Study Plan, Sierra Nevada Research Center Vs 081006

Study Plan, Sierra Nevada Research Center vs 081006

1. Project Title

Rock Glaciers and Periglacial Rock-Ice Features in the Sierra Nevada, USA

Classification, Distribution, Age, Water, and Climate Relationships; Their Significance and Implications Under Changing Climates of the West

Principal Investigator and Research Associates

Constance Millar (PI), with Robert Westfall Sierra Nevada Research Center (SNRC)

Diane Delany, SNRC

Principal Research Collaborators

Michael Dettinger, USGS, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD, La Jolla, CA David Clow, USGS, Water Resources Division, Denver, CO Jessica Lundquist, Dept of Civil Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA Rebecca Franklin, Lab of Tree-Ring Research, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ

2. Problem Reference

Sierra Nevada Research Center RWUD Problem 3: Climate and Landscape Change

Specific goals of Problem 3 include:

• Evaluate climate-induced changes in species composition, range distributions, forest structure and function at century scales in the high Sierra Nevada

• Identify the role and magnitude of climate as an ecological architect relative to other landscape forces

• Provide meaningful and useful interpretations and applications to ecological restoration, conservation and management

3. Literature Review and Background

Rock glaciers and related periglacial rock-ice features (RIF) are widespread landforms in arctic and alpine environments with cold temperatures, low humidities, and abundant shattered rock (White, 1976; Giardino et al., 1987, Giardino and Vitek, 1988). In the regions where they have been studied intensively, rock glaciers cover as much as 5% (Switzerland; Frauenfelder 2004) to 10% (Chile; Brenning, 2005) of the alpine environment, contain up to 50 to 80% ice by volume (Barsch, 1996a; Brenning, 2005), and contribute as much as 20% (Switzerland; Haeberli, 1985) to 60% (Colorado; Giardino et al., 1987) of alpine erosion. Compared to typical glaciers (referred to as “ice glaciers” in this paper), rock glaciers remain less well recognized and studied. A surge of research attention in the last 25 years has begun to fill the knowledge gap, and both structural and process-level understanding is emerging. 2

