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The Role of Seed Dispersal, Seed Predation and Drought in the Restoration of Ngel Nyaki Forest, Nigeria

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The Role of Seed Dispersal, Seed Predation and Drought in the Restoration of Ngel Nyaki Forest, Nigeria The Role of Seed Dispersal, Seed Predation and Drought in the Restoration of Ngel Nyaki Forest, Nigeria A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in ECOLOGY By Sasha Roselli 2014 School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand Table of Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. 2 List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................... 3 List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... 7 Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 9 1.1 Restoration Ecology .............................................................................................................. 10 1.2 West African Montane Forests ............................................................................................. 15 1.3 Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve ................................................................................................... 17 1.4 Thesis Outline ....................................................................................................................... 22 Chapter 2: Seed Dispersal ..................................................................................................................... 24 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 25 2.2 Methods................................................................................................................................. 28 2.3 Results ................................................................................................................................... 34 2.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 44 2.5 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 50 Chapter 3: Post-Dispersal Seed Predation ............................................................................................ 51 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 52 3.2 Methods................................................................................................................................. 55 3.3 Results ................................................................................................................................... 63 3.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 77 3.5 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 83 Chapter 4: The Grass Sward ................................................................................................................. 84 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 85 4.2 Methods................................................................................................................................. 87 4.3 Results ................................................................................................................................... 93 4.4 Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 102 4.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 106 Chapter 5: Synthesis ........................................................................................................................... 107 5.1 Factors Restricting Natural Regeneration at Ngel Nyaki .................................................... 108 5.2 Recommendations for Restoration ...................................................................................... 109 5.3 Suggestions for Future Studies ........................................................................................... 112 5.4 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 115 Appendix ............................................................................................................................................. 116 References ........................................................................................................................................... 126 1 Acknowledgements There are a number of people I wish to thank for their support in writing this thesis: Firstly, thank you my supervisors who have encouraged and supported me throughout. To Associate Professor Hazel Chapman, thank you for providing me with the opportunity to conduct my research in such a special place. I hugely respect what you have achieved at Ngel Nyaki, your knowledge of and passion for this forest is inspiring. Professor David Norton was a pleasure to work with as always, thank you for all your advice. To my field assistant Thomas Patrick, thank you for your hard work, reliability, and quiet sense of humour, I will be always grateful for your unwavering assistance. I would also like to thank Misa Zubairu for looking after us and all our silly baturia needs so well, and also all the field assistants at the NMFP for your friendship and hard work. I would like to thank the others in the Chapman lab, group especially Charles Nsor for looking after me so well the first time I was in Nigeria I really appreciate it. Also to Kelly Hutchinson, my otter, for keeping me sane during my second field season, it just wouldn‟t have been the same without you! To my family who (outwardly at least) barely blinked an eyelid when I announced I was going to Nigeria to do my Masters. For this and all the other support you have shown me through this whole journey, from food parcels to proof reading my essays, thank you so so much. 2 List of Figures Figure 1.1 Map of the Afromontane zones that make up the Afromontane Archipelago……………. 16 Figure 1.2 A relief map of Nigeria and western Cameroon showing the location of the Cameroonian Highlands Region……………………………………………………………………… 17 Figure 1.3 Satellite photo of Ngel Nyaki forest with the boundary of the reserve superimposed….... 18 Figure 1.4 Causes of degradation……………………………………………………………………. 19 Figure 1.5 Satellite photo of part on Ngel Nyaki forest. The areas of abandoned pasture that have been fenced off have been outlined…………………………………………………………………… 20 Figure 1.6 Inside one of the fenced off and regenerating grassland areas around the forest edge……21 Figure 1.7 Looking across the forest from one of the eastern edges of the reserve. The burnt and grazed grassland gives way to mature forest very suddenly with very little edge habitats…………... 21 Figure 2.1: Map of Ngel Nyaki forest with study sites outlined……………………………………... 28 Figure 2.2 Visual representations of: a) total observed species (total 59) divided by diet type, b) total observed species (total 59) divided by preferred habitat type, c) total visits to focal trees (total 1362) divided by each of the most common groups……………………………………… 35 Figure 2.3 Relationship between the canopy area of the focal tree (m2), and the total number of bird visits to that tree (combined over all observation periods).…………………………… …………….. 36 Figure 2.4 Average number of birds visiting a tree (per trial) based on whether or not the tree was providing a food source (either flowers of fruit) during that trial period……………………………...37 Figure 2.5 Average time (s) that birds spent in each focal tree in each trial based on whether or not the tree was providing a food source (either flowers of fruit) during that trial period……………...... 38 Figure 2.6 The number of birds that were observed in an 8m radius of the focal tree, either perching in or flying through the area, in relation to the percentage of that area covered by the canopy of a tree………………….………………………………………………………………... 39 Figure 2.7 Of the birds that were observed in an 8m radius of the focal tree, the average percentage of them that stopped to perch in the area, compared to the percentage of that area that was under canopy cover………………………………………………………………………….. 39 Figure 2.8 Of the birds that were observed perching in an 8m radius of the focal tree, the average percentage of them that landed on the focal tree, compared to the percentage of the canopy cover in that area that was made up by the focal tree..…………………………………….…………………... 40 Figure 2.9 Total number of seedlings from each species that was found under the canopies of the 18 focal trees…………………………………………………………………………………….....41 Figure 2.10 Relationship between the number of bird visitations to a focal tree and the number of seedlings found underneath the canopy of that tree………………………………………..42 3 Figure 2.11 Axes 1 and 2 of the DCA ordination. Trees
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