One may see a trajectory in the history of Metaphysics and Euro-American political philosophy regarding Postmetaphysics the relationship between metaphysics and N i c h o l a s T a m p i o politics. For the ancients, only a few people are capable of grasping the deepest level of reality and those few are by nature supposed to govern. Political scientists often study things that can As a rule, transcendent metaphysics supports be examined, measured, and compared, such an elitist politics. In modernity, philosophers as human beings, political regimes, or interna- often posit an immanent metaphysics that dis- tional organizations. Political philosophers credits traditional claims to theoretical wisdom often think about things that cannot, as such, or political superiority. Many Enlightenment be empirically observed, such as human nature, philosophers support liberal and democratic moral codes, and theories of justice. The most claims that individuals and societies should profound activity of philosophy is metaphysics. govern themselves. Over time, however, political Metaphysics, according to Aristotle, is first tensions have festered between metaphysical philosophy, the study of being qua being. In partisans, most notably between those who general, a metaphysics grounds and delimits view God at the base of reality and those who what a philosopher thinks that political affairs do not. Postmetaphysicians seek to reduce this are and can be. In other words, a metaphysics tension by arguing that philosophers may helps a philosopher explain actual political ground political theories on shared cultural affairs and envision new political possibilities. resources rather than controversial metaphys- This entry considers how several of the most ical doctrines. Pluralists respond that post- important figures in the history of Euro- metaphysicians underestimate both their own American political theory conceptualize being, philosophical commitments and the depth the privileged interpreters of being, and the of disagreement among global constituencies. political principles that accord with being. For pluralists, the task today is to construct Here are definitions of a few key terms in political orders where multiple existential this entry. Physics describes the study of things faiths – including ones that originate outside of that move and change (in Greek, ta physika ). Europe or North America – may collaborate Metaphysics, or ontology, describes the science for common ends. of that which lies beyond physical things (meta To best enter contemporary debates about ta physika ; in Latin, ontologia ). A transcendent politics and metaphysics, it is necessary to sur- metaphysics holds that the deepest layer of vey their historical backdrop. reality resides on a different plane of being than physical things. An immanent metaphysics, by contrast, maintains that there is one plane of Classical Metaphysics being though human perception may not (yet) be able to grasp all of it. Postmetaphysics is The Euro-American conversation about the notion that political theory ought to focus metaphysics began in the sixth century bce on questions of real-world justice instead of when Greek philosophers such as Heraclitus, debates about whether there is or is not another Parmenides, Anaximander, and Anaxagoras world. Pluralists argue that all political theories pondered the mysteries embedded in the word express some conception of metaphysics and “being” (ousia ). Unlike Homer, the Presocratic the pressing task is to negotiate, not suppress, philosophers doubted that deities such as differences between metaphysical visions. Zeus and Athena directly intervened in human The Encyclopedia of Political Thought, First Edition. Edited by Michael T. Gibbons. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. DOI: 10.1002/9781118474396.wbept0666 2 affairs; at the same time, their work avoids posits a two-world metaphysics and a pyramidal political themes and evinces an oracular, poetic political structure whereby philosophers dis- quality that does not express the philosophic cover the truth, politicians enforce the truth aspiration to pursue knowledge using only as taught to them by philosophers, and the reason. The first person to bring philosophy ignorant masses work and farm. from heaven to earth, according to the Roman In The Politics , Aristotle (384–322 bce ) crit- philosopher Cicero, was Socrates (469–399 bce ). icizes his teacher Plato’s political vision Socrates used to go to a public space ( agora ) and for being unrealistic and irresponsible. Plato debate with people about the meaning of such argues that a just society will possess all things, words as justice, piety, beauty, science, and the including children, in common; Aristotle good. He did not want to know whether this or responds that parents will only care for chil- that object is beautiful; he wanted to know what dren whom they recognize as their own. is beauty in itself, a question that compels an Aristotle reverses Plato’s method: