22 -

One primary limitation on the depth of a cultural analysis is in the kinds of probing ques&ions the anthropologist can ask» Restrictions on the asking of questions have several sources, one of the more impor- tant of which is inability to secure relevant information from the informant because of the initial status position of the investigator. The solution of this problem will ultimately include an array of techniques such as we have begun to develop: the making of sight-sound records of behavior in natural settings in the culture; the training of informants to describe and interpret the flow of significant events in such records; the use of special data analysis procedures such as the use of computers; and the use of special eliciting procedures such as we are developing for the mapping of cognitive domains. We have made manual word counts of thirty-five of the transcribed texts we have in hand» It appears that such a gross structural feature as text length demarcates some of the different categories or classes of individuals in ways that allow us to make reasonable interpretations of the distributional differences. Text length varies considerably across the set of the thirty- four informants, as can be seen from the master table in the column labeled Length, from 300 to 6800 words. We know that text length is subject to manipulation on the part of either of the subjects in a two- person interaction. For example, our informant in conversing with his wife» wa3 dissatisfied with the first conversation which Metzger recorded on the tape recorder. The first conversation was 1800 words long, but Mariano did 81% of the talking. The second conversation waa 700 words long, and Mariano did only 26% of the talking. The length difference in the two texts represents nearly 25% of the variation in the set of counted texts. In turn, Mariano's interaction rate changes from highest to below the mean (81 to 26%). Such individual variation indeed demands a finer set of measurements on the set of individuals - 23 than we have at present. We may note in passing that if our informant was unsatisfied by other informants' responses to his attempt to initiate conversation with them (and we have every reason to believe that'he was; for example, a few young married women from the barrio in which he does not reside would not even begin conversing with him), he was unable to control the interchange as he did with his wife, namely by telling her that she must converse with him in a more 'adequate' fashion. In this sense, his wife was unique in our sample. With text length, as a measure of difference in the relationships between the several informants and Mariano, we chose the strategy of comparing length with the set of social characteristics which Mariano assigned to the individuals with whom he talked. The master table has been so arranged as to display the ordered properties of a subset of the scales in relationship to each other. The ordered subset includes the social characteristics dress, Spanish, friendship, character, and age in that order. These scales stand in the following relationships tc each other. For the set of all informants and the above listed social categories, we may observe that in general, people who dress in the most acculturated manner speak the best Spanish, are the best acquaintances of Mariano, have better than average character, and are not in the youngest age group. (In other words, if a person in the sample dresses in an acculturated fashion, this may be considered as criterial or the necessary condition for the other characteristics mentioned -- Spanish, friendship, character, age.) We can make the further restriction that age in this class is near (slightly older or younger than) Mariano's own age, a point mentioned earlier. The text length for this class is slightly over median length. We may represent this class symbolically as Dl, which is included in S3-5 which is included in Fl which is included in Cl-2 which is included in Al-8. This set of intransitivities is true for the set of all informants, as may be seen by 24 examining the master table. There are exceptions to this general statement. These are shown in squares. We have said that the first class in the table which may be defined by the criterial attribute Dl has texts which, in length, fall slightly above median length. The second clas3 which may be defined as (S3-5 and not Dl), criterial for Fl, Cl-2, and Al-8, has a mean length of texts of 3300 words which is also the median. This class has all but one of the longest texts in it. The third class, which may be defined ao (Fl but not S3-5), criterial for Cl-2 and Al-8, has a mean of 1200 words and a median of 1000. This falls just slightly below the median length for all the counted texts. The fourth class, which may be defined as (C3-5 but not Fl) and which is criterial for Al-8, has the mean text length of 1600 words and a median text length of 600 words. The fifth class,which may be defined as (Al-8 but not C3-5) has a mean text length of 900 words and a median length of 800 words. The sixth class, which may be defined as (not Al -8-A9), has a mean text length of 400 words and a median text length of 500. To conclude,, then, we may say that with regard to the classes we have defined here, only class (S3-5 and not Dl) departs significantly from the mean for greater text length, and class (A9) departs signifi- cantly from the mean for shorter text length. The interpretation we may give these distributional statements follows: People who speak Spanish well but who do not dress progressively are likely to talk the longest. These people are all judged to be first degree acquaintances of Mariano, they have a variety of characters -- ranging from good to bad -- and none of them are in the youngest age group. For the (A9) group, we may say that individuals who consistently give short texts are younger than Mariano. They are conservative dressers, they speak Spanish relatively poorly, they are not counted among his acquaintances, and they (theoretically) have bad character. - 25 - -3

By considering the further features of the distributions in the classes mentioned, we may make some further inferences which are not directly supported by the relationships of the scales as a whole but which are supported by the further limitation of characteristics within the classes. For example, in the class of long texts (S3-5, -Dl), all of the longest texts with but one exception are from individuals in barrio 1 -- that is the barrio in which Mariano does not reside. Thus we might conclude that of the individuals who are S3-5, -Dl, those from the opposite barrio tend to talk longer with him than those from his own barrio. This we may note is also true for the class Cl-2 and -Fl (Bl: 68, 11, 13. B2: 6, 6, 5, 4). In general, then, Mariano tended to talk longer with individuals from the other barrio than he did with individuals in his own. The overall distributions become rather interesting at this point. The question of barrio difference becomes an important point of contrast if we remember that of all the persons Mariano judges he is best acquainted with, the preponderance of them are from his own barrio (33 out of 40); and of the people with the worst character, all are assigned to hi3 own barrio (among his best acquaintances). There is the suggestion» then, that the barrio division constrains his inter- action in such a manner that he relates to individuals in his own barrio who are less satisfactory alters, rather than crossing the barrio division to relate to individuals in the other barrio who are charactero- logically sound. Examination of the following table lends some credence to the statement; BARRIO 1 BARRIO 2 (Mariano's barrio) Friend 1 2 3 1 2 3 Character 1 3 6 3 10 4 3 2 3 1 8 15 1 3 G 1 11 8 5 26

To put the matter another way, Mariano counts as acquaintances in the other barrio people to whom he has an option of relating; hence they tend to be, from his point of view, better people. In his own barrio,, he has this option with fewer individuals. This suggests the further interpretation that acquaintanceship across, as contrasted with within, barrio division has different meaning to Mariano- Being less structurally constrained, it allows more spon- taneity of expression, it more closely approximates the idealization of friendship as we in American society think of it. It has more posi- tive affective connotation than acquaintanceship in one's own barrio. This we suggest is reflected in the text length differential across the barrio division. The more detailed analysis of the material must await further transcription and translation.

7. Plans for the Continuation of the Research. The research that is reported here has been barely begun. It remains the central interest of Metzger, who will see the set of data which has already been collected through the full cycle of analysis. Kaufman has asked for a grant to continue the domain analysis. Briefly, we propose to: 1. Develop fully the computer analysis for the Aguacatenango dialect of Tzeltal in collaboration with the RAND Corporation's ALDP group, under the direction of David Hays. 2. Develop fully the domain analysis of the content of the several hundred thousand running words of Taeltai text. These texts are primarily restricted to matters pertaining to perception of illness in the community of Aguacatenango and the manner in which it can be cured. We suppose that the texts plu3 the 27

eliciting procedures we are developing will permit us to impose substantial structuring on this domain. Thi3 work will be done in collaboration with A. K. Romney at Stanford» 3. Continue the development of the social category codes in terms of the informants' own perceptions of the social structure in Aguacatenango. 4. Match detailed social characteristics of the informants against structurally defined linguistic items and show the manner and extent to which they are correlated.

8. Acknowledgments. While the NSF Grant G10931 provided general support for the project, additional funds came from various sources. The most impor- tant additional assistance came from The RAND Corporation AL.DP group under the direction of David Hays, which has undertaken the total cost of the machine processing up to this point. That they have provided the servies of their facilities (to say nothing of the intellectual stimula^- tion) changed the course of the project in a manner so as to increase our enjoyment in working it through. There seems little question that such computing facilities will become an increasingly important part of the anthropological enterprise; and we are dedicating some part of the next five years to working this out. E. Z. Vogt of Harvard University has advised on the project through to its present terminus. That Metzger had the opportunity to assist him in the field in the summer of I960 on related matters helped clarify both the means and the ends which we eventually hope to realize. The Society of Fellows at Harvard provided Metzger with a Fellowship which allowed him to spend full time on the project to July 1st of 1960. 28 <®

The University of Chicago's project under the direction of N. A. McQuown has picked up some of the 3lack when we ran out of money at the end of the year, paying our transcribing informants to perform some tasks that were mutually interesting to them and to us = The Stanford NIH project under the direction of A. K. Romney has further aided us in processing the data, employing Kaufman to finish the linguistic analysis, which incidentally contributes to the Stanford project's own ends. Table 3. I. The Interrelationships of the Social Characteristic Scales. (83 informants) II. The Relations of the Scales to Text Length. (34 informants) "~"2rA

~ 2

a u 3 o <& u u 1-4 0 *-* a> 0 +3 +» O 0 u a (4 s U a U s u

Sp A TL In SOCIAL TYPE 75 27 FRIEND 1 , 40 not SPANISH 3 60 13 66

36 8 68 83 19 15 57

11

6 11 53 31 CHARACTER 1 4 not FRIEND 1 8 13 56 67 71 70 73 26 14

20 29

47 21 58 10 12 8 13 64 CHARACTER 3 3 12 76 AGE 1 - 8 17 22

13 16 44 65 'fc* Table 3. pags 3 c

Sp T L Ih SOCIAL TYPE

£ 1 4 2 3 1 9 3 51 f 2 4 2 3 1 9 5 • 41 f a 2 2 3 1 9 5 48 AGE 9 m 1 3 2 3 3 9 - 3 m 1 2 2 3 3 9 - 5 £ 1 4 2 3 3 9 - 18 (33) BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bateson, Gregory; Ray L. Birdwhistell; Henry W. Brosin; Charles F. Hockett; Norman A. McQuown. Mss. The natural history of an interview. Bendig, A. W. 1953. Twenty question a: an information analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Vol. 46, No. 5, pp. 345 - 348. Bruner, Jerome S., Jacqueline Goodnow, and George Austin. 1956. A study of thinking. Jakobson, Roman. I960. Concluding statement: linguistics and poetics. In Style in Language, Ed. Thomas A. Sebeok. pp. 350 - 377. McQuown, Norman A. 1954. Analysis of the Cultural Content of Language Materials, pp. 20 - 31. In Language in Culture, Ed. Harry Hoijer. Pittenger, Robert E., Charles F. Hockett, and John J. Danehy. I960, The first five minutes: a sample of microscopic interview analysis. Rogers, D?.vid J. and Taffee T. Tanimoto. I960. A computer program for classifying plants. Science , Vol. 132, pp. 1115 - 1118. Trager, George L. 1958. Paralanguage: a first approximation. Studies in Linguistics , 13. 1 - 12. APPENDIX 1. Tzeltal Phonemes. (g) 0. This is a sketch of the allophonics of the Aguacatenango dialect of Tzeltal» baBed on the speech of a single informants Juan Perez. The discussion is limited to segmental phonemes and utterance initial and utterance final juncture. Distributions of phonemes» other than those implied in the descriptions of the allophones of particular phonemes» are not stated.

1. Juncture /#/ is set up to make certain allophones of the segmental phonemes predictable. Its general phonetic features are silence» both at the beginning and at the end of an utisranee, and voicelessness at the end of an utterance. .

2. Segmental phonemes are consonants (C) and vowels (V).

2.1 Tzeltal has the following twenty-four consonant phonemes: voiceless stops and affricates /p t i c k/, and voiceless globalized stops and affricates /p" t' ¿' c* k'/ in bilabial, dentalt alveolar sibilante alveolar shibilant» and post-palatal positions respectively; voiced stop/ spirant obstruents /b d g/ in bilabial, dental» and post- palatal positions respectively; glottal 'stop' /'/» voiceless labial spirant /f/; voiceless sibilant spirant /s/; voiceless shibilant spirant /s/; voiceless "glottal spirant' /h/; nasal continuants /m n/ in bilabial and non-bilabial positions respectively; alveolar lateral continuant III ', alveolar flap / r/; semivowels /w y/.

2.2 Tzeltal has the following five vowel phonemes: high front /i/t mid front /e/„ low central /a/, mid back /o/, high back /u/.

3. Detailed description of allophones.

3.1 Consonants /p/ voiceless bilabial stop (p) after /s s h/ (ph) elsewhere /t/ voiceless dental stop (t) after /s s h/ (t } elsewhere HI voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate (tsh) before /§/ (is) elsewhere /c/ voiceless alveolar sbibilant affricate (tshJ before /#/ (ts) elsewhere /k/ voiceless póst-palatal stop (k) after /sen/ (k*1) elsewhere /p1/ voiceless glottaliaed bilabial stop (p,h) before /#/ (p') elsewhere /t1/ voiceless glottaliaed dental stop itth) before /#/ it'll elsewhere /¿'/ voiceless glottaliaed alveolar sibilant affricate it's*) before /#/ . {t's') elsewhere gle sed alveolar ehibilant affricate {t'si%ih,tt) before/#/ (t's1) elsewhere /k1/ voiceless glottaliaed postpalatal stop (k,h) before /#/ (k1) elsewhere /.b/ voiced bilabial obstruent (b) in environment V_V (b-b) after C (b-b«) after /#/ jal voiced dental obstruent [é) after V (d) elsewhere /g/ voiced post-palatal obstruent (g) after V„ /r 1/ (g) elsewhere / •> I glottal catch {?h) before /#/ (?) elsewhere /£/ voiceless labial spirant (£~p) wherever it occurs /s/ voiceless alveolar sibilant (sh) before /#/ (3) elsewhere /o/ voiceless alveolar shibilant (ah) before /if/ (s) elsewhere /h/ voiceless nón-syllabic vocoid at point of articulation of vowel in same syllable; written (h) /m/ bilabial nasal continuant (mh~rnh) before / #/ (m) elsewhere /n/ non-bilabial nasal continuant (rj) before /g k k'/ (n) before /l s s i i* c c'/ (nh~nh> before /#/ (n) elsewhere /l/ alveolar lateral continuant (lh-lh) before /#/ (1) elsewhere - 4

/r/ alveolar flap (rk-rlij before /#/ (r) elsewhere /rr/ is (v ~?' ) wherever it occurs /w/ bilabial u~colored continuant (w~v/h) before ffí/ (w~u) elsewhere /y/ pre-palatal i-eolored continuant (y-y11) before /#/ (y~i) elsewhere

3.1.1 The phonemes /d g £/ occur only in morphemes borrowed from Spanish.

3.2 Vowels HI high front unrounded (i~I) /e/ mid to low front unrounded (e«&) /a/ low central to back unrounded {a~<5.) /o/ mid to low back rounded {o~&) /u/ high back rounded (u-U )

3.2.1 in certain suprasegmental environments ¡é o/ have centered allophones and /a/ has a raised allophone. T. Kaufman November 8, I960 Internal Memo 2

Vocabulario Tensjapa de palabras no bien conocidas A 'altik p h-^ahk' nc y-a v i tv y-a ' yoh tv y-a'el tv *ahk'ol n ?ahc«al n'¿ y-an¿in 3~bá rv 9 ac!ub iv ^an iv 'ah'un iv CVC +C|un y-ahtay tv 'ahtal n 'abtayel n 'atin iv 'atirraal n 'abli'ubaltik p 'akil(tik) n3 'amak' n 'amay n y-at n3 9ahk'otah iv h'a'tel n {ag) 'a'teh iv 'a'tal n y-a'tahib (al) n3 'a'telil n 2 -

f am iv

'awun iv 'alah iv 9awet iv y-awtay tv y-aw n 9ak'en n y-alian (il) n3 y-ahwal (il) n3 'ahk'ot n 9 alian n y-ak'lay tv y-ale' s-ba rv *> ahanub iv 'a'yeh n 9 ayan iv y-a ' yanta y tv 9ak'ol aj h'amtel n(ag) Tao 9aianeh iv y-avval n y-alatay tv 'anixnah iv 'awil nl

9antfwo-nameh n(ag) h'ac'-'a'tel n

7aaima aj/n 'asyal n

ben iv bak'et (al) n9 bak n? be n bitik p bit'il, bii^ut'il, bilah 'ut'il boc n 3-boh tv bohc n bol aj buh¿ 'an aj s-busan tv busul a-p balazn n bolob iv 3-bolotes tv bakai a s-bik' tv hbeom . n(ag) a-boel n balahtik p bac n © but'ul a-p ba¿'eh iv s-behtay tv buhtawet iv batik p s -foahtel n ba sa'fca bisi bak-te9 pos but'ul k'inal s-bal B-c'uht bi yu 9 un s-bak' y-at a-ba 8-c'enal

hcamel n(ag) cam iv camel n 8-camelixv tv S-cu* n(3?) cusun iv cusncl n s-cus (il) n3 3-cuhkil (al) n3 copol a-p - 5 - s-con tv m a-col tv cohalt1 n s-cik' tv s-cilcnates tv ciknah iv cikan aj ci^in. n cawah iv canib n can a o-cahpan tv cahpah iv capal a~p s-cahpan s-ba cah n miel cabsk' n cane *oh iv a-cult s-ba rv 8-cuk tv o-cap tv 8-ciman s-ba rv

áca'cuk AHP s-cuk-cuk c-ba

bak' canak' oci'il ya'al s-c'abatay tv c'uaub iv a~c'usuv/il n ca?-c'is nc c 'ail n c'ab n c 'abah iv c 'ah n c'ak a s-c'am tv c 'ay i v a-e 'ay tv s-c'oh tv a-c'il tv s-c'oxnotay tv ca * -c 'oh nc e'en n c'entilcil n a-c'un tv s-c'uneh, s-c'uneyeh tv s-c'ulel (VI) n3 c'okow (il) n3 c'a iv/aj

hc'ahilu' pn c'i

c'isil bak aj+n 7 - ba-c'en n smulawil-c'uht n c'ul-canii aj

s-^ob tv s-jSob s-ba-rv

¿an ¿a'le a'sit

s-^o^-il y-at (2' s-é'alúiy tv a-¿'un tv s-íí'etlay tv 3-gS'et tv s-í'aket tv or s-cí'aket iv o-¿'ahk (ium) n or iv ¿'akah iv (not é'ahkab. ?} (á'altal a-p a-g'ak s-ba rv $ 'eht iv tí 'unbal n 3-¿*unub (il) n3 «5 'amloh iv s-si'ap tv h¿ 'ubkin pn h¿ 'un- 9 a 9 tel n{ag)

y-ehk'cc(il) n3 9eceb n y-elk'an tv 'eaumah iv h'elek' n(ag) 9 ehcinah iv * ehplahan iv - 9 - ith

9 ea&aranu

'ehü

piakalío

H s-hus tv o? iv hvihp' iv shun tv Ag - hoh, OJC - hoin shuneh tv s-huban tv hul iviwmeSa hu' iv s-hoy n3 hoyob iv 8-hot* tv s-hoa tv 8-hom tv s-hol tr 3ic s-hohk'oy tv s-ho¿' tv s-hip tv s-hihpan tv 10 bete"' n ha'mal n helo?, n helon tv or iv hel iv helaw iv s-hahceslay tv foasp'oh iv s-ham tv halah iv s-hak' tv hafck iv hakal a-p havc p s-Jbac tv hahc iv s-hahcea tv haben n2 ha? xxL ha'al n hipahtik p s-hihpan s-ba hok'ahtik p hobal gn s-hop tv s-hsk tv hekel a-p hi- n - 11. a) hS^O AHP b) hil'fl PJG

him-sit hel-te? hoh-mut hel-'us* h&'-c'uht ya'lel k'isia hs

hs.hpa.laX kulcub ys.be:aal may hs.'tík meto hz."f me in e

y-ik* tv y-itis tv y-isim n3 y-ip n ?üin iv y-ilanaal n fev?) h^ilohei n(ag) y-ifckaí:

'ila'wil sawilawil

¿ah- ' isixn bak' 'isim

K

s-kohtes tv 8-kuy tv s-kusea tv kusib(al) n kusul a-p kusleh n kuhc iv kusahtik p s-kuc tv h-koht nc kol iv hkoltawaneh n(ag) s-koltay tv ko iv kehah iv kehel a-p kehcah iv h-kehcan tv 13 - kahpeh iv sic d*$s s-kap tv kapal a-p hkanan n(ag) kacal a-p s-kananil n s-kanantay tv kahet iv ca'-kah nc a-kahabin tv s-kah¿an tv kah¿ah iv 8-kua tv ka'ben iv s-ka? tv s-kohtes tv kaaantawan iv s-kuy s-ba rv kotol a-p koxn(ol) aj

kurik kati

kaaa n kasa me a-wénta n s-wentea n kantela n kaptantik n(ag) koio aj komon 14 kurus-c'en gn hkanan-lum €> kati kok-mut n c'ul-kréna n ak'in kusihal muk1 koral 9 animal koral hmul&wil kompison k»U9 ?eil

K« k'as iv h-k'ua tv s-k'ok tv sic h-k'asel nc k'ahtah iv k'ot iv k'oel n k'anub iv k'ahk'al n k'al n k'ahk» iv a) sk'oplal AHP b) «k'olal PJG k'aleltik p •-khaiautay tv k*us iv hk'uleh n(ag) - 15 k'ubul a-p k'ub iv k'otlan iv s-k'ohtes tv k'ok iv aic k'okol a-p k'iyil a-p a-k*iy tv s-k'eh tv k'ehel a-p k'ayob a k'atinab n(ag) k'as iv s-k'an tv k'alal p k'ahk'ub iv s-k'abuy tv k'a iv a-k'alahib(al) n3 k'usul a-p k'ahben n a-k'ut tv s-k'ohk'oy tv k'us n? k'mw iv k'anal n

k'atim-bak tv + n hk'ue-holol tv + n k'ua-holobel n k'ua-ait n

•akil k'inal 16

s-lo? tv s-lok'es tv a-labin tv a-lekil n3 s-lab n lah iv label n lum n lihk iv l&wan iv s-la tv s-lek1 tv s-la s-ba rv lawal n likawal n la¿al a-p s-labin tv a-lahib n3 lamal a-p lamah iv s-lap tv •-lap'at tv blobowil n(ag) e-lihkea tv ca'-lot nc a-lot(il) n3 lub iv blue tv lucul a-p luhUh iv - 17 lutul a-p lebohel n lakl *un tv or iv lahl *up iv or tv or n lumilal n poko-lum n

M mac *atik p s-mak'lin tv s-man tv a) 8-maliy tv AHP b) s-mayli tv PJG mal iv muk'ub iv s-muk'ul n(3?) mo iv mellah iv melel a-p s-mellan tv s-xnel y-o'tan tv + do me

hala-me 9 tik n(ag) hc'u-me9tik n(ag) hmuk'u-me9tik n(ag) sman-toh tv mukin-ha9 n mes-te9 n

a-mam s-me'cun a-me9 s-tat a-me9 toyiw mal k'al iv + subj. 19 - htatik mamal n + n (app) ba^'il melel ma'yuk s-mo gain tv manya n meru} mero aj manko n/aj

N nohel aj 3-nak' tv niwan p s-nohpea tv nameh p 9-nop tv 3-nu¿ tv s-aa? 8-ba rv a-nap' s-ba rv s-nuk' n(3?) na*bah iv s-nak' s-ba rv nail p Ag nal; Ox neel s-nakumal n(?) nakal a-p s-naktib(al) n3 nakahtik p s-nanuy tv s-nap' tv 20 -

ñas nis nasíalc j s-nahtii n3 s-ne n{?) s-nehkel n(?) nel iv s-nales tv s-net' tv nic 'nah iv s-nit tv s-nit' tv niwak a/n s-no¿ tv a-noh^an tv s-nuk1 tv s-nup' tv nuhp1 n hpu¿um pn

hpermiso- •nicim n y-ala-nic-nic n ba-nabil n nail-c'en n

s-na,7 atohol tv + n sna hpu¿um gn a) nanis AHP b) nonis PJG

'alcasel(tik) n3 21 -

?obah n 'obal n y-oc£ea tr 'oh¿ iv y-ok(il) n3 'ok'es n y-ok'eaan tv y-oloh n or tv

'oratik

•>e y-ok s-k'ab n 4- n lah y-o ' tan iv + subj pah y-o'tan ? + subj a-mel y-o9tan tv + obj kus y-o'tan iv + aubj hun y-o'tan num + aubj 7ora nas a-pahoh y-o'tan n + n 'ora ya'tik 'obol s-ba n * n yobolal s-ba yok e'en yok vñi lihk y-o'tan iv + subj

'olil k'al ''olil c'ulcan ta 'ora - 22

h-postay tv s-pas tv po'tah iv? pahel n2 s-pat(il) n3 s-pi sil n3 patil n:av pasyah iv pasyal n s-pay tv poclahet iv s-puh tv pastah iv 3-poh tv pul iv s-pules tv paynil n pa¿' n s-pahib(al) n3 s-pik tv pam¿ah iv pamal a-p pakal a-p ca'-pam nc pamal n s-pas s-ba rv pa tan n payal a-p pec'el a-p 23 - s-poíí tv a-pok 8-ba rv 3-pok tv pok'ol a-p hpostawaneh n(ag) puhleh iv ? 3-puk' tv pum iv parte n partehel n pilaltik n pále n(ag) peraensyon pale-c'en gn pas-k'op n posil aiwel k'isin pos pólo¿' pos pay-te ' papen te may pahal-ton gn poko-lum gn pas-partehel pat suhk n + n s-pas muí tv + obj 3-pik s-k'ab tv + obj 8-pas lot tv + obj - 24

P« s-p'ihutes tv s-p'uy tv s-p'ia tv h-p'eh nc s-p'ehel ?n p'ol iv s-p'aaates tv p'asah iv

sol iv h-solótes tv solah iv hsiwil n{ag) siweh n sepel a-p sepahtik simal n sikub iv sakub iv aomol a-p suht iv h-auhtes tv suhteswan iv s-suhtea s -ba aohpilcil aj sehtifcil aj sab n sehpel ? - 25 - h- suh h-ba rv h-suh tv h-sak' tv sih¿' siht'ub iv sul ? sansire-9ak sik-k'ahk' son n hsoniwil n(ag)

suhc *utay tv sut sus

h-sehtay tv sohleh gn h-suhkub n(3?) •tthk n sulub n h-««l tv tr W.lb a h-Ut' tv ••1*1 a-p h-ilk» n<3?> •Is P 26 - soht'ol 7 h-suhldn tv susubin iv h-8iwtes tv sinalil aj

soral soraltik

3ulem-tak'in

tun iv s-tuntes tv s-tat(il) n3 toh aj til iv tahin iv tahimal n h-teb nc s-tiles tv tuhk' n •-tukel n(3) 8-ta tv tek'ol a-p »-«•» tv a-ti'(il) n3 te^tUdl n «-tak» n?/tv? •-toh tv 27

íohk iv timbal n tihil a-p h-íehk nc h-tul nc s-tuytiklay tv tak'in n a-tih tv tih iv ti'wal s-tun tv s-tohol n tup» iv s-toy tv tu n s-tiba(il) . n3 tek'ahtik P 3-tosí tv tuhc 'ic * n s-ta a-ba rv taken iv tak'ah iv s-tol tv tekahtik P telahtik- P ten nc ti'wan iv ten iv s-ten tv s-tes tv ti'aw - 28 -

s-ti' a-ba rv s-tik» tv tohob iv s-tokes tv (or s-tohkes) toy iv toyol a-p tub iv tuc' iv s-tuhtay tv s-tuy tv

tus-^ak n ton-c'ic' n tol-ha9 n htih-winik n(ag) te-me/ta-me n ba-te?tikil n ti'-nail n3

s-te'el y-at ba^'U tak'in takin ti'il muk'ul tatik s-ta s-mul tv + •»t«9el y-eceh •ti'ti'k'inal

°) Uwai A HP b) ievwoA PO Q- 29

t'usah iv a-t'asan 3'-ba r fanal a-p t'ant'un iv s-t'anan 3 -ba r t'om iv a-t'omea tv s-t'ua tv ht'uhawal n(ag) t'ubah iv a t'is iv or 8-t4fl tv

'urna' aj 'unin n s'uman n 'uhp'un iv y-ut tv 9 uta wan iv 'utaw n 'uc' n y-uc* tv 'uc'bal n 'u* •j »u¿ub iv ?u¿«h iv y-u*U(al) n3 y-u¿ut*a tv y-u^'in tv 30 -

'uc'-'uc'-tol-ha?

