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Progress in Adhesion and Adhesives Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106 Progress in Adhesion and Adhesives Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106 Publishers at Scrivener Martin Scrivener([email protected]) Phillip Carmical ([email protected]) Progress in Adhesion and Adhesives Edited by K.L. Mittal Copyright © 2015 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved. Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem, Massachusetts. Published simultaneously in Canada. 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For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. For more information about Scrivener products please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com. Cover design by Russell Richardson Library of Congr ess Cataloging-in-Publication Data: ISBN 978-1-119-16219-3 Printed in the United States of America 10 987654321 Contents Preface xv 1 Adhesion of Condensed Bodies at Microscale: Variation with Movable Boundary Conditions 1 Jian-Lin Liu, Jing Sun, Runni Wu and Re Xia 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Kinematics: Energy Variation with Movable Boundary Conditions 3 1.3 Microbeam/plate Adhesion 9 1.4 Droplet Adhesion to a Solid 13 1.5 Elastica Model of CNT Adhesion 17 1.6 Cell Adhesion 20 1.7 Summary and Prospects 23 Acknowledgements 24 References 24 2 Imparting Adhesion Property to Silicone Materials: Challenges and Solutions 31 R. Kalinova, R. Mincheva and Ph. Dubois 2.1 Introduction 32 2.2 Cured PDMS 32 2.2.1 Curing Reactions 32 2.2.1.1 Free-Radical Curing 33 2.2.1.2 Condensation Curing 33 2.2.1.3 Hydrosilylation (Addition) Curing 35 2.2.2 Surface Properties 36 2.2.3 Adhesion Property 37 2.3 Methods for Cross-Linked PDMS Surface Modification 37 2.3.1 Physical Techniques 37 2.3.1.1 Plasma Treatment 37 2.3.1.2 Corona Treatment 39 2.3.1.3 UV/O3 Treatment 40 v vi Contents 2.3.1.4 Laser Treatment 41 2.3.1.5 Physical Adsorption 41 2.3.2 Wet Chemical Techniques 42 2.3.2.1 LbL Deposition 42 2.3.2.2 Sol-Gel Method 43 2.3.2.3 Other Wet Chemical Treatments 43 2.3.3 Combination of Physical and Chemical Techniques 43 2.3.3.1 Covalent Surface Grafting 44 2.3.3.2 Modification by Amphiphilic Block Copolymers 46 2.3.3.3 Other Combination of Physical and Chemical Techniques 48 2.4 Summary and Prospects 48 Acknowledgements 48 References 50 3 Functionally Graded Adhesively Bonded Joints 57 M. Kemal Apalak 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Functionally Graded Materials 61 3.3 Constitutive Relations 63 3.4 Joints with Functionally Graded Adherends 67 3.5 Functionally Graded Adhesives 73 3.6 Conclusions 77 References 78 4 Synthetic Adhesives for Wood Panels: Chemistry and Technology 85 A. Pizzi 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Urea-formaldehyde (UF) Adhesives 87 4.3 Melamine-formaldehyde (MF) and Melamine-urea- formaldehyde (MUF) Adhesives 93 4.4 Phenolic Resins 99 4.4.1 Reactivity and Hardening Reactions of PF Adhesive Resins 103 4.4.2 Modification of Phenolic Resins 104 4.4.2.1 Post-addition of Urea 104 4.4.2.2 Co-condensation Between Phenol and Urea 105 4.4.2.3 Addition of Tannins, Lignins and Isocyanates 105 Contents vii 4.5 Isocyanate Wood Adhesives 106 4.5.1 Chemistry of Isocyanate Wood Adhesives 107 4.5.2 Technology of Isocyanate as Adhesives 109 4.5.3 Emulsified/emulsifiable Water-dispersed PMDI 112 4.5.4 PF/pMDI and UF/pMDI Hybrid Adhesives 112 4.5.5 Conditions for Application of Isocyanate Adhesives for Wood 114 4.6 Summary 116 References 116 5 Adhesion Theories in Wood Adhesive Bonding 125 Douglas J. Gardner, Melanie Blumentritt, Lu Wang and Nadir Yildirim 5.1 Introduction 125 5.1.1 Wood Material Properties Relevant to Adhesion 126 5.1.2 Objectives 129 5.2 Mechanical Interlocking and Mechanics of Adhesive-Wood Interactions 129 5.