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Huda AL-TAMIMI Lecture & Convenor Australian National University , , & Gender: An Overview on the Role of Women Calligraphers in Islam

THE MAJOR FORMS OF ISLAM INCLUDE ARCHITECTURE, , AND CALLIGRAPHY. CONSEQUENTLY, ISLAMIC ARTISTS FOCUSED THEIR EFFORTS ON REFINING THE ART FORMS THAT WERE AVAILABLE TO THEM. CALLIGRAPHY THUS ASSUMED A PROMINENT PLACE IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD, WITH SKILLED PRACTITIONERS BEING HELD IN HIGH ES- TEEM AND EVEN BECOMING IMPORTANT GOVERNMENTAL OFFICIALS AS THE RESULT OF THEIR CALLIGRAPHIC TALENTS. ALTHOUGH THERE IS A GROWING BODY OF KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING THE ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC CAL- LIGRAPHY IN GENERAL, LESS IS KNOWN ABOUT THE ROLE OF WOMEN CALLIGRAPHERS IN THE EARLY ISLAMIC WORLD, A GAP THAT THIS PAPER SEEKS TO FILL.

26 The “Qu’ran” of Osman. Facsimile edition of the manuscript. A sample of the Muslim www.irs-az.com Calligraphy of the 7th century. Museum of the History of Religion, St. Petersburg

Heritage_2_(13)_2013_LAST.indd 26 4/22/13 2:11 PM slamic art exists in a wide range of artistic forms including archi- Itecture, literature, arabesque and calligraphy. Studying the origins of and its practice over the centuries represents a fas- cinating glimpse into the lives of the people who developed its modern form, as well as its role in Islamic so- ciety in the past and the present. It will examine the purpose and the aim of women taking the role of educators to teach calligraphy and also examines their pedagogical ap- proach in this respect. has traditionally been viewed as “the art made by artists or artisans whose religion was Islam, for patrons who lived in predomi- Page from the “Qu’ran”. A sample of the Muslim calligraphy of the 19th century. nantly Muslim lands, or for purposes Rewritten in . From the “Saved masterpieces. Part 2”. that are restricted or peculiar to a Baku, 2000 Muslim population or a Muslim set- ting” (Blair and Bloom, 2003, p. 152). indicated that reading Prophet, many of men who memo- The term “Islamic art” encompasses and writing are central to the Islamic rised the Qur’an were killed in Is- a wide variety of art forms produced faith (Qur’an, 96:1-4). lamic battles and conquests. An ur- over a period of 1,400 years through Muhammad asked his disciples, gent attempt was made by the fi rst a large geographical area covering companions and scribers to write three guided caliphs to compile the three continents during the Islamic and memorise the revealed verses Qur’an because standardised cop- conquest in the seventh and eighth in order to preserve the Holy words. ies of the Qur’an were required in centuries. Despite the expansion even set a ransom on the literate abundance for the new geographi- and integration with the newly add- captives to teach ten illiterate Mus- cal regions. The compilation in true ed nations, calligraphy maintained lims in exchange for his/her free- letter and spirit occurred during the its characteristics, as well as its iden- dom. The needed to reign of 3rd Rightly Guided Caliph tity and its sophistication was not be evolved and improved because [a term used in Islam to refer to the aff ected or infl uenced by the of writing held as a vital medium to fi rst four Caliphs who headed the Is- these nations. Instead, Islamic cal- spread the word of (Bierman, lamic nation after the death of the ligraphy represented by its creativ- 1998). Thus the art went through Prophet, Esposito. 2004] Uthman ity and elegance made its imprints chains of changes due to political Ibn Aff an. He delegated the writing on the other Nations’ arts after the and geographical factors (Tabbaa, of compiled verses in one standard . Thus, calligraphy 2001). The gradual improvement copy to the Prophet’s Companions; maintained its personality and dis- over time led to the creation of the to be distributed to the new geo- tinctiveness as a great symbol of art original Islamic art of calligraphy. graphical regions. The compilation which was built by the Arabic civili- The revelations during the life of the occurred during the reign of the 3rd sation. Prophet were written down on vari- Guided Caliph Uthman Ibn Aff an. The rise and expansion of Islam ous materials. Due to the expansion of Islamic after the revelation of the Qur’an They were kept with his disciples region and the need for more liter- promoted the spreading of the and close relatives and were com- ate to write legible Arabic scripture (Qur’an, 46:12; 26:195). The piled in a Standardised Copy for scrip, men and women alike were fi rst verse revealed to the Prophet all Muslims. After the death of the assigned the role of improving the