W s-wuy tv h-wuhc'iy tv s-wefiulay tv wi'nah iv wi'nal tv a-walk'un tv wayal a-p a-wah tv wamal n s-waib(al) n3 c'a(al) aj s-waycin tv s-wehtea tv wil iv winkilel n 8-wo tv wokol n/aj wulwun iv

wa'i

kaalan-wah n c'aal wamal n i-walak'-patibel ba-wi¿ A hperxmso-wamal 31

yihub iv yan aj yal iv h-yalel nc ya'tik P h-yan. nc yasalii n ? yantik P yakal a-p yanah iv yasub iv ye'tal n yutil n s-yihil n3 s-yom tv s-yom s-ba rv yusub iv yakuk ya wai yut-c'en n yalam-bak'et pn yehUl /T aeltal Dictionary: Aguacatenango Dialect

Three items of information are included in the dictionary material» These include Tseltal forms ordered alphabetically by root. The symbol indicates the form class of which the form is a member. The values of these symbols will be found in appendix --"in the grammar code. Finally, a Spanish gloss appears which functions at the level of significance suitable for providing translations into Spanish. The gloissss do not yet reflect an unambiguous mapping of the Tzeltal domains of meaning. The dictionary is representative of the domain3„ not exhaustive. 1 -

y-ahtay tv contarlo, numei*arlo yahtal yo'tan su pensativo, tristeza í/6: h'ahtawaneh n contador

'abat n sirviente

y-abeyan tv publicarlo

'abeyan iv platicar

'ahc' iv mojarse

^ahc'al n lodo

'ac'is n muchacha

vahan n elote

9ahaw n solo palabra usada por los viejitos

' ahwalil :yahwal n3 patron, jefe

y-ahwalin tv sentirlo

'ah'un iv(?) quejando de dolor

h-'ahk' nc un momento

'abk'ot n baile

h'ahk'ot n bailarín

'ahk'otah iv bailar

ta *ahk'ol de arriba

7 ahk'ubey P anoche

y-ak'alan tv seguir dándolo

'ak'awan iv entregarse - 2 h'ak'-k'op persona que comete muchas dificultades con sus familias

'ak'-hun correspondencia h?ak»~hun persona que transporta cartas h'ak'-resal persona que reza h'ak'-pom el que maneja el incensario

h'ak1-camel brujo

'ak'obil incensario, hecho de barro

'alai niño

sc'in yal su hijito

yal onic'an sus hijos

yal kihrf'in hijo de hermano/a menor

?alah dar hijo

y-al tv decirlo

y-alalan tv seguir diciendolo

?alnah ponerse bajo

'alkal alcalde

'alkalil juez

c'in ?alko te'buk un poco mejor, un poco bueno

7amay carrizo que se toca con tambores

'anrfil querida

9an¿il winik hermafrodita

*>an¿alel esposa yanjSil 'al n3 su hija yan¿ nic'an n3 su hija

9 anima n muerto

'áskal n panela

'a slum n azadón

'asta 'ora hasta hoy, hasta la fecha y-asanies tv esperar que pasa el agua o la lluvia

'aw n grito

'awil n depósito

' awktorida n autoridad

'ayin iv nacer

* a ' tahibal :ya * tahib n3 herramienta

'a'tel n trabajo h'a'tol n trabajador

y-a 7 y elan tv oírlo tantas veces

y-a7ytalan tv oír muchas pláticas Jb_

ba¿'il n brazo derecho

ba¿'il wokol muy costoso, mucho sufrimiento

balil:sbal n3 cuñado

sbal ac'uht su alimento

3-bal tv enrollar un petate

balal a-p cilindrico balawet iv revolcando s-balín tv valerlo s-baluy tv abanicarle llamando el espíritu baka n vaca, hembra del toro baso n vaso para tomar cafe basiyo n copa para tomar licor bastón n bastón ba^ti P donde be-ha? n zanja, canal ben iv caminar hbel n caminante

o-bec" tv envolverlo belta n cambio de una cantidad de dinero bentisyon n bendición betil:sbet n3 deuda bifibun iv(?) moviéndose como un gusano

3-bik' tv tragarlo

bilU:sbil n3 nombre

bohc n jicara

s-boh tv cortarlo

hboh-ton n cantero

hboh-ti'bal n cortador de carne

bol aj tonto, zonso bolub iv desorientarse hbonowaneh n pintor botfka n farmacia 7b buhíé' n sabor bviket iv cayendo en la tierra como granos de maíz

a-bul n espuma busul a-p amontonado

h-buht nc un montón

butk'ih iv caerse

but'ul a-p rellenado

bunt" n(? ) un pozo que se rellenó de tierra o basuras

c

caben pasado mañana

cámaro chamarra

can n culebra

s-cap tv contarlo, enrollar \m lazo

s-captalan tv alistar sus animales

cahpah iv alistarse

capal a-p listo

cahpal n con todo

cawah n una locura por la cabeza

cawah iv estar trastornado - 6

9 ca hey P antier ceban iv de scontentar se cecet iv estar arrastrándose ceclahan iv estar arrastrándose >. cikan aj oe mira ciknah iv aparacer cikinil:scikin n3 oreja a-cik' tv quemarlo s-cikJialan tv quemarlos s-co n3 mejilla, hueso del pómulo sco yit su nalga

8-cocolan tv estar alistándolo coclahan iv estar arrastrándose cohak' n red cokomil n chocomil, alimento bebida (spelled choco-miik)

a-colee tv descomponerlo, deshacerlo

s-colos tv hacer formar

hcon-'isim n vendedor de maíz

hconbahel n vendedor (comerciante)

8-cop tv aflojarlo, dejarlo falso

cohp iv aliviarse, aflojarse

copol a-p flojo, falso

cotol - a-p sentado coíohibal: ocotohib n3 asiento cotyin iv sentarse s-cuk tv amarrarlo cuhltilal: scuhkil n3 pañuelo cusun iv orinar cu^iltscu' n3 seno

c'aal kahpeh cafe amargo c'aal wamal yerba amargo c'ab iv calmar ae c sabal n silencio c'ahalu? n haragán s-c'ay tv perderlo c'ay iv perderse sc'ay ko'tan me olvido, pierdo mi sentido c'en n cueva c'entikil n barrancos c'etunah iv hacer mucha bulla he 'iel n joven cHemal n joventud c'ihlehet iv tronar, hacer sonido como dos piedras

-c'is nc peda sos de madera, caña s~c°oh tv tirarlo,, aventarlo

-c'oh nc veces c 'okobil: sc "okob n3 anillo s-c*ol tv tragarlo, tornarlo c'o'lahan iv hacer ruido en el estomago c'ul aj santo c 'ulelal:sc 'ulel n3 alma c'um n calabaza amarilla c'um-te7 n chayóte

8-c'un tv creerlo

¿ahal 9 isim maíz rojo

s-¿ak tv agarrarlo

s-¿aktalan tv agarrarlos h^ak-cay n pescador

¿ahk iv agarrarse

¿amil ° an¿ mujer hermosa

ma' s-rfayil no sirve

¿a'an iv ensuciar, cagarse

¿e?eh n risa

s-^e'luy tv reirse de

¿okil:s¿ek n3 enagua - 9 h¿i¿awaneh n jefe

¿if£ohibal n ley-

¿ilsíun iv{?) temblando

s-¿ob tv juntarlo

íiobol a-p reunido

£o£ a cabello, pelo

¿oblaban iv toser

¿ukum n pansa, estómago il a-jé'ah tv remojar la cabeza con agua sin jabón

s-¿'abalan tv remojar varias veces

i 'ahlahan iv caminar entre charcos de agua

s-¿'ak tv añadir

é'akal a-p ajustado, completo, cabal

hji'ak-bak n persona que cura las quebraduras o roturas de los huesos

h¿ 'alcawaneh albafiil

s-¿'akates tv completarlo

¿'akay iv completarse

s-¿'am tv . remojarlo con agua

i 'amal a-p metido entre agua, o como un pozo bien lleno de agua

¿«am-te^ banco para sentarse

¿'ehpuh cometir delito, como hacerle embarazada - 10 hfS'ibahel n escribano s-^'ihtea tv criarlo s-í'ik tv aguantarlo

3-¿4k talan tv aguantarlos ¿»ihk iv aguantar © híS'ilteswaneh n hechicero, brujo h-¿'in nc un rato

¿'ís-nicim n costurar flores

¿'isnahib n aguja para coser h<£si?wil n caza con perro s-¿ai*in tv hacer de su perro

¿'o'lahan iv llorar como niños o enfermos

¿«uhul a-p rocío h¿ 'unawaneh n elector s-ií'us tv cerrarlo

á_ disiseys fiesta del dieciseis de septiembre doktor» 'oktor doctor dyos, tyoa Dios 11 e

•>e una palabra para contestar que no, o que le cuesta para hacer una cosa

9eal:ye n3 diente

?eceh hacha

^ehcenah herirse

'elaw cara

f elk 'ah robar y- elk 'an tv robarlo

' entrante entrante

'esil:yes n3 costumbres secreto de robo

fínica, pínlca finca

frásko, prasko frasco

JL gamarro una falsilla mas fuerte para reforzar a un caballo

_h

ha

hahc iv . levantarse

haclehet iv estirarse

3-hak' tv contestar 12 s-hal tv tejerlo halah iv dilatar a-ham tv abrirlo s-hamalan tv abrirlo varias veces bam iv abrii- hamal a-p abierto hamham k'inal n lugar claro s-hapuy tv pegarlo, agarrarlo con la mano hawal a-p costado boca arriba hawal nukul de mucha prisa, muy inquieto • hayat iv saltando, volando hayub iv hacerse delgado ha'rya'a^ya'lel n2 agua ha^as n zapote

ha "> maltik n las montañas

ha'weh n carga de agua

ha'wil n acarreador de agua

ha 7 wen n hoja de milpa

-hehc nc lados

s-hekentay tv montarlo

helolil:ahelol n3 segunda persona que trae su mi de la primera persona o de su

hel-k'abai n persona que presta ayuda del t

helunel n cambiarse a ladino 13 hem el n barranquito hik'hik1 'obal n tosferina

s -hiles tv dejarlo hilkunah iv cojear Hlf_Ls hin iv descomponerse

s-hip tv aventarlo

s-hoc tv arrastrarlo

hocol a-p desocupado, sin trabajo

hohoc' a doblador de la mazorca o cascara

hok'ol a-p colgado

s-hon tv compa fiarle

s-hop tv quitarlo

hopol a-p en puño

s-hos tv cortar el cabello

hos=holol n peluquero

s-hot' tv rascarlo

howiy iv volverse loco, desorientarse

howiyel n locura

hoyil:shoy n3 compañero

hoy ta yutil hna del mismo sangre que viven en la misma casa

hoy-ba? P dondequiera

hoyp'ih iv dar vuelta

s-hub tv soplarlo 14

s-huc' tv molerlo s-huhc'iy tv soplarlo huhun num cada uno

s-hul tv picarle la mano con una aguja /<-/-5

htm num uno

hunubey P el año pasado hun ta parece que

s-hup tv punzarlo

huhp'en aj gordo

huramenta n juramento

husgádil n juzgado

.husul a-p con cabello cortado muy bajo

husul 'it n persona o niño que todavía no puede andar

hutul n adivino, agujero

huht'awet iv llegando cada rato en una casa

hu'lahan iv estar corriendo

ta hwera P al corredor de la casa

y-ic* tv cogerlo, llevarlo, recibirlo

y-ic'ilan tv seguir recibiéndolo, llevándolo

y-ic'talan tv cogerlos

*ihc' iv cogerse

?ihka¿il:yihka¿ n3 carga 15 h'ibW.eh n persona que carga h?ihka¿ii n cargador

•>ihk' aj negro

'ihk'il winik negro

'ihk'ub iv enegrecerse, obscurecer h'ihk'al n negro, personas que celebran el carnaval y-ik» n olor y~ik« tv llamarle

•ik^wan iv llamar por la voz

y-il tv verlo

?il iv mirarse

h'iiawaneh n curandero

y-ilbihin tv molestarle

h^ilbihinwaneh n un molestoso

'inohó n hinojo, una planta medicinal

'inyeksyon, 9indeksyon n inyección

'ÍP aj grave

*ipah iv ponerse más grave

»ipal aj bastante

y-ipates tv dañarlo más

'is P una palabra que se dice para hacer dormir a las criaturas

y-isan tv jugarlo 16 -

'isanwan perjudicar, engañar

' ist'ah echarse a perder

'itilryit n3 culo

k_ ka n caballo kabílta n presidencia

3-ka<5' tv ponei'lo a la boca kahal a-p trepado s-kahan tv cargarlo con el hombro

s-kah n por su culpa kahpeh n café kalkaltik aj un poco mejor

3-kanan tv cargarlo al hombro hkanan n cuidador hkanan-cukel n policía

3-kanantay tv cuidarlo hkanan -citam n cuidador de marranos kampusanta n panteón

kantelá n candela, vela

s-kap tv mezclarlo

ka pal a-p mezclado

karetéra n carretera 17 káro n carro karta n carta kastígo n castigo katesismo n libro de doctrina que t católica. kaslan» kasan n ladino kehcah iv suspender kerem n varón kol iv soltarse

s-koles tv soltarlo

s-koltay tv ayudarlo

hkoltawaneh n ayudante kom aj corto

s-kora tv detenerlo

kom iv detenerse

kom o P porque

kompayre, kumpre n compadre

kontento n contento

kóntra n enemigo

s-kontrin tv tenerlo con enemistad

koral n corral

koréo n correo

kostumpre n costumbre

koso n cojo 18 - koskinah iv estar cojeando kotol a-p acurrucado kotiahan iv caminar acurracado com que aprende a caminar kristyáno, krisyáno n gente \v> s-kuc tv cargarlo con la espalda kuhc iv cargarse kucára n cuchara kum<¿ *ih iv doblarse

kumpiral n una fiesta que hacen de cumplimiento

hkucawaneh n cargador

kumre n comadre

s-kus tv despertarle

kus iv despertarse

kusul a-p despierto

kuset iv{?) contento, alegre, feliz

kuslehal: skusleh n3 vida

kusyin iv vivir

kusebal n semana santa

s-kuses tv despertarlo, aliviarse

kus ko'tan me desperté

ya hkus ko'tan voy a descansar

s-kuy tv creerlo - 19 - kwarta una botella de gaaeooa kwartiya-te? vina medida

-k«ab nc dedos (<&. k'abal:sk'ab n3 mano s-k'ah tv quebrarlo k'ah iv quebrarse k'ahben n caña de milpa k'ahoh n pizcarB cosechar k'ahk' iv quemarse k'ahk* 'o'tanil defensa k'ahk'ub iv calentarse k'ahk'al n día, sol sk'ahk'alel k'ahal su calor del sol s-k'analan tv sequir pidiéndolo s-k'antalan tv pedirlos hk 'an-kontribusyon n cobrador de contribución hk'an-tak'in n cobrador k'anub iv ponerse amarillo k'ahplehet iv quebrantar /

s-k'as tv quebrarlo k'as iv pasar 20 s -k 'ases tv pasarlo

-k'asel nc pasadas s-k8ahtan tv ponerle atravesado, atravesarlo k'atal a-p atravesado k'ay iv hallarse k'ayhin iv cantar s-k'ayhintay tv cantarlo k'a* iv. pudrirse k'a'al warn cerco viejo k'a'-te n puente

s-k'a'atea tv curtirlo k'ehel a-p en otra parte k'ehehtik aj otros

s-k'el tv verlo

B-k'eluy tv mirarlo k'elawan iv estar mirando k'eslal n vergüenza k'eael a-p vergonzoso k'esaw iv tener vergüenza k'e'k'tot iv gritando con queja

k'e'lahan iv estar gritando con una queja

s-k'isnay tv calentarlo

k'ianah iv calentarse 21 - k'isin k'inal clima caliente k'isna' agua caliente k'ok iv llegar

s-k'ohtes tv mojarlo k'olehet iv caerse sin hacer ruido

sk'obol ryos doctrina

s-k'ofies tv mojarlo

s-k'ol tv hacerle redondo,, hacerle una bola

k'olp'ih iv desgajarse

k'os n chiquito

k'os kerem niño pequeño

k'ub iv precisar

k'ubul a-p preciso

k'un aj blanda

k'us iv doler

k'usub iv estar con dolor

s-kusutay tv estimarlo

k'usulal: sk 'usul n3 dolor

k'us c'uhtul dolor de estómago

k'us cikinil dolor del oído

k'us holol dolor de cabeza

k'us 'o'tanil dolor del corazón

s-k'ut tv desgranarlo - 22 -

s-k'utilan tv estar desgranándolo k'uht iv desgranarae k'u'iltsk'u? n3 camisa k'u'un iv taparse, envolverse con una tela /- k'u'-pak'al'.sk u? spak' ropaje fcti

lah ko'tan ya me fastidie

lahibalralahib n3 último

la'-'o'tanilcsla' yo'tan coraje

s-laban tv burlarse de

la ' wan iv burlar hla'waneh n burlo so

s-lam tv calmarlo

lamah iv calmarse, sanarse

lamlun iv (?) lluviendo suave

8-le tv buscarlo

s-lehtalan tv buscarlos

ale smul buscó su delito

ale abet consigue su deuda

hle-'a'tel n buscador de trabajo

hleaw n buscador

lek aj bueno - 23 - lekil winik uno que se porta bien en el pueblo lekilaltsiekil n3 bueno lekub iv mejorarse kel'et iv arder corno picante s-lie' tv extenderlo, abrirlo lihc' iv inflamarse, extenderse lic'anah iv volarse s-lik tv alzarlo lihk iv empezar lihkilan iv empezar cada poco

-lihk nc tamaños, lazos s-lihkes tv empezarlo likicab n terremoto lihkibal:slihkib ¡i3 comienza s~lilin tv sacudirlo limosna n limosna listón - n listón

W> P aquí lo n gemelo

s-lok'es tv sacarlo

alok'es te yat ka (wakas) phrase capador de potro (toro) lok^ya* ojo de agua, manantial

lotilrslot n3 mentira 24 lotlahan iv andar juntos

-loht iv puños, montoneB, pequeños low ni? c'o n una planta, en español mata ratón

s-lo'liy tv engañarlo

hlo'lawaneh n engañoso, engañadar 8-lu¿' tv tenerlo abrazado © hlumal n paisano5 conterráneo s-lup tv coger agua

s-lupilan tv cogerlo varias veces con una jarra llenando de agua en el pozo

luwar lugar

lu'iltslu' parte sexual de la mujer

macit n machete

s-ma¿' tv masticarlo

s-mah tv pegarlo

-man nc pegadas

mahaluk de repente

s-mak tv taparlo, tajarlo

makal a-p nublado

mahk iv nublarse, taparse

s-makliy tv asistirlo, mantenerlo

s-mal Sv derramarlo

8-malilan tv estar esperándolo 25 - malub iv entardecerse mamal n uno que ya es viejito mamal senel ¿a'nel el vómito y la diarrea mamilalil: smam ilal n3 esposo s-mantalan *v comprarlos mantal n mandado manyo ao aj mañoso mar tomo n mayordomo mástro n maestro

a-ma'klin tv mantenerlo mayor n policía

ma'yuk ok'ab manco

ma * sit n ciego

meba' n huérfano

meba'al n viuda

mebal ?an¿ (winilc) viuda, (viudo)

meiel a-p acostado

médyo n dinero; seis centavos

mehlahan iv estar ladeándose

melmun iv(?) volteando, dando vueltas varias veces

s-mel¿a9an tv arreglarlo

mel¿a9ah iv arreglarse

xnelol n buen consejo 26 - mero, mera seguro, cierto ame' stat sus papas; principales me9 el n señora me9el hp'ihuteswaneh maestra me'mut:sme' smut gallina

s-mic' tv apretarlo con puño de la mano mi^'-cenek' n coaechar frujoles milawan iv matar hmilawaneh n matador mis n gato misperes n vísperap el primer día de la fiesta

moc n canasta

mol aj viejo

molub iv envejecerse

s-mon • tv amarlo

mona wan iv amar

mon-te' n escalera

muhk iv enterrarse

muk'ul k'in fiesta grande

muk'ul 'ahwalil n president, juez primero

muk'ulil: smuk'ul n3 grande; principal

s-muk'ultes tv hacerle alterar más grande

s-muk'ultay tv humarlo con incienso - 27 mulc'ub iv engrandecerse mulilrsmul n3 delito hmul n concubino hmulawil engaña las mujeres

nac'et iv andando muy despacio nal P primero a-naliy tv anticiparlo nahkah iv asentarse s-nahkan tv asentarlo nakal a-p sentado; sin trabajo durante un día nak^a'ah iv calmarse naka P puro

8-nak* tv esconderlo namey P hace mucho tiempo nap'al a-p cerca y atrás nap'al hmocol:anap'al amocol vecino naht* aj largo

s-na9bey tv saberlo, conocerlo na^awan iv recordarse na'bah iv se sabe

s-nehkel n hombro nek-newak aÍ grande - 28 s-nicimtea tv adornarlo hnic'an snai'yos mi ahijado nibil a-p inclinado a-nik tv moverlo nihk iv moverse niht iv jalarse nitp'uh iv fracturarse niwhel n paludismo ni*il:sni9 n3 nariz ni? -halal n punta de carrizo noh iv llenarse nohel aj lleno

s-nolp'in tv hacerle rodar

nolp'ih iv rodar

s-nohpes tv enseñarlo

hmop-hun n estudiante

hnohpeswaneh il maestro

s-nop* tv agarrarlo

B-nui tv correrlo

nuhul a-p inclinado

nuhawet iv andando solo

nuhlahan iv andar agachado e inclinado

nuhpih iv caerse de cabesa, boca abajo - 29 - nuhkul: snuhkulel n3 piel s-nuk' tv chuparlo, fumarlo nuhpunel n casamiento s-nuses tv bañarlo

?obal n tos

"?oc iv entrar y-o¿es tv metirlo adentro

?oh¿ iv encogerse

?oh¿el n calambre

'okilryok n3 pié yok sk'ab sus extremidades y-okoltay tv vigilarle

•>ok« iv llorar

y-ok'otay tv llorarle

*ol-be n medio camino

9 ora :yóra :yóril n hora, tiempo

'orasyon n las siete de la noche

y-ot n tortilla

'o»l hba soy pobre, siento triste

'o'lel sba los pobres que no pudieron aprender algo

*o»tanil:yo9tan n3 corazón - 30

9 o7 tanta wan cuidar bastante

y-o'tantay tv cuidarlo

_£. pahal a-p parejo

pakal a-p boca abajo 't"fl pahk'ah iv pegarse, dormirse

pak'al a-p bien pegado; bien grave

pahk« n pared

palsíya falsilla, es una cosa muy usada para los caballos que son de montar como en forma de freno para reforzar

palta falta

sc'in papa Gil yo'tan la suciedad de su corazón

s-pasalan tv estar haciéndolo varias veces

pas i\ hacerse

hpas-p'in n alfarero

hpas-k'in n fiestero

pas-nicim n hacer flores

pasenaya, pasensa n paciencia

pasyal n paseo

pasyah ii paaear

parta n queja

pat-suhk n una casa atrás de otro 31 - pawor n favor payríao n padrino pa'icah iv estar celando pe¿em n granos que nacen muy untitoo permiso n permiso pero, pére, pe P pero i f<& persa P a fuerza s-pet tv abrazarlo, enamorarla s-petelan tv enamorarla tanto s-pic" tv abrazarlo fuertemente pic'-'o'tan n lástima s-pi¿' tv abrazarlo, apretarlo píltara n pastilla hpik-c'ic' n pulsador

s-pit tv saltearlo pihtawet iv haciendo movimiento

-pis nc piedras, cosas redondas piskal n fiscal pléto n pleito

pobre snic'an tyos n el pobre hijode Dios

po¿ub iv entume re e

8-pO¿' tv envolverlo

pohol a-p botado 32 pohawet iv revolcando

3-pok tv lavarlo pohk' iv mojarse pok'ol a-p majado porkeriya n porquería, cosa que no sirve posil n medicina f posta wan iv dar medicina, curar hpostawaneh n curandero potranka n hembra del caballo que no ba tocado ca o que no ha tenido ni una cría potro n caballo joven que no es caballo todavía préba n prueba presidentes presirente n presidente preso n cárcel prinsipal n principal pukuh winik gente malo purga n purgante puro, pura P todo igual pus n temascal pusah iv doblarse pusul a-p doblado pyerol n fiador 33 -

J2l ! a-p ah tv despreciarlo

p'ahben n desprecio

p'eceh n forma del tamaño de un ni:

p'ehkah iv declarar

p'ekel . a-p claro

-p'ih no granos

p'ihilahsp'ihil n3 viveza

8-p'iS tv medirlo

p'oh aj ultimo hijo

s-p'uy tv hacerle polvo

razón

rasyon ración la que toca recibir a una persona

rehirol regidor

repénta de repente

hresal rezador

rasponeo responsario que se reza por los difuntos en los días del todo santos

ryénta chicote

JL sabana n sabana

sableh iv madrugarse, adelantarse 34 - sakal 'askal azúcar

sakal cenek1 frijol blanco

sakil 'isim, sakal ' isim maíz blanco

sakub iv clararse, amanecerse

sakub k'inal amaneció el día

sak» tv lavar ropa

sálvente n saliente

sap'et iv entrando la noche

saranpia n sarampión, enfermedad contagiosa

semana n semana

senah iv calmarse

sentensya, aentensa n sentencia

Bevmro, sevaira aj seguro sikil k'inal clima fría

sikla? agua fría; refresco

sik-k'ahk' n escalofrío

sikub iv enfriarse

sikyera P siquiera sitit n nombre de una planta

siht« iv rendir, hincharse

siht'ub iv inflamarse

hai'wil n leñador

snalyeh P caramba soles tv dejarle pasar 35 - suhk iv taparse suklehet iv hacer ruido muy suave suhtes tv darle vuelta

ai?-¿'i' n miedo de perros selel a«p cortado en una sola punta (Eng. notched) sohol a-p metido sihii a-p recto y vertical sihawet iv haciendo movimiento con los pies sanabil:sanab n3 caite

-seht' nc pedazos hset*-ton n cantero aiwtes tv espantarlo sitúan, sinan n ladina sela n hilo de seda sat* tv repartirlo

•a' tv bañar la cabexa con jabón si?bintik aba - es muy feo, es muy peligroso

s-taalan tv encontrarlo muchas veces

8-tahtalan tv encontrarlos 36 - ata ko'tan me cae bien hfcael n persona que le encontraron tahimal n juego

-tab nc veinte takin 'uk'um río seco takin ko'tan tengo sed s-tak'iy~8-tak'uy tv consejarlo tak'inal posetik medicinas comprada o talel n costumbre; nagual

s-tarn tv pepenarlo

a-tamtalan tv pepenarlos htam rason hago la pregunta tánke n tanque de agua

tastat, tasta P papa de

tat n señor

tatik n señor grande

Utik palo n cura

tatil yu'un lum comisariado

htat snaryos mi padrino

ta'ah iv madurarse; acostarse

ta'al a-p acostado

tebehtik aj poco a poco

tehklum n el pueblo 37 -

8-tek' tv pisar con los pies s-tehk'an tv hacerle parar tehk'ah iv pararse tek'el a-p soltero, soltera

8-ten tv aplastarlo s-tenelan tv seguir aplastándolo s-tenleh n campo testigo n testigo tiba">il:stiba? n3 frente stiba9 yok espinilla de su pie s-tihilan tv despertarlo tantas veces a-tihtalan tv despertarlos tih iv despertarse tihil nanatik casitas cercas tihihtik aj cercas s-tikun tv mandarlo, ordenarlo tik'il a-p toditito

-tihk' nc clases s-tim tv pisotear con las puntas de los pies

•-ti* tv morder lo, comerlo ti'tun iv(?) molestoso ti'wan iv morder 38 - hti 'aw n mordilon, comilón ti'nail frente de la casa, patio ti' yoc-ya' orilla del sumidero s-toh tv pagarlo s-tohotes tv arreglarlo,, enderezarlo tohub iy arreglarse, enderezarse s-tohol n su pago, valor, precio tohub iv arreglarse tohp'lahan iv hacer ruido fuerte al tumbar un árbol tomut: oton smut huevo

8-toy tv levantarlo, ponerlo en alto precio toyol a-p alto, caro tramoha n tramo ja que usan las policías

8-tuc' tv reventarlo; cortar una fruta s-tuc1 talan tv reventarlos tuc'-cenek' n cortar frijol htuy-ti'bal n cartador de carne

-tul nc personas s-tulantes tv macizarlo tulisna n durazno tun iv servirse htunel n ayuntamiento tup' iv apagarse 38 hti 'aw n mordilón, comilón

ti'nail frente de la casa, patio

ti' yoc-ya' orilla del sumidero

s-toh tv pagarlo

s-tohotes tv arreglarlo, enderezarlo

tohub iv arreglarse» enderezarse

s-tohol n su pago,, valor, precio

tohub iv arreglarse

tohp'lahan iv hacer ruido fuerte al tumbar un árbol

tomut: eton smut huevo

s-toy tv levantarlo, ponerlo en alto precio

toyol a-p alto, caro

tramoha n tramo ja que usan las policías

s-tuc' tv reventarlo; cortar una fruta

s-tuc" talan tv reventarlos

tuc'-cenek' n cortar frijol

htuy-ti'bal n cartador de carne

-tul nc personas

s-tulantes tv macizarlo

tuliena n durazno

tun iv servirse

htunel n ayuntamiento

tup1 iv apagarse 39

htuhk'awil casa con escopeta

tyénda, tyénta tienda de abarrote il -ful nc gotas

t'om iv reventarse^ tronarse (/ s-t'un tv perseguirlo

t'imawet removiéndose, estirándose un caballo que no se deja amarrar

a-t'usan tv tumbarlo, botarlo

t'imt'un iv

o-t'im tv estirarlo

t'inkunah andar con un pie sobre las puntas de los dedos

t'inah inflamarse

y-uc'ilan tv seguir/andar tomándolo

h'uc'-tráwo n tomador de trago

y-u¿in tv cariciarlo con cariño

?u¿ilal:yu¿il n3 felicidad

'u¿W aj bastante, mucho

'uk'umaltiU tv ríos

?ul n atole - 40 hlul n curandero» yerbero y-ulutes tv acabarlo y=ulutay tv curarlo

'ulbal n terreno que se puede regar

'ulbaleltik n riegos

?úla n hule que le sirven paro tira y se llama tirador

-'urn n© bocados con agua

'tuna' n mudo

'untik: kuntikil n2 familia c'in 'untik niñitos

'unin aj tierno

?ustuk P que bueno está y-utilan tv andar regañando

*uht iv regañarse

'utawan iv regañarse y-u'un . n propiedad

wakas n ganado wam n cerco

-way nc veces de dormir waycah iv soñar

s-waycin tv soñar 41 wa'lahan iv catar gritando como de ma v/ehtf, *ah iv calmarse de dolor s-wel tv soplar,, barrer con ramas a we sal: awes n3 calzón

seht iv conseguirse we'HI n comida winik n hombre

swinkilel yu'xra slumal vecino del pueblo winikel n esposo

wisil:swio n3 hermana mayor

wohc" iv quebrarse

wohc'lahan iv hacer ruido

wohey p ayer

woldah iv sufrir

hwolawaneh n el que junta la gente

wolwun < iv(?) corriendo

vmivl a-p sentado

-wul no veces del baño de temascal

wulwun iv(?) platicando y platicando

wústo» wusta n gusto

wuy iv convencerse 42

JE. ya aj picante

yaub iv estar picante

yakub iv emborracharse

yakubel n borrachera

hyakubel n borracho

yan aj malo

yanatik aj otros

ta ye'tal de abajo

yih aj macizo

yihub iv macizarse

o-yom tv juntarlo,, hacerle manojo

yomol a~p reunido,, hecho por manojo

ta yutil de adentro »••"; :'v

APPENDIX 3. Tzeltal Numerals

This paper will describé the structure of numeral phrases in Tzeltal. The data on which this paper is based was gathered in the field by the writer in the period March 5 - August 28, I960. The data presented here represents the speech of two communities, Aguacatenango {Ag) and Tenejapa (Té). The Te data, consists of a list of classifiers elicited as such and glossed by an informant, plus a list of classifiers extracted from text and glossed by the informant. The Ag data consists of a list of the first type only, since texts from this dialect have not yet been culled for the type of data in question. Two additional sources exist which contain data of the type analyzed here, both for the Oxchuc (Ox) dialect of Tzeltal; one is pub- lished, the other is not. Marianna C. Slocum, Vocabulario Tzeltal-Español, Instituto Lingüístico de Verano, Mexico, 1953, pp 90-91. Norman A. McQuown, El Tzeltal Hablado, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago, 1957, pp 1Ó0-8. (unpublished; dittoed)

Numeral expressions in Tzeltal are made up of the following four types of elements. a) quantifying expressions representing the values 1-19, absolutive when followed by noun classifiers (d), but multiplicative when followed by quantifying classifiers (b). b) quantifying classifiers representing the values 20, 400, and 800; always preceded by one of the quantifying expressions (a), the value of (a) + (b) being a x b. i \

c) the particle /ta/. d) noun classifiers which specify some characteristic of the thing enumerated. They are of two types: (1) non-specific or general; one member, the suffix /-eb/. (2) specific or characteristic; an open set of which about fifty are of very frequent occurrence.