Rock glaciers and related RIFs are especially significant in the context of a warming world. While ice glaciers have been retreating worldwide and in many mountain ranges are predicted to thaw entirely in the 21st century, water contained in the ice of rock glaciers or seasonally frozen ice lenses of RIFs is more protected from thermal changes by insulating rock mantles. As a result, thaw of ice in rock glaciers significantly lags behind ice glaciers, and these features appear to be in disequilibrium with climate, at least when climates are changing rapidly (Clark et al., 1994a; Pelto, 2000; Brenning, 2005). For this reason, rock glaciers are likely to become increasingly critical alpine water reservoirs (Schrott, 1996). Because these features are rock-covered and can appear similar superficially to rockfalls, talus, and scree slopes, their presence and hydrologic significance have been widely overlooked. In North America, rock glaciers have not been well incorporated into studies that estimate regional distribution and extent of stored ice, assess timing and abundance of mountain streamflows, model changes in water yields under warming climates, or define wetland alpine refugia for biodiversity. In many mountain ranges, rock glaciers remain “…landforms whose wide distribution, occurrence, and significance often go unnoticed” (Burger et al., 1999). Rock glaciers and related RIFs are difficult to study due to fundamental properties that resist straight- forward investigation. The internal structure, composition, extent, and dynamics of ice in these features are especially difficult to discern by traditional techniques due to the thick rock overburdens. Further, rock glaciers and related RIFs occur in a wide range of forms, shapes, and topographic locations, with many intermediate forms and transitional locations within a mountain range and even within drainages. Because different researchers have lumped diverse forms together under the term rock glacier, or conversely, considered only very specific forms to be rock glaciers, a range of alternative, often conflicting, hypotheses regarding origins has developed. These include glacigenic versus periglacial processes (summarized in Clark et al., 1998; Burger et al., 1999; Whalley and Azizi, 2003), and for the latter, permafrost versus landslide, avalanche, or other periglacial process (summarized in Johnson, 1983; Whalley and Martin, 1992; Whalley and Azizi, 2003). Rock glaciers have been investigated for their value as archives of historic glacial activity and paleoclimates in similar ways as ice glaciers. By comparing ages and elevations of active (containing ice) and relict (lacking ice) rock glaciers, and interpreting changes in equilibrium line altitudes (ELA or RILA, rock glacier initiation altitude), timing of glaciations and temperature differences have been determined. This has led to clarification of Pleistocene (Late Glacial) versus Holocene glacial activity and estimates of temperature differences in the Italian Alps (Baroni et al., 2003), Central Andes of Chile (5.5°C; Brenning, 2005; Trombotto et al., 1997), and Sierra Nevada, California USA (Clark et al., 1994a); of Pleistocene (Recess Peak) glacial advances in the Sierra Nevada (Clark et al., 1994a); and of late Holocene glaciations in the Swiss Alps (Frauenfelder and Kääb, 2000; Lambiel and Reynard, 2001), Sierra Nevada, California (Clark et al., 1994a), Rocky Mountains of Wyoming and Colorado (Konrad et al., 1999; Leonard, 2003; Refsnider, 2005) and Canada (Bachrach et al., 2004). Another approach to estimating Pleistocene paleoclimates is based on assumptions that rock glaciers indicate the extent of the permafrost zone, which is assumed to require mean annual temperatures of -1 to -2°C or less to develop, and enables comparison of temperature changes over time (2°C, Swiss Alps, Barsch, 1996b; Frauenfelder and Kääb, 2000; 1.9°C, Japan, Aoyama, 2005) . Few direct studies have been conducted on modern climate relations of rock glaciers, although comparison with ice glaciers has yielded relative information. In Greenland, Spitsbergen, and Antarctica, active rock glaciers and ice glaciers occur in close proximity. Overall climate was not significantly different between the forms, although rock glaciers occur in distinct topographic locations and slightly drier areas than ice glaciers (Humlum, 1998). In the Japanese Alps, mini-dataloggers placed at the ground surface of rock glaciers recorded temperatures at the bottom of the winter snow cover lower than - 2°C, despite having a mean annual ground surface temperature above 0°C (Aoyama, 2005). These values were interpreted to suggest that the rock glacier sites are underlain by degrading permafrost. Brenning (2005) found ubiquitous rock glaciers in the Chilean Andes corresponding with a mean annual temperature of 0.5°C and sporadic intact rock glaciers at regional mean annual temperatures of 4°C. From these observations, and assuming rock glaciers formed under permafrost climate constraints, he inferred that active rock glaciers were not in equilibrium with current climates, but rather reflect historic conditions. Late 20th century changes in air temperature in Colorado between 1.1° to 1.4°C were estimated to cause an increase in the lower elevational limit of rock glaciers (estimated from permafrost indicators) by 150-190 m (Clow et al., 2003). 3