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Arabic scripture. This could help is the creation of images of sentient beautiful of all of the arts in Islam. avoid confusion in some Arabic let- living beings, meant that Islamic was The inextricable connection ters for the new Muslims with Ara- essentially dedicated to decorative between the divine and calligra- bic as a second language. The result applications. Ettinghausen (1950) phy elevated the art form through- was a desperate need for a scientifi c indicated that Islamic calligraphy out the , making its improvement to ultimately preserve became an essential part of decora- practice a highly esteemed profes- the Holy word of Qur’an from be- tions and architecture, particularly sion and an enviable skill. Blair and ing misread or misunderstood. The for decorated with illumi- Bloom (2003), emphasise the value scientist grammarian, Abu al-Aswad nated calligraphy on mosaic. Un- of calligraphy as the highly regarded Al-Du’ (c.603-688), was the fi rst to doubtedly, calligraphy assumed the trend of visual by Muslims and non place dots on the Arabic alphabets. highest form of divinity for Muslims, Muslims alike. They added that its He was a close companion to the its aim was not merely to write and visual value diff ers from other trends 4th guided Caliph Ali Ibn Abi Talib decorate but also to fulfi l and con- because of the fact that calligraphy (Ibn Khlakan). Educated Muslim nect the artist with religion in an to Muslims was intertwined with women and men were assigned a aesthetic and pure modality. the Islamic teachings and traditions mounting role in writing copies of The counts and a short history of (Ibid.). the Qur’an as well as teaching the the development of writing and the Indeed, the calligrapher is not art and religion to the young gen- art of calligraphy has been estab- merely an artist mastering a skill but a religious scholar with the role of passing on the Islamic faith. It is known that the escalation of this art form to sublime and capti- vating level was due in part to the fact that Islam prohibits the depic- tion of idols in art forms such as sculpture and painting (Zakariya, 1991). The absence of human and animal representation from is replaced by various motifs and decorations such as geo- metrical patterns, fl ora, and abstract decorations (Schimmel, 1992, p. 46). Consequently, Muslims through- out the centuries have largely fo- cused their eff orts on improving the Page from the “Qu’ran”. A sample of the Muslim calligraphy of the 19th century. Rewritten in Azerbaijan. From the book “Saved masterpieces. uniqueness and artistic forms and Part 2”. Baku, 2000 styles of Islamic art including archi- tecture, literature, arabesque and calligraphy. Like their monk coun- eration of Muslims to preserve the lished. The following is an examina- terparts in the Western world during Holly Qur’an. This art was not lim- tion of the pioneers and master, in- the medieval times, who painstak- ited to the writing of Qur’an but cluding women, and their improve- ingly copied the Holy Bible in their extended to include everyday items ment to achieve the best outcome scriptoriums with elaborate illumi- such as small plates, carpets, litera- of calligraphy known as Kufi c. nations, calligraphy in the Muslim ture, metalwork, ceramics, glass, tex- The Kufi c style derived its name world was also important for copy- , wood, ivory, rock crystal and form the city of Kufa in Iraq. As afore ing the , an eff ort that was even gardens. mentioned, calligraphy is arguably deemed to imbue signifi cant merit Iconism in Islam, proscribing that among the most important and on the calligrapher (Zakariya, 1992).