II Quantifying expressions are made up of a small closed class of thirteen numeral roots which never occur as free forms. The numerals '1 - 12' are roots and the expressions '13 - 19' are compounded from the roots 43 - 9r respectively plus the rooi-flOj-. The numeral expressions '1 - 19'. 'how many' are listed here. Phonemic shapes are those of the Ag dialect. hü2~h~hun •one' ca'-c •two1 9 OS 'three* can 'four' ho' 'five' wak 'six' huk •seven' wasuk 'eight' balun 'nine' lahun 'ten' buluc 'eleven' lahc 'twelve' * oslahun 'thirteen* <3 }• + •< 10 j- canlahun 'fourteen' K4).d-tl0'>. ho 9 lahun 'fifteen' isy + iioy v/aklahun 'sixteen' i 6 }- + •{ 10 )• huklahun 'seventeen* •Í7J.MÍ0I wa3uklahun 'eighteen' •{ 8 )• + •< 10 }• balunlahun 'nineteen' -C 9 S- + -Í 10 > hay 'how many' (relative and interrogative) These quantifying expressions are always either compounded with quantifying classifiers (b) or specific noun classifiers (d, ?.) or suffixed v/ith the general noun classifier /-eb/ (d, 1). The resultant form is a noun stem, by which is meant it has the inflexional charac- teristics, as well as the syntactic properties of a noun. The expression 'one' has three allomorphs. /hun/ occurs before the zero allomorph of the genera,), noun classifier /-eb/. /h-/ occurs before all specific noun classifiers, as well as before the three quantifying classifiers, /hu-/ occurs as the reduplication of itself; /hun/ + reduplication > /huhun/; /h-/ + reduplication > /huhu-/. The expression 'two1 has two allomorphs. /c-/ occurs before the general noun classifier /-eb/, the resultant form being /ceb/. /ca9-/ occurs elsewhere. All other quantifying have only one form, whether followed by /-eb/ or a specific classifier or reduplicated.

Ill The quantifying classifiers are as follows: /tab-winik/ 'twenty' /bahk1/ 'four hundred' /pik/ 'eight thousand' These morphemes are called 'classifiers' because like specific noun classifiers, they occur as the second members of compounds only when preceded by quantifying expressions, the resultant stems being nouns. Unlike specific noun classifiers, however, they may not occur as fres forms. The quantifying classifier 'twenty' has two suppletive allomorphs: /-tab/ occurring after 'one' /h-/, and /-winik/ occurring after all other quantifying expressions, /winik/ occurs elsewhere in the language as a noun stem meaning 'man, male, person'. The semantic connexion is probably through the fact that people have twenty digits. The quantifying classifier /pik/ does not occur in Ag. IV

Before dealing with the usage of /ta/ and the formation of specific noun classifiers, it will be convenient to describe here the formation of numeral phrases and the sequence of enumeration, or counting. There are two types of numeral phrases, general and spe- cific. The sequence of enumeration may be broken up into the values 1 through 19, and 20 through 159, 999 {or 7, 999 for the Ag dialect).

General numeral phrases 1-19 are formed by suffixing /-eb/ to quantifying expressions 1 - 19» Specific numeral phrases 1-19 are formed by compounding quantifying expressions 1-19 with specific noun classifiers. Both general and specific numeral phrases 1-19 are nouns and may be inflected as such. When inflexions are added to these stems, the suffic /-al/ is suffixed before any personal affixes are added. The third person singular possessed form of the numeral has the meaning 'ordinal'. Other forms mean 'the two of us*, 'the three of you', etc. Examples: General Specific* hun 1 htul ceb 2 ca'tul 'oseb 3 ' ostul caneb 4 cantul ho'eb 5 ho^tul wakeb 6 waktul hukeb 7 huktul wasukeb 8 wasuktul baluneb 9 baiuntul, etc. lahuneb 10 buluceb 11 lahceb 12 9 oslahuneb 13 canlahuneb 14 ho ?lahuneb 15 waklahuneb 16 huklahuneb 17 waouklahuneb 18 balunlahuneb 19 hayeb how many haytul

Examples of possessed forms are; /hcebaltik/, or /hca'tulaltik/ 'the two of us' (lit. 'our two') / 7awosebalik/, or /'awostulaltik/ 'the three of you' (lit. 'your three') /scanebal/ or /scantulal/ 'the fourth' (lit. 'its four1)

VI The points from 20 to 8, 000 are marked at intervals of twenty integers with compounds whose first member is a quantifying expression and whose second member is a quantifying classifier. General numeral phrases are represented by the simple com- pounding described above. Specific numeral phrases are represented by this compound plus the particle /ta/ plus the uninflected specific noun classifier. Examples are given for the 20-interval points between 20 and 400: General Specific htab 20 f 1 x 20 )• htab ta tul ca'winik 40 {-2x20$- ca'winik ta tul 'oswinik 60 f 3 x 20 )• 'oswinik ta tul canwinik 80 (• 4 x 20 ^ canwinik ta tul ho "* winik 100 (• 5 x 20 J. ho9winik ta tui, etc. wakwinik 120 (• 6 x 20 \ hukwinik 140 (• 7 x20 \ wa3ukwinik 160 f 8 x 20 \ balunwinik 180 (• 9x 20 Í- lahunwinik 200 f 10x20 *• bulucwinik 220 f 11 x20 \ lahcwinik 240 f 12 x 20 \ '*oslahunwinik 260 (• 13x20 )• canlahunwinik 280 f 14x20 \ ho'lahunwinik 300 f 15x20$. waklahunwinik 320 f 16x20 \ huklahunwinik 34Of 17x20}- wasuklahunwinik 360 {• 18x20 \ balunlahunwinik 380 {• 19x20 \ hbahk' 400 ¿ 1 x 400 )• libaM^ ta tul Quantities over 400 and less than 800 (ca'bahk') are expressed •400 + 100 (= 500)': /hbahk' sok ho9winik/. sok means 'with, and1. 7 -

VII Between the points 20, 40, 60, etc., the integers 21, 22, 23 ..., 41, 42, 43 ... , are represented by expressions which might be thought of as 'anticipative' of the end point of the counting. Thus, '21' is 'one on the way to forty', '42' 'two on the v/ay to sixty', etc The statement of this is as follows: General numeral phrases are represented by the general numeral from 1-19 plus the third person singular possessed form of the numeral which is a multiple of twenty which is at the end of the counting sequence. Specific numeral phrases same as general phrases, plus addition of /ta/ + specific noun classifier. Examples are here given for the interval between 20 and 40. General Specified^ htab 20 htab ta tul hun sea ' winik 21 ( 1 towards 40) hun 3ca'winik ta tul ceb sea'winik 22 (2 towards 40) ceb sea'winik ta tul 'oseb aca'winik 23 'oseb sea'winik ta tul caneb sea ' winik 24 caneb sea'winik ta tul ho ' eb sea ' winik 25 ho'eb sea'winik ta tul, wakeb sea ' winik 26 etc. hukeb sea ' winik 27 wasukeb sea'winik 28 baluneb sea'winik 29 lahuneb sea'winik, 30 etc. 31 32 33 34 through to ca ' winik 40 ca' winik ta tul All other areas between intervals of 20 have analogous structure. vra All numerals expressed by this system of numbering are expressed in terms of the above description. (There is one form of nume rational value, 9 olil, which means 'half. I have not ana- lyzed the occurrences of this in my data to the extent that i can specify how it fits into the system described here, if it belongs in it at all. if it does fit, it is probably a quan- tifying classifier like tab~winik, bank', and pik, and probably only occurs with the quantifier /h-/ 'one'.

IX The distribution of the particle /ta/ as seen in the above examples is as follows, /ta/ is obligatorily present in specific numeral phrases with values 20 and over. It occurs between the quantifier and the specific noun classifier. In addition, it occurs optionally before a quantified noun after a general numeral phrase, e.g. ca'winik peso = ca'winik ta peso '40 pesos'.2 Not enough examples of the 'optional' occurrence of /ta/ have been observed to enable a fruitful generalisation to be drawn. It ia possible, or even likely, that the class of nouns v/hich can follow /ca'winik ta/ as well as /ca'winik/ does not contain all Tseltal nouns.

X The general noun classifier suffix /-eb/ has allomorph /-e/ (Te) I-Q^I (Ag) when followed by certain nouns, which are measurements of segments of time. (Examples on next page). - 9 - Examples: k'al (Te); k'ahal, k'ahk'al (Ag) •day' ?u 'month* ha'will 'year' minuto 'minute' 9 ora 'hour' bwelta. 'time, repetition, occurrence1

XI Specific noun classifiers are of two types: a) classifier stems formed from transitive verb (tv) roots (cvc) by infixation of -h- between vowel and second consonant. b) noun stems used aa classifiers with no change in phonemic shape. Since in Ag and Te, infixed /h/ can only occur before plain and glottaliaed stops and affricates, when the final consonant of a tv root is /sshmnlwy '/, the classifier stem is not phonemically distinguished from the tv root whence it is derived. But in the Bachajon dialect, where this same limitation on the distribution of infixed /h/ does not hold, the distinction between the tv roots and the classifier stems is phonemically overt in more cases. In none of the dialects can infixed /h/ occur before /s s h '/.

XII There follows a list of classifiers elicited from informants or extracted from texts whose approximate meanings have been specified by informants. Forms are identified as to provenience by Ag, Té, Ox. The list is divided into three sections. A. Classifiers known to be derived from noun stems, B. Classifiers whose morphology Í3 probably tv + -h- - 10

B. (continued) but for which the corresponding tv roots are not otherwise attested in my data- This uncertainty leaves open the possibility that some noun stems are listed here. C. Classifiers known to be recniited from noun stems.

These (in this list) are probably the most frequently occurring classifiers, but by no means all of them. It appears that any transitive verb root whose meaning involves specifying the position or shape or state of an object, or a change therein, can be made into a numeral classifier. Hence, this is a very productive class. In contrast, there are very few noun stems which function as numeral classifiers.

A. Numeral classifiers derived from transitive verb roots

1) bal Ag, Te rolled up things •"bal tv roll up 2) bus Ag piles *'-bus T cf busul aj piled up 3) cahp Ag.Te.Ox pairs -cap tv agree about 4) col Ag, Te, Ox lines, furrows -col tv lineup ' 5) c'ara Ag, Te, Ox piles -c'am tv gather 6) c°oh Te times, occurrences -c'oh tv throw, drop 7) ¿ohp Te,Ox piles, groups ¿ob Ag -¿ob tv gather together - 11 -

8) ¿'al Ag, Te, OK packages, loads -¿"al tv pile up 9) haw Ag, Te, Ox armsful *-haw T c£ -hawuy tv measure by armsful 10) him Ag.Te.Qx shots, blows -him tv shoot 11) huht Ag, Te holes cf iv hut {Oiz) be perforated IE) kali Ag, Te, Ox floors, levels *~kah T cf kahal aj on top 13) koht Ag,Te,Ojc animals #-kot T cf kotol aj on all fours 14) k'as Ag, Te.Ox pieces, fragments -k'as tv break 15) lah¿ Ag, Te (meaning unclear) "la¿ ív pile up 16) lam Ag, Te,Oj: pieces of clothing *~lam T cf lamal aj steady 17) lehc Ag, Te.Ojs flat thin things -iec tv take hold of (something thin and flat) 18) lihk Ag, Te ropes, cords -lik tv carry 19) mahk Ag,Te chunks (cork-shaped) -mak tv 3top up 20) mel Ag, Te,Ox occurrences -mel tv explain 21) pal Ag, Te bunches *-pal T cf -palan tv loosen 22) pam Te flat areas *-pam ü cf pamal aj flat 12

23) pehc Ag, Te, Ox flat round things *-pec T 24) peht Ag, Te handsful of wood -pet tv embrace (below the arms) 25) pohk' Ag, Te,Ox changes of clothing -pok' tv place clothes on 26) p'is Ag, Te,Qx measures -p'ia tv measure 27) sehp Ag, Te, Ox round things *-sep T cf sepel aj round (like a plate) 28) saht1 Ag,Te„Ox parts, jobo -sat" tv split 29) sent' Ag, Te,Ox pieces of paper, tortillas, bark -set* tv split 30) soht Ag, Te rolls of vine, wire *-sot T 31) tehk Ag„Te,Ox whole plants *-tek T cf -tak» tv step on 32) ten Ag, Te.Ox classes, manners -ten ty mash 33) tih Ag hours of the day -tih tv ring a bell, play an instrument 34) tihk* Ag, Te, Ox groups, divisions -tik' tv put in 35) tul Ag, Te, Ox people cf -tul tv cut off 36) wel Ag, Te fanning8 with a leaf or branch -wel tv fan, blow 37) wol Ag, Te spherical things cf -wol tv lead, manage ; wolol aj spherical 13

B. Derivation uncertain 1) ees Ag, Te branches, leaves 2) hil Ag, Te ropes 3) kuh Ag tree-trunks, bunches 4) pis Ag fruits 5) p'al Ag, Te words 6) p'eh Te,Ox small round things p'ih Ag

C„ Derived from nouns 1) c'is Ag, Te,Ox corncobs, trees, rolls, cylindrical things c'is n spine, thorn 2) k'ab Ag, Te fingerbreadth k'ab n hand, arm 3) k'asel Ag, Te occurrence k'asel n

X1IX

Both general numerals and specific numerals may be redupli- catedo In the case of the latter, only the quantifying element is repeated. In the case of the former» the whole numeral is repeated, but the form of the suffix /-eb/ in the first half of the reduplication is /-e/. Redup- lication has not been observed in numeral phrases whose value is larger 14 - than twenty^ but they might be expected to occur» The meaning of reduplication is distributive. e.g. /hulnan/ 'every one, one by one" /huhutul/ 'every person" /ca'ca'kohi/ "animals» two by two' /cece^k'ahal/ "every two days'

XÍV

Another type of juxtaposing of numerals is used to indicate vagueness within limits- The mechanism is analogous to that of reduplication as described above. In general numerals, a complete suffixed form is followed by another complete suffixed form. In spe- cific numerals, the quantifying elements are juxtaposed before the classifier is attached, speaking in terms of immediate constituency. The specific mechanism íG that a quantifying expression is followed by the next largest one» as in the following examples. /ca' ^oatalf (two-three-person) "a few people" /cebóse 'u/ {two-three-month) "a few months' /canho'koht/ (four-five-animal) "several animals'

XV

Certain specific classifiers have statable limits to the quanti- fying expressions with which they can occur, /-teb/, meaning 'a little1» only occurs with 'one', /h-/. /-'ahk'/, meaning "a short time", only occurs with "one", and "two", /ca'-/.^

XVI

A numeral phrase may be followed by a noun or noun phrase which it quantifies, or it may stand alone as a noun phrase. See XIX. - 15

XVII

Most nouns when quantified may be preceded by a numeral phrase of either the general or the specific type. Certain nouns, how- ever, may not be quantified in a general way. Such nouns as /te9/ 'wood', /si9/ "firewood*, /hi9/ 'sand', /ha'/ 'water' are examples. In Tzeltal^ one cannot say s3 woods', J10 firewoods', '400 sands', or '7 waters' any more than in English. In Tseltal there are classifiers for 'flat thing' /-lehc/, 'broken things' /-k'as/, "small round thing' /-p'ih/, and'drops' /-t'ul/, which, among others, are used with these nouns. We may call nouns of this type mass nouns. Examples: . /9oslehc te9/ (three flat thing wood) "three planks' /lahunk'aa si9/ (ten broken thing firewood) "ten chunks of firewood" /hbahk' ta p'ih hi9/ (one times four hundred small round thing sand) 'four hundfed grains of sand /hukful ha9/ (seven drop water) 'seven drops of water'. Some mass nouns when classified by different classifiers refer to different things. Examples: / 9 oslehc te 9 / (three flat thing wood) "three planks' /9ostehk te9/ (three plant wood) 'three trees*.

XVIII

Nouns which are not mass nouns usually may be quantified either with a general or a specific numeral phrase. e.g. 7903eb winik/ = /9ostul winik/ 'three men' /9oswol na/ = /9oseb na/ 'three houses" 16

Some nouns are rarely or never quantified with a specific numeral phrase. These are primarily nouns referring to body parts» Not all body parta are treated this way. The distinction in meaning, if relevant,, may be either internal va, external, or shaped vs. parts for which shape is not specified. A careful examination of pertinent examples has yet to be made. Examples of classified body parts. /k'ab/ 'hand, arm' (c'is Te,Ag) 'cylindrical' /bak/ 'bone' it ti /sulub/ 'horn11 n ii /'o'tan/ 'heart' (p'eh Te, pis Ag) 'fruit-shaped' /cuV 'breast (£)' ¡i n /sit/ 'eye0 (p'eh Te, p'ih Ag) 'small, round3 /musuk'/ 'navel' ti II /hoi/ 'head' (p'eh Te, wol Ag) 'spherical' /cikin/ 'ear" (lihk Te, lehc Ag) •flat"

XIX The numeral phrase may function as a nominal, that is, as subject of transitive or intransitive verb, object of transitive verb, or stative predicate. It may precede another nominal which it then quantifies. Examples: /ya stal ca'tul/ (present comes two-person) "two people are coming" (subject of intransitive verb) /ya hmil ca'koht/ (present I-kill two-animal) "I'm killing two animals" (object of transitive verb) /ca'kohtik/ (two-animal-they are) "they are two animals" (stative predicate) /7ay ca'tul winik/ (exist two-per son man) "there are two men" (quantifier of following noun). - 17 -

Footnotes

(1) The noun classifier used here is /-tul/, used with nouns referring to people. (2) Compare English 'twoscor© pounds" vs. 'two scores of pounds'. (3) In English one saya, "I'll be there in two shakes;" one does not say, "I'll be there in four shakes. "* APPENDIX 4. A Sketch of Tzeltal Syntax

Abbreviations Word level (word type names)

vaj verbal adjective ip inflectible particle iv intransitive verb tv transitive verb pv passive verb rv reflexive verb ppr personal pronoun dpp demonstrative pronoun epr emphatic pronoun nc numeral classifier aux auxiliary p„v postverbal modifier vn verbal noun n noun aj adjective a-p adjective~participle Phrase level (phrase type names) N noun phrase ivp intransitive verb phrase tvp transitive verb phrase t time 1 location m manner e extent P purpose Abbreviations. Phrase level (continued)

H head slot Mod Modification slot Num numeral slot ise level (slot names) IP intransitive predicate TP transitive predicate SP stative predicate T time L location M manner P purpose I introducer S/O subject/object Ag agent

+ obligatory ± optional slot filler Bibliography and Literature

Benjamin Elson and Velma B. Pickett, Beginning Morphology-Syntax, SIL, Santa Ana., I960, 73 pp.

Kenneth L. Pike, Language in Relation to a Unified 7.'heory of the Structure of Human Beha vior, SIL, Glendale. Parti, 1954 170 pp. Part II, 1955 85 pp. Part III, I960 146 pp.

Velma Bernice Pickett, The Grammatical Hierarchy of Isthmus Zapotee, LSA Language Dissertation #56, Baltimore, I960, 101 pp. Internal Memo #5

0. Introduction This paper is an attempt to describe Tzeltal syntax using a general frame of reference based on Pike's tagmeme theory. The description is based on a general knowledge of Tzeltal„ and was tested on a limited corpus. The statements made here account for most of the constructions in that corpus, which consisto of about 3000 words of text material, 480 sentences, in the Tenejapa dialect. There are 29 texts in all„ the subject matter of the corpus being sickness and curing. The structural items to be dealt with here are affix, word, phrase, and clause. This description stops at the clause level; that is, it describes the structure of clauses but does not describe how clauses are put together to make sentences, nor does it describe any higher level (discourse, utterance, etc. }. The description begins with syntactic word types, proceeds to phrase types, thence to clauses.

1.0 Syntactic word types. In Tzeltal there are five stem-classes; nouns (n), transitive verb3 (tv), intransitive verbs (iv), adjectives (aji), and particles (p). These five stem-classes on the morphological word level are matched by a good many more on the syntactic word level. In the discussion of phrase and clause structure to follow, word types that are specified are syntactic word types and not stem-classes al- though the names are similar. The following syntactic word types occur. 1.1.1 Independent personal pronouns; /ho9on/ 'I, me', /ha9at/ 'you (sg)', /ha'/ '3dsg», /ho'tik/ 'we, us', /ha'es/ «you (pl)«, /ha'ik/ 'they, them'. These are formally speaking stative verbs formed from the particle /ha'/ + stative verb endings (see stative predicates 3. 1,3), and might be translated 'it is I who', *it is you who', etc. From a more fruitful point of view, however, since these pronouna function »© precisely the way that all other subjects and objects do, these forma are called independent personal pronouns. The inter rogativa-relative personal pronouns /mac'a/ 'who', /mac'aták/ '(the) ones, people (who) are formally particles.

1.1.2 Reflexive pronoun /-ba/ 'oneself, one another', inflected as a nouns is the direct object complement in a reflexive verb construction.

1.1.3 Emphatic personal pronoun /-tukel/ 'by oneself, oneself alone', inflected as a noun, fills the subject/object slot on the clause level, as well as being an expansion to the right of the corresponding (for person) independent personal pronoun.

1.1.4 Demonstrative pronouns /ha'/, /ha9 in»/, /ha' rnene/ 'this, that" with relative-interrogative /binti/, /bin/, /bi/ 'what' and /bitik/ '(the) things (that)' are partly phrasal in structure and will be discussed in the phrase-level presentation.

1.2.1 Inflectible particles: /hie/ 'thus', /ha'/ 'this/that5, /'ay/ 'existing', /yakal/ 'currently', and perhaps several others, are that subclass of all particles which may occur with stative verb endings on the clause level.

1.2.2. Numeral classifiers are a special subset of particles which are derived from tv roots and noun stems and occur only as satellites in the numerational slot of the noun phrase. 1.2.3 The single preposition /ta/ is always followed by an 'object' (noun phrase) and occurs in location phrases, in the numeration slot in noun phrases, and in manner phrases. IP 1.2c 4 The particle /sok/ 'with' is optionally followed by any nominal element, or by another clause.

1.2.5 Some particles have wide distribution across phrase types and have a position specifiable in terms of a whole phrase with themselves as the last expansion.

1.2. 6 Other particles have positions definable in terms of the whole clause in which they occur.

1.2.7 Clause introducers functioning on the clause level are /me/, /tame/, /k'alal/, /te/ .

1.2.8 All other particles are specified by the types of phrases they occur in, which are the following, time, location, manner, extent, purpose, transitive verb, intransitive verb. They include specific (or absolute) as well as relative-interrogative particles.

1.3.1 Verbal nouns are that subclass of noun stems (and as well syntactic nouns) which are derived from transitive and intransitive verb stems by the addition of the suffix /-el/. (A few intransitive verbs are derived irregularly and with the suffix I-all). Verbal nouns (at least those derived from tv stems, and perhaps also those derived from iv stems) may function as satellites in verb phrases. Those derived from transitive verbs may govern objects when part of the verb phrase. - 7

1. 3.2 Geographical names (gn), which are uninfLected on the morpho- logical level are simply nouns on the syntactic level-

1.3.3 Personal names (pn) are not normally (if ever) possessed or pluralized on the morphological level. They function as nouns on the syntactic level. There are two types of personal names; those having prefix /h-/, and those having prefix /s-/. Those having prefix /h-/ are men's Christian names, and indigenous and Spanish family names. Those having prefix /s-/ are women's Christian names. These prefixes» which are present when the names are used referentially, are absent when the words are used in direct address»

1.3.4 All other forms which are nouns on the morphological level are also nouns on the syntactic level.

1.4.1 Verbal adjectives are of two types; those derived from tv stems with the suffix /-bil/, which are perfect passive participles, and those derived from iv stems with the suffix /-em/, which are perfect active participles. These verbal.adjectives may have attributive function, and stative function. In the latter function they may be preceded by the verbal particle /'ay/, unlike other adjectives, and like verbs. Exx: from tv /'ak'bil/ 'having been given' /manbil/ 'having been bought* /paybil/ 'having been boiled' from iv /talem/ 'having come' /'ahc'em/ 'having gotten wet1 /lok'em/ 'having gone out' - 8

1.4.2 Adjective-participles are a subclass of adjectives which are derived from tv roots with the suffix /-Vf 1/ and generally specify something about the condition of something. £x3c: a) /payal/ 'boiled' b) /tek'el/ 'standing up', 'upright' c) /cotol/ 'seated», 'sitting' d) /hakal/ 'far off e) /tihil/ •near by' f) /nakal/ 'situated' g) /sepel/ 'round and flat1 h) /wolol/ 'spherical' It may be that these words can also occur preceded by /7ay/, but this is not verified. They are unique, however, in that in stative predications these are the only fillers of that slot that can occur with the suffixes /-an, -anik/ '2d sg/pl imper'. This suffix cannot occur with all these a-p's. One cannot say 'be boiled!» (a), 'be round!' (g), 'be spherical!' (h); one can say 'stand up!' (b), 'sit down!' (c), 'get lost!' (d).

1.4.3 All other forms which are adjectives on the morphological level are also adjectives on the syntactic word level.

1.5.1 Passive verbs are derived from tv stems by suffixing /-ot/, or /«bet/ (= /-bey/ 'indirect' + /-ot/ 'passive'). They have the same syntactic properties as other intransitive verbs, with the exception that on the clause level an agent slot optionally occurs when a passive verb is the head of a predicate.

1.5,2 Auxiliaries are uninflected forms of verbs used in leftward expansions of verb phrases of all types (not stative). - 9

I. 5.3 Postverbal modifiers are (historically) verbal nouns used in rightward expansions of verb phrases of all types (not stative).

1.5.4 All other words which are intransitive verbs on the morpho- logical level are also iv'o on the syntactic level.

1. 5.5 All transitive verbs on the morphological level are also transi- tive verbs on the syntactic level, with the exception of /stak'/ (q. v. 2.2.9.2. 2.2.9.3).

1.6 Note on relatives: relative particles — personal pronoun, demonstrative (pronoun), time, location, purpose, manner, extent -- all have double function (see Fickett pp 70-1). They function in the appropriate slot in the dependent clause, and the dependent clause as a whole functions as the subject or object in the independent clause. The various relative particles will be discussed under the various phrase types of which they are members. The optional /te/ which is described for the relative particles usually (but not always or only) occur when the relative clause is filling the subject slot in the main clause.

2.0 Phrases Phrases are groups of words or single words which are potentially expandable into more than one word.. All words which are not expandable and yet fill slots in levels above the phrase should have been dealt with on the word level. The following phrase types occur. Noun phrases (N) head slot modification slot numerational slot demonstrative slot 10

Intransitive verb phrases (ivp)

Transitive verb phrases (tvp)

auxiliaries postverbals Time phrases (t) Location phrases (1) Purpose phrases (p) Manner and Extent phrases (ra, e)

2o 1 Noun Phrases

2. 1.1 The simple noun phrase consists of an optional demonstrative slot (discontinuous), an optional enumerational slot,, an optional modification slot,, and an obligatory head slot» The head slot is filled by a single noun Exs: /h'antun/ 'Antonio0 /hobel/ 'San Cristóbal8 /can/ Bsnake' /baria/ 'attic' Any polymorphemic (stem, stem) head is probably to be considered a compound.

2.1.2 The slot occurring immediately to the left of the head slot is the optional modification slot, which may be filled either by a noun or by an adjective, the latter of which is expandable. Exx: Mod : n + H : n /'an¿ hohmut/ (woman crow) "female crow" /pukuh ¿'i7/ (evil-one dog) 'mean dog1 - 11 -

Adjectives are of two types, those which suffix /«Vl/ when the adjective occurs in attributive function and those which do not. Adjectives may be expanded to the left with either /lorn/ or /bwen/, both meaning 'very». Exx: Mod : aj + H : n /lekil 'an¿/ (good-Vl woman) 'good woman3 /«¡•in kerem/ (little boy) 'little boy' Mod: A [lorn, bwen + ajj + H : n /lorn k'isin ha9/ (very hot water) /bwen lekil posil/ (very good-VI medicine) No examples of more than one adjective filling the modification slot has been noted heretofore, and none are present in the data X am testing; so it is not possible to say what the ultimate expansion of this slot might be.

2.1,2.1 Possessive inflexion of nouns occura on the phrase level and includes the optional modification slot and the obligatory head slot. (Possessive affixes are underlined in the following examples). Exx: T H : n /shol/ °hio head» i Mod : n + H : n /spukuh ^'i9ik/ (their-evil-one dog-tbeir) 'their mean dog(s)' ± Mod : aj + H : n /hlekil 'an^tik/ (our-good-Vl woman-our) 'our good women1 No examples of the possessive affixes including the manner particles /lorn/, /bwen/ have ever been observed.