External structure and movement of rock glaciers, both glacial or periglacial in origin, have been the subjects of considerable research. Movement has been measured using dendrochronologic analysis of trees being overridden by rock glaciers (e.g., Shroder and Giardino, 1987; Carter et al., 1999; Bachrach et al., 2004), lichenometric assessment of boulder movement (e.g., Osborn and Taylor, 1975; Sloan and Dyke, 1998), and repeat photography and other photogrammetric techniques (e.g., Osborn, 1975; Clark et al, 1994a; Kääb et al., 1997; Koning and Smith, 1999; Chueca and Julian, 2005; Janke, 2005). The magnitude of movement and velocity of rock glaciers varied, with most estimates in the range of 1-35 cm yr-1 (summarized in Burger et al., 1999; Leonard 2003; Janke, 2005), although repeat photos indicate movement up to 50-60 cm yr-1 in Canada (Osborn, 1975) and Switzerland (Kääb and Vollmer, 2000), and some debris-covered glaciers approach the rate of ice glacier velocities, 0.9 m yr-1 (northern Tien Shan, Gorbunov and Polyakov, 1992), 1m yr-1 (Colorado, Konrad et al., 1999), and 5m yr-1 (Switzerland, Vietoris, 1972). The role of rock glaciers in the hydrologic systems of alpine environments has been studied by various authors (reviewed in Brenning, 2005). Attention has increased with recognition that the matrix of rocks, ice, sediments, and water in a rock glacier functions as a complex aquifer, with recharge, discharge, and through-flow characteristics (Giardino et al., 1992). Unlike the long lag time in response to regional climate change, water flow through rock glaciers responds quickly to daily and seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation (Burger et al., 1997). Johnson (1981) used dye tracers to estimate travel time through a rock glacier in the Yukon Territory, and found times on the order of 0.7 to 2.1 hours. Krainer and Mostler (2002) found yearly mean discharge from rock glaciers in the Austrian Alps to be significantly lower than ice glaciers, although the seasonal and daily discharge patterns were similar. Where studied, rock glaciers are shown to store significant amounts of water for long times (Andes, Schrott, 1996; Swiss Alps, Haeberli, 1985; Canadian Rockies, Bajewski and Gardner, 1989). Analysis of 3000-4000 active rock glaciers in the Chilean Andes yielded an estimated water equivalent of 0.3 km3 per 100 km2 of mountain area; 21-28% of the area above 3000m drained through active rock glaciers (Brenning, 2005). In an alpine catchment in Colorado, rock glaciers were the second most important source of groundwater storage, with talus most important, and ice glaciers less (Clow et al., 2003). A similar relative order occurred in the Andes (Brenning, 2003). Compared to ice glaciers, water discharged from rock glaciers generally has been found to contain lower suspended sediments, higher total dissolved solids, and to be more oxygenated (Johnson, 1981; Giardino et al., 1992). Williams et al. (2005) analyzed geochemistry of meltwater from a rock glacier in the Colorado Rocky Mountains, and found seasonal differences in geochemistry. Snow was the dominant water source in June; soil water in July; and base flow, estimated to derive from melt of internal ice, in September. These characteristics, in addition to persistent discharge and high volumes, have made rock glaciers important sources of water to mountain communities in some parts of the world (Andes, Corte, 1999; Brenning, 2006; Boulder, Colorado, Burger et al., 1999). Beyond the terrestrial context, features resembling rock glaciers have been described from the surface of Mars (Kargel and Strom, 1992; Baker, 2001), suggesting the presence of water and ice on that planet. Interpretation of the Martian environment hinges on understanding the dynamics, structure, and water-ice-climate relations of rock glaciers and related landforms on Earth. New remote and geophysical technologies to investigate internal dynamics (e.g., Berthling et al., 1998; Kääb and Vollmer, 2000; Kääb, 2002; Degenhardt et al., 2003; Janke, 2005) as well as increasing clarity from coring and excavation studies (e.g., Haeberli et al., 1988; Whalley et al., 1994; Clark et al., 1998; Konrad et al., 1999), are casting light on what had seemed to be an intractable internal structural problem. These studies suggest that multiple morphogenic processes occur, and that their expression varies with local conditions, regional climate, and history. This has led to increasing acceptance of the equifinality of rock glacier origins, i.e., that different initial conditions and processes can lead to similar external forms (Johnson, 1983; Corte, 1987a, b; Whalley and Azizi 2003), as well as acceptance that a continuum of landforms can result from similar processes (Giardino and Vitek, 1988; Clark et al., 1994a, 1998; Burger et al., 1999). While this has helped to resolve the polarity of earlier debates, the plurality of origins, convergence of processes, and diversity and continuum of forms mean that research needs to be undertaken on individual types, in specific environmental settings, and with known histories before systems-level understanding can develop. The equifinality of rock glacier origins and forms has helped clarify approaches to nomenclature and classification. Although many papers have discussed terms and definitions and offered general classifications (summarized in Johnson, 1983; Corte, 1987a; Hamilton and Whalley, 1995; Whalley and 4