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Heritage_2_(13)_2013_LAST.indd 28 4/22/13 2:11 PM It is worth refl ecting on the im- graphed like him or even closely”, he In examining the history of cal- provement on the forms and styles was the one who improved, beauti- ligraphy, one must not fail to ig- of calligraphy and the contributions fi ed and made calligraphy aestheti- nore the role of women and their of women in this perspective. In cally and visually pleasant. Ibn Al- distinguished presence in this fi eld order to spread Islam as the new bawab, born in Baghdad, refi ned since the dawn of Islam. A number faith and invite people to embrace the rules of his master ’s of women calligraphers emerged it (the Da’wah/missionary) around six scripts and developed a system as masters and scholars of , the World, the Prophet summoned of proportional measurement so Qur’an and calligraphy. The body of the Kings and Emperors of the that each letter could be measured research on these women as point- world to embrace the Islam through by its height and width in dots. ed out earlier is very hard to identify. dialogue and peaceful means. This Ibn Albawab born a commoner, Calligraphy was a kin to the peda- invitation took the course of send- the son of a doorkeeper, began his gogical teaching of the Qur’an and ing letters (these letters are still career as a house painter, and then the Prophet’s traditions. It was also preserved in museums around the became a book illuminator. He an inherited profession from their world) carried by trusted compan- wrote 64 copies of the Qur’an, only fathers, brothers and husbands. ions of the Prophet to: one of which still exists in Dublin’s However, males had the priority - Heraclius, the Emperor of Byz- and women were secondary. Edu- antines (Eastern Roman Empire) cation was rarely available for poor - Maqaquis, the king of working class groups, particularly - Chosroes ll Khosroe, the Em- females, and thus women who were peror of Persia schooled in calligraphy were natu- - Nijashi, the King of Abyssinia rally from a high socioeconomic - AlMundhir bin Sawa, the Ruler class. The list below supports the of Bahrain deduction about women in the ear- - Harith Gassani, Governor of ly Islamic period, however, male cal- Syria ligraphers were not limited by class. An exceedingly talented and re- Below is a summary of women con- nowned Baghdadi calligrapher, Ibn sidered masters in their profession. Muqla of Baghdad endeavoured to A’isha bint Saad bint Ibn Abi redesign the old styles in order to Waqqas ( ). make them more suitable for copy- The daughter of a great Companion ing the Quran. Ibn Muqla’s eff ort (the cousin of Amina bin Wahab, the was a major milestone in the his- mother of the Prophet). She was tory of Arabic calligraphy that trans- very learned in Islamic to formed the basic strokes to an art the point that Imam Malik, Hakim form. He used the of math- Commentary for the miniature “Al Ibn Utaybah and Ayyub as Sakhti- ematics and geometry to transform Khadir gives Shah Jahan a yani, the famous jurists and scholars the Arabic script into a harmonious vessel of living water. A sample of Is- of Hadith were her pupils. lamic calligraphy of India. The 18th and fl exible letters that were visually Hafsah bin Umar al-Khattab (). century. The Museum of History of attractive and practically coherent. Religion, St. Petersburg Married to the Prophet (56 years Ibn Muqlah’s continued contri- old) after the battle of Bader in 2 butions to calligraphy earned him AH when she was around twenty the title of ‘Godfather’ by the mas- Chester Beatty Library. His student years old. According to Islamic ters of calligraphy. A century later Yaqut al- Musta‘simi, the student of tradition, Hafsah had memorised came Ali bin Hilal Ibn Albawab (d Ibn Albawab, refi ned the six scripts the Qur’an. The copy of Zayed ibn 413AD) to complete the font rules of set down by Ibn al-Bawwab and Thabit which was recorded by the his predecessor. Ibn Khallikān from developed the school that was fol- instructions of Abu Bakr was given seventh century Hijri said: “no callig- lowed later by the Turkish and Per- to her. Uthman Ibn Aff an, when he rapher before him or after him calli- sian calligraphers. became Caliph, used Hafsah’s copy

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A sample of Islamic calligraphy of the early 20th century. Shamail. Kazan. The Museum of History of Religion, St. Petersburg