2.1.2.2 There are certain complex noun expressions which should be described here. (Do not confuse with complex noun phrases which are quite a different thing; see 2.1.5). They consist of one noun in a given - 12

state followed by another in the same state (i. e., possessed oar unpossessed), except that only the second shows plural inflexion- The relation between the two items may be thought of as apposition on the phrase level. The structure is analogous to that of complex intransitive verbs and reflexive verbs (q. v. 2.2.3, 2.2.1). Exx: /pat suhk/ 'a neighbor3 /hpat hsuhk/ 'my neighbor" /apat asuhkik/ 'yalls neighbors9 /kal hnic'an/ 'my sons and daughters' /ame0 stat/ 'hio father and mother1 > 'his ancestors'

2.1.3 The next slot to the left of the modification slot is the optional numeral slot. It may be filled either by a numeral phrase (described in detail in a paper written for another course) or a numeral expression suchas /'oseb tu¿/ 'three spoons (of)1, which is an included + Num : num + H : n phrase. Exx: ± Num : num ± Mod : aj + H : n /ca'tul lekil winik/ (two-person good-VI man) 'two good men'

± Num : num [+ H : nj ± Mod : a j + H : n /'oseb tu¿ k'isin tolha7/ (three spoons hot water)

2.1.3.1 If not followed by a noun functioning as head of a noun phrase, the numeral slot functions as the head of a noun phrase and can ouly be expanded by the demonstrative slot, discussed next.

2/1/4 The last slot to the left is the optional demonstrative slot. It is discontinuous, so that the i Num ± Mod + H is included within the demon* strative expression. Demonstrative expressions are the following: /te + H ± e/ 'the' (when noun phrase is single, or last in a complex noun phrase string) 13

/te + H/ 'the' (when non-final in a complex noun string) /ha? + H + ini/ 'this' /ha? in -f H + i/ 'this' /ha? in + H + ini/ 'this' /ha' + H + mene/ 'that' /ha? men + H + e/ 'that' /ha' men + H + mene/ 'that' The interrogative demonstrative is /binti, bin, bil/ 'what? * The H at the end is suffixed with I -ill when this, or the relative demonstrative occurs. The relative demonstrative is /+ te binti, bin.bi/ 'what, that which. • Ex: /bi 'a'telil/ (?a?tel = work) 'what (kind of) work? '

2.1.5 Complex noun phrases or strings. Also on the phrase level occur sequences of more than one noun phrase strung together by the mechanism of having all but the last phrase of the string possessed in the third person singular (all but the demonstrative part) which represents the possessive or genitive relation obtaining between the phrases. Noun phrases entering into the complex noun string construction may occur only with /te/, of all the demonstratives. Exx: + H poss + H /¿hoi sun/ (his-head John) i. e. John, his head> John's head or his head (of) John> the head of John The longest string occurring in the texts mentioned in the introduction is -- /spukuhil te ya'lel sti? te cane/ X ZZT" + Npois + N posante + H:nJ+ N poss + N G te + H :rj 'its evil (of) its liquid (of) its mouth (of) the snake' i.e. 'the evil of the saliva of the snake1 (the power of the snake's venom). If /te/ occurred before /sti?/, the symmetry would be perfect. - 14

As it is, /ya'lel sti9/ probably are in immediate constituency with one another.

Z. Z Verb phrases (simple) consist of an optional negation slot, an obligatory tense particle slot, an optional auxiliary slot, an obligatory head slot, and an optional postverbal modification slot. There are two main types of head, transitive and intransitive.

2. 2. 1 All simple transitive verbs have two aspects, imperfective and perfective. In the imperfective aspect they are preceded by tense markers /ya/ 'present1 or /la/ 'past' ; in the perfective aspect they are preceded by nothing. Reflexive verbs are a special subset of simple transitive verbs in that they take as direct object the reflexive pronoun I -ha.I (1.1.2) which is always inflected for the same person as the subject of the verb; plural is always indicated on the pronoun where relevant, never on the verb. The reflexive pronoun is considered as being included in the main verb expression. Exx: /ya hmah hba/ 'I hit myself /ya humah hbahtik/ 'we hit each other1 The structure of reflexive verb heads ia analogous to that of complex noun expressions (2.1.2.2) and complex intransitive verbs (2. 2.3).

2.2.2 Simple intransitive verbs have only one aspect, imperfective. They may be preceded by tense markers /s/ 'non-past1, /ya 4- a/ 'present progressive', /'a/ 'past', or nothing'past*. Intransitive verbs are both active and passive.

2.2. 3 A complex intransitive verb expression may also function as a head. As in complex noun expressions and reflexive verb expressions, plural is marked only on the second member of the expression. The fact that /«/, above (2.2.2) identified as a particle, can occur with - 15 both elements of such an expression is evidence in favor of its being considered an inflexion (prefixual) rather than a particle. /ya s'alah snic'nah/ (give-birth beget) 'they are having children' /'alah nic'nabik/ 'they had children"

2.2.4 Imperative verbs are never preceded by tense particles. The negative imperative {see 2.2. 8) for both transitive and intransitive verbs

,ia -^.i.Neg : ma ±me +; Tense : s + H : tv/iv i. e. ma (me) s + verb

2o 2.5 A simple transitive or intransitive verb head may be expanded to the left with one of several auxiliary verba, which formally are uninflected (usually intransitive) verb stems. The tense markers that precede the auxiliaries and that specify the whole phrase are those that occur with transitive verbs. ± Aux + Head may be thought of as a complex verb phrase rather than an expansion of a simple verb phrase» i. e. main verb + main verb rather than satellite + nucleus» as it is treated here. The total number of auxiliaries is about 10. Exx: /k'an/ (

2.2.6 Post-verbal modifiers. The simple verb phrase may be expanded to the right with certain elements (some of which are still formally identical with verbal nouns, and some of which have an altered shape) which directly follow the head and which specify something about the manner of the action. There are about 10 of these. Exx: /bel/ (

2.2.7 Any verb phrase (simple or complex) may be preceded by / 'ay/ as the next-last expansion to the left. This too may be thought of as a complex construction; since /'ay/ in other contexts means 'existing', / 'ay/ + verb phrase may be translated as 'it is the case that ...'. The construction is herepegarded as a simple expansion.

2.2.8 Negative expressions occur first in the verb phrase. They are /ma + ba/, and /ma/. The general distribution is that /ma/ occurs when verbs have past tense markerá or no tense markers, and /ma ba/ precedes verbs having present tense markers. But this is not always the case. In addition, when negatives are (operationally) added to a verb phrase, the tense markers may disappear. Tte negative of a verb phrase beginning with /'ay/ is to replace /'ay/ by /ma'yuk ba/. - 17

2.2-9 Complex verb expressions. There are several types of predicate» which consist of a simple verb phrase plus additional matter which it is convenient to consider as part of the verb phrase and not part of the clause structure. There are two main types of complex verb expressions^ verb + verb, and verb + verbal noun. Each main type ha3 two subtypes. * )\lh\

2.2.9.1 1A. The transitive verbs /-ak'/ 'put, give', /-pas/ 'do, make' may occur in construction with a following verb (perhaps only a head) with no intervening tense particles. The meaning is 3he causes that he do it1 'he makes/has him do it1. Exx: with/-ak'/ /ya yak'ik stuhta/ (they give, he spits) 'they have him spit' /ya yak'beik ya'lelin/ (they give to it, he dissolves it) 'they have him dissolve it' /ya kak'bet awuc'e/ (I give to you, you drink it) 'I have you drink it1 /ya yak1 k'isnahuk/ (he gives it, it heats up) 'he makes it heat up1 Exx: with /-pas/ /ya spas yil/ (he make, he see) 'he makes him see it' The transformation of transitive active verbs is intransitive passive verbs; therefore, the transform of /ya yak'be yuc'/ (he causes it, that he drink) 'he makes him drink1 becomes /ya s'ak'bet yuc9 (yu'un)/ (it is caused, that he drink by him ) 'he is made to drink (by him)' .

2.2.9.2 IB. The transitive verb /stak'/(stem -tak'; only occurs with 'id sg. prefix) 'it is possible/permitted that* may occur in construction with a following verb (perhaps only a head) and the second verb may have tense particles as well. A possible way to analyze it is as a main verb followed by a dependent verb, the whole construction functioning asa predicate of the type specified by the dependent verb, /stak'/ only occurs with the particles /ya/ or /ma/. The second verb occurs with its normal complement of tense particles, which are all replaced by /s/ when the construction is negatived. " - 18

Exx: /ya stak' ya hbik'tik/ (possible, we-swallow-it) 'we can swallow it' /ya stak' anihkesis/ (possible, he-moves-it-already) •he can already move it' (neg) /ma stak' s yuc'/ (not possible, he drinks it) 'he must not drink it1 \% /ma stak' s ben/ (not possible, he walks) 'he cannot walk'

2. 2. 9. 3 2A. Certain verbs (perhaps only the two found in the examples listed here) may be followed directly by verbal nouns. These verbal nouns then govern the objects which optionally follow in the clause. Since nouns cannot precede other nouns and be in construction with them without being possessed 3d sg, these unmarked verbal nouns must be functioning, as transitive verbs. Exx: with/-ic'/ 'take' /ya yic* postael/ 'he takes up the curing of (it)' /ya yic' lok'eael/ 'he takes up the removal of (it)*' /ya hie' hulel/ 'he takes up the piercing of (it)1 The verbal noun part may be expanded by the demonstrative /te .. <• e/. Thus, /la yic' te hulele = la yic' hulel/./ with /stak*/ 'possible/permitted' /ma stak' tuntesel/ 'one cannot eat (it)' /ya stak' 'uc'el/ 'one can drink (it)' Since the verb /stak'/ is impersonal there is no personal subject in /stak'/ + vn phrases, /stak'/ is never followed by an object. If followed by anything it must be a simple verb phrase or a verbal noun. It is not known whether it may occur alone, as a one word predicate.

2.2.9.4 2B. Other constructions occur in which certain verbs are followed in close construction by /tal/ + verbal nouns (also derived from transitive verbs). The objects of these verb phrases are governed by the verbal noun, not the main verb. - 19

Exx: with /-ak1/ 'give, put' /ya yak' ta manel/ 'he causes him to buy (it)1 i.e. (pres he-gives to buying) 'he has (him) buy (it)' /ya yak' ta bak utesel/ 'he has (him) fry (it)' /ya yak' ta p'uyel/ 'he has (him) pulverize (it)* /ya yak» ta 'uc'el/ 'he has (him) drink (it)' with /-tikun/ 'send' /ya stikun fta leel/ 'he sends (him) to look for (it)' /ya stikun ta manel/ 'he sends (him) to buy (it)1 with /-ta/ 'find, meet' /la sta ta tuhtael/ 'he comes to the point of spitting' /la sta ta- postael/ 'he comes to the point of curing (it)' /la stabe ta 'ahtael/ 'he comes to the point of counting (it)' with /-le/ 'look for' /ya sle ta 9ahtael/ 'he seeks to count it*

Postverbal particle may occur between the main verb and the verbal noun. e. g. /la stabe lok'el tal ta nuk'el/ he meets leaving coming to sucking (it) + tv + pv +pv +ta +vn 'he comes to the point of sucking it'

This type of construction contrasts with one of the following type. Ex. /ya shun ta wayel (yinam)/ 'he accompanies (his wife) in sleep1 = 'he sleeps with (bis wife)1, /yinam/ is the. object of /shun/ not of /wayel/ which is derived from an intransitive verb /way/ 'sleep1.

2.3 Time phrases may be simple, expanded, or complex. They are of three types, absolute, interrogative, and relative, a) absolute: simple /ya'tik/ 'nowadays' /'ora/ 'now' (continued next page) - 20

/wohey/ 'yesterday' /naa / 'today* /ca'weh/ 'day after tomorrow' : expanded (particle + particle) /'ora ya'tik/ 'today' /hasta 'ora/ 'until now1 /'ora na8/ 'today' : complex /yu'un/ + N (indicating point of time) e.g. /yu'un rominko/ 'on.Sunday' /yu'un sk'in santo/ *on All Saints'

b) interrogative (complex): /bi 'ora/ 'when?'; /bi/ = interrogative demonstrative (pronoun). Ex: /bi 'ora ya stal/ (what time he-comes) 'when is he coming?

c) relative /x te + bi 'ora/ 'when' Ex: /ma hna' bi 'ora ya stal/ 'I don't know when he's coming'

2.4 Location phrase8 are simple, expanded, and complex; absolute, interrogative, and relative. a) absolute (A) simple /UV 'here' /tey/ •there* /lum/ 'yonder' (B) expanded /li' ... i/ •hex /H? to/ 'hex /li' nas .".. i/ 'right here' /tey 'a/ 'there' /tey ... e/ 'there* (continued next page) - 21

/teynas ... e/ "right there' /lum to/ 'yonder' /lum . . » e/ 'yonder3 /lum ine/ 'over yonder' (C) complex 1. /ta/ + noun phrase, /ta/ and demonstratives are mutually exclusive so that any noun phrase beginning in /te/ or /ha'/ loses it (operationally speaking) when ' preceded by /ta/ Exx: /ya slok1 ta sti? sna9 / (pres he-leave ¿from its-mouth his-home)' 'He's going out his door' /ya stal ta hobel/ 'He's coming from S. Cristóbal' 2o (A) or (B) + (C) e.g. /li9 tota yut hna i/ 'here inside my house' /li9 ta hna i/ 'herein my house* /tey 9a ta sna/ 'there in his house0 /lum to ta wi¿/ 'over there on the hill' b) interrogative: /banti, ban, ba/ 'where? * Ex: /banti 9ay te winike/ 'where is the man?"

c) relative: /+ te + banti, ban, ba/ 'where* Ex: /ma skiltik te ba 9a baht/ 'I didn't see where he went9.

2.5 Purpose phrases are perhaps not aptly named, but their structure can be described. It is /yu9un/ (or /-u9un/) 'of, to, with respect to, for' + N. Exx: a) /te ceb wakas yu^un sun/ (the 2 cattle of-him John) 'the two cattle of John' b) /ya snel yu9un/ 'it is passing for him1 (his time of trouble) 22

The stem /-u'un/ is a noun and the translation is 'of me, you, him, us, you, them1. If /-u'un/ io 3d person it can govern an object which Í3 a noun phrase. If it is not 3d person, the object is expressed in the inflexion and it governs no other object. /ku?un/ Jfor me' /awu'un/ 'for you5 /ku'untik/ 'for us'

Perhaps the usage in Ex a) {/yu'un sun/) should be described as part of the noun phrase expansion since /te ceb wakas yu9un sun/ is a perfect candidate for filler of the subject/object slot on the clause level. The second usage (b), however, is different and is paralleled by the corresponding relative and interrogative constructions. Interrogative: /bi yu'un/ 'what for?' i.e. 'why?' (complex) Ex: /bi yu'un ya apas/ 'why are you doing it? °

Relative: /± te + biyu'un/ 'why', 'for what reason' 'to what end' Ex: /ma hna? bi yu'un hie ya syakub/ (neg I-know why thus he-gets-drunk) •I don't know why he gets drunk that way1.

2.6 Manner and extent phrases. These answer the questions 'in what way? ' /bit'il/, 'to what extent?' /tu yipal/ (Aguacatenango). All but the relative and interrogative are merged in usage and even these are distinct only in the Aguacatenango dialect, not in Tenejapa; so there seems no point in separating these formally identical particles into two groups, a) absolute: simple /hie/ 'tuus' /*ek/ 'also' /was/ 'only' 23 -

: expanded /hie ñas/ 'just this way1 : complex 1) /ta/ + adjective /ta lek/ 'well' /ta k'un/ 'slowly' 2)/sok/ ¿N /aok ek'ab/ 'with his hand1 /sok/ 'with it' b) interrogative /bit'il/ "how? • Ex: /bit'il la apas te apisole/ 'How did you make your hat c) relative /± te + bit'il/ «how' ma hna9 te bit'il ya sc'i/ 'I don't know how it grows*

2.7 There are certain particles which may be thought of as being plugged into phrases but in some sense not part of the structure of that phrase. They can also occur in more than one phrase type, which is why there are described separately here.

2.7.1 The particle / ?a/ may occur last in any phrase. It may also occur between the first and second elements of a complex noun phrase. e.g. /ta spa sel 2ü te sna-e/ 'in the making of his house*. The meaning is vague, perhaps something like 'past, away*.

2.7.2 The particle /san/ 'additional(ly)' may occur after the main verb in a verb phrase either before or after postverbal modifiers and reflexive pronouns. It may occur after the numerationai element in a noun phrase. Exx: /he'is san yakan/ (one additional his foot) 'another of his feet' /yan san hposil/ (other additional curer) 'a different curer* /tal san/ 'he came again*. Possibly /san/ can also fill the manner-extent slot in clauses. - 24

2. 7. 3 The numeral expression /htebuk/ 'a little bit' may function a a a marker of extent and occur in verb phrases immediately after the verb. It takes precedence over /'a/ Exx: (without translation) a) AxliL ?a kekcah htebuk ?a/ m + ext + ivp +ext =aspect b) /yip k'an 9u¿ubuk htebuk/ + ext + aux-ivp + ext c) /ya stak' snihkeai3 htebuk <é8in ' '+' cbmpl-tvp + ext + --.-

3. 0 Clauses Clauses in general are made up of phrases and individual words. In general they have the following slots: optional introducer (I), optional subject/object (S/O), optional manner-extent (M), optional time (T), optional location (L), optional purpose (P), obligatory predicate (TP, IP, SP). Clauses may be typed both on the basis of the introducers and of the predicates.

3. 0,1 In terms of introducers there are two main clause types» independent and dependent. Independent clauses may be divided into those that have the introducer slot filled and those that do not. Dependent clauses may be divided into those that have relative introducers and those that have non-relative introducers.

3. 0.2 In terms of predicates, clauses may be typed as transitive, intransitive, and stative. The first two have two subtypes each and the last has four. - 25 -

3o 1 The nucleus of a clause is an obligatory predicate,, There ave three predicate types» with subtypes.

3.1.1 a) Intransitive predicate slot filled by intransitive verb phrase. Subtype 1) active. General clause formula:

± I + IP : ivpacfc ± S ± T ± L ± M í P Subtype 2) passive. General clause formula: * + IP : ivppasg i Si Agent ¿T±L±M±P

The Agent, slot, which is peculiar to this type of clause may be filled by a noun phrase. (N), a noun phrase preceded by /ta/ (ta + N.),. or. a noun phrase preceded by.'/.yu'un/ (yu9un + N)-

3.1. 2 b) Transitive predicate slot filled by transitive verb phrase» Subtype 1) active» -"'"'" A. general. General clause formula: HiS + TP:tvp±0±TiLiMíP B. indirect (predicate slot filled by transitive verb with indirect object suffix). General formula: ± I ¿ S + TP : tvpindij. ¿dOiiOárTiLiMiP Subtype 2) reflexive (predicate slot filled by reflexive verb phrase) A. general.' General clause formula:

i I i S + TP : tvprefl ±T±L±M±P B. indirect. General clause formula:

* 1. * S. + TP : tvprefl i iO ±. T ± L. i'M ± P

3. 1.3 c) Stative predicate, slot filled by Nona phrase, Adjective phrase,, Vazrbal Adjective phrase, or Inflectible particle. Subtype 1) filled by noun phrase (N). Plural of a possessed object is never marked, being specified by the stative endings which occur in these clause types. Ex: /winikon/ (man-I am) *I am a man* - 26

Subtype 2) Filled by adjective phrase. Adjective phrases are similar to the modification slot in the noun phrase, except that here /-vl/does not occur with that subclass of adjectives with which it occurs in the modification slot. The expansion is also slightly different. ^ Formula: i Mod : adj/lom/bwen + H : Aj gtative \ t~^y

In the modification slot in the adjective phrase, adjectives, as well as the particles /lorn/, /bwen/ may occur, limiting or modifying the meaning of the head adjective. Exx: /naht tu^'ahtik/ (long extended) 'it is extended lengthwise' /c'inat/ (little-you are) 'you are small*

Subtype 3) Filled by verbal adjective.

Formula: i 'ay + H : ajatative Exx: /talern/ (having come-he is) 'he has come1 /9ay talem/ Subtype 4) Filled by inflectible particle

Formula: + H : ipstative

The most frequently occurring particles of the type are /hie/ 'thus', /'ay/ 'existing1, /yakal/ 'being in the act/process of.

3.1.3.1 The general formula for a stative clause is -- ± I + SP x S (if SP is ha') i T t h ± M x P A location slot does not occur in a stative clause unless the particle /'ay/ is the predicate. If the demonstrative particle /ha9/ occurs in a stative clause, it is axiomatically defined as being the predicate.

3.1.3.2 Stative predicates are suffixed (at the end) with affixes in two positions. In the first position (mood) occur /-an/ 'irrealis 2d person'. - 27

/-uk/ 'irrealis 1st, 3d person1; in the second position (person and number) are/-on/ 'lam1, /-at/ 'you (ag) are1, /-0/ '3d pers sg1, /-otik/ 'we are', /-es/ 'you (pi) are', /-ik/ 'they are'. The affixes in the first position are optional, those in the second position are obligatory.

3.1.3.3 Stative predicates are negatives in two ways, a) /ma ba/ + stative predicate ('indicative'); b) /ma/ + stative predicate in irrealis mood. Exx: a) ma ba lek 'it's not good1 b) ma lekuk 'it's not good'

3.1.4 In addition to the predicate types discussed above (and the clause types that are their expansions) there is a clause type of which the nucleus or predicate is an intransitive verb or particle, and the complement of the verb is a phrase of the type /ta/ + un. In clauses of this type all verbal nouns derived from transitive verbs are possessed 3d sg, and all the verbal nouns derived from transitive verbs are unpossessed. The general formula of this clause type is -- + I i S + P + ta + vn * JL i T ± M i P

If vn is from tv then vn can be expanded as + vn.pos s ±N Exx: iv /'oc ta 8 postael/ ' he enters into the curing of (it)' iv /lihk ta yahtael/ 'he begins the counting of (it)' p /yakal ta sbohel (sk'al) 'he is in the act of the cutting of (his cornfield)1 p /yakal ta 'a'tel 'he is in the act of working*

3.2 The subject/object slot is divided into subject of intransitive verb

(Sjv)» subject of transitive verb (Stv), direct object of transitive verb

(dOtv), indirect object of transitive verb (iO^). All have identical structures. This slot may be filled by a noun phrase (N), a personal 28 -• pronoun, a demonstrative pronoun, or a dependent clause. Subtype a) Filled by a noun phrase Subtype b) Filled by a personal pronoun. There are several types of personal pronouns o 1) independent personal pronouns (1.1.1) /ho9on/ 'I, me0, /ha9at/ 'you (sg)\ /ha' / »3d person sg*, /ho9tik/ 'we, us1, /ha9es/ 'you (pi)', /ha9ik/ 'they, them5 Exx: /ho" on ya hpostayat/ (I pres I-cure-you) ^ will cure you' /9ak'ben ho'on/ (give-me-it me) 'give it tojrie1 2) emphatic personal pronoun Í3 /-tukel/ inflected aa a noun (1.1. 3). Meaning '(byj-onseelf', 'oneself alone' Ex: /la hpas htukel/ 'I did it myself 2a) independent personal pronoun + emphatic personal pronoun may occur together as a complex slot filler. Ex: /ho9on htukel la hpas wohey/ 'I myself did it yesterday' 3) interrogative personal pronoun /mac'a/ 'who?' Ex: /mac'a 9ayat/ (who existing-you are) 'who are you? ' 4) relative personal pronoun /± te + mac'a/ 'who' 'one who' Ex: /ya hie hposil, te mac'a ya sna9 postael/ (I-seek curer who he-knov/B curing) 'I'm looking for a curer who knows how to cure' Subtype c) Filled by demonstrative pronoun; 3 types 1)' absolute /ha9 inil 'this one, these' /ha9 mene/ 'that one, those' Exx: /ha9 ini lorn naht/ 'that one is very long1 /ya hk'antik ha9 mene/ 'we want that one3 2) interrogative /binti, bin, bi/ 'what?' Ex: /binti ya a pas/ "what are you doing? ' - 29

3) relative ¡i te + binti, bin, bi/ 'what5, 'that which' /te bi ya sk'an, ha' te pose/ 'what he wants is liquore (that which he wants, that-s liquor) Subtype d) Filled by a dependent clause. Any dependent clause (except those introduced by k'alal, yu'un) will function either as the subject or the object of the indepen- dent to which it is adjacent.

3 o 3 The time slot may be filled by a) a time phrase (2.3) b) a noun phrase of the following type: /hun 'ahk'ubal/ "(for the space of) one night' /'ose k'al/ '(for) three days' c) a dependent clause introduced by /k'alal/ 'while» when3

3.4 The location slot is filled by a location phrase (2.4)

3. 5 The purpose slot is filled by a) a purpose phrase (2.5) b) a dependent clause introduced by /yu'un/ 'because'

3.6 The manner slot is filled by a) a manner or extent phrase (2. 6) b) an adjective (uninflected) e.g. /lek/ 'in a good way, well* /tulan/ 'hard, difficult' /k'unk'un/ 'little by little'

3.7 Introducer slot. There are two main types of introducers, independent and dependent, each of which has two subtypes. - 30

a) independent 1) interrogative /me/ (marks a question) /tame/ (marks a question) 2) non-interrogative /ha' yu9un t te/ 'therefore' (it is for this reason /'entónse/ 'so, then' /poré so/ 'therefore" /te 'a te/ «therefore' b) dependent 1) relative /tame/ 'if, whether' /k'alal í tame, me/ 'when, while* /me/ 'if, whether' 2) general /yu'un t te/ 'because' /± te + k'alal ± te/ "when, while9 /te .... dr e (at end of clause)/ 'that1

3.8 Coordinators can join any two or more structurally parallel items, i. e. word and word, phrase and phrase, clause and clause. /me/ 'or' /me/ .... /me/ a) 'either ... or' /'o/ 'or' b) 'is it ... orle it ...? /•ok/ 'and' /'i/ 'and' /pero/ 'but' Exx: /me »ik me k'isin/ 'Is it cold or is it hot? ' /me ya ak'an wah me kaslan wah/ 'Do you want tortillas or bread?' /ya hk'an 'isim sok 9askal sok wah sok tomut/ 'I want corn and brown sugar and tortillas and eggs' 31 -

3.9 Just as on the phrase level there are particles whose position can best be defined with respect to a whole phrase,, so on the clause level there are several particles whose position can be described in an analogous manner.

3. 9° 1 The particle /lah/ 'so they say" occurs second in a clause if /te/ (demonstrative, relative) is not counted as filling a space. It may also occur in the verb phrase (if this is not first in the clause) if it also occurs in the preceding subject, or if the subject is set off from the verb by 'commas1.

3.9.2 The particles /me/ 'imperative1, /to/ 'still, yet", and /wan/ 'perhaps* occur in predicates and their position is second no matter what the first word is. if more than one of these is present, /me/ pre- cedes all others, and /to/ precedes /wan/. Exx: iv /ma me s'awunat/ 'don't yelli' tv /ma me sawuton/ 'don't tell me that!' sp /c'inat to/ 'you're still small'

3o 9.3 The enclitic particle /-is/ 'already' may occur with any predicate • transitive, intransitive, or stative. With a transitive or intransitive predicate it is attached to the main verb. With a stative predicate it follows directly on the subject affixes.

3.9.4 The particle/¿'in/ (meaning vague) may begin a clause, follow the last member of a phrase, or follow the first part of a complex noun phrase. If both /lah/ antf /rf'in/ occur, /lah/ takes precedence.

3.10 It might be expected that there would be certain order properties assignable to the various slots in a clause. I can only make the most general observations at this time about Introducers, Subjects, Objects, and Predicates. - 32

a) Introducers always come first. b) The subject of intransitive clause usually follows the predicate. c) The subject of a transitive clause may either precede or follow it d) The object of a transitive clause usually follows the predicate; if the subject also follows the predicates it usually follows the object as well. e) in stative clauses demonstratives» when they occur, come fir3t (except for introducers), and are the predicate. The relative positions of the Time, Manner, Purpose, and Location slots cannot be described yet. It is probably generally true that subjects and objects are closest to the predicate and that these remaining slots occur to the left and right of subjects and objects when the latter are present. There can never be more than one introducer or one predicate in a clause. However the subject/object slot may be filled by two noun phrases in apposition, e.g. /h'antun h'ornantes hsantis, te hcamele/ 'Antonio Hernández Sántiz, the sick man'. The number of times the Time, Location, Manner; and Purpose slots may each be represented in a clause is probably not limited to one and probably not exceeded by three.