Azizi 2003), it is clear now that the most useful classifications are based on morphology and location rather than assumed origins (Hamilton and Whalley, 1995; Whalley and Azizi, 2003). Further, the diversity of forms and dependence on regional conditions make clear that generalized definitions, important as starting points, are inadequate for intensive or regional research. Rather, site-specific descriptions, nomenclature, and classifications have been called for to promote accurate mapping exercises, climatalogical investigations, and process-based studies (Hamilton and Whalley, 1995). To date, no specific regional classification has been published, and the available inventories rely on generalized descriptions of basic types. Commonly used terms based on morphology and location include “valley-floor” versus “valley-wall” rock glaciers (Outcalt and Benedict, 1965); as well as “tongue- shaped” versus “lobate” (Wahrhaftig and Cox, 1959). Several authors distinguish between “rock glaciers”, that is, features having steep fronts, steep sides, length greater than width, and existing on a valley floor, and “protalus lobes and protalus ramparts”, with similar morphology but occurring on valley walls, in front of talus slopes, and generally wider than long (Martin and Whalley,1987; Hamilton and Whalley,1995; Whalley and Azizi, 2003). Based on these general terms, and sometimes using genetic definitions implying processes of origin such as debris-covered glaciers, ice-cored glaciers, or permafrost rock glaciers, local inventories have been made in several regions of the world. These include the Arctic (Svalbard, Berthling et al., 1998; Greenland, Humlum 1997; Alaska, Wahrhaftig and Cox, 1959; Calkin et al., 1987; Yukon, Johnson, 1978, 1987; Blumstengel, 1988); Antarctica (Strelin and Sone, 1998; Serrano and Lopez, 2000), New Zealand (Brazier et al., 1998); European Alps (Evin, 1987; Haeberli et al, 1988; Smiraglia, 1992; Francou and Reynaud, 1992; Von der Muehll and Klingele, 1994; Guglielmin et al., 1994; Palmentola et al., 1995; Lieb, 1998; Pancza, 1998; Serrano et al, 1999, 2001; Frauenfelder et al., 2003); Tien Shan (Titkov, 1988; Cui and Zhu, 1989; Gorbunov and Polyakov, 1992); Himalayas (Barsch and Jakob, 1993); and Andes (Corte, 1987b; Schrott, 1996; Kammer, 1998). Because the classifications used were generalized, however, the resulting inventories either focus on a few specific forms or cluster diverse features together, making further analysis of the diversity of forms difficult. In temperate western North America, inventories have been made for a few local areas, including Galena Creek, Absaroka Mtns, Wyoming (Potter, 1972), the Colorado Rockies (White, 1971, 1987; Giardino, 1979; Benedict et al., 1986; Vick, 1987; Giardino et al., 1984; Degenhardt et al., 2003; Janke, 2004), Canadian Rockies (Johnson and Lacasse, 1988; Sloan, 1998), and La Sal Mountains of Utah (Shroder, 1987; Morris, 1987; Parson, 1987; Nicholas and Butler, 1996; Nicholas and Garcia, 1997). In the Sierra Nevada, California, limited information exists on the rangewide distribution of rock glaciers, although focused studies on paleoclimate and glacial advances have been conducted on a subset of glacigenic (debris-covered) rock glaciers in the range (Clark et al., 1994a; Konrad and Clark, 1998). A few Pleistocene relict rock glaciers are indicated on high-resolution geologic maps of the Sierra, and anecdotal observations suggest that rock glaciers and related RIFs are abundant in cirques and canyons of the Sierra Nevada south of Lake Tahoe. Aside from Clark and his students’ research, however, no regional classification or mapped inventories have been developed. Beyond the few glacigenic features they have studied, the distribution, extent, and significance of rock glaciers in the Sierra Nevada are little known, and these features remain widely overlooked.

4. Objectives

Relative to rock glaciers and associated periglacial RIFs in the Sierra Nevada, the goals of the present study were to:

• Develop a regional taxonomic classification and nomenclature;

• Compile a geo-referenced database with type localities and photos derived from field-mapping;

• Analyze geographic and climatic relations (modern and historic) of the mapped rock-ice features.

• Form tentative hypotheses of process and origins

• Initiate reconnaissance-level monitoring of rock glacier and R-I feature movement; meltwater, including flow, seasonal persistence, temperature, water age, and chemistry; lichen and plant cover and ages.