when he authorised a single text of in Medina to practice and Abdshamis. Hind married Alharith the Qur’an to be designated. teach writing to Muslim women. Ibn Nawfal. Um Kalthum bint Aqaba Hafsah bin Umar al-Khattab was her In later Islamic periods, group ( ). Married fi rst writing student. of women masters in all fi elds of four of the companions, Zayed bin Farwa bin Aisha bint Saad knowledge have emerged, par- Haritha who died in the battle of ( ) learned from ticularly the traditionalists and cal- Mu’tah, Alzubair bin Ala’wam and her grandmother Aisha who learnt ligraphers. Auraib from Basra (died divorced after giving birth to Za- from the Prophet’s six wives (ibid). in 277 H), a poet and a calligrapher ynab, Abdul Rahman bin Awf and Karima Bint Almuqdad known for being a master of callig- lastly Amr ibn al-`As. ( ) raphy. Fadel Mowlat Abi Ayub (died Alshifa’bint Abdullah Aladawya Hind Bint Abi Sufyan in 295 H), Lubna bint Abdumaula ( ). Using the ( ) was the daughter (died in 374 H), calligrapher of the former as a pseudonym for her real of a leading man of the Quraish of Caliph Al-Mustansir Billah Al-Hakam name, Laila bint Abdullah Abdsha- . He was a staunch opponent ll of Umayyad Andalusia. Fatima mis bin Uday bin Kaáb Alquraishya of the Prophet before accepting Is- Bint Al-Hasan bin Ali al-Baghdadi Al- Aladawya (Al-Asqalani, 1991). She lam later in his life. Her mother was Atta Alaqra’ (died in 480 H) was ac- was the founder of the fi rst school Safyah Bint Amr Bin Umayah Bin credited master and of good dexter-

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Heritage_2_(13)_2013_LAST.indd 30 4/22/13 2:11 PM ity in calligraphy. She was assigned to write the Caliph’s letter of Truce to the tyrant Roman Emperor. She was also known for writing a complete version of the Holy Qur’an. Shuhida Aldinouriay-Al Bagh- dadya (around 479-574 H) known as ‘Fakhru Alnissa’, a traditionalist, a scholarly narrator, and a glorious calligrapher was born and died in Baghdad. Her father, the traditional- ist Abi Nasr Ibn Abi AlFaraj Bin Omar al-Baghdadi Aldinori then the Abe- rie from Dinor North West mi- grated to Baghdad and worked for the Caliph’s Council. Shuhida held many certifi cates of Isnad, Hadith, calligraphy and her transmission Page from the “Qu’ran”. A sample of the Muslim calligraphy of the early was very religious, pious, and of no- 20th century. Rewritten in Azerbaijan. From the book “ Saved masterpieces. ble status. She learned from masters Part 2. Baku, 2000. of scholars like Ibu Alkhutub Naser bin Ahmed bin Abdullah Ibn Albut- day 13th Muharram year 574 at the cipline. Sakkal (1993, p. 3) reported ter and Abu Abdullah Alhussein bin age of ninety plus. that calligraphy is an inherited pro- Talha Alzainabi amongst others. She The Qur’an defi nes the role and fession that passes from one gen- was the most prominent scholar of status of women from two perspec- eration to the next. It is even taken Hadith, and was heard by many tives. The fi rst is total equality be- as the last name of the family and scholars such as: Ibn Asakir, Ibn Al- tween women and men manifested most commonly a skill often passed Jawzi, and Abd-el-Kader Alrihawi. in may verses and it relates to the down from father to son. It was not Shuhida was a master of callig- origin of creation of the “same one”, uncommon to fi nd entire families raphy, hence she took to be known contrary to the Torah, which is part who earned their livelihoods as cal- as”Shuhida the Calligrapher” and lat- of Adam and Eve (created from the ligraphers. Although, the vast ma- er “Fakhru Alnisa”. She learnt the art rib/ribs, said later that the bended jority of calligraphers in the early of AlMansoob style from Muham- side that needs always to be cor- Islamic world appear to have been mad Bin Mansoor Bin Abdullmelik rected). The second aspect is the males, there is some indication that following the style of his master Ibn equality of religious duties and con- women also played a role in the art Albawab. She improved on Ibn Al- sequent reward or punishment, as it form. In fact, Simonowitz (2010, p bwab’s Kufi script which he has im- clearly revealed in the many verses 75), stressed the encouragement of proved on his master Ibn Muqla. such as: 4:1/ 34/124, 7:189, 16:97, the Prophet Muhammad for women Fakhru Alnisa’ married the State’s 40:40, 3:195 and 23:71/72. to actively participate in teaching of Trustee Ibn al-anbari, a Senate to the Despite this lack of scholarly re- all sciences especially calligraphy. Abbasid Caliph AlMuqutasi Billah. search, some evidence has emerged They are some brief counts of Ibn Khallikān in his book the” Death in recent years concerning how them in some biographies and his- of Nobles”, indicated the large scale and why women came to practice torical documents refereeing to of attendance to her funeral cer- calligraphy during this period in Is- them primarily as traditionalists of emony in the Palace where all the lam’s history. The role of women in Hadith and Qurán but not as con- gates and windows were opened adopting calligraphy as a livelihood tributors and achievers to the art of to accommodate the prayers before was based in large part on pragmat- calligraphy. Few names of female her burial at the Gate of Abriz near ic needs and the traditional practice calligraphers are known, there is the Taji School in Baghdad on Sun- of entire families engaged in the dis- no doubt a number of women