3.11 Both Aguacatenango and Tenejapa have a frame which I have not yet been able to analyze. It is a predicate or clause type. Te /k'an ta/ + N Ag /hun ta/ 4- N meaning: 'it looks like/seems to be a ' Te /k'an/ might be compared with /k'an/ aux •almost', but not very convincingly. Ag /hun/ has two homophones, /hun/ 'one1, and /bun/ 'paper', neither of which is a good candidate for identity. This may be listed either as a special clause type, or /k'an, hun/ may be called particles with stative inflexion followed by a locative phrase with /ta/. I don't know whether 'I look like a '. 'you look like a • can be fit into this frame. APPENDIX 5. Tseltal Phonemes and Morphophonemes and RAND-IBM Symbols

The present notación represents what we believe will be the final form for the teitt material we will be sending to the RAND Gor• por&fcion. The variation in notation, we note in retrospect, lias been a reflex of doubt ara to what was the moat economical use of the IBM equivalents for the Tseltal-phonemes as well as lack of experience in judging how thoroughly the Tseltal phonology could be described. Thus in the present notation, we retrench considerably in the description of junctural and 3upe?-aegmental phenomena -- that ia, the description is not complete. We 3uppose this notation will suffice for our present purposes however.

n N p P 1 L, t T r R é r? w W c c y Y k K i I p' P+ e E t' T-¡- a A é' S-Í- o Í) c' c+ u Ü 1 k K+ ' / b B p,+ d D g C- Í) () f F >;«******** a S a X h H m M - 2 -

Streas on a vowel is marked by IBM / following the vowel. Omitted aounds whose absence io predictable (automatic morphophonemics) and whose notation is necessary for the glossary identification of forms are enclosed in IBM parentheses. Glossary look-up should be coded to ignore, presence of parena. Comma and period and question mark are punctuation marki Three periods marks an unfinished phrase or clause. Hyphen occurs between the elements of a compound. APPENDIX 6. Master Glossary Card Format1 Keypunch Text Card Format Translation Text Card Format

I Master Glossary Card Formats. Thia format is set up on the basis of one form per card. Format One (11 sons in column three) Columns Contents 1 - 3 Deck number (DECK) 4-14 Tseltal root (ROOT) 15 - 34 Taeltal form (FORM) 35 - 36 Base class (BASE) 37 - 43 Root number (ROOT NO.) 44-79 Spanish Gloas (GLOSSARY) 80 Card number (C)

Format Two (12 zone in column three) Columns Contents 1-3 Deck number (DECK) 4-14 Taeltal root (ROOT) 15 - 34 Tseltal form (FORM) 35» 36 Base class (BASE) 37 - 43 Root number (ROOT NO.) 44-48 Derivation code (DERIV) 49- 50 Number-class code (NC) 51 - 56 Inflexional code (INF) . 57 - 58 Phonetic variation code (PV) 59- 63 Syntactic code (SYNT) 64 Loan code (L) 65-66 Domain code (DOM) 80 Card number (C)

II Keypunch Text Card Format* This format is set up on the basis of one sentence or less per card. Columns Contents 1 - 3 Deck number PECK) 4 - 5 Tsxt number (TEXT) 6- 8 Speech number (SPEECH) 9- 10 Utterance number (UTT) 11 Card number (C) 12 - 13 Role (R) 14 - 80 Tseltal tsxt Ill Translation Test Card Formats This format is set up on the basis of one form per card. Format One (11 aone in column three) Columns Contents " " i 1 - 3 Deck number (DECK) 4 - 5 Text number (TEXT) 6- 8 Speech number (SPEECH) 9- 10 Utterance number (ÜTT) 11 - 12 Occurrence number (OCC) 13 - 14 Role (R) 15 Punctuation (P) 16- 35 Tzeltal form (FORM) 36- 37 Base class (BASE) 38- 44 Root number (ROOT NO.) 45 - 79 Spanish gloss (GLOSSARY) 80 Card number (C)

FormatFoi Two (12 zone in column three) Columns Contents 1 - 3 Deck number (DECK) 4 - 5 Text number (TEXT) 6 = 8 Speech number (SPEECH) 9- 10 Utterance number (UTT) 11 - 12 Occurrence number (OCC) 13 - 14 Role (R) 15 Punctuation (P) 16- 35 Tzeltal form (FORM) 36- 37 Base class (BASE) 38- 44 Root number (ROOT NO. ) 45 - 49 Derivation code (DER1V) 50. 51 Number-class code (NC) 52. 57 Inflexional code (INF) 58- 59 Phonetic variation code (PV) 60- 64 Syntactic code (SYNT) 65 Loan code (L) 66- 67 Domain code (DOM) 80 Card number (C)

Note: This information was extracted from a technical not* 11/10/60* written by C. H. Bush, Computer Section» RAND Corporation. APPENDIX 7. The Taelial Grammar Code. - This appendix tabulates a grammar code for Tzeltal which is to be used in the computer baaed study. This classification of Tzeltal forms includes a classification of Tzeltal bases* the derivational affixes which convert roote into bases* and the inflectional affixes that are added to bases in Tzeltal. The present classification (once revised) is tentative; we anticipate that further experience with the text materials will lead to further revisions of the system. The grammar code is punched in columns 35 - 36 and 44 - 56 of the Glossary and Translation Card Formats (Format 1). A base» class symbol is punched in columns 35 - 36, and the interpretation of the remainder of the grammar-code symbol for any form is conditioned by base class. A list of base classes is presented in Table 1. Columns 44 - 48 are used for description of derivational affixes, columns 31 - 56 for inflexional affixes. The feature that distinguishes these two kinds of affixes is that for any base the derivational affixes remain ¿he same while inflexional affixes change in definable ways. Derivational affixes are tabulated in Tables 2 - 6, and inflectional affixes in Tables 7-11. Columns 49 » 50 are reserved for numeral classifiers of nouns, but the code categories are not herein included. Patterns of ambiguity within the derivational and inflexional affixes are not presented; nor are the patterns of ambiguity between the derivational and inflexional affixes. One or more affixes may, upon being attached to a particular base, have the distributional feature of being mutually exclusive; that is, the affixation of a particular deri- vational or inflexional item precludes the affixation of some other deri- vational or inflexional item. Stash bundles of one or more affixes are said to be positionally equivalent. In turn, derivational affixes (for example), which can simultaneously occur prefixed, infixed, or suffixed to a particular base, are said to occupy non-equivalent positions. - 2 -

The relative positions of derivational affixes has not yet been determined. Five positions are allowed for the tabulation of such data. The occurrence of more than three derivational affixes with a given root is rare. TABLE 1 BASS CLASSES

COLUMN SYMBOL INFORMATION ENCODED

35-36 Base Class

VT Verb transitiva VI Verb intransitive . vs Verb stative Al Adjective: takes no suffix whan attributive A2 Adjective: takes -Vl when attributive A3 Adjective: participles in -Vjl derived from VT roots in CVC Nl Noun simple: no suffix change when possessed N2 Noun simple: add -Vl(el) when possessed N3 Noun simple: subtract -Vl(il) when possessed Cl Noun complex: no suffix change when possessed C2 Noun complex: add -Vl(el) when possessed C3 Noun complex: subtract -Vl(il) when possessed PN Noun: personal names (possibly never posa. ) GN Noun: geographical names (never possessed) AH Agent nouns: with h- when unpossessed AX Agent nouns: without h- when unpossessed NC Numerals and numeral classifiers (always compounded) PI Particle: inflectible VA Particle: non-inflectible. preverbal auxiliary PV Particle: non-inflectible. preverbal adverbial VN Partida: non-inflectible. postverbal nominal particles. PR Particle: non-inflectible, pronoun PC Particle: non-inflectible» common TABLE 2 DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES YIELDING BASE VT

Column Symbol Information Encoded Position Form Value

44-48 blank absent 1=5 A -p'Vn. ..¿an

TABLE 3 DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES YIELDING BASE VI

i '•••'•".•"•'"•• •" Column Symbol Information Encoded Position 1j Form Value 44-48 blank abeent 1-5 A -p'Vh...¿ah

J *H2: ¿

M -H-Vin

Column Symbol Information Encoded i Position Form Value 1

44-48 blank absent 1-5 U -ol

TABLE 6 DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES YIELDING BASE C2

Column Symbol Information Encoded Position | Form Value 44-48 blank absent 1-5 » -eb: -Vb numeral roots

( •Hr: * VT ...... TABLE 7 INFLEXIONAL AFFIXES. BASE VI

Column Symbol j Information Encoded ] Position Form Value 51 blank absent 1 52 blank 'absent 2 f 53 blank absent 3 B -bet bot passive T -ot passive 54 blank absent 4 A -an imperative / K -uk subjunctive 55 blank absent 5 N -on 1 st. pars, subject A -at 2nd pars, subject 0 -* 3rd pers. subject T -otik 1st pers.pl. subj. E. -es 2nd pers.pl. subj. I *ik 3rd pers. pi. subj. 56 blank absent 6 X -is •ya» TABLE 8 INFLEXIONAL AFFIXES. BASS VT i¡ LMiá Column Symbol Information Encoded Position Form Value 51 blank absent 1 H h«k- lstpei'B. subj. A a-aw-. 2nd pers. subj. S s~y- 3rd pero. subj. Í 1 h~k-..-fcik 1st pers. pi. subj. 2 a «aw-,. -ik 2nd pers. pi. subj. 3 s~y-.. -Us 3rd pers. pi. subj. L s-y-,.-el 3rd pers. pi. subj. (Ten.!' 52 blank absent 2 H -oh-eh perfective 53 blank absent 3 B »-b~be~bey indirective 54 blank absent 4 A -a-^-aw imperative I ~a~£~aw -ik K -uk subjunctive 55 blank absent 5 N -on 1st pers. object A -at 2nd pers. object t> «<6 3rd pers. object T -otik let pers. pi. object E »es 2nd pers. pi. object I -ik 3rd pers. pi. object 56 blank absent 6 X -is 'ya« TABLE 9 INFLEXIONAL AFFIXES, BASE CLASSES Nl, N2, N3, Gi, C2, C3„ PN, GN, AH, AX | Column | Symbol Information Encoded { Position Form Value 51 blank absent 1 M h- names of men, and some animals (impose) F s- name a of women, and seme animals (unposa) ( I H h k- 1st pei*8. possessor A a aw- 2nd pera, posseaeor S s y- 3rd pera, possessor 1 h k-,. -tik 1st pars. pi. poss. 2 a aw•.. -ifc 2nd pera, pió poss. 3 s y-..-ik 3rd pera. pi. poss. 52 blank absent 2 G -il al non-possessed type 3 nouns C -tik collective E -el al possessed type 2 nouns L -VI inanimate possessor 53 blank absent 3 P -etik plural of non-poaa. nouns A -Vtak plural of poss. nouna B -ab plural of poaa. kin ten 18 54 blank absent 4 k -uk 55 blank abaant 5 N -on.. 1 at pera. «ubj. A -at 2nd pera. aubj. 1» -P 3rd para. aubj. T •otik let pera. pi. aubj. E -ea 2nd para. pi. aubj. I -ik 3rd pera. pi. aubj. 56 blank absent 6 TABLE 10 INFLEXIONAL AFFIXES, BASE GLASSES Al„ A3, A3

blank absent A =an imperative (A3 only) K -uk subjunctive L -VI attributive 55 blank absent N. -on 1st per So subj. A -at 2nd per So aubj. Q> -¿ 3rd pera* subj. T -otik 1st pera. pi. subj. E -eg 2nd pers. pi. subj. I -ik 3rd pers. pi. subj. 56 blank absent X •ya» TABLE 11 INFLEXIONAL AFFIXES, BASE CLASS PI Column Symbol Information Encoded Position Form . Value 51 blank * absent 1 52 blank absent 2 53 blank • absent 3 54 blank absent 4 K -uk 55 blank absent 5 N -on 1stpers. subj. A -at 2nd per So subj. 0) -¿ 3rd pers. subj. T -otik 1st pers. pi. subj. E -as 2nd pers. pi. subj. I -ik 3rd pers. pi. subj. 56 blank absent 6 X -is Jya' APPENDIX 8. Stages in the Computer analysis of the Tzeltal Textual Material.

I Text as transcribed from magnetic taps in phonemic transcription.

1. 'ora 'awktorida aalyénte, 'awktorida 'entrante, tohubatia ku'un.

2. lah kalbatis smelol, sluwar, tu yipal ta ko'tan, tu yipal ta htak'awaneh, kómo kilohis, komo hk'elyehis»

3. kilohis ta tehklum.

4. 'awilohis cahpal sok prinsipal.

5. k'asemonis ta 'a'tel sok.

6. k'asemonis ta husgadil sok.

7. lah ka'talanis dyos.

8. lah ka'talanis husgádo.

9. c'ul me' li" ta kabüti, c'ul husgádo, c'ul ba'ti la 'anop'is te huraménta, la 'anop'is te 'abaston.

I. NOTE: Sup«*segmental phonemic analysis (stress, pitch, and juncture) not yet completed. H Text in RAND IBM orthography.

1. «O/RA «AWKTORIDA SALYE/NTE, *AWKTORIDA SENTRA/TE, TOHÜBAT IX KU*UN.

2. LA*1* KALBAT IX SMELOL, SLUWAR, TU YIPAL TA KO*TAN„ TU YIPAL TA HTAK+AWANEH, KO/MO KILOH IX, KO/MO HK+ELYEH IX.

3. KILOH IX TA TEHKLUM.

4. AWILOH*2* IX CAHPAL SOK PRINSIPAL.

5. K+AXEMON IX TA *A«TEL SOK.

6. K+AXEMON IX TA HUSGA/DIL SOK.

7o LA*1* KA*TALAN IX DYOS.

8. LA*1* KA#TALAN IX HUSGA/DO.

9. O+ULAME* LI* TA KABI/LTA<3> 1, C+UL HUSGA/DO, C+ÜL BA*TI LA ANOP+<2* IX TE HURAME/NTA, LA ANOP+<2* IX TE ABASTON.*2)

NOTES: Morphophonemic rewrite

(1) normalize preterit particle lah-la as LA

(2) normalise 2d person prefix a-9a as A-

(3) restore lost vowels before -I O a fe 3 °3- o 5 . JO« w w «tí fe:..g S a:-

O H M M aitsa M J u * J W 3 D2O

* * «fe * * O

«n > > > _ -< >^ Cí >-< -< r? 22&«!2SH&<íi<22H&ll,2P< 2 £ fe 2 2: 2

OOOClNCIIfl O» «O © -* o ro m H •! Nvoooo m o t» o o 09 ce o o o o o o _! »4 H H N N N N N IM KI n m m IA

3* o »i»pí¡<¡H * J MX H H S£* J J J & X * W W 2ü* H09D2 . y * y v w w w ? « no UW*.432S2SJHHH HHH

2 2 J5HJdSS t-t ft o Q W S ^ z üS 3a Sy 3w o2 «s

"fe =fc

•z x z & & z z z

•

lAininiomininm

(QDS <¡0 JCÍ<'

IV Text compared with form glossary (only glossary fragment displayed' ')

Utt Occ Punct Form Form Class Gloss 01 01 «O/RA P ahora N hora/ tiempo 01 02 «AWKTORIDA N autoridad 01 03 SALYE/NTE N saliente 01 04 «AWKTORIDA N autoridad 01 05 «ENTRA/NTE N entrante 01 06 TOHUBAT IV te arreglas 01 07 IX P ya 01 08 KU*UN N para/por/a/de mi 0?. 01 LA P (preterit) oz 02 KALBAT TV te (lo) digo 02 03 IX P ya 02 04 SMELOL N el correcto 02 05 SLUWAR N el bien 02 06 TU PR (lo) que 02 07 YIPAL N su fuerza 02 08 TA P en/a/de 02 09 KO*TAN N3 mi corazón 02 10 TU PR (lo) que 02 11 YIPAL N su fuerza 02 12 TA P en/a/de 02 13 HTAK+AWANEH N mi consejo 02 14 KO/MO P porque 02 15 KILOH TV (lo) he visto 02 16 IX P ya 02 17 KO/MO P porque 02 18 HK+ELYEH TV (lo) he mirado 02 19 IX P ya 03 01 KILOH TV (lo) he visto 03 02 IX P ya 03 03 TA P en/a/de 03 04 TEHKLUM N el pueblo 04 01 AWILOH TV (lo) has visto 04 02 IX P ya 04 03 CAHPAL N con todo 04 04 SOK P con (él) 04 05 PRINSIPAL N principal 05 01 K+AXEMON IV he pasado 05 02 IX P y» 05 03 TA . P en/a/de 05 04 »A*TEL N trabajo 05 05 SOK P con (él) 6 -

Utt Occ Punct Form Form Class Gloss

06 01 K+AXEMON IV he pasado 06 02 IX P yá 06 03 TA P en/a/de 06 04 HUSGA/DIL N juzgado 06 05 SOK P con (el) 07 01 LA . P (preterit) 07 02 KA*TALAN TV los cumplo para (él) 07 03 IX P ya 07 04 DYOS N dios 03 01 LA P (preterit) 08 02 KA*TALAN TV los cumplo para (el) 08 03 IX P ya 08 04 HUSGA/DO N juzgado 09 01 C+UL A santo 09 02 ME* N madre; señora 09 03 LI* P aquí 09 04 TA P en/a/de 09 05 KABI/LTA N cabildo 09 06 I P (phrase terminator) 09 07 C+UL A santo 09 08 HUSGA/DO N juzgado 09 09 C+UL A santo P9 10 BA*TI P donde 09 11 LA P (preterit) 09 12 ANOP+ TV (lo) agarras 09 13 IX P ya 09 14 TE P el/la/los/las: que 09 15 HURAME/NTA N juramento 09 16 LA P (preterit) 09 17 ANOP+ TV (lo) agarras 09 18 IX P ya 09 19 TE P el/la/los/las: que 09 20 ABASTON N tu bastón

(1) Note: This fragment of glossary print out displays only form class and glosses See APPENDIX 7 for all information included in glossary codes Notice the ambiguity in the meaning of some of the forms, for example TE. - 7 -

V On the basis of the information in the grammar codes we get the following translation into Spanish* It is compared utterance by utterance with an informant's Spanish translation» The Roman numeral utterances are machine produced; the Arabic numbered items are informant produced.

I (ahora:hora/tinernpo) autoridad saliente, autoridad entrante, te arreglas 1. ahora autoridades salientes, autoridades entrantes, por mí arreglaste» I (cont) ya (para/por/a/de mí). II (preterit) te (lo) digo ya el correcto el bien (lo) que su fuerza 2- ya te dije el bien, el correcto, el tanto en mi corazón, el tanto de mi II (cont) (en/a/de) mi consejo porque (lo) he visto ya porque (lo) he mirado ya* 2. (cont) consejo, porque ya mire, porque ya/he visto. III (lo) he visto ya (en/a/de) el pueblo. 3. he visto en el pueblo» /1 7\ IV (lo) has visto ya con todo con (él) principal* 4t ya han visto con todo los principales* V he pasado ya (en/a/de) trabajo con (el)» 5» he pasado en los trabajos también. VI he pasado ya (en/a/de) juzgado con (él)* 6» he pasado en el juzgado también • VII (preterit) los cumplo para (él) ya dios* 7. ya he cumplido con Dios. VIII (preterit) los cumplo para (él) ya juzgado* 8» he cumplido de la presidencia* IX santo (madre/señora) aquí (en/a/de) cabildo (phrase terminator) santo donde 9. la santa madre aquí en el cabildo, santo juagado, santo, donde Usted IX (coat) (preterit) (lo) agarras ya (el/la/los/las: que) juramento (preterit) 9* (cont) agarró el juramento, ya agarró Usted el bastón* IX (cont) (lo) agarras ya (el/la/los/las: que) tu bastón* V (continued)

The differences in the two translations and the manner in which these differences are resolved» The "machine translation" from the glossary codes incorporates at least the following imperfections: 1 • Tense is not specified. 2. Idioms are not recognized. 3* Agreement or concord in gender and number between adjectives and their governing nouns is not specified • 4* Word order is not modified to match normal Spanish word order» 5. Words are not deleted or added as is required for a smooth translation.

These errors are of several types and may be assigned to different loci: 1 • Patterns of structural ambiguity have not been worked out in the morphology and syntax of Tzeltal; 2* the morphology and syntax of Spanish is minimally incorporated into the glosses in the form glossary; 3. most important, the analysis of sentence structure determination has not proceeeded far enough yet so as to be included in the translation process» This work is presently being finished. (cf. appendix No. 4 on syntax) APPENDIX 9. Codes for the Plant Classification.

A. Plant Taxonomy. Names of 25 plants used in the first analysis.

TZELTAL INFORMANT'S SPANISH IDENTIFICATION 1. te'el segro cedro 2. te? el namte9; presmo fresno 3. te'el ? amate amate 4. te'el cihilte' shauco 5. te'el k'ante' taray 6. te'el ninte 9 timhre 7. te9el ?ucte? ('ihk'il s) zapote negro 8. te'el muy chic o zapote 9. te'el tilila7 arbusto 10. te'el manko mango 11. te?el *>ahte7 mata Jano 12. te'el ha'as zapote 13. te'el k'ewes anona 14. te?el ha'mal madron 15. te'el kanpor gamfoy fcta»f»ir 16. te'el 'isim maíz 17. te'el ciculte9 cerezo 18. te°el 'ihk'il giji tzitze 19. te? el maaaana manzana 20. te?el cikin 9ib encino 21. te'el hihte? roble 22. te7el lima lima 23. te? el nalas naranja 24. te'el tulcna durazno 25. te'ei chiste' manzanillo

Note: The domain of plants is marked by the head v/ord te9 el. Within the domain, one partition distinguishes'grasses (ak?) from shrubs (wamal) from trees (te?el). One notices that the form for trees is also U3ed to mark the domain of plants. In the above listing, te'el is used in its sense as head word of the domain of plants. B. Plant Identification. List of Plant Characteristics with Informants' Spanish Gloss.

1. smuk'ul yahk'ac - raíz Z. sbik'tal yehk'ac -raíz 3. sni'il yehk'ac -raíz 4. yisim yehk'ac -raíz 5. ye'tal tubérculo 6. benem ta lum rastrero 7. k'oh te' tronco 8. te'el tallo 9. yo? tan medula 10. homol yo'tan hueco 11. te' madera 1Z. spat te' cascara 13. ya'al te? savia 14. yakan nudo 15. yok sk'ab rama 16. sk'ab gajo 17. sluhp' yema 18. pahk'ayem vaina 19. yok yabienal pecíolo ZG. 'abenal hoja Z1. cial Yabenal nervadura ZZ. c'is espina 23. nic flor Z4; sit fruto 25. spat sbak'etal cascara (de la fruta) Z6. pahk'ayem vainilla Z7. sbak'etal carne (de la fruta) Z8. ya'lel sit jugo Z9« sbak« semilla 30. yal núcleo de la semilla

C. List of 'Perceptual Dimensions' tested for. TZELTAL SPANISH 1. yelaw color 2. yilel forma.. 1 3. smuk'ul tamaño 4. yik> olor 5. sbuh¿' sabor 6. me sik, me k'ixin ó caliente ó frió (la parte de la planta) 7. ba' luwaril sc'i la zona donde crece (la planta) 8. (domestico o silvestre) domestico o silvestre 3 -

D. List of Plant Attributes with frequencies, arranged in structurally homogeneous sets under the following perceptual dimensions: 1. Color (y-elaw) 2. Shape (y-ilel) 3. Sise (s-muk'ul) 4. Smell (y-ik1) 5. Taste (s-buh¿') 6. Hot-Cold (k'isin, sik) 7. Environment (applies to whole plants) 8. State (domésticos silvestre)(applies to whole plants)

1. Color Primary Terms Frequency Gloss, where known ¿ah 24 red k'an 28 yellow yas 66 green and blue sak 68 white 'ihk' 94 black 'ihk' sukouk 3 blue (?)

Derived A sjiahet 9 sk'anet 9 syaset 6 saket 29

Derived B ¿ahoiahtik 1 tantantik 1 Primary Terms Frequency Gloss, where known Borrowed from Spanish kahpeh 39 brown rosada 1 pink kanela 1 red-brown

Combinations or Complex Color Terms and Frequencies Primary as first element and Bly + primary + al as second element. 3¿ahal sk'anal syasal sakal yihk'al ¿ah 1 k'an yas sak 'ihk' 9ihk' suksuk

Derived A as first element Sfiahal sk'anal syasal sakal yihk'al s^ahet sk'anet syaset saket ^ s'ihk'et

Primary plus Primary

'•• Cah k'an yas sak •>ihk' «iah T^>-

2. Shape: Y-ilal A. Term Frequency Gloss balal 158 cylindrical balahtik 2 pec'el (overlap shape: size) 25 broad and flat pec'ehtik 1 lecel 3 broad lecehtik (size only) 0 kilil 5 long and dangling kilihtik, kilahtik 2 wolol 21 spherical wolohtik 4 k'olol 5 spherical telel 5 conical telehtik 1 hilil 1 rectangular hilihtik 1 sepel 4 round and flat sepehtik 1 silil 0 silahtik 1 long and narrow ¿'otol 2 twisted A. (continued) Term Frequency Gloss sotol (only in complex expressions) 0 twisted (II cotol 2 seated wojéol 2 with petals opened pa^al 1 with petals opened nok'ol 2 stuck together bilil 2 slippery, smooth c 'uyul 2 hard homol (only in complex expressions) 0 hollow

sc'ulet 8 smooth (?) statet 1 somewhat sticky, tacky s'it'et 5 somewhat sticky, like honey st'abet 1 luminous sc 'uyet 15 smooth and shiny

C. swuh-sv/uh in clusters (like grapes, coconuts) skil-skil elongated skah-skah with leaves evenly spaced (like a ladder) sk'al-sk'al in sections (like an orange) op'ih-sp'ih in grains (like a corncob)

D. ¿ilimtik with leaves separated (like a fern) ¿'alamtik knotty selemtik serrated leaf t'ehceltik like bark of pine tree t'ahaltik like bark of pine tree - 7 -

Term Frequency Gloss ^—

ha'ha'tik 5 watery \mv— aalsaltik 10 rough sohsohtik 2 soft, like dried cornstalks

cinkultik 5 with spore3 on the leaves (like a fern) G. it has a appearance 'unin 4 immature takin 5 dry k'un 2 soft tulan 3 hard

H it looks like a krus 1 cross k'unuite9 2 a soft wood (?) pahk'ayem 3 seed pod tunim 1 cotton sue' 2 chicle ivi 3 hair ha' 7 water pikita 1 serrated leaf pacotik 1 flat seed

I. it has shape -ces 1 branch. -lehc 4 leaf -pis 1 fruit -wuh 6 cluster of fruit (like grap coconut» grapefruit) -p'ih (overlap shape : size) 6 grain -heht 3 limb - 8

Term Frequency Gloss aj + aj made ixp of primary terras under 2A.

balal homol 1 f» balal c'uyul 1 Lc'uyul balal 1 1 pec'el wolol 2 balal ji'otol 1 wolol íí'upül- 10 wolol k'olol 1 «-balal sotol 2 Lsotohtik balal size only) 1 b. | balal + Pi adj] balal sSupik 1 cylindrical, fuzzy/furry* balal tohik 1 . ? balal hayik 1 cylindrical» thin

¡rbalal pulem 1 «-balahtik pulem 3 takin balal 1 balal tulan 1 d. cesel c'uhc'ul 1

K. | adj. + poss. nj balal snaht'al naht'ik skilikil long and hanging like a vine Combinations (J) without respect to order of form .(Shape)

B homol c 'uyul pec'el i "otol 3 Otol {i'upul k'olol A 1 balal X > X & X > X & I wolol I X < X > X >

X the combination occurs 3? both orders occur > A + B < B +A

Terms Found under more than one Perceptual Dimension: Overlap {2-Shape and 3-Size)

Y-ilel S-muk'ul pec 'el 27 1 i. 'upul 10 1 lecehtik 0 2 c'uhc'ul 1 1 pulem 6 5 balal snaht'al 1 0

naht 'balal 1 3 bik'it balal 1 1 kom sbalahal 1 2 bik'it sbalahal 3 &

-p'ih 6 1

balal + sotol 2 1 - 10

Overlap Yilel and Smuk'ul Prim M

y-ilel s-muk'ul

milk*, muk'ik 55,2:57 big c'in, c'inik 0,5:5 43,55:98 little bik'it, bik'itik 1,0:1 49» 10:59 little naht', naht'ik 0,2:2 25,4:29 long kom, komik 1,0:1 27.2:29 short pirn 17 thick hay, hayik 2,1:3 33,0:33 thin

Combinations of Adj. (Simple) + Adj. (VI) Items to left of colon refer to category shape; Items to right, to category size. lic'il tolol balal wolol lecel kilil hilil __ muk' 0:1 0:2 0:8 -_ 0:6 c'in -- -- — 0:3 0:1 — — bik'it -- 0:2 1:1 0:5 — — — naht1 -- 0:1 1:3 -- 0:1 0:L 0:1 kom "" — — ~ — -- —

Combinations of Adj. (Simple i + Noun cylindrical-ness length size sbalahal snaht'al smuk'ul muk' 0:1 0:17 big c'in ' little bik'it 3:0 0:1 little naht* 0:1 long kom 1:2 0:2 short balal 1:0 j cylindrical .... - 11 - 3. Size: Smuk'ul Extent» Quantity hnus 2 a little hteb 4 a little bayai 2 a lot hteb 8 a lot

B. Overlap Shape-Size Glosses in previous section jt'upul 1 sotohtik balal 1 pec'el 1 c 'uhc 'ul 1

C. lic'il 1 stretched out tolol 2 cylindrical nahk 1 thickly cylindrical

te ne3 yujáil (smuk'ul) 9a in good condition

E. hay tulan 1 thin» hard

4. Smell: Y-ik« sohet yik' 4 smelly smuyet (yik1) 28 pleasant smelling tokok yik* 6 very strong smelling tokoktik 1. fairly strong smelling sin (also smell) 82 bad smelling sinsintik 6 somewhat bad smelling ¿ih¿ihtik 1 somewhat foul smelling - 12 -

Overlap Yik' and Sbuhé' buh^'an prim ? 1 4 tasty / <£am prim ? 1 3 good \ ci' prim B 1 29 sweet sin prim + 82 3 bad smelling

5. Taste: S-buh¿' ci? (sweet) ci* 23 sweet ¿am ci9 3 sweet ci' 3buh¿l 2 sweet buhi'an sci'U 1 - sweet ya ('hot': picante) leblebtik syaal 1 somewhat 'hot' sleblun syaal 2 somewhat 'hot' c'a sup (bitter astringe nt) c'a 9 bitter sin sc'aal 1 bad smelling & bitter sup sc'aal 2 astringent St bitter sup* c'a 1 astringent & bitter sup 15 astringent

6. Hot-Cold oik 8 cold k'isin 36 hot k'un k'isin 3 mildly hot - 13 -

7. Environments yut k'altik 1 milpa

takin k'inal 14 dry country yask'inal 2 ? sikil k'inal 1? cold country

k'isin k'inal 14 hot country

lumilal = lum 18

tontikil 6 rocky land

v/i<¿ ta cuhkul tontik = wi¿ ta cukul ton 2

wijétikil = wi¿ 5 hills holholwi^ 1 hilltops

ti? 9 uk'umaltik = = ti"7 ?uk am = 'uk'umaltik 6 rivers

8. State silvestre 16. wild domestico 16 domesti

E. Discussion and Interpretation of the Plant Characteristics, Perceptual Dimensions and Attributes as Reported by our Informant. The Use of the Informant. We set up eliciting procedures for getting at the plant taxonomy that, in retrospect, may have some features which are good field work routines. In the first stage of the eliciting, we prepared the informant and the taxonomic grid simultaneously. That is, we brought plants into focus for the informant -- expressing interest in their features. We - 14 helped him prepare an outline in terms of which he could talk with us about plants. This outline allowed him to discuss correspondences between plants and between parts of plants in a discourse which he understood -- namely, the shape, size, color» and so on, of these plants. Once we were able to identify the recurrent features in terms of which the informant was able to discuss the.plants, we set these reference points up as having probable taxonomic significance for the informant. These included the now familiar plant-part: perceptual dimension : attribute schema. The next stage of revealing what and how the informant thought about plants involved his preparing a number of plants in terms of the taxonomic nodes which he and the anthropologists had developed. Examination of the informant's attempt to compare a plant v/ith the taxonomic elements revealed difficulties of the following sort. 1. Although we continually admonished the informant to classify the plant in Tseltal terms, within the constraints of the social structure of Aguaca'cenango, he had considerable difficulty in maintaining this 'as if relationship v/ith some significant alter from his own town. An example of the type of difficulty involved here, follows: We noticed that the informant tended to use the Spanish loan kahpe for assigning color values to the plant parts. When asked if he would normally use this term in discussion with other people in his community, his answer was "no. " And he reported, in turn, that other individuals in the community would not use this form for these classificatory purposes either. Mariano reported, also, that the plant parts to which he assigned this color characteristic were in fact this color. The setting for eliciting cognitive materials, we conclude, involved the appli- cation of many different .eliciting frames to the situation. Not only does the investigator need to control the immediate cognitive 15 environment for the material which is being elicited: but also he need.3 to neutralize as much as possible the contaminating circumstances which result from the fact that he is not a partici- i pant in the social structure and that the informant may modify I\ his reponses accordingly. 2. We discovered, in the course of working with several informants on the plant taxonomy, that there was considerable difference among individuals in the ease with which an individual could learn to operate in terms of the taxonomic grid. It is our conviction that the art of getting the informant to respond to cognitive probing in a relevant and culturally 'correct' way is poorly developed. The investigator is caught in a dilemma. On the one hand, he must be able to communicate with the informant in a detailed and precise way. However, in the course of establishing such a closely meshed kind of interaction, he trains the informant to respond to the system of interpersonal z'ewards {head nodding, praise, and the like) which precludes, or at lea3t severely limits, the types of cognitive material which can be secured. Our present view is that one must gather data and analyze it in separate routines. The data gatherer should be as little visible as possible while the data is secured. Ideally, sound- sight records should be made. In the analysis stage, the material should be examined by a team consisting of the linguist, the kinesiciat, the social anthropologist, and one or two trained informants. The productivity of this approach is pointed out in two recent monographs. (Pittenge?, Hockett, and Danehy, I960. Bateson, Birdwhistell, Brosin, Hockett and McQuown. Mss.) - 16

General Characteristics of the Generated Taxonomy. 1. In general, the perceptual dimensions (color, sise» shape» etc.) did not cross-contaminate each other. That is to say, the informant behaved towards the grid in a manner which suggested that the percep- tual dimensions were highly contrastive. The evidence for this lies in the fact that there is a more or less distinct set of attributes for color, shape» size, smell, taste, and so on. 2. Again, the intersection of perceptual dimension and plant part was in general specific enough to allow the informant to assign an attribute value at a single lexical level. That is, the perceptual dimensions in general involve exclusive sets of contrastive attributes whose loci are in a list of lexemes and whose syntax is in the recalled characteristics of the plant part in question. We do not suppose that all customary behavior is so stored in lexeme lists, although much of it may be. The size dimension is the one which expresses the most complexity in the combination of lexemes in the sense that many of the attribute values are expressions of a size and 3hape combination. We suppose this means that the size dimension in interaction with the plant part is not sufficiently unambiguous to permit the informant to select a size attribute from the list of size lexemes and consider the plant part identified on that basis. It is interesting to note that when the informant added another perceptual dimension to reduce the ambiguity of the identification, he added an attribute from the shape list. This suggests some kind of cognitive adjacency between the two lists --at least as compared with the other lists in the taxonomic grid. APPENDIX 10. The Mapping of Single Perceptual Dimensions on Plant Parts.