5. Methods

MAPPING AND CLASSIFICATION During the field seasons of 2000 through 2005, we observed and mapped “classic” rock glaciers and associated RIFs in the Sierra Nevada from Sonora Pass in the north to Cottonwood Pass in the south, focusing on the region between Robinson Cr., Bridgeport area, and North Fk. Bishop Cr., Bishop area. We mapped features at locations and elevations where glacial and periglacial processes appear to dominate, and whose form and structure suggested glacial or periglacial origins – e.g., features that have been described as rock glaciers (including debris-covered glaciers); active moraines; protalus lobes and ramparts; creeping scree slopes; solifluction slumps; patterned-ground circles, nets, stripes; and other undescribed forms. Ice glaciers and persistent snowfields without associated decomposed rock mantling were not included. Each feature was field-mapped visually at coarse resolution on topographic maps and later characterized with digital maps (National Geographic, 2004) for latitude and longitude (center of feature), elevation range, and local slope aspect. Feature size was described in four ranks (400 ha, 50ha, 5 ha, 0.5 ha); three shape ranks were scored (wider than long, approximately equal length and width, longer than wide). While not part of the classification, we made preliminary determinations of activity, following conventions previously observed (e.g., Ikeda and Matsuoka, 2002). Current activity (embedded ice, movement) is difficult to determine by casual observation; a feature was tentatively scored active if it was: 1) within the elevation range of local ice glaciers and persistent snowfields; and had 2) oversteepened front and sides relative to the ambient slope (certain types only; see descriptive taxonomy section); 3) angular rocks with no or little lichen growth; 4) plant cover absent or minimal; 5) appearance of active sorting of clasts, and 6) persistent spring or stream, or presence of phreatophytes (e.g., Salix, Carex) at the feature’s downhill front or sides. Whereas other authors have further classed features as inactive (ablating ice-core or ice matrix) and relict (ice lacking), we did not feel capable of discerning these differences, and we rated features only as active or relict. For relict features, we made a tentative assignment of age, based on appearance, elevation, and size, as Holocene, Pleistocene-Recess Peak (Clark et al., 1994a; Clark and Gillespie, 1997) and Pleistocene-Last Glacial Maximum; these ages are proposed as hypotheses awaiting confirmation from intensive research and/or new technology. Based on observations of ~300 features, a preliminary taxonomy and nomenclature were developed. The classification was based on current condition and form of features (morphology), not origins, and on field-visible conditions without reference to subsurface conditions, internal processes, or other aspects that require special measurement to determine. We followed the guidelines for classification outlined by Hamilton and Whalley (1995), as well as precepts borrowed from biological classification. These include: relationships are hypothesized by hierarchic levels and adjacency of groups, and nomenclature reflects the implied relationships. Categories in the classification are distinct and non-overlapping, but this does not preclude the common occurrence of intermediate or complex features in the field that are difficult to classify. The classification is not intended to be comprehensive of periglacial or glacial features, especially of periglacial forms that are unlikely to store significant water or ice. Although not part of the classification, we speculate on potential origins (glacial/periglacial/permafrost-related) of the major categories in the hope these can be tested in further studies. The preliminary taxonomy was tested by revisits to ~20% of the originally mapped features, and by the addition of ~100 new features, which led to the revised taxonomy and nomenclature presented here. Henceforth in this paper we refer to features either in general as RIFs, or we use the specific names from our classification. CLIMATE MODELING Location data for all mapped RIFs were imported into GIS (Arc Info) as point coverages (latitude/longitude of centers). These groups were intersected with data from the 4 km2 gridded PRISM climate model (Daly et al., 1994). From that set, we extracted layers for annual, January and July minimum and maximum temperatures, respectively; and annual, January, and July precipitation, respectively, for the period of record, 1960-1999. The PRISM grids were converted to polygons and 6 sequentially intersected with the locations of the RIFs, grouped by the six taxonomic Location Classes (see Results, Table 1). To adjust the mean climate values of each 4 km2 PRISM polygons to the specific elevations of the RIFs we followed the approach of Hamman and Wang (2005). For this, we used 30 m digital elevation model (DEM, from Davis et al., 1998) tiles for the eastern Sierra Nevada ecoregion, and intersected these with climate data from the PRISM 4 km2 model, extracting the PRISM climate data with latitude, longitude, and elevation. We then regressed response-surface equations of latitude, longitude, and elevation of the DEM tiles against the PRISM tiles. Rather than using regression equations of Hamann and Wang (2005), which were based on Canadian locations, we used modified multi-order response-surface equations of the form: (latitude + longitude)n + elevation + elevation x (latitude + longitude)n-1 where > 90% fit was obtained when n, the order of each equation, equaled 3 to 5 for the temperature data and 5 for the precipitation data. As in Hamann and Wang (2005), we took the first derivative for elevation in each equation to estimate lapse rates for climatic data by elevation to adjust temperature and precipitation between the mean elevation of the 4 km2 PRISM tile to each RIF feature. Surface analysis regressions were done in JMP (SAS, 2002), and first derivatives were computed in Mathematica (Wolfram, 2004). To determine differences among Location Classes, we subjected the merged RIF/PRISM-climate data to discriminant analysis. We classified the analysis by Location Class with the climatic measures as variables, maximizing RIF differences in multivariate climate space. We then computed mean & variance climatic data from the PRISM model for the classified groups. We made preliminary assessments of climate differences between modern and Pleistocene conditions using two approaches. First we extracted a subset of RIFs that included pairs (or groups) of active and Late Glacial Maximum (LGM)-scored features from the same drainages, and calculated the differences between the lower elevations of each feature. For the first method, we multiplied the elevation difference by a standard lapse rate, -6.5°C/km (Wallace and Hobbs, 2006), which Lundquist and Cayan (2006) verified from 38 weather stations as highly accurate for mean annual temperatures of high elevations in the central Sierra Nevada. For the second method, we calculated modern PRISM climate means for each pair (or group) of RIFs, adjusted by elevation to the selected RIFs. We used differences in these means to represent differences between the modern and LGM conditions, assuming lapse rates have not varied over time. From these PRISM results, we can also estimate lapse rates directly to compare with the standard rate.

