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The Freedpeople and Their Teachers Charlottesville, Virginia, 1861-1876

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The Freedpeople and Their Teachers Charlottesville, Virginia, 1861-1876 Crucible in the Classroom: The Freedpeople and Their Teachers Charlottesville, Virginia, 1861-1876 Lauranett Lorraine Lee Richmond, Virginia B.A., Mundelein College, 1985 M.A., Virginia State University, 1993 A Dissertation presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Virginia May 2002 Abstract Crucible in the Classroom: The Freedpeople and Their Teachers Charlottesville, Virginia, 1861-1876 This study examines connections between emancipation, education, and identity. It explores the impact of freedom by recovering the daily lives of African Americans and their teachers in Charlottesville, Virginia, between 1861 and 1876. Both freedpeople and teachers learned to reshape their private aspirations while making sacrifices and concessions. The papers of two teachers sponsored by the New England Freedmen's Aid Society, Philena Carkin and Anna Gardner, provide the foundation for this study. Three studies in particular inform my investigation. Rehearsal for Reconstruction (1964) by Willie Lee Rose examines the people of Port Royal at a crucial moment in American history. Lawrence Levine discusses the belief and value systems of enslaved people in Black Culture and Black Consciousness (1977). Leon Litwack's Been in the Storm So Long (1979) addresses the freedpeople's struggles from a regional perspective. These studies illuminate the paths freedpeople walked as they moved toward a new way of being in the world. Exploring the world behind the words, asking questions of the sources, and listening to the multiple answers that arise became the methodology upon which this study was founded. My intent is to recover the daily devotion to freedom. Trailing the freedpeople and their teachers as they move about Charlottesville, looking at their local world when more people began to have new opportunities, and considering the link between education and identity offers a great deal of room to roam. Moving beyond an examination of race, class, and gender, this study examines the era in terms of reconstructing the self. Both freedpeople and female schoolteachers willingly built new lives for themselves. My focus on a small group of people recovers both collective and individual distinctions within the emancipatory experience. Hence, this study is a process of seeing individuals with memories, dreams, hopes, and fears. TABLE OF CONTENTS Part I Chapter One: Background 1 Chapter Two: "Envisioning Hope 19 Chapter Three: The Enemy's Territory 42 Chapter Four: Harvesting the Future 70 Part II Introduction to the Papers of Philena Carkin 105 Editorial Note 107 The edited letters of Philena Carkin 108 Appendix I: The Reminiscences of Philena Carkin 158 Appendix II: Report on Prominent Whites and Freedmen 252 Bibliography 257 Dedications I am thankful to my God and all my ancestors forbringing me on this path even when I kicked and screamed. For nine years I have delved into southern waters; now, I feel as if I have come up for a long, cool breath of air. Through it all many good people have sustained me. I have much admiration and respect formy advisor, Edward Ayers, who read every draftand commented accordingly. My advisor fromVirginia State University, Edgar Toppin, not only encouraged me to pursue a doctorate, he also encouraged me to stick with it. The love and prayers of my parents, Clarence and Gloria Lee, have been constant. I am also grateful to my siblings, especially "Mann" and Jacqueline who endured my late night calls forcomputer help as well as my last minute requests for loans. My nephews Travon, Brandon, and Christopher, and my niece, Lorraine, have patiently waited for me to spend more time with them. My goddaughters, Keisha and Lauren, have been equally patient. My extended family, particularly my aunt Dora Walker and my cousin Simon Harris, extended support throughout this entire process. I am thankful to my friends who offered assistance in a variety of ways: Pamila Gant, Betsey Brinson, Kay Peaslee, Debbie Usry, Gayle Schulman, Patricia Click, Beth O'Leary, Gail Neave, Barbara Bair, Dianne Swann-Wright, Liz Cherry Jones, Bill and Iva Condrey, Robert Morehouse, Dorothy Cowling, Grace Lessner, Diana Westbrook, Bob Vernon, Marilyn Milio, Jane and Eugene Foster, Nell Painter, Leslie Middleton, Elsa Barkley Brown, Greg Kimball, Karen Butler, Lori Boyd, Martin and Jane Davis, Greg Echols, Glenda Gilmore, Greg French and his family, and Steve Haas. I am gratefulto Peg O'Brien at the Albemarle County Historical Society. I have much gratitude to all those at the Massachusetts Historical Society who made me feel welcome especially at Christmas time; I benefited froma Mellon fellowship there. Likewise, the Alicia Monti fellowship at the Boston Pubic Library helped me to conduct further research. Roberta Zonghi's staff was equally kind. I have also benefited from several other fellowships: the State Council of Higher Education forVirginia, Commonwealth Fellowship, the National Historic