One mode of representing the distribution of the attribute lists across the set of 25 plants is to map them dimension by dimension. There follow tables in which the dimensions of color, smell, taste, and hot-cold, are so mapped. We also include a map showing the environments among which the plants are distributed. (See tables I-V and accompanying maps following this discussion.) Many interesting distributional features are thus revealed, a selection of which is reported below. COLOR: 1. Compounds. Three basic types of color compounding may be distinguished in terms of the structural differences in the compounds. There are compounds which are made up of Intransitive Verb plus Noun; of Adjective plus Noun; and of Adjective plus Adjective. There follows the three lists with reported c'ombinations: 1. A plus N a. white - yellow b. yellow - white c. yellow - red d. red - black e. black - red 2. IV plus N a. yellow - blue-green b. blue-green - red c. blue-green - black d. white - black 3. A plus A a. white - black b. blue-green - yellow c. yellow - red These combinations are more conveniently summarized in the following diagram. white <$- .yellow blue-green^:

slack <£— -•5? red Where: the dotted lines represent IV plus N the solid lines represent A plus N the zig-zag lines represent A plus A and the arrow indicates the relative order of the terms in the compound. 2 -

The features of the distribution we note are that type 1 and type 2 com- pounds have distributions which are mutually exclusive. A second and perhaps more general characteristic involves possible limitations on which color terms can be conjoined with other color terms. Thus, for example, white is not conjoined with blue-green nor with red, and yellow is not conjoined with black. The lack of these conjunctions may be indicative of the fact that the33 colors are perceived by the informant to be non-adjacent in a color space. This interpretation needs to be checked against further eliciting from the informant.

2. The Color Distribution. One very strong distributional characteristic is that the informant does not differentiate between the several types of roots of a tree by color. (Plant parts 1-4 have the same color for each plant in the sample.) This certainly suggests that color is not tised to differentiate within root types, while it may be used to differentiate the roots of one plant from the roots of another. One may also notice that when the seed center is reported to be present for the plant» it i3 always judged to have the 'color' value white . This suggests that the seed center for all seeds from all the plants in the sample are not differentiated by color. There are also plant parts which are reported to be present and which are assigned values on other perceptual dimensions but not on the color dimension. (See the cells with tildes.) We would interpret this to mean that the cells involved call up the color dimension as a very weak response to the problems of making an identification.

SMELL AND TASTE: 1. Taken together, the smell and taste maps display the characteristic that smell values range more widely over the sample of the plants than do the taste values, the latter being primarily restricted to the fruit of the plant. It is interesting to note - 3 - that in general» the presence of a smell value in conjunction with the absence of á taste value is likely to produce an attribute that has a negative valence (sin -- bad smelling), whereas when taste values are present, it is much more likely that the smell value will have a positive valence (smuyét -- aromatic). We may perhaps conclude that the ingestión of plant parts as some kind of food is likely to mean that the items, in general, smell good (the English example of some cheeses notwithstanding). Nearly all of the ta3te values fall into the fruit parts of the plants. In this area we may note that the value for the taste of the fruit skin is within the attributes bitter, astringent, and slightly picante - hot. (c'a, sup, and leblebtik) We suggest that these taste attributes report rejection criteria for the eating of the skin of the fruit. This distribution looks as follows below. The significant thing to note is that the taste attributes for skin and seed are in complementary distribution (with regard to the frequencies) with the taste attributes for flesh and juice. Astringent Bitter Hot Sweet Good Tasty Skin 6 4 1 0 0 0 Seed 2 3-: 1 0 0 0 Flesh 2 1 0 9 1 0 Juice 0 0 0 6 0 0

HOT AND COLD: The characteristic 'hot' is assigned to members of the set of twenty-five plants much more frequently than is 'cold'. The prepon- derance of the assignment of these attributes is to the plant parts which are eaten, primarily fruit. This conforms with our .understanding of the criterial attributes which account for the salisncy of this perceptual dimen- sion: namely that they are items which when brought into contact with the body, primarily by ingestión as food or medicine, transmit heat or cold respectively. That part of the world of objects which does not interact- with the informants in this manner is not so classified. The exception to this statement is that there may be contagion (stimulus generalization) from objects which are so classified to related objects. This matter is subject to further investigation.

THE PLANT ENVIRONMENTS: In looking at the plant environment dis- tribution, one may note that every plant in the sample occurs in hot country or cold country or both. No other pair of environments is thus inclusive of all the plants and overlapping. Some interesting distributions show up when we compare the domestic-wild contrast with the environments. The plants which are judged to be domesticated do not occur in rocky environments or along streams, while plant3 which are judged to be wild occur primarily in these two environments. These relations are displayed in the following table. The figures report the number of plants in each cell.

ild plants Domestic plants Plants judged both wild and domestic rocky place 6 0 2 stream side 5 0 1 neither rocky place 1 8 2 nor stream side

It is also the case that 'rocky place' and 'stream side' are in comple- mentary distribution--that is» if a plant grows in one of these environments, it does not grow in the other. In turn, any plant which grows in 'rocky place' or 'stream side' is also judged to grow in the environment wi^tikU, which may be glossed as the non-cultivated, hilly slopes around the commun- ity. These relations are displayed in the following table. The figures report the number of plants in each cell. non-cultivated hill slopes other rocky place 2 stream side 4 both 0 other 0

We plotted the distribution of plants by climatic zones against the distribution of plants judged in terms of the domestic and/or wild contrast. The striking feature of the comparison of these distributions is that wild plants are judged to grow in both the hot and the cold zones most frequently! while domesticated plants are judged to grow in the cold zone most frequently. We might guess that since the community primarily controls cultivable land in the cold zone» the plants which are available for domestication must at least have the feature of growing in that zone. That they primarily have this characteristic suggests that the domesticated plants require a somewhat more specialized zonal environment than do the v/ild plants{in the informants' mode of concep- tualizing the features of domesticated plants). They have zonal restric- tions and furthermore they have specific environmental restrictions, for, as was shown in the preceding table, they do not grow in 'rocky placed or along 'stream sides'.

SUMMARY: The distribution of perceptual dimensions and attributes against plants and their parts provides a fairly well defined set of formal procedures in terms of which the anthropologist can begin to understand how the cognitive domains are structured for the Tzeltal speakers in the community of Aguacatenango, Chiapas. We are reasonably certain that the further development of these procedures will produce interesting and exact accounts of the structuring of cognitive regions of any group of people sharing a common language and culture. We propose to work this out in the next few years. TABLE I, Code for color terms as shown on color map of plant parts.

Primary Derived A Derived B 0 OB tantantik grey 1 ¿ah 1A s¿ahet lB¿ah¿ahtik red 2 'ink' black 3 'ihk' suksuk blue (?) 4 k'an 4A sk'anet yellow 5 sak 5A saket white 6 yas 6A syaset green

Complex, with Primary as first element and s/yf- primary + al as second element. s¿ahal yihk'al sk'anal sakal syasal 1 ¿ah 12 2 'ihk' 21 3 'ihk' suksuk 31 4 k'an 41 45 5 sak 54 ' 6 yas if

Complex, v/ith Derived A as first element and s/y + primary + al as second element. 1 s¿ahet 4 sk'anet 46 5 saket 52 6 syaset 61 62 1 2 4 5 6

Primary + Primary. 1 2 4 ¿ah ?ihk" k'an 4 k'an 4,1 5 sak 5,2 6 yas 6.4 2 -

Loans from Spanish. 7 kahpeh brown (5coffee) 8 rosada pink (>rose) 9 kanela reddish-

Miscellaneous combination. s¿ahet kanela 1A, 9

B bilil o plant part absent -plant part present» but color not specified X plant part present* but no perceptual dimension reported 1a.pl. TV capping of color on iUe. parts o£ 2.5" plants.

Plants

g

plant o o 4) 8 0 0 «i O i. .2 CT: £ S ti s.' 1 V- éA 2 ro - raiz. 2 2 2. 2. 7 7 5A 2. 7 2 5 7 2 /A /« /vJ 2. 2 2 2 ^%í ^r ¿A 2 ^< -rarz. 2. 2- 2. O 7 o 5A 2 o 2. 5 7 2. IA fW o 2. 2 2. 2 />j ¥• ¿A 2 oj ~ rvj ^V) -raíz. 2 •2. 2. 2, T o o 2. 7 2- 5 7 2. »A 2 2. 2. 2. f ¿A 2 <\j tubérculo O 0 O 0 o o o O O O o o C o O O O a O O O o o O O rastrero O O O O o o o O o o o o o o O O O o O O O a o O O tronco 2. 2. 2. 2 2. 7 2. 2 O 2 2, 5,L rj 2. 'V> 0 2 2 2- 2. 2. /o tyj 2. n-> rj fallo 52 52. fci 5-A SA 7 5A SA 7 2. fl 5,* & IA ¿ 2 2. 7 2 2 «j /V 2 r^> medula. 7 o O S 3 1 0 O o 0 0 O O o O 5 1 0 0 O a o o O 0 hueco 0 o o <-v o o o o O O O O O o O rv o O 0 O o o o O a - - - nadara. £ S" 5 5 S+ S 2 5 1 5" 6 S s 1 -v rO 6.2. /v» r\j cascara. ¿z. 52. SA SA T 2 5A 7 2 <¿s 7 B 7 /A H- 2 Z OJ 2. 2 2 /NJ savia. o O X 0 o / O í 1 £ X ¿rV 1 rj X S X / O 1 / o O C X rmdo 0 o o 2- rtj /-o rsj í?a¡o 52 52 6 SA 5A •7 SA sA 0 *A *s 5,2. 2 JA /-O O 2 1 ÍV> 2 /%J X 2 ye.hna (o 6 6 V» SA 7 5A sA 7 SA ¿ f¿ ¿ / v-A O 6 1 ó ¿> 1 /\J é J Viojau lo 4 lo é> (,>•} (> y VA. ó ¿> lo /B 6 £* (35 lo ¿, lo é ¿ é L ¿ ¿ ó fte.rvaiu.ra. Vo fA b /A o o 5I\ sA 7 ¿ /-u f- f 1 og lo r\l ¿> ¿ K X X X X X espina^ 0 o o o o o o o o o o O o' o o O O o o O o ¿ ¿> c 'V /•o •flor f (o fc,i 0 2¿ 7 lfi .¥ é 5A ¿ H- 6 5 M 2 ¿ 6 ¿ M ¿,V ti V-,1 / i dt. u tascara- lw !o o lo 2. 0 O £> T 2. ¿,v t> SA ¿ o 0 /y) 2/ 2 ^ ¿ 6 ^ ¥ VI *l» vainilla. o 0 o o o 7 o o O O & o o o C O O O c O o o «y O o 0 5" s 5 5 cama l fruta. ) <° o X 3 0 2. 7 1 * SÍ- 1 H- (7 S ¿A fa V- ÍA f f X o o o o 0 7 / ¥• 0 5 H- 0 o X o 5" 0 o X y 0 X J 3 3 f rj rJ rj /v oJ semilla nJ o 7 7 o lo 7 2. 7 S s 7 Z 0 o 5* o o 5 S 5 niíc/eo de a*ill« .X 0 o 0 o O 5 5 S S s í s o o s s 5 5 5 5 5 5 s TABLE II. Code for the mapping of 3mell on the parts of twenty-five plants.

¿ ¿am good ¿i ¿ihjSihtik skunk-like smell c ci*> sweet m srnuyet aromatic s sin, sinsintik bad smell so sohet smelly t tokok, tokoktik strong MAP II. The mapping of amoll on 25 plants

Plant Plant Characteristic Ho. 1 2 5 4 5 6 7 3 9 10 11 12 15 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 21 22 25 24 25 26 27 23 29 50

1 0

2 s v 3 8

4 mee

5 6

7 m B m

8 m m c

9

10 m m m mass

7.1 ID in s cms

12

V V V V 15 a s s m s

V V 14 S B

15 t t V 16 B m

17 S 3 s 8 S s 8

v V V 18 SO BO a m S 8

19 SÍ m m m 20

21 22 ¿i

25 m m t 24

25 TABLE III. Code for the mapping of taste on the parts of twenty-five plants. b buh¿ 'an, sbuhfS' sweet» tasty c ci?, sci'il sweet or salty c1 c'a, ac'aal bitter i ¿am aweeto good 1 leblebtik=sleblun (+syaal) picante ('hot')

8 sup astringent

3 sin bad (primarily a smell attribute) MAP III. The mapping of taste on the parts of twenty-five plants.

Plant parts 12 13 19 20 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Plants 6 7' 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 i,c é»c 16 17 19 20 21 22 c' 23 c'

24 SsC 25 TABLE IV. Code for the mapping of 'hot' and 'cold' on the parta of twenty-five plants.

K k»isin 'hot1 S sik 'cold'

MAP IV. The mapping of 'hot* an d 'cold* on the parts of twenty-five plants. Plant parts Plants 12 13 17 19 20 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 S 5 6 7 K K K 8 K K K 9 10 K K K K 11 K K K 12 S S K K 13 K K 14 15 K K 16 S K 17 K 18 K S 19 K K K K 20 21 K 22 S K / K 23 K K K K K 24 K S S K 25 K K TABLE V, Code for the mapping of environment and the domestic-v/ild contrast on twenty-five planta. ba'luwaril environment k'isin (k) hot country sikil (s) cold country wi^tikil (w) non-cultivated hilly slopes tontikil (ton) rocky place lum, lumilal (J) cultivated land, bottom? yask'inal, k'altik (y) cultivated land takin (t) dry country uk'um (u) stream side holwi¿ (h) hilltop

3C1 state domestico (D) domesticated silvestre (S) wild both both domesticated and wild MAP V. The mapping of environment and the domestic-wild contrast on twenty-five Environments States_ . tjlanis. Plants k' s w ton i y t D S Both

1 X X X X 3Í 2 X X X x 3 X X X

4 X X

5 X X X X X

6 X X X X X

7 X X X

8 X X

9 '• X X X

10 X • X

11 X X X

12 X X

13 X X X

14 X X X X X

15 X X X

16 X X X X X

17 X X X X

18 X X X X

19 X X X X

20 X X X X X X

21 X X X X X

22 X X X X

23 X X X

24 X X

25 X X X APPENDIX íB» Informants Participating in Conversations

Informant No» Name House No. Relation Block/ House

1 Natividad A güila r 8 2 Feliciana Vasquez 7 3 Pedro Vasquez 2 / 4 Catalina Pérez 6 V 5 Juan Rodríguez 5 6 Juana Pérez 4 7 Juana Rodríguez 4 8 Guadalupe Jiménez 11 3 9 Petrona Hernandez 3 10 Aurelia Ramírez 2 9 11 Juana Méndez 2 8 12 Cirilo Méndez 3 3 13 Juana Ramírez 32 3 14 Julio Ramírez 32 4 15 Juan Méndez 3 4 16 Luisa Hernández 3 4 17 Cirilo Hernández 2 6 18 Margarita Pérez 3 1 19 Ángel Pérez 2 5 20 Santos Méndez 2 4 21 Rosa Méndez 2 3 22 Cayetana Rodríguez 12 1 23 Cayetano Pérez 1 8 24 Agustín Aguilar 22 6 25 Delíina Espinosa 24 7 26 Catalina Espinosa 30 7 27 María Peres 28 2 28 Tomasa Aguilar 28 2 Informant No. Name House No. Relation Block/ House

29 Candelario Hernández 9 6 30 Manuel Hernández 9 2 compadre 31 Florentina Gómez 9 3 32 Margarita Lopez 22 12 half-sister 33 Juan Méndez 32 2 34 Viviano Hernández 31 3 ( ¿Kl(y 35 Isidora Méndez 31 3 3¿ Manuel Méndez 31 4 37 Magdalena Hernández 23 10 spouse 38 Juana Rodríguez 23 11 cufiada 39 Delfina Hernández 23 6 40 Guadalupe Hernández 23 4 41 Francisca Pérez 23 2 5 42 Mercedes Espinosa 22 4 43 Juana Espinosa 22 2 44 Ignacia Águila r 22 14 45 Gregorio Aguilar 22 5 46 Valentina Pérez 22 5 47 Rosa Girón 22 7 5 48 Isabel Juárez 22 7 5 49 José Méndez 27 6 compadre 50 Petrosa Méndez 27 6 51 María Juárez 9 3 52 Crecencia Peras 9 2 53 Eleuteria Juárez 9 1 54 Margarita Juárez 1 1 55 María Juárez 1 1 56 Catalina Girón 1 2 57 Atanagio Juárez 1 2b Informant No • Name House No* Relation Block/ House

58 Juana Méndez 1 2b 59 Paula Hernández 22 9 60 Rufina Aguilar 22 11 61 Juan Aguilar 22 8 62 Feliciana Vasquez 24 8 "suegra1 63 Sebastiana Hernández 24 7 64 José Hernández 25 la 65 Pascuala Aguilar 25 Ib 66 Juana Juárez 26 2 6? Josefa Hernández 26 3 68 Carmen Espinosa 27 5 comadre 69 Juan Hernández 27 5 70 María Espinosa 27 1 71 Teresa Juárez 24 5 72 Juan Vásquez 26 2 73 Rufina Pérez 26 3a 74 Román Pérez 26 5 75 Pascuala Espinosa 26 5 76 Cirilo Aguilar 29 2 77 Cirilo Juárez 26 4 78 Antonio Rodrigues 27 3 79 Eufrasia Peres 10 1 80 Octaviano Espinosa 11 2 81 Mariano Juáres 23 10 82 Severiana Hernandos 22 6 83 Juan Juáres 1 2 11 APPENDIX ^ The Relation between the Social Characteristic Scales and the Tests

The social characteristic scales represent sets of values which our principle informant, Mariano Juarea, considered maximally rele- vant for discriminating individuals in the community each from the other They involve the following relatively enduring characteristics of the individuals involved (enduring relatively longer than the verbal transactions which is our record of their reality in this context ) Age? Sex? Barrio membership? Degree of acquaintanceship with Mariano? Character? Well and wash groups? Control of Spanish as a second language and style of dress? - 2 - Social Characteristics of Medical Informants -- Aguacatenango: the Key

0» Informant Identifying Number: corresponds with number given in tape identifications» 1* Spanish Knowledge: Mariano, told to sort cards bearing the informants' names into piles ordered by the person's knowledge of Spanish, made five piles» The criteria he used for this sorting were then elicited: Spanish Tzeltál 1* no hablan y no entienden español ma ana9 2« entienden poco y no hablan español ma sya'iy lek 3* habla un poco español sna9 tabule 4» habla regular español copol sna? 5* habla bien español sna9 lek 2» Dress: the informants' cards were sorted by Mariano into eight piles on the basis of pre-established categories which combine distinctions of sex and type of clothing worn: Man Woman 1* Cinturon con zapatos vestido con zapatos 2* Cinturon ain zapatos vestido sin zapatos 3# Banda con camisa de color faja con rebozo de color 4. Banda con camisa blanca faja con rebozo blanco However, a few days later Mariano denied that numbers 3 and 4 could be separated, stating that all men wear both kinds of shirt on different occasions* Wall: this refers to the well from which the informant or. for men. the informant's wife obtains water* Code numbers are marked on the large green map drawn by Mariano in red pencil* The number is the number of the block in which the well is located or nearest to which it is located» The email letters distinguish among several wells in the same block» 4» Washing: refera to the river spot or well at which the informant (or his wife) washes clothes* This coda similarly refers to locations marked on the large green map» Mariano stated that women who use site W30B also U3e W30A, but he nevertheless distinguished them from women who use only W30A. Use of these two sites corresponds in our sample to barrio residence -- with the exception of four cases using W30A: 1» Catalina Espinosa -- formerly married into other barrio 2» Tomasa Juarez -- "W30A is "mas cerca" to her house 3» Isidora Mendos -~ formerly married into other barrio 4» Bonifacia Rodrigues -- born in other barrio Mariano also states that W30B water is better than W30A water*

5* Barrio: 1 • San Martin 2 • San Antonio (Mariano's barrio)

6* Age: Mariano grouped the informants' names into nine piles ordered on the basis of age. 1 being oldest and 9, youngest» When queried about his criteria for these groupings, he stated that absolute age was the only criterion* However, previously he had ranked the entire sample, one half at a time, presumably by the same criterion of absolute age'; but on that sort, there were 12, not 9, groups»

7» Tseltal character: Mariano's rating of informants on the. basis of the following predetermined scale: 1* lekyo'tanik 2* tulan yo'tanik 3* k'ahk' yo'tanlk- pukuh yo?tanik 4» yan. yo'tanik 0» k'un yo'tan 8» Mariano's friend: degree or extent of acquaintanceship or friendship with Mariano, ranked from 1 -- known best, to 3 — known least well» - 4

Social Characteristics of Informants Participating in Conversations

1 2 4 11a 30A 5 3 3 2 2 4 23a 30A 7 3 3 3 2 3- 11a 30A 9 3 3- 4 2 4 11a 30A 8 1 3 5 2 2- 11a 30A 9 3 3- 6 2 4 Ua 30A 7 2 3 (^ 7 1 4 22 30A 4 1 2 8 1 4 1.1a 30A 4 2 3 9 3 4 11a 11 2 2 3 10 4 4 32 30A 4 3 3 11 2 4 lib 30A 5 2 3 12 1 4- 32 30A 4 0 2- 13 ?. 4 32 30A 5 3 3 14 3 4- 32 30A 6 2 3- 15 Z 4 32 30A 6 2 3 = 16 2 4 32 30A 6 3 3 17 2 3- 32 30A 4 3 3- 18 2 4 12A 12 9 3 3 19 2 3- 11a 12 7 2 2- 20 3 2- 11a 30A 6 1 2- 21 3 4 11a 12 3 3 3 22 1 4 11a 12 3 3 3 23 3 4- 22 30A 5 1 1- 24 3 1- 23b 30B 2 9 1 1- 25 4: 1 23a 3 OB 2 8 3 1

26 2 4 30 30A 2-.:. • 8 1 2- 27 2 4 32 303 2 4 2 1 28 2 4 32 30B 2 1 1 1 - 5

29 3 2- lib 30A 1 6 I 2- 30 3 2- 22 30A 1 5 1 1- 31 2 4 22 30A 1 4 1 2 32 4 4 22 3 OB 2 5 2 1 33 3 4- 32 30A 2 6 1 1- 34 2 3- 32 3 OB 2 4 1 1- 35 4 4 32 30A 2 4 2 1 36 2 4- 32 30A 2 2 1 2- 3? 3 1 23C 23 2 7 1 1 38 2 4 23a 3 OB 2 4 3 1 39 3 4 23b 3 OB 2 6 3 1 40 2 4 23b 3 OB 2 5 2 1 41 2 4 23b 3 OB 2 9 1 3 42 3 4 25 3 OB 2 7 3 1 43 3 4 25 3 OB 2 6 3 1 44 2 4 25 30B 2 8 3 3 45 2 4- 23b 3 OB 2 6 1 1- 46 1 4 23b 3 OB 2 2 2 1 47 3 2 23c 3 OB 2 8 3 3 43 2 2 23c 3 OB . 2 9 1 3 49 3 1- 23a 3 OB 2 6 1 1- 50 3 4 23a 3 OB 2 7 1 1 51 2 4 22 30A 9 1 3 52 3 4 22 30A 5 2 1 53 2 4 22 30A 6 1 2 54 3 4 22 30A 3 2 1 55 3 4 22 30A 6 1 1 56 2 4 22 30A 8 1 3 57 2 4- 11a 30A 4 2 3- 58 3 3 32 30A 5 3 3 - 6

59 22 30B 60 22 30B 61 22 30B 62 lia 30B 63 23a 30B 64 23a 30B 65 23a 30B 66 23a 30B 67 23a 30B 68 23a 303 69 4- 23a 30B 1- 70 23a 30B 71 23a 30B 72 4- 23a 30B 73 23a 30B 74 26 30B 1- 75 26 30B 76 4- 26 30B 3- 77 26 30B 73 1- 23a 30B 79 11b 11 80 4- 11b 11 81 23c 23 82 23c 30B 83 3- 22 30A 2- :A'-'

APPENDIX 13. Notes on the Use of Wells and Washing Spots by Women in Aguacatenango. (Consult accompanying map) Wells. Geographical proximity Í3 the general rule for use of wells, and it even overrides barrio division for those closest to the well in question. For example, well number 32 is located in barrio II (in an open field below the settlement) and is used by seven barrio I informants (all in lower block 31 or in block 3) and by four informants from barrio II (from blocks 23, 31, and 32). Well number 22 is located in barrio II (formerly in an open field, but now in the back yard of a new hou3e) and is used by four barrio II informants (all in adjacent block 22 houses) and by nine barrio I informants (all in the block 9 and block 1 houses which face on the street running north to the well). Except for these two borderline wells, all others are clearly in one barrio or another and are used by women from that barrio only; one woman (2) is reported to use number 23a although she livas in block 1; we can think of no reason why this should be true -- all her relatives and her husband's live in barrio I -- and we guess this is an error in Mariano's judgment (NB: the use of wells is a judgment rather than a report* and in three cases we note that Mariano is not sure of this judgment.). Some women seem to go very far for water although there are wells closer; if this is true, then other factors, perhaps social» must be operating to cause: a) three women from block 22 rear to use number 25 rather than number 23a - c; b) two women from block 28 to use number 32 rather than number 30; and c) one woman from block 2 and one from block 9 to use number lib rather than wells closer to their homes. (The fact that nearly all wells are located in other people's back yards cannot be ignored.) - 2 -

When wells are equally close» the choice clearly depends on other factors -- in three cases» informants use 23a even though 23c is equally close. We would guess that 1) preference for back streets rather than the plaza; 2) neighbors1 well preferences» combined with the felt need for 'company' on the trip; and 3) interpersonal likes and dislikes are involved in the distribution. In support of point 3), the family of Antonio Rodriguez lives half way between the two wells, 23c and 23b, the former well being in the back yard of Mariano Juarez, an arch enemy. It is not surprising that Antonio's wife chooses well number 23b rather than 23c.

Washing Places. Only a few informants wash near their homes. Most women choose one of two places along the river which crosses the meadow south of town. This river is deeper and wider than the river to the east. Washing place 23c is a well in Mariano's yard, and women prefer running water for washing rather than water that must be drawn from a well. Well number 30A is closer to barrio II than well 30B; however» well 30A is used by 28 barrio I informants and by only one from barrio II. Well 3OB is used by 37 barrio II informants and by only one from barrio I. The tendency to cross barrio lines which appears in the use of wells does not occur in anything like the same degree here. We suggest that choice of a washing place follows barrio lines, that is the boundaries of acquaintance and relatively comfortable inter- action* more closely than does the choice of wells because 1) washing takes place once a week instead of several times a day and so one can better afford to be extravagant of time in getting there; and 2) washing takes all day sitting in one Spot, chatting with others who have come there to wash, while getting water at a well may take only minutes and demands little conversation. WASHING PLACES:

Barrio I Barrio II

Washing places 11 3 • í ^ 12 4 23 1 30A 28 2

30B 1 37 s ~J

r^ APPENDIX 14. Personnel for the NSF Project G 10931.