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with a great collection of and highly respected by the kings. Throughout the Islamic world, there appears to have been a num- ber of revered female calligraphers and in , there are numerous references to men being infl uenced by some of these wom- en’s talents. In more recent times, women calligraphers have been infl uencing the perpetration of this traditional art. Ghata’s (2004) award winning , La Nuit des calligra- phes follows the story of Rikkat Kunt, the author’s grandmother, who was acknowledged as one of the great Turkish masters of calligraphy. The book evoked Turkey in the 1920’s as Ataturk’s new reforms on the use of the Arabic language were threaten- Page from the “Qu’ran”. A sample of the Muslim calligraphy of the early ing the future of the art. It appears, 20th century. Rewritten in Azerbaijan. From the book “Saved masterpieces. however, that this has not been the Part 2”. Baku, 2000 case and that calligraphy remains very much as one of the most active practiced calligraphy in the early Is- copying the Qurán in its best shape, of all the Islamic art forms. Ataturk’s lamic era, as students, teachers or as form and style, is the main purpose reforms may have indeed changed part of a family tradition. Simonow- of calligraphy. Women calligraphers the secular life in Turkey, but Islamic itz highlights that one of the reasons practiced this art all over the Islam- calligraphy remains a major element for the small number of famous ic world, from Spain to Syria, Iraq, of transmitting the religious word. women calligraphers probably Persia and India. In fact, they even The tradition perpetuates, and originates in the fact that men have used to compete with each other in more and more women calligra- traditionally been responsible for the copying of wonderful . phers are being recognized by their transmitting history and thus may During the Islamic era in Spain, the peers. One such master identifi ed by have been “hesitant” to name them. authorities wished to build up the Simonowitz is Hilal Kazan, described One may assume that calligraphy libraries of the main Islamic cities by this authority as “a Turkish female was therefore widely practiced by with books of Arabic script. One master calligrapher who holds tra- women. It is known that women hundred and seventy women were ditional authorizations to practice” from rich families and princesses employed in the eastern quarter of (p. 76). The license to practice cal- were taught calligraphy as part of Cordova for the purpose of copy- ligraphy in early Islam aff orded the their education. Akin to the Europe- ing the Qur’an and they did par license-holder’s signifi cant prestige an noble women practicing various excellent eff orts by working day that is not refl ected in Western soci- forms as a distinction of and night by candlelight that illumi- eties. The practice of awarding cer- respectability and piety, as means nated the streets of three parasangs tifi cate to calligrapher at present is of passing time and as skills they (farsakhs). Aisha, the daughter of not diff erent to that of the past. For would be able to transmit to their Ahmad (d 400/1009), was one of example, Kazan is a PhD holder in children (male or female), women the Cordovan women who cop- Islamic art and also been awarded in Islamic countries learnt the art ied Qur’ans. Her expertise can be with the certifi cate of calligraphy in of calligraphy as a religious expres- gauged by the fact that she was a and Nakish styles from her sion. Atiyeh (1995) emphasised that poet, calligrapher and a bibliophile master after the fulfi lment of hard