rather than investigation beyond appearances. Socrates was start with philosophical abstractions that can condemned for corrupting youth and making then be applied to experience, Aristotle col- new gods and not believing in the old ones. lects evidence from Greek constitutions to Socrates’ legacy is primarily preserved in the determine what preserves and destroys states dialogues of Plato (429–347 bce ). and keeps them well or ill administered. “As in One of these dialogues, the Republic , is other departments of science, so in politics, widely considered to be the first book of the compound should always be resolved political philosophy. The Republic begins with into the simple elements or least parts of the Socrates asking several men for their defini- whole” (Aristotle 1996 : 11). Aristotle argues that tions of justice and then showing that each human beings naturally progress from being definition is flawed. To discover the nature of alone, to being married, to having slaves, to justice, Socrates proposes to create a city in inhabiting villages, and then living in a polis. speech so that he may see on a larger scale The city has a purpose ( telos ) in the flourish- what he wishes to know for the single human ing ( eudaimonia ) of human beings. Aristotle being. Socrates argues that a just city will have does maintain that philosophical contempla- harmony between its philosophical, spirited, tion is one of the few things that human beings and industrious constituencies. Socrates’ con- enjoy for its own sake; and in the work now versation partners ask what makes philoso- known to us as The Metaphysics , Aristotle phers fit to rule. Using perhaps the most famous commends the study of “being qua being,” metaphor in the history of political philosophy, including the Prime Mover that sets matter in Socrates explains that most people live, as it motion. Yet Aristotle’s political theory does were, in a cave of ignorance and that only a few not maintain that metaphysical knowledge are able to reach the sunlight of knowledge. In grants one a privilege to rule. Kings, aristo- other words, most people form opinions based crats, and citizens in a politeia (mixed regime) on what they sense in the visible realm (to govern for the common advantage; tyrants, horaton ) but only the naturally gifted acquire oligarchs, and democrats rule for their own knowledge of the intelligible realm ( to noeton ). particular well-being. In the “School of Just as navigators take their bearings by the Athens,” the Italian Renaissance painter North Star, politicians should steer the ship of Raphael (1483–1520) depicts Plato and Aris- state by the Idea of the Good. “Unless the phi- totle at the center of the painting with the losophers rule as kings or those now called former pointing to the heavens and the latter kings and chiefs genuinely and adequately phi- keeping his hand out flat to the earth. This pic- losophize, and political power and philosophy ture conveys the debate that the two phi- coincide in the same place … there is no rest losophers bequeathed posterity regarding the from ills for the cities” (Plato 1991 : 153). Plato source of normative political judgments. 3 Medieval Metaphysics civic orders that keep the peace; when that hap- pens, pilgrims of the heavenly city can and In the history of western political thought, the should maintain the social order. Still, it is better conversation about the relationship between that the king be a Christian rather than a pagan: transcendence and immanence moved from Athens to Jerusalem, so to speak, with the rise when those who are gifted with true godli- of Christianity. Jesus declared that he was the ness and live good lives also know the art Son of God and preached “you must love the of governing peoples, nothing could be more Lord your God with all your heart, with all fortunate for human affairs than that, by the mercy of God, they should also have the your soul, and with all your mind” and “you power to do so. (Augustine 1998 : 225) must love your neighbor as yourself” (Matthew 22:37–9). In the secular realm, Jesus counseled Augustine advises a Christian king to rule his followers to “render unto Caesar the things justly, be humble, love and worship God, be which are Caesar’s and unto God the things slow to punish and quick to forgive, and use his that are God’s” (Matthew 22:21). The apostle majesty to “spread His worship to the greatest Paul (ca. 5–67 ce ) helped transform Jesus’ possible extent” (Augustine 1998 : 232). Many moral teaching into a political doctrine in his medieval political thinkers – including Gregory letter to the Christian community in Rome. the Great (ca. 540–604) and Isidore of Seville Paul states “those who live according to the (ca. 560–636) – would operate within an flesh set their minds on the things of the flesh, Augustinian framework in delineating the but those who live according to the Spirit spheres of the king and the pope, secular and set their minds on the things of the Spirit” religious authority.