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) & Nanoindentation 132 5.3 Electrostatic Adhesion 135 5.4 Wettability, Surface Energy, Thermodynamic Adhesion 137 5.4.1 Wood Anatomy Impact on Wetting 140 5.4.2 Extractives 141 5.4.3 Adhesive Wettability 141 5.4.4 Wood Modification 141 5.4.4.1 Acetylation 142 5.4.4.2 Grafting 142 5.4.4.3 Fire Retardants, Preservatives and Adhesion Promotion 142 5.4.5 Test Methods 143 5.5 Diffusion Theory of Adhesion 145 5.6 Covalent Bonding 148 5.7 Acid-base Theory 149 5.8 Weak Boundary Layer 150 5.8.1 Extractives 151 5.8.2 Heat Treatment 152 5.8.3 Wood Impregnation and Densification 153 5.8.4 Machining Processes 153 5.8.5 Surface Degradation 154 5.8.6 Surface Activation 154 viii Contents 5.9 Discussion and Future Research Prospects 155 5.10 Summary 157 References 158 6 Adhesion and Surface Issues in Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 169 Cintil Jose, Merin Sara Thomas, B. Deepa, Laly A. Pothan and Sabu Thomas 6.1 Introduction 170 6.2 Biopolymers 170 6.2.1 Cellulose 170 6.2.2 Chitin 171 6.2.3 Starch 173 6.3 Chemical Modification of Cellulose, Chitin and Starch 174 6.4 Bio-based Matrices 177 6.4.1 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 177 6.4.2 Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) 178 6.4.3 Cellulose 179 6.4.4 Chitosan 180 6.4.5 Starch 181 6.4.6 Natural Rubber 182 6.5 Processing Techniques 184 6.6 Interfacial Adhesion Issues 185 6.6.1 Challenges of Interfacial Adhesion of Natural Fibres in Polymer Matrix 185 6.6.1.1 Challenges of Dispersion of Cellulose Nanofibres 186 6.6.2 Strategies for Improving Interfacial Adhesion 186 6.6.3 New Challenges and Future Trends in Fibre/Matrix Interfacial Adhesion 188 6.7 Interface Characterization Techniques 189 6.7.1 Morphological Characterization 189 6.7.1.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 190 6.7.1.2 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 194 6.7.2 Thermal Analysis 196 6.7.2.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 196 6.7.2.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 199 6.7.2.3 Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis (DMTA) 199 Contents ix 6.7.3 Spectroscopic Techniques 203 6.7.3.1 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Raman Spectroscopies 203 6.7.3.2 Attenuated Total Reflectance Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-IR) 205 6.7.3.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 206 6.8 Summary and Conclusions 207 References 207 7 Adhesion Phenomena in Pharmaceutical Products and Applications of AFM 219 Emily Callard Preedy, Stefano Perni and Polina Prokopovich 7.1 Introduction 220 7.2 Adhesion in Pharmaceuticals 222 7.2.1 Adhesion Interactions 223 7.2.1.1 Drug-Drug/Carrier Interactions 223 7.2.1.2 Drug-Device/Packaging Interactions 224 7.2.2 Factors Influencing Adhesion 225 7.2.2.1 Monitoring and Controlling Influential Factors 229 7.3 Atomic Force Microscopy 232 7.3.1 AFM and Pharmaceutical Formulations 233 7.3.2 Advantages of AFM 234 7.4 Prospects 236 7.5 Summary 237 Acknowledgments 237 References 237 8 Cyanoacrylate Adhesives in Surgical Applications 245 Edward M. Petrie 8.1 Introduction 245 8.1.1 Basic Requirements of Surgical Adhesives 246 8.1.2 Surgical Substrates 248 8.1.3 Scope and Objectives of this Review 249 8.2 Types of Surgical Adhesives 249 8.2.1 Full Scope of Surgical Adhesives 249 8.2.2 The Surgeon’s Toolbox 252 8.2.2.1 Fibrin Sealants 252 8.2.2.2 Cyanoacrylates 254 x Contents 8.2.2.3 Collagen-Based Adhesives 255 8.2.2.4 Poly(ethylene glycol) Polymers 255 8.2.2.5 Albumin and Glutaraldehyde Products 256 8.2.2.6 Others 256 8.2.3 Comparison of Adhesive Types 257 8.3 History of Cyanoacrylate Surgical Adhesives 257 8.3.1 Development of Cyanoacrylates as Industrial Adhesives 257 8.3.2 Development of Cyanoacrylate Tissue Adhesives 263 8.3.2.1 n-Butyl-2-Cyanoacrylate 264 8.3.2.2 2-Octyl-Cyanoacrylate 267 8.3.2.3 Newer Cyanoacrylate Surgical Adhesives 269 8.4 Formulation Development 269 8.4.1 Monomeric Derivatives 270 8.4.2 Optimal Formulation Development 272 8.4.2.1 Inhibitors 273 8.4.2.2 Stabilizers Added Depending on the Surgical Procedure 274 8.4.2.3 Accelerators 276 8.4.2.4 Thickeners 277 8.4.2.5 Plasticizers 277 8.5 Properties 278 8.5.1 Curing Mechanism 278 8.5.1.1 Comparative Shelf-Life 279 8.5.1.2 Container Materials for Packaging 279 8.5.2 Bond Strength 282 8.5.3 Toxicity 283 8.5.4 Biocompatibility 284 8.6 Clinical History 285 8.6.1 Closure of Skin Wounds and Superficial Incision Closure 288 8.6.2 Other Surgical Procedures and Future Uses 289 8.6.3 Graft Fixation 289 8.7 Future Potential 290 8.7.1 Development Path 290 8.7.1.1 Light Curing Cyanoacrylates 291 8.7.1.2 Solid Cyanoacrylate 291 8.7.2 Drivers for Increased Demand 292 8.8 Summary 292 References 293 Contents xi 9 Ways to Generate Monosort Functionalized Polyolefin Surfaces 299 J.
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