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Heritage_2_(13)_2013_LAST.indd 32 4/22/13 2:11 PM and long trainings (Ibid). Once the References 12. Hubbard, G. (2006, March). student has achieved the certifi cate, Artistic . Arts & Ac- he/she can sign the name of their 1. Al-Asqalani, Ibn Hajaar. tivities 139(2): 21-23. master unlike any other profession (1412). Finding the Truth in 13. Ibn Khallikān (1970) Book or art. Judging the Companions, of Wafi yat Ala’yan (Death of Hilal Kazan now has calligraphy 11615, volume 8/72. AlJeel Nobles) students of her own – male as well Publishing House, Beirut. 14. Humble, R. (1999, May) Ara- as female – and takes part in exhibi- 2. Atiyeh, G.N. (1995). The Book bic Script Revealed. Ahlan tions throughout the world. She is in the Islamic World: The Writ- Wasahlan, Volume 15, Issue a widely respected scholar lecturing ten Word and Communica- 5. in Islamic art and calligraphy. The tion in the Middle East. 15. Moghadam, V.M. (1993) Mod- International Centre for Islamic Cul- State University of New York ernizing Women: Gender and ture and Arts (IRCICA) is also report- Press, Albany. 145-146. Social Change in the Middle edly supporting more and more 3. Bierman, I. A. (1998). Writing East, Lynne Rienner Publish- women calligraphers. Signs: The Fatimid Public Text. ers Inc. Calligraphy requires well edu- University of California Press 16. Nasr, S.H. (1997) Islamic Spiri- cated individuals, who can read, 4. Blair, S. and Bloom, J.M. tuality: Manifestations. New write and teach and that was not (2003). The Mirage of Islamic York: Crossroad Herder, p the predominated factor for the Art: Refl ections on the Study 506. majority of people, particularly of an Unwieldy Field. The Art 17. Sakkal, M. (1993). The Art of women. Education was only avail- Bulletin 85(1): 152-154. Arabic Calligraphy: The Lan- able for the wealthy and the elite. 5. Brown, K. Anderson, A.H. guage and the Script. 3,6,9 Less fortunate women were de- Bauer, A.L. Berns, M. Hirst, G Sakkal.com. http://sakkal. prived from education because if it and Miller, J. (2006) Encyclo- com/MamounSakkal.html was available, it was for the male(s) pedia of Language and Lin- 18. Schimmel, A. (1992) Islam of the family. Their names may not guistics. Boston: Elsevier, 178. and Introduction, State Uni- have been inscribed into the histo- 6. Eaton, G. (1985). Islam and versity of New York, 46. ry books, but their role was none- the Destiny of Man. Albany, 19. Simonowitz, D. (2010). A theless central to perpetuating this NY: State University of New Modern Master of Islamic Cal- most important form of Islamic York Press, 204. ligraphy and her Peers, Jour- arts. Also in more recent times, 7. Ernst, C.W. (2009). Sufi sm and nal of Middle East Wom- there has been a renewed interest the Aesthetics of en’s Studies 6(1): 75-79, 85. in the art of calligraphy and Muslim in Siraj Al-Shirazi’s Tuhfat Al- 20. Tabbaa, Y. (2001). The Trans- women are very much at its centre. Muhibbin. The Journal of the formation of Islamic Art Dur- They are now being acknowledged American Oriental Society ing the Sunni Revival, Univer- by the highest Islamic institutions 129(3): 431-433. sity Washington Press. and are revered throughout the 8. Esposito. John. L. (2003). The 21. Zakariya, M. (1991). Islamic world. The example of Hilal Kazan Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Calligraphy: A Technical perfectly illustrates this new trend. . Overview, in Brocade of the The work covered in this paper 9. Ettinghausen, R. (1950). The Pen: The Art of Islamic Writ- is just a fi rst step towards the re- Unicorn. Washington, DC: ing, edited by Carol Garrett alisation and documentation of an Smithsonian Institution. 137. Fisher. East Lansing: Kresge early woman calligrapher in order, 10. Ghata, Y. (2004). La Nuit des Art Museum, Michigan State comparable to create a path that calligraphes. Paris: Fayard University. connects the past to the future. It 11. Haddad and Findly, E.B. is also, to a learning experience, to (1985). Women, Religion and celebrate the achievements and Social Change. Albany, NY: the contributions of early women State University of New York calligraphers. Press. 147.

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