Publications and Records Commission, Documentary Editing Institute Internship; Association of Black Women Historians and Black Classic Press, Drusilla Dunjee Houston Award, and The University of Virginia, Graduate History Fellowship-thanks, Dean Robert Huskey and ProfessorAyers. My committee members, Cindy Aron, Frank Grizzard, and Jennings Wagoner, worked with me to make my dissertation defensean absolutely wonderful experience. Elizabeth Stovall, as well as Kathleen Miller, Lottie McCauley, and Ella Wood, the secretarial staff in the history department, always had a kind word and warm smile. They helped lighten the load, even until the very end. Doris Lamb in the Graduate Arts and Sciences office and Heidi Winters, Professor Ayers' assistant, always stayed calm in the midst of chaotic moments. Michael Plunkett, in special collections at Alderman Library and his staff, especially Regina Rush, helped me tremendously. I appreciate your assistance. Thanks also go out to my former colleagues in the history department at Old Dominion University, especially Anne and Alan Harris. I also thank the wonderful staff and students. Gratitude also is extended to Charles Bryan at the Virginia Historical Society, who stayed in touch with me after I entered the Ph.D. program. James Kelly and Frances Pollard and her staffat VHS came to my rescue on several occasions. The Library of Virginia staff also helped me on numerous occasions. To all these and more, I thank your for keeping me on my path. 1 Chapter One: Background Resolved - that we, the colored people of Charlottesville tender our sincere thanks to the Freedmen's Aid Society of Boston for the generous assistance it has rendered us by establishing a school in our midst and thereby laying the foundation of our education. 1 Written on heavy paper with frayed corners, now yellowed and slightly stained, this message from the past with no date or names attached opens a doorway into nineteenth-century Charlottesville. Behind the forty-two words are stories about groups of people who challenged traditional ideas about race, region, and intellect. This seemingly straightforward quotation raises several intriguing questions. Does this passage speak for all colored people of Charlottesville? What is the Freedmen's Aid Society of Boston? What is its history? How long was it active in Charlottesville? Who did it send to Charlottesville and in what capacity? What is the name of the school it established? When was the school established? How were the teachers treated by members of the Charlottesville community? In what ways did the students and their teachers change the larger community? Anticipating their rights as freed people, blacks began to reconstruct their lives prior to the Confederacy's demise. Their emancipation experience found its roots in spiritual, intellectual, and political realms. 1 Massachusetts Historical Society, New England Freedmen's Aid Society Papers, catalogued with "Letters Received." The resolution was possibly made in 1875; in a letter written by Philena Carkin on June 21, 1875, she refers to a resolution. Exploring the world behind the words, asking questions of the sources and listening to the multiple answers that arise became the method upon which this study is founded. Trailing the freedpeople and their teachers as they move about Charlottesville, Virginia, looking at their local world when more people began to have new opportunities, and considering the link between identity, education, and self-definition offers a great deal of room to roam. This study focuses on the disfranchised in Mr. Jefferson's town, those who were excluded from Jefferson's vision of an educated citizenry, and those who were among the first to teach the disfranchised in a formal environment. Located in the middle belt of the Appalachian uplands, Albemarle County rests approximately 70 miles east of Richmond and 120 miles southwest of Washington, D.C. The Blue Ridge Mountains border the western edge of the county while the Rivanna River, a navigable branch of the James River, is nestled within its borders.2 Both free blacks and slaves were enumerated in the 1790 census of Albemarle County, the first m�1ional census taken under the Constitution. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the Piedmont area had become larger, healthier, and more prosperous than the Tidewater area. Slaves were introduced into the Piedmont area from the time it was first settled. Some came directly from Africa but the majority came from the Tidewater area where 2 Originally, an Indian village called Monasukapanough occupied a large area of land about a half mile above the Rivanna River. It was the home of the Saponi Indians, who were members of the large Monacan Confederacy. They also belonged to the Sioux language group. See David I. Busnell, Jr., "Evidences of Indian Occupancy in Albemarle County, Virginia," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 89 (1933), 7-10. Charlton G. Holland, Jr., "Albemarle Before 1700," Magazine of Albemarle County History 9 (1949), 5-12. Hereafter cited as MACH. 3 many of the slaves were introduced in Virginia.
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