WATER CHEMISTRY. (with Dave Clow, Mike Dettinger) We are sampling water from springs and streams emanating at the bases of six R-I features for chemical analysis. Water sampling and analytic methods follow Clow et al., 2002. To assess differences among sites, we use principal component analysis (PCA), with ln-transformed data to normalize the distribution. We used PCA and discriminant analysis on ln-transformed data to resolve clusters and then test differences of the rock-ice meltwater chemistry data to values previously analyzed from Yosemite National Park precipitation (6 samples, 2003-04), snow (2 samples, 2005), river (123 samples, 2003-05), and lake (15 samples, 2003-05) sources (Clow et al., 2002).

WATER AGE & ACTIVITY (with Dave Clow and Mike Dettinger) Preliminary estimates of water age can be made with tritium sampling (which gives pre- and post-bomb testing dates), and other isotope methods. Analyses will be done in the lab of Mike Dettinger. We will also measure dissolved oxygen as an indication of microbial activity and sourcing of water.

WATER TEMPERATURE AND DEPTH. (with Jessica Lundquist) Water temperature is being recorded by small dataloggers (iButtons), programmed for four readings/day and larger level-loggers (solinsts), programmed for 12 readings/day. We place all instruments in shallow pools (15-30 cm) at the spring heads or where meltwater streams first surfaced from R-I features (Fig. 3). Readings will give indications of temperature persistence and variability, timing in change of state from liquid to frozen, adjacency of permafrost, and timing of spring/stream drying, if any – all of which will help interpret the internal hydrologic structure of the features. Leveloggers also record water pressure, which, together with barometric pressure measured from barologgers installed at Tuolomne Meadows, Yosemite NP (2600 m; Lundquist, ongoing research), will enable calculation of water depth.

AIR TEMPERATURE We are measuring the free air temperature in interstices in the rock mantle and front of rock glaciers other other rock-ice features using small dataloggers (iButtons) programmed as above. These assist in determining the presence of nearby permafrost or embedded ice.

ROCK-ICE FEATURE MOVEMENT. We installed rudimentary transects to monitor movement of boulders on the steep front of one rock glacier (RGV, see Results), upper surfaces of two rock glaciers (RGC), and across the bases of three boulder streams (BSC). Paint spots were sprayed on boulders every 1.7 m (a full pace) along an azimuth perpendicular to the inferred flow direction, with base-points well off the edge of the R-I features on bedrock (Fig. 4). Transects will be re-visited to determine if paint spots moved significantly off the intervals or azimuth line.

PLANT & LICEN GROWTH AND ROCK-GLACIER AGE (with Rebecca Franklin) We are mapping plant growth on the surfaces of apparently active RG features. In collaboration with Rebecca Franklin, select plants will be dated using herb-chronology methods. We have chose one rock glacier, the Barney Rock Glacier near Mammoth Crest, for this intensive work. Areas of plant growth have been mapped and characterized as to aspect and elevation. In these polygons, we are determining plant cover by species. This will enable an estimate of total cover of the rock glacier by species, and also will enable us to determine whether certain species are indicators of different levels of rock glacier activity.

6. Application of Research Results

We expect outcomes from the proposed work both to basic science and landscape-scale management and conservation. We anticipate that elucidating the role of climate and hydrology in high mountains to have diverse applications under changing climates. The role of rock glaciers is of critical importance in arid mountain ranges as snowpacks decrease and ice glaciers retreat. Due to their lag with climate and the insulating role of rock mantling, rock glaciers may soon become the primary sources of persistent yearround groundwater from high mountain regions, in particular the Sierra Nevada.

We anticipate a minimum of three technical publications from this work, to be submitted to Arctic, Antartic, and Alpine Research, Journal of Hydrology,and Ecology. Additional opportunities to present the work orally and in posters at appropriate scientific meetings will be sought. Implications of rock glaciers and mountain hydrology will be communicated to management audiences where possible.