Linguistic Informants Town Language Hired Jobs

Mariano Juarez Aguilar Aguacatenango Tseltal Jan 1 12 3 4 5 Pedro Jimenez Giron Tenejapa Tzeltal Apr 15 1 4 5 Juan Méndez Tzotsec Ghamula Tzotzil May 15 1 4 Jozé Gómez Lopez Oxchuc Tzeltal July 1 4 5 Salvador Peres Charnula Tzotzil Sept 1 5

Investigators Bays, D. G. and RAND ALDP Group Kaufman, T. Mar 1 Metzger, D. Jan 1 Wallace, R. Aug 1 - Sept 1 Vogt, E. Z. 10

Notes: Key to 'Jobs' 1. Served as linguistic informant. 2. Served a3 interviewer for eliciting conversational Tzeltal text3. 3. Transcribed tape-recorded Tzeltal text3. 4. Wrote Tzeltal (or Tzotzil) tejcts. 5. Translated tests into Spanish. 6. Performed linguistic analysis and wrote linguistic description. 7. Performed computer analysis of linguistic material. 8. Performed cultuz-al analysis and wrote cultural description. 9. Socio-cultural data analyst. 10. Consultant on over-all strategy of project.

Hired is understood to mean full time employment from the stated date until December 31, I960, unless otherwise stated. Internal Memo #9 T. Kaufman April 1961

Tzeltal Derivation: Affixes

Symbols written in capital letters refer to stems which are roots. Capital letters indicate a root v/hich does not function aB a simple stem in data available to me. Lower case letters denote stems which have been derived from some other root or stem by means of a derivational process either affixation, reduplication, or compounding.

Nouns N Verbs vb T tv I iv Adjectives A aj Particles P P Other nura = numeral nc = numeral classifier pron = pronoun u. c. = unique constituent X = unknown class Morphophonemic rule 1 infixed -h- is represented by zero before /b ' hsslmnwy/

I. Prefixes affix code position derives from examples (a)h- HH prefix1 n ?

1. in RAND coding, same as infix. Internal Memo Page 2

II. Infixes affix code position derives from examples

-h- HI infix T hahc

III. Suffixes A. Occurring in first suffix position with T and unique constituents, affix' code position derives from examples p'Vn PN first tv T huhp*in

III. A. (continued) affix - code position derives ir.om... . examples • ¿ -¿•Vh SH first iv T nuh^'eh-^nuh f K V = idem (Slociim) \^ -c'Vh JH first T cane'oh (Te)< can* V = idem

-k'Vh GH first T bot'k'ehc

-bah BH first iv T k'usbah ilbahin) < ' il (? ) | X nikbah; cf nikbal huk'bah sisbah; cf 3isib (n) suBbah; cf susúb (n) -tomba TB first T mahtomba< tnah heliomba< hel niltomba< mil (exx. from Slocum) -aw NW first T *utaw<.'ut ¿obaw < ¿ob hmilaw< mil •eh~oh VH first T 'a'yeh^'a'iy k'ayoh< k'ay* cf k'ayob «ie9eh< tie'* cf ¿e'en tek'oh<:tek' k'ahoh< k'ah -ben BN first T ka*?ben

-Vjhtik HK first aj T hok'ohtik-¿.hok' tebehtik

III. B. Occurring in first suffix position with T and others. affix code position derives from examples -IVy LY first tv T ?5,ald.iy<

IV many < mal (Ba ma N k*abuy

N 9 awlahan < ' aw

-(V1C2)et ET first T íÉaket< jí'ak Icahet < kah bik'etip -Via VN first iv T nuhpun

yihiK. yih naht'aKnaht' k'anal

R-tik QK first aj A ¿ahiahtik <.¿ah k'ank'antikCk'an u.c. ¿ih¿ihtik<4ih* salsaltik

howeh< how takih; cf takin ba«S'ih; cf batf'il (N wayceh-o8Qh< 'os coneh<£u. c. -ek' EK first N cabek'< cab ¿a'ek'-^jia? -wah WH first N 8Í'\V8h<8Í' ha'welKha? e'i?weh<^i? Internal Memo #9 Page 9 in. D. Occurring in last suffix position, affix code position derives from examples -bil BI last aj T, tv pasbil-^pas T hohk'obil<-hohk'oy tv 'a'talanbil< 'a">talan tv -em~en EM . last aj iv lok'em-Clok' I ' ahc 'em < "> ahc' iv huhp'en< huhp' iv -el EL ' last vb pasel •¿.pas T hohk'oyeKhohk'oy tv lok'eKlok' I camel < cam I -al~el XL last iv wi'nal; cf wi9nah pasyal; cf pasyah 'a'tel; cf 'a'teh 'animal; cf 'animah 7 atimal <• ' atin tahimal < tahin 'ahc'aK'ahc' in. E. Occurring in intermediate suffix position, affix code position derives from examples -tay TY non-first tv T ¿ahtay<«ia k'usutay al (Ox)tilay (Ba)tiklan -bey BY intermed. tv T, tv ?a?bey «¿'ale' (indir) halbeyel^-hal hok'beyeK hok' -Vlan LA intermed. tv T/tv 'uc'ilan-C'uc' (Te.Ox)Vlay \velelanayin<'»ay Internal Memo #9 Page 11 III. E. (continued) affix code position derives from examples -ah~eh AH non~fir3t iv T tak'aha'tehib<'a,>t* I lahib alcas wale ' el akilel(tik)

il~el 2L perhaps aj 'an^iK'ani first patiK pat nohel< noh iv/T lubeK lub -tik TI intermed. p(time) u.c. ya'tik^ n 'ahk'ubaltik<'ahk'ubal k»aleltik

2. pattern (3) + CVjC + Vj + CV2C skilikil stulutul

3. a possible suffix -Vn deriving tv< T nuhun

4. a possible suffix -ub 'body part1 suhkub 'elbow' < suhk 'side' cf also sulub 'horn' sehkub 'liver'

5. a possible suffix -et bak'et 'flesh' <. bak' 'seed» pip, kernel' yoket 'tenemaste' <. 9ok 'foot, leg'

6. a possible suffix -Vn _a¿ buhé'an 'tasty'

7. a suffix -olehel hconoleheKcOn 'sell*

8. a non-productive suffix -VI isolable only thru cross-dialect comparison tokal 'cloud' t Tzo tok biil 'name' Tzo bi nabil 'lake' Tzo nab tukel 'oneself ; Tzo tuk Internal Memo #9 Page 15

9. a possible noun suffix -in~sn muken 'secretly' cf mule 'bury, hide' 9ak'in, 'ak'en 'clearing ground' cf 7ak' 'vines' k'esen 'left hand' cf k'es* 'shame" cik'in 'sweat' cf cik' 'burn'

10. a possible suffix -ic wayic 'dream' cf way 'sleep' pa'ic "jealousy1

Forms not from the Aguacatenango dialect are occasionally cited without being thus identified. Tzelíal Place Names. I. Towns outside Tenehapa A, Primarily Indian 1. tenam Tenango Mu (municipio), -J Ej(ejido) Ocosingo 2. k'ankuhk Cancuc Mu - Ej Ocosingo 3. 'oscuhk Oxchuc Mu 4. san ka rio 8 S. Carlos ? 5. tenehapa Tenejapa Mu 6. k'ina Huistan Mu 7. canal Chanal Mu 8. ¿ontah&l (sic) Amatenango Mu 9. fi'ehte? Aguacafcenango Ej San Bartolo lCsorf'leb Zinacantan Mu 11. camo' Chamula Mu 12,sanmikel (mikfcontik) S. Miguel Mitontic Mu (cabacera) 13. sampero (c 'enalo9) S. Pedro Ghenaló Mu (cabacera) 14. eanantres S. Andrés Larrainsar Mu 15-malalena Magdalena Ej (of who?) 16. sanjiyako ? Mu - Ej 17. santamaría ? Mu - Ej 18.. sanpawlo S. Pablo Chale hihuiíán Mu - Ej 19. sampelipe S. Felipe Ej San Cristóbal 20.CÜÍ1 ChUil Colonia Huistán 21. wa'alwi^ Balhuitz Colonia (of who?) .

A. i. Inhabitants of Towns

1. 2. molcltik k 'ankuhk 3 * mamtik 'oecuhlc 4. 5* 6. mololtik k'ina ; hmoltik 7. 8. 9, 10. kulootik U. mololtik camo' ; hmoltik 12. mololtik 13. mololtik 14, mololtik IS. 16. 17. 18. mololtik 19; 20. 21. B. 1.

6. yal anic 'an tatik ? okosinko

B. Mixed 3

1. yasalum Yajalón Mu 2. ci'lum Chilón Mu 3. bahcahom Bachajón Mu 4. sihtalha' Citalá Mu ¿. sibákha ' Sivacá 6. ' okosinko Oc o singo Diet 7. takinwifi Guaquitepec Mu 8. pinola Pinola Mu 9. sambartol S. Bartolo Diet (cabacera) 10. 'istapa Ixtapa ? 11. bohcil Bochil ? 12. suyalha? Suyaló ? 13. sanlukas S. Lucas Colonia (of who?)

C. Primarily Ladino

1. himosol Teopisca " Mu 2. soyatitan Soyatitlán ? 3. 'unink'ibal Socoltenango Mu 4. kometan C omitan Dist (cabacera) 5. hobel S, Cristobal Dist(cabacera) ) 6. santakatarina Pantelhó Mu 7. ¿imahobel Simojovei Dist (cabacera) 8. 'akale Acala Ej 9. rapice Trapiche Ej 10. i tusta Tuxíla Capital del Estado

D. Not Classified

salto Salto de Agua Pueblo

E. Geographical Features

* osyoket Name of a group of three mountains

Ó Divisions within Tenejapa

Name Etymology Spanish Form

Parajes and Barrios

1. kurus e'en •cruz de piedra' Cruzchén 2. yas 'anal ? Yashanal c'ulha? "agua bendita' 3. ¿ahalc'en 'peaa colorada' Tzajalchén 4. ¿ahkibil hok' 'pozo hecho de piedra' Tzaquiviljoc 5. kokól te' •palo gachado' Cotolté yocib sisim 6. sibanil ha9 Sivaniljá pokolum husalha "> 7. yeh¿ 9uk'um 'sena del río' Yetzucum 8. mahben cauk •está pegado del rayo'' Mavencháúc pakte9 ton hbmal nicim 'ihk'allumil cue kurus pilal habenal sanantonyoo 9. 9ose wi¿ 'tres cerros' Tres Cerros . kokil 10. mahoaik' 'donde matan el sik (pájaro)' L&josic 11. sibak te9el •pólvora da palo' Sivactel (Colonia?) •lum 12 ; c'ahkuma(h) . Chacomá p'ohokem 13. kulak 'tik •donde hay bejucos' Cúlactic 14. c'ulha? •agua bendita* Chuljá 15. sisintonil. 'donde hay piedritas (chiqui Shishintonil tas redonditas blancas)* 166 'ok'oc •hoyo hecho en piedra por agua' Ococh 17. nabü •laguna* Na vil 18. pah aitón •piedras altas* Pajaltón 19. sohleh 'cañada' Canada 20. marfab (cf. Yuc. 'ceja, pestaña') Matzam tuk winik ton kulewrera •anantonyo 21. balunk'anal Bánuncanal

Colonias O 'ae'lum (en terreno de Tenejapa-cerca Huistan) sibakte'el (en terreno de 3* Pedro) Festivals; Tenehapa

\J Tzeltal Name Date Spanish Name

1.' sk'inkahkananfcik 6 sakilha7 S. Ildefonso 2. sk'in kahmaneheltik = 3 c'ak Carnaval tihimal k'in 3. sk'in kusibal 'él sk'in htatik santakurus c'ayk'in Sta. Crua 5. sk'in htatik mamal . 15 muk|,?uc Santísima Trinidad 6. sk'in htatik san^yako 6 wakwinkil Santiago 7. sk'in hálame 'tik 'asamsyon 6 ho'winkil Asuncion 8. sk'in hálame'tik santamariya 4 canwinkil Natividad 9. sk'in aanto * 1 yask'in Todos Santos 10. sk'in hálame''tile pereensyon 1 mus Caridad 11. sk'in hálame ?tik santalusa 1 ji'un Sta. Lucía

* te 'oskah te sak'beik te sk'u? te spisil te ryosetike (?)

1. 23-25 enero 2. 20-25 febrero 3. 4. 24 abril 5. mayo 6. 23-25 julio r 7. 8. 6-8 septiembre 9. 10. 11.

Month Names: Tenehapa

Tzeltal European

ba¿rul Jan-Feb sákilha? c'ak mak 'olalti' hul'Ol^ ho'eb c'ayk'in hok'in 'ahaw 'ala h'uc =c'in 9uc muk"uc hukwinkil wakwinkil ho'winkil canwinkil Tzeltal European

9 pswinkil pom O yásk'in mus i'vax Dec-Jan

Tenehapa; Kinship Terms

Direct

1. mam(il) (-talc) FaFa, MoFa ; ChCh, xBrChCh 2. me'cuhtil) (-ab) FaMo, MoMo 3. tahun(il) (-ab) FaBr, MoSil-Iu 4. me ' htñn(il) (-ab) MoSi, FaBrWi 5. cic(ii) (-tak) MoBrWi 6. tat(il) Fa 7. me?(il) Mo 8. bankil(al) (-tak) xEBr, xFaBrSo(E), xMoSiSo(E) 9. si?lel(al) (-tak) oEBr, oFaBrSo(E), oMoSiSo(E) 10. wis(il) (-tak) ESi. FaBrDa(E }•, MoSiDa(E), FaSi 11. 'iW'in(al) (-ab) YBr, FaBrSo(Y), MoSiSo(Y) oYSi, oFaBrDa(Y), oMpSiDa(Y) 12. 'iálsl(al) (-tak) xYSi, xFaBrDa(Y); kMoSiDa(Y) ¿J?. 13. 'ican(il) (-ab) MoBr, FaSiSo xSiCh 14. nic?an(il) (-ab) xCh 15i 'al(il) (~tak) oCh

Affinal

16 * 'inam(il) xWi 17. marnalal(il) oHu 18Í mu'Mil) (-tak) oFaSiKu, oSiHu • xBrWi 19. bal(il) (-tak) xSiHu, xFaSiHu 20. ha'wan(il) (-ab) c-BrWi 21. ni'al(il) (-tak)' DaHu ; xBrDaHu ; oSiDaHu 22. *alib(al) (-tak) SoWi ; xBrSoWi ; oSiSoWi 23. 'alhun(il) (-ab) oSiCh 24. nichuh(il) (-ab) scBrCh 25- mamal-ni'al(il) xWiFa 26. me»el-ni'al(il) xWiMo 27. mamal-'alibfal) oHuFa 28. me'el-'alibial) oI-IuMo

x w. respo to male o w. reap, to female Tenehapa Dictionary; Major Sort by Content Category •' •'•':TXk-':r.:-tc- 1 Gating for Animals kanan-cih n cuidar carneros fdfi kanan-wakas n. cuidar ganados

Supplies kantela XX candela, vela kasolina . n gasolina kas n petróleo seriyo n .cerillo posporo n fosforo xápon n jabón c'ahan tak'in n alambre hsi'wil n leñador si' n leña siweh n leñar, buscar leñya 'ak'al n carbon €• 'aaeyte n aceite hunto n pomada cik'-'ak'al n hacer carbon Entertainment k'oh n mascara k'ayob n tambor 'amay n flauto, pito sot n sonaja 'ok'es n (bocina de) corneta son n guitarra, música kanika ton n+n canicas hsoniwil n músico, guitarrero, musiquero htih k'ayob n cpd tamborero htih marimpa n cpd marimbero O tahimal n jugador .tahin iv jugar tahimal n juego 'ahk'ot n baile Tenehapa Dictionary; page 2 'ahk'otah iv bailarse >D y-ok'esan tv tocar (la corneta) s-k'ahintay tv cantarlo / *\}V\'

mes > n escoba pahk' n mecapal s-te'el y-eceh su cabo de hacha, palo de hacha Tenehapa Dictionary i 3 o baltí n balde, cubeta martiyo n martillo.; / Q u O, sk'ab ca9 mano de metate ca? n metate, piedra de moler samet n comal laso n lazo c'ahan n lazo,, corea y-a'tahib(al) n herramienta, arma macit n machete kucilu n cuchillo s-hux tv afilar su fierro con piedra 9eceh • n hacha spasobil 'ora relojeria s-mes tv barrerlo -luc nc cucharadas (de liquido en un traste Writing hun n papel! ¿'ib n escribir lapis n lápiz liwro n libro pisaron n pizarrón Houses and Other Domestic Structures 'amale' n patio (de la casa) mak-te' n seto koral n corral pas-c'uhte7 tv hacer madera sementó n cemento wanku?. n trapiche(?) kahonil ?ucim:skahonil Yixim granero, (cajón de maíz) pu3 n temascal o ti'-nail n puerta, entrada de una cueva ti' -nel n puerta 'arowe n adobe tesa n teja Tenehsspa Dictionary; 4 i samet n adobe i o stesail na aj+n techo de teja ^ ¿an^el-te? n viga i/.- c\Q^/ y ba-na n tapanco v ^ na n casa I c'uhte' n tabla pahk' n . pared latri n ladrillo lawus n clavo poaoil tolha9 n tanque (pozo de agua) nail 'ixim n troje .7 hornatyorna n horno e-nain fcv construirlo mukMcoral aj+n corral grande pilaltik varios pilares; esta horconado Things that are worn and things used to make them. o s-nauy tv hilarlo QíH> n una chamarra/cobija para cargar criatura ?ol n peine de telar s-niu tv hilarlo na n hilo ?oalil:yoal n collar 8-¿ek(el) n nagua ¿ibal ioi aj+n chamarra con rayos a-4'i& tv costurarlo e-hal tv tejerlo teaeree n tijera 9aku£a n aguja k'u'il ta wayel cobija shalobil pak' telar k'u'iltsk'u* n ropa o panyo n pañuelo pi8olal:episol . n sombrero hisU pak' tela 8-C'U n su camiéa(muy bordada para hacer fu...) Tehehapa Dictionary;;1^ s-c'okow(il)/;. n anillo o pak 41 k'u? n camisa pak1 n tela spoh^il -alean n calcetín -^ - rewoso rebozo /^ Có°3 .

wesil, wesalsawes «'•' a calzón — sela n listón tepil:step n caite warac 'il: swarac' n huarche kaslan pak' manta 8-cuhkil(al n cinturon, faja hac 'ubilsshac *ub n peine hpasotepil n talabartería a-lap'et tv ponerlo (chamarra) 8-lap tv ponerlo (una chamarra o camisa) s^'isobilk'u'il sastrería Non-domeetic Structures ¿'akan n mojón soraltik calles 8-^'ahk lum mojón del pueblo/otro municipio pam-te7 n puente poso n pozo mjk'ul lum aj+n ciudad cukuhibal n cárcel Transportation lusil karo lights of car okaretáil ka. ros llanta tor en n tren» ferrocarril karo n carro tih-karo n chofer

3-naktib(al) n asiento,' sentadora o nen n espejo ¿•amaite' aj+n banco bamaka n hamaca (jamaca) mesa n mesa Tenehapa Dictionary's 6 sila n silla tehk'abal n escalera s-waib(al) n cama Cfcatainers lcaha. n caja ^—^ kaaa n cofre .. QyhJ kahon n caja, cajón poko-kaha n caja vieja •pohi n paquetiío. hocol p'is aj+n un v&éo vacio cohak' n red moral n morral moc n canasta kanawo, kanav/a n canoa kostal n costal p'in n olla 'awil n traste (para liquido) hogar, lugar de cosa pulatu n borcelana, bloselana, plato '¿ontahalil se^' aj+n trastes hechos en Amatenango se¿* n plato, traste salu n jarifo pas-p'in n hacer ollas Kinship capomal n parientes del mismo apellido y-an¿ÍL n hija de hombre o de mujer hala(l)me? madrina hala(l)tat padrino halal 'al ahijado helol n tocaya ?inamil:yinam n esposa, mujer bilil:sbil n nombre g-me' s-tat sus padres, su na drs y su padre main -me ' cunil antepasados ámam ame'cun agüelos y-ih¿'in(al) n hermano menor Tenehapa Dictionary; 7 kumare n comadre o lo n cuati, cuachi s-mam(il) nieto me9 el n viejiía — me^iltszne^ n mama /'' Q h/ mamalalil: smamalal n marido v—""' s-winikil n su hermano ni?alil:sni9al n yerno tafciissíat n papa s-mam s-me?cun sus abuelos, su agüelo y agüela 'al-nic'an n hijos s-tat(il) n . papa y-al n hijo de mujer Sickness k'us *eil dolor;-de muela hik'hik' 'obal . n tosferina O' c'ul-krena n bendecidas penas, benditas enfermedades ba¿'eh iv gravarse cawah n trastorno s-camelin tv sentirlo enfermo camel n enfermedad hcamel n enfermo. woeel n ampolla yoro n yodo 'urna' n or aj mudo e-ti'aw n dolor 'uiíub iv sanar y-u¿utaa tv curarlo sen iv vomitar aik-k'ahk' aj+n escalofrió o simal n catarro, gripe p'us-pat n jorobado 9 anima n muerto Tenehapa Dictionary; 8

k'us-sit n dolor de ojo

pohow n pus

s-posiay tv curarlo ^6 hpostawaneh n curandero

ha'c'uht n diarrea

s-pik s-k'ab pulsa/tenta su ira no

'apon n tumor

pum iv índigestionarse

purka n ' purga '"" "*

ma9 eit n ciego

morin n manco

camen aj muerto c mahben n una enfermedad

manko n manco, cojo

lucel n inyección

sehtay tv vomitarlo

posil n remedio

hposil n curandero

k'a'el n llaga

cuel n viruela

s-k'usul(al) n dolor

k'us iv doler

c'ohk n verruga o kohk n sordo ma9 sit n/aj ciego

hun-ait n unojo, ciego Tenehapa Dictionary; 9 o hel^ik' aire (que duele aveces en el cuerpo) koso cojo, manco

k'ui-holobel

heroil

ya'leí cin

cuyem aj

hero n

9 ehcinah

"> ehcin

h(í'ak-bak

y-obaíay tv

ۥ 'obal 'obanahV ?obah

t'usem sit estaciego

toa-c'ic1 n una enfermedad

siht'ub iv hincharse, inflamarse

Body. Body Pares

kux y-o'tan iv+n ya descanso su corazón

cin-bak n tuétano

yalalil ?akanil dedo de pie

lu'il n cono, vulva, O suhkubil:xuhkub n codo bakelil n esqueleto

aehk'ubiljsehk'ub n hígado Tenehapa Dictionary; 10

s-pat(il) espalda

'o'tanilsyo'tan corazón

musuk 'ilssmusuk' ombligo

bikil tripas

y-afc verga, talega

k'abU, k'abal:sk'ab mano, brazo

y-akan(il) pierna

'a'iltya? pieraa

lahjS'ap sobaco

lutilssiut (back of the knee)

bak:sbakel hueso

.'mahkubil cejas c pu«S pulmón

s-pu¿ su bofe

ta7anil;sfca9an pecho

tutubil"stutub traquea

ti'il:sti' labio

s-ti'tU) labio, orilla

y-ak'(il) lengua

s-tiba(il)X frente

s-k'in riñon

pak'ail paladar

sitil:sit ojo o pahc 'amil-k'abal puño, muñeca, (fist) hoi-'akaniltshoi kakan rodilla

•> it» f akanilsyit kakan talon(heel) Tenehapa Dictionary; 11

¿a' - 'akanil'.spa ' kakan músculo de la pantorrilla ye9tal s-c'uht (part of stomach betwixt navel and private parts) s-rfo^il y-afc su vello de su verga, pelo de su talega

sit- ' akanil: sik kakan n+n tobillo (ankle) ba-k'abal:sba bk'ab n+n dedo be-c'ic'ssbe hc'ic'el n+n vena ¿-, f- co-'itil:aco kit n+n nalga(a)

s-bak* k-at coyol

scuhkil hc'uht - su cadera

te9 k'abalsste'el sk'ab brazo (forearm)

a-te'el y-at su palo de su verga/ talega

yomalil ?akanil:yomal yakan (arch of foot)

¿o¿il ta7anilfs^o¿il oía7an n pelo/vello del pecho

pahc'amil k'abil n palma de la mano

s¿'i' ye su coimillo(eye-tooth; canine)

pahc'amil ? akanil n palma/plant del pie

bakel-?eil;sbakel ye diente

miail-k'abal:smisil sk'ab (upper arm)

nuk'-k'abalisnuk'sk'ab ¡muñeca (wrist)

slahibal sni'il muk'uk bikil apéndice

canulil:scanul n cuerpo

cinam n sesos

cikinil:scikin n oreja

•-cu* n teto .

auhkub .n codo

y-ok s-k'ab S'i'f. .'.-._'' -J.Y& si e brazoo Tenohapa Dictionary! 12 L y-ok(il) n pie bak(el) n hueso

te ' al - ' akanil' ste * el -kakan espinilla

bak'et n caras

ca'am n muela

spoh¿il bikil epiplone s ^

sna cuailssna hcus n+n vejiga \ c

s-e'a n hiél

nuhkul: snuhkuiel n piel

ni'ilisni? n naris

8-nuk' n pescuezo, garganta, cuello, nuca

s-nehkel n hombro £• cíusub n tendon

kawail:skawa n quijada

¿ukumil: s¿ukum n estomago

c'xc'ísc'ic'el n sangre

c'uhtilssc'uht n barriga

£ukum n pane rea, panza de rez

8-¿on n au valló

s-¿ukum n panza, estomago

ioi n lana, palo . *

cinamil: scinam n sesos

takinti'il sed

O c'usuw n nervio

7 elawil:yelaw n cara

holol:shol n cabeza Tenehapa Dictionary: 13

y-iai¿a n barba, raíz

y-it n nalga

'a'il^a? n muslo

y-ekh'ec(il) n uña

9 eil:ye n boca

'isimiliyisim n barba, raíz / V

kuketal n cuerpo

'alalil n dedo

kubil n cadera

coil:i5co n cachete

Normal Body Products

cu'un iv mamar T•L cusun iv orinar

similsslm n moco

s-cus(il) n orina

¿a' n mierda, caca

¿a'nel n excremento

rfa'an iv excrementar

¿isin iv peder

¿isil n pedo

cikfin iv sudar

s-custay tv . orinarlo

8-cik» n su sudor s~\. O ya'lel ti'i^Ya'lel sti* saliva

s-tuhtay tv escupirlo

lee n leche Tenehapa Dictionary: 14 G ya'lei cu'il n+n leche cusnel n orinar

nic 'nah iv dar familia, dar hijo

htohkeseh-' alai n pártero/a

?alah iv dar hijo (de mujer) /'-""' N

y-alatay tv dar hijo(de mujer) ( ^V ?