7. Safety and Health

Standard procedures determined by the SNRC Safety Committee will be followed (see SNRC intranet). Field and Office Job Hazard Analyses and Emergency Evacuation Procedures on file for Millar research team pertain to and adequately cover safety procedures for this project. Due to the special hazards of working on unstable rock and scree surfaces of rock glaciers, additional training and hazard analysis, and supplemental protective gear are required.

8. Environmental analysis considerations (FSM 1950). None applicable.

Local Contacts USFS Inyo National Forest: Molly Brown Mono Lake District Ranger USFS Toiyabe National Forest, Kathleen Lucich, Bridgeport District Ranger

9. Personnel Assignment, Time of Completion, and Cost

Millar, Principal Investigator. Oversight and supervision for all aspects of the study, including project design, justification, grant applications, field work, data analysis, communication, quality control, field and office safety, and publication/dissemination.

Westfall: Principal Co-Investigator. Primary input on field and statistical design, analysis, and statistical interpretation. Assists and reviews study plan, participates in and advises on field techniques and lab analyses, provides input and review on manuscripts.

Delany: Laboratory Analyses (ring measurements, data input, basic statistic analyses), and assists in development of graphics for publications, posters, oral presentations.

Completion Dates: Fieldwork: October 2009 Lab Analyses: 2006-2009 Statistical Analysis: 2006-2009 Manuscript Preparation & Review: 2006-2009

Remaining cost: Salary for Millar, Westfall & Delany

10. References and Additional Bibliography

Ackert, R.P., 1998: A rock glacier/debris-covered glacier system at a Creek, Absaroka Mountains, Wyoming. Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography 80: 267-276. Aoyama, M., 2005. Rock glaciers in the northern Japanese Alps: Palaeoenvironmental implications since the Late Glacial. Journal of Quaternary Science 20: 471-484. Bachrach, T., Jakobsen, K., Kinney, J., Nishimura, P., Reyes, A., Laroque, C.P., Smith, D.J., 2004: Dendrogeomophological assessment of movement at Hilda Rock Glacier, Banff National Park, Canadian Rocky Mountains. Geografiska Annaler 86A: 1-9. Bajewski, I. and Gardner, J.S., 1989: Discharge and sediment-load characteristics of the Hilda rock- glacier stream, Canadian Rocky Mountains, Alberta. Physical Geography 10: 295-306. Baker, V.R., 2001: Water and the Martian landscape. Nature 412: 228-236. Ballantyne, C.K., 1998: Age and significance of mountain-top detritus. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 9: 327-345. Ballantyne, C.K., 2002: Paraglacial geomorphology. Quaternary Science Reviews 21: 1935-2017. Baroni, C., Carton, A., and Seppi, R., 2003: Distibution and behaviour of rock glaciers in the Adamello- Presanella Massif (Italian Alps). Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 15: 243-259. Barsch, D., 1996a: Rockglaciers; Indicators for the Present and Former Geoecology in High Mountain Environments. Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany, Springer-Verlag. Barsch, D., 1996b: Welche geookologischen und klimatischen Aussagen erlauben aktive, inaktive und fossile Blockgletscher? Heidelberger Geographische Arbeiten 100: 32-39. Barsch, D. and Jakob, M., 1993: Active rockglaciers and the lower limit of discontinuous alpine permafrost in the Khumbu Himalay, Nepal. Proceedings of the Sixth Inernational Conference on Permfafrost, Beijin, China. South China University of Technology Press, Wushan, China. Benedict, J.B., Benedict, R.J., and Sanville, D., 1986: Arapaho rock glacier, Front Range, Colorado USA: A 25 year resurvey. Arctic and Alpine Research 18: 349-352. Benn, D.I. and Evans, B.J.A., 1997: Glaciers and Glaciation. Oxford University Press, London. 760 pgs. Berthling, I, Etzelmuller, B, Ksaksen, K., and Sollid, J.L., 1998: Rock glaciers on Prins Karls Foreland, II. GPR soundings and the development of internal structures. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 11: 357-369. Blumstengel, W.K., 1988: Studies of an active rock glacier, Slims River Valley, Kluane National Park, Yukon Territory. Master’s Thesis, Department of Geography, University of Calgary. 9

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Figure 1. Study Area for Rock Glaciers and Related Rock-Ice Features, Sierra Nevada, CA