s-huhp'es tv engordarlo

Normal Body Activities and States

kusul . vivo

wayal esta dormido, .".durmiendo

8-tohke6 tv nacerlo ^uha critura) o- tohk iv nacer way iv dormir

s-lek» tv lam(b)erlo

s-kusib n su¿revive

kusleh n vida, vivir

kusahtik aj están vivos

8-kU8QS tv revivirlo

s-bik" tv tragarlo

s-muc' tv hacer puño con la mano

.muc'ul en forma de puño

huhip' iv engordarse

wihk' -sit despertarse

O lub iv cansarse

8-la tv hacerle uso a una mujer, cogerla

lawan iv hacer.uso a una mujer, cogerla Tenehapa Dictionary: 15

^ a-la 8-ba XV hacerse use, cogerse N&. lawal n usador, pisador

J.ub iv cansarse

lubul a-p cansado Minerals and Metals --" Ñ hi» n hi'aiel n arenisca l ^ J kristal n cristal kore n cobre ba¿*il tak'in n+n plata polomo n plomo s-lemlun iv arder 8-nup* tv . hacer fuego; ve;-í"'.. unirlo (un tabla con otro), cerrarlo {un libro) c nuhp'. iv hacer fuego Disposition o£ Land sohleh n cañada sisinton n guija sab ' n sima nabil n laguna muk'il nabil aj+n lago sik'il yfdi ladera(hillside) 'omaltik n llano ¿•ahei a ciénega 'akileltik n sabana (savannah) «T'ahel » lecho muk'ul ¿*ahel *v^^, • ciénega 'uk'um n rio hemei n barranco • hamal n loma- »omal n loma suhkub wi^ n+n cumbre (peak) ha» mal n montafia kanyon n cafipn;.) Tenehapa Dictionary: 16 wuyulul ton grava 'ahc'al n lodo, mala parte c'entikil n peñasco, pedregales, barrancas lumilal n suelo 'akii n campo. lok'ib ha' ojo de agua lumilal n' pura tierra, suelo wolkan n volcan ton n piedra tonükil n pedregal muk'ul lok'ib ha9 fuente e'en n cueva» hoyo, peña aoreal k'inal cuchilla (crest) te'tikil montea, arboles sue' 'ahc'al barro tool ha9mal " selva tenlohal wi¿ aj+n mesa(plateau, bu&té, mesa) c'in pisaron n pizarra (ahale) nail-e'en aj+n un hueco debajo de la peña donde se puede pasar lluvia o se puede vivir hutul c 'en cueva clin nabil aj+n charco bayei syasal balamilal marga vdi cerro Fire c'aU n humo k'ahk' n fuego tik'al-tan n cenisa tan n cal til iv arder •-¿uxn tv encender fuego tak'in n dinero, hierro •«tiles tv encenderlo, prenderlo Tenehapa Dictionary % 17 Sky and Weather toyib n helada ¿an^ewal n relámpago sanab n tin grupo de estrellas k'in ha'al n+n un noi'ta(cuando asta norteando) but'ul k'inal aj+n esta opaco el dia lumil tokal r^..vv-i?V !\ir>. n(i)eblina caokil ha9al aj+n aguacero '/ - ; "', ,( /y1 o/, ya scam hc'ume'tik eclipsa de la luna • V__^^ hukuhpat pn a constellation éeik pn a star or constellation muk'ul 'ek' a atar or oianet hk'asel nas 'ik' ventolera ba ya sc'ay he'ultatik al poniente sehk'ub-'it n+n arco iris caok, cavile n rayo ala k'ink'in ha'al llovizna k'al n sol, calor, dia sakU k'inal día claro, clasi dad 11? ya stal 'ik' ta malib k'ali viene un viento del poniente ha'al a lluvia ha?:ys9al:ya?ael n agua li* ya Btal •'ik' ta lok'iv k'ali viene un viento del oriente tolha* n agua 'Ik' n viento lorn bayel ha'al sok 9ik' «ok caok temporal bat n granito 'ek« n estrella k'aleltik p de dia Tenehapa Dictionary: 18 babi n primero ¿ehpohem aj en punto sab n temprano Time: Seasons Day Periods Months Days of Week $. 'ehpoh iv pasar el anediodia o la medianoche ca'weh P pasado mañana maneh P tiempo pasado , anteriormente, antes pahel mañana semana n semana s \ ; 'Al 0 / 'ahk'ubaltik P de noche \ "Spy 'ahk'ube(y) P anoche 9u n mes wohe(y) P ayer rominko domingo lunestik lunes marte stik martes merkoleatik miércoles hwev/estik hueves yerneo viernes aawarotik sábado ca'he(y) P antier yorail ha'al tiempo de agua 'antiwo nameh P tiempo muy pasado, anteriormente munuto n minuto

nameh k'inal .$&• •_•-•'] i'£ £: V¿ ha'lei k'inal tiempo de agua nas ^•".va-'-S-J desde hoy. hoy presente *ihk' k'inal anochcer(?) ha'wil n ano Valeltik P por dia tiempo de seco • k'alel k'inal k-»ahk' nc un rato Numbers baluneb num nueve hukeb num siete Tenehapá Dictionary: 19 *o5eb tree <•> ho'winik cien C6b dos \vakeb seis ho'eb cinco ho'lahuneb quince lahuneb diez waaakeb ocho hun uno can cuatro •caneb cuatro ca^winik cuarenta 'ahtalii numereo -tab veinte vi buluceb once 9oSlahuneb trece lahceb doce y-ahtay tv contarlo , 'ahtai contar Money meru n medio (6 centavos); dinero tak'in n un real meru warti nueve centavos tostón n tostón sent&wo n centavo pesu n peso biyete n billete Quantity litro n litro kilo n kilo warti-ie' n cuartilla ?almul n almud s-p'ls tv medirlo Tenehaps. Dictionary? ZO Names of People i h¿'uhMn pn sobrenombre Tzuquin yalam-bak'et n persona que lo bajaba la carne: esqueleto s-lus pn Lucia a-lusin pn Lucia, (dimiuti ve) B-matal pn Magdalena / ^ s-nikol pn Nicolaea ( /''"'r/Ó/ c\í y a-roal pn Maria V^___^^ mamo pn Maria(dirr$ltive) A a-katal pn Catarina s-los pn Rosa s-tin pn Agustina S-88.W pn Sebastiana s-welon pn Veronica s-9an pn Ana t a-pet pn Petrona s-*anton pn Antonia sj^aua pn Juana s-mik pn Micaela markus pn Marcos mlkel pn Miguel ^ anta reo pn .Andres pelipe , P» Felipe rahpel pn Rafael karos n Carlos h-'alul pn Alonso, Alfonso. Ildefonso h-¿yak pn Diego, Santiago h-kas pn Gaspar h-lukas pn Lucas htir pn Augstin h-tum pn Domingo h-tes pn • Baltasar h-lol pn Lorenzo h-mic " pn Melchor Tenehapa Dictionary: 21 h-saw pn Sebastian ''is* oawil P» Sebastiaa(diminutive) h-kap pn Eabriel kapin pn. Gabriel (diminutive) h-sun pn Juan sunil pn Juanito h-palao ph Francisco h-mat~ pn Mateo h-'antun pn Antonio h-manel pn Manuel h-nik pn Nicola a h-petul pn Pedro h-sin pn Jacinto h-tomas pn Tfemás sholomal sbil family name hpufium pn sobrenombre

Places pale-e'en gn una peña kurua-c 'en gn paraje Cruzchen ba-nabil gn Banabil, es un rancho yeh^'uk'um gn paraje en Tenehapa kruepilal gn paraje en Tenehapa i 'ahkubilhok g» paraje en Tenejapa kotolte» gn paraje en Tenejapa sibanilha' gn paraje en Tenejapa ¿abale *en gn paraje en Tenejapa mahbencauk gn paraje en Tenejapa ma¿ab gn paraje Matsam en Tenejapa tatik 'anhel gn nombre de un cerro tatik ?ahaw nombre de un cerro f pahal-ton gn paraje Pajalton ana hpu¿um gn su.casa de Putsum sul gn nombre de la laguna de Banabil kuiul 9ahaw the big hills are named thus ?os-yoket gn name of a group of three mts. Tenehapa Dictionary: 22 yal snic'an tatik 'okooinko n Ocosinguero so{¿ 'lob gn Zinacanfcan hmoltik n paisano de otro municipio hbbel gn San Cristóbal salto gn Salto de Agua (pueblo) mololtik k'ankuhk n Cancuquero mololtik camo? n Chamula —^ mololtik Mina n Huisteco ./" <^T0\J mamtik 'oscuhk " n Oxchuquero V__^^ kulootik n Zinacanteco mololtik people of San Andres, San Pedro San Miguel. San Pablo sampawlo gn kSan Pablo samper o San Pedro c'enalo?w gn Chenalo 9 okosinko gn Ocosingo ooyatitan /*»•• gn Soyatitlan %. sambartol gn San Bartolo komitan gn C omitan pinola~ gn Pinola tenehapa gn Tenehapa k'ankuhk gn Cancuc kometan gn Comitan canal gn Chanal Tusta gn Tuxtla Cargos h-rehrol n regidor pyeroi n fiador plskalto n fiscal(le dicen que el casaba aater< tormente: pyeroi n el que representa Jesucristo h-'alkal n alcalde m h9amtel n tamborero h-martoma n mayordomo kaptantik n los alferee Tenohapa Dictionary: 23

.-*?» kaptan n alférez •

Interaction t s.-toh tv pagarlo * obolbah iv hacer un favor hk'anohel n limosnero hk'antak'in n cobrador hk'uleh n rico kirsyanu n gente *in¿yo n indio hkoltawaneh n ayudante, libertador »ilin iv enojar s-hun tv compañar •-huneh tv(perf) estar con.estar j^nto con s»mahtan(al) n regalo, bocado 8-koltay tv defenderlo, soltarlo, ayudarlo meba- »j pobre, huérfano, umilde i-o/jjmotay tv pedir o preguntar unammujer ^ a-ta 8-mul encontró su cause/delito/dificultad y-ahwal(il) n amo, patron, duefio 9ah?ua iv esta quejando y-an^in s-ba rv hacerse de novia Tenehapa Dictionary: 24 y-anfiin s6a rv haceras de novia

••A y-uji'in tv molestarlo y-u^in tv tv cariciarlo otih ta k'op insultarle senyora n ladina p'olmaJ n vendedor hpas-k'op n peleador ^_ pat-suhk vecino pas-kanar n ganar / (A / 'utaw n regañar — 9 utawan iv regañar y-Ut tv regañarlo , pas-k'op n pleito, guerra, lucha spas k'op pelearse parte n justicia partehel n justiciero (el que pide justicia)

•-pas mul . <.. •" ^ ;'•.%£':. t hace pecado . ptivban n perdón. s-pas lot hace mentira s-mul(il) . n delito, causa, pecado s-mosoin, s-mosain tv ser su mozo s-lot(il) n mentira k'eslal n verguanea I ak'anbe per ton pedirle perdón sk'oplal •k'olal le dicen es trato

•k'anbe hun woko'l t * '•' - *•. ' ' ••- pedirle un favor y-ic» tv casarse con ella, tenerlo Tenehapa'Dictionary: 25 k'eáaw- iV avergqnsarse y-ic* s-ba rv casarse h'ilaw n visitante s-hel tv emprestarlo 8-hoy(il) n compañero h'elek» n ladren y-elk'an tv robar ííS pat auhk vecino(s) nakomal n enemigo nuhpun iv casarse s-nakumal n enemigo s-p'ihutes tv enseñarlo restiko n testigo s-tak'iy tv consejarlo s-tawaltay tv envidiarlo 6-be tan tv emprestarlo s-cebalki'optay tv malconsejarl© s-c*un tv ."'obedecerlo Sensation y-a'i tv oirlo y-uh¿*iy tv ole rio, besarlo s-ciknates tv apareearlo ciknah iv parecer cikan" *J se ve. se mira s-makliy tv escucharlo, vigilarlo s-k'abuy tv mirarlo, fijarlo y-U tv verlo, mirarlo y-iltiklay tv estar mirándolo, viéndolo, cuidándolo bkanan n cuidador kananil n cuidado(una cosa que se cuida) kanantawan iv cuidar(una ves) 8-kanantay tv cuidarlo Business B-man tv comprarlo c'iwic n mercado Tehehapa Dictionary; 26 ¿yenfca n tienda C hconolehel n vendedor s-coh tv venderlo i 'uhem aj barato c'ani iv venderse Religion and the Supernatural _— a-lab n nagual 9\)'°) kompison n pedimiento. rezo " h'ak' -camel n brujo s-c'ulel(al) n alma, espíritu c'ab n rezar c 'abah iv rezar c'ul n templo, iglesia hc'ultatik n Dios c'ab n rezo c'abil n rezo t he 'abowil n rezadora c 'ulcanil aj señor mió/nuestro (santísimo) s-c'abatay tv rezarlo kapasanto n panteón bkanan-lum n cuidador del pueblo/mundo kokmut, skokmut n uno que tenia nabual de cuervo o zanate kampana n campana h'ihk'al n Negro(viven en cuevas) h'ihk'al n elNegro. Negrito hk'ii B-holol n comedor de cabeza

k'amtim-bak n : infierno labil:«lab nagual nagual a-iabin tv ponerlo nagualado mukenal n sepultura; panteón hmanohel n Santo Entierro t mulawil *j bendecido htatik samper o San Pedro htatik martin SanMartin(?)

uxnteSt V V6SÍ?HC> Tenehapa Dictionary: 27 htatik sanhwan San Juan hiatik sanantonyo San Antonio hcume ' tik n la luna, la virgen (madre de Dios) pale cura, padre htatik sakramento el-sac?amento(?) / persensyon Caridad hmuk"ume1>tik virgen/madre grande k»in fiesta k'atinab persona de * oxcuhk que tenia su alma muy poderoso que comia a las almas; persona que tiene su alma o espíritu muy vale sk'in ku_sibal fiesta de semana santa kusibal n semana santa hálame9 tile n la virgen (dfe Santa Maria in Ag) htatik mamal Santísima Trinidad €^ heaukristo Jesucristo pukuh n diablo, demonio pihk'ec n enano Communication s-colbe ya'i explicárselo ka 8 tila n castellano y-a'yantay tv platicarlok contarlo 'ayan iv platicar 'a'yeh n platica a-hak» *v contestarlo s-hohk'oy tv preguntarlo

Wil k'op 'C Tueltal i-wulwua iv habla y habla; hablando y-al tv decirlo 'ik'awan iv llamar y-ik' tv . llamarlo y-ik' s-ba rv llamarse k'opoh iv hablar s'^k'opon tv hablarle Tenehapa Dictionary: 28 a-k'an tv quererlo, pedirlo Thinking s-na? stohol entenderlo, eaberlo(una cosaken s s-nanuy tv pensarlo, acordarlo a-na' a-ba rv acordarse . na?bah iv acordarse, notarse s-nohpes tv enseñarlo ¡y '-', nakleh n vivir a-nop tv -aprenderlo, pensar s-nopilay tv pensar repetidas veces a-pah y-o'tan esta de acuerdo p'ih aj inteligente hp 'ihute swaneh n maestro p'ihutesibal n enseñanza siwtes tv espantarlo si* tv tener miedo de algo uc*balil n para tomar ti'bal n carne paynil n nixtamal wi'nah iv sentir hambre wi'nal n hambre we'ohibal n donde come la gente a-bal h-c 'uht su comida, alimento buh¿ 'an aj sabroso ya'lel mut caldo kurus n cruz Animals , Animal Parta smeruil n escama cabek* n cera de abeja/colmena aik' n ala ¿rr k'uk'uRHsk'uk'umal n pluma ¿feulub n cuerno, cacho s-ne n cola Sik'il n ala cuya ' (mut) buche ton mut n huevo ca? mut molleja cam-ba lam n animal -koht nc anfcaalea 'inamcqb n abeja hembra y-at BUS aguja de la avispa apatmayil timbal concha del armadillo me'-tuluk* n jolota ton 9uc* liendre me ' -mut n gallina Sela 'am ^ ., araña de seda karansa (c'o) ''';"'*§*•••' \ n ratón te'tikil likawal ^ i n vga vilano illo te'tikilmut pajaro Tenehapa Dictionary: 31 te9tiltil cih n venado tat-mut n gallo aulem cay a pescado a?ub"" n codorniz tunim cih n borrego, carnero ¿a? los n zope .--•' X c 'uhc 'ul mut pollo n ><ü J ) c 'in-mut pollo ——^ c'inc'o ratón 'ocam c'ak nigua!. hawhawha' n inseeto(waterboatman) -wamal citam coche de monte was n gato de monte •>uc' n piojo 'tic n tlacuache s?uman n pajaro tapacamino € pewal n cucaracha t'ul n Conejo tuhc 4c * n nombre de un pajaro * us n mosca tuluk' n jolota hambre; jolote en general tsnéun n chivo sabin n saben, comadreja SO*' n murciélago annul n otra abeja mas chiquita negra, da miel •ip n garrapata poc* n chinche 'ok'il n . coyote mut n gallina, ave lukum n gusanofaue anda en la tierra)lombris(?) muk'ul likawal n gavilán k'intun n tipo dé lagartija yerba n teranha íkuh n tecolote ko¿ n ' jolote macho ffenehapa Dictionary; 32 9 iwana n iguana hoh-mut n cuervo, zanafca, tordo mayil timbal n armadillo lc'ulub n chapulín halaw n jabali(n) ha n gusano de mosca ¿•isim n hormiga arriera /' 4%y.j %oc* n avisóte V^L--^ ¿'i* n perro ?ohko¿ n lagartija ¿ek n alacrán kohtom n tejón kawayu n caballo s-'ahk n tortuga ¿amen n elefante *ahk n tortuga c 'ahacab n colmena cup n tipo de gusano ¿ahal cay n camarón citam n coche coh n león cih n borrego, carnero 9ahacan n culebra de cascabel can n culebra pay n zorr(ill)o pec' n pato sc'uc" n rana c'o n rata cue n ardilla c'ak n pulga yal ha gusano ba^' n saraguato(solo se conoce el cuero) balam u tigre baka n vaca buluk-sit n bulusate(tipo de gusano) • „ ... Tenehapa Dictionary2 33

I> 'ahacan n vibora

*•> 'ain n caiman, lagarto i kelemut n gallo nop1 n cangrejo mula" n hembra de muía me'el n mapacho „,- ••"^" max n mono <:'~\ \ - maca n macho de mulo 'oceh n lagartija con garrita puy n caracol 'am n axafia chiquita sawin n gato ;._,'• sulSm n zopilote (tiene su cabeza colorada) sanie n hormiga señen n zancudo kamaron cay n camarón

SUB n avispa, panal 0 pokok n sapo pehpen n mariposa May 1961

Preliminary List of Tzeltal Plants

*° te9 e**k — 92 names (33 o£ Spanish, origin) 1 sit | nic te'el ye ' tal Comments hihte' roble X X # 0 * k'antulan cikin 'ib encino X X X 0 cihilte' roble X X X 0

ííiííte' palo de tsitz X X X 0 simaron pata quayabillo X X X 0 mansna (Sp) manzana X X X 0 -mansaná ninte ' liquidámbar X X X 0 k'olk'ostee') ? X X X 0 pinatoeto (Sp) pinabete * X X 0 * wekwek tah *PM ocote amarillo #1 5S *2 0 #1 wékwek #2 k'antah muy chico zapote X X X 0 hatoonsiyo (Sp) jaboncillo X X X 0 7 ha as *PM mamey X X X 0 ha'mal madron X . X * 0 * lia ' mal mansna te ' (Sp) mamsanote X X X 0 -mansaná tilila' tilil X X X 0 poshalme ' fcik laurel X X X 0 c'iate' manzanita / illa X X X 0 ciculte' cerezo X X X 0 pah'ul , pajalul X X X 0 maako i (Sp) mango X X X 0 1 limprinate' (Sp) membrillito X X X 0 calarn : (unárbol grande) X X X 0 ho'os *PM achiote X X X 0 te'el 'onéijí aguacate X X X 0

'ihk'il ¿H aguacate X X X 0 sit nic te'el ye'tal Comments 9 'ahte *PM matasano X X X . o maiúka (Sp) maluco X X X o makom mora X X X o mutut mutut * X X X o #(como chic sue 'il (palo lechoso) X X X o ci? nanohe X X X o ríalas (Sp) naranja X X X o papaya (Sp) papaya X X X o pera (Sp) paral X X X o pomarosa (Sp) pomar rosa X X X o kebrehaca (Sp) quebracha X X X o san #PM palma real X X X o poh palma X X X o

íamarinto (Sp) tamarindo X X X o

'ucte' zapote negro X X X o sumaron ' ucie ' zapotillo X X X o

presmo (Sp) fresno NO X X o

¿'utuhte' tsutujté NO X * o * «S'utuhte' bat palo granizo NO X X o yerba búro (Sp) hierba de burro NO X X . o pata te? ? NO X X o tok'oy sauz NO X X o

'alkampor (Sp) alcanfor X X X o te'el tunim *PM algodón X X X o

' alméníra (Sp) almendro X X X o k'ewes *PM anona X X X o tulsna (Sp) durazno X X X o -tulisná

¿ahalc 'is ? X X X o - 3 - --" sit nic te'el ye'tal Comments 9 okomc 'io ? X X X o kampana nicim(Sp) flor de campana X X X o wanakasfero (Sp) guanacaste X X X o pata guayaba X X X o

'ikus (Sp) nigo X X X o bohc jicara X X X o pahaltem jobillo X X X o po'om jocote X X X o lima (Sp) lima X X X o limón (Sp) limón X X X o kahpeh (Sp) cafe X X X o sígra (Sp) cidra X X X o

'ok'olte' ciprés X X X o airwsla (Sp) cirvela X X X o nap coyol X X X o k'uspewal ? X X X o cabek'te'? ? X X X o cakahte * mulato X X X o la *PM chichicaste (tierra cal.} X X X o c'ic'ni' chichní X X X o 9 hunukte majagua X X X o eegro (Sp) cedro X NO X o ?asetuna (Sp) aceituna X NO X o

7 sanicte hormiguillo NO NO X o meete ' mesté, cobillo NO prob. NO >* o * meste' yaate? *FM ceiba prob. NO NO X o romero (Sp) roxner(ill)o NO NO X o k'ante' taray NO NO X 0 l

sit nic te'el ye'tal Comments c'is *PM espino No No X o warumpa (Sp) guarumbo No No X o

kanelo ¡(Sp) canelo ? ? X o c'is po'omte' joe otillo X ? X o

'amate ' (Sp) amate ? X X o nuhkulpaí ciprés ? ? X o

'ule (Sp) hule ? X X o kakaw *PM cacao 2£ ? X * * yehk'ac te' c'upakte' higuerilla X X ? o

'uhkum (palo con espina) 31 X X ?

2. wamaletik -- 43 names (i3 of Spanish origin) sit nic te'el ye'tal Comments tanal (£sm. de orquídea) J£ X o o sekol bledo, verdo laga X X o o k'ak'an 'an epazote X X o o k'anal nicim flor amarilla X X o o sakal nicim flor blanca X ... X o o

'ic *PM chile X •X . o o cenek' frijol X X o o granadíya granadilla -X-- • X '- ó o bohtil botil * X X o o * tipo de fri. c 'um *PM calabaza amarilla X X o o mayil chilacayote (blanca) X X o o jí'ol tsolito X X o o kulis (Sp) col, repollo X X o o mansaníla (Sp) manzanilla X X o o

melon (Sp) melon X X o o 5 - sit te? el ye ? tal

hirasol (Sp) mirasol X o mostasya (Sp) mostaza X o

hay pumpo X o

¿u *PM tecomate X o yasal tumat tomate d. cascara o ¿'ul mostaza o santiya sandia

may *PM tabaco X

¿a'mut ">ic tempenchile X

pic' berro No mano de león(Sp) mano de león No baií'il <4'ul quelite No yakan k'ulub verbena No

la chichicaste{tierra £] No No mumun mumun No No

hikama (Sp) jicamo x x kasancenek' cacahuate, manía No No rábano (Sp) rábano x x

sanórya (Sp) zanahoria X X

kurarfna .(Sp);, cura riña X No 9 c 'umte (chin)chayote X X

'is'ak' papa X X

¿•inte' yuca No X ? camote No ? sit nic te'el ye'tal Comments

?ak' bejuco X ? ? o lula (Sp) ruda ? X ó o tulipán (Sp) tulipán ? X o o

rosa X X + 0 rosos (Sp) _. .

3. 'aketik -- 25 names (13 of Spanish origin) sit nic te9 el ye' tal Comments sakton (Sp) zacatón "sakaton hunholin ? (como trigo) c'upak1 (!) amol paskil nicim. flor de pascua lo'bal. plátano me ' 9 isim madre de maíz holom pahc' pifia pahc * piñuela triwo (Sp) trigo sibil 'ak zacate cámara * ak (Sp) zacate sak(a)ton 9ak (Sp) zacate k'uk'uc 'ak zacate muy fino

'asusena (Sp) azucena nic 'asus (Sp) flor de ajo/cebolla kwaresmil nicim (Sp) flor de mayo/cuaresma tusak' cebolla x 7 -

sit nic te'el ye "tal Comments senaíbra (Sp) jengibre '¡ ? o + hásínto (Sp) jacinto No X o + sensíbre 'ak (Sp) ? No No o + Si' 'ak ? No No o •5-

hasnun (Sp) jazmín No X o o 1 yak baka (Sp) lengua de toro,vaca No X o o

'aros (Sp) arroz * No o o * bak' 'aros hbai 'ak zacate muy fino No No o o

4. wale' -- 5 names sit nic te'el ye'tal Comments taray bambú No No ? o halal carrizo No No ? o bis bish No No o p nihka (nehka?) cola de caballo No No o o wale' caña de azúcar No X o o

5. ci -- 2 name 8 howcih maguey cimarrón X X o o met maguey X X o o

Non-plants -- 2 rlames cikin tah hongo del ocote yas 'ak hongo de la tierra -

Uncías sifted as yet pehkat nopal (tuna) X X ? o 'éc' tecolúmate May 1961 c MAMMALS

te'tikil cambalam

1 tuluk' can = *ib armadillo ?ihk'

?uc tlacuache c'alc'altik c 'is ' uc puerco espin ?

soro zorro sakp ?ihk' c'a sóro = kolet sorriilo sak, ?ihk'

1 (¡emea. 8 elefante $Sah

ma l » s mono ?ihk'

sakhol ? éah, sak ba*4' ? ->ihk' \í 'uhíS 'umc a.b chupamiel ?

1 me ? el mapache ^ah ' uyoh mico de noche

cue ardilla a) yas b) ¿ah ¿'eh chinchilla ^ah kohtom tejón ¿ah c'o rata c'alc'altik c'o =karansa c'o ciíam c'o íJah ¿ahal c'o O pehpen cue ardilla voladora :^í>.

Mammals - 7. Ci

halaw íepeacuiniie a) c'alc'altik b) sak ba tusa ?

•> ok'il coyote ssah

balam tigre, jaguar pinto barsin coh león ííah tigre tigre, ocelote ¿ah lumil tigre tigrillo ¿ah lumil coh león mas pequeño ¿ah

cih venado a) yas b) <£ah 'inarri cih venada € ful conejo a)

was gato montes yas mis (=cambalarnil na) gato

te'tikil citam = bahk'al te^tikil citam javali, censo c'alc'altik, sak citam (= cambalamil na) saben canadreja j£ah

o í' W'l Mammals ~ 3

«j cambalamü na

perro

wakas toro, vaca

ka caballo

karnero carnero

cíbo chivo

(ciíam puerco)

(mis gato)

O May 1961 BIRDS

A J smutil 'ahk'ubal j (=s) (Q) likwal gavilán c'alc'altik (s) wohwohmut martinete nocturno 'ihk', sak (s) ¿uridiuhk lechuza c'alc'altik (a) aoc' tecolote c'alc'altik, basa (s) tuhkul tecolote, buho c 'ale 'altik (a) puhuy judía í$ah (B) spap pavón, judía, urraca yas ;) so¿' murciélago ?ihk' 3

E J te'tikil mut J (=t) r 1 (t) (s) sik aguilucho, aguililla a) yas b) ¿ah c) sak 'áyila águila a) «5ah blyae baba'ak halcón ¿ah

1 pajaritos pequeños j kulte? paloma yas sabalmut torcaza yas c 'abikil v torcaza yas torkása. torcaza yas ?ub codorniz ¿ah ciktulib perdiz eah 1 hoh cuervo 'ihk' hos __ zopilote ?ihk« sulem zopilote 'ihk1 yahwal hos zope rey sak ('ihk'il sik') = yahaw hoe Birds - 2

mank'uk' pavo pequeño a) ¿ah b) yas ¿ahalmut salíarrocas ¿ah pába pava a) yas b) i&b.

calía pan loro yas, <£ah puyuc1 perico yas

hohkito chachalaca ?ihk' 'ihk'il kalem papagallo *>ihk'

teslesnemut tijereta 'ihk' kolonííriya mosqucrj.to, canario k'an

'uhcul yas hes pájaro azul yas

¿'unun chupaflor a) yas b) basa

k'a'aw tordo, zanate ?ihk'

k'ohk'ote* picamadaro a) 'ihk'al hol pájaro carpintero b) ¿ahalhol Birds - 3 '^¡oj

? chorcha a) k«an b) 'ihk'

'uiic' golondrina a) 'ihk' b) yaa

guaco oak

gallinácea basa

pajaro bobo basa

¿ohéol sonaja ¿ahalbasa paharito cenzontle sak bolmut pajaro tontito k'an

C | nuatil ha1? (=h) pee pato a)yas b)¿ah homam garza a) yas b) sak pihii ?ihk' mukut gallareta

D j ¿'unubil miit = mutil na j {= m) tuluk' guajolote a) sak b) ?ihk' kasan pee pato domestico a) 'ihk' b) sak mut gallina kel(e)mut pollo ' ac 'almut polla tatmut gallo May, 1961

Color Term3 used for Animals: Aguacatenango

? thk1 sak ¿ah k'an yas

basa pinto barsin

Small Animals

(Grasshoppers)

k ulub chapulín k'an ¿•itit saltamontes k'an ¿ikííik saltamontes ?ihk cucul grillo ?ihk rrie°(5u chapulín fantasma ?

(Spiders) 'am 9 am araña 'ihk kaskampúlga casampulga ? yam ka ? k'an ¿ahal 'am cascampulga muk'ul 'am tarántula *ihk fiek alacrán 'ihk t

k. - 2

pewal cucaracha ?ihk' sakcay pescaditos de plata ?

(Ants) same hormiga a) ¿ah b) ?ihk' ¿ 'iaim hox'miga arriera $iah sanie * us hormiga león ?ihk'

sikristin chicharra yas k'oisacan, a) yas k'oliSac'an escarabajo b) *>ihk' ronrón ronrón a) ?ihk' b) ¿ah k'os sikristin cigarra yas

(Earthworms) lukum lombriz, detierra, detripas ¿ah ? solitaria sak

(Butterflies & Moths) pehpen mariposa a) ?ihk' b) sak c) k'an d) ¿ah e) yas santa domínko mariposa grande a) k'an b)yaa - 3 - 1 ha. gusano 8ak (^K canulte 9 gusano de madera k'an wahacan ? ?ihk' k'olom gallina ciega sak k'ahal can luciérnaga 'ihk', sak

' ¿"I kukay = kukúrac | iuciérna ?ihk'

1 'US j (Flies) c' ikil chaquis&e »ihk' kac ? 'ihk1 'ua mosca 'ihk' sanen sancudo yas ti'wil 'us mosquito a)?ihk' b)k'an i—i (Bees & "Wasps) ?¡ ihacab ? k'an canul sus avispa parásita a) ¿ahal 'áko ' (de panal) b) 'ihk'il sus canul cab abeja, avispa ? honon moyote, avispa a) k'an b) 'ihk

? amah moyote k'an

he>'winik ?ok cienpiés k'an pe^ek* yulo ?ibk' m il'ok miliapodo ? Medium Animals caimlha 9 J kokis tortuga ?ihk' k'o? caracol de tierra sak puy caracol del agua ?ihk' kangrého cangrejo k'an kamaron camarón yas ?ayin lagarto c 'ale 'altik ha">al ¿'i"> perro de agua, nutria ? oip'o9 libélula ? lalaha? larua de libélula yas caballito del diablo murtut tortuguita . ?ihk'

can (Snakes) m asahwat bakne ratonera (pinto) SOt cascabel ' aliacán víbora a) <áah b) 'ihk' 7ik'ilcan voladora yas halalcan bejuquillo ?ihk» ' isimcan ? ?ihk\ k'an kantil cantil ?ihk' may'u coral 'ihk'. ¿ah

(Lizards) t'>erec ? a) 'ihk' b) yas ?istan iguana a) 'ihk' b) yas pik lagartija a) *>ihk' b) yas ->ohko¿ lagartija a) *ihk» b) yas a &lamankéea salamandra 'ihk1 - 5 -

CZZ1 (Toads & Frogs) pokok sapo a) 'iHs' b) yas rana a) yas b) k'an

[Small Animals]

''uc' c'ic' (gente) ->uc' piojo a) sak 'uc1 b) 'ihk'il 'uc' c'ak pulga ¿ah 'ocera c •ak nigua ííah tuul can chinche ^ah talahya talaje ? (animales) sip garrapata sak c'a £ lip (mas pequeño) ííah END of film "Please Rewind"

Microfilmed by: University of Chicago Joseph Regenstein Library Department of Photoduplication Chicago, Illinois 60637 MF. COLL. MSS. CULTURAL ANTHROP. Series. Llll No. 1282